PDF-SOCIAL-PROBLEMS-SKILLS-AND-INTERVENTION-Sem-III-MA-munotes

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ASSESSMENT OF SOCIAL PROBLEMS
AND ACTION PLANNING -I
Unit Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Problem identification
1.2.1 Observational Research
1.2.2 Surveys and Questionnaires
1.2.3 Interviews and Focus Groups
1.2.4 Analysis of Existi ng Data
1.2.5 Community Engagement
1.2.6 Comparative Analysis
1.2.7 Academic Literature Review
1.3 Theory -based explanations for problems
1.3.1 Social Identity Theory
1.3.2 Social Learning Theory
1.3.3 Cognitive Dissonance Theory
1.3.4 Social Exchange Th eory
1.3.5 Social Norms Theory
1.3.6 Social Constructionism
1.4 Summary
1.5 Questions
1.6 References
1.0 OBJECTIVES  To understand and define social problems
 To gain deeper insight to identification of social problems
 To understand the different theo ry-based explanations for social
problems
1.1 INTRODUCTION In the context of Social Psychology, social problems refer to issues that
arise within society that affect the well -being and functioning of
individuals and groups. These problems typically involv e interactions and
relationships between people, and they often result from various social,
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Social Problems: Skills And Intervention
2 Social problems can manifest in different forms and impact various
aspects of society. Some common examples include:
1. Pr ejudice and Discrimination:
Prejudice refers to negative attitudes and beliefs held by individuals or
groups toward others based on their perceived social group membership
(e.g., race, gender, religion). Discrimination involves the differential
treatment or unfair behavior towards individuals or groups based on such
prejudices.
2. Inequality and Social Stratification:
Social inequality refers to the unequal distribution of resources,
opportunities, and privileges among individuals or groups within a socie ty.
It can manifest in areas such as income, education, healthcare, and social
status. Social stratification refers to the division of society into different
hierarchical levels based on factors like wealth, occupation, or social class.
3. Stereotyping:
Stereotypes are widely held beliefs and expectations about the
characteristics, traits, or behaviors of individuals or groups based on their
social category. They can lead to biased judgments, assumptions, and
unfair treatment of others.
4. Social Influence and Conformity:
Social influence refers to the impact of others on an individual's thoughts,
feelings, and behaviors. Conformity occurs when individuals change their
attitudes or behaviors to align with social norms or group expectations,
even if it cont radicts their personal beliefs.
5. Aggression and Violence:
Social Psychology examines the causes and consequences of aggressive
behavior, including verbal and physical aggression, bullying, and violence.
It explores factors like frustration, social learn ing, and situational cues that
can contribute to aggressive tendencies.
6. Group Dynamics and Intergroup Conflict:
Understanding how groups form, function, and interact with each other is
a key aspect of Social Psychology. Group dynamics explores topics s uch
as leadership, cooperation, competition, and conflict between different
groups.
Addressing social problems often requires a multi -faceted approach that
involves understanding the psychological processes underlying these
issues, developing interventions , promoting awareness, and advocating for
social change. Social psychologists study these problems to better
understand their causes, consequences, and potential solutions in order to
improve social well -being and foster more inclusive and equitable
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Assessment of Social Problems And Action Planning-I
3 Check your progress:
1. Define social problems.
2. List the common social problems.
1.2 PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION Social problems refer to issues or phenomena that are related to the social
interactions and relationships between individuals, g roups, and societies.
These problems can include issues related to prejudice, discrimination,
inequality, aggression, violence, conformity, obedience, social influence,
and other social phenomena that affect individuals and groups in negative
ways.
Social problems can arise from a variety of factors, including cultural
differences, economic disparities, political ideologies, and individual
beliefs and attitudes. They can affect people of different races, genders,
religions, and social classes, and can lead to social tension, conflict, and
even violence.
In Social Psychology, identifying social problems involves recognizing
and understanding issues that affect individuals, groups, or societies.
1.2.1 Observational Research :
Researchers may engage in systemat ic observations to identify social
problems. They might observe and document behaviors, interactions, and
patterns that indicate the presence of a problem within a specific social
context. For example, observing instances of discrimination or inequality
in a workplace.
Observational research is a method commonly used in Social Psychology
to understand social problems. This method involves observing and
recording the behavior of individuals or groups in their natural settings
without any intervention from th e researcher.
There are two main types of observational research:
i. Naturalistic observation:
This involves observing individuals or groups in their natural environment
without any manipulation of the environment or the behavior of the
individuals bein g observed. This method is useful for understanding social
behavior that occurs in real -life situations.

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4 ii. Participant observation:
This involves the researcher becoming a part of the group being observed,
often by living with them or spending a signi ficant amount of time with
them. This method is useful for understanding the social dynamics within
a group and the meanings behind certain behaviors.
Both types of observational research can be used to understand social
problems in Social Psychology. For example, researchers may use
naturalistic observation to study the behavior of individuals in crowded
public spaces to understand how people behave in groups. Alternatively,
researchers may use participant observation to study the social dynamics
within a group of individuals experiencing homelessness to understand the
factors that contribute to their situation.
Observational research can provide valuable insights into social problems,
but it also has limitations. Observers may be biased in their interpret ations
of behavior, and the presence of an observer can sometimes alter the
behavior of those being observed. Nonetheless, with careful planning and
execution, observational research can be a powerful tool for understanding
social problems in Social Psycho logy.
Check your progress:
1. Define observational research.
2. Differentiate among various types of observational research.
1.2.2 Surveys and Questionnaires :
Researchers often use surveys and questionnaires to collect data on
people’s perception s, attitudes, and experiences. By asking individuals
about their thoughts and experiences regarding certain issues, researchers
can gain insight into social problems such as prejudice, discrimination, or
social isolation.
Surveys and questionnaires are com monly used research tools in Social
Psychology to identify social problems. Here are some ways in which
these tools can be used to identify social problems:
i. Identifying the prevalence of social problems:
Surveys and questionnaires can be used to determ ine the prevalence of
social problems within a given population. For example, a survey can ask
individuals about their experiences with discrimination, bullying, or social
exclusion, providing insight into how widespread these problems are.
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Assessment of Social Problems And Action Planning-I
5 ii. Understand ing the causes of social problems:
Surveys and questionnaires can also be used to identify the causes of
social problems. Researchers can use survey data to identify patterns in the
factors that contribute to social problems. For instance, a questionnaire
might ask about experiences of prejudice or discrimination, and responses
can be analyzed to identify common themes and underlying causes.
iii. Examining the consequences of social problems:
Surveys and questionnaires can also be used to assess the conse quences of
social problems on individuals and communities. Researchers can use
survey data to examine the psychological, emotional, and social impacts of
social problems on individuals and communities.
iv. Evaluating interventions:
Surveys and questionnai res can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of
interventions aimed at addressing social problems. For example, a survey
might be used to assess changes in attitudes and behaviors after a school
implements an anti -bullying program.
Overall, surveys and qu estionnaires are valuable tools for identifying and
addressing social problems in Social Psychology. They allow researchers
to gather data on the prevalence, causes, and consequences of social
problems, and can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of inte rventions
aimed at addressing these problems.
Check your progress:
1. How do surveys and questionnaires facilitate the process of problem
identification of problems?
1.2.3 Interviews and Focus Groups :
Conducting interviews and focus groups allows researchers to delve
deeper into individuals' experiences and perspectives. By engaging in
open -ended discussions, researchers can uncover social problems that may
not be immediately evident. These methods help identify issues that
people face personally or observe in their communities.
Interviews can be a useful method for identifying social problems in
Social Psychology by allowing researchers to gather in -depth and detailed
information from individuals who have experienced or observed the
problem.
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6 Here are some ways interviews can be used:
i. Identify the scope of the problem:
By conducting interviews with individuals who have experienced or
observed the social problem, researchers can gain a deeper understanding
of the extent and scope of the problem . They can ask questions to
determine how prevalent the issue is and how it affects different groups of
people.
ii. Explore the causes of the problem:
Interviews can also be used to explore the underlying causes of social
problems. Researchers can ask que stions about the factors that contribute
to the problem, such as cultural norms, social structures, or individual
attitudes and beliefs.
iii. Examine the impact of the problem:
Interviews can provide insight into the impact of social problems on
individua ls and society as a whole. Researchers can ask questions about
the effects of the problem on people's mental and physical health,
relationships, and quality of life.
iv. Develop interventions:
Finally, interviews can help researchers develop interventions to address
social problems. By gathering information on people's experiences and
perspectives, researchers can identify potential solutions and tailor
interventions to meet the needs of those affected by the problem.
Focus groups are a research method comm only used in Social Psychology
to gather qualitative data on participants' perceptions, beliefs, and attitudes
about a specific topic or issue. They typically involve a small group of
people, usually around six to ten individuals, who are guided by a
moder ator to discuss their thoughts and feelings about a particular issue or
topic.
In terms of identifying social problems, focus groups can be a useful tool
because they allow researchers to collect rich, detailed data on
participants' experiences, opinions, and perspectives. By analyzing the
discussions and themes that emerge from the focus group, researchers can
gain insight into the social problems that people are facing, as well as the
underlying causes and factors that contribute to these problems.
For ex ample, a social psychologist interested in understanding the causes
of bullying in schools might conduct a focus group with a group of
students who have experienced bullying. Through the discussion, the
researcher could gather information on the different types of bullying that
are occurring, the impact that it has on the students, and the factors that
contribute to bullying, such as social norms or cultural attitudes. munotes.in

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Assessment of Social Problems And Action Planning-I
7 Another example, could be used to gather insights from individuals who
have experienced d iscrimination in the workplace. By bringing together a
diverse group of individuals who have experienced similar issues,
researchers can gain a better understanding of the underlying causes of the
problem, as well as potential solutions.
During a focus gro up session, a moderator will typically ask open -ended
questions and encourage participants to share their thoughts and
experiences. The moderator will also encourage group discussion and
facilitate interaction between participants. The goal is to gather as much
information as possible about the topic of interest, while also allowing
participants to learn from each other's experiences.
Overall, focus groups can be a valuable tool for identifying social
problems and gaining insights into people's attitudes an d experiences
related to these issues. By understanding the perspectives of those affected
by a social problem, researchers and policymakers can develop more
effective strategies for addressing these issues and creating positive
change in society.
Intervie ws can also be a powerful tool for identifying and addressing
social problems in Social Psychology by providing a deeper understanding
of the problem and its underlying causes, as well as informing the
development of effective interventions.
Check your pro gress:
1. Define focus groups.
2. What is the role of the facilitator in focus groups?
3. What are the ways in which interviews can be used?
1.2.4 Analysis of Existing Data :
Researchers analyze existing data sources such as government reports,
crime statistics, health records, or media coverage to identify social
problems. These sources provide valuable information about issues like
poverty, crime rates, educational disparities, or health disparities.
Analyzing existing data allows researchers to examine patterns and trends
in social behavior, attitudes, and experiences. There are several
approaches to analyzing existing data in Social Psychology, including:
i. Meta -analysis:
Meta -analysis involves combining the results of multiple studies to
identify overall patterns and trends in the research. This approach allows
researchers to examine the consistency and strength of the relationships munotes.in

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Social Problems: Skills And Intervention
8 between variables across studies, and to identify factors that may moderate
those relationships.
ii. Content ana lysis:
Content analysis involves systematically coding and categorizing the
content of written or spoken communication, such as interviews, speeches,
or social media posts. This approach allows researchers to identify themes,
patterns, and trends in socia l behavior, attitudes, and experiences.
iii. Secondary data analysis:
Secondary data analysis involves using data that has been collected for
another purpose, such as government census data or survey data collected
by another researcher. This approach all ows researchers to examine social
problems in a broader context and to test hypotheses using existing data.
iv. Longitudinal analysis:
Longitudinal analysis involves examining changes over time in social
behavior, attitudes, and experiences. This approach allows researchers to
identify developmental trends and to test hypotheses about the causes and
consequences of social problems.
Overall, the choice of data analysis approach will depend on the research
question being addressed, the available data sources , and the specific
research design being used.
1.2.5 Community Engagement :
Engaging with communities and individuals directly affected by social
problems is crucial for understanding their nature and impact. By listening
to people's stories, concerns, and grievances, researchers can gain insight
into the issues they face and identify the underlying social problems.
Engaging with the community is a crucial part of understanding social
problems because it allows individuals to gain first -hand knowledge about
the challenges and issues that affect different groups of people. By
engaging with individuals and groups from diverse backgrounds and
perspectives, people can gain a more nuanced understanding of the
complex social problems that exist in their communities .
When individuals engage with the community, they can gather
information about the needs and experiences of different groups, including
those who are most vulnerable or marginalized. They can also learn about
the social, economic, and cultural factors tha t contribute to these
problems, as well as the different strategies and approaches that have been
tried to address them.
Engaging with the community also helps to build trust and relationships
between individuals and groups, which can be essential for deve loping
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Assessment of Social Problems And Action Planning-I
9 strong partnerships, individuals and organizations can identify common
goals and strategies for creating positive change.
Ultimately, engaging with the community is critical to understanding
social problems because it allows individuals to gain a more
comprehensive understanding of the issues that affect their communities,
and to work collaboratively to develop solutions that are effective,
equitable, and sustainable.
Check your progress:
1. Explain community engagement in the process of problem
identification.
1.2.6 Comparative Analysis :
Comparing different societies, cultures, or groups allows researchers to
identify social problems that may vary across contexts. By e xamining
differences in social norms, values, and practices, researchers can identify
and understand issues that are unique to certain societies or cultures.
Comparing different societies, cultures, or groups can be a valuable
method for identifying social problems that may vary across contexts. By
examining how different societies or groups operate and function,
researchers can identify differences and similarities in social issues, which
can help to inform policy decisions and social interventions.
For ex ample, by comparing the gender roles and attitudes toward gender
in different societies, researchers can identify how cultural beliefs and
values impact the status and treatment of women and other marginalized
groups. Similarly, by comparing the prevalence of certain health
conditions or diseases in different populations, researchers can identify
potential risk factors and develop targeted interventions to address them.
However, it is important to be mindful of the potential limitations and
biases that can arise when comparing different societies or groups. Factors
such as cultural differences, language barriers, and differing research
methodologies can impact the validity and generalizability of findings.
Therefore, it is important to approach comparative r esearch with a critical
and nuanced perspective.
1.2.7 Academic Literature Review :
Reviewing existing research literature in Social Psychology and related
fields provides a comprehensive overview of social problems. Scholars
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10 various social issues and offer insights into their identification and
understanding.
Reviewing existing research literature in Social Psychology and related
fields can provide a comprehensive overview of socia l problems in several
ways:
 Identifying the key issues: Social Psychology research often focuses
on key issues in society, such as prejudice, discrimination, and social
influence. By reviewing the literature on these topics, one can gain a
deeper understan ding of the underlying causes of these social
problems.
 Examining the scope of the problem: Literature reviews can help to
identify the prevalence and severity of social problems. For example,
a review of research on the effects of poverty on mental health can
provide a comprehensive overview of the scope of this issue.
 Understanding the underlying mechanisms: Social Psychology
research often explores the underlying mechanisms that contribute to
social problems. By reviewing this literature, one can gain in sight into
the factors that contribute to these issues, as well as potential
solutions.
 Examining potential solutions: Social Psychology research often
explores potential solutions to social problems, such as interventions
to reduce prejudice or increase s ocial support. Reviewing this
literature can provide a comprehensive overview of the effectiveness
of different approaches to addressing social problems.
In summary, reviewing existing research literature in Social Psychology
and related fields can provide a comprehensive overview of social
problems by identifying key issues, examining the scope of the problem,
understanding the underlying mechanisms, and examining potential
solutions.
It's important to note that the identification of social problems is an
ongoing and evolving process. Social problems can vary across time,
culture, and context, and new issues may arise as societal values and
norms change.
Check your progress:
1. List the ways in which reviewing existing literature can provide a
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11 1.3 THEORY -BASED EXPLANATIONS FOR PROBLEMS Social Psychology offers a variety of theoretical explanations for social
problems, which are based on different perspectives and assumptions
about the nature of social behav ior. Here are some of the most prominent
theories: Theory Description 1. Social Identity Theory This theory suggests that people's sense
of identity is largely determined by their
membership in various social groups.
Social problems can arise when people
define their identities in opposition to
other groups, leading to intergroup
conflict and prejudice. 2. Social Learning Theory This theory proposes that people learn
attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors through
observation and imitation of others.
Social proble ms can result from
exposure to models who engage in
problematic behavior, or from
reinforcement of negative attitudes and
behaviors. 3. Cognitive Dissonance Theory This theory posits that people experience psychological discomfort when their attitudes and behaviors are inconsistent. Social problems can arise when people hold beliefs or engage in behaviors that contradict their values or morals, leading to feelings of guilt or conflict. 4. Social Exchange Theory This theory suggests that people engage in social interactions to maximize rewards and minimize costs. Social problems can occur when people exploit others or when social norms and institutions create unequal distributions of rewards and costs. 5. Social Norms Theory This theory proposes that social norms - the unwritten rules and expectations that govern behavior - shape individual behavior and can perpetuate social problems. For example, social norms that condone aggression or substance use can contribute to social problems in those areas. 6. Social Constructionism This theory asserts that social problems are constructed and defined by society, rather than being inherent or objective. munotes.in

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12 Social problems arise when individuals or groups are marginalized or stigmatized by society's constructions of their identities or behaviors.
1.3.1 Social Identity Theory :
Social identity theory is a theory in Social Psychology that aims to explain
how our identification with various social groups affects our thoughts,
feelings, and behaviors. According to this theory, peo ple define
themselves in terms of the social groups they belong to, such as their race,
ethnicity, gender, religion, nationality, and so on. These social groups
provide individuals with a sense of belonging, self -esteem, and identity,
but they can also lea d to intergroup conflicts and discrimination.
Social identity theory proposes that people categorize themselves and
others into social groups based on certain characteristics, such as physical
appearance, language, religion, or behavior. Once individuals c ategorize
themselves into a social group, they tend to identify more strongly with
that group and differentiate themselves from other groups. This can lead to
the formation of in -group favoritism, which involves the tendency to favor
and support one's own group over other groups.
In addition, social identity theory proposes that people engage in social
comparison, which involves comparing their own group with other groups.
This comparison can lead to the perception that one's own group is
superior to other groups, which can contribute to prejudice, discrimination,
and intergroup conflict.
Social identity theory can help us understand social problems in Social
Psychology by highlighting the importance of social groups and the ways
in which our identification with these groups can influence our attitudes
and behaviors. It can help explain why intergroup conflicts and
discrimination occur, and how they can be reduced through strategies that
promote intergroup harmony, such as increased contact and cooperation
between groups, and the promotion of a shared group identity.
1.3.2 Social Learning Theory :
The social learning theory is a psychological perspective that emphasizes
the role of observation and modeling in the acquisition of behavior. This
theory suggests t hat individuals learn by observing the behavior of others
and the consequences of that behavior. The social learning theory has been
used to understand social problems in Social Psychology.
One social problem that can be understood through the social learn ing
theory is aggression . According to this theory, aggressive behavior can be
learned through observation and modeling. Children who observe
aggressive behavior in their environment may be more likely to engage in
similar behavior. Additionally, the conse quences of aggressive behavior
may reinforce and encourage this behavior. For example, a child who munotes.in

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13 observes that their peers who engage in aggressive behavior receive
attention and praise may be more likely to engage in similar behavior.
Another social pro blem that can be understood through the social learning
theory is prejudice and discrimination. Prejudice and discrimination can be
learned through observation and modeling. Children who observe their
parents or peers engaging in prejudiced behavior may be more likely to
adopt similar attitudes and behaviors. Additionally, the media can play a
role in the development of prejudice and discrimination. Exposure to
negative stereotypes and biased information can reinforce and encourage
these attitudes and behav iors.
The social learning theory also suggests that behavior can be shaped
through reinforcement and punishment. This can be applied to social
problems such as substance abuse and addiction. For example, if an
individual receives positive reinforcement (e. g., feeling good, receiving
praise) after using a drug, they may be more likely to continue using that
drug. On the other hand, if an individual experiences negative
consequence (e.g., feeling sick, losing a job) after using a drug, they may
be less likely to continue using that drug.
Overall, the social learning theory can provide insight into how social
problems are learned and perpetuated through observation, modeling,
reinforcement, and punishment. By understanding these processes,
psychologists can dev elop interventions and strategies to address social
problems and promote positive behavior.
Check your progress:
1. What is the aim of the social learning theory?
2. What does the social identity theory propose?
1.3.3 Cognitive Dissonance Theory :
The Cognitive Dissonance Theory is a framework that helps to understand
how people deal with conflicting beliefs, values, or attitudes. This theory
was developed by social psychologist Leon Festinger in the 1950s.
According to Festinger, people are motiva ted to reduce the discomfort or
dissonance that arises from holding two or more conflicting beliefs,
values, or attitudes.
In Social Psychology, cognitive dissonance theory is often applied to
understand how people deal with social problems. For example, a person
might hold the belief that they are a good person who cares about others,
but also hold the belief that it is okay to discriminate against people of a
certain race or gender. This conflicting belief can cause discomfort or
cognitive dissonance. It suggests that when people encounter information munotes.in

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14 that contradicts their existing beliefs or behaviors, they experience a state
of discomfort or "dissonance."
This discomfort motivates individuals to reduce the dissonance by
changing their beliefs or behavi ors to align with the new information, or
by rejecting or ignoring the new information altogether. For example, if
someone who believes that smoking is bad for their health sees their friend
who is a smoker in good health, they may experience cognitive dis sonance
and either change their belief about smoking or find a way to dismiss their
friend's good health as unrelated to smoking.
The cognitive dissonance theory can be applied to understanding social
problems by examining how people respond to new informa tion that
challenges their beliefs or attitudes about the problem. For example, if
someone holds a strong belief that a certain group of people are inferior,
they may experience cognitive dissonance when presented with evidence
that contradicts this belief , such as statistics showing that the group is not
less intelligent or capable than others.
To reduce this cognitive dissonance, people may engage in different
strategies, including:
i. Changing their beliefs: In this strategy, a person may change their
belief about the issue to reduce the dissonance. For example, they
may come to believe that discrimination is wrong and therefore
change their beliefs about it.
ii. Changing their behavior: In this strategy, a person may change their
behavior to align with their beliefs. For example, they may stop
engaging in discriminatory behavior to reduce the dissonance.
iii. Seeking new information: In this strategy, a person may seek out
new information to help them resolve the conflict. For example, they
may research the issue of discrimination and learn about the negative
effects it has on individuals and society.
iv. Minimizing the importance of the conflict: In this strategy, a person
may downplay the importance of the conflict to reduce the
dissonance. For example, they may say that discrimination is not that
big of a deal and therefore minimize the importance of the conflict.
Overall, the Cognitive Dissonance Theory is a useful framework for
understanding how people deal with conflicting beliefs, values, or
attitud es. It can help us understand why some people might continue to
hold beliefs or engage in behaviors that are harmful to others, and what
strategies might be effective in reducing cognitive dissonance and
promoting positive change.
Understanding cognitive d issonance can be useful in promoting social
change because it can help identify the factors that contribute to resistance
to change and provide strategies for reducing dissonance. For example,
presenting information in a way that is consistent with an indi vidual's munotes.in

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15 existing beliefs or values can be a more effective way of promoting
change than presenting information that directly contradicts their beliefs.
Check your progress:
1. Explain the cognitive dissonance theory.

1.3.4 Social Exchange Theor y:
Social exchange theory is a theoretical perspective in Social Psychology
that seeks to explain social behavior in terms of the exchange of rewards
and costs between individuals or groups. According to this theory,
individuals engage in social interactio ns because they expect to receive
rewards or benefits and avoid costs or punishments. Rewards may include
tangible goods such as money or material possessions, or intangible
benefits such as social approval, self -esteem, or love. Costs may include
the effo rt, time, or resources required to participate in an activity, as well
as the risk of rejection, disapproval, or conflict.
The social exchange theory assumes that people are rational actors who
make decisions based on the expected outcomes of their actions . In other
words, individuals weigh the benefits and costs of their social interactions
and choose the course of action that maximizes their rewards and
minimizes their costs. For example, if a person wants to make friends with
someone, they might engage i n behaviors that they believe will be
rewarded, such as showing interest in their hobbies or offering them help
with a task. On the other hand, if they believe that the costs of friendship
outweigh the benefits, they may avoid or withdraw from social
interactions.
The social exchange theory can be used to understand a wide range of
social problems in Social Psychology. For example, it can help explain
why people stay in abusive relationships despite the harm and suffering
they endure. According to this theo ry, individuals may stay in a
relationship if they believe that the rewards of the relationship, such as
emotional support or financial stability, outweigh the costs of the abuse,
such as physical harm or psychological trauma. Similarly, social exchange
theory can explain why individuals engage in risky or self -destructive
behaviors, such as drug abuse or unprotected sex. People may engage in
these behaviors because they believe that the rewards of the behavior, such
as pleasure or social acceptance, outwei gh the costs, such as health risks or
social stigma.

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16 The main components of social exchange theory include:
1. Social exchange:
Social exchange is the process of giving and receiving in social
interactions. Individuals engage in social exchange to maxim ize their
rewards and minimize their costs. Rewards can include tangible resources,
such as money and status, as well as intangible rewards, such as emotional
support and companionship. Costs can include time, effort, and emotional
investment.
2. Rewards:
Rewards are the benefits that individuals receive from social interactions.
These rewards can be positive, such as receiving emotional support from a
friend, or negative, such as experiencing social rejection or criticism.
Rewards can also be tangible, su ch as money or gifts, or intangible, such
as respect or status.
3. Costs:
Costs are the negative aspects of social interactions that individuals
experience. These can include tangible costs, such as monetary expenses
or time investments, or intangible cos ts, such as emotional stress or social
rejection.
4. Comparison level:
The comparison level is a standard that individuals use to evaluate the
outcomes of their social interactions. This standard is based on the
individual's past experiences and expectati ons for the future. If the
outcome of a social interaction exceeds the comparison level, the
individual experiences a positive outcome; if the outcome falls below the
comparison level, the individual experiences a negative outcome.
5. Comparison level for alternatives:
The comparison level for alternatives is a standard that individuals use to
evaluate the outcomes of their current social interactions compared to the
outcomes of other potential interactions. This standard is based on the
individual's perce ption of the alternatives available to them. If the outcome
of a current interaction is better than the outcomes of other potential
interactions, the individual is likely to continue that interaction.
Overall, social exchange theory provides a useful frame work for
understanding how individuals make decisions about social interactions
and relationships. By considering the costs and rewards of social
exchange, as well as the individual's comparison level and comparison
level for alternatives, researchers can gain insights into a range of social
problems and phenomena.

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17 Check your progress:
1. What is the assumption of the social exchange theory?

1.3.5 Social Norms Theory :
The social norms theory is a social psychological perspective that explains
how individuals are influenced by the social norms prevalent in their
respective societies. The theory posits that social norms are powerful
determinants of human behavior, and that individuals tend to conform to
these norms because they want to be accepted and approved by their social
group. The social norms theory provides an important framework for
understanding how social problems arise and persist in society, and it has
been applied to a wide range of social issues, including substance abuse,
bullying, and sexual violence.
Key components of social norms theory: Component Description 1. Descriptive norms Refer to the perceptions of what behaviors are actually prevalent in a particular group or society. Individuals often conform to descriptive norms because they believe that these behaviors are widely accepted or expected by their peers. 2. Injunctive norms Refer to the perceptions of what behaviors are considered appropriate or desirable in a particular group or society. Individuals often conform to injunctive norms because they want to be seen as fitting in with the social group or because they want to avoid social disapproval or rejection. 3. Pluralistic ignorance Occurs when individuals in a group misperceive the attitudes and behaviors of others in the group, leading to a false consensus about what is considered normal or acceptable behavior. This can lead to a situation in which individuals engage in behavior that they perceive to be normative, even if it is not. 4. False uniqueness Occurs when individuals overestimate the extent to which their attitudes and behaviors are different from those of others in their social group. This can lead to a situation in which individuals engage in behavior that they believe to be non-normative, even if it is actually quite prevalent. munotes.in

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Social Problems: Skills And Intervention
18 By understanding these components of the social norms’ theory,
researchers and practitioners can develop interventions and strategies to
address social problems by targeting the social norms that underlie them.
For example, interventions tha t aim to correct misperceptions of social
norms or that provide positive injunctive norms can be effective in
reducing problematic behaviors such as substance abuse or sexual
violence.
Check your progress:
1. Define the key components of the social norms t heory .
1.3.6 Social Constructionism :
Social constructionism is a theoretical perspective in Social Psychology
that suggests that social problems arise from social constructions or
interpretations of reality, rather than from objective, external r ealities. It
proposes that the meaning of social issues is shaped by the language,
beliefs, and values of the society in which they occur. Social
constructionists argue that what is defined as a social problem is not
simply a reflection of reality, but is instead created through the social
interactions and interpretations of individuals and groups within a society.
Social constructionism is a theoretical framework in Social Psychology
that emphasizes the role of social processes and cultural norms in shapin g
our understanding of reality. According to this perspective, the meanings
and definitions we attach to things are not fixed or objective but are
created and negotiated through social interaction.
In the context of social problems, social constructionism suggests that the
way we define and respond to issues such as poverty, crime, and mental
illness is not solely determined by objective facts or scientific evidence,
but is shaped by cultural beliefs, social norms, and power relations.
For example, the way that society defines and responds to mental illness is
not solely based on scientific evidence of brain chemistry or behavior, but
also on cultural norms and values regarding what is considered "normal"
or "abnormal" behavior. This can lead to stigmatizati on and discrimination
against people with mental illness, which in turn exacerbates their social
and psychological problems.
Social constructionism also emphasizes the role of language in shaping
our understanding of social problems. The words we use to de scribe and
label social issues can have a significant impact on how we perceive and
respond to them. For instance, the label "welfare queen" is often used to
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Assessment of Social Problems And Action Planning-I
19 negative connotations that c an shape public attitudes towards poverty and
social welfare policies.
Key components of social constructionism include:
1. Language and discourse:
Social constructionism emphasizes the importance of language and
discourse in shaping social reality. It su ggests that language is not just a
tool for describing reality, but is also a powerful tool for creating and
shaping it.
2. Historical and cultural context:
Social constructionists argue that social problems cannot be understood
outside of their historica l and cultural context. The meaning of a social
problem is shaped by the values and beliefs of the society in which it
occurs, and these values and beliefs change over time.
3. Power and privilege:
Social constructionism highlights the role of power and p rivilege in
shaping social reality. It suggests that some individuals and groups have
more power than others to define what is and is not a social problem, and
that this power can be used to marginalize or silence certain perspectives.
Pros of social const ructionism theory include:
1. Provides a more nuanced understanding of social problems:
By emphasizing the role of language, discourse, and power in shaping
social reality, social constructionism provides a more nuanced
understanding of social problems th an traditional approaches that focus on
objective, external realities.
2. Emphasizes the importance of context:
Social constructionism highlights the importance of understanding social
problems within their historical and cultural context, which can help to
avoid simplistic or reductionist explanations.
3. Raises awareness of power and privilege:
By highlighting the role of power and privilege in shaping social reality,
social constructionism can raise awareness of issues of social justice and
inequality.
Cons of social constructionism theory include:
1. Can be seen as relativistic:
Social constructionism can be seen as relativistic, in that it suggests that
the meaning of social problems is not objective or universal, but is instead
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Social Problems: Skills And Intervention
20 can lead to accusations that social constructionism denies the existence of
objective reality.
2. Can be criticized for being too abstract:
Some critics argue that social constructionism is too abstract and
theoretical, and that it lacks concrete, practical applications for addressing
social problems.
3. Can be seen as ignoring biological factors:
Critics argue that social constructionism ignores the role of biology and
genetics in shaping human behavio r and social reality, and that it
overemphasizes the role of language and culture.
These theories, among others, help to explain the social and psychological
factors that contribute to social problems, and provide a framework for
understanding and addressi ng them.
Overall, social constructionism offers a valuable perspective for
understanding how social problems are constructed and perpetuated by
cultural norms and power relations, and how language and discourse can
shape our perceptions and responses to th ese issues.
1.4 SUMMARY Social problems refer to issues or conditions that affect society as a whole,
typically leading to negative consequences for individuals, groups, or
communities. These problems arise from various sources, including
economic dispari ties, inequality, discrimination, crime, substance abuse,
violence, and environmental degradation, among others.
Identifying social problems can involve recognizing patterns, assessing
their impact on individuals and society, and considering the perspectiv es
of various stakeholders. Some methods used for identification include
statistical data analysis, surveys, interviews, observations, and media
analysis. It is crucial to consider different cultural, economic, and
historical contexts when identifying soci al problems.
Theories of social problems based in Social Psychology attempt to
understand the underlying causes and dynamics of these issues. They
explore how individual and group behavior, cognition, and attitudes
contribute to the emergence and persisten ce of social problems. These
theories, among others, help social psychologists understand the complex
interplay between individual, group, and societal factors that contribute to
social problems. They provide insights into the causes and consequences
of th ese issues and inform the development of interventions and policies
aimed at addressing them.

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Assessment of Social Problems And Action Planning-I
21 1.5 QUESTIONS 1. Discuss common examples of social problems.
2. Explain the various methods of assessing social problems.
3. What are the different types of observational research?
4. What are the ways in which surveys can be used in the process of
identification of social problems?
5. Explain with examples the role of focus groups in problem
identification.
6. Enumerate the several approaches to analyse exist ing data.
7. Explain community engagement in the process of problem
identification.
8. Discuss in detail the different theory -based approaches towards
assessing social problems.
9. With examples, explain the different kinds of social problems that can
be understood with the social learning theory
10. What are the strategies to reduce cognitive dissonance?
11. Differentiate between the key components of the social exchange
theory and social norms theory.
12. Explain the social constructionism in detail.
13. What are the pros and cons of social constructionism?
1.6 REFERENCES  Ahuja, R. (2012). Social Problems in India (2nd ed.). New Delhi:
R`awat Publications.
 Prasad, B.K. (2004). Social Problems of India (Vol 1 & 2). New
Delhi: Anmol Publications
 Prabhaka r, V. (2012). Social Problems: Issues and Perspective. New
Delhi: Wisdom Press.
 Dallos, R. & McLaughlin, E. (2002). Social Problems and The
Family. New Delhi: Sage Publications Pvt. Ltd.

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22 2
ASSESSMENT OF SOCIAL PROBLEMS
AND ACTION PLANNING: II
Unit Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 The process model of social problems
2.1.2 The Development of the process model
2.2 Testing the process model
2.3 Developing interventions
2.3.1 Examples of developing interventions
2.3.2 Examples of social problems to develop interventions:
2.4 Summary
2.5 Questions
2.6 References
2.0 OBJECTIVES  Understand the process model of interventions in Social Psychology.
 Explore and gain know ledge about the development of interventions
for social problem.
2.1 INTRODUCTION In social psychology, the process model of social problems refers to a
framework that helps us understand how social issues develop, perpetuate,
and impact individuals and s ocieties. This model typically consists of
several interconnected stages or processes that contribute to the emergence
and persistence of social problems. While different researchers may
present slightly varied versions of this model, the general idea rema ins
consistent.
2.1.1 The process model of social problems :
The following explains the process model of social problems :
1. Emergence:
Social problems often begin as concerns or issues within a society. These
concerns can arise due to various factors such as changes in social norms,
technological advancements, economic shifts, or cultural influences. A
social problem emerges when a particular issue is recognized as having
negative consequences for individuals or the larger community.
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Assessment of Social Problems And Action Planning: II
23 2. Recognition:
The recognition stage involves people acknowledging and identifying the
issue as a problem. This recognition can be influenced by media coverage,
personal experiences, social activism, or public discourse. As more
individuals and groups recognize the issue, it gains visibility and attention.
3. Legitimization:
At this stage, efforts are made to legitimize the issue as a legitimate social
problem that requires attention and action. This involves presenting
evidence, statistics, and anecdotes that highlight the negative impact of the
issue on individuals and society. Legitimization is crucial for mobilizing
support and resources to address the problem.
4. Mobilization:
Mobilization refers to the process of individuals and groups coming
together to address the so cial problem. This can include forming advocacy
groups, organizing protests, creating awareness campaigns, and seeking
policy changes. Mobilization is a key step in driving social change and
influencing public opinion.
5. Resolution:
Ideally, the social p roblem is addressed and resolved through various
means, such as policy changes, institutional reforms, public awareness
campaigns, and shifts in societal attitudes. Successful resolution leads to a
decrease in the negative consequences associated with the social problem.
6. Maintenance or Recurrence:
In some cases, even after initial resolution, social problems can reemerge
or persist due to various factors such as complacency, inadequate
implementation of solutions, or new contextual changes. This stage
highlights the importance of ongoing monitoring and vigilance.
7. Evaluation and Reflection:
After the resolution or management of a social problem, it's important to
evaluate the effectiveness of the measures taken. This stage involves
reflecting on what worked, what didn't, and what lessons can be learned
for addressing similar issues in the future.
It's important to note that this process model is a simplified representation,
and the stages are not always linear or distinct. Social problems can be
comple x and dynamic, influenced by a variety of factors including cultural
norms, power dynamics, economic structures, and individual behaviors.
Social psychologists and researchers use this model as a tool to analyze
and understand the development and progressi on of social problems in
societies.
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Social Problems Skills And Intervention
24 Check your progress:
1. List the steps involved in the process model of social problems.
2. Which stage focusing understanding the effectiveness of the
resolution in terms of the social problem?
2.1.2 The Dev elopment of the process model :
The process model of social problems in social psychology refers to a
framework that explains how social issues develop, evolve, and are
addressed within society. This model helps researchers and practitioners
understand the various stages and factors involved in the emergence and
resolution of social problems. The development of this process model has
been influenced by theories and research in social psychology, sociology,
and other related disciplines. While specific models may vary in their
details, they generally follow a similar progression. Here's an overview of
the key components of the process model:
1. Issue Identification and Definition:
The first step in the process model involves identifying and defining a
social issue. This could be any problem that affects individuals, groups, or
society as a whole. The issue may arise from various sources, such as
individual experiences, societal trends, or external events.
2. Salience and Perception:
Once an issue is identifie d, its salience —the degree to which it captures
public attention and concern —becomes important. Social problems that
are perceived as more relevant, urgent, or personally relevant are more
likely to gain attention and drive discussions.
3. Social Construct ion:
Social problems are not inherent in the issue itself but are constructed
through social interactions and interpretations. Various groups and
stakeholders may frame the problem differently, leading to diverse
perspectives on its causes, consequences, and potential solutions.
4. Moralization and Attribution:
Issues often become morally charged as people attribute blame or
responsibility for the problem. This attribution process influences how
society assigns responsibility and constructs narratives aro und the issue.

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Assessment of Social Problems And Action Planning: II
25 5. Collective Action and Mobilization:
As awareness of the issue grows, individuals and groups may start to
mobilize and engage in collective action to address the problem. This can
involve protests, advocacy campaigns, and the formation of social
movements.
6. Media and Communication:
The media plays a crucial role in shaping how social problems are
portrayed, discussed, and understood by the public. Media coverage can
influence public opinion, policy agendas, and the overall perception of the
issue.
7. Policy Formation and Implementation:
Governments and other institutions may respond to public pressure by
formulating policies to address the social problem. However, the
effectiveness of these policies can vary based on factors like reso urce
allocation, stakeholder engagement, and the alignment of policy goals
with the issue's root causes.
8. Evaluation and Feedback:
Over time, the implemented policies and interventions are evaluated to
assess their impact on the social problem. This fee dback loop informs
whether further adjustments, refinements, or new approaches are needed.
9. Cognitive and Behavioral Changes:
Successful policy implementation and sustained efforts to address the
social problem can lead to changes in public attitudes, b eliefs, and
behaviors. This might involve shifts in societal norms, increased
awareness, and reduced stigmatization.
10. Resolution or Transformation:
Ideally, a social problem reaches a stage where its negative impacts are
significantly reduced or elimin ated. In some cases, this may involve a
complete resolution of the issue. In other cases, the problem might
transform into a different form or evolve into a related but distinct
concern.
It's important to note that the process model of social problems is d ynamic
and nonlinear. Different issues can be at various stages simultaneously,
and the factors influencing each stage can interact in complex ways.
Additionally, cultural, historical, and contextual factors can greatly
influence how a specific social prob lem develops and how the process
unfolds.

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Social Problems Skills And Intervention
26 Check your progress:
1. State the key components of the process model.
Fill in the blanks:
1) The process model is considered to be ________ and dynamic.
2) __________ stage focuses on elimination of impacts.
3) The effectiveness of implementation of policies is dependent on
factors such as _______ & ________.
2.2 TESTING THE PROCESS MODEL The process model of social problems in social psychology can be tested
through a combination of empirical research methods . This model
typically involves understanding how various factors contribute to the
development, maintenance, and resolution of social problems. Here's a
general outline of how one might approach testing this model:
1. Literature Review:
Begin by conducti ng a thorough literature review to understand the
existing research on the social problem you're investigating. This will help
you identify the key variables, theoretical frameworks, and proposed
processes relevant to your study.
2. Hypothesis Development:
Based on your literature review, formulate specific hypotheses about the
relationships between different variables in the process model. These
hypotheses will guide your research.
3. Research Design:
Choose an appropriate research design that aligns wit h your hypotheses
and the nature of the social problem. This could include experimental
designs, correlational studies, longitudinal studies, or even qualitative
approaches like interviews or content analysis.
4. Operationalization of Variables:
Clearly d efine and operationalize the variables you're studying. This
involves specifying how you will measure or manipulate each variable in
your study.

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Assessment of Social Problems And Action Planning: II
27 5. Data Collection:
Collect data according to your research design. This might involve
conducting surveys, e xperiments, interviews, observations, or analyzing
existing data sets.
6. Data Analysis:
Use appropriate statistical or qualitative methods to analyze your data.
This could involve regression analyses, structural equation modeling,
thematic analysis, etc. , depending on the nature of your research.
7. Test Relationships:
Analyze the data to test the relationships proposed in your process model.
For example, if the model suggests that perceived social support buffers
the negative effects of a particular soc ial stressor, you would test whether
these relationships hold in your data.
8. Model Fit:
If you're using a theoretical model that involves a sequence of processes,
consider using structural equation modeling (SEM) to test the overall fit of
your proposed model to the data. SEM allows you to assess how well your
hypothesized model matches the observed relationships among variables.
9. Replication:
Replicate your study with different samples or in different contexts to
ensure the robustness and generalizab ility of your findings.
10. Conclusions:
Based on your analyses, draw conclusions about whether the data supports
the process model of social problems. Discuss the implications of your
findings for the broader understanding of the social problem and its
underlying mechanisms.
11. Limitations and Future Research:
Acknowledge any limitations of your study, such as sample size,
measurement issues, or methodological constraints. Suggest directions for
future research that could further validate or refine the process model.
12. Publication and Communication:
Present your findings through academic papers, presentations at
conferences, or other relevant communication channels to contribute to the
field's knowledge about the process model of social problems.
Reme mber that testing a process model is an iterative process. It involves
refining your hypotheses and methods based on the results of previous
studies and contributing to the cumulative knowledge in the field.
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Social Problems Skills And Intervention
28 Check your progress:
1. State the general outli ne of how one might approach to test the process
model.
2.3 DEVELOPING INTERVENTIONS Developing interventions for social problems in social psychology is a
multi -step process that involves understanding the problem, designing
effective strategies , implementing interventions, and evaluating their
impact. Here's a detailed overview of the process:
1. Problem Identification and Definition:
 Identify and define the social problem that needs intervention. This
could be an issue like reducing prejudice, promoting healthy
behaviors, preventing bullying, or increasing cooperation among
groups.
 Conduct thorough research to understand the underlying causes and
factors contributing to the problem. This might involve literature
reviews, surveys, interviews, and observations.
2. Theory and Framework Selection:
Choose appropriate psychological theories and frameworks that can help
explain the problem and guide the intervention design. Social psychology
theories, such as social identity theory, cognitive dissonance theory, and
social norms theory, can provide valuable insights.
3. Goal Setting:
Define clear and measurable goals for the intervention. What specific
changes or outcomes are you aiming for? Goals could relate to attitude
change, behavior modification, or intergroup relations improvement.
4. Intervention Design:
 Develop intervention strategies based on the chosen theories and goals.
There are several types of interventions, including cognitive
interventions (changing beliefs and attitudes), behavioral inte rventions
(promoting certain actions), and structural interventions (changing the
environment).
 Tailor the intervention to the target audience's characteristics, needs,
and cultural context. Effective interventions consider factors such as
age, socioeconom ic status, cultural background, and personal
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Assessment of Social Problems And Action Planning: II
29 5. Pilot Testing:
Test the intervention on a smaller scale with a representative sample of the
target population. This helps identify potential issues, refine the
intervention, and ensure that it is culturally sensitive and well -received.
6. Implementation Planning:
Develop a detailed plan for implementing the intervention. This includes
selecting appropriate channels for delivering the intervention (workshops,
online platforms, community events), id entifying resources required, and
establishing a timeline.
7. Intervention Implementation:
Execute the intervention according to the plan. This might involve
conducting workshops, distributing educational materials, organizing
public campaigns, or using te chnology for online interventions.
8. Data Collection and Monitoring:
Collect data before, during, and after the intervention to track changes and
outcomes. This could involve surveys, behavioral observations, and
interviews. Monitoring the intervention's progress allows for adjustments
if needed.
9. Evaluation:
Analyze the collected data to determine the intervention's effectiveness.
Compare the outcomes with the initial goals and assess whether the
intervention had the desired impact.
Consider both short -term and long -term effects of the intervention. Did
attitudes and behaviors change? Did the problem decrease? Were there
any unintended consequences?
10. Feedback and Refinement:
Based on the evaluation results, gather feedback from participants,
stakehold ers, and researchers involved. Use this feedback to refine and
improve the intervention for future implementations.
11. Dissemination:
Share the findings and lessons learned from the intervention with the
broader community. This could be through academic p ublications,
presentations, workshops, or media outlets.
12. Sustainability and Long -Term Impact:
Consider how the intervention can be sustained over time. For long -lasting
impact, interventions may need to be integrated into existing systems or
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Social Problems Skills And Intervention
30 Remember that developing interventions for social problems is an iterative
process. It often requires collaboration among researchers, practitioners,
and the community to create meaningful and effective change.
Check your progress:
1. What are the stages o f developing interventions?
2.3.1 Examples of developing interventions :
Developing interventions for social problems in social psychology
involves a systematic process of understanding the underlying causes of
the problem, designing strategies to address those causes, implementing
the strategies, and evaluating their effectiveness. Here's a detailed
explanation of the process along with an example:
Example: Addressing Bullying in Schools
Step 1: Problem Identification
Bullying is identified as a pr evalent issue in a local school. Research
shows that it leads to negative psychological effects on victims,
bystanders, and even the bullies themselves.
Step 2: Theory and Conceptual Framework
Drawing from social cognitive theory, the intervention aims to change the
attitudes and behaviors of students by addressing cognitive processes
underlying bullying behavior.
Step 3: Setting Clear Objectives
Reduce instances of bullying behavior by 30% within one academic year.
Improve students' empathy and conflict re solution skills.
Step 4: Designing the Intervention
Develop a school -wide program that includes workshops on empathy and
communication skills, classroom discussions about bullying, teacher
training on intervention strategies, and establishing a reporting s ystem for
bullying incidents.
Step 5: Pilot Testing
Conduct a pilot program in a few classrooms to assess the effectiveness of
the workshops and strategies. Gather feedback from teachers and students
to make necessary improvements.
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Assessment of Social Problems And Action Planning: II
31 Step 6: Implementation
Roll out the intervention across the entire school, involving teachers,
students, parents, and administrators.
Step 7: Data Collection and Evaluation
Collect data through surveys and observations before and after the
intervention. Measure changes in report ed bullying incidents, students'
attitudes toward bullying, and their conflict resolution skills.
Step 8: Analysis of Results
Analyze the data and find that reported bullying incidents have decreased
by 25%, and students' empathy scores have improved signi ficantly.
Step 9: Adaptation and Improvement
Based on feedback and data, refine the workshops and strategies to make
them more engaging and effective.
Step 10: Long -Term Monitoring
Continue to monitor bullying incidents and students' attitudes over the
next few years to ensure that the positive changes are sustained.
In conclusion, developing interventions for social problems in social
psychology involves a systematic approach of research, theory -building,
strategy design, implementation, and evaluation. It 's an iterative process
that requires continuous monitoring and adaptation to achieve meaningful
and lasting change.
2.3.2 Examples of social problems to develop interventions :
Certainly, Social Psychology can provide insights and interventions for a
wide range of social problems. Here are some other examples of social
problems along with potential interventions rooted in social psychology:
1. Prejudice and Discrimination:
Intervention: Contact Theory - Creating opportunities for people from
different soci al groups to interact in positive and meaningful ways to
reduce stereotypes and prejudices.
2. Bullying:
Intervention: Norm Dissemination - Promoting anti -bullying norms
through educational campaigns and social influence to change the
perception of bullyin g behavior.
3. Implicit Bias:
Intervention: Implicit Bias Training - Educating individuals about their
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Social Problems Skills And Intervention
32 4. Group Conflict:
Intervention: Superordinate Goals - Identifying com mon goals that require
cooperation between conflicting groups to reduce intergroup tension and
competition.
5. Ingroup -Outgroup Bias:
Intervention: Recategorization - Emphasizing shared identities and
similarities between different groups to break down the "us vs. them"
mentality.
6. Social Isolation:
Intervention: Social Skills Training - Teaching individuals effective
communication and interpersonal skills to foster meaningful connections.
7. Diffusion of Responsibility:
Intervention: Personal Responsibil ity Emphasis - Encouraging individuals
to take personal responsibility for helping others in emergencies through
awareness campaigns.
8. Cyberbullying:
Intervention: Digital Empathy Education - Promoting empathy and ethical
behavior online through educatio nal programs and awareness campaigns.
9. Sexual Harassment:
Intervention: Bystander Intervention Training - Equipping witnesses to
intervene safely and effectively when witnessing instances of sexual
harassment.
10. Environmental Conservation:
Intervention : Norm Activation Theory - Highlighting the prevalence of
pro-environmental behaviors to encourage individuals to adopt more
sustainable actions.
11. Racial Tensions:
Intervention: Perspective Taking - Encouraging individuals to actively
consider the persp ectives of others from different racial backgrounds to
foster empathy and understanding.
12. Cultural Stereotypes:
Intervention: Counter Stereotyping - Exposing individuals to counter -
stereotypical examples and narratives to challenge and change existing
stereotypes.

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Assessment of Social Problems And Action Planning: II
33 13. Hate Speech:
Intervention: Empathy -Based Education - Teaching individuals about the
impact of hate speech and fostering empathy to promote more respectful
communication.
14. Gender Inequality:
Intervention: Role Model Exposure - Exposing individuals to successful
individuals who defy traditional gender roles to challenge gender
stereotypes.
15. Health Behavior Change:
Intervention: Social Norms Approach - Utilizing social norms to
encourage healthy behaviors by conveying that desired behav iors are
common and accepted.
16. Civic Engagement:
Intervention: Social Identity Framing - Framing civic engagement as a
way to express one's identity and belonging to a larger community.
These interventions are just a starting point, and their effectiven ess can
vary based on context and implementation. Social psychology provides a
valuable toolbox for understanding and addressing a wide array of social
issues through evidence -based interventions.
Check your progress:
1. State some examples of developing i nterventions for social problems.
2.4 SUMMARY The process model of social problems outlines stages from emergence to
resolution, emphasizing evaluation. Its development draws from social
psychology and sociology, encompassing issue identification,
mobilization, media influence, policy formation, and cognitive changes.
Testing involves literature review, hypothesis development, data
collection, and model fit assessment. Developing interventions follows
problem identification, theory application, goa l setting, implementation,
and evaluation. Examples include addressing bullying with workshops and
norm dissemination. Social problems like prejudice, bullying, and implicit
bias can be tackled through interventions such as contact theory and social
skills training. Overall, the process model guides understanding, testing,
and addressing diverse social issues in a systematic and evidence -based
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Social Problems Skills And Intervention
34 2.5 QUESTIONS 1. What is the key concept behind the process model of social
problems?
2. Why is testing th e process model important in understanding social
problems?
3. What challenges might be encountered when designing and
implementing interventions for social issues?
2.6 REFERENCES  Ahuja, R. (2012). Social Problems in India (2nd ed.). New Delhi:
Rawat Publi cations.
 Prabhakar, V. (2012). Social Problems: Issues and Perspective. New
Delhi: Wisdom Press.
 Prasad, B. K. (2004). Social Problems of India (Vol. 1 & 2). New
Delhi: Anmol Publications.


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35 3
NATURE OF BEHAVIOURAL SKILLS AND
INTERVENTIONS - I
Unit Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 A behavior analysis approach to skills and intervention
3.3 Impact of behavior focused skills and interventions
3.4 Behavior intervention strategies - Antecedents and Consequences
3.4.1 Behavioral intervention strategies
3.5 Summary
3.6 Questions
3.7 References
3.0 OBJECTIVES After rea ding this unit, you will be able to:
 Describe Behaviour Analysis Approach to Skills and Intervention.
 Understand Impact of Behaviour focused skills and Intervention.
 Explain Behaviour Intervention strategies - Antecedent and
Consequences.
 Elaborate Behav ioural Intervention strategies.
3.1 INTRODUCTION You should be able to tell that applied social psychologists have plenty of
work to do by watching the evening news on any given night. There are
many societal issues, such as epidemics like HIV and obesi ty, drug use
and violence in schools, wars, traffic fatalities, and environmental
degradation, which have severe financial impacts in addition to the pain
and loss of life they cause in people. Even if each of these societal issues
is caused by human behav ior, it can also play a significant role in the
solution. Behavior analysts and social psychologists are especially
qualified to address these issues and make a difference in enhancing the
standard of living on our planet, as they are experts in the develo pment
and evaluation of behavior -focused interventions.
The behavioral approach offers creative, complementary, and typically
affordable solutions for policy improvement by integrating psychological,
social, and contextual explanations of human behavior in to policy design.
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36 systems and mechanisms of service delivery by giving emphasis to design
details.
The scope is altered by this strategy. Problems that are stated too broadly
or too narrowly may not be within the project's achievable parameters,
respectively. It is essential to approach the issue from the standpoint of the
end user and those that contact with or have influence over the user's
decisions. It also gets rid of presumption s. By posing the "how" question,
we may expand the universe of potential answers to test out.
The strategy uses a straightforward cycle for implementation:
1. The first stage is to define the problem by identifying the
stakeholders, their relevant behavio rs, and the context.
2. Then, the following stage is to diagnose the bottlenecks that prevent
stakeholders from attaining the desired behavior. For this, the context
is carefully examined to then provide hypotheses about which
psychological concepts may cause the problem.
3. Once potential bottlenecks and drivers have been identified, it comes
the time to design interventions to address the challenge.
4. In the implementation and evaluation stage, multiple interventions are
carried out and assessed.
5. Subsequently, after drawing lessons from the interventions comes a
stage to adapt the initial assumptions. The problem statement,
hypothesized bottlenecks, and potential interventions are redefined,
re-diagnosed, and redesigned until an effective inte rvention has been
identified.
This chapter's objective is to give you a general overview of the methods
utilized in large -scale behavior -based interventions. Behavior analysts
have been in the forefront of using psychological concepts to alter
behavior on a wide scale. As a result, we start by outlining some of the
core presumptions of a behavior -analysis approach to the development and
assessment of interventions. The following section outlines six
intervention strategies that behavior analysts have used t o successfully
alter behavior. Finally, we present six social psychological concepts that
can help these treatments work better. After reading this chapter, you will
be able to identify the fundamental ideas and steps of a number of
interventions that can be used to alter pertinent human behavior.
3.2 A BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS APPROACH TO SKILLS AND INTERVENTION The applied behaviour -analysis approach to intervention is based on the
scientific philosophy of B. F. Skinner. Instead of targeting internal events
such as thoughts and attitudes, Skinner believed psychologists should
focus their attention on observable behaviour. Thus, the behaviour -
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37 behaviour or behavioural outcome as the dependent v ariable.
A second principle of Skinner's approach is 'selection by consequences'. In
other words, we do what we do because of the consequences that follow
our behaviour. More specifically, we do what we do in order to gain
positive consequences and avoid or escape from negative consequences.
Interestingly, not all consequences are created equal. The most motivating
consequences are those which are 'soon' and 'certain' (Geller, 2001). For
example, smokers find the soon and certain consequences of relief fro m
cravings and the pleasurable feeling of inhaling and exhaling smoke much
more motivating than the distant and uncertain prospect of dying a
horrible death of lung cancer or emphysema. In this case, the sizeable
negative consequence of death is remote and uncertain. If the smoker
believed the next drag on his cigarette would cause soon and certain
illness and death, he would be likely to avoid that behaviour.
The soon and certain factors are also relevant for environmental
degradation. For example, soon a nd certain consequences of convenience
and comfort motivate many of us to drive our own vehicle. But if you
believed driving your vehicle to work or university for the week would
certainly cause global temperatures to rise to the point where we all
cooked the following week, you might consider walking or riding your
bicycle - or at least joining a car -pool. This discussion of consequences has
perhaps given ideas for an intervention technique. One effective way to
increase the frequency of desirable behaviour or decrease the occurrence
of undesirable behaviour is to change the consequences which follow the
behaviour. An alternative approach is to alter the environmental stimuli
that occur before a target behaviour.
3.3 IMPACT OF BEHAVIOR FOCUSED SKILLS AND INTERVENTIONS Behavioral focused intervention has successfully been used to treat a large
number of conditions. It’s considered to be extremely effective. The first
and most important pro of this approach is simple: It works. Both the
American Psychological Association and the United States Surgeon
General categorize this as an evidence -based, best practice treatment. In
other words, numerous studies have demonstrated the efficacy of this
approach as an autism treatment. Every child is going to be different b ased
on the child’s age, abilities, needs, and more. There is no one -size-fits-all
approach.
Additionally, this approach can be utilized to teach a wide variety of skills,
ranging from finite and specific to abstract and complex. Behavioral
focused interv ention can be easily adapted to individual needs and goals,
making it highly personalized for each person who uses it. It can be used
in a variety of settings, including home, school, or community -based
programs. It has been shown to help improve social sk ills, communication
skills, academic performance, self -care abilities and behavior
management. It helps individuals learn adaptive behaviors that help them
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38 There are some Cons of a behaviour f ocused approach. It is not a quick
fix. That is because it doesn’t always teach simple, finite skills. It is worth
mentioning that the results are not linear, eithe r. Learning new things can
be difficult and overwhelming. Depending on the severity of the
individual’s approach, it can require hours of therapy in order for it to be
effective. Some people may feel uncomfortable with some techniques
which involve rewards or punishments.
Despite the cons, Behaviour Approach has been proven to be an effective
treatment for autism spectrum disorder (ASD).With patience and
commitment from both the family and professionals involved, it can have
positive results that help indiv iduals with ASD learn new skills, improve
communication abilities, manage challenging behaviors and become more
independent in their communities.
3.4 BEHAVIOR INTERVENTIONS STRATEGIES -ANTECEDENTS AND CONSEQUENCES In this section, we discuss intervention strategies. Consequences control
behaviour, antecedent stimuli direct behaviour. Stimuli in the environment
often announce the availability of consequences. These stimuli are termed
antecedents or activators, because they precede and direct behaviours
necessary to obtain a desired consequence. For example, people who are
overweight and dieting may fall victim to the antecedent stimulus of the
sign in front of a fast -food restaurant, directing them to drive into the car
park, walk into the restaurant, and op en their wallets in order to get the
immediately reinforcing consequence of a large burger and supersized
fries. So far, focusing on observable behaviours is important, and a
rationale for the importance of the events immediately preceding a
behaviour (ant ecedents) and those which follow (consequences).
The s equence of antecedents → behaviours consequence has been termed
the three -term contingency. It provides the theoretical foundation for the
behaviour -change interventions developed and evaluated by applied
behaviour analysts.
In order to change behaviour i n a desired direction, behaviour analysts
carefully define a problem behaviour and identify the antecedents that
precede it and the consequences that follow. Ideally, this analysis of
behaviour is accomplished through direct observation but, in some cases,
surveys or interviews can be used to define the relevant antecedents and
consequences of a behaviour. When the antecedents and consequences are
defined, behaviour analysts attempt to change the behaviour by altering
existing contingencies (e.g., by adding new antecedents or consequences).
3.4.1 Behavioral Intervention strategies :
Behaviorism generally focuses on observable behavior, rather than
thoughts and emotions. It often centers on conditioning and predicting
behavior based on a stimulus -and-respon se association. Methodological
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39 approach to psychology. Studies done in the field that exemplify
behavioral principles may include Pavlov’s Dogs, The Bobo Doll
Experiment, The Skinne r Box, and The Little Albert Experiment. Mental
health treatment approaches that involve behaviorism can include
cognitive -behavioral therapy (CBT), applied behavior analysis, social
learning theory, and exposure theory. If you’d like to experience the
behavioral approach to mental health treatment for yourself, you may wish
to try online therapy.
Most large -scale interventions designed to improve behaviour can be
classified as either antecedent or consequence strategies. We outline below
four antecedent st rategies and three consequence strategies behaviour
analysts have applied successfully to change socially important
behaviours.
Antecedent strategies:
Antecedent interventions include (1) education, (2) verbal and written
prompts, (3) modeling and demons trations and (4) commitment
procedures.
Education and training:
Before attempting to change a behaviour, it is often important to provide a
strong rationale for the requested change (i.e., education). In some cases
this involves making uncertain, remote or unknown consequences more
salient to the target audience. For example, an intervention designed to
increase recycling could provide information about (1) the negative
consequences of throwing cans in the rubbish bin. e.g., wasted resources,
energy consu mption and overflowing landfills and (2) the positive
consequences, e.g., energy savings, decreased pollution, reduced use of
landfill space, are associated with recycling behaviour. Training is
different from education in that training usually involves ad ding a role -
playing and feedback component to verify participants can perform the
target behaviour.
Educational and training information can be delivered through print or
electronic media, or personally in individual or group settings. Research
has demons trated that information delivered interpersonally is more
effective when it is done in small, rather than large, groups and when it
actively involves participants in relevant activities and demonstrations. In
addition, the effectiveness of educational and training interventions can be
enhanced by tailoring the information to the target audience. For example,
Daamen, Staats, Wilke and Engelen (2001) demonstrated tailored
messages containing specifics about how oil pollution in a specific garage
could be mini mized led to more behaviour change than general messages
sent to a group of comparable garages. Although providing information
and promoting awareness of a problem are often important components of
a behaviour -change intervention, information alone is seld om sufficient to
change behaviour. This is especially true when the desired behaviour is
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40 Verbal and Written Prompts:
Procedures include any help given to learners to assist them in using a
specific skill. Prompts are generally given by an adult or peer before or as
a learner attempts to use a skill. Prompting procedures that have been
shown to be effective with learners with ASD include least -to-most -
prompt s, simultaneous prompting, and graduated guidance and can include
verbal, gestural, and model prompts.
A verbal prompt is any verbal assistance given that helps to use target
skills correctly such as spoken words, signs, or statements. A verbal
prompt incl udes hints, a clue, or a direction and range in intensity level
from least to most restrictive. For example, providing a direction is more
restrictive than providing a hint about how to identify the object. You can
utilize prompts when the learner is about to respond with an incorrect
response, responds with an incorrect response, or doesn’t respond at all
(~3 sec).
Modeling and Demonstrations:
Interventions that rely on an adult or peer providing a demonstration of the
target behavior that should result i n an imitation of the target behavior by
the learner. Often combined with other strategies such as prompting and
reinforcement
Modeling has its theoretical roots in Social Learning Theory by
psychologist Albert Bandura (1977). Social Learning Theory identifies
four factors in learning: attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation.
 Attention: In order for a student to learn, they must be attentive to the
teacher during instruc tion.
 Retention: The information acquired must be placed in long -term
memory.
 Reproduction: The student must be able to reproduce the learned
behavior.
 Motivation: Even if the above three conditions are met, the student
must also want to display the learne d behavior.
 In addition, characteristics of the person modeling the behavior are
also important. Models that are rewarded for their actions, are
considered experts, or have high status in society are more likely to be
emulated.
 Modeling Social Norms : Social norms are modeled by parents and
educators on a daily basis. By acting as the ideal model – being polite,
not raising your voice, etc.children learn what is acceptable and
unacceptable i n the school or home environment.
 Gender Socialization : It is believed children learn gender norms
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41 siblings, an d media. By watching how models behave, children learn
what appears to be normal behavior for their gender, which leads
them toward embracing those behaviors in their own lives.
 Modeling Rules: A good teacher or parent sets a high standard for the
child to follow. Similarly, a good boss does not flout their own rules,
or else they may lose the respect of their staff.
 Role Modeling : A role model may be a parent, teacher, sibling,
celebrity, or sports star. They are often observed closely by the person
who admires them, meaning they have greater responsibility to model
everyday good behaviors.
 Modeled Instruction: Teachers model instruction in lessons where
they first show the students how to do a task before the students
themselves have gone. For example, a baseball teacher might talk the
students through the right pose (stance, shoulder and elbow
placement) for the pitcher before the students then each have a try.
 Workplace Modeling: Bosses, ma nagers and supervisors model
appropriate behavior in the workplace to set the standard for others to
follow. This is necessary for a productive workplace culture.
 Explicit Modeling: This involves a teacher clearly and intentionally
demonstrating something so the learners can follow. It’s contrasted
with implicit modeling.
 Implicit Modeling: Unlike explicit modeling, implicit modeling
doesn’t involve a teacher talking through their demonstrations or even
asking for attention. Instead, they just set a standar d through their
behavior daily.
 Chunking : Often, demonstrations fail because the information is too
much, leading to cognitive overload. To overcome this, the teacher
models one ste p at a time then gives the learner a chance to master
that step before moving onto the next.
 Gradual Release of Responsibility : This instructional model is a
three -step p rocess for learning. First, the teacher models a task. Then,
the teacher and class attempt the class together (with the teacher still
taking an active guiding role). Thirdly, each student individually has a
go without the teacher’s direct modeling or assis tance.
 Situated Learning : Situated learning theory holds that learning
occurs very effectively when it takes place in the context in which it’s
applied. For example, learners during an internship or work placement
will observe someone at work, then slowly try out some of the
responsibilities for themselves.
So, Modeling a learning process is an excellent instructional technique to
help students learn how to do something. The teacher demo nstrates, the
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42 students understand how to self -regulate emotions, and engage in non -
disruptive classroom behaviour.
Commitment Procedure :
Behavioral consistency is a judgment heuristic to which we default in
order to ease decision making. It is easier to make one decision, and stay
consistent to it, than it is to make a new decision every single time we are
presented with a problem. From an evolutionary standpoint, behavioral
consistency also serves us well in a social environment, unpredictable
people are less likely to be liked and to thrive among others.
Obtaining a behavioural commitment has been an effective component of
many behaviour -based interventions. Geller et al. (1989) combin ed
commitment and prompting strategies by asking individuals to sign a card
promising to use their safety belts. Participants also agreed to hang the
'promise card' on the rear -view mirror of their vehicles, which served as a
proximal prompt to buckle up. Results indicated students who made the
commitment and displayed the prompt increased their safety -belt use by
40 per cent over baseline while non -signing controls showed no change.
This is how Commitment and consistency are powerful motivators to
increase engagement and persuade users to fulfil their goals.
Consequence strategies :
Now let's consider intervention techniques that employ consequence
strategies. As explained above, behaviour analysts consider consequences
to be the primary determinant of volu ntary behaviour. In fact, many of the
antecedent strategies reviewed above are presumed to work because they
announce the availability of consequences associated with the desired
behaviour. Following are three basic consequence strategies: penalties,
rewar ds and feedback.
Penalties :
Interventions employing penalty techniques identify undesirable
behaviours and administer negative consequences to those who perform
them. Although this approach seems to be favoured by governments,
behavioural psychologists h ave typically avoided this approach in
community interventions for a variety of reasons. One practical reason is
penalty interventions usually require extensive enforcement in order to be
effective, and enforcement requires backing by the proper authority. For
example, if you tried to reduce the wasteful disposal of cans in your
community by finding people who threw their cans in the rubbish bin, you
would probably have a hard time catching them, and even more difficulty
getting them to pay up when you knoc k at their door. Although these are
significant obstacles, it could be overcome by psychologists working with
local governments to pass laws and hire individuals to enforce them.
The main reason behavioural psychologists have opposed the use of
negative c onsequences is the effect it has on the attitudes and long -term
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43 because of its positive consequences, they simply do it to avoid negative
consequences. And, when enforcement is not consi stent, behaviours are
likely to return to their previous state.
Rewards :
Because of the negative side -effects associated with penalties, behavioural
psychologists have typically favoured the strategy of following a desirable
behaviour with a positive con sequence, or reward. Rewards can come in
the form of a variety of positive consequences, including money,
merchandise, verbal praise or special privileges. Although reward
strategies have some problems of their own, many community -based
reward intervention s have produced dramatic increases in targeted
behaviours.
However, rewards are often preceded by antecedent messages announcing
the availability of the reward upon completion of a specified behaviour.
This antecedent message is termed an incentive. Simil arly, an antecedent
message announcing a punitive consequence or penalty for undesirable
behaviours is considered a disincentive. In some cases rewards can be
used without incentives. In these cases you would simply provide the
reward immediately following the behaviour - without announcing its
availability in advance.
Some would refer to rewards as 'positive reinforcement' and penalties as
'punishment', but this is technically incorrect. Because positive
reinforcement and punishment always influence the b ehaviour they
follow. Positive reinforcement increases future occurrences of a
behaviour, while punishment decreases behaviour through the delivery of
a consequence. In both cases, the correct terminology is dependent on
subsequent behaviour. If a conseque nce does not increase or decrease the
prior behaviour, positive reinforcement or punishment was technically not
implemented. Thus, we avoid this technical issue by using the more
popular real -world terms of rewards and penalties.
A wide range of behaviour s have been targeted with incentive/reward
programmes. For example, studies have shown significant beneficial
impact of incentive/reward programmes to increase safety -belt use,
medication compliance, commitment to organ donation, and to decrease
drug use a nd environmental degradation. In addition, incentives and
rewards are used frequently and effectively by employers to increase the
productivity of their workers. Jenkins, Mitra, Gupta and Shaw (1998) used
a statistical technique called meta -analysis to eva luate the effects of
financial incentives on performance quantity in 39 studies. In a meta -
analysis, results from various studies are combined and analysed
statistically, thus providing insight into the consistency of effects across
studies. Averaged acros s all studies, workers offered financial
compensation for increased production increased their productivity by 34
per cent over those. who were not offered behaviour -based rewards
(Jenkins et al., 1998).
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44 strategies. An obvious practical disadvantage of using rewards is they can
be expensive to implement. This shortcoming can be addressed in part by
providing rewards only after a behaviour has been completed a set number
of times, or by varyin g the number of times a behaviour needs to be
completed before a reward is offered. The technical terms for these
practices are known respectively as fixed and variable -ratio reinforcement,
while continuous reinforcement refers to a process in which an ind ividual
receives a reward each time he or she completes a behaviour. Although
fixed and variable -ratio reinforcement schedules both produce high rates
of responding, individuals who are on a fixed -ratio schedule are more
likely to stop performing a behavio ur immediately after receiving their
reward, because they know the next reward is distant. Variable -ratio
schedules are favoured by many, because the unpredictability of the
reward leads to the most consistent behaviour pattern.
A second limitation of rew ards is that the target behaviours on which they
are contingent tend to decrease when the rewards are removed almost as
dramatically as they increased when the rewards were implemented. In
fact, this effect is so reliable behaviour analysts often use it as their
research -design strategy. They first measure the pre -intervention level
(baseline) of a target behaviour, then assess the increase in the frequency
of the behaviour while rewards are in place and finally, document a
decrease in behavioural occurrenc e when the rewards are removed. When
behaviour analysts show a target behaviour occurs more often while an
intervention is in place and returns to near baseline levels when the
intervention is withdrawn, they demonstrate functional control of the
target be haviour. The intervention is shown to be effective. Of course, an
obvious solution to this reversal problem is to keep a reward strategy in
place indefinitely. For example, in the United States, bottle bills, which
provide a refund of 5 -10 cents when bottl es and cans are returned,
illustrate an effective long -term incentive/reward strategy.
Finally, reward interventions have been criticized by some who contend
rewards diminish intrinsic motivation. The contention is that instead of
focusing on the positive aspects of completing a task for its own sake,
individuals become extrinsically motivated to perform the behaviour. In
essence they reason that if someone is paying or rewarding me to perform
a behaviour, it must be unpleasant and not worth performing whe n the
opportunity for reward is removed.
Extrinsic motivation is a motivation that is driven by external rewards.
These can be tangible, such as money or grades, or intangible, such as
praise or fame. Unlike intrinsic motivation , which arises from within the
individual, extrinsic motivation is focused purely on outside
rewards.People who are extrinsically motivated will continue to perform a
task even though it might not be in and of itself rewarding. For example,
they will do something at their job that they don't find enjoyable in order
to earn a wage.
Extrinsic motivation is involved in operant condi tioning , which is when
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45 reward or consequence. Operant Conditioning is a type of learning in
which a behaviour is strengthened (meaning, it will occur more
frequently) when it’s followed by reinforcement, and weakened (will
happen less frequently) when followed by punishment. It is based on a
simple premise – that behaviour is influenced by the consequences that
follow. When you are reinforced for doing something, you’re more likely
to do it again. When you are punished for doing something, you are less
likely to do it again. In Spite of limitations Reward strategy works well
and plays an important role in the study of behavioural approaches..
Feedback:
Feedback is a key piece of manageme nt responsibility – both for
supporting and continuing positive behavior and results, and for
addressing and correcting issues or concerns. In order for feedback to be
most effective, it should be:
• Timely
• Balanced – both positive and constructive feedb ack are important, but
should NOT be mixed
• Behavioral
• Clearly linked to goals and performance standards
• Thoughtfully prepared
• A dialogue
• Followed up appropriately
Structuring the Feedback Conversation :
 Situation : State the specific si tuation.
 Behavior : State the specific observed behaviors – either which are
appreciated and valuable (positive feedback) or are unacceptable or
needing correction (corrective or constructive feedback).
 Effect : Share what effect you see the behavior havin g on the
individual’s productivity and performance, on others on the team,
or long -term goals and progress. Invite reflection and
perspective from the individual.
 Expectations and Results : For corrective or constructive feedback,
state your expectations for changing or adjusting the behavior as
well as what to expect if the behavior does not change.
 Questions : Invite any questions the individuals may have. Be sure
concerns are addressed, for constructive feedback, and thank the
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46 Feedback Checklist :
• Provide feedback frequently.
• Plan and prepare for the feedback conversation.
• Link feedback to goals and focus on established performance
standards.
• Discuss behavior and results by focusing on tasks and ou tcomes, not
the person.
• Make it a dialogue, not a monologue.
• Specify what needs to be done and agree on responsibilities and
performance standards going forward.
• Remember to fit feedback to the individual.
So, as we discussed an overview of seve n intervention techniques
(education, prompts, modeling, commitment, penalties, rewards and
feedback) that behaviour analysts have used successfully to change
behaviours on a large scale. Although we reviewed them separately, in
practice several are often combined in a single intervention. For example,
most interventions have some sort of education or information, which is
combined with other behaviour - change strategies such as prompts,
feedback or commitment strategies.
We have devoted substantial space to applied behaviour analysis in a book
focused on applied social psychology. Because applied behaviour analysts
have conducted the most intervention -based research on societal problems.
Now we turn to a discussion of how social influence principles can be
used to enhance the intervention strategies implemented and evaluated by
behaviour analysts. The synergy from combining the practical behaviour -
change strategies of behaviour analysis with the tools of social influence
can enable greater and longer -term intervention impact.
3.5 SUMMARY In this chapter we have reviewed a variety of intervention techniques that
have been used successfully by behaviour analysts and social
psychologist. Each strategy has its own importance. We believe
integrating strength of applied behaviour analysis and social psychology
results in a powerful set of tools for large scale behaviour change
intervention. This chapter overviews about behaviour approach. Then we
study the impact of this approach and with the help of strategies we
understand methods or skills of behaviour approach.


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47 3.6 QUESTIONS A) Write long answers
1. Explain behaviour intervention strategies - antecedent and
consequences.
2. Elaborate impact of behaviour focused skills and intervention.
B) Write Short Not es
 Education
 Commitment procedures
 Rewards
 Feedback
3.7 REFERENCES  Cialdini, R. B. (2009). Influence: Science and Practice. Pearson
Education Inc.
 Decker, P. J. (1980). Effects of symbolic coding and rehearsal in
behavior -modeling training. Journal of Ap plied Psychology, 65, 627 –
634.
 Decker, P. J. (1986). Effects of trainee -generated versus trainer
provided rule codes on generalization in behavior -modeling training.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 71, 469 –473.
 Hogan, P. M., Hakel, M. D., & Taylor, P. J. (2 005). A meta -analytic
review of behavior modeling training. Journal of Applied Psychology,
90, 692 –709.
 Ly, K., Mažar, N., Zhao, M., & Soman, D. (2013). A Practitioner’s
Guide to Nudging.
 Steg, L., Bunk, A. P., & Rothengatter, T. (2008). Applied Social
Psychology: Understanding and Managing Social Problems.
Cambridge University.


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48 4
NATURE OF BEHAVIORAL SKILLS AND
INTERVENTIONS – II
Unit Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Enhancing interventions through social influence
4.2.1 Consistency
4.2.2 Social Proof
4.2.3 Authority
4.2.4 Liking
4.2.5 Reciprocity
4.2.6 Scarcity
4.3 Summary
4.4 Questions
4.5 References
4.0 OBJECTIVES After reading this unit, you will be able to:
 Describe Consistency
 Understand Social Proof
 Explain Authority
 Elaborate Reciprocity
 Understand Enhancing interventions through social influence
4.1. INTRODUCTION This chapter discusses how social influence might improve interventions.
As we interact with society, their influence has a significant impact on
how we live. Therefore, it is crucial to comprehend these interventions and
how a person mi ght avoid them with a few straightforward realizations
and advice. We are going to study the following social influence
interventions: (1) consistency, (2) social proof, (3) authority, (4) liking, (5)
reciprocity and (6) scarcity.
4.2 ENHANCING INTERVENTIO NS THROUGH SOCIAL INFLUENCE In his popular book Influence , Robert Cialdini outlines six social -influence munotes.in

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49 principles used frequently by marketing professionals to increase sales of
their products: (1) consistency, (2) social proof, (3) authority, (4) liking ,
(5) reciprocity and (6) scarcity. Cialdini describes the principles as
compliance techniques, because they are frequently used to increase the
odds a target individual will comply with a request.
These principles are relevant for intervention design bec ause most
behaviour -change interventions involve an intervention agent asking a
target individual to comply with a request (e.g., increase recycling
behaviour, practice safe sex, buckle up, or wear a bicycle helmet). It is
logical that the same techniques that have proved successful in evoking
purchasing behaviour should be effective in encouraging individuals to
change other behaviours, or at least to make a commitment to attempt
change. Once the behaviour has been initiated, further applications of the
principles may activate social consequences with potential to maintain the
behaviours for longer periods of time. The remainder of this chapter
addresses ways to integrate these six principles with the intervention
techniques discussed so far in order to mak e them more influential.
4.2.1 Consistency :
The idea that a desire to be consistent is a fundamental human motive has
served as the basis for some of the most influential theories in social
psychology, including cognitive dissonance and balance theory. I n
addition to the desire for internal consistency, as outlined in dissonance
and balance theory, other research has demonstrated that individuals also
have a strong desire to show others they are consistent (Cialdini, 2001).
People reflect on the potentia l negative outcomes of their undesirable
behaviour. For example, individuals who may have a problem with
drinking too much alcohol may be asked to list the 'good' and 'not so good
things about consuming alcohol. If the individual has a problem with
alcohol , the list of good things (e.g., taste, social lubrication, relaxation) is
likely to be quite small compared to the not -so-good list (e.g., expense,
hangovers, missed work, lost jobs, legal problems, fights with spouse,
medical problems, etc.). In a case l ike this, the dissonance gong is likely to
be sounding quite loudly when the individual is confronted with the list of
negative consequences of excessive alcohol consumption, and motivation
for change should be increased. Indeed, arousing cognitive dissona nce to
motivate change is a basic component of motivational interviewing, a
promising therapeutic technique that has been applied to a number of
clinical problems (Miller & Rollnick, 2002).
Dissonance strategies have been effective when applied on a large scale to
problems like environmentally harmful behaviours. For example, Aitken,
McMahon, Wearing and Finlayson (1994) used a dissonance strategy to
reduce water consumption in Australia. An initial survey of area residents
revealed (1) many residents had very positive attitudes towards conserving
water, and (2) positive attitudes towards water conservation were poor
predictors of actual water conservation as measured on water meters.
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50 reminding them they had strongly agreed on the survey it was their duty to
conserve water, and (2) providing feedback about how their household
water consumption compared to similar -sized households in the region.
Results indicated households that receive d the dissonance manipulation
significantly reduced their water use, while a comparison group who
simply received the feedback without the dissonance manipulation did not.
Although these studies and others demonstrate the promise of dissonance -
based inte rventions, the bad news is that it is also possible that individuals
may reduce dissonance by changing their attitudes instead of their
behaviours. When behaviours are difficult or inconvenient to perform,
changing one's attitude may be far easier. For exa mple, in a study
conducted in the Netherlands, Tertoolen, Van Kreveld and Verstraten
(1998) found individuals who scored high on an initial measure of
environmental awareness scored lower on the same measure after they
were given feedback about the environ mental consequences of frequent
use of their own cars.
Public commitment :
Behavioural commitment (as discussed in the section on antecedent
interventions) may be the most practical and frequently used application of
the consistency principle. Viewed thro ugh the lens of the consistency
principle, it is easy to see that fulfilling a behaviour -change promise
follows the consistency principle and failing to change violates it. Social
psychologists have found that commitment strategies work best when the
commi tment is active, public and perceived as voluntary (Cialdini, 2001).
The requirement that commitment be voluntary makes sense, because
breaking a promise you were forced to make is unlikely to arouse much
dissonance. In fact, it is reasonable to question i f a coerced commitment
amounts to a commitment at all.
Individuals who actively voice a commitment or sign a promise card are
more likely to fulfil their promise than those who passively nod their
heads in agreement. Active commitments are more concrete, a nd make
future violations more likely to cause dissonance. Because individuals are
motivated to appear consistent to themselves and to others, commitments
should also be made publicly whenever possible.
Interestingly, there is some evidence suggesting tha t commitments may
become more effective when followed by reminders of past failures to live
up to the values espoused in the commitment. Social psychologist Elliot
Aronson has termed this phenomenon the 'hypocrisy effect' and speculates
it functions. throu gh cognitive dissonance.
Pallak and Cummings (1976) demonstrated the effectiveness of a public
commitment in an intervention targeting energy consumption. The
investigators began by meeting with homeowners to discuss strategies for
conserving natural gas and electricity (foot -in-the-door). After presenting
the information, the researchers either (1) simply asked the participants to
sign a form consenting to their participation, or (2) asked the individuals
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51 their names published in the local newspaper in order to publicize the
project. As predicted, during the month following the intervention,
participants in the public - commitment condition had significantly lower
percentages of ene rgy use than those in the private -commitment condition.
Perhaps the most interesting aspect of the Pallak and Cummings study was
that participants in the public -commitment condition continued to show
significantly lower energy usage in a follow -up study c onducted a year
later. After being informed the study had concluded and their names
would not be published in the paper. Subsequent research has also
indicated commitment strategies may be among the best for maintaining
long-term behaviour change (Geller, 2002).
Cialdini (2001) notes individuals who become strongly committed to
performing a behaviour often adjust their identities to become consistent
with that behaviour. When individuals repeatedly perform a behaviour
they are more likely to adopt an ident ity consistent with that behaviour,
and thus be more likely to perform it in the future. The maintenance of
post-commitment behaviour can also be explained by the process of
behavioural self -perception (Bem, 1972). According to Bem, individuals
infer their attitudes and other internal states from their overt behaviours.
Bem's theory could also account for the failures of reward interventions to
maintain behaviours when the rewards are removed. Individuals who are
receiving rewards are likely to attribute th eir behaviour to the reward and
changes in self -perception are unlikely to occur. Because of this,
interventions using reward strategies should consider presenting rewards
as tokens of appreciation, and consider offering rewards that are just large
enough to encourage behaviour in order to allow for behavioural self -
perception to occur (Geller, 2002).
American social psychologist Elliot Aronson developed an innovative
method for enlisting the power of cognitive dissonance. The first step of
the hypocrisy e ffect involves obtaining a commitment to a certain course
of action. Next, individuals complete an exercise in which they are
reminded of past failures to perform according to their commitment.
Aronson hypothesized this process of making hypocrisy salient should
enhance dissonance and increase the likelihood future behaviours will
align with the commitment.
Geller (2005) has advocated using the hypocrisy effect to promote
occupational safety by asking individuals who espouse safety as a core
value to recal l times when their behaviour was inconsistent with this
value. This is presumed to motivate participants to perform safe behaviour
in order to reduce the tension caused by the noted inconsistency.
How To Say No :
―Consistency is the hobgoblin of little min ds.‖ Or, at least, so goes a
frequently heard quotation attributed to Ralph Waldo Emerson. But what a
very odd thing to say. Looking around, it is obvious that, quite contrary to
what Emerson seems to have suggested, internal consistency is a hallmark
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52 intellectually scattered and limited among us. the essay ―Self -Reliance,‖
where it was clear that the problem lay not in Emerson, but in the popular
version of what he had said. Actually he w rote, ―A foolish consistency is
the hobgoblin of little minds.‖ For some obscure reason, a central
distinction had been lost as the years eroded the accurate version of his
statement to mean something entirely different and, upon close inspection,
entirely silly.
While consistency is typically commendable and often crucial, one must
avoid a foolish and rigid form. Emerson cautioned against the inclination
to be consistently automatic and thoughtless.
But since automatic consistency is so useful in allowing us an economical
and appropriate way of behaving most of the time, we can not decide
merely to eliminate it from our lives altogether. The results would be
disastrous. If, rather than whirring along in accordance with our prior
decisions and deeds, we stop ped to think through the merits of every new
action before performing it, we would never have time to accomplish
anything significant. We need even that dangerous, mechanical brand of
consistency. The only way out of the dilemma is to know when such
consis tency is likely to lead to a poor choice. There are certain signals —
kinds of signals, in fact —to tip us off. We register each type in a different
part of our bodies.
The signal is easy to recognize. It occurs right in the pit of our stomachs
when we reali ze we are trapped into complying with a request we know
we don’t want to perform. Whenever your stomach tells you that you
would be a sucker to comply with a request merely because doing so
would be consistent with some prior commitment, do not try to den y the
importance of consistency; just point out the absurdity of foolish
consistency.
4.2.2 Social proof :
Although most people like to be considered consistent, many would cringe
if called conformist. Despite negative connotations, there is no denying th e
fact our behaviour is profoundly influenced by those around us. In
unfamiliar situations we follow the crowd in order to act effectively (if
most people are doing it, it must be the right thing to do); and in other
situations, we conform in order to gain social approval (Cialdini, 2001).
Cialdini uses the term 'social proof to describe the compliance technique
in which evidence about the behaviour of others is provided in order to
evoke a conforming response. For example, salespeople and advertisers
frequ ently cite the popularity of an item to increase sales.
Social norms can be defined as codes of conduct which inform members
of a social group how to act in various situations. Unlike laws, which are
explicitly outlined, norms are implicit and spread thro ugh interactions
within groups.
Neighbors, Larimer and Lewis (2004) conducted an experiment with 252
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53 completing a computer -based questionnaire about their own drinking
behaviour and perceptio ns about drinking norms on campus, participants
received a graph contrasting their drinking behaviour with the actual
drinking rates on campus. Follow -up analyses revealed the intervention
significantly reduced participants' perceptions of student drinking and
more importantly, significantly reduced their self -reported drinking in
three - and six -month follow -up surveys.
As noted above, several studies that have documented college students in
the United States consistently overestimate descriptive and injun ctive
drinking norms among their peers (see meta -analysis by Bosari & Carey,
2003).
According to Perkins (2003) inflated injunctive norms may be due to
pluralistic ignorance and attribution biases. Pluralistic ignorance is the
belief that others' private attitudes and beliefs are different from one's own
despite the fact that their public behaviour is identical. Although many
students may share the private belief moderate use is best, they may feel
pressured to drink heavily by the behaviour. of others, wh o share similar
beliefs but are feeling the same social pressure. Attribution theory predicts
individuals are likely to dismiss their own. behaviour as socially
pressured, while attributing the behaviour of their fellow students to stable
internal attitude s. This tendency to underestimate the situational influences
for others is known as correspondence bias or the fundamental attribution
error.
A contributor to inflated descriptive norms may be the availability
heuristic, which states we calculate the prob ability of an event's
occurrence based on the ease with which we can bring that event to mind.
At university parties the behaviour of students who are drinking heavily
may be amusing, disturbing or revolting, any of which would likely make
it more salient at the party and is the belief others' private attitudes and
beliefs are different from one's own despite the fact that their public
behaviour is identical. Although many students may share the private
belief moderate use is best, they may feel pressured t o drink heavily by the
behaviour of others, who share similar beliefs but are feeling the same
social pressure. Attribution theory predicts individuals are likely to
dismiss their own behaviour as socially pressured, while attributing the
behaviour of thei r fellow students to stable internal attitudes. This
tendency to underestimate the situational influences for others is known as
correspondence bias or the fundamental attribution error.
A contributor to inflated descriptive norms may be the availability
heuristic, which states we calculate the probability of an event's
occurrence based on the ease with which we can bring that event to mind.
At university parties the behaviour of students who are drinking heavily
may be amusing, disturbing or revolting, an y of which would likely make
it more salient at the party and more memorable long afterwards. In
addition, dramatic events at parties are likely to be the subject of
conversation and dissemination long after the party, further exacerbating
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54 of the source of the inflated norms, their existence combined with the
consistent finding that perceived drinking norms are predictive of
individual use have made social -norms interventions a popul ar prevention
approach on college campuses.
Uncertain(ty):
Especially in an ambiguous situation, the tendency for everyone to be
looking to see what everyone else is doing can lead to a fascinating
phenomenon called ―pluralistic ignorance.‖ A thorough un derstanding of
the pluralistic ignorance phenomenon helps immeasurably to explain a
regular occurrence in our country that has been termed both a riddle and a
national disgrace.
Devictimizing Yourself:
Fortunately, our newfound understanding of the bystan der ―apathy‖
process offers real hope. Armed with this scientific knowledge, an
emergency victim can increase enormously the chances of receiving aid
from others. The key is the realization that groups of bystanders fail to
help because the bystanders are unsure rather than unkind. They don’t help
because they are unsure of whether an emergency actually exists and
whether they are responsible for taking action. When they are sure of their
responsibilities for intervening in a clear emergency, people are
exceedingly responsive! Once it is understood that the enemy is not some
unmanageable societal condition like urban depersonalization but is,
instead, the simple state of uncertainty, it becomes possible for emergency
victims to take specific steps to protect themselves by reducing the
bystanders’ uncertainty.
Monkey Me, Monkey Do:
A bit earlier we stated that the principle of social proof, like all other
weapons of influence, works better under some conditions than under
others. We have already explored one o f those conditions: uncertainty.
Without question, when people are uncertain, they are more likely to use
others’ actions to decide how they themselves should act. But, in addition,
there is another important working condition: similarity. The principle of
social proof operates most powerfully when we are observing the behavior
of people just like us. It is the conduct of such people that gives us the
greatest insight into what constitutes correct behavior for ourselves.
Therefore, we are more inclined to f ollow the lead of a similar individual
than a dissimilar one. That is why I believe we are seeing an increasing
number of average person -on-the-street testimonials on TV these days.
Advertisers now know that one successful way to sell a product to
ordinary viewers (who compose the largest potential market) is to
demonstrate that other ―ordinary‖ people like and use it. So whether the
product is a brand of soft drink, or a pain reliever, or a laundry detergent,
we hear volleys of praise from John or Mary Eve ry-person.
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55 How To Say No:
The difficulty is compounded by the realization that most of the time, we
don’t want to guard against the information that social proof provides. The
evidence it offers about how we should act is usually valid and valuable.
With it we can cruise confidently through a myriad of decisions without
personally having to investigate the detailed pros and cons of each. In this
sense, the principle of social proof equips us with a wonderful kind of
automatic -pilot device not unlike that aboard most aircraft. Yet there are
occasional but real problems with automatic pilots. Those problems appear
whenever the flight information locked into the control mechanism is
wrong. In these instances, we will be taken off course. Depending on the
size of the error, the consequences can be severe. But, because the
automatic pilot afforded by the principle of social proof is more often an
ally than an enemy, we can’t be expected to want to simply disconnect it.
Thus, we are faced with a classic problem: how to make use of a piece of
equipment that simultaneously benefits and imperils our welfare.
Fortunately, there is a way out of the dilemma. Because the disadvantages
of automatic pilots arise principally when incorrect data have been put into
the contro l system, our best defense against these disadvantages is to
recognize when the data are in error. If we can become sensitive to
situations where the social -proof automatic pilot is working with
inaccurate information, we can disengage the mechanism and gr asp the
controls when we need to.
Then we can take the controls, make the necessary correction for the
misinformation, and reset the automatic pilot. The transparency of the
rigged social proof we get these days provides us with exactly the cue we
need fo r knowing when to perform this simple maneuver. With no more
cost than a bit of vigilance for plainly counterfeit social evidence, then, we
can protect ourselves nicely. Fortunately, this precaution requires neither
much effort nor much time. A quick glanc e around is all that is needed.
And this little precaution is well worth it. The consequences of single -
minded reliance on social evidence can be frightening.
4.2.3 Authority :
Whenever we are faced with such a potent motivator of human action, it is
natura l to expect that good reasons exist for the motivation. A
multilayered and widely accepted system of authority confers an immense
advantage upon a society. It allows the development of sophisticated
structures for resource production, trade, defense, expa nsion, and social
control that would otherwise be impossible. The other alternative, anarchy,
is a state that is hardly known for its beneficial effects on cultural groups
and one that the social philosopher Thomas Hobbes assures us would
render life ―soli tary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.‖ Consequently, we are
trained from birth that obedience to proper authority is right and
disobedience is wrong. The essential message fills the parental lessons, the
schoolhouse rhymes, stories, and songs of our child hood and is carried
forward in the legal, military, and political systems we encounter as adults.
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56 Once we realize that obedience to authority is mostly rewarding, it is e asy
to allow ourselves the convenience of automatic obedience. The
simultaneous blessing and bane of such blind obedience is its mechanical
character. We don’t have to think; therefore, we don’t. Although such
mindless obedience leads us to appropriate act ion in the great majority of
cases, there will be conspicuous exceptions —because we are reacting
rather than thinking. Let’s take an example from one facet of our lives
where authority pressures are visible and strong: medicine. Health is
enormously import ant to us. Thus, physicians, who possess large amounts
of knowledge and influence in this vital area, hold the position of
respected authorities. In addition, the medical establishment has a clearly
terraced power and prestige structure. The various kinds of health workers
well understand the level of their jobs in this structure; and they well
understand, too, that the M.D. sits at the top. No one may overrule the
doctor’s judgment in a case, except perhaps, another doctor of higher rank.
As a consequence, a long -established tradition of automatic obedience to a
doctor’s orders has developed among health -care staff.
The worrisome possibility arises, then, that when a physician makes a
clear error, no one lower in the hierarchy will think to question it —
precisely because, once a legitimate authority has given an order,
subordinates stop thinking in the situation and start reacting. Mix this kind
of click, whirr response into a complex hospital environment and mistakes
are certain.
Wherever our behaviors are governed in such an unthinking manner, we
can be confident that there will be compliance professionals trying to take
advantage. We can stay within the field of medicine and see that
advertisers have frequently harnessed the respect accorded to doctors in
our culture by hiring actors to play the roles of doctors speaking on behalf
of the product. For example, a TV commercial featuring actor Robert
Young counseling people against the dangers of caffeine and
recommending caffeine -free Sanka Brand coffee. The commercial was
highly successful, selling so much coffee that it was played for years in
several versions.as the advertising agency that hired him knew perfectly
well—he is associated in the minds of the American public with Marcus
Welby, M.D., the role he played in an earlier long -running television
series. Objectively it doesn’t make sense to be swayed by the comments of
a man we know to be just an actor who used to play a doctor. But, as a
practical matter, that man moved the Sanka.
Connotation, Not Cont ent:
The most intriguing feature in the Robert Young Sanka commercial was
its ability to use the influence of the authority principle without ever
providing real authority. The appearance of authority was enough. This
tells us something important about un thinking reactions to authority
figures. When in a click, whirr mode, we are often as vulnerable to the
symbols of authority as to the substance. There are several kinds of
symbols that can reliably trigger our compliance in the absence of the
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57 extensively by those compliance professionals who are short on substance.
Con artists, for example, drape themselves with the titles, clothes, and
trappings of authority. They love nothing more than to em erge elegantly
dressed from a fine automobile and to introduce themselves to their
prospective ―mark‖ as Doctor or Judge or Professor or Commissioner
Someone. They understand that when they are so equipped, their chances
for compliance are greatly increase d. Each of these three types of symbols
of authority has its own story and is worth a separate look.
Titles:
Titles are simultaneously the most difficult and the easiest symbols of
authority to acquire. To earn one normally takes years of work and
achieve ment. Yet it is possible for somebody who has put in none of this
effort to adopt the mere label and receive a kind of automatic deference.
As we have seen, TV -commercial actors and con artists do it successfully
all the time.
Clothes:
A second kind of aut hority symbol that can trigger our mechanical
compliance is clothing. Though more tangible than a title, the cloak of
authority is every bit as fakable. Police bunco files bulge with records of
con artists whose artistry includes the quick change. In chame leon style,
they adopt the hospital white, priestly black, army green, or police blue
that the situation requires for maximum advantage. Only too late do their
victims realize that the garb of authority is hardly its guarantee. A series of
studies by socia l psychologist Leonard Bickman gives an indication of
how difficult it can be to resist requests that come from figures in
authority attire.
Trappings:
Aside from its function in uniforms, clothing can symbolize a more
generalized type of authority when i t serves an ornamental purpose. Finely
styled and expensive clothes carry an aura of status and position, as do
trappings such as jewellery and cars. The effect of such influence was
grossly underestimated. This property of authority status may account for
much of its success as a compliance device. Not only does it work
forcefully on us, but it also does so unexpectedly.
How To Say No:
One protective tactic we can use against authority status is to remove its
element of surprise. Because we typically mispe rceive the profound
impact of authority (and its symbols) on our actions, we are at the
disadvantage of being insufficiently cautious about its presence in
compliance situations. A fundamental form of defense against this
problem, therefore, is a heightene d awareness of authority power. When
this awareness is coupled with a recognition of how easily authority
symbols can be faked, the benefit will be a properly guarded approach to
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58 Generally, authority figur es know what they are talking about. Physicians,
judges, corporate executives, legislative leaders, and the like have
typically gained their positions because of superior knowledge and
judgment. Thus, as a rule, their directives offer excellent counsel. Th e
trick is to be able to recognize without much strain or vigilance when
authority promptings are best followed and when they should be resisted.
Posing one question to ourselves can help enormously to accomplish this
trick. when we are confronted with wha t appears to be an authority
figure’s influence attempt, ―Is this authority truly an expert?‖ The question
is helpful because it focuses our attention on a pair of crucial pieces of
information: the authority’s credentials and the relevance of those
creden tials to the topic at hand. By orienting in this simple way toward the
evidence for authority status, we can avoid the major pitfalls of automatic
deference.
4.2.4 Liking:
Simply stated, the social influence principle of liking is based on the fact
we ar e more likely to do things for people we know and like (Cialdini,
2001). Research has shown people tend to like those similar to them and
those who compliment them. Sales professionals are well aware of these
effects, and use compliments frequently and poi nt out similarities between
them and potential customers (Cialdini, 2001). In a social influence
experiment, Burger, Messian, Patel, del Prado and Anderson (2003)
demonstrated that bogus superficial similarities in names, birthdays and
fingerprint types re sulted in increased compliance with a request.
Identify with the target audience:
The liking principle suggests similarities between intervention agents
requesting behaviour change and targets should be emphasized whenever
possible. In addition, interven tions which make use of observational
learning should pick models who closely match the target audience. In a
study that used television modeling successfully to increase energy
conservation, Winett et al. (1985) noted they intentionally selected the
actor s, homes and scenes depicted in the programme to match specific
characteristics of the target audience.
Block -leader approach:
A second implication of the liking principle is the opinions and advice of
those we know and like to carry more weight than the advice of strangers.
The block - leader approach is an application of the liking principle for
behaviour -change intervention. Block leaders are members of a
community recruited to serve as intervention agents and encourage
programme participation in their neighbourhoods. Although there is no
way of knowing if block leaders are "'liked' by their fellow community
members, the fact they are members of the same neighbourhood
demonstrates a degree of similarity; and in close -knit communities, block
leaders are l ikely to know their neighbours. For examples of block -leader
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59 and others, recycling pleas delivered by block leaders were significantly
more effective than similar pleas delivered by ex perimenters.
How To Say No:
There are simply too many routes to be blocked effectively with such a
one-on-one strategy. Besides, several of the factors leading to liking —
physical attractiveness, familiarity, association —have been shown to work
unconsciou sly to produce their effects on us, making it unlikely that we
could muster a timely protection against them. Instead we need to consider
a general approach, one that can be applied to any of the liking -related
factors to neutralize their unwelcome influen ce on our compliance
decisions. The secret to such an approach may lie in its timing. Rather
than trying to recognize and prevent the action of liking factors before
they have a chance to work on us, we might be well advised to let them
work. Our vigilance should be directed not toward the things that may
produce undue liking for a compliance practitioner, but toward the fact
that undue liking has been produced. The time to react protectively is
when we feel ourselves liking the practitioner more than we sh ould under
the circumstances.
By concentrating our attention on the effect rather than the causes, we can
avoid the laborious, nearly impossible task of trying to detect and deflect
the many psychological influences on liking. Instead, we have to be
sensi tive to only one thing related to liking in our contacts with
compliance practitioners: the feeling that we have come to like the
practitioner more quickly or more deeply than we would have expected.
Once we notice this feeling, we will have been tipped of f that there is
probably some tactic being used, and we can start taking the necessary
countermeasures. We don’t attempt to restrain the influence of the factors
that cause liking. Quite the contrary. We allow these factors to exert their
force, and then w e use that force in our campaign against them. The
stronger the force, the more conspicuous it becomes and, consequently,
the more subject to our alerted defenses.The recognition of that feeling can
serve as our reminder to separate the dealer from the mer its of the deal and
to make our decision based on considerations related only to the latter.
4.2.5 Reciprocity:
Reciprocity reflects the norm that people should repay others for benefits
received from them. The reciprocity norm has been shown to exist in all
cultures, and is thought to facilitate social exchange and create a sense of
interdependence (Cialdini, 2001). Reciprocity -based strategies have also
been shown to be useful in increasing the return rates for mailed surveys.
Including a cash or cheque payment in advance often outperforms offers
of payment upon receipt of the survey (e.g., James & Bolstein, 1992).
Recent applied work has demonstrated restaurant staff can enhance their
tips by giving their customers sweets or writing a pleasant message o n the
back of their cheque (e.g., Strohmetz, Rind, Fisher & Lynn, 2002).
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60 Pre-behaviour rewards:
The reciprocity norm suggests offering a pre -behaviour reward
(antecedent) may be a useful alternative to conventional
incentive/rewards. An experiment by Bo yce and Geller (2001) compared
the effectiveness of a reciprocity -based strategy with conventional
rewards. The rewards were given to encourage participants to deliver
thank -you cards to people who helped others or performed
environmentally friendly behavi ours. Participants were given 30 cards and
asked to sign a commitment to distribute at least five cards weekly over a
five-week period. Participants who received a gift of an insulated travel
mug and T -shirt upon signing the commitment delivered significan tly
more cards over the five weeks (mean = 28 cards) than those who signed a
commitment and were promised the same gifts upon delivery of five cards
(mean = 16 cards).
Reciprocity prompts:
An experiment by Cialdini (2005) provides an example of the appli cation
of the reciprocity principle to behavioural prompts. The target behaviour
was reusing hotel room towels rather than discarding them on the floor to
be exchanged for clean ones. Instead of a message stating the hotel would
donate a portion of the mon ey saved from guests reusing their towels to
environmental causes, the message was changed to indicate donations to
environmental causes had already been made on behalf of the guests. The
message invoked reciprocity by inviting guests to help recover the e xpense
and help the environment by reusing their towels. The reciprocity -based
message resulted in a 47% towel - reuse rate, compared to a 36% reuse rate
for the message that promised future donation.
How To Say No:
With the proper understanding of the nat ure of our opponent, we can come
away from the compliance battlefield unhurt and sometimes even better
off than before. It is essential to recognize that the requester who invokes
the reciprocation rule (or any other weapon of influence) to gain our
compli ance is not the real opponent. Such a requester has chosen to
become a jiu jitsu warrior who aligns himself with the sweeping power of
reciprocation and then merely releases that power by providing a first
favor or concession. The real opponent is the rule . If we are not to be
abused by it, we must take steps to defuse its energy. It seems too
widespread to escape and too strong to overpower once it is activated.
Perhaps the answer, then, is to prevent its activation. Perhaps we can avoid
a confrontation wi th the rule by refusing to allow the requester to
commission its force against us in the first place. Perhaps by rejecting the
requester’s initial favor or concession to us, we can evade the problem.
Invariably declining the requester’s initial offer of a favor or sacrifice
works better in theory than in practice. The major problem is that when it
is first presented, it is difficult to know whether such an offer is honest or
whether it is the initial step in an exploitation attempt. If we always
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61 legitimate favors or concessions offered by individuals who had no
intention of exploiting the reciprocity rule.
4.2.6 Scarcity :
The principle of scarcity can be conceptually linked to the eco nomic
principle of supply and demand. The extent to which something is rare or
difficult to obtain serves as a heuristic to determine its perceived value.
According to Cialdini (2001), scarcity -based influence techniques gain
part of their power through ou r desire to have freedom of choice and avoid
loss. Cialdini describes numerous scarcity techniques used by advertisers
and salespeople, including one -day-only sales, limited supplies and high -
pressure sales techniques requiring customers to make an immedia te
decision to buy before a special price is withdrawn forever.
Avoid reactance:
Cialdini (2001) also relates reactance (Brehm. 1966) to the scarcity
principle. Reactance is the tendency of individuals to act in ways to re -
establish freedom when it becom es limited or threatened. In addition to
desiring items that are scarce, freedom becomes more desirable when it is
limited or threatened. . In the instance of the scarcity principle, that power
comes from two major sources. The first is familiar. Like the other
weapons of influence, the scarcity principle trades on our weakness for
shortcuts. The weakness is, as before, an enlightened one. In this case,
because we know that the things that are difficult to possess are typically
better than those that are ea sy to possess, we can often use an item’s
availability to help us quickly and correctly decide on its quality. Thus,
one reason for the potency of the scarcity principle is that, by following it,
we are usually and efficiently right.
In addition, there is a unique, secondary source of power within the
scarcity principle: As opportunities become less available, we lose
freedoms; and we hate to lose the freedoms we already have. This desire
to preserve our established prerogatives is the centerpiece of psycho logical
reactance theory, developed by psychologist Jack Brehm to explain the
human response to diminishing personal control. According to the theory,
whenever free choice is limited or threatened, the need to retain our
freedoms makes us desire them (as w ell as the goods and services
associated with them) significantly more than previously. So when
increasing scarcity —or anything else —interferes with our prior access to
some item, we will react against the interference by wanting and trying to
possess the item more than before. As simple as the kernel of the theory
seems, its shoots and roots curl extensively through much of the social
environment. From the garden of young love to the jungle of armed
revolution to the fruits of the marketplace, impressive a mounts of our
behavior can be explained by examining for the tendrils of psychological
reactance.
The realization that we value limited information allows us to apply the
scarcity principle to realms beyond material commodities. The principle
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62 perspective, we can see that information may not have to be censored for
us to value it more; it need only be scarce. According to the scarcity
principle, then, we will find a piece of information more persuasive if we
think we can’t get it elsewhere. This idea that exclusive information is
more persuasive information is central to the thinking of two
psychologists, Timothy Brock and Howard Fromkin, who have developed
a ―commodity theory‖ analysis of pe rsuasion.
Optimal Conditions:
Much like the other effective weapons of influence, the scarcity principle
is more effective at some times than at other times. An important practical
problem, then, is to find out when scarcity works best on us. A great deal
can be learned in this regard from an experiment devised by social
psychologist Stephen Worchel. The basic procedure used by Worchel and
his research team was simple: Participants in a consumer preference study
were given a chocolate -chip cookie from a jar and asked to taste and rate
its quality. For half of the raters, the jar contained ten cookies; for the
other half, it contained just two. As we might expect from the scarcity
principle, when the cookie was one of the only two available, it was rated
more favorably than when it was one of ten. The cookie in short supply
was rated as more desirable to eat in the future, more attractive as a
consumer item, and more costly than the identical cookie in abundant
supply. Although this pattern of results provides a rather striking
validation of the scarcity principle, it doesn’t tell us anything we don’t
already know. Once again, we see that a less -available item is more
desired and valued. The real worth of the cookie study comes from two
additional findings.
The first of these noteworthy results involved a small variation in the
experiment’s basic procedure. Rather than rating the cookies under
conditions of constant scarcity, some participants were first given a jar of
ten cookies that was then replaced by a ja r of two cookies. Thus, before
taking a bite, certain of the participants saw their abundant supply of
cookies reduced to a scarce supply. Other participants, however, knew
only scarcity of supply from the outset, since the number of cookies in
their jars was left at two. With this procedure, the researchers were
seeking to answer a question about types of scarcity: Do we value those
things that have recently become less available to us, or those things that
have always been scarce? In the cookie experiment , the answer was plain.
The drop from abundance to scarcity produced a decidedly more positive
reaction to the cookies than did constant scarcity. The idea that newly
experienced scarcity is the more powerful kind applies to situations well
beyond the boun ds of the cookie study. For example, social scientists have
determined that such scarcity is a primary cause of political turmoil and
violence .Perhaps the most prominent proponent of this argument is James
C. Davies, who states that we are most likely to find revolutions where a
period of improving economic and social conditions is followed by a
short, sharp reversal in those conditions.
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63 react to scarcity. We’ve already seen from the results of that study that
scarce cookies were rated higher than abundant cookies and that newly
scarce cookies were rated higher still. Staying with the newly scarce
cookies now, there was a certain cookie that was the highest rated of all:
those that bec ame less available because of a demand for them. Remember
that in the experiment the participants who experienced new scarcity had
been given a jar of ten cookies that was then replaced with a jar of only
two cookies. Actually, the researchers did this in one of two ways. To
certain participants, it was explained that some of their cookies had to be
given away to other raters to supply the demand for cookies in the study.
To another set of participants, it was explained that their number of
cookies had to b e reduced because the researcher had simply made a
mistake and given them the wrong jar initially. The results showed that
those whose cookies became scarce through the process of social demand
liked them significantly more than those whose cookies became scarce by
mistake.
In fact, the cookies made less available through social demand were rated
the most desirable of any in the study. This finding highlights the
importance of competition in the pursuit of limited resources. Not only do
we want the same ite m more when it is scarce, we want it most when we
are in competition for it. Advertisers often try to exploit this tendency in
us. In their ads, we learn that ―popular demand‖ for an item is so great that
we must ―hurry to buy,‖ or we see a crowd pressing against the doors of a
store before the start of a sale, or we watch a flock of hands quickly
deplete a supermarket shelf of a product. There is more to such images
than the idea of ordinary social proof. The message is not just that the
product is good be cause other people think so, but also that we are in
direct competition with those people for it.
How To Say No:
It is easy enough to feel properly warned against scarcity pressures, but it
is substantially more difficult to act on that warning. Part of th e problem is
that our typical reaction to scarcity hinders our ability to think. When we
watch something we want become less available, a physical agitation sets
in. Especially in those cases involving direct competition, the blood comes
up, the focus narr ows, and emotions rise.
If, because of brain -clouding arousal, we can’t rely on our knowledge
about the scarcity principle to stimulate properly cautious behavior,
perhaps, in fine jiu -jitsu style, we can use the arousal itself as our prime
cue. In this wa y, we can turn the enemy’s strength to our advantage.
Rather than relying on a considered, cognitive analysis of the entire
situation, we might simply tune ourselves to the internal, visceral sweep
for our warning. By learning to flag the experience of hei ghtening arousal
in a compliance situation, we can alert ourselves to the possibility of
scarcity tactics there and to the need for caution.
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64 But suppose we accomplish this trick of using the rising tide of arousal as
a signal to calm ourselves and to proc eed with care. After all, merely
recognizing that we ought to move carefully doesn’t tell us the direction in
which to move; it only provides the necessary context for a thoughtful
decision. Fortunately, there is information available on which we can base
thoughtful decisions about scarce items. It comes, once again, from the
chocolate -chip-cookie study, where the researchers uncovered something
that seems strange but rings true regarding scarcity: Even though the
scarce cookies were rated as significantly more desirable, they were not
rated as any better -tasting than the abundant cookies. So despite the
increased yearning that scarcity caused, it did not make the cookies taste
one whit better. Therein lies an important insight. The joy is not in
experiencin g a scarce commodity but in possessing it. It is important that
we not confuse the two.
Whenever we confront the scarcity pressures surrounding some item, we
must also confront the question of what it is we want from the item. If the
answer is that we want the thing for the social, economic, or psychological
benefits of possessing something rare, then, fine; scarcity pressures will
give us a good indication of how much we would want to pay for it —the
less available it is, the more valuable to us it will be. But very often we
don’t want a thing purely for the sake of owning it. We want it, instead,
for its utility value; we want to eat it or drink it or touch it or hear it or
drive it or otherwise use it. In such cases, it is vital to remember that
scarce thi ngs do not taste or feel or sound or ride or work any better
because of their limited availability. Although this is a simple point, it can
often escape us when we experience the heightened desirability that scarce
items naturally possess.
Should we find o urselves beset by scarcity pressures in a compliance
situation, then, our best response would occur in a two -stage sequence. As
soon as we feel the tide of emotional arousal that flows from scarcity
influences, we should use that rise in arousal as a signa l to stop short.
Panicky, feverish reactions have no place in wise compliance decisions.
We need to calm ourselves and regain a rational perspective. Once that is
done, we can move to the second stage by asking ourselves why we want
the item under consider ation. If the answer is that we want it primarily for
the purpose of owning it, then we should use its availability to help gauge
how much we want to spend for it. However, if the answer is that we want
it primarily for its function (that is, we want somet hing good to drive,
drink, eat, etc.), then we must remember that the item under consideration
will function equally well whether scarce or plentiful. Quite simply, we
need to recall that the scarce cookies didn’t taste any better.
4.3 SUMMARY In this ch apter, we have reviewed a variety of intervention techniques that
have been used successfully by behavior analysts and social psychologists.
We believe that integrating the strengths of applied behavior analysis (i.e.,
a focus on environmental determinants of behavior) and social psychology
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65 results in a powerful set of tools for large -scale behavior -change
intervention.
So, while living in society, we have had influences that directed o ur
behavior. With this chapter, we learn about all six influences: (1)
consistency, (2) social proof, (3) authority, (4) liking, (5) reciprocity, and
(6) scarcity, and study how we can recognize and effectively avoid them.
4.4 QUESTIONS A) Write Short Not es.
 Consistency
 Social proof
 Authority
 Liking
 Reciprocity
 Scarcity
4.5 REFERENCES  Cialdini, R. B. (1984). Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion
(Revised Edition).
 Cialdini, R. B., et al. (1975). Reciprocal Concessions Procedure for
Inducing Compliance: The Door -in-the-Face Technique. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 31, 206 –15.
 Steg, L., Bunk, A. P., & Rothengatter, T. (2008). Applied Social
Psychology: Understanding and Managing Social Problems.
Cambridge University.

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66 5
APPLYING SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY TO
DIVERSITY AND SOCIAL
POPULATIONS – I
Unit Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Welfare Measures Undertaken
5.3 The Scheduled Tribes
5.4 Tribal Exploration and Unrest
5.5 Tribal Problems
5.6 Scheduled Castes
5.7 Other Backward Caste Classes
5.8 The Reservation Policy
5.9 Minorities
5.9.1 Problems faced by minorities in India
5.10 Issues and Problems faced by Women in India
5.11 Summary
5.12 Questions
5.13 References
5.0 OBJECTIVES After reading this unit, you will be able to:
 Describe the Welfare Measures Undertaken
 Understand Tribal Problems.
 Explain the Issues and Problems faced by Women in India
5.1 INTRODUCTION The underprivileged people of India, especially the tribes, castes and
classes who have be en placed in a lower position by birth, must be
important targets for a government committed to democracy.
With the formation of the SC and STS Commission, a mechanism was
created to protect the interests of SC and STS. It has now been renamed as
National SC and STS Commission. It acts as an advisory body on issues
and policies related to the development of SC and ST. It includes experts
in social anthropology, social work and other social sciences. The main
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67  To study the extent and ramifications of untouchability and social
discrimination arising therefrom and effectiveness of the present
measures.
 To study socio -economic circumstances leading to the commission of
offense against persons belonging to SCs and STS.
 To take up studies on different aspects of development of SCs and
STS to ensure integration of these groups with the mainstream of the
society.
5.2 WELFARE MEASURES UNDERTAKEN The State Governments have separate departments to look after the
welfare of SCs and STs and Other Backward Classes. Their administrative
set-up, however, varies from state to state. A number of voluntary
organizations also promote the welfare of SCs and STs.The welfare of SCs
and STs has been given special attention in the Five Year Plans .
Some of the important centrally sponsored schemes are:
(1) Coaching and training for various competitive examinations (IAS,
IPS etc.) in order to improve the representation of SCs and STS in
various Services,
(2) Post-matric scholarships for providin g financial assistance for higher
education,
(3) Construction of hostels for providing Residential facilities to SC and
ST girls studying in schools, colleges and universities,
(4) Financial assistance to reputed social science research institutions
for research in development and problems of SCs and STs,
(5) Providing textbooks to SC and ST students of medical/ engineering
courses, and
(6) Scholarships and passage grants for higher education outside India
Besides the above measures to bring about t heir speedy development, the
Constitution has also provided for adequate representation in the
legislative organs at different levels as well as reservation in services and
educational institutions. The reservation is 15 % for the SCs and 75% for
the STs. This limit has been exceeded in several states. Though the
principle of separate electorate was not accepted but the constituencies are
earmarked from time to time from which persons belonging only to either
SCs or STS can seek election The number of reser ved seats reflects their
proportion in the population.
In government services, special quotas are allotted to them. The
reservations are not only confined to recruitments but they are also
extended to promotions for higher positions. To facilitate their a dequate
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68 the standards of suitability, relaxation of the qualification and experience,
have also been provided to them.
5.3 THE SCHEDULED TRIBES The Tribal Strength:
The tribal po pulation of India, according to the 1981 census, was 51.62
million It is estimated to have increased to 52 03 million in 1991. This is
almost equal to the population of the United Kingdom The tribals form
78% of the country's total population. India has th e second largest tribal
population in the world, only next to Africa. The tribes to India are spread
over the length and breadth of the country. They vary strength from a few
hundreds to several lakhs. About two -thirds of the total tribal population
of the country are found in the five states of Madhya Pradesh, Orissa,
Bihar, Gujarat and Maharashtra. There are three states (Rajasthan, West
Bengal, and Andhra Pradesh) where tribes with more than 20 Lakhs
population are found. There are five states and union territories where
tribes constitute 70% to 95% of the total population of the state/territory.
These are Mizoram, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh and
Tripura.
Some of the important features of the tribals are that most of them live in
isolated area , the main sources of their livelihood are agriculture and
gathering of forest products; they do not cultivate for profit ; they still
depend upon barter system, they spend a greater part of their earnings on
social and religious ceremonies; and a large num ber of them are illiterate
and are victimized by unscrupulous forest contractors and money -lenders .
5.4 TRIBAL EXPLORATION AND UNREST For ages, tribals were considered a primitive segment of Indian society.
They lived in forests and hills without having m ore than a casual contact
with the so -called civilized and advanced neighbors. Tribal unrest and
discontent, thus, may be described as the cumulative result of a number of
contributory factors.
The main factors were:
● Indifference, and lack of sympathy fro m administrators and
bureaucrats in dealing with tribal grievances Harshness of forest
laws and regulations
● Lack of legislation to prevent the passing of tribal lands into the hands
of non -tribals
● Lack of credit facilities.
● Inefficiency of government m easures to rehabilitate inner population
● Lack of interest and dynamism among the political elites to solve
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69 ● Delay in the implementation of recommendations made by high level
bodies
● Discrimination in implementation of reformatory measures. In short,
the causes of tribal unrest may be described as economic, social and
political.
5.5 TRIBAL PROBLEMS The main problems the tribal face are:
They possess uneconomic holdings because of which their crop yield is
less and hence they remain chron ically indebted. Only a small percentage
of the population participates in occupational activities in the secondary
and tertiary sectors.
 A good portion of the land in tribal areas has been legally transferred
to non -tribals. Tribals demand that this land should be returned to
them. In fact, the tribals had earlier enjoyed much freedom to use the
forest and hunt their animals: Forests not only provide them materials
to build their homes but also give them fuel, herbal medicines for
curing diseases, fruits, wild games, etc. Their religion makes them
believe that many of their spirits live in trees and forests. Their folk -
tales often speak about the relations of human beings and spirits.
Because of such physical and emotional attachment to forest, the
tribals have reacted sharply to restrictions imposed by the government
on their traditional rights.
 Tribal development programmes have not helped the tribals much in
raising their economic status. The British policy had led to ruthless
exploitation of the tribals in various ways as it favoured the
zamindars, landlords, money -lenders, forest contractors, and excise,
revenue and police officials.
 Banking facilities in the tribal areas are so inadequate that they have
mainly to depend on the money -lenders . The triba ls, therefore,
demand that Agricultural Indebtedness Relief Acts should be enacted
so that they may get back their mortgaged land.
 90% of the tribals are engaged in cultivation and most of them are
landless and practice shifting cultivation. They need to be helped in
adopting new methods of cultivation.
 The unemployed and the under -employed need to be helped in finding
secondary sources of earning by developing animal husbandry,
poultry farming, handloom weaving and the handicrafts sector.
 Most of them l ive in sparsely populated hills and communication in
the tribal areas remains tough, therefore, they need to be protected
from leading an isolated life. away from towns and cities, through the
network of new roads.
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70 areas, mass conversion to Christianity had taken place during the
Brush period. While the missionaries have been the pioneers in
education and opened hospitals in tribal areas, they have also been
responsible for alienating th e tribals from their culture.
In short, the main problems of the tribals are poverty, indebtedness, -
illiteracy, bondage, exploitation, disease and unemployment.
Tribal Struggles:
After Independence, the tribal struggles may be classified into three
groups · (1) struggles due to exploitation of outsiders (like those of the
Santhals and the Mundas), (2) struggles due to economic deprivation (like
those of the Gonds in Madhya Pradesh and the Mahars in Andhra
Pradesh), and (3) struggles due to separatist t endencies (like those of the
Nagas and Mizos)
The tribal movements may also be classified on the basis of their
orientation into four types (1) Movements seeking political autonomy and
formation of a state (Nagas, Mizos, Jharkhand), (2) Agrarian movements ,
(3) Forest -based movements, and (4) Socio -religious or socio -cultural
movements) the Bhagat movement. When the law does not help them, the
government remains callous, and the police fails to protect them and
harasses them, they take up arms against the e xploiters These struggles
and movements indicate that the tribals adopted two paths of achieving
goals: (a) non -violent path of bargaining and negotiating with the
government and using a variety of pressure struggles without resorting to
violence/revolutio n, and (b) militant path of revolution or mass struggle
based on developing the fighting power of the exploited/oppressed tribal
strata The consequences of both these paths are different. One indicates
struggle oriented to reforms, while the other indicate s structural
transformation of the community. The fact that tribals continue to suffer
from problems and also continue to feel discontented and deprived points
out that both the paths have not helped them to achieve their goals.
5.6 SCHEDULED CASTES Literacy among the Scheduled Caste people is extremely low. It was only
12.4% in 1981 as against the all India average of 41.3% (excluding SCs
and STs). Most of them live below the poverty line and are the victims of
social and economic exploitation. In theory , untouchability might have
been abolished but in practice, Scheduled Caste people continue to be the
subject of discrimination.
Development Strategies for the Scheduled Castes:
A comprehensive three -pronged strategy was evolved for the development
of th e Scheduled Castes during the Sixth Five Year Plan (1980 -85). This
was a combination of three schemes (1) Special Component Plans (SCPs)
of the central ministries and state governments, (11) Special Central
Assistance (SCA) to SCPs for the SCs of the state s, and (m) Scheduled
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71 The SCPs envisage identification of schemes of development which would
benefit SCs, quantification of funds from all divisible programmes, and
determination of specific targets as to the number of families to be
benefited from these programmes. The overall objective is to assist SC
families to substantially improve their income. The provision of basic
services and facilities and of access to opportunities for social and
educational development are also to be brought under the purview of the
SCPs. During the Sixth Five Year Plan (1980 -85), Rs. 4,481 crore were
earmarked for the SCPS Up to 1990, only eight central ministries had
formulated the SCPs for the Scheduled Castes.
The Schedu led Caste Development Corporations (SCDCs) in the states are
envisaged to interface between the Scheduled Caste families and financial
institutions in respect of bankable schemes of economic development. The
corporations provide money, loan assistance to t hese families, thereby
helping to increase the flow of funds from financial institutions to
Scheduled Caste families. The corporations have been set up in 18 states
and three union territories. Grants are given by the Central Government to
the State Govern ments for investment in the share capital of the
corporations in the ratio of 49:51. For example, when during 1980 -81 and
1989 -90, the State Governments' contribution in each year had varied
between Rs. 140 million and Rs. 190 million, the amount released by the
Centre to the corporations in each year had varied between Rs. 130 million
and Rs. 150 million each year.
The corporations provide loans up to Rs. 12,000. Besides arranging
financial assistance for traditional occupations like agriculture, animal
husbandry and household industry, the corporations also arrange for
diversification of occupations such as financing of small shops, industries,
auto-rickshaws and many other trades and professions. Some corporations
arrange for immigration facilities too l ike digging wells and tube -wells.
Some of them also impart training to enable the beneficiaries to take up
profitable occupations or to improve their existing skills .
Sulabh Sauchalaya Schemes have been launched in several states for
converting dry latrin es into water -bomb latrines in order to liberate
scavengers and rehabilitate them in alternative occupations.
5.7 OTHER BACKWARD CASTE CLASSES The reservation for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes was
provided in the Indian Constitution framed af ter Independence but the
reservation for other backward castes classes was announced by the Janata
Dal Government only on August 7, 1990 As many as 276 seats were
proposed to be reserved for 3,742 other backward caste/classes This
Commission submitted its report on December 31, 1980. It was discussed
by both Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha in 1982 and thereafter the matter was
remitted to a Committee of Secretaries for examination. The matter was
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72 The government's decision to implement the Mandal Commission report
on reservations for the backward castes provoked widespread resentment
among students Spontaneous agitations erupted all over the country. Most
families endure hardship and sac rifice to educate their children. Most
students arc haunted by the nightmare of unemployment or of
underemployment. In such a situation the government's 'electoral decision
to reserve jobs on the basis of caste for an additional 27.0% to the existing
quota of reservation of 22 5% for SCs and STs, was bound to create
frustrations among the youth
Earlier, the Minorities Commission headed by M.S. Beg in the report had
cautioned against granting recognition to backward classes as
recommended by the Mandal Comm ission.
5.8 THE RESERVATION POLICY The demand for special concessions and privileges to the under - privileged
are matters of night and not of charity or philanthropy. All the
commissions and the committees that have examined this issue, like the
Miller C ommittee appointed by the erstwhile Mysore State or the Kalelkar
Commission appointed in 1955 by the Government of India, have
accepted the need for compensatory discrimination. Some of the courts
also in hearing the cases that have come up before them hav e examined
the issue. One Hon'ble Judge pointed out that the reservation policy has
generated a spirit of self -denigration, each caste and community
competing to be more backward than others. In another case, the former
Chief Justice of the Supreme Court ( Shri Chandrachud) had recommended
that the reservation policy should be reviewed every five years so that the
state can rectify distortions and the people -both backward and non -
backward -can ventilate their views in public debates on the practical
impact of the reservation policy.
The first argument is that reservation in educational institutions and
government jobs, by themselves, cannot achieve much. In fact, if extended
to larger sections of the population, they can be counter Productive ton
(S.C. Dube: S eptember, 1990) At best, reservations are palliatives and no
decisive transformations can take place unless such a measure is
accompanied by structural changes in the nation's production relations,
and most crucially, until land reforms become a reality, a nd educational
support systems are so buttressed that candidates from any social groups
are available for higher level jobs.
The second argument is that our country is already divided into various
groups. Reservation will further divide the population art ificially. Earlier,
reservations were accepted under special conditions for a period of fifteen
years only but continuing them forever will produce vested interests and
separatism, and will lead to a caste -war and the disintegration of the
country. Sometim es back, it was ordered that caste will not be mentioned
in applications for jobs.
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73 The third argument is that when the reservation policy was implemented
after Independence, there were only a few SC and ST people in the
administrative set -up. Later on, S hri Jagjivan Ram introduced reservations
even in promotions when he was the Railway Minister, so that the
superiors were passed over by their subordinates belonging to SCs and
STs. This not only politicized the civil services but also affected the
efficien cy of the administration. It is time that the beneficiaries and society
should give up reservations. The society should immediately think of
bringing about conditions where all jobs and admissions are decided only
on ment in an open competition, in which a ll aspirants are assured of a fair
chance.
The fourth argument is that our experience in the last 43 years has shown
that the reservation policy has not delivered the desired results. The
reservations have also generated conflicts and tensions.
There is a nother school of thought which favours reservations. The
supporters of this school maintain that there is a wide gulf between the
social order that the people of India were promised by a political party led
by Gandhiji and the one that has actually been es tablished since
Independence. The oppression of the weaker section of society (including
lower and backward castes and tribes) by the stranger (upper castes)
section has not ended. In fact, it has been aggravated. A new era of social
justice and equality s till remains a dream to be achieved. The English -
speaking educated middle class has come to control and operate levers of
state power. It has emerged as the ruling class of the country. By accepting
the reservation policy, the government will only be worki ng for the
establishment of a new social order that would secure to the
underprivileged sectors of our society, justice in social relations and
equality of opportunity to rise in social scale.
The two institutions of democracy and planning were expected t o serve as
instruments for building a new India. But they failed to produce the
intended results. For this failure, it is not the institutions Themselves
which are to be blamed, it is the way they have worked, or the way their
working has been distorted by those in power. It was because of the vested
interest of the middle -class upper caste which is the ruling elite that our
country has a dualistic pattern of growth in which those with access to the
holders of power flourish and the population at the lower level (socially
and economically) is denied all the tangible gains from the development
process.
Whatever may be the theoretical arguments against the reservation policy,
in practice reservation policy will continue to be supported by all political
parties because of the electoral advantage they derive from this issue. The
vote banks are more important to them than the future of the country.
What are the youth and the students to do then? One alternative is that
instead of raising the issue of forward vers us backward castes, they should
raise the issue of vested interests of the political parties and leaders versus
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74 compromise on quality and efficiency. Third, they have to take the
students/youth of the backward classes with their on this issue and be able
to convince them of their stance.
If Weaker sections in India are to rise in revolt because they feel that only
violence permits their voice to be heard,the nation will have to p ay a very
heavy price for this. Our government and our people have to give these
docile people the chance of a fair deal to live with honour and self -respect.
Similarly, little will be achieved by a debate on the pros and cons of
reservations. It will only aggravate the problem and lead to the
fragmentation of the country.
5.9 MINORITIES The Indian socio -economic fabric is very complex because it is greatly
affected by caste, religion, and, furthermore, regional/linguistic
differentials. At the same time, t he Indian economic, social, and political
institutions that have persisted for centuries have a historical basis. These
factors have given a unique character to Indian society. It has become a
conglomeration of various layers and segments, divided and subd ivided.
5.9.1 Problems faced by minorities in India
Problem of Identity:
a)Due to variations in socio -cultural practices, history, and backgrounds,
minorities often contend with the challenge of defining their identity.
b)This, in turn, leads to difficul ties in adjusting to the majority
community.
Problem of Security:
a) Different identities and their small number relative to the rest of the
society develop feelings of insecurity about their life, assets and well -
being. b) This sense of insecurity may get accentuated at times when
relations between the majority and the minority communities in a society
are strained or not very cordial.
Problem Relating to Equity:
a) The minority community in a society may remain deprived of the
benefit of opportunities o f development as a result of discrimination. b)
Because of the difference in identity, the minority community develops
the perception of the sense of inequity .
Problem of Communal Tensions and Riots:
a) Communal tensions and riots have been incessantly in creasing since
independence. b) Whenever the communal tensions and riots take place
for whatever reason, minority interests get threatened
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75 Lack of Representation in Civil Service and Politics:
a) The Constitution provides for equality and equal opportu nities to all its
citizens including the religious minorities b) the biggest minority
community, that is, Muslims have a feeling among them that they are
neglected c) However, such a feeling does not seem to exist among the
other religious minority communi ties such as the Christians, Sikhs, Jains
and Buddhists, for they seem to be economically and educationally better
than the majority community.
Failure to Stick on Strictly to Secularism:
a) India has declared itself as a secular country. b) But in actu al practice
there is a lack of commitment to secularism, purely religious issues are
often politicized by these parties.
5.10 ISSUES AND PROBLEMS FACED BY WOMEN IN INDIA This is a long challenge women face today for an in -depth understanding
in clear word s and simple language that can be of help to every student
who intends to gain knowledge on this subject.
Our country India very proudly claims to be living in the motherland and
worship various woman deities and goddesses but the dire concern of this
is women sadly do not get the same respect and equal status.
Even while living in the country with the largest democracy in the world,
the women in India fight a fight much harder than a man can even
conceive it to be. Indian women's problems are not just li mited to social
rights, the problems are widespread even in workplaces and homes. The
problems are infinite and are only rising by the day, let us understand
some of them.
The problems that the generation that came much before us faced included
sati-pract ice which is when a woman is set on fire because when her
husband dies she cannot be safe in a society. The sati practice has been
banned and even after many governments have changed the cruelty
towards women has not faded. The sad part is, it has taken va rious
gruesome forms that affect women physically, mentally and socially.
Problems Faced by Women on a Societal Level:
The main problem that lies in society is the rules set for women, about
conduct and behaviour. Some of them are problematic as a woman c annot
step out at night without a man, this subconsciously is only promoting the
idea that women are unsafe, and due to this in many homes in India, the
families treat the girls differently than boys.
Gender roles are set, how a woman speaks, dresses and c hooses a way to
live her life is also decided by someone who is not a woman but still
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76 women are expected to abide by, they must be accommodating, they
should always compromise even when t hey are in an unhappy and unsafe
environment there is no safe place for women to seek help, and they
should learn all the domestic chores.
The consequences of all these rules are increased rapes, sexual
harassment, subjection to child marriage, women are better than their per
cent of marital rape and when a woman speaks up against any harassment
as an act of revenge the harasser throws acid on her. Young girls go
missing due to child trafficking and are forced to grow up in a harsher
environment that can e ven be life -threatening. Needless to mention,
women are being harassed in public places by bullying, remarking
indecently, intimidating their human dignity and eve -teasing.
The problem of dowry, where the girl’s family has to give a large amount
to the g room’s family, is an age -old and regressive problem that still
prevails. Due to the inability of providing dowry, many families abandon
the girl child and female foeticide is at an all -time high. Most girls in rural
areas are also killed by their own famil ies in the name of honour and
reputation being hampered when she chooses to marry according to her
own will. The honour killing practice is so prevalent and there are no
safety rules that protect women.
Beauty is becoming a problem for women, and so is co mplexion. Fair
looking women, especially from lower castes and religions, are not
acceptable. This has resulted in acid attacks and deprivation of good food,
diet, and lifestyle to look less beautiful and darker than the privileged
women of their social cl ass.
Tribal women are beaten to death for witchcraft, an accusation against
women who do not cooperate or are incompetent for gratifying men’s
needs. Similarly, in villages and rich families, women are tortured for not
begetting sons for the family. So th e female child is killed, which is
female foeticide. Having a girl child is considered a curse for the girl child
will leave the family and learn the practices of another family while a boy
child is expected to carry on the family practices.
Women who bec ome widows and divorcees feel low in society and are
deprived of job opportunities with unmarried women. Besides, these
women are exploited and abused for auspices; and are not allowed to
participate or enjoy functions and holidays.
Using a girl child as a sacrifice to temples results in the prostitution of
those women and their exploitation by men and authorities. This practice
resulted in the devadasi system.
Women are not allowed to have self -respect, efficiency, personality,
individuality capacity and talent. They are blamed on their mental health,
and their parents are humiliated and harassed for growing up self -made
women who can empower others. They are not allowed to take leadership
roles and make futuristic policies. Similarly, if women are ground -
breaking or discoveries are hidden and given less importance, they are not
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77 Pathetic is the plight of women in the media and modeling or fashion
world. They are exploited for beauty and misrepresented, en couraging
taboo practices and biased toward products and jobs.
Women's health and wellbeing taking secondary place by practice is a
social evil, especially when they go out for jobs to bear the economic
burden of the household. They should be allowed to e at well, go to the
gym, and have a good physical appearance on par with men, indicating
good health.
Psychiatric counseling to pregnant women and postpartum women should
be encouraged rather than abusing them for hormonal problems. They
should be able to manage emotions on par with men. Women should be
helped even when they do not cry and shed tears or shout or die fighting
back in times of need but can follow procedures, stay calm and ask for a
proper protocol to take action.
According to reports, 75 per cent of women live in homes where their
husbands beat them and abuse them; domestic violence has no limits. The
health of a woman is also neglected, poor medical care has put many
women’s lives in danger.
Problems faced by Women at Schools and Workplace:
Firstly, there are not enough schools especially for girls in rural areas. As
women reach puberty their freedom and right to education are snatched
away and they are prohibited from going to school. Due to a lack of proper
sanitation facilities, many women unwillingly drop out of school. Even
after a woman gains an education and a degree and enters the workplace,
the problems and issues do not stop. At most workplaces be it corporate or
even in a government office, the power play dynamic is exploited. Many
male superiors take advantage of their juniors and harass them for pleasure
and engage in unlawful activities.
Financial exclusion, the women are not considered when deciding the pay.
The women’s contribution at the workplace is underestimated and they are
paid far lesser than their male colleagues. The women in powerful
positions are also pulled down bypassing negative comments. Lack of
women representation in every field creates a void in society and a nation
does not progress.
Sexual exploitation at the workplace has been a concern and the me -too
movement proved it occurs in every stratum. Women are not elected to be
in power and decision making roles because they claim men are threatened
by women bosses. The woman's progress in a company is not judged by
her potential.
Some Ways to Tackle the Issues and Problems Faced by Women:
Raising your voice against the horrendous crime of child marriage and
sexual harassment, and try to challenge such events and do your best to
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78 practice these. Making education gender -sensitive can be a very positive
first step towards giving girls equal rights and opportunities in society. It
can be done by ensuring that the school textbooks promote positive
stereotypes, have information about women leaders and activities that can
bridge the gap between men and women.
When you talk to more women and girls, you will truly understand the
problems they face at a grassroots level and then steps can be taken in
strides to improve their standing in society. It is very important to
empower mothers, provide them with knowledge and real -life examples
about how education can be life -changing. Only then they will raise an
educated family and not deprive their girl child of this boon that education
is.
Only education is not important, it is also crucial to raise the aspirations of
girls and their parents by giving them proof of what education can lead to.
Education can create powerful and independent women who live life
according to their choice whether they choose to be professional or not is
up to them. They should be given equal opportunity and encouraged to use
opportunities without hesitation.
The important step can be to give proper value to 'women's work'. When
the superiors appreciate somebody’s work the gender should not come into
play and only the work must be judged, only then discrimination at the
workplace can be stopped. It is high time to get women into power, when
women are in decision making roles they can make better decisions about
what will run a society smoothly because they are sensitive and
understand a woman’s life, the problems she faces and the perspective.
Not depriving girls of progress and knowledge and letting girls make use
of technology so that they are connected to the world and they can utilize
opportunities for themselves is a win for themselves and the nation as
well. Volunteering in an organisation that pledges to work for women
safety and growth, since there are organisations that req uire funds and
support as they provide a safe home to women who have gone through
traumatic experiences.
One can start a fundraiser and raise money to help the people who are
going through the problems and contribute to such causes. Attending
marches and p rotests and claiming public attention attracted a lot of
attention that can certainly drive change in the right direction.
Safety should be a point of concern and ensured at all levels be it on the
roads, at night, at home and the workplace and laws must be implemented
to protect the women of our country. More laws and implementing those
laws to practice is essential, especially women employed in such services
must be honed to think according to the need for implementing these
policies.
The Prevention of Sexual Harassment at the Workplace (POSH) Act is the
primary legislation that lays down the guidelines against sexual
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79 implemented properly in the workplace. Cases should not be crafted, and
women must not be made a scapegoat for showing numbers by corporate
companies to claim themselves as a women -friendly organisation. Paid
leave for menstruation teaches men not to mistreat women for periods
when they go down a little low on energy and feel t ired, reducing
productivity. Women should be encouraged to have good food and a
lifestyle.
5.11 SUMMARY Scheduled Castes, Other Backward Classes, Tribes, and minorities face
different issues, many of which we have discussed in this chapter. Women
also enc ounter numerous challenges in their lives. Women are often
considered more compassionate and empathetic than men, but
unfortunately, these qualities are sometimes perceived as signs of
weakness. Men must realize that patriarchy and ego are not beneficial t o
women and do not serve their interests either. It's crucial to encourage
young girls to speak up if they encounter any issues without fear. Equality
in work contribution and pay should be the norm, and at home, men must
also contribute to domestic chores . While there is still a long way to go,
taking a step together can lead to progress. In short, equality is important,
and there should be guidelines in every sector for treating everyone
equally.
5.12 QUESTIONS A) Write Down Short Notes
 Tribal Struggles
 The Reservation Policy
 Problems faced by minorities in India
 Problems Faced by Women on a Societal Level
5.13 REFERENCE  Ahuja, R. Social Problems in India (2nd ed.). Rawat Publications.

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80 6
APPLYING SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY TO
DIVERSITY AND SOCIAL
POPULATIONS – II
Unit Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Immigrants and host societies challenges and interventions
6.3 Migrant grant integration within host community
6.4 Diversity of migrants and host community Positive and Negative)
6.5 Social cohesion between migrants and host community
6.6 Strategic interventions to social cohesion and migrant integration
6.7 Psychosocial challenges and intervention strategies for orphans and
street children
6.8 Approaches in Dealing with Street Children
6.9 Orphan children
6.10 Disability – Understanding the concept and rehabilitation
6.10.1 Rehabilitation
6.10.2 Provision of aids and appliance
6.11 Summary
6.12 Questions
6.13 References
6.0 OBJECTIVES After reading this unit, you will be able to:
 Describe Migrant Integration within host community.
 Understand orphans and street children, prosocial problems.
 Explain rehabilitation.
6.1 INTRODUCTION The decision to migrate is often accomp anied by several preconceived
expectations, especially that of acceptance by hosts, but with forced
migration, the decision is often abrupt, to escape death, famine, and many
other fatal conditions (Haug, 2008). The duration it takes a migrant to
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81 with the society. Some migrants tend to adjust sooner than others, through
social interaction and engagement in economic activities (Botero,
Weissing, Wright, & Rubenstein, 2015). However, not all migrants are
warmly received by the host communities or are allowed to enjoy similar
privileges with members of the host communities. In such instances,
migrants become segregated amongst the host population or marginalized
from economic activities, es pecially if they are refugees. Most host
communities are not receptive towards refugees, for fear of losing scarce
and valuable resources, such as land (Ediev, Coleman, & Scherbov, 2014).
According to the Women's Refugees Commission (WRC), the urban
refuge e community of Kampala is divided into two wealth groups;
"vulnerable households" and "struggling households". Uganda allocated
plots of land in rural areas to refugees for Agriculture, in line with the
Refugee Law Project (2005). However, the authorities controlled the
movements of refugees leaving the camps. Movement out of the camp was
restricted to those seeking medical attention in Kampala, security
concerns, pending resettlement or proven self -sufficiency. Since 2006, the
government has allowed only f ew refugees leave the rural settlements
(Urban Refugees Organization, 2017). This has created a favorable living
condition for refugees, where they can earn an income as well as remit
funds to the families left behind. Most of the refugees have made enough
money to relocate to urban areas such as Kampala, whereas, some
refugees migrate to Kampala to seek employment opportunities or engage
in informal trade. Majority of these refugees reside in informal settlements
in Kampala, where they contribute to the ri se in urban poverty and the
swelling of slum population. According to the UN data, 2010, children of
poor refugees residing in Kampala, are not registered in schools, due to the
high school fees (Dryden -Peterson, 2006).
Migrants tend to display diverse cul tures within the host communities.
Countries that attract migrants from several geographical regions tend to
enjoy a myriad of cultures that enriches the society, although not all
cultures are accepted by the host communities. Some cultural practices are
considered extreme and inhuman, as such the migrants are mistreated.
Notwithstanding the negative impacts of migration on host populations,
there are some instances where the host population benefit immensely
from the migrants through cultural assimilation and induction of new
economic practices (Skeldon, 2001). Social cohesion is induced by certain
values such as trust, equity and respect. However, these elements are not
always present in every situation. Some societies display cohesive
tendencies for a lim ited period, while pursuing a common agenda and
disperse as soon as they meet those objectives. Most of the ethnic groups
united to force the colonial administrators out of power, to gain
independence. Following independence, they retracted to their ethnic
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82 6.2 IMMIGRANTS AND HOST SOCIETIES CHALLENGES AND INTERVENTIONS Migration is the movement of people from their original habitat to a
destination outside the border s of their origin, purposely to settle and can
be voluntary or forced. The consequences of migration are usually not
predetermined, due to various stages of uncertainty that may arise, to deter
the motive of the migrant to relocate. Migrants are often face d with
challenges of being accepted by host communities, hence the difficulties
in communal integration, harmonious living, commerce, cultural practices,
religious beliefs, language barriers, agricultural practices, economic
activities, social integration, and others. Invariably, conflict between host
communities and migrants distorts social cohesion and other forms of
societal decadence. In other cases, migrants contribute significantly to
Regional Economic Integration, whereby the migrants are the agents of
economic diversity through cross -border trade activities. There are also
positive benefits of hosting migrants. Cross -border trade contributes to the
Gross Domestic Product of the host state, as well as improving the social
and cultural relations betwee n the migrants and the hosts. However, there
are some drawbacks like human trafficking, smuggling of contraband,
proliferation of small arms and light weapons and narcotic trafficking. It is
widely argued, criminal organizations operating in the region are mostly
residing in border communities, where mobility is not a hindrance to their
escape when they operate between two countries.
It is often argued that when countries cooperate economically, they are
less likely to engage in conflict, suggesting that i mmigrants are
ambassadors of peace, promote good neighborliness and strengthen
regional integration. The business integration objective of the East African
Community (EAC) has encouraged economic migration in the region,
giving migrants the opportunity to expand their businesses across borders,
creating new jobs for host communities and improving social cohesion
between migrants and their hosts. The driving force of economic
integration is the development of the atmosphere of national market
integration and the improvement of socio -cultural relations. Both
programs are run by immigrants. However, forced migrants may not
participate in the host community as much as volunteers because of the
psychological impact of war on their productive capacity and because they
lack access to the resources of the host country. Both voluntary and forced
migrants contribute to the cultural diversity of host communities through
social interactions that can be accepted or rejected. Therefore, their
relationship can be a catalyst for development or conflict. Intercultural
relations can lead to racist or xenophobic attacks, especially when
opposing ideologies are consistent in the lifestyles of migrants of different
races, such as among Somali migrants who have settled in different
countries. When both immigrants and hosts are of the same race, the
hatred is considered xenophobic. South Africa is an example of a country
that experiences xenophobia and racism at the same time. The white and
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83 resources, while the black races of South Africa are also in conflict with
other African immigrants, an example of xenophobia. Kenya is a clear
example of racism, xenophobia, intolerance, social cohesion, integration
and diversity . When Kenya began to develop the railway, the Indians
entered into an agreement to build and maintain the network, marking
their settlement on the land. These railway workers became Kenyan
citizens and became the largest non -African community. However, th eir
compromise created racism that prevails in their relations with other races
to this day. Kenyans were also xenophobic towards other Africans,
especially the Somalis who ruled the northeast of the country.
The diverse ethnic groups exhibit intolerance b etween them which has
hindered the prospect of nationalism after its demise, after independence.
Intolerance is widely displayed among in -migrants when they are either in
transit or converge with other tribes in urban cities.
6.3 MIGRANT INTEGRATION WITHI N HOST COMMUNITY Assimilation:
The decision to cross an international boundary for the purpose of
relocation, presents various opportunities as well as challenges. The
foremost challenge a migrant encounter is culture shock, which is often
caused by initi al physical experience on arrival at destination. The culture
of host communities often differs from that of the migrant, hence the
difficulties in adapting to the language, religion, values and lifestyle
choices of the host community. The challenges in as similation are
experienced by both host and migrants. The hosts may not easily
comprehend the culture of the migrant, hence the resistance in
accommodating migrants, especially refugees (Whitaker, 2015).
In the case of refugees, they are escaping volatile conditions and do not
choose where they relocate, as such, they have no predetermined
expectations or preparedness while crossing international borders (Gibney,
2015). They suffer mental stability, therefore their assumptions,
expectations as well as the outcomes of their residence within host
communities are new experiences. Some refugees, however are inflicted
with psychological trauma, due to conflicts in their home countries.
Therefore, are withdrawn, hence, not sociable on arrival at the host
communit y (Familiar, Hall, Bundervoet, Verwimp, & Bass, 2016). For
example, former child militants, who have been forced to kill close
relatives to qualify for recruitment in the militia as evident in Sierra Leone
Civil War (1991 -2002)3. After the war, these child militants crossed the
border to join their relatives in neighboring countries without going
through any rehabilitation or demobilization and disarmament program
(Derluyn, Vindevogel, & De Haene, 2013). They resumed civilian life
with a distorted mindset, which reflects on their relative capacities with
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84 while settling down in host communities, due to mental and physical
injuries sustained from rape during conflicts in their countries (Kohl i, et
al., 2014). These human right violations, destroy the productive capacity
of refugee women in host communities, due to injuries sustained from
rape, such as damaged uterus (Benshoof, 2014). In addition, men from
those communities marry outside their community, and therefore not
extend their lineage in the host communities (Clark, 2014). The perceived
motive behind rape is to ensure the victims are not capable of
reproduction, and never willing to return to their homeland, due to fear,
trauma and stigm a. This implies that the militants’ objective of rape was to
control population growth through rape. This in fact is an act of genocide
and a gross human right violation (Chapleau & Oswald, 2013). Despite
international conventions against rape, militia gro ups as well as the South
Sudan military consistently violate the provisions of international law.
Employment:
Opportunities Migrants have very high expectations that may not be
fulfilled at destination, hence, the disappointment and frustrations that
ensue (Creighton, 2013). The first expectation of a migrant is to secure a
meaningful job for immediate sustenance while they seek more
sustainable opportunities. Migrants often consider the probability of
finding employment in the host country overlooking po tential barriers that
may prevent access to the jobs they desire. They often ignore an
assessment of the nature of the labor market before migrating. Some
labour markets do not permit migrants, due to the limitations that exist,
such as an overwhelming lab our market, limited vacancies and
government restrictions. Migrants are usually not permitted to work with
their visitors’ visa in many countries, which is a reason for migrant
engagement in criminal activities, as a resolve to generating income for
themse lves and for the families left behind (Menjívar & Lakhani, 2016).
Existing immigration policies at country level would have to be reviewed
and where necessary revised, especially countries that attract labour
migrants. This review will not only reduce the chances of migrants
becoming undocumented and working with the risk of being deported, but
will also endeavor to respect international obligations such as the United
Nations 2030 Agenda Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) through its
Member States. It aim s to create conditions for sustainable, inclusive and
sustainable economic growth, shared prosperity and decent work for all,
importantly identifies migrants as vulnerable people who must be
empowered and whose needs are reflected in the Agenda to end pove rty in
all its forms everywhere, protect labour rights and promotions of safe and
secure working environments for all workers, including migrant workers,
in particular women migrants, and those in precarious employment with
special attention on forced and child labour. The UN Member States also
agreed to ensure that all migrants will be allowed to move safely and
responsibly (Colglazier, 2015).
Unsafe migration distorts social and economic development and often
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85 at origin, where they are recruited for several informal labours in other
countries. Their ignorance to international norms leave them vulnerable to
the traffickers. Discussions at a global level have already begun through
the Global Compact on Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration through
regional consultations to outline some of the key issues to be considered.
An example is the trafficking of teenage girls from Benin Kingdom of Edo
State Nigeria to Lomé, Togo. The trafficke rs take the young girls through
the West African borders to the Republic of Togo for orientation, which
includes practicing prostitution. They are held there for several months
until a host in Italy or France is prepared to receive them (John & Faith,
2015 ). Women and girls make up the majority of migrants globally, as a
result of the discriminations they face in their country of origin (Gallagher,
2015).Patriarchal perceptions borne to the societies where these women
reside generate expected roles and resp onsibilities by gender with women
playing a more private role and men a public role. These perceptions of
African women playing traditional homemaker roles have been challenged
through feminist movements from the developed countries, which assume
that this situation as enslavement and thus initiate programs to enlighten
African women and their community to be self -sufficient and independent
of men in the society (Allen, 2016). African women have been able to
participate in employment and become self -suffici ent as they contribute to
the household economy while at the same time taking care of the home by
recruitment house helps. This has often resulted in tensions between
husband and wife as two divergent views on gender roles within the
household and in the p ublic sphere would lead to broken households
(Yoon, et al., 2015). Those female migrants that play a more traditional
role within the household would experience difficulties socializing with a
host community where women contribute to the household economy and
are self -sufficient. They are bound by culture to remain at home, therefore
limiting their exposure to the host community which may lead to
alienation due to cultural differences. Their contribution to development is
often indirect, as they have transf erred the culture of not working in
public, hence, they neither generate revenue nor pay income taxes.
However, many have argued that their contribution to the home can be
quantified and assessed for productivity and societal development. The
home is consi dered a fragment of the society, therefore if the home is not
in order, the entire members would be considered to be living in chaos.
The chaotic living conditions are not favorable to the mental health of
those members of the family who contribute to publ ic development. And
as migrant families, they will be inconsistent at work, which may lead to
losing their jobs (Abdi, 2014).
Housing:
Housing is usually a major concern for migrants in terms of finding the
right neighborhood that is safe for their famili es, affordable with good
transport links. Major cities which are primarily destinations for internal
and international migrants offer different types of housing depending on
affordability. Those migrants that are financially constrained, often seek
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Social Problems Skills And Intervention
86 mostly affordable. The increased slum population impacts on available
infrastructure, such as sewage, water supply, medical services and
sanitation services. These services are in short supply to informal
settlements, due to the unplanned and unstructured living situations within
informal settlements that do not meet required standards of the city
council (Mberu, Ezeh, Chepngeno -Langat, Kimani, & Oti, 2013).
Refugees are not privileged to enjoy si milar benefits as other migrants,
who have a choice to where they reside. Refugees are settled in host
communities determined by the government where they have access to
social services provided by a number of international agencies such as
UNHCR, World He alth Organisation and UNICEF. Their movement is
managed by the government and UNHCR and in some countries.
Refugees who integrate with their families who reside legally in Kenya,
find it much easier to socialize with host communities and assimilate
Kenya c ultures faster than those who have no relatives in the country.
Those with families residing in Kenya, assist in domestic chores, and by
so doing, contribute to refreshing their kin of their native cultures by
cooking native foods and speaking native langu age around the house.
Children in such situations, learn their cultures and adopt their traditional
values in their lifestyle (Gilhooly & Lee, 2014).
6.4 DIVERSITY OF MIGRANTS AND HOST COMMUNITY( POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE) Migration ensures the transfer of d ifferent cultural norms and values to
the host communities, which is sometimes rejected, especially if the
cultures seem to be extreme to the belief system of the host community.
Therefore, migrants with similar cultural practices are often segregated
from social and economic activities in host communities.
Migrants who are easily assimilated into host communities, are those
whose cultures are already being adopted by members of the host
communities or those that have historical relations with the host cou ntry
through colonial or other ties. As such their contribution to the
development of the social and economic milieu is mostly accepted, with
the hope that they may sustain those contributions. This is the usual
practice, when the migrants are from a more developed nation, such as
countries in Europe or the United States of America. These migrants enjoy
rare and esteemed privileges amongst host communities, and usually settle
for longer periods until they become citizens. (Carboni & Soi, 2016).
6.5 SOCIAL COHESION BETWEEN MIGRANTS AND HOST COMMUNITY Social cohesion between migrants and host communities occurs when they
are in agreement over shared resources, such as land, infrastructure and
economic activities (Spoonley, Peace,, Butcher, & O’Neill, 2005). The
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87 friendliness and compromises between migrants and host communities
(Kawachi & Berkman, 2000). Social cohesion may occur from social and
economic relations. For example, when migrants p rovide services that are
in high demand or of significant importance to the host community, the
host community lacks the capacity to provide similar services (Friedberg
& Hunt, 1995). These services may range from household requirements to
public utilities . The host communities may also be in admiration of the
migrants’ culture, which would enable ease of integration and assimilation
between the migrants and the hosts. Social cohesion between migrants and
host communities occurs when the migrants are at pea ce with the host
communities, whereby assimilation is dependent on the ability of the
migrant to adopt or accept host cultures. Host communities often
appreciate when migrants learn their cultures and are tolerant of their
religions and traditional values.
6.6 STRATEGIC INTERVENTIONS TO SOCIAL COHESION AND MIGRANT INTEGRATION While the process of integrating can be a shock to migrants and
establishing a fair balance of social cohesion between the migrant and host
community may appear daunting, there are a few strategic approaches that
can be adopted to improve relations between migrant and host
communities. First, sensitization of host communities and migrants is
necessary to reduce any negative perceptions and challenges that may
emerge between the two co mmunities. The peaceful coexistence of
migrants and host communities have been of concern to the international
community, especially if the migrants are refugees from a neighboring
country. Refugees from war torn nations sometimes resume conflict at
host n ations, when they migrate with their enemies. When the conflict
resumes, it affects the host communities more than the opposing ethnic
groups they are in primary conflict with. The resolve to maintain peace in
the host community is an intervention to redre ss the differences through
various means of communication, both in domestic and public domain.
Such as through the radios, posters, television and other means that are
often used to communicate to the members of the society.
Second, adopting a sustainable relationship between migrant and host
community is also needed especially in the long run to ensure peaceful co -
existence. Both communities will have to learn to understand cultural
norms and values bearing in mind the differences in the event conflict
arises due to these differences. For those communities hosting refugees,
they would have to be sensitive to the needs of the refugee population
bearing in mind that they have undergone a traumatic experience. This
will help the host community better understa nd and accept migrant
populations knowing that they have different value systems. Most
economic migrants chose to reside in locations where they can improve
their domestic income and sustain their household, inclusive of the
families left behind. Refugees, however, do not have such privileges of
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88 without any consideration to their welfare or coping strategies to endemic
issues in host communities. Some migrants do not consider the culture s of
the host communities before making a choice to where they shall reside,
hence the conflict that arises from rejection, disrespect to cultural values
and disobedience to traditional laws. An example is the Ramadan period in
Abu Dhabi, where migrants ar e not allowed to drink liquids in public
domain due to the fasting of Muslims. Most migrants may not feel
comfortable with such rules, especially in a highly humid city, where
migrants who are not accustomed to the weather are mostly dehydrated.
Third, the re is a need to develop safer migration practices at a national,
regional and global level. Through the UN Global Compact on Migration,
steps are being taken to assess safer ways of migrating and to ensure
regular migration takes place. The international f rameworks and guiding
principles exist as useful tools for governments and regional economic
communities to use to mainstream migration into their laws and policies
but also outline practices that can be used to effectively manage migration.
Without laws g overning migration, border conflicts alone will account for
the majority of global conflicts. According to the UN Department of
Economic and Social Affairs 2015, 244 million people resided outside
their countries of origin in 2015. The huge numbers of migr ants and
refugees was a focus of attention at the UN Summit for Refugees in 2016,
as the delegates stressed on the fundamental human rights and
fundamental freedom of migrants. Although, states possess the sovereign
right to determine admission and residen ce of non -nationals on their
territory, but also have the responsibility under international law to protect
persons who have entered their territory or come under their jurisdiction.
Key international frameworks and conventions that should be considered
when shaping the policy or approach to safe and regular migration include
the Universal Declaration on Human Rights (UDHR). Article 2 states that
"Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this
Declaration, without distinction of any k ind, such as race, color, sex,
language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin,
property, birth or other status. Furthermore, no distinction shall be made
on the basis of the political, jurisdictional or international status of th e
country or territory to which a person belongs, whether it be independent,
trust, non -self-governing or under any other limitation of sovereignty."
Other Treaties protecting the rights of migrants include; International
Covenant on Civil and Political Ri ghts (ICCPR). Other conventions that
could give shape to safer migration include but not limited to:
• The International Convention on the Elimination of Racial
Discrimination (ICERD),
• The International Convention on the Rights of Migrant Workers
(ICR MW), and
• International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
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89 • Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women
(CEDAW).
• The International Labour Organization Convention Concerning
Migrations in Abusive Conditions and Promotion of Equality of
Opportunity and Treatment of Migrant Workers (No 143, 1975);
• 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees;
• UNGA resolutions on Protection of migrants and Violence against
women migrant workers;
• HRC resolution s on Human rights of migrants;
• 2000 Protocols against Trafficking and Smuggling;
• 2011 ILO Convention concerning Decent Work for Domestic
Workers (No. 189);
• ILO Forced Labour Protocol and Recommendation (2014); and
• 1997 Private Employment Age ncies Convention (No. 181) and its
Recommendation.
6.7 PSYCHOSOCIAL CHALLENGES AND INTERVENTION STRATEGIES FOR ORPHANS AND
STREET CHILDREN De brito (2014) describes street children as a major social problem in
some countries and the importance of acknowle dging the issue. To change
global development of the problems with street children, the problem must
first be highlighted. According to UNICEF (De brito, 2014) there are tens
of millions of street children all around the world. In South Africa, many
childr en made the street their home or at least spent most time outside
their homes. Giddens (2014) describes that most people in today’s society
see childhood in the process of becoming an adult. Childhood includes a
content of social and structural positions i n different communities
depending on where a child is growing up. Childhood is nowadays no
longer a universal social construction; it depends on the experiences a
child gets in the society. Sociology has left the functional perspective of
childhood and has begun to see children as active participants in
constructing their own lives in society.
Giddens (2014) writes that children who are exposed to physical and
physical violence at home do not have the luxury of a caretaking family.
The life of a street chi ld is a life of constantly trying to survive on the
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90 UNICEF (2001) defined a street child as any boy or girl who has not
reached adulthood, for whom the street has become her or his habitual
sources of livelihood, one who is inadequately protected, supervised or
directed by responsible adults. What is clear from the above definition of a
street child is that such a child leaves home to stay on the street and the
street not only becomes the child’s home but also the source of a living.
Such a child as sumes full responsibilities in his or her own life. Street
children are further defined as either ‘on the street’ or ‘of the street’.
Children ‘of the street’ live and sleep on the streets in urban areas and
streets are their homes whereas children ‘on the street’ have their homes
and only come to the streets to beg for money during the day and return
home in the evening. The former group has no contact with family while
the latter lives with family (Chireshe, Jadezweni, Cekiso, et al, 2014).
Problems faced by Street Children:
Local Context:
In conversation with the social workers, we talked about street children
and how they perceive the issue of the phenomenon. It also appeared how
the locals view street children. These children are not any different from
any other child. Research stated that there are usually two different types
of street children; there is the “manipulative” one and the “naïve” one. The
naive child is basically new to the street and does not have the experiences
of the street yet. The na ive one is the one who is mostly beaten up by the
other street children, just because they don't just yet have the same skills
and experience as the other children. The manipulative type is referring to
the child who has been on the street for a while and knows how to adapt to
the surroundings in order to get what they want. By using clever skills,
they have learned from others on the street: “Street children are good at
manipulation, they know what social workers want to hear in order to get
what they want ”.
Another expressed type of street children was so called “strollers”, which
means children who have a family and do not sleep on the streets. To
describe this concept of a street child the social worker discloses that the
family of the specific child kn ows that he or she is begging on the street,
these children are ‘on the street’ and the begging is usually the entire
family's biggest income.
According to one volunteer worker, urbanization creates the issue of street
children. The volunteer explains tha t there are a variety of reasons for
being on the street. The privileges that children regularly have are taken
away. The volunteer further explains that the perception of street children
in the community is that they are dangerous; it brings fear to peopl e which
also indirectly gives the children power. Several social workers follow the
reasoning above and explain that these children come from families or
situations that eventually forces them to leave, there is nowhere else to go
but the street. There is an illusion of freedom that these children get by
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91 there is a conscious choice to stay on the street. One social worker
described how a lot of children live under bridges by th e water and canals
to feel safer. These places become warm because of heat from the sun.
This became a shelter for the cold winters and rainy days. The social
workers in one study said that the age of street children is various however
it mostly begins in the early teens and continues up until the year of 20.
The teens mostly get in trouble with their families, therefore, the small or
youngest children are less common living on the streets. These children
can take care of themselves in very bad circumstance s. They have people
skills and know exactly how to read you to get them to do what they want
you to do. They are excellent readers, in a negative way, but also in a good
way when they protect each other.
Social workers conveyed that they have seen that mai nly boys live on the
street and tend to be more violent and easily get into criminal activities.
When it comes to girls, these children tend to get involved with human
trafficking or use their bodies in prostitution. it all depends on what
pursuit the soci ety has. Some parts are more conservative and other places
have a lot of prostitution of boys. Girls tend to be more subjected to
violence as a consequence of trafficking and prostitution. street children
create their own family on the street. It becomes a community. There is
another set of rules when it comes to morality and these rules are free from
the pressure of the laws of society. The tough part of being a street child is
to survive by yourself without any support except from the other street
childre n. The community is created in order to protect every member of
the group and it is one of the important survival strategies they use.
They slept, walked or begged, always nearby or together with other street
children. The children have a rule that they mu st share everything; money,
food or other things they collect during the day out on the street.
The Quick Fix:
The circumstances and environment at home could make it difficult for
children to stay. It is when a child leaves home for the street, that it shows
their determination and belief for this only solution. Therefore, it is
extremely important to make them realize that there are rights for children
that they could turn to, to gain support and eventually create a better life.
From an interview with o ne volunteer, it was revealed that street children
are perceived as an issue that people feel guilty about as well as a failure
from the community. The people of the community look at the issue and
believe in a “quick fix”. The problem with the thought abo ut the so - called
“quick fix” is that: ...it’s like taking a fish out of the water and expecting it
to survive. To take the street away from the children for good requires an
approach of preparation. These children are humans and not objects, they
are stil l children of the street, no matter how society shows to perceive
them.
Many people donate to different organizations to help the work with the
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92 organizations to get money is via volunteers or interest from departments
and businesses. But there are also people that give money directly to the
children. In fact, several interviewees mentioned that this contributes to
the children staying on the street because they collect money themselves
and use it to buy glue or other drugs according to the social workers. In
that way they do not need the organizations and the problem remains.
Think before you give a child on the street money or food or something
else; think of what you are supporting. People ca n give the child money to
feel better about themselves, they give the money because of the guilt.
It is the habit of giving, that makes children stay on the street and find it
harder to get out of the bad situation that they are in. The most common
reason to give street children money is that people want to feel good about
themselves: “The children are visible and saying to the community that
“you failed me” and the society don't want to see it that way.” . It was
described as; people do not want to see th e problem that is in front of
them. It feels better to give street children money since it creates a
satisfactory feeling of an action of a good deed. One problem with this
way of viewing the issue of street children is that: “The money does not go
to food , instead it goes to drugs”
Family Relationships:
Almost all interviewees had similar answers when it came to family
conditions; almost every street child has a family. Reasons that children
leave their homes was exemplified as abuse, poverty, lack of res ources
and education: Most parents have not been taught the right way to take
care of a child and do not make good role models. The fathers are usually
absent, which creates a loss of a male role model for the boys. It was also
described that, in an enviro nment where abuse or neglect are present in
different terms it eventually becomes normal for a child. This description
confirms a certain fundamental mindset of the parents of these children.
To state this it was expressed that the parent -child relationshi p is usually
bad: The children could be cold, hungry or have physical needs, but won’t
go back home to their family. The bad habitat of the home could be worse
than the street, it is mostly poverty or abuse that goes hand in hand for a
child to become a st reet child. The things that children experience during
childhood form them in the future. As this quote points out, these children
have individual requirements and a need to be seen.
Streetwise:
These children mobilize themselves to places where there are a lot of
tourists, for example around the coast. Street children can show feelings of
anger when they are offered food instead of money: “Some are aggressive.
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93 There are chi ldren who have been directly exposed to violence, have been
subjected to violence on different levels or witnessed violence in their
communities or within the family. Violence could be experienced on both
a psychological and physical level. It affects each child differently: People
take advantage of them violently or sexually - because they know they are
vulnerable and the child doesn't care anymore because he gets money.
They have already been subjected to violence before and therefore it
doesn't matter an ymore. It was further described that these children cope
and take care of themselves at a young age, they are in other words skilled
and know how to read people. These children are small but yet so tough.
These children grew up too fast and skipped import ant parts of childhood:
“They would kill for a blanket. They create little communities to protect
each other - its survival strategies”.
Solutions:
The second main theme that revealed itself through analysis was
Solutions. This part of the result is explo ring this theme and dealing with
methods and strategies that the social workers said that they used in order
to get the children away from the streets. The following sub -themes will
be discussed; The Organizations, Preventive Work as an Effort, The
Possibi lity of Making a Difference, Gender Methods, Family -based Work
and Strategies in Working with Street Children.
The Organizations:
There are several organizations working with the issue. There are many
organizations who work with street children but they are often not
specialized on this issue. It was further on described that, there are among
others, a specialized non -governmental organization that mainly focuses
on crime prevention. The NGO makes a variety of programs that are
preventative in increasing crimes at schools
It was mentioned that the cooperation between the organizations often
organize programs that are concerning activities such as Child Protection
week, creating awareness of the issue and cooperation with the police
about crime prevention in schools and programs for challenging bad
behavior. Some activities allow the children to cooperate and play together
in events such as soccer tournaments and workshops in order to make
people in the society change the perception of street children. It i s a
chance for the children to be like an ordinary child.
One organization is responsible for the food while another is responsible
for the shelter. Organizations also cooperate with the church and
volunteers. Volunteers are hard to find. Since volunteers work for free
they do not work for long as they also have a need to work for money to
provide for themselves.It is easy to steer the children forward to the
organization that can help the particular child to reach a change in
behavior and find their role i n society”. It is about the needs of the munotes.in

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94 children and these facts are what determines the cooperation ``.Further it
was described that: “Community work at its best is when everyone starts
to stand up for each other” It could also be challenging because the whole
community must get involved with the prevention work to help the
children: Beneficial work is when people are working in a group. That is
cost-effective - it’s more helpful than individual work. It’s better to work
in groups or teams in order to pro vide prevention work. That's why the
community work is one of the most important work with these children.
The biggest challenges are the lack of support from the government. When
the support is absent, the preventive work also decreases. One important
law is that people working with street children do not do follow -ups on
cases: “There is mostly no time for it but also lack of resources”. This fact
is one of the biggest problems with community work.
The Possibility of Making a Difference:
Working with ch ildren, the most meaningful part in their work is the
possibility of making a difference in the street children’s lives: It’s not
always a difference as in changing everything for the better in time, it’s
about the ability to have an impact on the process of the system and on the
political level. Every child in the world has a need for love, attention and
care in order to change behavior. Street children have a tendency to
respond negatively to generosity and actions of love due to the lack of
love in their earlier experiences. Later on when these children become a
mother, they can give that attention that their children need, just because
of their own childhood. Several social workers described these children as
humans in need of contact with someone that c ares for each of them
without being aware of it. These children will not ask for help from the
social services however the creation of relationships with social workers is
very important. It is the first step in restoring the trust in order to get to the
turning point of the child’s life. child protections systems must be
exercised and that children need a support system: The most meaningful
thing about working with street children is the part of making a difference
- not in a direct way but in a process su ch as influence the system and
political levels, and to see the work you do make a difference in the long
run.
Genders Methods:
The methods and processes differ for boys and girls. Firstly, boys are
usually easier to find on the street and are more openly selling items or
begging for money. Specific actions on how to reach out to the girls were
outlined. It was also emphasized the importance of creating a trustworthy
contact with the leaders (often males) of the group. Various situations
were described by social workers where boys from the street introduced
girls to the social workers with the goal of taking the girls off the street.
Girls are often more vulnerable. As soon as you find a girl, it is important
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95 money and therefore have a different strategy than boys but are also more
exposed.
Family -based Work:
Street children usually have done everything that could have been done at
home in order to save themselves without any succ ess and this leads to
feelings of not being loved. It is a child that takes charge of their own life
and when they decide to leave their families, there is usually nothing that
can make them return home. It was further explained that the conferences
are ab out informing family members about the situation as well as how the
family can create a more beneficial environment at home. There is also an
intervention of therapy for the whole family, the reason is basically to
involve the parents and educate them in h ow to create a better
environment for the child: The street is more of a home than their real
home. It is important to establish a better relationship between the child
and the parents; aim is for the child to leave the streets and go back home
to a health y environment. It was also mentioned that family -based work is
about reuniting the family and keeping the children away from the street,
as a preventive method.
6.8 APPROACHES IN DEALING WITH STREET CHILDREN There are differences in working with street ch ildren compared to other
children. the importance of individuality, that everyone has their own
method that works for them when it comes to destructive behavior: there
is not only the visible requirement that needs to be cared for, but also the
psychologi cal needs. Such as unconditional love and sustainability.
Furthermore, there must be a will from the child to change and a readiness
to move forward in the work for leaving the street: Some children cope
faster than others. Meet each child where they are a nd consult them” these
children live like one unit rather than showing their different personalities.
That a group of children can look the same on the outside however each
child in order to identify what their particular needs are” These individuals
are u sed to living by their own rules and these do not always go together
with the rules that society has made. Everyone has their own baggage that
has not been dealt with and the level of skills they carry from the street is
not functional in the shelter.
Out-reach Work:
In the out -reach work the children are allowed to visit the drop -in center.
At the drop -in center certain rules are created. The rules are about to create
trust: “The glue that they possess is not allowed at the center, but will be
brought bac k to the child as soon as they leave the center''. After a few
attempts it eventually will come to a point where the professionals invite
them to the shelter. At the drop -in center, there is an arrangement of new
clothes, provision of food and laundry serv ices and assistance with munotes.in

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96 personal hygiene: The activities are very informal, much about trusting
and getting them to want to change. They must do things voluntarily.
Furthermore, it was brought to our attention, the importance of creating a
positive pictur e for these children. To see each child as an individual and
make them see themselves as something more than a child on the street. If
you view yourself as positive and have dreams to reach for it’s easier for
the surroundings to look and meet you in a pos itive way.
Restored Trust:
The most important thing is to build and to restore trust, otherwise it is
hard to work with these children. Further, it is explained that instead of
bringing the children the things that they need, social workers need to
spend time with the child in order to make them change through free will:
“There is a need of understanding the dynamics of the street children in
order to restore their trust. Time needs to be invested in the child
otherwise they will get lost and run away aga in”. Another social worker
described that negotiation is often the key: “There are children that are at
different stages emotionally and physically that require in -the-moment
work”. It is important to allow the children to be in the street in order to
make them leave and it is important to take advantage of their knowledge.
To gain the children’s trust, they usually do fun things together with the
children. Eventually, the children get comfortable and start to open up. For
example, activities create distrac tion and distance children from the street
and so the children have fun together and develop together.
The Shelter:
After visiting the drop -in centers, additional rules are implemented, such
as refraining from fighting and using inappropriate language. Th e children
are taught the essential norms of living with others. Upon becoming part
of the shelter, diverse reactions are observed. Some children may sit in a
corner or question the purpose of being there, as they no longer rely on
their street smarts, whi ch is all they know. Others undergo behavioral and
pattern changes upon entering the shelter, expressing reactions like
separation anxiety or acting out due to an inability to cope with the new
situation. Some children become more warmhearted and caring as efforts
are made to build trust.
Once these children become part of the shelter or a safer environment,
they develop skills and interests in activities like playing with toys,
revealing a range of emotions. Older children may engage in playing with
toys, demonstrating that emotionally and mentally, they are at a younger
age. The shelter provides social work services, including therapeutic and
developmental work, to help these children envision a better life for
themselves. The shelter also grants access to informal and formal
education, ensuring consistency. However, sometimes working with
families proves challenging due to unfavorable environments. The most
common difficulty cited is convincing street children to leave the streets.
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97 lives for themselves, even if they have not yet socially adapted.
Essentially, the goal with street children is to instigate change and,
hopefully, create more success stories of street children with impro ved
outcomes.
6.9 ORPHAN CHILDREN India is home to the largest population of orphan children (31 million) in
South Asia. These children are at increased risk of psychosocial distress.
Majority of children yearned for their parents and longed for love and
affection. Apart from low self -concept and lack purpose in life, long term
bereavement had resulted in depression and anxiety issues among these
children. Trying to forget parents, avoiding crowded places, making new
friends and finding their family among inmates of orphanages were the
coping mechanisms adopted by orphan children. Following are the
problems faced by orphan children :
Psychological problems:
i. Depression and stress:
Study revealed that the majority of children felt sad and depressed due t o
their stay in the orphanage and also due to parental bereavement.
ii. Low self -esteem and purpose:
Children reported low levels of self -esteem and lacked purpose in life. The
majority of children felt they were worthless and good for nothing. They
believed that the education provided at schools would help them earn a
better life and future. They assumed that experiences of orphanage would
help them become a strong and better person once they age out of the
orphanage.
iii. Loneliness and helplessness:
In-depth interviews of participants reflected that most of them were lonely
and often felt helpless. On the contrary, there were children who enjoyed
being with other inmates and poured their heart out to them.
iv. Love and affection:
Results also indica ted that due to parental bereavement children were
longing for love and affection especially the younger ones; they would not
understand why they ended up living in an orphanage. On the other hand,
older children were still a little satisfied because other inmates had
become their family and they cared for each other. The majority of
children stated that they still miss their parents and often have a problem
falling asleep due to their memories. Seeing other kids with parents often
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98 Social issues
i. Behavioral disorders:
Most of the children reported problems with behavior and detachment.
They were shy and were less interactive and expressive outside the
orphanage. Attachment disorders were also reported among participants.
Although most of the children reported that they were comfortable with
inmates of the orphanage but due to the provision of transfer of kids from
one orphanage to other children avoided mingling with newcomers.
ii. Lack of guidance:
The majority of OVC r eported that they lack adult guidance and advocacy.
Although children were going to school, they didn’t know what to do
afterward or what they would do once they left the orphanage.
iii. Rejection:
Children staying in orphanages often feel rejected and d isowned by their
own people. These dejected children enter children's homes which in no
way can replace familial love and affection.
iv. Recognition and approval:
Most of the times OVC have to experience stigmatization by society.
Many children reported their concern about whether they will be able to fit
in the society or more so be accepted by the society. Other children were
afraid to voice out their opinions fearing embarrassment.
v. Security:
These children lead a stressful life, and once they go o ut of orphanage they
are likely to slip into poverty. They don’t have any special training or any
assurance of a job. Children believe that their future is quite insecure and
dark. They often felt there was no one to advocate for them if something
went wro ng.
vi. Isolation:
This was the most common problem of children living in institutional care.
Most of them felt that they were free enough to interact with people
outside the orphanage. Children’s responses showed that they felt left out
and isolated fro m in the orphanage.
Coping strategies :
Children used different coping strategies to deal with psychosocial issues
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99 i. Spiritual approach:
Most of the children reported that whenever they are worried or upset
about something they pray to God. They said that they often complained
to God about the hardships of life and felt better.
ii. Supporting inmates:
The majority of children said that whenever some children have a
problem, especially younger ones, w e try to solve it and support them.
Though they didn’t have a family, most of them considered all the inmates
as their family, and some were even close to their caregivers.
iii. Suppressing feelings:
It was found that while most of the children yearned f or their parents,
some considered that actively suppressing feelings and forgetting about
problems associated with parents is the key to psychological recovery and
happiness.
iv. Shifting focus to other activities:
Many children reported that whenever th ey felt down, they tried to focus
on something else like any activity which made them happy like playing
with other inmates, studying, watching television or simply by going to
sleep.
v. Substance abuse:
Some older children accepted that many times they smoked and chewed
tobacco to avoid tension and be carefree. Some others reported that they
often used pain relieving balms as inhalants to relieve tension and anxiety.
vi. Self -discrimination:
These practices were more common among younger children or th ose who
were new to the atmosphere of the orphanage. They often sit alone, cry a
lot, skip meals and isolate themselves which is harmful to their wellbeing.
vii. Misbehavior:
Some children accept that whenever they are stressed, they get irritated
very ea sily on small things and feel agitated and therefore, take out their
anger on fellow children and sometimes even on the caregivers.
viii. Detachment:
Some children also reported that to keep the emotions at bay they try not
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100 feel that detachment from others would save and secure them from getting
hurt.
It is important for children to understand the difference between healthy
and unhealthy coping strategies and how to use healthy ones in their life .
With proper guidance and support children can use professional
interventions as per their problems . With therapeutic session children can
achieve excellence in their life.
6.10 DISABILITY - UNDERSTANDING THE CONCEPT AND REHABILITATION Disabil ity is much more complex and often not so very clearly visible at
all times. It is a fact that almost all of us at some point in our lives may
temporarily or permanently experience disability. It could be a fractured
limb or chronic migraines, which makes it difficult to even talk. But it is
equally important to remember that even if this is the case, the needs,
rights and provisions that focus around disabilities should not become a
secondary priority in the name of providing ‘equal access to all’.
In its simpler form according to the World Health Organisation (WHO),
“[a] disability is any condition of the body or mind (impairment) that
makes it more difficult for the person with the condition to do certain
activities (activity limitation) and interact wit h the world around them
(participation restrictions)”.
In the statement above there are three key points that are important for us
to pay attention to. According to the World Health Organization, disability
has three components:
1. Impairment in a person ’s body structure or function, or mental
functioning; examples of impairments include loss of a limb, loss of
vision or memory loss.
2. Activity limitation, such as difficulty in seeing, hearing, walking, or
problem solving.
3. Participation restrictio ns in normal daily activities, such as working,
engaging in social and recreational activities, and obtaining health
care and preventive services.
There is also a debate about the terminology. Some individuals as well as
activists prefer the term ‘differe ntly abled,’ while others prefer to use
‘disabled’. Earlier the term ‘handicap’ was used and some people still use
it. But the use of the term ‘handicap’ is problematic. Handicap began to be
applied to physical and mental differences in the early 1900s, wh en the
new fields of sociology and social work started looking at people in terms
of their place in society as a whole. More derogatory terms were also used
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101 change with the birth of the disability rights movement. ‘Disable’ was
adopted as part of the self -determination process. This evolution in
terminology also reflects the struggle for asserting rights. Causes of
disability are also very diverse. It can be due to conditions present at birth
that may later affect life, or genetic or environmental factors or on account
of injury or caused by long standing health conditions like diabetes. One
can be born with a disability.It could also be learning disabilities like
dyslexia, which is a rea ding disability that involves difficulty reading due
to problems identifying speech sounds and learning how they relate to
letters and words. People when they grow old can get various forms of
disabilities, for example memory loss, limited mobility and cou ld require
assistance in routine functions.
Cerebral palsy, muscular dystrophy (MD), Down's syndrome, attention
deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), blindness, learning difficulties, and
gross motor delay are common and many of the children, now young
adults, have multiple conditions.” Accessibility and inclusivity are other
two terms that will be used in this Unit.
Accessibility:
Accessibility means that websites, tools, facilities, and technologies
designed and developed so that people with disabili ties can use them.
More specifically, people can perceive, understand, navigate, interact with
the Web and contribute to the Web.
Inclusivity:
It is the practice or policy of providing access to opportunities and
resources for people who might otherwise be excluded. It is clear that
disability is far more common than we would like to believe and that a
common man’s understanding of disability is very limited. We often
consider people who cannot see completely or hear completely or walk
with the use of vis ible aids like wheelchairs or crutches as individuals with
disabilities. But in fact, this is a very traditional or limited understanding
of disability.
A common person’s perception of the things that an individual with
disability can achieve is also very limited. We will start our journey of
understanding disability by looking first at examples of individuals with
different types of disabilities who have inspired millions and have made
significant contributions. This is done for three main reasons. These
examples will hopefully encourage the readers (a) to change the ways they
see individuals with disabilities; (b) highlight the importance of creating
inclusive designs for all; and (c) highlight the importance of providing
access to technological and medic al advances to individuals.
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102 What are disability rights? :
The definition of disability is not as simplistic as it has appeared thus far
in this unit. The WHO’s reframed definition has evolved over time, and
yet many feel that even this definition is too medical and centered on
individuals and "does not adequately clarify the interaction between
societal conditions or expectations and the unique circumstances of a
disabled individual." The British Council defines it as follows: Disability
is the disadvanta ge or restriction of activity caused by a society that takes
little or no account of people who have impairments and thus excludes
them from mainstream activity. This is important as it connects disability
as a consequence of discrimination and disregards the unique
circumstances of people with disabilities.
Words like ‘bechara’ or ‘bechari’ or ‘lachar’ or ‘lachari’ in Hindi and their
equivalents in other languages are often used for individuals with
disabilities. Most people cannot see beyond the disabilit y to note the
‘humanness,’ their aspirations, desires, and abilities, among other features.
In fact, in many cultures, children born with disabilities or those who
become disabled later on are considered a curse or even confined to the
house. Sometimes, pa rents or family members go as far as committing
individuals with disabilities to special homes. This is why the intervention
of disability rights, as well as the activism of members from the
community, has been of utmost importance. Various Acts, policies, and
schemes have been implemented, and more need to be implemented for
the security, enrichment, and empowerment of individuals with
disabilities.
6.10.1 Rehabilitation :
Rehabilitation is defined as “a set of interventions designed to optimize
functionin g and reduce disability in individuals with health conditions in
interaction with their environment”.
The distinction between treatment of impairment and treatment of
disability is not always clear. Providing eyeglasses for visual impairment
may restore no rmal vision, thus eliminating the disability. Providing
braces to support legs with impaired muscle function will decrease the
restriction on walking, but will not provide a normal gait. Hence the
disability is decreased, but is still present. Rehabilitati on is generally
considered to be the process by which disability is minimized, but not
eliminated. For individuals with impairments and disabilities, the
rehabilitation process may include measures to reduce both.
Need for rehabilitation :
The number of d isabled people in developing countries is not known.
WHO has estimated that disabled people from 7 % to 10% of the
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103 locomotor, mental, seeing and hearing disabilities. The United Nations
Statistics Office has published a compendium, which presents statistics for
disability from 55 nations. The percentage of disability that was found
ranges from 0.2% to 20%. The compendium emphasizes the need for a
uniform method for collection of data on disabi lity. The overall percentage
of disabled people who need rehabilitation is also unknown, although
some figures are available The number of disabled people who are
receiving services is uncertain. Some developing countries have estimated
that services in ur ban areas may reach 15% of the disabled who need
them, but only 1% of those in rural areas. Coverage in developing
countries is difficult to estimate because many rehabilitation projects are
managed by nongovernmental organizations and there is no central
coordination unit. However, there is little evidence to indicate an increase
in rehabilitation services in rural areas during the past ten years.
The wars and natural disasters of the past decade have focused attention
on the need for rehabilitation servic es. Efforts have been made in
cooperation with WHO' s Emergency relief programme to find ways of
providing rehabilitation services to disabled people in refugee or displaced
populations. WHO was represented on the interagency Committee on
Assistance to Dis abled Afghans established by Operation Salam. That
body has prepared guidelines for including preventive and rehabilitative
care in the health, education and vocational services to be set up for
Afghans.
When war or natural disaster occurs in a developing country, the absence
of staff or a system for the delivery of rehabilitation makes it extremely
difficult to establish new services under the emergency conditions. The
services most likely to be set up are those for the provision of prosthetic
and orthoti c appliances; and this is done by international agencies using
expatriate staff. To the extent possible, emergency services should be
developed into a permanent system for rehabilitation with personnel from
within the affected country. However, efforts to do this have had very
limited success.
Community Based Rehabilitation :
When community -based rehabilitation was developed as a strategy for
integrating rehabilitation services into primary health care, work was
started on a manual for the transfer of rehab ilitation technology to disabled
people, their families and communities. After several revisions based on
field tests, this manual was published, and has since been translated into
more than a dozen languages
In community -based rehabilitation, community me mbers or organizations
take responsibility for assisting disabled people or their families, for
arranging for disabled children to attend the local school, for providing job
training and work for people with disabilities, and for ensuring that
disabled mem bers of the community are included in all social activities.
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104 rehabilitation. When community -based rehabilitation is integrated into
primary health care, the community health worker is the pers on
responsible for identifying people with disabilities and initiating the
rehabilitation process. Rehabilitation services are also available within the
medical referral system. Because the rehabilitation process requires more
than medical care, intersecto ral cooperation is needed among health,
education, vocational and social services.
Rehabilitation referral services :
Medical rehabilitation referral services are essential for the development
and expansion of community level services. Families of disabled people
and communities can take responsibility for much of the training in daily
activities and the social integration of disabled people, but referral services
are needed to guide the training, and provide appropriate appliances and
equipment. To develop rehabilitation referral services, it is necessary to
have both staff with knowledge of rehabilitation technology, and
appropriate appliances and aids.
Training of rehabilitation staff :
To promote staff development for rehabilitation, two interregional
consultations on the training of personnel have been held. The first
(Alexandria, June 1990) considered the need for different levels of
personnel who prepare artificial limbs and braces, and produced guidelines
for the training of personnel in developing cou ntries for prosthetic and
orthotic services. The second (New Delhi, September 1991) reviewed
country experience in the use of mid -level rehabilitation workers ，who
provide medical rehabilitation services at the first referral level and also
work with the community for the development of community -based
rehabilitation. With funds from the Swedish International Development
Authority, the WHO rehabilitation program me has cooperated with
individual countries in setting up short -term training courses for personnel
in community based rehabilitation. International nongovernmental
organizations have also been mobilized to support countries in the
provision of rehabilitat ion services, with emphasis on staff training.
6.10.2 Provision of aids and appliances :
WHO has collaborated with other United Nations bodies and
nongovernmental organizations in the development of aids and appliances
that are appropriate technically, soc ially and economically. The three
types of disabilities which require aids are visual, hearing and locomotor
 The provision of "low -vision care", with emphasis on training in the
use of residual vision and the supply of optical appliances, is being
addresse d by the WHO programme for prevention of blindness, in
collaboration with other interested agencies and nongovernmental
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105 Visually Handicapped. The limited resources available to the WHO
programme have so far not allowed large -scale action, but it is hoped
that extrabudgetary resources will become increasingly available for
this purpose. Emphasis will have to be placed on training, as there are
very limited possibilities for sophisticated t echnology in developing
countries.
6.11 SUMMARY The state of migration at present has been as a result of lack of sustainable
development or lack of access to much needed resources for development.
Many people are displaced due to conflict, as such are f orced to migrate to
neighboring countries, hence, their movements are not usually a voluntary
decision. Others migrate due to lack of opportunities or for economic
reasons, where they assume that the more developed economy will
provide the opportunities th ey desire. Migrants select a destination based
on access to opportunities, providing a more favorable environment,
which provides better security and economic advantage over the country
of origin. The ability to accept migrants is accompanied by compromise s
between them, as such they must agree on certain issues and come to
terms with each other’s lifestyle choices.
Diversity is the established differences between the migrants and the host
communities. The establishment of these differences are revealed th rough
mutual communication carried out on friendly terms and courtesies, which
also begins through exchange of compliments. Diversity creates the
condition for accruing additional benefits to a community. Social cohesion
is achieved when there is mutual ag reement between migrant and host
communities. The strength of understanding between them determines the
cohesiveness and the sustainability of their mutual agreement. The
duration of the mutual understanding is also determined by the
compromises and sacrif ices they both contribute to the relationship.
About Street children the problems that are highlighted are the local
context, family relationships, streetwise children and the belief of a quick
fix of the issue. The solutions are categorized in many ways such as,
family -based work, the organizations, preventive work and different
methods concerning genders. Gaining the children’s trust as a social
worker was also significant for the relationship to develop and move
forward.
After that we discussed Disabil ity and rehabilitation, it is clear that
understanding disability is a complex and challenging subject. Yet it is
equally important to engage with the topic and also understand it better.
We must be aware of the efforts of activists from the disability com munity
who have pushed and continue to push for adopting a human -rights
approach to disability in order to make our world more inclusive and
accessible. Providing technology, facilities, accepting it and supporting, munotes.in

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106 enabling training and access to medical facilities are some of the important
ways to empower and enable individuals with disabilities.
6.12 QUESTIONS A) Write Short Notes
 Assimilation
 Housing
 Family Relationships
 Restored Trust in street children
6.13 REFERENCES  Ahuja, R. (Year of Publica tion). Social Problems in India (2nd ed.).
Rawat Publications.
 Allen, K. R. (2016). Feminist theory in family studies: History,
reflection, and critique. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 8(2),
207-224.
 Bourne, H., & Solomos, J. (2007). Immigration, socia l cohesion, and
social capital: A critical review. Critical Social Policy, 27(1), 24 -49.
 Mokole, M. (Year of Publication). Assessment Of Major Causes And
Psychosocial Challenges of Children on the Streets.
 Oucho, L., & Williams, D. (Year of Publication). Challenges And
Solutions To Migrant Integration, Diversity And Social Cohesion In
Africa.
*****

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107 7
APPLYING SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY TO
HEALTH, FAMILIES, MEDIA AND
ENVIRONMENT -I
Unit structure
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Mental health: Models of causation and types of interventions
7.2.1 Types of interventions
7.3 Physical health (HIV AIDS, Cance r): Risks and prevention
7.4 Summary
7.5 Questions
7.6 References
7.0 OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you will be able to understand
 Various models that explain the origins of mental health issues and
identify intervention techniques for their tre atment.
 Examine the factors contributing to specific physical health problems
and explore preventive measures to mitigate or avoid these risks.
7.1 INTRODUCTION The topic of mental illnesses and their treatment has perplexed mental
health professionals for a long time. There is no agreement on the
definition and scope of mental illness. Some professionals consider mental
illness to be a personal matter, having a subjective aspect. For example, an
individual's personal distressing experiences, as well as his family's
despair and hopelessness based on the cultural belief that mental illness is
caused by unexplained factors and there is no hope for complete recovery.
On the other hand, there are professionals who think of it as objective and
scientific. Since t he 20th century, efforts have been made to develop an
objective diagnostic system and classify all mental disorders. There is an
emphasis on looking at the social aspect as well. The behavior of a
mentally ill person is contradictory to prevailing sociocul tural norms and
causes a lot of anxiety, embarrassment, and sometimes fear in people
around them.
Some emphasize that mental illness is more in the public domain, as
factors such as economic class, gender, race, religion, culture, and social
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108 about mental illness was that, just like physical illness is an imbalance of
equilibrium in our physical functioning, similarly, mental ill health is also
a disturbance in our emotions, thoughts, behav ior, or psychological state.
The second assumption was that the concept of mental health pertains to
individuals and not to families or societies. There can be only mentally
sick individuals and not mentally sick families and societies.
Over the years, man y theories have been developed to explain mental
illnesses, and these theories determine the kinds of interventions that will
be used to cure them. In our present physical health history too, some
diseases, such as HIV/AIDS and Cancer, have spread like epi demics. To
control them through prevention measures, psychologists have been
studying the risk factors for these diseases. In this unit, we will look at
some models of the causation of mental illness and possible risk factors
for epidemic diseases such as HIV/AIDS and cancer.
7.2 MENTAL HEALTH: MODELS OF CAUSATION Individual explanations
It is a foregone conclusion that to make an accurate and scientific
diagnose of the mental disorders, psychiatrists must refer to an
objective well described and categoriz ed system that details the
symptoms of various mental disorders. Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual of Mental Disorders has been a well -accepted classification
system of mental disorders that is considered objective. First DSM
was published in 1952 and afte r that it has been going through
regular modifications as the need arises. However, this classification
inherently refers to symptoms suffered by an individual and not by a
group. The mental illness takes place in a person due to some
susceptibility or int ernal weakness as well as due to some
environmental factors. Moreover, sociocultural norms too determine
the type of mental disorder that a person may suffer and the behavior
he will show. Whether that behavior will be judged abnormal or no
depends upon th e sociocultural norms of that era.
Environment: vulnerability and stress
Many longitudinal research studies have demonstrated that mental
disorders take place due to adverse emotional experiences and
deprivations experienced in childhood by a person. In f act, even positive
but drastic changes can also trigger mental disorders in a vulnerable
person. Some of the factors that may contribute to mental disorder of
children are -
 Having anyone or both parents also suffering from any severe mental
illness
 Loss of one or both parents in childhood
 Complications arising out of birth delivery
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109 Public concerns: class, gender and ethnic differences:
It has been argued that anyone can suffer from mental disor ders such as
schizophrenia and depression, as they are caused by inherent factors
within an individual. There is an equal chance of them occurring in any
individual irrespective of class, gender or race of the individual. But
research studies have refuted this argument and reported that there is a
close link between social class (determined by occupations) and mental
disorders. For instance, Hollingshead and Redlich (1958) reported that
people belonging to low paid, menial unskilled jobs have higher rate of
mental disorder than skilled people belonging to professional and
managerial class.
Furthermore, people belonging to lowest socio -economic class are likely
to suffer more severe type of mental disorders and people belonging to
upper classes are likely to suffer fairly moderate levels of disorder and
psychosomatic complaints such as ulcers, anxiety, etc. However, research
has not been able to establish a causal relationship between poverty and
mental illness. At best, it can be said that the relationship is circular, where
poverty creates more stress for a person and that may result in mental
illness, and mental illness may lead to loss of income and problems in
relationships and that further impoverishes a person.
Further research in UK has pointed out tha t while there are no gender
differences in the people suffering from schizophrenia, it was reported that
compared to men, females are more likely to suffer from depression and
neuroses, while men are more likely to suffer from alcoholism than
women.
Simila rly, it was observed that immigrants in UK are more likely to suffer
from schizophrenia than the English people. Among immigrants too,
Caribbeans were five times more likely to suffer from schizophrenia.
Compared to Indian, Pakistani and Bangladeshi immigr ants, Scottish and
Irish immigrants were more likely to suffer from alcoholism. These
conclusions cannot be taken as a whole truth as they were based on the
data collected from patients admitted to the English hospitals. It might be
that the rate of Englis h people suffering from schizophrenia may be as
high as the immigrants but they use alternative methods of treatment
instead of getting admitted to the hospitals. Orford (1992) reported that in
America too, hospitals are used like a dumping ground for mos t
disadvantaged people.
Cultural Psychiatry and a multi -ethnic population:
Migrant population in any country becomes like the host population of
that country, over many generations. McGovern and Cope (1991)
compared the rate of occurrence of schizophrenia , admission in the
hospital and the duration of the stay in hospital of second -generation Afro -
Caribbeans with white English men of the same age.
They observed that second generation Afro -Caribbeans had higher rate of
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110 of the same age. It was also reported that these second -generation Afro -
Caribbeans had similar rate of schizophrenia, highly pronounced
symptoms of schizophrenia, similar rate of admission to the hospital.
Compared to w hite men, they had prolonged stay in hospitals, they were
more isolated, had to deal more with police and forensic services, avoid
voluntary treatment and were more likely to be readmitted in future.
Littlewood and Lipsedge (1989) pointed out that while treating migrant or
minority community patients, one of the challenges faced by Western
Psychiatry is to understand and deal with their symptoms expressed in the
symbolic language of religious beliefs. For example, some patients may
complain of hearing Go d’s voices or being possessed by spirits.
Psychiatrists find it challenging to fit the meaning of such expressions in
their own system of classifications of mental disorders.
Moreover, they argued that there is a strong possibility that such
expressions a re plainly an extreme psychotic reaction to adverse
experience of institutionalized racism, poor living standards, deprivation,
alienation (if host society is hostile and does not integrate migrants in
main stream). Moreover, as most of the psychiatrists b elong to White race,
there is always a possibility of such patients getting misdiagnosed and
compulsory admitted in hospitals. While milder forms of institutionalized
treatments and family therapy are used for White patients, migrants and
patients from min ority community are administered stronger drugs and
prolonged hospitalizations. Migrants, minority community patients,
female patients and patients belonging to lower socioeconomic class
receive differential diagnoses and treatments than Whites due to the
typical racial stereotype and cultural insensitivity that White psychiatrists
have about them. These psychiatrists do not work in cultural vaccum and
assign meanings to the symptoms based on their own prejudices, values
and biases that they bring to the jo b. For example, in one study, it was
found that male psychiatrists in USA routinely attributed women suffering
from depression and emotional problems, Black men being more violent
by nature and black men and women having paranoid personalities, even
when t here was no concrete evidence for such diagnoses. The surprising
part was that even Black psychiatrists tended to assign heavier diagnoses
and treatment to black patients and milder degree of diagnoses and
treatments to White patients.
These differential diagnoses and treatments are a clear example of how
private problems of individuals are entwined into general public
phenomena of social discrimination.
Models of family dynamics:
The family models of causation of mental ill health underline that
disturbe d family relationships, especially the mother -child relationship,
leads to distorted view of reality. In such disturbed relationship, mother is
considered as victimizer and child is considered as a victim. Dallos (1991)
stated that a child suffers from sch izophrenia if his mother has used
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111 on, it was believed that children suffer from the symptoms of
schizophrenia due to parent’s marital and other family conflicts. Thus, the
blame for m ental ill health of a patient was shifted from the individual to
the family, without considering that the family may be suffering from low
income, low socio -economic status, gender and racial discrimination, etc.
However, from 1970s onwards, family therap ists started taking into
consideration the extended families, gender, class, race and workplace
interactions into consideration while determining the causes of mental
illness and intervention plan for managing that mental illness. It was
recognized that us ually women in a family have very little or no power
and yet sociocultural norms expect them to perform the function of child -
rearing and nurturing. With almost no power these ladies experience
frustration and mixed emotions.
Families: vulnerability and stress:
Though family model proposes that mental illness is the result of social
factors, but it is extremely difficult to verify this claim. It is practically
unfeasible to find out objectively how a child feels being a particular child
in the family, or getting embroiled in the family conflicts, alliances and
having divided loyalties to different family members. Due to this difficulty
of verifying subjective experiences and emotions, researchers have now
agreed that mental illness is caused by both fa ctors - organic vulnerability
and the distress experienced within the family. Mentally ill patients have
higher chance of having relapse and getting readmitted to hospitals if their
families have patterns of high conflict, over involvement and
communication of negative emotions. It does not mean that there is no
hope for such patients. It has been observed that families with such
negative patterns of emotions do change their patterns after they go
through family therapy and psychoeducation.
Brown and Harris (1978) suggested that though families having low
socioeconomic status, belonging to minority communities or being a
single parent family are more vulnerable to experience high stress and
have negative patterns of emotions. This potential stress gets furthe r
ignited by the nature of the family and the timing of the event. For
example, such families become further vulnerable to stress after they
experience some losses, or some crisis, such as an illness or unusaual
behavior of a growing child or swift changes in family life cyle stages. In
such situations, such vulnerable family further falls down in the darkness
of distress and illness.
7.2.1 Types of intervention:
Psychiatry and anti -psychiatry:
Since mental disorders are categorized as mental illness, it i s natural that
right from beginning their treatment has fallen under the preview of
psychiatrists. This responsibility of treating the mental illness, gives legal
authority to psychiatrists to confine patients against their will in hospitals.
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112 ailments to decide how long to keep a patient in the hospital and when to
discharge them.
Patients suffering from mental illnesses may get admitted in the hospital
for short duration due to de tention sections (court orders for admitting and
treating the patient) or they might be brought to hospital by their relatives.
The court passes detention sections if it is convinced that patient can be
dangerous either to himself or to others. Patients w ho are admitted under
detention sections become informal patients , if they continue to be in
hospital even after their detention period is over. These detention sections
can last for few hours to few months and can be renewed if there is need
for that. T hough patients have a right to appeal against such detention
sections but very few exercises that right.
However, the criteria for deciding whether a person is dangerous to
himself or to others and therefore to put him in hospital under detention
sections has got ethical implications as it is marred with ethnic bias.
Till recently, the most popular intervention method used by the
psychiatrists was to place a patient in ‘asylum’ or a psychiatric hospital,
separating him from his family and community. The t reatment given in
these asylums included different types of medicines such as psychotropic
drugs, individual/group therapy, art therapy, occupational therapy,
behavior therapy, etc.
However, in 1960s and 1970s, researchers started talking about the
adverse effect of keeping patients in hospital for a prolonged period of
time and using medication for a prolonged period of time. This era is
known as anti -psychiatry movement period. Szasz (1971) went on to say
that asylums and public psychiatric hospitals ar e nothing but unofficial
prisons from which the patient has no hope of coming out. Some
psychologists in Britain started questioning the basic causal factors
leading to mental illness. They rejected the medical diagnose of mental
illness based on biologica l theories and believed that ecological analysis
must be done to do the medical diagnoses of these illnesses. For example,
they argued that schizophrenia does not take place only due to biological
reasons, instead, faulty, destructive family relationships are responsible for
this medical condition. The changes started taking place in intervention as
this argument became stronger.
The first change was that mental health professionals started treating the
family as a whole instead of just treating the indivi dual patient only.
Secondly, many social support groups or therapeutic communities as well
as various voluntary organizations sprang up to mitigate the wrecking
experiences of such individuals and families.
Thirdly, there was power imbalance under medica l and psychiatry model,
where doctor had all the powers and the patient was a helpless creature.
Anti-psychiatrist movement questioned this imbalance and it was believed
that patient as well as his family too have some rights, if not all , to make
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113 Fourth, the most important change that anti -psychiatrist movement
brought was that people started debating on mental disorders and the
prevailing oppressive systems to treat them in prison like hospital s where
patients had no rights.
Though this liberalization from institutionalized care to community care
seems to be a positive development, but in reality, very often, patients
suffering from severe mental illness did not get the care and attention that
they required. To that extent nothing much had changed in their woes.
Family Modes of Intervention:
Family based intervention materialised as a consequence of anti -
psychiatry movement. Some mental health professionals supported it as a
new intervention w hile others saw it as a danger to psychiatry and resisted
it.
There are two types of family mode intervention - (a.) family therapy and
(b.) psycho -education. As the name suggests, in family therapy, the patient
and all his immediate family members are as ked to attend one hour session
at the family therapist’s clinic or at the hospital. Generally family therapy
sessions are conducted once or twice a week, for an hour or so and these
are conducted for a fixed period of time , e.g., three months or so, as
required based on the severity and complexity of the problem of the
patient. The therapist is supposed to be neutral and do not take any family
member’s side and should not blame the family for the presented problem.
This will ensure that family will not fee l guilty of intimidated and will not
go on being defensive.
However, in reality, sooner or later, families do start feeling that they are
to be blamed for the mental illness of one of their own members and they
find it very difficult to change this view.
It has been observed that sometimes a child becomes a psychotic child
because families believe that a family should remain as one unit under any
circumstances and should not get disintegrated. Consequently, the family
members do not acknowledge and acce pt a child’s need to have
independence as he leaves childhood and enters his teenage. As a normal
course of development in life, as the child grows, he craves for
independence. This results in simmering conflict and tensions within the
family. The parents want to maintain the usual pattern of behavior
irrespective of the fact that the child is growing. To avoid any conflict, the
psychotic child maintains his dependence on the family and thus harmony
is maintained in the family. The parents of a psychotic c hild feel
extremely sad about their absolutely healthy child turning to be psychotic
child and thus their dreams of their child having bright future crashing
down. To cope up with their own grief, they use coping mechanisms such
as denial (they believe the re is nothing wrong with their child), they
become more and more intrusive controlling of the child and can not
maintain a healthy parental distance from the child. This results in further
problems of adversely impacting their marital relationship, work an d
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114 changes in the attitudes and beliefs of the parents and help them to realize
that allowing the child to have his independence and separate identity will
not disintegrate the famil y. Once the family therapist is able to convince
the family to give independence to the child, the child not only becomes
independent but also forms normal relationship with others.
Though family therapy has proved to be very effective, but there is a
potential danger lurking in its use. Based on family therapy results,
government may form social policies that indirectly or directly lay blame
for the mental illness of the patients squarely on their families. There is a
chance that other family members of the patients may refuse to join family
therapy sessions as a defence mechanism. Family members want to have
an intervention for the patient that requires their minimal support or
contact with the patient. The family members of the patient find it stressfu l
and burdensome to look after the patient. And yet, there is a high
possibility of patient’s mental health deteriorating more and more if
professional help is not given by a therapist.
Privatizing Care, Alternatives to Hospital and Family Support:
Surveys carried out in U.K. in 1960s showed that majority of the people
having symptoms of mental illness had no access to psychiatrists. At best
they had access to their general practitioners, and most likely these GPs
had no the ability to recognize and tre at these psychiatric symptoms.
The community care policies of 1960s in UK were focused on making
sure that psychiatric patients needing prolonged hospital stay are relieved
that shunted to other facilities such as hostels, community homes or day
care cent ers, etc. Those who were not accommodated in these alternative
facilities were left to fend for themselves or it was the responsibility of
their families to take care of them. Psychiatric hospitals were ready to give
barer minimum support to those patients who were already discharged
from the hospital. Due to this community -based model, many psychiatric
hospitals were closed down between 1960s to 1980s. Instead, crisis
management teams were set up comprising of general practitioners and
local authorities from social work department. These crisis management
teams used to visit the families at their homes, do home consultations and
provide domiciliary support later on. In 1980s, this Community based
program included services like providing group therapy, shi fting
chronically ill patients from old hospitals to rehabilitative and supported
lodging facilities, giving support to voluntary social centres, arranging a
psychiatric unit in every general hospital and developing many small
nursing homes where very old people having psychiatric problems at the
fag end of their lives get admitted for psychiatric interventions.
This community model in UK was mainly concerned about avoiding any
legal problems and catered to a miniscule population that had to be
compulsory given admission and treatment at the hospitals. At the same
time, in Italy too legal reforms related to mental illness and services
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115 localized health facilities under NHS. However, the implementation of
these legal reforms has been uneven. On one side, these programs give
chance to go for group therapy and freedom, on the other hand, the
patients having severe mental ill ness and disrupting the family life are
admitted in traditional hospitals, prisons, or deserted by the family and
live on streets.
In short, we can say that the essential characteristics of community based
mental health model are -
a) Availability of mul tidisciplinary service team in local areas, for
twenty -four by seven days.
b) Domiciliary support during crisis period
c) Open referral of the patients either by themselves or through some
other source
d) Active treatment after stabilizing the acute pat ient
e) To ensure no further deterioration takes place in the patient’s
condition
Family therapy emphasizes educating the family members about how to
manage the mental illness of the patient. Studies have shown that patients
in families that were empower ed with psychoeducation had significantly
lower rate of relapse than patients whose families were not given any
psychoeducation. Another problem in using family therapy is that in acute
cases, family therapy takes a back seat and psychiatrist puts in effor ts to
first stabilize the patient with the help of medication and individual
counselling. In such cases, the mental illness of a patient already carries a
label and later it becomes difficult to change hypothesis and label the
problem as interpersonal prob lem. Studies have further shown that stress
levels of family members of a patient who was admitted in a hospital,
were much more than the family members of a patient who was getting
treatment at home. Home treatment was especially beneficial for patients
belonging to ethnic minority groups or those who were immigrants.
7.3 PHYSICAL HEALTH (HIV AIDS, CANCER): RISKS AND PREVENTION HIV/AIDS is basically a behaviorally generated disease. It spreads from
one person to another person through the exchange of body fluids and
blood. Body fluids or blood may get passed from one person to another
through unprotected sexual intercourse, contaminated needle, etc. The
government surveys have shown that groups that are more susceptible to
this disease are gay men, minorit ies, drug addicts who take drugs through
injections, infected persons’ sexual partners and children, and
hemophiliacs.
People succumb to this disease either because they are unaware of risk
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116 Looking at the wide spread AID risk behavior all over the world, it is
important to develop programs to motivate and enable people to modify
their AIDS risk behavior.
Risks:
Adolescents:
Many adolescents are at the risk of HIV due to their unsafe s exual
activities and use of drugs. Teenage is characterized with risk taking
behavior and impulsive behavior. Teenagers have a false belief that
nothing can go wrong with them, have a tendency to take unnecessary
risks due to peer pressure or to project th emselves as macho.
 Homeless and runaway youth are at a higher risk to contract HIV.
 Polygamy : People in sexual relationship with more than one partner
at the same time are at higher risk of HIV.
 Sexual orientation : Homosexuals and lesbians are more suscep tible
to HIV risk.
 Drug abuse: Especially those who consume drugs through shared
needles are at higher risk of HIV.
Cognitive Disengagement :
D. J. McKirnan , D. G. Ostrow , & B. Hope (2010) were of the opinion that
in spite of having information about HIV, social norms supporting safe
behavior, knowing fully well tha t they are vulnerable to infection and
having intentions to use risk reduction behavior, still some groups such as
gays continue with risky behavior because information about risk sources
causes anxiety and prevents them from indulging in highly desirable
activity. They get tired of such anxiety causing information and other
negative emotions and this leads to ‘cognitive disengagement’ when they
are in highly stimulated situation such as sexual situation and ignore all
precaution.
Negative Emotions :
Infor mation about risk related to HIV generates intense negative emotions
such as fear and has reverse effect on attitude change. They tend to either
ignore such information or distort it. As there is no cure for HIV and no
preventive vaccine is developed so f ar, makes people pessimistic. They get
tired of practicing safe sex and develop a fatalistic attitude. Especially gay
people become averse to safety measures to be taken as they find that
there are already many HIV positive men in their social circle. A se nse of
helplessness and fatalism develops in them and they ignore risk reduction
information.

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117 Poverty, Minority status, D isenfranchised :
Sanders -Phillips K. (2002) stated women of color are more at risk of HIV
due to their use of intravenous drugs and prostitution. Furthermore,
women who are powerless in relationship due to having secondary status,
racism, poor economic condition, violence, cannot negotiate safe sex
relationship and are more susceptible to HIV risk.
Prevention:
The Information -Motivat ion-Behavioral Skills Model (Imb) Of Aids
Risk -Behavior Change:
Fisher and Fisher (1992) suggested a social psychological model of
changing AIDS risk behavior. They believed that there are three
antecedents to change AIDS risk behavior into risk reduction behavior.
These are -
Information: A person should be aware of the potential risks before he
can take measures to avoid those risks. Therefore, it is important to impart
full information about the causation and effects and preventive measures
of the diseas e. It is also imperative for risk reduction information to be
effective that it should be -
a) Connected to preventive behavioural measures
b) Should be available to the targeted person
c) Should be instantly available or offhand to recall from memory. If it is
not instantly recalled, it will not be used.
Motivation : Even if a person has the information, there is no assurance
that he/ she will act on it. So, it is important to increase the willingness of
a person to act on the risk reduction information given to him. IMB model
specifies two types of motivation that work to reduce risk.
a) Personal motivation of an individual : this includes his positive
attitudes towards risk reduction behavior
b) social motivation : this includes his perception of soci al support for
practicing risk reduction behavior.
Behavioral skills :
Even if a person has the information and is willing to act on risk reduction
information, there are chances that he is not capable of acting upon it or
circumstances do not permit him to act on it. According to IMB model the
behavior skills include the ability to use a sequence of preventive
behaviors such as -
a) A person must recognize and believe that he/she has sexual urges and
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118 b) He/she must have ability to collect factual and latest information
about how AIDS is transmitted and what can be done to prevent it. He
must keep himself updated on this information from time to time .
c) He/she must develop a Persona l AIDS Prevention agenda
d) He/she should be skilled enough to have pre -sex discussions and
negotiations with potential partner about his/her AIDS Prevention
agenda. If the potential partner is unwilling to accept his/her AIDS
Prevention agenda, then this person should be capable enough to
move away from that situation/relationship.
e) He/she should be willing to participate in “public” AIDS prevention
activities such as buying condoms or getting tested for HIV.
f) The person should ensure that he/she himself adheres to AIDS
prevention behavior consistently as well as ensures that partner also
sticks to this agenda
g) To maintain this prevention agenda in long run, the person should be
able to reinforce himself/herself as well as his/her partner for
practicing preventive behavior.
h) He should constantly keep a check on the quality of his preventive
behavior and if need be change it to alternative preventive behaviors
that are less stressful and more safe.
Self-efficacy : It is obvious that to carry out Personal AIDS Prevention
agenda , a person must have high self -efficacy.
This is a general frame work of IMB. The specific information to be
given, motivational techniques to be used and behavioral skills to be
imparted is determined by the needs and s ociocultural factors of the target
group. For example, needs of the group differ on the basis of ethnicity,
gender, sexual orientation, power balance between partners, chemical use
status, etc.
Theory of Reasoned Action:
According to this theory AIDS prev entive behavior takes place only
through an individual’s intention to use preventive behavior under specific
conditions. Under which specific conditions preventive behavior should be
used is determined by the subjective evaluation of the situation by a
person in the light of his/her information -based beliefs and norms.
The AIDS Risk Reduction Model (ARRM):
This model is developed on the basis of the Health Belief Model, the
Theory of Reasoned Action, The theory of Planned behavior, Self -efficacy
theory, emotional influences and interpersonal processes. ARRM was
developed especially to give information about sexual risk behavior of
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119 According to this model, high risk behavior can be changed through three
stages -
a) Stage 1: Identifying and labeling one's activities as risky :
It is a forgone conclusion that to change any behavior, first of all a person
has to recognize and label the specific behavior as risky and needs to be
changed. Same is true for risky sexual behavior. There are many factors
contributing to this process of labeling a behavior as risky. For instance,
the person should have the information about how HIV is transmitted. Any
myth people have about HIV transmission should be removed through
widely spread factual knowledge. For example , there is a myth that HIV
can be contracted by handshake, which is not true.
Many people also carry a false belief that they are not susceptible to AIDS
as they belong to a particular ethnic group or sexual orientation. Many
young adults believe that th eir risk of HIV is almost negligible since they
are heterosexual and belong to White race. Egocentricism prevents them
from realizing that everyone is susceptible to HIV. Social norms too
influence their decision to label their behavior as risk or not ris ky.
b) Stage 2: Commitment to engaging in low risk activities :
Apart from knowing which behaviors are risky or safe, the step is that a
person should feel committed to risk reduction behaviors. There should be
consistency in his/her behavior. The person s hould be able to judge the
pros and cons as well as cost -benefit analysis of his risky behavior. This
judgement will impact his commitment to adhere to safe behavior
practices. Commitment also gets impacted by the social norms or the
prevalence of safe beh avior patterns in the peer group as well as self
efficacy of a person. If a person feels that he/she can practice safe
behavior easily, the chances are higher that he/she will practice it, but if
the person finds it too cumbersome, effortful and does not t hink that he
can follow it, then he/she will not adhere to it. .
c) Stage 3: Enacting the commitment to reduce risky activities :
Commitment to safe behavior will become stronger if the person can
overcome financial, environmental and psychological hurdles . This will
require high communication skills, ability to seek help if necessary,
The ARRM model proposes that to go through these three stages
successfully, it is important that a person has an optimum amount of
anxiety about AIDS. That anxiety will prop el a person to label his
behaviors as risky or non -risky, motivate him to make a strong
commitment to change his risky sexual behavior to safe behavior.
Finally to be effective, an intervention program :
 Must have latest information about the causes, sympt oms,
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120  Information should be given not only related to HIV but of human
sexuality in general also, especially for teenagers.
 Information can be passed on through various means such as group
discussions, role play, videos, music and being sensitive to
sociocultural factors of the target group.
Using Festinger and Carlsmith’s (1959) theory of cognitive dissonance,
risk reduction behavior can be induced through counter attitudinal
advocacy technique and public commitment techn ique. Similarly, attitude
towards risky behavior can be changed by presenting information that
weakens their beliefs and evaluations of the risk. The new arguments can
be presented in a subtle manner by a significant referent from their social
world. Effor ts can be made to present the idea through peers and other
referents that risk reduction behavior is the norm.
Cancer: Risk & Prevention :
There are not many scientific studies linking psychological factors and
cancer. There are many psychological, social and environmental factors
that can cause the initiation and progress of cancer. Various studies have
been conducted to link psychosocial variables with cancer, such as stress,
anxiety, hostility, bereavement, overall low quality of life, depressed
mood; ps ychosis, especially schizophrenia; suppression of emotions -
especially anger, especially anger, trauma, grief, helplessness and
hopelessness, defensiveness, poor social support, poor family and
romantic relationships. However, these studies have thrown up m ixed
results. Some studies found relationship between psychological variable
and cancer and some did not find any conclusive relationship.
Other factors that are identified, though not conclusively, as cancer
causing are age, hereditary factors, obesity, sedentary life style, diet,
immunosuppression, alcohol, smoking, chronic inflammation, radiation,
etc.
Prevention:
Based on risk factors some various obvious preventive measures are to
maintain healthy weight, physically active life style, including gree ns in
the diet and junking the junk food, quitting smoking and alcohol, getting
regular screening done as one ages, getting vaccinated against human
papillomavirus to prevent cervical, vaginal, vulvar, anal, rectal,
oropharyngeal (throat), and penile cance rs.
Apart from these measures, Kreuter et.al. (2007) pointed out that narrative
forms of communication —including entertainment education, journalism,
literature, testimonials, and storytelling —have emerged as important tools
for cancer prevention and contr ol

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121 7.4 SUMMARY For centuries together, thinkers and psychologists have been interested to
determine what can be labelled as mental illness, what are its causes and
treatments. The understanding of mental illness has been influenced by the
prevailing soci al norms and culture of that time and geographical location.
Till today there is no universal definition of mental illness. Psychologists
have been trying to bring it from the realm of subjectivity to objectivity so
that there can be uniformity in diagnose and treatment of these mental
illnesses. Initially while designing an intervention plan, the psychiatrists
used to emphasis on an individual, the patient, but gradually it has dawned
on them that patient and his present problem are not only due to individ ual
factors but also influenced by his social world. It is important to pay
attention to his family, workplace, relatives and friends as well as to social
norms and culture of that society from where this patient comes. The
research also pointed out that v ery often diagnoses and intervention is
coloured by psychiatrists’ own biases. This was very evident in the
discrimination of availability and quality of health care given to people
from minorities, migrants, gender and poor socio -economic status
compared to White men. Apart from mental health, risk factors and
prevention of some of the physical diseases, such as, HIV/AIDS and
cancer is also discussed
7.5 QUESTIONS a) Discuss various models of causation of mental health.
b) Describe various risk factors t o HIV/AIDS.
c) How can we reduce risk behavior related to HIV/AIDS?
7.6 REFERENCES  Ahuja, R. (2012). Social Problems in India (2nd ed.). New Delhi:
Rawat Publications.
 Dallos, R., & McLaughlin, E. (2002). Social Problems and The
Family. New Delhi: Sage P ublications Pvt. Ltd.
 Kreuter, M. W., Green, M. C., Cappella, J. N., Slater, M. D., Wise, M.
E., Storey, D., Clark, E. M., O'Keefe, D. J., Erwin, D. O., Holmes, K.,
Hinyard, L. J., Houston, T., & Woolley, S. (2007). Narrative
communication in cancer preven tion and control: a framework to
guide research and application. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 33(3),
221–235. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02879904
 McKirnan, D. J., Ostrow, D. G., & Hope, B. (1996). Sex, drugs and
escape: A psychological model of HIV -risk s exual behaviours. AIDS
Care, 8(6), 655 -670. DOI: 10.1080/09540129650125371 munotes.in

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122  Misra, G. (1990). Applied Social Psychology in India. New Delhi:
Sage publication.
 Nagar, D. (2006). Environmental Psychology. New Delhi: Concept
Publishing Company.
 Prabhakar, V. ( 2012). Social Problems: Issues and Perspective. New
Delhi: Wisdom Press.
 Prasad, B. K. (2004). Social Problems of India (Vol 1 & 2). New
Delhi: Anmol Publications.
 Sanders -Phillips, K. (2002). Factors influencing HIV/AIDS in women
of color. Public Health R eports (Washington, D.C.: 1974), 117(Suppl
1), S151 –S156.
 Schneider, F. W., Gruman, J. A., & Coutts, L. M. (2005). Applied
Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and
Practical Problems. New Delhi: Sage publication Pvt. Ltd.
 Steg, L., Bunnk, A. P., & Rothengatter, T. (2008). Applied Social
Psychology: Understanding and Managing Social Problems.
 Szasz, T. S. (1971). From the slaughterhouse to the madhouse.
Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice, 8(1), 64 –67.
https://doi.org/10.1037/h008662 6
 Sansone, C., Morf, C. C., & Panter, A. T. (2004). Handbook of
Methods in Social Psychology. New Delhi: Sage Publication.
 Whitcomb, S. A., & Merrell, K. W. (2013). Behavioral, Social, and
Emotional Assessment of Children and Adolescents: Fourth edition.
New York: Routledge.

*****

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123 8
APPLYING SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY TO
HEALTH, FAMILIES, MEDIA AND
ENVIRONMENT -II
Unit structure
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Marital and family problems: Divorce, separation, and domestic
violence
8.3 Media (violence, pornography, political news cove rage) and
environment (urbanization, crowding, personal space): Challenges
and protective measures
8.3.1 Violence
8.3.2 Pornography
8.3.3 Political news coverage
8.3.4 Environment: urbanization, crowding, personal space
8.4 Summary
8.5 Questions
8.6 References
8.0 OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, you will be able to understand
 Various problems associated with domestic violence and separation.
 The influence of media on behavior, especially the influence of
violent content, pornography and polit ical news coverage on behavior.
 The influence of environmental factors such as urbanization,
crowding and personal space on human behavior.
8.1 INTRODUCTION Domestic violence has been there from time immemorial. Feminist
movement highlighted the adverse ef fects of domestic violence. Research
has been carried out to find the causes and intervention of domestic
violence. Since it is such a common and persistent phenomenon, there Is a
need to look at this social malice.
With advancement of communication techn ology, media has become an
integral part of our daily lives and has a significant influence on
everyone’s lives. It is increasingly consumed by people irrespective of
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124 evident, especially in case of TV programs running 24 hours, that over the
years the violent content, sexual content and political coverage has
increased tremendously. It is important to see how this nature of media
content influences people. Media has a significa nt influence on what kind
of information people get exposed to and on the fate of political
candidates.
The term urbanization can be explained in two ways, one on the basis of
size and density of population and other is on the basis of social
psychologica l aspects such as heterogeity of the population and the social
fabric of such population. Another way of defining urbanization is in
terms of movement of population from rural area to urban area, i.e., from
villages to cities. Urbanization encompassing the problems of crowding
and lack of personal space and has tremendous impact on the environment
- behavior relationship. In this unit we will be looking at some of the
influences of media and environment on human behavior.
8.2 MARITAL AND FAMILY PROBLEMS: DIVORCE, SEPARATION, AND DOMESTIC
VIOLENCE 8.2.1 Divorce, separation:
Family disorganization gets reflected in desertion, separation, physical and
verbal violence and finally into divorce. Such disintegration takes place
when the intimate relationships with in the family break down. Intimate
relationships break down when both husband and wife’s individual needs,
desires, aspirations are not met or there is clash of attitudes and
personalities. Both husband and wife’s needs, desires and attitudes are
rapidly c hanging as their life styles are changing, their set gender roles and
status within the family are changing, but the social norms are too rigid
and are not changing accordingly. The societal norms, work organizations
and family put different demands on the couple and stress them both.
Apart from social demands, other factors that contribute to disintegration
of modern families are personal factors such as myths or unrealistic
expectations about romance, different temperaments and life values,
certain beha vior patterns, economic viability of surviving separately,
fading of stigma attached to divorce, etc. Other personal factors can be
that either of the partners feels that he/she is not loved, respected,
appreciated, and trusted by the other partner. There might be domestic
violence in terms of physical and/or psychological abuse, and
miscommunication in the family. One partner might perceive the other
partner as selfish in terms of time, money and caring. One partner may be
addicted to alcohol or drugs, or there might be religious differences where
no partner is willing to make any adjustments.
8.2.2 Domestic violence:
Domestic violence has become the focal point of public debates after it
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125 that there are two assumptions prevailing about the family in traditional
social norms -
a) Family is a private entity and family members have absolute right to
say or do anything within the confines of their own home. Outsiders
are not expected to interfere in any way.
b) No matter what the problems are or how serious the problems are,
family members are not expected to seek help from outside or even to
confide to any body out side the family.
In case of first assumption, Feminists have rightly as ked that whose rights
in the family are being protected? In 18th and 19th century, husbands had
total rights over their wives. They were dominant and used any means,
including violence, to control their wives. Though in modern times, social
norms are modif ied and husbands are not supposed to dominate or use
violence against their wives, yet the ground reality has not changed much.
Though in present times, the law has become quite favorable to women,
yet women often find it difficult to seek help from police due to the
assumption that husband is superior than wife and family is a private
entity.
Domestic violence here refers to harm being caused by husband to wife
with the intention of controlling her and keep her fearful and subordinate
to him. This violen ce can be of different types, such as, physical,
emotional, sexual, spiritual, cultural, financial violence, verbal abuse and
neglect.
Causes of violence:
The arguments given for causes of domestic violence can be categorized
into two parts :
1. Private o r within family factors:
In this category, arguments include individual pathology and faulty
interactions within the family.
Private: Instincts and Pathology :
This argument emphasizes that man is inherently or instinctly a violent
creature, and his aggre ssive nature comes out when he is under threat or
frustration. Women are considered to be high on nurturing instinct, so
there are gender differences in violent behavior. This argument discounts
the fact that human beings are capable of thinking, planning and reflecting
on their own thoughts, emotions and behaviors and communicate them to
others. However, in reality, there are men who are not aggressive and
there are women who aggress substantially.
Psychodynamic theories also suggest that frustration of o ther basic
instincts leads to aggression. It is believed that in childhood boys are
encouraged to be afraid of any kind of dependency or showing their
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126 fear of losing wife and becomes a t rigger for domestic violence. However,
these theories do not state that aggression is an ineffective of satisfying
other basic instincts.
Another line of argument proposes that women are masochistic and like to
be dominated, violently raped and pain. Thi s theory is extremely harmful
for women. If they internalize this argument then they will accept the
violence caused to them as a normal thing.
The Pathological discourse
Psychologists have tried to unravel the differences between men who beat
their wive s and those who don’t. Similarly, they have also tried to find out
the difference in women are beaten up and those who are not, as well as
those who leave abusive relationship and those who don’t. It is assumed
that these differences will show the causes o f violence.
The Men :
On one hand it was believed that men are inherently aggressive and on the
other hand it was believed that batterers are pathological. In both cases,
men were not accountable for their behavior. In first case, they can’t help
it since aggression is a natural tendency they are born with and in second
case, since they are suffering from some abnormality, so they can’t be held
responsible for their behavior.
Dobash and Dobash (1992) said that theorists believe that abusive men
have had a n abnormal, insecure, rejecting or depriving childhood. Their
needs for attachment and dependency has been not satisfied and they have
unresolved conflicts with their parents, especially mothers. They were
angry as well as fearful of their mothers’ power t o deprive them of their
needs. The anger or aggression they felt due to these unresolved conflicts
is displaced and taken out on wives. They are actually frightened
victimized bullies who experience pain, anger and mood swings due to
these unmet needs in c hildhood and that is expressed as violence in later
life.
Another argument is that men have learnt to be violent either through
observation or their own experiences. Either they have seen in their
childhood, their mothers getting thrashed by their fathe rs or they
themselves have been thrashed by their fathers. This is often known as the
‘cycle of deprivation’ or the intergenerational hypothesis. However, this
hypothesis is not fully supported by other studies. There are men who
have not witnessed violenc e at home or never got beaten but turn out to be
violent husbands, and there are men who have been victim of violence in
their childhood and yet never beaten their wives. So, this hypothesis
mainly serves the purpose of letting off men from taking responsi bility for
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127 The Women :
Psychologists have attributed faulty/abnormal childhood as a reason for
women who tolerate abusive behavior of their husbands and keep coming
back to them in spite of violence. Some theorists justify husbands’ viol ent
behavior by saying that wives have personality traits (such as nagging or
being manipulative) that provoke men to be violent. Edwards(1989)
explained that battered women are unable or unwilling to leave abusive
marriage or seek help due to learned help lessness and powerlessness. They
believe their batterers to be very powerful and are scared of them. But
Dobash and Dobash (1980) disagreed with this argument and said that
women do not feel helpless in other areas of their lives. They argued that
women do not approach police and seek help because domestic violence is
shrouded in secrecy and shame.
Dobash and Dobash (1992) identified some personality traits that
differentiate battered women from nonbattered women. Some of these
traits were inability to cop e, a tendency to withdraw, introspection,
shyness, manipulativeness, masochism to ‘dissatisfaction with current
status’.
Some of the irritating traits were woman’s dowdiness, inability to manage
the family and home, intelligence, sullen silence, nagging, depression,
frigidity and incapacity for deep emotional warmth (Gayford,1978).
Theorists pointed out that some of the personality traits such as nagging
and silence were seen as cause of provoking violence in men. In any case,
wife was always blamed for in stigating violent reactions from her poor
husband.
Studies have shown that women who are financially dependent on
husbands and have small children to look after are more likely to remain
in abusive relationship, as they don’t want to cause any financial o r
emotional suffering for their children.
Though men get angry, frustrated and resent it if their wives are too
independent and try to bring the balance back in their favor by being
violent and thus showing their physical superiority, yet, women who are
financially independent are less likely to be abused because they have
higher opportunity to escape violence and men too will think about the
cost of using violence.
2. Public or socio -economic and ideological factors
Abusive relationships exemplify, in ex tremis, the stereotypical gender
arrangements that structure intimacy between men and women generally.
Goldner et al. (1990) posited that family relationships are influenced by
social norms within a given society. Generally, families with abusive
relations hips tend to have rigidly specified gender roles that are
exaggerated. These gender roles, either directly or indirectly, are
transmitted to children. Children witness a repetitive pattern of arguments,
violent interactions, and conflicts in which their pa rents are ensnared.
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128 constitutes appropriate ways of thinking and feeling for men and women
within their own families.
Most women feel that it is crucial for them to faithfully play their ge nder
roles, even at the cost of ignoring their own needs, thoughts, and feelings;
therefore, they endure violence.
8.3 MEDIA: CHALLENGES AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES 8.3.1 Violence:
Since TV has become an integral part of every family’s life all over the
world and TV programs are available for 24 hours through out the year,
many studies have been carried out to study the impact of TV programs on
people. Especially, studies have been carried out to understand whether
watching violent programs has any impact on th e behavior of the people.
Many surveys conducted in America reported that the percentage of
intentional physical violence has increased tremendously in films and
dramas and even in comedy shows, shows for children, music videos and
video games.
The Conseq uences of viewing media violence:
There are many myths about the violence. For instance, one myth is that
only violent people watch violent TV programs. This is not supported with
empirical evidence, but Huesmann, Moise -Titus, Podolski, & Eron, (2003)
did report from their longitudinal study that more aggressive behavior is
displayed by those young adults who have been watching violent TV
programs right from their childhood. They tend to identify with aggressive
TV characters and believe those violent TV pr ograms to be a reality. This
accumulated aggression from childhood to adulthood was found
irrespective of socioeconomic status, intellectual ability, and a variety of
parenting factors.
Another false belief is that watching violent content on TV generates
cathartic effect, i.e., it lets out safely all the violence stored within a
person. However, the truth is that watching violent TV programs do effect
people as corroborated by numerous scientific studies in social
psychology. For instance, Hennigan et.al. (1982) conducted a quasi -
experiment in America to find out the impact of television viewing in
general on instrumental aggression and violent criminal behavior. They
compared two sets of cities and states - one who started telecast of TV
programs from 195 0 and those who started from 1952 or after that. They
correlated the data of TV viewership with crime rates in those cities. They
found that in both cities and states crime rate did increase initially even
though the percentage of violent content in progra ms was not very high.
The crime rate went up for non -violent crimes such as theft, robbery,
pilfering, etc. because there were too many advertisements showing upper
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129 did not conclu sively show a direct link between violent behavior and TV
viewing but nonviolent crimes are also indirect way of harming others.
In another quasi -experiment conducted in Canada, three types of cities
were compared - a.) Notel - a city with no television s tation, b.) Unitel - a
city with one television station, c.) Multitel - a city with many TV stations.
The results showed that higher viewing of television was related to
increased physical and verbal aggression in children, more rigid traditional
sex rol es are formed and participation in community activities decreased.
Higher TV viewing makes adolescents more reckless, they tend to drive at
very high speed, experiment with drugs, practice unprotected sex that may
lead to higher probability of contracting AIDS or unwanted pregnancies.
Playing video games or watching video games and exposure to comic
books meant for adolescents also leads to same results as watching violent
TV programs.
These studies may give an impression that there is a causal relationsh ip
between violence and exposure to violent media content. But the
relationship is not that simple. There can be many other causes for violent
behavior, e.g., gender (generally males are more aggressive than females),
aggressive personalities, past experie nce of being abused in childhood,
cultural factors, frustration, anger, environmental factors triggering the
aggression such as loud noise, high temperature, crowing, etc.
Imitation of Violence: Bandura explained violent behavior in the light of
social co gnitive theory. According to him, violent behavior is learnt
through imitation. There are four stages of this learning -
a) Paying attention:
We tend to pay more attention to most noticeable and attractive behavior
of others. Media violence is most noticea ble and attractive act happening
more frequently and naturally catches the attention of the viewers.
b) The Representational Process:
The viewers not only watch the modeled behavior , they also tend to
rehearse it in their mind, thus increasing the chanc es of recalling it easily
later on.
c) Behavioral Production Process :
The viewers can generalize the observed learnt behavior to related
situations as well as to new settings.
d) The Motivational Process:
Though viewers are exposed to various types of acts, they do not
reproduce each and every act that they have observed. Their motivation
determines which acts will be performed by them. If they watch violent
behavior getting rewarded or if they find such behavior as justified , they
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130 justifying it similarly. For example, they may justify their violent behavior
due to the need for self -defense, or paying back in the same coin to unjust
behavior of others. They might be motivated to ind ulge in violent behavior
because they identify the violent models in the TV programs or they may
be desensitized to violence and feel that there is nothing wrong in
behaving in violent way. Empirical studies have shown that children who
are desensitized to violence are less likely to indulge in prosocial behavior.
Media violence and aggressive thoughts
Berkowitz’s (1984) explained the prevalence of violent behavior through
neoassociationistic model of media priming. He explained that mere
presence of a we apon can trigger aggressive thoughts and lead to
aggression. Of course, it also depends on the frequency and duration of the
priming. A TV program having many instances of violence and having
graphic details of the violence will act as powerful prime.
Cult ivation theory:
According to cultivation theory, higher the amount of watching TV
programs, more the viewers believe that the world is a dangerous and
mean place. Especially, the local news shows lots of realistic violence and
that causes anxiety among vie wers as this violence seems to be closer to
their homes. However, this relationship is more of a circular relationship
and not a causal one.
Countering the effects of violence in the media:
To safe guard children and adolescents from watching violent cont ent on
TV, rating system was developed that indicates which films or programs
are inappropriate for children to watch. However, the rating system has
not proved to be very effective as prohibition generates psychological
reactance, extra curiosity and inte rest among children and adolescents to
watch those programs.
Based on Bandura’s social cognitive theory, it was suggested that if Tv
programs show that violence does not fetch reward, rather it leads to
punishment or if these programs also show what the victim of violence
thinks and feels, thus generating empathy among viewers, the chances of
violent behavior occurring will be less. Research studies have supported
this argument of social cognitive theory.
8.3.2 Pornography:
Any sexually explicit material that openly shows sexual activities with
close up of aroused genitals and oral, anal or vaginal penetration can be
defined as pornography. Such material is available online as well as
offline and is capable of sexually arousing a viewer.
Pornography is d ifferent from simulated sex or embedded sex material
shown in films or TV shows. Embedded sexual material is encased within
a story and is not the main part of the story, while pornography is
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131 line. Research on pornography has studied three types of pornography -
erotica, nonviolent pornography and violent pornography. To investigate
the harmful effects of any of these three types of pornography, researchers
have conducted correlation al studies. They correlated the availability of
pornography and the number of sex - crime, such as rape, exhibitionism,
and voyeurism, in various countries. These correlational studies across
various countries found mixed results, some found high correlati on
between availability of pornography and sex related crime rate while other
studies found very low correlation. Allen, D’Alessio, & Brezgel, (1995)
conducted a meta -analysis of 30 experimental studies conducted in
laboratory conditions on pornography and its impact on violent behavior.
These studies had various moderating variables such as different types of
pornography, gender of the target of violence, level of prior anger, level of
arousal, etc. They concluded from these studies that though nude pictur es
and nonviolent pornography do generate more aggressive behavior post
viewing, but watching violent pornography produces much more
aggression than watching nonviolent pornography. Mulac, Jansma, &
Linz,( 2002) reported that men tend to become more callou s and
dominant, in a subtle manner, towards women after watching nonviolent
pornography, even for a short duration.
Effects of Long -term exposure to nonviolent pornography:
Hald et.al.(2010) conducted a meta -analysis of correlational studies to find
out the relationship between men’s long term consumption of pornography
and their attitudes of approving violence against women. They found
small but statistically significant positive correlation between viewing
pornography and negative attitudes towards women . Long term exposure
here refers to watching five hours of pornographic content over 6 weeks’
time. Since these were correlational studies, one cannot say that
pornography watching causes negative attitude towards women, it can be
other way round that peop le having negative attitude tend to watch
pornography more. However, Allen et.al. (1995) conducted meta -analysis
of both experimental and non -experimental studies relating the acceptance
of rape myth ( as “In the majority of rapes, the victim is promiscuous or
has a bad reputation,”, “Any healthy woman can successfully resist a
rapist if she really wants to”) and watching pornography. In their meta -
analysis too, non -experimental studies did not show much effect of
pornography watching on negative attitude to wards women but
experimental studies did show a positive significant link between the two
variables. Experimental studies further indicated that men who had anger
issue or were having hostile attitude towards women developed more
negative attitude towards women after watching non -violent pornography.
Zillmann and Bryant (1988) reported the empirical findings that prolonged
viewing of pornography affects the family values. Those who viewed
pornography for a longer period showed higher tolerance for extramar ital
sex, increased belief in natural promiscuity of male and female and
repression of sexual needs as unhealthy, and considered being faithful to
one partner as less important. They did not consider marriage as an
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132 dominance of males and servitude of females. Not only men, even women
showed similar attitudes after watching pornography for a long time. In
another experiment, Zillmann and Bryant (1986) showed that people
exposed to pro longed non -violent pornography shift their preference in
watching non -conventional or different types of pornography such as
bondage, sadomasochism, bestiality tapes, etc. These results are in tandem
with cultivation theory and show that prolonged exposure to even non -
violent pornography changes the social reality, especially reality about the
sex and sexual relationships, for its viewers.
Effects of Exposure to Sexual Violence:
Empirical studies carried on men show that even a very short exposure to
embed ded sexually violent material has many negative effects, such as -
a) Heightened sexual arousal
b) Increased rape fantasies and acceptance of rape myths
c) Increased desensitization to embedded violent sexual acts
d) Increased acceptance of violence tow ards women and increased
tolerance towards rapists.
Reducing the Harmful Effects of Exposure to Violent Sexual
Material:
Harmful effects of either embedded or explicit pornography can be
reduced by following these given steps -
1. To put a legal ban:
On the distribution or sale of such material. However, in practical terms it
is not a very effective method. People find ways to circumvent the law and
such a law will be in clash with the right to free exercise of speech.
2. To give critical viewing trainin g:
Another way to control the harmful effects of viewing pornography is to
educate people about its harmful effects. This will people’s astuteness and
they will make wise choices. Research studies have shown the
effectiveness of such training in reducing the aggressive behavior of
children and the positive effects were long lasting.
3. To debrief the people after they watch the violent sexuality :
Debriefing is similar to critical viewing training, except that it is for much
shorter duration and written a t the end of the video. Debriefing basically
means giving information to the participants about the negative effects of
such exposure as well as countering the myths about rape. Allen
et.al.(1996) reported that educational briefings do reduce the negative
impact of exposure to embedded sexual material. The problem is that first
of all producers of such video will be reluctant to put debriefing as a
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133 debriefing at the end of the movie, as w e have seen it for other behaviors.
For example, there is a statutory warning given on every cigarette box but
smokers don’t read it or see through it.
4. Give Prebriefing :
To avoid the problems of post briefing, one can warn people before they
view the p ornography. These prebriefings should openly and directly warn
people about the negative effects, such as, desensitization and callousness
that may occur, of people.
Alternatively, sex education can be imparted to people detailing the
gender differences i n the sexual signals, communication skills and
sensitivity and consideration for one’s partner. It should also counter the
myths related to sexual behavior of both genders.
For larger reach to audience, one can use movies, you tube videos, etc. to
dispel the myths related to rape and violent pornography. Allen
et.al.(1996) found prebriefings to be more effective than debriefings.
8.3.3. Political news coverage:
Since the era of first world war, it has become evident that media can
change the way people l ook at the world and its reality. This was aptly
brought out in a book “Public Opinion” written and published by Walter
Lippmann in 1922. Yet till 1960s, people and especially politicians
believed that media has no influence on the thoughts of the people a s well
as on their voting behavior. However, gradually the power of media in
changing the perceptions and thought process of people was realized by
social scientists, and by late 1980s, politicians too, were fully aware of
media’s power in influencing the public opinion.
The media can determine, through media coverage, which issues the
public should think about or consider important is known as ‘agenda
setting’. For example, in 1989, media coverage of drug menace in
America shaped public thinking, or set t he public agenda, that drug issue
is an important one. In such situation, the reality is not important but the
public agenda set by the media coverage becomes important determinant
in deciding how public will react. For instance, in 1989, when media
covera ge set the public agenda that drug problem is an important issue, in
reality the drug problem was on decline.
There are basically three types of agenda:
The public agenda includes the issues that the public thinks are
important.
The policy agenda include s the issues that government officials and
policy makers think are important.
The media agenda includes the issues that the media are covering
extensively. The media coverage of an issue makes it more noticeable.
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134 graphic pictures, covers it for a longer duration and it is covered by all of
the media.
We already know that according to the availability heuristic people make
decisions on the basis of whatever information they can easily ac cess from
their memory, the first thing that comes to their mind.
Research on these three types of agenda indicated that very often the
media decides what should be the public’s agenda and then public
determines what should be the policy agenda. But the p olicy agenda too
can determine the media agenda.
There is a debate going on whether internet can erode the agenda setting
function of the media. It is argued that on internet people have the option
of deciding on which topics they would like to receive th e latest news
instead of media deciding what news to give to the consumer. Gottfried
and Shearer(2016) reported from a survey that more and more people are
choosing to get news from social media. Social media can jeopardize the
agenda setting function of o ther media agencies by sharing political
information incidentally to even those who were not searching for it.
Internet portals move the stories to prominent locations on the basis of
how many times it has been clicked and how many responses it has
garnere d. Thus, internet can allow people to determine the importance and
salience of a story. However, research indicates that in spite of threat from
internet, traditional media still has more power to set the agenda (Shehata
& Stromback, 2013). The reason is t hat internet portals are mainly news
aggregators, they only collect published information from traditional news
agencies, they are not the producers of information.
Political Priming:
Political priming indicates that media influences which information a
person is likely to use to make his judgment about a political candidate.
For instance, in 1991, American president Bush was very popular and was
expected to win elections in 1992. But he lost elections in 1992. Analysis
of the role of media in Bush’s defeat indicated that in 1991 Bush was
popular because media was focused (priming) on Bush’s success on
international issues and people judged his overall success on the basis of
this priming, but in 1992 media highlighted (primed) his failure on
domestic issues and that led to his decreasing popularity and he lost,
because people judged his overall performance on the basis of his
performance in domestic issues and not in international issues. Political
Priming effect is long lasting while media priming of viole nce is short
lived.
Framing the story:
A reporter can present a story from various different angles. Framing
refers to the way a story was presented or the focus of the story was
chosen. Frame of the story will determine which aspects of the story are
highlighted and which issues are deemphasized. Framing also plays an
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135 Negative Political Campaign:
A political campaign is termed as negative campaign when it highlights
the undesirable char acteristics of the opponent, indicating that the
opponent is loathsome. It does not talk about the stand taken by that
opponent on certain issues. Empirical studies have highlighted that media,
through negative coverage, can play a significant role in redu cing the
confidence in the government. It is also found that reduced trust in
government correlates with growing cynicism about the effectiveness of
any political reforms. Low confidence in government and negative
campaign about opponent leads to low rate of voter turnout at the time of
elections and ultimately this might reduce the country’s ability to deal
with any crisis. If both contests run negative campaign about each other,
both contests are seen in poor light and voting is seen as a lose -lose
situat ion.
8.3.4 Environment: urbanization, crowding, personal space
Urbanization:
Urbanization refers to people moving from rural area to urban areas,
moving from agricultural, community -based activities to trade,
manufacture, government jobs, etc. It also m eans change in the attitudes,
beliefs, values and behavior pattern of people migrating from rural to
urban areas.
Urbanism refers to life style. A society that is based on complex division
of labour, higher technology, higher mobility, interdependence of its
members in economic activities and yet high impersonality in social
relations.
Louis Wirth(1938:49) identified four characteristics of urbanism -
1. Transiency: People in urban area keep forgetting his own friends and
relatives and develops new relat ions. They do not have strong
emotional ties with neighbors or others and do not feel bad when they
leave and others come in their place.
2. Superficiality: They interact with very limited number of people and
that too in a very formal and impersonal mann er. They all have very
segmented roles and depend on each other to satisfy their life needs.
3. Anonymity: They do not know each other intimately.
4. Individualism: People in urban areas give more importance to their
own vested interests.
Apart from th ese four characteristics, Urbanism is characterized by more
emphasis on materialism and less on interpersonal communication. There
is social heterogeneity. Social heterogeneity reduces the informal control
or social norms that regulate the social behavior of the people. People get
exposed to new ideas and practices coming from different cultures and
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136 People are differentiated on the basis of their occupations, class, living
standards and social beliefs.
Due to urbanization, joint families are replaced with nuclear families. The
size of the family is reducing. Maximum number of women are also
entering work force in urban areas, so gender roles are also changing.
Power dynamics within families are changing. From ‘husband dominated’
families are becoming ‘equalitarian’ families. Equal emphasis is given to
girl’s and boy’s education. Stigma attached to divorce and remarriage is
evaporating. Parents are also not imposing their authority ov er their
children and consulting their grown -up children over important family
matters. Youngsters obey parents out of respect and not out of fear.
Relations with one’s distant relatives are breaking or weakening.
However, urbanization has its own specifi c problems such as house
lessness and mushrooming of slums. Crowing and depersonalization, i.e.,
people’s apathy to others’ problems is a major problem. Other major
problems are lack of or insufficient infrastructure and pollution.
Crowding:
When the numb er of people are more than the area available per person, it
is considered as crowd. Crowding is having too many people at the same
place at the same time. This can be defined as physical density too. But
there is a difference in physical density and crow ding. Physical density is
an objective phenomenon while crowding is a subjective feeling of being
cramped or being uncomfortable due to others’ presence. In the same
situation of physical density, one person may experience crowding while
another person may not consider it as crowding. So, we can say crowding
is a psychological phenomenon. the experience of crowding is not a
function of objective (physical or social) conditions but of perception and
evaluation of the situation.
Crowding can lead to emotiona l distress and need for behavioral
adjustments to safe guard one’s personal space. Stimulus overload model
by Desor (1971) proposed crowding leads to too much of stimulation for
an individual and this may cause cognitive confusion, fatigue at physical
level and withdrawal at behavioral level. Behavioural Constraints Model
given by Proshansky et.al. (1970) stated that crowding causes restrictions
for behavioural freedom and that causes psychological reactance and
infringement. This results in withdrawal and deterioration of interpersonal
relationships. The lack of control model also explains that under high
density situation people become more stressful because of inability to cope
with the environment.
Stokols (1978) stated that the experience of crowding takes place due to
the perception of lack of control over environment and desire to transform
physically and psychologically to gain more control. Attribution model of
crowding is based on the Schachter and Singer theory of emotion. The
physiological measu res of arousal such as high BP, skin conductance,
cortical level increase have been reported under high density conditions.
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137 hence crowding as a psychological state is experienced by the i ndividual
on the basis of population density as mediated by physical resources and
coping mechanisms.
Effects of Long -Term crowding :
Karlin et.al. (1979) reported from a study carried out on students living in
a hostel. If three students were living in roo ms meant for two students,
they found it overcrowded and this reduced their academic performance.
Students living in dormitories wanted to avoid each other. Stress levels
increased with passing time and a feeling of helplessness grew.
In another study, Mi sra and Tiwari(1987) too found that at homes, larger
the number of siblings, these negatively related with the performance on
cognitive measures and this relationship was stronger in urban rather than
rural settings.
Other studies reported that crowding in creased arousal level and
distraction, therefore, decreased concentration, persistence and thereby
inhibited the performance. It also caused delays and postponements of
goal activity, increases aggression as well as the suicide rate, decreased
prosocial be havior.
However, people do not get so stressed by crowding if they are ensured
that their personal space would be protected by some formal rule.
Personal space :
Personal space refers to an invisible boundary around the body of a person
in which intrusion is allowed at the discretion of the person. It is like a
small protective bubble encasing a person. Any unwanted intrusion in this
space by others is seen as a threat and the person whose personal space is
invaded will be uncomfortable. He may withdraw or react violently.
Personal space is dynamic. It changes based on with whom the person is
interacting and under what context and circumstances.
Hall (1986) proposed that there are four types of personal spaces in social
interactions. These are -
1. Intima te distance : This ranges from 0 - 8 inches. At this distance of
social interaction, both partners can get strong sensory inputs such as
smell, body heat, breathing sound, etc. Generally only romantic
partner is allowed to enter this space or a very close r elative or friend,
that too under certain circumstances.
2. Personal distance : This is the distance of 1.5 feet to 4 feet between
two people. This space is used for interaction by close friends,
colleagues or classmates, etc.
3. Social distance : This c overs range of four feet to 12 feet and is used
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138 4. Public distance : Public place refers to more than 12 feet distance
between a public speaker and the audience. Very often it is used by
politicians while addressing rallies.
These four types of personal spaces differ depending on the psychosocial
and cultural factors as well as the situations. In social interaction, the
personal space can differ based on gender, age, social status, personality,
familiarity with the other person, for example, Wiggins (1979) reported
that personality traits such as dominance , warmth, extroversion/
introversion are associated with personal space.
8.4 SUMMARY Disintegration of families, such as, divorce and separat ion has become
very common prevalence as the stigma against family disintegration is
fading, women are gaining economic independence and gender roles are
changing. However, in spite of all the changes taking place in gender
roles, domestic violence still r emains an ugly reality as there is still
assumption of husband being superior to women and family being a
private entity where family members are free to do whatever they like
without interference from outsiders. In fact, very often even law regulatory
agencies, extended family members and friends, neighbors, etc. are also
hesitant to interfere in complaints of domestic violence. Psychologists
have been researching about the possible causes behind men being violent
and aggressive towards their wives. Some t heorists believe that men are
inherently aggressive, while others postulated that may be adverse
childhood experiences, unresolved conflicts result in frustration,
aggression and finally violence against the easy target, i.e., wife. Still
others believe th at violent behavior is a learnt behavior and children learn
them as gender roles while growing up in families where their mothers are
battered by their fathers. Girls also internalize these gender roles and
accept enduring the sufferings as part of their g ender role.
Media has become an integral part of our lives in modern times. It is
believed that children learn violent behavior through exposure to violent
content in films, TV programs and cartoon magazines, right from their
childhood and aggression has an accumulative property and such children
turn out to be aggressive adolescents. It is a myth that watching violent
programs has a cathartic effect. Similarly, it was found that violent
pornography not only increases the desensitization towards aggression but
also weakens the family values. Various methods have been used to
restrict the viewing of violent pornography but only Prebriefing seems to
be effective.
Few years back, the significant role of media in determining the fate of a
political candidate b ecame apparent when president Bush lost to Bill
Clinton in spite of having popularity just few months before elections. The
reason was that media had changed the agenda and political priming few
months before the elections. Research further showed that fra ming of the
story and negative campaign of political candidate also have significant
influence on voting behavior of the people. munotes.in

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Applying Social Psychology To Health, Families, Media And Environment-II
139 Environmental concerns, especially urbanization, crowding and personal
space are attracting lot of attention of common man, po liticians and
researchers as well. Urbanization is changing the social fabric of the
society. Joint families are breaking, people are becoming more
individualistic, materialistic and flexible about the social norms.
Urbanization has its own advantages as w ell as disadvantages. Similarly, it
was emphasized that crowding is different from physical density and is a
subjective or psychological phenomenon. The sense of crowding differs
from person to person and from occasion to occasion. Personal space is an
invisible bubble around a person’s body. A person feels alarmed,
uncomfortable or disgusted if an unwanted intruder enters this personal
space. This personal space can be of four types - intimate, personal, social
and public space.
8.5 QUESTIONS 1. Why does domestic violence take place?
2. Why do battered wives continue to stay in abusive marital
relationships?
3. What are the consequences of viewing media violence?
4. How media can influence voting behavior of the people?
5. How the effect of media violence can be countered?
6. What is impact of viewing pornography on people?
7. How the negative impact of viewing pornography can be reduced?
8.6 REFERENCES  Ahuja, R. (2012). Social Problems in India (2nd ed.). New Delhi:
Rawat Publications.
 Dallos, R., & McLau ghlin, E. (2002). Social Problems and The
Family. New Delhi: Sage Publications Pvt. Ltd.
 Edwards, S. S. (1989). Policing 'domestic' violence: Women, the law
and the state. Sage Publications, Inc.
 E. Hall, T. Hidaka tr., N. Sato tr. (1986). The hidden dimen sion.
Tokyo.
 Gayford, J. J. (1978). Battered wives. In Martin, J. P. (Ed.), Violence
and the Family. Wiley, New York.
 Gottfried, J., & Shearer, E. (2016, May 26). News use across social
media platforms 2016. Pew Research Center.
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140  Misra, G. (1990). Applied Social Psychology in India. New Delhi:
Sage publication.
 Nagar, D. (2006). Environmental Psychology. New Delhi: Concept
Publishing Company.
 Sansone, C., Morf, C. C., & Panter, A. T. (2004). Handbook of
Methods in Social Psychology. New Delhi: Sage Publicat ion.
 Schneider, F. W., Gruman, J. A., & Coutts, L. M. (2005). Applied
Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and
Practical Problems. New Delhi: Sage publication Pvt. Ltd.
 Shehata, A., & Strömbäck, J. (2013). Not (Yet) a New Era of
Minimal E ffects: A Study of Agenda Setting at the Aggregate and
Individual Levels. The International Journal of Press/Politics, 18(2),
234–255.
 Steg, L., Bunnk, A. P., & Rothengatter, T. (2008). Applied Social
Psychology: Understanding.
 Virginia Goldner, Peggy Penn , Marcia Sheinberg, and Gillian
Walker (1990). Love and Violence: Gender Paradoxes in Volatile
Attachments, 29(4), 343 –364. doi:10.1111/j.1545 -
5300.1990.00343.x.
 Whitcomb, S. A., & Merrell, K. W. (2013). Behavioral, Social, and
Emotional Assessment of Chil dren and Adolescents: Fourth edition.
New York: Routledge.
 Wiggins, J. S. (1979). A psychological taxonomy of trait -descriptive
terms: I. The interpersonal domain. Journal of Personality and Social
Personality, 37, 395 -412.

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