P4_ENG_SLM_RD-munotes

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REVIEW OF AGRICULTURAL POLICIES
Unit structure:
1.1. Objectives
1.2. Introduction
1.3. Agricultural policy
1.4. Objectives of agricultural policy
1.5. Effects of agricultural policy
1.6. Green Revolution
1.7. Effects of Green Revolution on weaker section
1.8. Green Revolution and Rural Develop ment
1.9. Problems in the spread of Green Revolution
1.10. Exercise
1.1 OBJECTIVES
1) To study the Indian Agricultural policy and its objectives.
2) To understand the effects of agricultural policy on rural area.
3) To understand the concept of Green Revolution and
its effec t on weaker section.
4) To study the inter - relationship between Green Revolution and Rural
Development.
5) To examine the problems in the spread of Green Revolution.
1.2 INTRODUCTION
Agriculture is a way of life, a tradition, which, for centuries, has shaped
the thought, the outlook, the culture and the economic life of the people
of India. Agriculture, therefore, is and will continue to be central to all
strategies for planned socio - economic development of the country. Rapid
growth of agriculture is essentia l not only to achieve self -reliance at
national level but also for household food security and to bring about
equity in distribution of income and wealth resulting in rapid reduction in
poverty levels.
Indian agriculture has, since Independence, made rapid strides. In taking
the annual food grains production from 51 million tonnes in early fifties to munotes.in

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2 206 million tonnes at the turn of the century, it has contributed
significantly in achieving self - sufficiency in food and in avoiding food
shortages.
Over 20 0 million Indian farmers and farm workers have been the
backbone of India's agriculture. Despite having achieved national food
security, the well -being of the farming community continues to be a matter
of grave concern for planners and policy - makers. The establishment of an
agrarian economy, which ensures food and nutrition to India's billion
people, raw materials for its expanding industrial base and surpluses for
exports and a fair and equitable reward system for the farming
community for the services the y provide to the society, will be the
mainstay of reforms in the agriculture sector.
The National Policy on Agriculture seeks to actualize the vast untapped
growth potential of Indian agriculture, strengthen rural infrastructure to
support faster agricu ltural development, promote value addition,
accelerate the growth of agro business, create employment in rural areas,
secure a fair standard of living for the farmers and agricultural workers
and their families, discourage migration to urban areas and face the
challenges arising out of economic liberalization and globalization.
1.3 INDIAN AGRICULTURAL POLICY
INDIAN AGRICULTURAL POLICY:
Indian agricultural policy has had the following main elements so far:
1.3.1 Technological measures: Initiation of measures to increase agricultural
production substantially to meet growing needs of the population and also to
provide a base for industrial development included steps to increase both
extensive cultivation and intensive cultivation. For the former, ir rigation
facilities were provided to a large area on an increasing basis and area hitherto
unfit for cultivation was made fit for cultivation. For the latter, new
agricultural strategy was introduced in the form of a package programme in
selected regions of the country in 1966. To sustain and extend this
programme to larger and larger areas of the country, steps were initiated to
increase the production of high-yielding varieties of seeds, fertilizers and
pesticides within the economy and supplement domesti c production by
imports whenever necessary. As a result of these measures, agricultural
production and productivity increased substantially. Food grains production
which was merely 50.8 million tonnes in 1950 - 51 rose to 199.7 million
tonnes in 1996 -97 and s tood at 192.4 million tonnes in 1997 -98. Largest
contribution came from wheat. Its production rose from 6.4 million tonnes in
1950 -51 to 69.3 million tonnes in 1996 -97. In 1997 -98, the production of
wheat stood at 65.9 million tonnes.
1.3.2 Land reforms: Land reform measures to abolish intermediary interests
in land (viz., zamindars, jagirdars, etc.) and transfer of land to actual tiller of
the soil were expected to be taken up on a priority basis. Measures taken
under this head include 1: (7) Abolition of intermediaries; (n) Tenancy
reforms to (a) regulate rents paid by tenants to landlords, (b) provide munotes.in

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3 security of tenure to tenants, and (c) confer ownership rights on tenants;
and (Hi) Imposition of ceilings on holdings in a bid to procure land for
distribu tion among landless labourers and marginal farmers. These land
reform measures weredesigned to eliminate the parasitic class of
zamindars and absentee landlords and abolish all types of exploitation of the
tenants at the hands of these people. Thus, the attempt was aimed at
changing the entire agrarian structure of the rural areas.
1.3.3 Co-operation and consolidation of holdings: In a bid to reorganize
agriculture and prevent subdivision and fragmentation holdings, the Indian
agricultural policy introduced the programmes of co -operation and
consolidation of holdings. The latter programme aimed at consolidating all
plots of land owned by a particular farmer in different places of the village
by sanctioning him land at one place equal in area (or value) to his plots of
land. Consolidation avoids wastage of time, land and energy employed in
cultivation and also enables fanners to practice scientific techniques of
production. Co- operation aims at bringing small and marginal farmers
together to reap the benefits o f large -scale farming. Under co -operative
farming small and marginal farmers pool their land and resources (or only
resources) and practice joint cultivation.
1.3.4 Institutions involving people's participation in planning:
Bringing small and marginal farme rs together to cultivate jointly is only half
of the story. No planning in any country can be successful unless the masses
are encouraged to join hands with the planning authorities in a bid to carry
out the plans and programmes framed for their uplift and betterment. It was
precisely with this end in view that the programme of Community
Development was initiated in 1952 in this country. It was aimed to be a
project of the people, by the people and for the people, wherein the role of
the government and admi nistrative authorities was defined as 'to help the
people to help themselves.' The experience of the Community
Development programme reads a sad story. It could never become
thepeople's programme and remained tied to the umbilical cord of
government assista nce. Another programme designed to encourage the
participation of masses in the planning process (and political decision -
making) was the programme of democratic decentralization, often known as
Panchayati Raj. Its experience was no different from Community
Development. Infact, it proved to be worse. It conferred power (howsoever
limited) on local dadas and influential political elements to exploit masses
to their advantage and indulge in all sorts of political bickering and corrupt
practices.
1.3.5 Institut ional credit: Another important measure was the expansion
of institutional credit to farmers, especially through co - operatives and
commercial banks. After nationalization of banks in 1969, nationalized banks
have paid increasing attention to the needs of agriculture. Regional Rural
Banks have been set up to deal specially with the needs of agricultural
credit. A National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD)
has also been set up. As a result of the expansion of institutional credit
facilitie s to farmers, the importance of moneylenders has declined steeply
and so has the exploitation of farmers at the hands ofmoneylenders. munotes.in

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4 1.3.6 Procurement and support prices : Another policy measure of
significant importance is the announcement of procureme nt and support
prices to ensure fair returns to the farmers so that even in years of surplus
the prices do not tumble down and farmers do not suffer losses. This is
necessary to ensure that farmers are not 'penalized' for producing more. In
fact, the polic y of the Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices in
recent years has been to announce fairly high prices in a bid to provide
incentive to the farmers to expandproduction.
1.3.7 Input subsidies to agriculture: The government has provided
massive subsid ies to farmers on agricultural inputs like irrigation,
fertilisers,electricity and credit. The objective of input subsidisation is to
increase agricultural production and productivity by encouraging the use of
modern inputs in agriculture. However, over a p eriod of time, the subsidies
have continued to increase continuously and many economists now feel that
agricultural subsidies have reached 'fiscally unsustainable' levels.
1.3.8 Food security system: In a bid to provide food grains and other
essential goods to consumers at cheap and subsidized rates, the Government
of India has built up an elaborate food security system in the form of
Public Distribution System (PDS) during the planning period. PDS not only
ensures availability of food grains at cheap prices to the consumers but also
operates as a 'safety net' by maintaining large stocks of food grains in order
to combat any shortages and short falls that might occur in some years
and/or in certain areas of the country.
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF AGRICULTURALPOLICY
In addition to the measures mentioned above, the Indian agricultural policy
contained a number of other elements, some of which are outlined below:
1) Provision and extension of irrigation facilities through major and
medium irrigation projects and of power for minor irrigation through the
programme of rural electrification.
2) Improving the system of agricultural marketing through the estab -
lishment of regulated markets and introducing a variety of measures
like standardization of weights and measures, grading and
standardization of farm output, providing information regarding market
prices to fanners, etc. Efforts have also been made to strengthen the
co-operative marketing structure.
3) Provision and expansion of storage and warehousing facilities to enable
the government to build up adequate buffer stocks to cope with the food
problem in years of shortage of food grains and save the farmers from
indulging in 'distress' sales during surplusyears.
4) Initiation of steps to improve the economic condition of agricultura l
workers. In this category come measures to enforce minimum wages,
abolition of bonded labour, grant of agricultural land to landless
labourers, schemes for expanding rural employment, etc. munotes.in

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5 5) Promotion of agricultural research and training to discover new hi gh-
yielding varieties of seeds, avoid wastage of grains in storage,
successfully counter the attacks of pests, insects and rodents, develop
techniques for increasing productivity of soil and ensure optimum
utilization of soil, water and sunlight resources. The triple function of
agricultural research, education and extension is being implemented
through the various research institutes, agricultural universities, project
directorates, etc. At the apex stands the Indian Council of Agricultural
Research(ICAR).
6) In an effort to extend green revolution to the Eastern Region of the
country and develop dry land areas, the Seventh Five Year Plan
introduced two specific programmes: (a) Special Rice Production
Programme, and (b) National Watershed Development Programme
for Rain fed Agriculture. The former was initiated by the government
in the Eastern Region (comprising of Assam, Bihar, Orissa and West
Bengal, eastern Uttar Pradesh and eastern Madhya Pradesh). Thelatter,
introduced in 1986 -87, lays emphasis on land and water management
through introduction of optimal cropping system, dry landhorticulture,
farm forestry, fodder production, etc. The aim is to develop areas under
dry land agriculture since these areas are characterized by low
productivity, high risk arid low income. The Ninth Plan also places
special emphasis on agricultural development in the Eastern Region,
"partly because of the presence of large untapped potential partly
because this region accounts for a major proportion of the poor people
in India and partly because this region isexpected to contribute more
than 50 per cent of the total incremental food grain production in the
Ninth Plan.”
7) In order to increase the production of pulses, a centrally sponsored
National Pulses Development Programme was launched in 1986 -87. The
basic objective of the programme is to increase the production of pulses
by adopting location specific technology. A centrally sponsored
programme was also launched in 1984 -85 to increase the production of
oilseeds. Known as National Oil seeds Development Project (NODP),
this programme aims at providing to the fanners various services such
as inputs, extension, credit, etc. so as to assist them in increasing the
production of oilseeds. In addition to the above, an Oil seeds
Production T hrust Project (OPTP) was launched in 1987. During
1990 -91, the above two projects were merged under one programme,
i.e., Oil seeds Production Programme (OPP).
8) A country -wide Comprehensive Crop Insurance Scheme was
introduced from 1985 Kharif season. The ob jectives of the scheme
are: (a) to provide a measure of financial support to the farmers in the
event of crop failure as a result of drought, floods, etc.; (b) to restore the
credit eligibility of farmers after a crop failure for the next crop season;
and (c) to support and stimulate production of cereals , pulses and
oilseeds. The scheme covers crop loans issued by all the agencies, viz.,
co-operative credit institutions, commercial banks and regional rural
banks. Paddy, wheat, millets, pulses and oilseed c rops are covered munotes.in

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6 under the scheme.
9) A Rural Infrastructure Development Fund (RIDF) was set up within
NABARD in 1996 -97 to provide credit for medium and minor irrigation
and soil conservation projects. A scheme of Accelerated Irrigation
Benefit Programme (AI BP) was initiated during 1996 -97 for providing
assistance to States by way of loans for timely completion of selected
large and multi -purpose irrigation projects. An amount of Rs. 500
crore and Rs. 952.2 crore was released under AIBP as Central Loan
Assist ance to the States during 1996 -97 and1997 -98.
1.5 EFFECTS OF AGRICULTURALPOLICY
1) Increase in Food grains Production and Productivity: We can say
that the HYV programme has had a distinct impact on food production and
what is even more significant; it ha s inspired confidence in regard to its
promise for the future. The production of food grains reached 99.5 million
tonnes in 1969 -70 and the still higher figure of 108.4 million tonnes in 1970 -
71, a record till then. Only five years earlier, in 1965 -66, it was 72 million
tonnes. In 1978 - 79 it attained the then all -time record of 130.5 million
tonnes. In 1985 -86, it scaled up what was till then the peak of 150.4
million tonnes. Still another much higher peak of 170 million tonnes was
attained in1988 -89.
The increase in the production of wheat has been the most remarkable:
from the annual average of 11 million tonnes for five years previous to
1965 -66, it rose to 18.7 million tonnes in 1968 -69, to 20 million tonnes in
1969 -70 and further to 23.8 million tonnes in 1970 -71 to 36.3 million tonnes
in 1980 -81 and 47.05 million tonnes in 1985 -86. In 1988 -89, it attained the
all-time recordproduction of 54 million tonnes. The production of rice rose
from 30.4 million tonnes in 1973 -74 to 52.7 million tonnes in 1977 -78 to
53.8 million tonnes in 1978 -79 and further to 63.8 million tonnes in 1985 -
86. In 1988 -89, the production of rice was at the peak, touching up the
level of 70.67 million tonnes. Thus, it may not be unjustified to call this
arevolution.
2) Increase in Regi onal Imbalance: So far the response to the new
technology has been unevenly spread in respect of the different regions of
this country. Punjab, Haryana, Western U.P., Gujarat and Tamil Nadu have
been in the van. There appear to be two main reasons for the i nter-regional
disparities. Much more is known about the response of alluvial soils to
large use of fertilisers than is known about the response of the upland soils.
The sub -soil water supplies for exploitation by tubewells are
predominantly in the Ganges -Jamuna plains, in the river estuaries of
Gujarat, in the plains to the east of the Ghats in Southern India. According
to a recent study, rapid agricultural growth in India has been confined to 17
per cent of the districts.
The regional imbalance in respect of the extension of the HYV programmes is
far more pronounced when we consider that our agricultural scientists have
yet to develop a new technology that should be suitable for the extensive 'dry munotes.in

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7 farming' areas. There are about 84 districts in the various parts of the
country which receive only 40 cm to 100 cm of rainfall annually and where
only one-fourth of the area is irrigated. They constitute nearly 36 per cent of the
sown area in the country. On such areas the new technology has yet to make a
significan t impact. Dr. M.L. Dantwala has rightly pointed out that the
technologyevolved during mid -sixties wassuited only to some specific
regions, but not to other regions. No alternate technology which would have
been applicable to all regions was available at tha t time.
3) Emergence of Unbalanced Cropping Pattern: The progress of the
new technology, its 'spread has been uneven in respect of the different crops
too. Wheat has been benefited the most, while jowar, bajra, maize and rice
are the other four crops in which some progress has been registered, but
unlike wheat, that cannot be described as a real'breakthrough'. Pulses,
oilseeds, sugarcane, cotton, jute and plantation crops have yet to be launched
on the HYV path and much research has yet to be accomplished before the
new technology begins to bear fruit in respect of them. Thus, in its coverage
overcrops, the 'green revolution' has been partial and lopsided. In fact, the
enhanced profitability of growing food grains due to the application of the
package of modern agricultural inputs has diverted acreage from commercial
crops to food grains. The area devoted to the cultivation of food grains rose
from 74 per cent of total area sown in 1950 -51 to 80 per cent in 1980 -81. On
the other hand, over the same period, the acreage under cash crops declined
from 26 per cent to 20 per cent oftotal sown area. However, over 1980 -81 to
1988 -89, the acreage under cash crops has slightly increased from 20 per
cent to 24 per cent of total area sown. Among food grains, the coarse cereals
have recorded only a marginal increase in acreage. The acreage under pulses
haverecorded a minimum increase. In short, the green revolution has been
experienced more perceptibly in the case of wheat only.
4) Increase in Social Imbalance: In its f irst phase, the ‘green revolution’
has favoured the larger and richer farmer. The principal beneficiaries have by
and large been the large land owners who have secured handsome dividends
from farm inputs, bum per crops and attractive prices. They alone have had
sizable surpluses to sell. The rich and middle farmers, who have enjoyed
subsidized supplies offarm inputs, have earned profits. The majority of the
peasants and farm laborers have remained outside the orbit of the new
technology. Most of them contin ue passively to lead a precarious existence,
though many among them may be quite conscious of the brighter
prospects. The small size of their holdings and their limited resources do not
permit them to share the prosperity.
It has thus been aptly observed, "with 47 per cent of farm families owning
only one acre of land and 22 per cent owning no land at all, with only 3 to 4
per cent of big cultivators enjoying all power, wielding all influence, making
all decisions in collaboration with governmental machine ry and appropriating
to themselves all the skill, the resources, the expertise governmental agencies
offer, the poor half of the village have little to think anybody for.”2
In some areas, tenants are being reduced to farm laborers aslandowners
discover the profitability of the new technology in the current economic munotes.in

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8 setting. Even though income to the landless may rise, the socio -economic
gap between the land owner and the landless is tending to widen.
Economic in equalities in the rural society have thus been g etting
accentuated. It has been estimated that the percentage of rural population
below the bare minimum level of living (i.e. consuming below Rs. 15 per
month at constant 1960 -61 prices) for different States as well as for India as a
whole went up by 40 p er cent between 1960 -61 and 1967 -68.3 The Green
Revolution is said to be ‘capitalist revolution’ in ‘Socialist India’ where the
rich landlords are getting richer and richer, and a serious social imbalance or
‘social polarization’ is developing which may not only erode the traditional
relationship in the countryside but may in due course create a politically
explosive situation which would attract extreme leftist parties. A confrontation
between the minority of prosperous landowners and the mass of share -
croppers, tenants and landless labour could then become a distinct
possibility.
However, according to a shrewd observer, “It is not… the new technology
which is the primary cause of the accentuated imbalance in the countryside. It
is not the fault of the new t echnology that the credit service does not serve
those for whom it was originally intended; that the extension services are not
living up to expectations; that the panchayats are political rather than
development bodies; that the security of tenure is a luxury of the few; that
rents are exorbitant; that ceilings on agricultural land are notional that for the
greater part tenurial legislation is deliberately miscarried; or that wage -scales
are hardly sufficient to keep soul and body together. These are man -made
institutional inequities. Correcting all of these within the fore see able future
is out of the question. On the other hand, even if only some of them are dealt
with security of tenure, reasonable rent and credit to sustain production needs
a measure of economic and social justice could be fused with economic
necessity, thereby adding another essential dimension to the green
revolution.''
5) Impact on Rural Employment: The more intensive farming methods
associated with the new technology requires more farm labour. The new
varieties will not respond to traditional practice of planting the cropand then
virtually forgetting it until harvest time. Substantial amounts of additional
labour must be invested in applying fertiliser, weeding and the like.
Expansion of the area that can be multi -cropped is also resulting in a more
effective use of the rural labour supply. This is a major economic gain. For the
first time, significant local labour scarcities have been emerging. For
example, the Punjab farmer is already experiencing a serious shortage of
labour in peak periods, which is paving the way for further mechanisation of
agriculture in the Punjab. A study of the working of the Intensive
Agricultural Development Programme in Raipur district from 1964 -65 to
1968 -69 showed that the amount of labour employed went up three times in
terms of labour days. This is in addition to the increased time the small
cultivators devoted to their own land. The labour wage rates during the
periods of peak demand in the crop seaso n went up by 150 per cent and by
about 100 per cent during the rest of the season. Dr. G.S. Bhalla's study on munotes.in

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9 labour absorption in Indian agriculture has revealed that the elasticity of
employment per hectare with respect to yield was as high as 0.87 in high
growth districts. But the overall situation of employment generation in rural
areas has deteriorated. The growth rate of employment generation in the
agricultural sector has declined from 2.32 per cent in 1972 -73—1977 -78
period to 1.22 per cent in 1983 -88 periods.
1) Effect on Agricultural Labour : Sometimes a view is put forward that
the only feasible and the surest way of improving the economic condition of the
weaker sections of the rural population is to promote faster agricultural
growth through chemic al-biological break through or by making 'green
revolution' greener still. But the Green Revolution does not seem to have
benefited agricultural labour. There is no doubt that their wages have risen but
since prices of commodities have risenmuch more, the real wages have gone
down. An inquiry into wages in 15 districts in Punjab and Haryana has
revealed that the weighted average daily wage rate for casual male agricultural
labour went up by about 89 per cent between 1960 -61 and 1967 -68. But the
consumer retail price index (general) in the same period (for agricultural
labourers) went up by 93 per cent. Again, in the I.A.D.P. (Intensive
Agricultural Development Programme) districts scattered throughout India,
in which much of the efforts towards agricultural modernisation and
development was concentrated, the real wage rate fell between 1962 -63 and
1967 -68. The real income (real wage) per agricultural labourer has declined
from Rs. 445.6 in 1970 -71 to Rs. 420.5 in 1988 -89, whereas the real income
of non-agricul tural labourer has risen from Rs. 971.8 in 1970 -71 to Rs.
1783.8 in1988 -89.8
2) Increase in Investment through Plough -back of Farm Income:
A gratifying trend associated with the new farm technology is that the
farmers benefiting from it are investing more and more of their increased farm
income for the improvement of their farm organisa - tion. A recent study on
farm family investment conducted in the Punjab Agricultural University
showed that the fixed farm capital investments accounted for 18.47 per cent
of the total farm family income, of which purchase and development of land
constituted about 7.02 per cent. Again, a short -term investment in the use of
modern inputs such as improved seeds, fertilizers, in secticides and irrigation
charges and hired labour (cash costs) formed 36.23 per cent of the total
farm family income. In other words, the farmers are ploughing back about 55
per cent of their total family income for farm improvement.
1.6 GREENREVOLUTION
1.3.1. Genesis of Green Revolution :
Adoption of inn ovating techniques low user in a technological revolution
for the transformation of traditional agriculture into modern farming is
designated by the happy phrase ‘Green Revolution.’ It was William S.
Gaud, former Director of A.I.D., who was the first to us e the term ‘Green
Revolution’ in a speech in March 1968 addressed to the Society of
International munotes.in

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10

https://www.pioneeredge.in
Development1 to describe significant changes in the agricultural sector in
certain regions due to adoption of new farm technology . This new trend of
agriculture is called more explicitly ‘the Seed - Fertilizer Revolution’2 as
high-yielding variety of seed is highly fertilizer -responsive and capable of
achieving a higher rate of yield.
M.L. Dantwala says, "The key factor behind the G reen Revolution was a
new technology with high -yielding varieties at its core."3 The spectacular
break through in food grain production which occurred between 1966 -
1971 in India marks the beginning of the Green Revolution. The new
strategy includes a packa ge of techniques, but the most important is the
spread of high -yielding variety cereals over fairly wide areas.
In one sense, the origin of the Green Revolution could be traced back to the
year 1960 -61 when the Intensive Agricultural District Programme (IA DP)
was launched in seven districts in India, including West Godavari in
Andhra Pradesh. Initially, pioneered by the Ford Foundation, the IADP
stressed the need for providing the cultivator a complete package of
practices consisting of new inputs, technic al advice and credit. However, the
improved variety of seed used could not achieve spectacular yield. It is
generally believed that the Green Revolution in India began in 1965 -66
withthe introduction of a new variety of Mexican wheat.
The term 'revolution' implies a sudden change. But the change in
agriculture in terms of application of crucial input like irrigation is not
sosudden. Introduction of high-yielding variety requires irrigation. Since a
long time, huge public investments have been made on major and medium
irrigation projects besides investments of individual farmers on minor
irrigation works . Further, the HYV seed is confined mainly to food crops
like wheat, paddy, jowar, etc. In 1980 -81, only 28.6 per cent of cropped area
enjoyed irrigation in all-India4and in this limited area only, modern inputs
could be used gainfully. The scope of the Green Revolution thus being
confined to a limited area, the usage of the term 'revolution' isquestioned.
However, the introduction of HYV seed led to many ch anges with several
linkages. Irrigation becomes a pre -requisite for the introduction of HYV
and associated modern inputs. Therefore, the problem of water
management now becomes important. Further, HYV seed is highly
responsive to fertilizer and hence, ther e is a remarkable rise in the demand munotes.in

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11 for fertilizers. The HYV crop attracts pests and diseases, leading to demand
for pesticides, sprayers, etc. There is now need for enlarged credit facilities
to meet the growing credit requirements of different categorie s of farm
producers. The new farm technology necessitates additional investment on
the production of chemical fertilizer, pesticides, water pump sets, etc.
Adoption of new farm technology results in higher levels of yield per unit of
land. With higher levels of productivity, farm producers are able to
achieve marketable surplus. In the process of marketing of farm products,
the farm producers come into contact with the urban merchants and urban
life and they would like to imitate urban life because of the ‘ demonstration
effect’. Now the inclination for better living like that of the urban rich
urges the farm producers to adopt new farm technology at a higher rate
and achieve still higher levels of yield. These different changes in the
agricultural sector due to the adoption of new farm technology, with HYV
seed at its core, are described as the Green Revolution.
1.6.2 Need for Green Revolution :
By 1960 -61, a stage has been almost reached where we could no longer think
of producing more of farm products through extensive cultivation in order
tomeet the growing requirements of fast - increasing population. It has been
well recognized that higher productivity is the only answer to meet the
future requirements of food and other farm products. The improved variety of
seed, no doubt, proved better in terms of yield. Yet, the improved variety
of seed was not capable of achieving significant increase in the yield
levels. It was recognized that the introduction of HYV seed associated
with other modern inputs could only hel p to increase productivity and
thereby meet the growing requirements of food and other farmproducts.
1.7 EFFECTS OF GREEN REVOLUTION ON WEAKER
SECTIONS
The small and marginal farmer, tenant cultivators and agricultural labour
come under the category of wea ker sections.
1.7.1 Small Farmer and Green Revolution :
Such of those who own two hectares of land and below are described as small
farmers and those with one hectare and below are known as marginal farmers.
As discussed earlier, a higher proportion of small-size holdings enjoys irrigation
facility than that of large-size farms. Basing on a study pertaining to West
Bengal, B. Sen concludes that by using high -yielding variety seeds a small
farmer is able to earn additional income. It is stated that the propor tion of
additional income due to HYV in the total income of a small farmer is higher
than that of the large -size farmer.16 According to different farm management
studies, the productivity of small -size holdings is higher.
In monetary terms also, per acre income from the small farms may appear
to be high. But in an analysis of this type, we have to note one important
factor. Generally, small farms are cultivated with family labour and other
on-farm inputs like seed, farmyard manure, etc. If the retained or i mputed munotes.in

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12 costs are also taken into account, the net profits (after deducting from the
gross farm income both paid -out costs and retained costs) may be negligible. In
securing modern inputs like chemical fertilizers, pesticides, tractors, etc., the
small farmers have their own problems. Also, in getting institutional credit
and in marketing of products, the small and marginal farmers, tenant and
mixed cultivators face many difficulties. The small farmer is always in
pressing need for cash and is often forced to borrow from the local money -
lender or merchant. Further, most of the small farmers do not have proper
storage facilities. Under these circumstances, they are forced to sell away the
produce immediately after harvest that too, to the local money -lending
merchant and are denied a remunerative price. A study of the effect of the
Green Revolution on small farmers and other weaker sections in Tamil Nadu
reveals that large -size farmers have gained more than the small ones as a
result of the Green Revolution.17Wolf Ladejensky who made certain field trips
in Punjab and Bihar in 1969 came to the conclusion that in the areas visited,
there was significant agricultural development due to the Green Revolution.
At the same time, it was stated that the weaker sections w ere not benefited
by the new farm technology. But a difference was noticed in the conditions of
agricultural labour in Bihar and Punjab. In Punjab, due to the development of
agro-industries, the small -size farm owners are able to get supplementary
occupati ons unlike in Bihar. Hence, it is concluded that the problems of
weaker sections are not of aserious nature in Punjab. But, it was stated, the
Green Revolution was not responsible for income in equalities in the rural
areas; the social, religious, economic and political factors prevailing there
were responsible for the state of affairs of the weakersections.18
Francine R. Frankel, who visited Ludhiana (Punjab), West Godavari
(Andhra Pradesh), Tanjore (Tamil Nadu), Palghat (Kerala), Burdwan
(West Bengal) di stricts where there was the IAD programme, came to the
conclusion that as a result of the introduction of HYV and other modern
inputs, the yield per hectare had gone up and consequently, almost all
categories of farm producers were benefited. In Ludhiana district, where
HYV wheat was grown widely, the different farmers were able to gain
substantially. But it is stated that the additional gains from new farm
technology were not properly distributed. Farmers with 5 to 10 acres of
land were able to increase their net income to some extent. But those with
15 to 20 acres of land growing wheat were able to make adequate
investment on the new inputs and achieved substantial gains. It was also
noticed that in rice -growing regions, even though small farmers were ab le
to gain to some extent, their real income did not improve because of
considerable increase in the production costs. In the matter of yield per
hectare of land, the large -size farmers did not make any head way as
compared to small farmers. It was also note d that in the rice - growing
regions, the economic conditions of about 75 to 80 per cent of the farmers
had deteriorated.19
1.7.2 Tenants and Green Revolution :
We do not have full records to show the extent of different categories of
tenants in different pa rts of India. However, based on certain studies
pertaining to some regions, we have to analyse this problem and draw certain munotes.in

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13 conclusions. The study of G. Parthasarathy during 1965 -66 and 1971 -72
pertaining to West Godavari district in Andhra Pradesh throws some light
on certain important aspects.20 It was observed that in the areas surveyed,
certain tenant cultivators became agricultural labourers and in some cases
agricultural labourers became tenant cultivators. Before the Green
Revolution period, a certain proportion of the total produce was given to the
landowner as rent. It was observed that rent was raised after the
introduction of HYV seed. When traditional seed was used, only certain
tenants used to give two -thirds of the produce as rent and after HYV seed
came into practice the landlords are found to be insisting on two-thirds share
from the produce. Even though land owners shared two-thirds of expenses
on chemical fertilizer, pesticides, etc., in view of two-thirds rent the gains of
new farm technology were not reaching the tenant cultivators. From the
study, it is also found that three -fourths of the additional production due to
new farm technology went to the landowners and only one - fourth to the
tenant cultivators. This study reveals certa in other things also. In view of
the inability of the tenant cultivators to offer any asset as security, they
were not able to get credit from the institutional sources. It was only the
large -size farmers of dominating communities that were able to secure c redit
from the Primary Agricultural Credit Societies. The tenant cultivators were
found to be borrowing from the landlords or the local moneylenders paying
nearly two times the interest rate charged by the institutions. Due to payment
ofhigher rate of interest, the gains accrued to tenant cultivators from the adoption
of new farm technology were found to be negligible. As a result of this situation,
the already existing income inequalities have further widened. From this study,
it appears that in equaliti es in the distribution of output rather than in
equalities in the distribution of land assets are mainly responsible for
income inequalities. The study of Mencher21 reveals that for many tenant
cultivators, there was no security. Only those tenants cultiva ting the lands of
widows and aged persons were found to be cultivating the same lands
continuously for about four to fiveyears. In other cases, tenants are changed
almost every year and from one piece of land to another. Further, a survey
conducted in Chingle put district of Tamil Nadu reveals that there was always
conflict between landlords and tenant cultivators. Even though tenant
cultivators had the support of some political parties, their conditions did not
improve because of the dominating role of landlords and lack of security to the
tenant cultivators. Francine R. Frankel, during his field trips, noticed the
eviction of tenant cultivators and landowners taking uppersonal cultivation
lured by the potential gains of the new farm technology.
Whether the tenant cultivator is making adequate investment and using
modern inputs or not is being debated. In the absence of security of tenure
and institutional credit the tenant cultivator may not have the necessary
incentive to invest on new farm technology. There are some cases where new
farm technology has changed the character of tenancy. For example, in Punjab
some small farmers who are not able to make adequate investment on modern
inputs in and cultivate the land profitably are found to be entrusting thei r
land to tenant cultivators. Such tenant cultivators are functioning like large -
size farmers and carrying on the farm operations by adopting new farm
technology. Even in this type of tenancy, the extent of adoption of new farm munotes.in

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Agriculture and Its Significance In
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14 technology is being debated . Lack of security of tenure and high rate of rent
that the tenantcultivator has to pay are the disincentives in the adoption of
new farm technology. While the Programme Evaluation Organisation
Studies state that there is no difference between the landlor ds and tenant
cultivators in the application of modern inputs, G. Part has arathy argues that
such a conclusion is based on limited sample data. Further, in the areas
chosen for PEO study, the tenant cultivators must be cultivating large - size
holdings than the landowning class. If only a study is conducted with
reference to pure tenants and tenants in subsistence cultivation, the real
problems of tenant cultivators could be better understood.
1.7.3 Agricultural Labour and Green Revolution :
According to the 1991 Census, of the total number of workers in rural areas,
32.2 per cent are agricultural labourers. With HYV seed, if only there is
assured irrigation, more than two crops can be raised in ayear. In such cases,
agricultural operations have to be carried o nvery quickly. Ploughing of land,
sowing of seed, transplantation , weeding, spray of pesticides, harvesting,
threshing operations, etc., have to be carried on quickly and the field must be
made ready for the next crop. Therefore, the demand for labour incr eases
and employment can be for a greater period during a year. There is a
general impression that due to the Green Revolution, the degree of
seasonal unemployment is reduced and during the peak seasons when
there is great demand for labour, the agri cultural wages would go up.
There are no adequate research studies relating to the impact of the Green
Revolution on agricultural labour. From a study of G. Parthasarathy22 in
West Godavari district of Andhra Pradesh, it can be seen that due to the
use of I RS along with other inputs, the gross income has gone up. The
additional income made possible by the new farm technology was
pocketed mostly by landowners and those who supplied modern inputs.
The share of agricultural labourin the additional income was fo und to be
just 7 per cent. As in the case of different categories of workers, money
wages of agricultural labour also have gone up in recent years. In view of
the growing cost of living, it may be concluded that there is no
improvement in the real wages of agricultural labourers.
The share of agricultural and allied activities in the net domestic product
declined from 60.5 per cent in 1950 -51 to 31.2 per cent in 1994 -95. This
implies fall in the income per agricultural worker and uneven distribution
of inc omes between rural and urban sectors. In view of the slow labour
absorption capacity of the non-agricultural sector, increased population results
in a large number of new entrants to the labour force seeking livelihood,
though meagre, in agriculture. Th is development is bound to depress the
level of agricultural wages in spite of the new farm technology bettering
the agricultural incomes and the Minimum Wages Act in force.
1.8 GREEN REVOLUTION AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT
The Green Revolution has the potentialiti es of contributing to rural
development in terms of generation of higher production, employment and
incomes in the agricultural sector. However, as discussed earlier, the munotes.in

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15 Green Revolution is confined only to the irrigated areas. The scope of the
Green Revo lution, thus, being limited, high expectations concerning
reductions in unemployment and poverty are perhaps unwarranted. In
areas with satisfactory irrigation, there is demand for labour and
employment and wages have risen and in areas with lack of irrigation
understandably, such increases are not perceptible. B. Sen rightly stated:
"Without the high- yielding varieties, the problem of poverty and
unemployment would have been more acute; without them, there may have
been a deceleration in the growth rat e of the output of some food grains...
if the Green Revolution has not turned out to be a Cornucopia, neither has
it been a Pandora's Box." It is sometimes argued that the new farm
technology necessitated tractorization and it led to the displacement of
hired labour. Tractorization of farm operations has been confined to a
limited labour. As such, the criticism that tractorization has led to large -
scale eviction of tenants or displacement of hired labouris unwarranted.
The Green Revolution cannot be blamed for in equalities in the regional
development and among individual incomes. Such in equalities are already
there. New openings made available by new farm technology for the
development of one region should not be a matter of frustration and envy
for a nei ghboring region. On the other hand, what is relevant is how best
the knowledge of new farm technology can be diffused and applied in all
regions under different agro -climatic conditions. Under the given natural
endowment, necessary steps have to be taken in less favourable areas to
provide infrastructural facilities, institutional arrangement and to form
economic organisations. G. Parthasarthy analysing the relationship
between agricultural production and reduction in rural poverty observes:
"Even though no firm relationship has been established between the rate of
growth of agricultural production and reduction in poverty, the higher
overall rates of growth with perceptible margins above the rates of growth
of rural population should be expected to set the pace for sustained
reduction in poverty. High rates of growth also help through their
favourable effect on prices paid by the poor for food and also through
employment linkage effects between agriculture and non - agriculture." 24
The Green Revolution must spread to all regions, including the dry tracts
and along with this step, rural industrialization should receive adequate
attention of the government. An increased emphasis on agricultural
development and on dry land development has the potential to contr ibute
to growth and equity simultaneously and also towards resolving the
imbalances in crop productions. The HYV seed varieties suitable for dry
crops have to be evolved and popularised. The small and marginal farmers
in all regions need to be assisted to raise the levels of intensity of cropping
and high -value crops. The problem of landless labour needs to be tackled
more effectively. Employment guarantee must be provided to them and
there must be a statutory permanent machinery at district level to arrang e
for regular employment to labour within the district. Through the provision
of proper working conditions and remunerative wages, the landless labour
must be encouraged to seek employment inthe rural sector. This step is
necessary to ensure regular supp ly of labour to agricultural sector and
prevent exodus of rural labour to urban areas. munotes.in

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16 1.9 PROBLEMS IN THE SPREAD OF GREEN
REVOLUTION
For the spread of the Green Revolution, certain inputs become very
crucial :
1.9.1 Irrigation :
An important requirement f or the Green Revolution is irrigation. Only in
the irrigated lands, HYV seed, chemical fertilizer, pesticides and other
modern inputs can be used profitably.
Since irrigation facility is available to a limited area, the Green Revolution
is also confined to some extent to this limited irrigated area. For the spread
of the Green Revolution to different regions, creation of irrigation facility
on a wider scale becomes necessary.
B. Sen argues that a higher proportion of small -size holding enjoys
irrigation fac ility. He, therefore, concludes that small and marginal
farmers are not ata disadvantage in adopting the new farm technology,
although they have several other problems.
1.9.2 Capital :
Another problem in the spread of the new farm technology is in respect of
investment capacity. The different categories of farmers must have
investment capacity and only then they can use new farm technology
leading to the Green Revolution. The small and the marginal farmers do not
have their own funds to make adequate inve stment on modern inputs.
Under these circumstances, timely and adequate supply of credit through
institutions becomes necessary. Out of the total agricultural credit, only
about 45 per cent comes from the institutional sources and still private
agencies dominate the rural credit scene. The small and marginal farmers,
the tenant cultivators, mixed cultivators and agricultural labourers are not
able to secure adequate institutional credit. Lack of credit facilities,
particularly to the needy persons, is a problem in spreading the Green
Revolution.
1.9.3 Inadequate Extension Services:
For the spread of new farm technology, the farmers must have a clear
knowledge about the soils, fertilizer requirements, crop choice, etc. In a
situation where a majority of f armers are illiterate, technical know -how is
very much lacking. The extension services available are inadequate. The
village development officers who are in charge of extension are not fully
equipped to provide the extension services needed. As stated else where in this
book, in advanced countries like Japan and America, for every 200 farmers,
there is one qualified extension official. In India, each extension officer
has to serve nearly 10,000 farmers requiring varied technical advice which
he himself is not certain about. This, again, is a major problem in
spreading the new farm technology, leading to the Green Revolution in
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17 The different problems that crop up with the spread of the Green
Revolution are analysed under three generation problems.6
1.9.4 First Generation Problems :
In the first stage, high -yielding varieties of seed for food and non -food
crops for wet as well as dry cultivation have to be evolved. A much more
important factor is the evolving of a new variety that suits the different
agro climatic conditions and meets the consumer tastes. The grain of HYV
like IR 8 is of a coarse type which is not acceptable to consumers. These
problems of a technical nature demand realistic and practical solutions.
Further, provision of irrigation water with efficient water management is
of crucial importance. Also other inputs like chemical fertilizers and
pesticides must be made available in adequate quantity and at right time to
all categories of farm producers. The extension services become equally
more important in the early stages of spread of the new farm technology.
There must be institutional credit support, particularly to small and
marginal farmers so as to enable them to invest on modern inputs and
secure extension services. Thus, the first generation problems relate mainly
to the technical matters of increasing the supply of new inputs and diffusion
of knowledge for efficient use. In order to tackle the first generation
problems there is need for - (a) increased public as well asprivate
investm ent on expansion of irrigation facilities, (b) evolving of anew variety
of seed in pulses, oilseeds, etc., along with the HYV seed of wheat and
paddy, and (c) equally important is evolving of HYV that suits the
different agro -climatic conditions. The consu mers' acceptance should also
be taken into account while evolving the HYV seed. Food grains grown
with bio -fertilizer application are now gaining popularity particularly in
International markets and hence this technology need to bepopularized.
1.9.5 Gener ation Problems :
With the adoption of a new farm technology, the yield per unitof land is
bound to increase significantly resulting in more marketable surplus.
Therefore, the second generation problems are concerned with marketing
and matters associated wit h it. For an efficient marketing system, there is
need for storage, transport, processing and grading facilities. Also, there is
need for efficient market news system, which helps the large number of
farmers spread over the entire country to have timely an d correct
information about the prices prevalent in different market centers for
different commodities and thequality and standards expected in the foreign
markets. Effective steps to ensure good quality of different agricultural
commodities are necessary in a situation of globalization of trade in
agriculture.
In case the price prevalent in the market is less than the 'minimum
price’, adequate facilities must be made available to sell at minimum
prices. In case the prices of commercial crops are higher tha n the price of
food grains, the farmers would naturally prefer to grow commercial
crops. This would result in fall in the supply of food grains with all its
adverse effects on the society. Therefore, price parity in between different munotes.in

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Agriculture and Its Significance In
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18 crops must be maintain ed. In order to tackle the second generation
problems, the government must take certain steps:
1. Appropriate policy measures are required to provide milling,
grading, storage, transport, etc. facilities to the farmers in adequate
measure.
2. Co-operative market ing societies including co -operative processing
societies have to be strengthened on the lines of ‘Amul’ in Gujarat.
3. Keeping in view the low per capita rural incomes, role of middle men in
credit and marketing need to be eliminated through adequate
institu tional credit. Integrating credit with marketing is a measure that
needs serious consideration.
The small and marginal farmers are at a disadvantageous position in
securing remunerative prices for their products. Therefore, necessary steps
have to be take n to create such favourable conditions to the less
privileged farmers so as to enable them to sell at remunerative prices.
1.9.6 Generation Problems :
Large -size farmers with assured irrigation facilities are mostly benefited
by the new farm technology. The Green revolution is confined to regions
with assured irrigation facilities and it is found that rich farmers have
become richer by adopting the new farm technology.
Therefore, the Green Revolution resulted in imbalances in the regional
development and in equalities of income. The third generation problems,
therefore, are those relating to equity or redistribution of wealth. From the
study of G. Parthasarathy, it appears that 75 per cent of the additional
income derived from the Green Revolution is enjoyed by the landlords only.
The share of the agricultural labourer is found to be just 7 per cent only.
Further, due to the Green Revolution, in many places, it is reported that
the tenant cultivators are evicted from the land and in some cases rents are
raised . Thus, the Green Revolution has not helped the weaker sections of
the rural society. It is, therefore, argued that the Green Revolution may
lead to a Red Revolution if corrective steps are not taken immediately.
In the opinion of Falcon,7 the third genera tion problems arise mainly
through four sources:
1. Higher rate of population growth in those regions where there is
already a high density of population;
2. Further widening of already existing inequalities in the individual
incomes, wealth and political influen ce;
3. Limited employment opportunities in the non-agricultural sector in
spite of its growth; and
4. Introduction of certain agricultural inputs like tractors which lead to
the creation of unemployment.
In a developing country like India, population growth rate is higher than munotes.in

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19 the rate of increase of employment opportunities in the non -agricultural
sector. With the HYV seed of short maturity period, it is possible to raise
more than two crops a year and hence, there is possibility of providing
employment t o labour almost throughout the year. But, if instead of rising
labour -intensive crops like cotton, wheat is grown, and the demand for
labour would fall. The influence of HYV on employment potential
depends upon different factors peculiar to different regio ns. Yet, the expert
opinion is that HYV seed iscapable of increasing employment opportunities.
Due to the Green Revolution, the supply of food grains would increase . This
may result in a fall in the prices of food grains and such situation may
facilitate more savings and increased investment. If such favourable
development results in higher levels of investment, the Green Revolution
certainly is helpful for the progress of the country. On the other hand, if
the Green Revolution leads to unemployment and social unrest, this would
result in agitations and chaos in society. In the regions of assured irrigation,
the impact of the Green Revolution is more significant and incomes for
land owners in such regions would increase substantially. The agricultural
price policy is also likely to benefit the land owning class. But such
development would only further widen the existing inequalities of income
and in equalities in the development of different regions. The large -size
farmer is always in a better position in securing different modern inputs and
in marketing of his products. Such farmer is in a position to own a tractor
and use it profitably. The tractor may cause unemployment among
agricultural labour. Also, with a tractor, the land owner himself may
cultivate his entire land resulting, in some cases, in eviction of tenant
cultivators. In the wheat growing regions, as a result of use of tractors in
large -size farming, large -scale eviction of tenants and unemployment of
labour can easily be noticed.
In the li ght of the third generation problems, the following steps become
necessary:
1. The benefits of the Green Revolution must be spread to all regions.
Therefore, HYV seeds suitable for dry areas must be evolved
andpopularized;
2. Labour -intensive type of farm pract ices must beadopted;
3. Through the development of cottage and small -scale industries,
employment opportunities must be created in the ruralareas;
4. In developing countries like India, the economic development and
distributive justice cannot be achieved through the spread of the Green
Revolution alone. Along with agricultural development, there is need for
achieving progress in other sectors of the economy; and
5. The benefits of the Green Revolution must reach all those who
areassociated withit.
The small and margi nal farmers and tenant cultivators must be helped to use
the new farm technology and derive benefits from it. Necessary steps must be
taken to ensure security of tenure and properreward for the efforts of the
tenant cultivators. The agricultural labour mus t be assured of decent wages. munotes.in

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Agriculture and Its Significance In
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20 Progressive land tax or agricultural income tax becomes necessary to reduce
the growing inequalities in individual farmincomes.
1.9.7 Adoption Pattern :
It is important to examine more closely the adoption pattern of new farm
technology. As stated earlier, irrigation is a pre -requisite for determining the
applicability of high -yielding varieties (HYV) on agiven farm. Therefore, the
adoption pattern would be determined mainly by the distribution of irrigated
farms in different size groups. Further more, the scope for a rapid extension
of irrigation being limited, annual additions to the existing extent of irrigated
farms are unlikely to change significantly the existing distribution of
irrigated farms. Therefore, B. Sen rightly st ates that "There is no escape from
the fact that the adopters of the high -yielding varieties would be the farms
that are already irrigated and for a long time to come, these farms would
also constitute the bulk, if not the entire set, of adopter farms."8 However,
irrigation is not the only factor determining the adoption of high-yielding
varieties. Besides irrigation, the farmer must have the ability to purchase
critical inputs like fertilizer, pesticides, etc. The adoption of HYV inIndia has
been taking place under the influence of a government -initiated mass action
programme called the High -Yielding Varieties Programme (HYVP). In
HYVP, credit is channelled through the co-operatives, duly certified seeds are
supplied by the State Governments and the National Seed Corporation and
fertilizer supply is arranged by the Central Government. The goal of the
HYVP is to cover the entire irrigated land under food grains. Therefore, the
adoption pattern is based on distribution of irrigated farms in favour or
against a specific size -class of farms.
The study of B. Senreveals that out of total 22.7 million irrigated farms in the
country, about 14 million or 61.67 per cent are under small size group of 0.00
to 4.99 acres, while 7.73 million or 34.02 per cent are within 5.0 0 to 24.99
acres, and 0.97 million or 4.35 per cent are within 25.00 to 50.00 acres and
above. A look into the percentage distribution of irrigated farms against
different size groups clearly reveals that small -size farms enjoy relatively
higher proportion of irrigation than the large -size farms.
Irrigated large farms constitute 42.6 per cent of all large farms in the
country, while the irrigated small farms form 45 per cent of all small
farms. Irrigated medium -size farms constitute 46.5 per cent of the tot al
medium -size farms. Therefore, the proportion of existing small -size and
medium -size farms adopting the new varieties is likely to be greater than
the large -size farms. B. Senafter examining the proportion of irrigated land
out of the total holding of different size groups concludes that "The
proportion of irrigated land per farm is greater for small farms and that this
proportion is inversely related to farm size. It is, therefore, reasonable to
expect that the smaller farms would have a greater propor tion of land per
farm under high -yielding varieties than any other farmgroup.”10
1.9.8 Size Offarm And New Farm Technology :
The size of the farm figures prominently in the discussion of adoption of
the new farm technology. The concepts of ‘indivisibility of factors of munotes.in

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21 production’ and ‘economies of scale’ are imported into the agricultural
sector from the industrial sector, which has led a little controversy and
confusion. But, "the theory of the firm is always difficult to apply to
agriculture, as far as un derdeveloped countries are concerned; it seems to
have limited application."11 To quote another expert, "Since land as a factor
of production is perfectly divisible and since many inputs, e.g. labour, water,
seeds, manures and pesticides, etc., are equally divisible, the improved
methods can be applied to land, quite irrespective of its size."* Even
equipment like a tractor "capable of being hired out (by hours) and
livestock though indivisible, optimum utilization of them is possible by
employing them on different farms on hire or exchange basis. Japanese
agriculture reveals that small -size farm is no serious impediment to
technological progress in agriculture. The reports of the Farm
Management Studies in India show that productivity per acre is higher in
smaller holdings." On this issue, A.K. Sen's remarks fortify the above
conclusions: "In an economy with structural unemployment, non-wage
family -based farming has several advantages that capitalistic farming does
not have."14 The small - size holdings in Japan or in India in States like
Kerala have not stood in the way of higher productivity. This discussion
may well be closed with the weighty remark of an eminent authority
which clinches the issue: "It has often been suggested that the
productivity of smal l-scale holdings is inherently low. But that is simply
not true. Not only do we have the overwhelming evidence of Japan to
disprove that proposition, but a number of recent studies on developing
countries also demonstrate that given the proper conditions, small farms
can be as productive as large farms."15 All this clearly shows that new farm
technology is neutral to scale or size of holding. In recent years, institutional
credit is available fairly well to different categories of farmers. The regional
rural banks are mainly intended for meeting the credit requirements of the
weaker sections of the rural community. The supply position of different
modern inputs is also encouraging. Further, there is pressing cash
requirements for small farmers too. Therefor e, the small -size farmers also,
by taking advantage of institutional credit facilities, are quite encouraged
to secure modern inputs and use them to their advantage.
1.10 EXERCISE
1. Explain the concept of Green Revolution and discuss the effect of
green revo lution on weakersection.
2. Discuss the various objectives of agricultural policy?
3. Explain the various problems in the spread of green revolution.
4. Explain the relation between Green Revolution and Rural
Development.


munotes.in

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22 2
INDIAN COUNCIL OF AGRICULTURAL
RESEARCH (ICAR)
Unit Structure:
2.1. Objectives
2.2. Introduction
2.3. Objective of ICAR
2.4. Milestone of ICAR
2.5. Organization of ICAR
2.6. Salient Achievements of ICAR
2.7. Exercise
2.1 OBJECTIVES
1) To study the objectives and milestones of ICAR.
2) To study the organizational structure of ICAR.
3) To study the various salient achievements of ICAR.
2. 2 INTRODUCTION
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) is an autonomous
organization under the Department of Agricultural Research and Education
(DARE), Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Government of India.
Formerly known as Imperial Council of Agricultural Research, it was
established on 16 July 1929 as a registered society under the Societies
Registration Act, 1860 inpursuance of the report of the Royal Commission
on Agriculture. The ICAR has its headquarters at New Delhi.
The Council is the apex body for co-coordinating, guiding and managing
research and education inagriculture including horticulture, fisheries and
animal sciences in the entire country. With 101 ICAR institutes and 71
agricultural universities spread across the country this is one of the largest
national agricultural systems in the world.
The ICAR has played a pioneering role in ushering Green Revolution and
subsequent develop ments in agriculture in India through its research and
technology development that has enabled the country to increase the
production of food grains by 5 times, horticultural crops by 9.5 times, fish
by 12.5 times, milk 7.8 times and eggs 39 times since 19 51 to 2014, thus
making a visible impact on the national food and nutritional security. It
has played a major role in promoting excellence in higher education in munotes.in

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Indian Council Of
Agricultural Research (ICAR)
23 agriculture. It is engaged in cutting edge areas of science and technology
development and it s scientists are internationally acknowledged in their
fields.
2.3 OBJECTIVE OFICAR
To plan, undertake, aid, promote and co -ordinate education, research and
its application in agriculture, agroforestry, animal husbandry, fisheries,
home science and allied sciences.
To act as a clearing house of research and general information relating to
agriculture, animal husbandry, home science and allied sciences, and
fisheries through its publications and information system; and instituting
and promoting transfer of technology programmes.
To provide, undertake and promote consultancy services in the fields of
education, research, training and dissemination of information in
agriculture, agro forestry, animal husbandry, fisheries, home science and
allied sciences.
To look into the problems relating to broader areas of rural development
concerning agriculture, including post -harvest technology by developing
co-operative programmes with other organizations such as the Indian
Council of Social Science Research, Counci l of Scientific and Industrial
Research, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre and the universities.
To do other things considered necessary to attain the objectives of the
Society.
2.4 MILESTONE OFICAR
Initiation of the first All -India Co -ordinated Research Proj ect on Maize
in1957.
Status of Deemed University accorded to IARI in1958.
Establishment of the first State Agricultural University on land grant
pattern at Pantnagar in1960.
Placement of different agricultural research institutes under the purview of
ICAR i n 1966.
Creation of Department of Agricultural Research and Education (DARE)
in the Ministry of Agriculture in 1973.
Opening of first KrishiVigyan Kendra (KVK) at Puducherry (Pondicherry)
in 1974.
Establishment of Agricultural Research Service and Agricult ural
Scientists' Recruitment Board in 1975.
Launching of Lab -to-Land Programmeand the National Agricultural
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24 Initiation of Institution -Village Linkage Programme (IVLP) in 1995
Establishment of National Gene Bank at New Del hi in 1996.
The ICAR was bestowed with the King Baudou in Award in 1989 for its
valuable contribution in ushering in the Green Revolution. Again awarded
King Baudou in Award in 2004 for research and development efforts made
under partnership in Rice Wheat Consortium.
Launching of National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP) in 1998
and National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP) in 2005.
2.5 ORGANISATION OFICAR
Union Minister of Agriculture is the ex -officio President of the ICAR
Society.
Secretary, Department of Agricultural Research and Education, Ministry
of Agriculture, Government of India and Director General, ICAR is the
Principal Executive Officer of the Council.
Governing Body is the policy -making authority Agricultural Scientists'
Recruitment Board Deputy Directors -General (8)
Additional Secretary (DARE) and Secretary (ICAR) Additional Secretary
and Financial Advisor Assistant Directors -General (24)
National Director, National Agricultural Innovation Project Directorate of
Knowledge Management in Agriculture
2.6 SALIENT ACHIEVEMENTS OFICAR
A) Crop Sciences:
1) The division has played a pivotal role in ushering the era of green and
yellow revolutions in the country. The national average productivity
raised by 2 -4 folds in foodgrains, rapeseed - musta rd and cotton
since 1950 -51.
2) Spectacular success has been achieved in introduction and improvement
of new crops, such as soybean and sunflower; India is now the fifth
largest producer of soybean in the world.
3) The division has supported the development of im proved crop
cultivars and appropriate crop production -protection technologies,
along with promoting the basic / strategic / applied research in cereals,
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Indian Council Of
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25
4) Developed and released over 3,300 high-yielding varieties / hybrids of
field crops for differentagro -ecologies.
5) Facilitated development, evaluation and identification of technologies
through the All -India Co -ordinatedProjects.
6) First in the world to develop hybrids in grain pearl millet, castor,
pigeon pea and cotton in the 1970s; developed hybrids in other crops
like rice, safflower and rapeseed -mustard.
7) Developed single cross hybrids of QPM (quality protein maize)
having high nutritional value and yield, and high yielding baby corn.
8) Developed and introduced early and suitable plant types in rice,
sorghum, cotton, pigeon pea, chickpea, green gram,black gram etc.; these
have opened up avenues for multiple cropping systems and helped in
enhancing cropping intensity, early pulse varieties have helped in
claiming the new niche areas such as early chickpea varieties in
Andhra Pradesh that led to high productivity in thecrop.
9) Some of the improved Indian varieties have acclaimed global spread in
case of sugarcane, wheat, rice, pigeonpea, sorghum and mustard.
10) For the first time, successfully employed molecular marker assisted
selection/pyramiding of xa 13 and × a 21 genes from the source
variety IRBB 55 in the genetic background of Pusa Basmati I: thus
developed bacterial blast resistant variety. Improved Pusa B asmatiI.
B) Horticulture :
1) Developed 721 high yielding varieties and production technologies in
horticultural crops leading to the 'Golden revolution'. Through adoption
of these technologies, India has emerged as the second largest producer of
fruits and vegetables in the world. It has substantially improved the
food and nutritional security.
2) Through the adoption of improved technologies, production increased
up to 2.4 fold in banana and tomato, 1.6 fold in potato and 1.3 fold in
cassava from 1991 -92 to2005 -06.
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26
Released export quality red -peeled and regular bearing mango varieties
PusaArunima and PusaSurya with long shelf life; developed a regular bearing,
anthracnose disease resistant, red colour fruit and high quality mango hybrid
H39.
3) Developed early ma turing and prolific bearer aonlacultivar
ComaAishwarya and high input -efficient potato cultivar KufriPukhraj.
4) Developed technology for seed multiplication in potato through seed
plot technique and micro - andmini -tubers.
5) Standardized micro -propagation techn ology for seedand planting material in
potato and banana.
6) Developed technologies for producing disease free planting material in
citrus through shoot tip grafting.
7) Standardized high density planting and suitable canopy architecture in
apple, pear, pineappl e, mango, citrus and guava for improving
productivity.
8) Developed amicronutrient mixture. Banana Shakthi, for banana crop.
9) Developed high productive coconut and areca nut based multispecies
cropping systems involving spice crops for enhancing producti vity
andprofitability
C) Natural Resources Management :
1) For sustainable land use, soil resource, degradation and fertility maps
of different agro -ecological regionsdeveloped.
2) Assessed soil carbon stocks using the benchmark sites under different
land use system s of the country.
3) Prepared integrated nutrient management packages for major cropping
systems.
4) Resource Conservation Technologies (RCTs) such as zero tillage,
furrow irrigated raised bed planting system and laser land leveling
developed.

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Indian Council Of
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27 5) Mitigation and ad aptation technologies to meet the challenges of
climate change were promoted through a network.
6) Developed consortiaof bio fertilizers for major crops.
7) Standardized technologies for enriched composts/ vermicornpost.
8) Developed cost effective amelioration tec hnologies for water logged,
salt affected and acid soils.
9) Developed a network of 47 model watersheds that provided a basis for
developing the National Watershed Development Programme for
Rainfed Areas (NWDPRA).
10) Evolved rain water harvesting techniques for enhanced water and crop
productivity.
D) Animal Science:
1) A unique National facility. High Security Animal Disease Laboratory
with P -4 measures established that played a pivotal role in providing
diagnostics services for avian influenza in the country besides
developing vaccine using in digenous strains.
2) 80% of 140 in digenous breeds of live stock and poultry characterized
phenotypically and genetically.
3) Five breeds of indigenous livestock and poultry were conserved and
characterized both phenotypically and u sing molecular markers.
4) Vrindavani breed of cattle developed with production potential of 3,500
kg milk parlactation.
5) Graded Murrah buffaloes with 2.200 kg milk yield per lactation
evolved.
6) Improved strains of sheep for fine wool (Bharat Merino), carpet wool
(Chokla, Marwari, Magra) and meat (Malpura, Nellore, Mandya, Madras
Red) developed.
7) Artificial insemination method standardized in mithun, yak, camel, goats,
pig and equines; first mithun calf born through artificial insemination in
India; crystoscope de vice developed to detect accurate time for
insemination in cattle and buffaloes.
8) For promoting backyard poultry an early -maturing poultry strain, CARI -
Nirbhik, producing 223 eggs by 72 weeks, developed.
9) Hormonal -modulation protocols developed to increase e gg production
inpoultry.
10) A new fungus genus Cyllamyces icons with better fibre degrading
ability identified for the first time in Indian cattle and buffaloes.
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28 E) Agricultural Engineering and Technology :
1) Developed over 150 agricultural tools, implements and machines for time
liness of farm operations, drudgery reduction and efficient input use for
various field and horticultural crops; of which 75 machines
commercialized.

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2) Conducted ergonomic and safety studies leading toreduced drudg ery and
improved safety of farm machines, particularly, to suit farm women.
3) Developed renewable energy source -based devices and gadgets such as solar
refrigerator, low cost solar cookers and water heaters, solar concentrators
for solar photovoltaic (SPY) pa nels, solar cocoon stiffer, high efficiency
cook stoves, pyrolysis briquetted fuels, gasifies. Improved biogas
plants, dewatering system for biogas slurry. Utilization of animals in
rotary mode for operating different agricultural machines &equipment.
4) Deve loped structures, environmental control techniques and packages of
production practices for raising nurseries, production of flowers,
medicinal plants and off-season vegetables.
5) Developed plastic -lining for rainwater harvesting ponds and pond based
micro -irrigation systems, plastic mulching of crops, carp hatcheries and
transportation system for live fish.
6) Developed low cost improved storage structures for food grains,
evaporative cooled structures for fruits and vegetables, machinery and
pilot plants for va lue addition to agricultural produces.
7) Developed equipment for soybean processing and utilization - soybean
DE hullers, extrusion expelling pilot plant, soy flaking machine, soy
snack extruder, cottage level soupier plant, and okrafortified soy -cereal
snack s.
F) Fisheries :
1) Developed database of 2,200 fin fishes and shellfishes in Indian waters.
2) Database of marine fishery resources of commercially important fish
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Indian Council Of
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29 3) Identified 31 new species of fishes from Western Ghats and north
eastern region.
4) DNA bar coding of 75 species of Indian marine fishes completed.
5) PCR -based gender identification of marine mammals developed.
6) Micro satellite enriched genomic library developed for Pegasus.
7) Milt cryop reservation and breeding protocols developed for the
conservation of yellow catfish. Horab agrusnigri collaris, an
endangered fish of Western Ghats.
8) Early maturation and breeding of Indian major carp, rohu
(Labeorohita) achieved through photo thermal manipulation.
9) Cloning and sequencing of genes, viz, gonad otropin GTH I and it
sreleasingh or mone (GnRH)encodingc DNAs Accomplished in rohu .
10) Developed genetically improved rohu. CIFA IR I, with enhanced
growth.
11) Achieved mass seed production of fresh water food fishes, viz. medium
carps. Labeo gonius, Labeo imbriat us,, Puntiussarana; Catfishes,
Ompokpabda, Mystusvittatus; chocolate mahseer, Puntius hex agonolepis;
and Chitalachitala, enabling diversification of culture practices.
12) Portable FRP carp hatchery designed anddeveloped.
13) Hatchery breeding techniques developed for marine and freshwater
ornamentalfishes.
14) Giant freshwater prawn, Macro brachium rosenberg bred using inland
ground salinewater.
15) Captive breeding of kuruma shrimp, Metapenaeusjaponicus carried
out.
16) Breeding and larval rearing of sand lobster, Thenusorie ntalis achieved,
for the first time in the country.
Agriculture Education:
1) Financial and professional support provided to Agricultural Universities
(AUs) for modernization and strengthening of academic facilities,
infrastructure and faculty improvement.
2) Accreditation Board established for quality assurance in agricultural
education and several AU saccredited.
3) Norms, standards, academic regulations and under -graduate
coursecurricula and syllabi revised and made utilitarian as
recommended by the IV Deans' Committee and implemented by
severalAUs.
4) Nicheareas of excellence established to augment strategic strength of
AUs in specificare as including those in newand emerging cutting -edge
technologies.
5) Over 180 units for experiential learning established in AUs for
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Agriculture and Its Significance In
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30 undergraduate level.
6) For quality upgradation, reduction of in breeding and fostering
national integration in higher agricultural education, admission of
students up to 15% of total seats in undergraduate and 25% seats in
post-graduate programmes being centrally undertaken.
7) Faculty competence improved through 31 Centres of Advanced Studies.
8) About 2,400 scientists trained in emerging areas including cutting -
edge technologies through about 90 summer/winter schools organized
every year.
9) Awarded about 1,000 National Talent Scholarships for undergraduate
studies, 475 Junior Research Fellowships for post- graduate studies and
about 200 Senior Research Fellowships for Ph.D. annually.
10) Promoting excelle nce at national level through ICAR National Professor
and National Fellow schemes.
11) Need -based capacity building of NARS through Foundation courses,
refresher courses, workshops , seminars and international programme
scarried out by National Academy of Agricultural Research
Management. The Academy also provides policy support, facilitates
national dialogues and undertakes consultancies, for performance
enhancement of NARS.
12) Under the Indo -US Agricultural Knowledge Initiative, about 15
Borlaug fellows selected every year for training in USA; eight joint
workshops organised; eight collaborative research projects undertaken,
and visits of experts facilitated in the focus areas of (i) Education,
learning resources, curriculum development and training; (ii) Food
processing and use of byproducts and biofuels; (iii) Biotechnology; and
(iv) Water management.
13) ICAR facilitates admission of foreign students in Indian AUs by
considering the applications received through the DARE, Educational
Consultants India Ltd. (Ed. CIL ), and Indian Council of Cultural
Relations (ICCR). About 200 students are admitted annually in various
degree programmes in agriculture, horticulture, forestry, veterinary,
agricultural engineering etc.
G) National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP) :
1) Earlier the NATP Project was implemented by ICAR during 1997 -
2005. The project has contributed to the development of about 300
new technologies and their adoption by farmers besides several
new research tools, methodologies and intermediate produc ts.
2) The NAIP is being implemented in ICAR since July 2006 with the
credit assistance of US$ 200 million from the World Bank and US$ 50
million Government of India share. Its main objective is to contribute
to accelerated and inclusive growth through collab orative
development and application of agricultural innovations by the public
research organisations in partnership with private sector. NGOs and
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Indian Council Of
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31 have been approved at a total outlay of Rs 1,017 crores covering all the
four components.
H) Knowledge Management :
1) The agricultural research information system of the Council show cases
and markets the developed technologies to various stakeholders.
2) Disseminated information through flagship products such as research
and popular periodicals, hand books, mono graphs, technical and text
books, popular books etc.
3) About 200 publications brought out every year on topical issues
related to agriculture.
4) Scrolling news - another hallmark - launched at ICAR website.
5) More than 1.5 lakh hits per month recorded for www.icar.org.in
6) Accelerating ICT management in agricultural research through inter-
and intra-net connectivity to narrow down the gap between technology
develope rs and itsusers.
7) Participated in Technological Exhibitions and Book Fairs of
National level / international level to create awareness about agricultural
research and education.
I) International Co-operation :
1) Active collaboration with international agricult ural research
institutions including CG centres, CABI, FAO, NACA, APAARI, UN-
CAPSA, APCAEM, ISTA, ISHS etc.
2) MoU / Work Plans with over 30 countries for bilateral co -operation in
agricultural research, training and study visits.
3) ICAR offers quality and cost -effective agricultural education to
international students at under -graduate andpost-graduate levels. And
need-based short -term training, programmes in specialized areas are also
offered. Special concessions for SAARC students.
4) Strong support to CGIAR insti tutes. Total funding support in 2007 -08
of US$ 2.65 million.
2.7 EXERCISE
1) Explain the objectives and milestones of Indian Council of Agricultural
Research.
2) Describe the various salient achievements of Indian Council of
Agricultural Research.

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32 3
KRISHI VIGYAN KENDRA (KVK)
Unit Structure:
3.1. Objectives
3.2. Introduction
3.3. Objectives of KVK
3.4. Functions of KVK
3.5. Exercise
3.1 OBJECTIVES
1) To study the concept of Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK)
2) To study the various objectives of Krishi Vigyan Kendra for Rural
Development
3) To understand the various functions of KVK in Rural area
3.2 INTRODUCTION
Krishi Vigyan Kendra (K.V.K.) is a noble concept developed by Indian
Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) which was rest upon a solid base
of transfer of technology from laborat ory to farmer's field with respect to
Agriculture, Horticulture, Animal Husbandry, Floriculture Bee Keeping,
Mushroom Cultivation, Broiler Farming and allied subjects. As per the
recommendations of Mohan Singh Meheta Committee during 1974,
K.V.K.s were est ablished in different states. Gradually working guidelines
are prepared to make the K.V.K. as the light house for the rural people.
https://vajiramias.com
Indian Council of Agricultural Research emphasized on theresearch on
agriculture and allied subject during 1960’s to generate new technology for
increasing crop production in different agro climatic zones of the country.
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Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK)
33 to boost up the production. But the technologies so gen erated in the
research field are not transferred through extension agencies of different
State Government, it is observed that a lot of technologies could not reach
the fanner due to high cost of adoption , lack of the interest of the
extension agencies. He nce, the transfer of the technology was not complete
and effective. Later on K.V.Ks were established for easy and active
participation of fanners through Front Line Demonstration and on Farm
Testing.
As per the mandate of Indian Council of Agricultural Res earch, K.V.K. will
operate under the administrative control of State Agricultural
University (SAU) or Central Institute situated in a particular area. Different
scientists from different disciplines as per the specific requirement of that
particular area are posted in the Krishi Vigyan Kendra as Training Associate.
Generally there are six categories of scientists posted in the K.V.K.
i.e. ( i ) Training Associate (Crop Production) to look after the experiment
on field crops as well as provide training and advice on different field crops,
(ii) Training Association (Horticulture) looks after the training and
demonstration on horticultural crops such as vegetables, fruits and flowers.
(iii) Training Associate (Plants Protection) Provides training and
demonst ration oncontrol of different pests and diseases in different crops. He
also imparts training and advice on different types of pesticides and
insecticides, their methods and time of application, (iv) Training Association
(Animal Science) looked after overa ll growth and management of animal
resource of that particular area. He also imparts training and advices on
broiler farming dog rearing as well as rabbit rearing etc. (v) Training
Associate (Agricultural Engineering) looks after the use of different
agric ultural implements in the field for different agricultural operations
through training, demonstrations and on farm testing, (vi) Training
Associate (Home Science) involved in the Improvement of skill
and attitude of the fanners and farm women a s well as provides advices
and training on kitchen gardening preparation of nutritional food and
different handicrafts. She also imparts training regarding the preservation
and storage of fruits and vegetables for rural youths of the adopted village.
Train ing Organiser, head of the K. V. K. family co-ordinates the work of
all scientists for smooth functioning of the K.V.K. as well as for the
benefit of the rural people of that particular area. He is also liaising with
other line departments for co-ordination and effective implementation of
different programs of the K.V.K. in the adopted village. Every K.V.K. has
adopted 4 to 6 economically, culturally and technologically backward
villages situated within 10- 20 Kmsradius of the K.V.K. These villages are
not too small or too large. Before adoption, a detailed survey of the village
was conducted to study the socio -economic and cultural status of that
village. Now -a-days Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) tool was used to
conduct the survey in which the village people are actively participated in the
process. The village map was drawn by the help of different color by the
villagers themselves and different prominent structures of the village such as
school, temple, river, club etc. were depicted in that map. These structures
will help the scientists to conduct the survey easily and smoothly. Basing
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34 ancillary maps were prepared for future use. After the survey work, detailed
plan of wor k was chalked out and depending upon the requirement
different activities were undertaken in different are as by K.V.K.
scientists.
3.3 THE OBJECTIVES OF KVK
a) To demonstrate the new improved technology to the farmers as
well as to the extension agencies directly in the farmers field with their
active participation.
b) To identify the important problems of that area as per the need of the
farmers and prioritization of the identified problems as per their
importance.
c) To collect feedback from the farmers and extens ion agencies and to
communicate these message to research scientists for
modification oftechnology.
d) To impart training on different topics to different groups of the
villagers.
e) To provide new and important information to the extension
agencies and NGOs for wider circulation in that locality to improve
their economic condition.
f) To prepare different extension models and verify these models in
the farmers field with their participation to create confidence
amongthem.
To achieve the above mentioned objectives K .V.K. undertake following
types of activities in the adopted villages :
1) Farm Advisory Service
2) Training programme for different categories of people.
3) Training programme for the extension functionaries.
4) Front Line Demonstration (Fill) (5) On Farm Testing (OFT) .
Farm Advisory Services:
Krishi Vigyan Kendra otherwise known as Farm Science Center. It
provides solution to any problems related to agriculture and allied subjects
as and when faced by farmers of that particular locality. Interested farmers /
persons can get proper advices regarding the establishment of new
entrepreneurship on non- traditional sector. The main function of advisory
service center is to provide continuous and constructive advice along
with sound theory and practical knowledge to the contact villagers regarding
agriculture and its allied subjects for their cultural and economical
improvement. The objectives of the Farm Advisory Center are as follows:
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Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK)
35 b) To keep close relationship between K.V.K. and villagers.
c) To prepare individual farm model for upliftment of rural people.
d) To provide training and advice to the rural people so as to enable them
to take part in the agricultural planning of the villages, blocks as well
asdistricts.
e) Formation of farm club, farm center or village committee for easy
transfer of new information related to agriculture to the villagers
in shorttime.
3.4 FUNCTIONS OF KVK
1) Training programme for different categories of people:
Training is one of the most important activities of Krishi Vigyan Kendra.
Training is planned and systematic effort to increase the knowledge, improves
the skill and change the attitude of a person towards a particular subject.
Training need assessment is the first and foremost factor to be con sidered
before conducting any training programme. Depending upon the need and
categories of trainees. K.V.K. imparts mainly following three types
oftraining:
2) Training to the practicing farmers and farmwomen:
Training on different subjects were conducted by the scientists of the
K.V.K. as per the need of the local farmers of a particular area as well as the
types of trainees and different audio visual aids are used to increase the
efficiency of the training. As the trainees are practicing farmers and
farmwome n, more emphasis was given on the practical than theory to
improve their skill to change their attitude and increase their knowledge
for that particular topic.
3) Training to the Rural Youth:
This type of training was imparted to the rural youth (Both male a nd female)
mostly those are left their education in midway i.e. school dropouts. The
main objective of this training is to provide sufficient knowledge and skill
regarding a new entrepreneurship so that they can start their own
business singly or collectiv ely and generate some income for their
livelihood. The main thrust areas of this type of training are mushroom
cultivation, bee keeping, preservation of fruits and vegetables, broiler
farming, goat rearing, tailoring, wool knitting, hand crafts and exoti c
vegetable cultivation etc. for more profit. In this training more emphasis was
given on the practical aspects and trainees were do the practical
themselves to get more confidence. The scientists of the K.V.K. provide
knowledge regarding the availability of the raw materials as well as the
marketing of different products in that particular locality for the
interested participants.
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36 4) Training programme for the extension functionaries :
In this group, mostly government employees of agriculture along with
extension functionaries of line department and members of different NGOs
operated in that locality are trained in different aspects. The main objective of
this type of training is to refresh the memory and upgrade the knowledge and
skill of the extension functionaries by providing recent and new information
regarding new techniques as well as new approach of solving different
problems faced by fanners of that locality. As the extension functionaries of
different department act like a bridge between the scientis ts and villagers,
the refinement of the knowledge is highly essential and quite helpful for
effective and efficient transfer of the technology.
5) Front Line demonstration:
Front Line Demonstration (FLD) is the field demonstration conducted under
the close supervision of the scientists because the technologies are
demonstrated for the first time by the scientist themselves before being fed
into the main extension system of the state department of Agriculture in that
particular area. In this method newly releas ed crop production and protection
technologies and its management practices are adopted in a block of two to
four hectares in the farmer’s field. Only critical inputs and training for this
demonstration are provided by Krishi Vigyan Kendra. In FLD both far mers and
extension functionaries are target audience. From the FLD, it is possible to
generate some data related to factors contributing to higher yield and also
constraints of production under various farming situations. Front Line
Demonstration is conduct ed in a particular area after thorough discussion and
consultation with the farmers of that locality. Depending upon the requirement
ofthat area highly efficient new proven technology with higher potentialities is
selected for this programme. Generally, a field day is observed in the
demonstration field when the crop is at maturity stage and interaction between
the scientists, fanners and extension functionaries takes place in the field. The
crop is harvested in the presence of the interested group of fanners so that they
can visualize the importance of new technology easily and effectively.
6) On Farm Testing (OFT) :
Testing of any improved technology along with the tanners practice in the
fanner’s field with active participation of both the scientists and fa rmers is
known as OFT. In this method two to three improved varieties or two to three
improved technologies are tested in the same field so as to compare the
results of these treatments. As per the suggestions of the fanners as well as
local soil and clima tic conditions the improved technology may slightly be
modified by the scientists of K.V.K. to get maximum return.
All these activities of the K.V.K. are undertaken as per the suggestion and
approval of the Scientific Advisory Committee. This committee con sists of
representative from theVice -chancellor of State Agricultural University or
Director of the Institute, representative from the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research, representative of the District Collector,
representatives from Department of Agriculture, Horticulture, Animal
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Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK)
37 female social workers of that area and Training Organizer of the concern
K.V.K. The Scientific Advisory Committee held once in a year to review
the work of K.V.K. and provide suggestions for future plan of work. The
future technical programme of the K.V.K. is prepared as per the suggestion
of the farmers of that particular area.
Besides these activities each K.V.K. has got different demonstration units
such as Mushroom unit. Biofertiliser unit, Vermicompost unit, Broiler
fanning unit, Bee keeping unit, Fruit preservation unit etc. for the
lagers. When a person will visit K.V.K., he will be able to see all the
enterprise in the demonstration unit and he can interact with the scientists
regarding the establishment of his own enterprise. These units will help
the villager to increase his confidence on a particular enterprise.
From these discussions, itcan be concluded that the scientists of K.V.K.
provide required knowledge, impart training to improve the skill and attitude
of the people towards a particular subject, provide proper guidance to solve
any problem faced by the people related to agriculture and allied topics.
Krishi Vigyan Kendra provides inspiration, constructive and constant advice
to the people of that area to start new entrepreneurship for their livelihood
and show them proper way when need actual help as the light house help
the sailor in the sea. So we can rightly say that Krishi Vigyan Kendra is the
light house for the rural people.
3.5 EXERCISE
1) Explain the concept of KrishiVigyan Kendra and state the various
objectives of K.V.K.
2) State the various functions of Krishi Vigyan Kendra for Rural
Development.

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38 4
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
(GOVT. OF MAHARASHTRA) AND
AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITIES IN
MAHARASHTRA
Unit Structure:
4.1. Objectives
4.2. Introduction of Department of Agriculture
4.3. Regional level structure of Agricultural Department
4.4. State level structure of agricultural department
4.5. Division level structure of agricultural department
4.6. District level structure
4.7. Sub-divisional level
4.8. Tehsil level structure
4.9. Historical background of Development of Agricultural Universities
4.10. The Directorate of Extension Education
4.11. Approaches and meth ods used by DOEE
4.12. Agricultural Universities in Maharashtra
4.13. Exercise
4.1 OBJECTIVES
1) To understand the structure of Department of Agriculture in
Maharashtra .
2) To study the role and functions of agricultural universities in rural
development .
3) To study approac hes and various methods used for extension
education .
4) To study in detail about visions and goals of agricultural Universities
in Maharashtra .

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39 4.2 INTRODUCTION
The need to grow more food was felt during the 19th Century because of
the increasing pressure of population. According to the recommendation of
Famine Commission (1881), Agriculture Department was established in
1883. Work started with the aim of helping the rural community to achieve
higher productivity in agriculture. Agriculture and Land Records
Departments were functioning together till 1907. After getting
encouraging results in an effort made during 1915 -16 to stop soil loss,
Mr. Kitting, the then Agriculture Director started soil conservation work
from 1922.
Agriculture Department took up vari ous land development activities with
the enactment in 1942 and subsequent enforcement of Land Development
Act in 1943. For the first time in 1943, the then Government prepared a
comprehensive Agriculture Policy considering the problems in agriculture
and allied sectors. According to this policy, emphasis was given on use of
water as irrigation for agricultural crops.
The post -independence period from 1950 to 1965 is recognized as pre
Green Revolution period. During this period, several schemes were
launch ed to boost growth of agriculture sector. Production of quality
seeds through Taluka Seed Farms started during 1957. Emphasis was
given onincrease in irrigated area along with cultivated area during this
period. A special campaign was launched in 1961 -62 to encourage use of
chemical fertilizers.
Development of hybrid varieties of different crops since 1965 -66 laid
down the foundation of Green Revolution . Five year plans following
this period specially emphasized development of agriculture.
Nalabunding work was taken up along with land development work by the
department since 1974, which led to increase in well and groundwater
level. Introduction of intensive agriculture, comprising of large -scale use
of improved seed, fertilizers, pesticides and available wa ter helped
increase in agriculture production. Later on, considering the need for
providing guidance to the farmers for proper and judicious use of these
inputs, Training and Visit Scheme was launched in 1981 -82. Valuable
contribution of this scheme throug h effective implementation of programs
like Crop Demonstrations, Field Visits, Corner meetings, Workshops,
Fairs, Exhibitions etc. aimed at transfer of technology from Agriculture
Universities to farmer’s fields was evident from the increased agricultural
production.
Though we have become self -sufficient in food grain production in spite of
the tremendous increase in population, self- sufficiency in agriculture is
not the only aim of the State but assurance of more and more net income
to the farmers through the efficient andsustainable use of available
resources is more important. To achieve this, commercial agriculture
should be practiced. Different schemes are implemented toincrease
agricultural production, export promotion and to encourage the agro
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40 and Global trade. Thus, agriculture department is firmly stepping
towards economic progress along with self -sufficiency through agriculture
and to achieve important position in the g lobal agriculture produce market.
The innovative horticulture plantation scheme under employment
guarantee scheme implemented by the State is a part of this policy.
Agriculture department considers farmer as the focal point and the whole
department is orga nized in such a fashion that a single mechanism is
working to facilitate the farmer for adoption of advanced technology and
sustainable use of available resources. Every agriculture assistant
working at villagelevel has a jurisdiction of three to four vil lages with
number of farmers limited to 800 to 900, which facilitates more
interaction foreasier transfer of technology.
Agriculture Assistant at village level undertakes soil conservation work,
horticulture plantation and various extension schemes. He i s supervised by
Circle Agriculture Officer at circle level. Administrative control, liaison
with other departments, monitoring and training programs etc. are
facilitated by Taluka Agriculture Officer at taluka level, Sub Divisional
Agriculture Officer at sub-division level, District Super intending
Agriculture Officer at district level and Divisional Joint Director at
division level. In addition, Agriculture Officer at Panchayat Samiti level,
working under Agriculture Development Officer, Zilla Parish ad at district
level also implements variousa gro-inputs related schemes.
All the schemes implemented in the field are supervised technically and
administratively by respective directorates of Soil Conservation,
Horticulture, Extension and Training, Inputs and Quality Control,
Statistics, Monitoring and Evaluation and Planning and Budget at State
level in the Commissionerate of Agriculture. Also, separate sections are
there for the Establishment and Accounts related matters.










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41 4.3 REGION AL LEVEL STRUCTURE OF
AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENT


























Commissioner of Agriculture,
Maharashtra State Director of Agriculture (6) Divisional Joint Director of Agriculture (3) State level
Sub Divisional Agricultural Joint Director Divisional level
Subdivisional level District level
Tahasil Agricultural Officer (351) Tahasil level Mandal Agricultural Officer (885) Mandal level Agricultural Supervisor (1770) Agricultural Assistant (10620) State level Deputy
Superintendent
Agricultural
Officer (33) Project Direct or
ATMA (33)
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42 4.4 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
GOVERNMENT OF MAHARASHTRA


























Hon. Minister of
Agriculture &
Marketing Hon. Minister of
Horticulture
Hon. Minister of
Water
Conservation
Hon. Minister of
State,
Agriculture
Hon. Minister of
State Horticulture Hon. Minister of
State Water
Conservation Additional Chief Secretary,
Agriculture & Marketing General Secretary,
Water Conservation Commission of Agricultural
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43 4.5 DIVISION LEVEL
Office of Divisional Agricultural Joint Director :


























Divisional Agricultural
Joint Director Agricultural Superintendent
Officer
Accounts Administration
Monitoring & Evaluation Statistics Project Exploration Quality Control Training & Information Waters hed Management Laboratories
Planning Natural Disasters and
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44 4.6 DISTRICT LEVEL
Office of District Superintendent Agricultural Officer :
















4.7 SUB -DIVISIONAL LEVEL
Office of Sub -divisional Agriculture Officer :








District Superintendent
Agricultural Officer Deputy Director of
Agric ultural Quality Control
Training & Information
Department of
Administration Department of Accounts Watershed Management
Commercial Agriculture
Extension and Horticulture
Statistics
Input Supply
Monitoring & Evaluation
Sub-divisional Agricultural
Officer
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45 4.8 TAHASIL LEVEL






4.9 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE SAUs AND
DOEE IN UNIVERSI TIES WITH AGRICULTURAL
FACULTIES IN INDIA
In its early phases, the Indian agriculture education system was in the
domain of public -funded general universities. Agricultural research and
education received major support in the first decade of the 20th century
when Lord Curzon was the Viceroy of India. By 1905 only six agricultural
colleges had been established in Pune (Maharashtra), Kanpur (Uttar
Pradesh), Sabour (Bihar), Nagpur (Maharashtra), Faisalabad (Now in
Pakistan) and Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu) with annual funding of Rs. 2
million by the Government of India. These staff and laboratories and
mandated with research and teaching initiatives in 1926, the Royal
Commission placed Emphasis on the importance of a strong research base
for agricultural develo pment inIndia.
The most significant milestone was the establishment of the imperial (new
India) Agriculture Research Institute (IARI) at Pusa (Bihar) in 1905. Due
to an earthquake in 1934, the Pusa Institute was shifted to New Delhi in
1936. The Royal Comm ission established the autonomous imperial (new
Indian) Council of Agriculture Research (ICAR) in 1929. It was mandated
to promote, guide and co -ordinate agriculture research with a non -lapsing
fund of Rs. 5 million. The establishment of the ICAR empowere d
agricultural research in India. However, the ICAR had no administrative
control on research institutions in theprovinces.
At the time of independences in 1947, only 17 agricultural and veterinary
colleges were established to focus on training of student s in agriculture,
whereas the State. Departments of Agriculture and Community
Development focused on research and extension. There were no close
linkages between agricultural colleges and research departments to ensure
maximum utilization of proven techno logies instead of costly agricultural
education and limited resources, regional interests pressed for the
establishment of a large number of new agricultural colleges during the
early past - independence period. From 1953 to 1960, the number of
agricultu re / veterinary colleges almost doubled in spite of inadequate
financial support, rapid spread of agricultural colleges affiliated with
traditional universities led in the downward slide of standards in education, Village Level Mandal Level Tahasil Level Tehsil Atricultural Officer
Mandal Agricultural Officer
Agricultural Assistant
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46 which became a serious problem. Accordingl y, the pace of progress
remained slow and production technology developed at these institutions
did not keep pace with the fast changing requirements. Therefore, it was
realized that both the system of education as well as the set -up of the
agriculture / animal science institutions needed to be reorganized to serve
as an effective vehicle for agricultural progress and developed. This
necessitated a review of the existing system of agricultural education.
Reorganizing the weakness of the then existing educa tional system and
need for linking programs of agricultural education with production
programs, the University Education Commission (1948) headed by Dr. S.
Radhakrishnan suggested the establishment of ‘Rural Universities’. This
recommendation was strengthe ned by the proposals made by two joint
Indo-American Teams (1955 and 1960), which endorsed the
establishment of State Agriculture Universities (SAUs).
The United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and
American land -grant universities help ed with the development of SAUs in
India in some developing countries, especially in Asia, agricultural
research and education is organized under an autonomous agriculture,
university based on the pattern of the land -grant universities in the United
States of America. The SAUs of India, Pakistan and the Philippines are
based on this model as well.
In India the first SAU was established in 1960 at Pantnagar in Uttar
Pradesh. The SAUs were given autonomous status and direct funding from
the State Government. They were autonomous organizations with
statewide responsibility for agricultural research, education and training or
extension education. The establishment of the SAUs based on a pattern
similar to that if the land -grant universities in the United State s was a
landmark in reorganizing and strengthening the agriculture education
system in India. These universities become the branches of research under
the ICAR and became the partners of the National Agricultural Research
System (NARS). The green revolut ion, with its impressive social and
economic impact, witnessed significant contributions from the SAU’s
both in terms of trained, scientific work force and the generation of new
technologies.
The SAU’s are headed by a vice -chancellor, governed by a board and
advised by an advisory committee. The governing boards of the SAUs
have representatives from government, farmers and agri -business. Being
autonomous organizations, they are able to effectively integrate research
and education and worry out their ma ndate. The SAUs receive core funds
for research and education from the State Governments and substantial
grants from the national institutes. The second National Education
Commission (1964 -66) at that time headed by the University Grant
Commission Chairman , Dr. D.S. Kothari, recommended the establishment
of at least one agricultural university in each Indian State. These
universities imparted education on all aspects of agriculture on the same
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Department of Agriculture
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47 Subsequently, implementation of the recommendations of the Education
Commission (1946 -1966) and Review Committee of Agricultural
Universities (1977 -1978) streamlined their functioning and all matters
related to agricultural research in the States were transferred to the
Universities. According to Review Committee of Agricultural Universities
(1978) an essential feature of the Agricultural University system is the
acceptance of the philosophy of service to agriculture and to rural
communities with t he following mandates :
 State -wide responsibility for teaching, research and extension
education.
 Integration of teaching research and extension at all levelsof the
university administration.
 Multi -disciplinary teamwork in the development programs of
educat ion, research andextension.
 Acceptance by all concerned in the university of a philosophy of
service to agriculture and the rural community and emphasison
programs that are directly and immediately related to solving social and
economic problems of the cou ntryside.
 Quick communication of new knowledge to students in classrooms, to
extension personnel and to farmers.
 Programs giving specialized training to the rural youth and adult men
and women when are not candidates for degrees through departments
involve d in responsibility for the subject matter being taught.
To accomplish these commitments, there is a need for adequate and
efficient extension to be set up for the speedy and effective communication
of new knowledge and technology to extension agents and t o farmers. As
agriculture plays a very important role in the Indian economy. Setting up
an adequate number of agricultural universities was considered very
important. However, the responsibility for extension rests with the
Department of Agriculture and Co -operation (DAC) and the Department
of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries (DADF), which are under
the Central Ministry of Agriculture.
4.10 THE DIRECTORATE OF EXTENSION EDUCATION
The Directorate of Extension Education (DOEE) is the nodal agency of
SAUs for promoting agricultural development in the State through quick
transfer of technology by providing training, consultancy and farm
information to line departments' professional extension personnel and
farmers. It also involves the assessment, refi nement and adoption of
technology through on - farm testing and front -line demonstrations. The
directorate provides guidelines, monitors and evaluates the extension
programs of Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) functioning under SAUs.
The directorate also exten ds its support to the State departments through
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48 agricultural disciplines and related subjects. Thus, the three principals,
functional areas of the DoEE are training, consultancy and commu nication.
The directorate has a team of multi -disciplinary scientists who work in
participatory mode in close co -ordination with the Department of
Agriculture, Animal Husbandry, Horticulture. Forestry, Co -operatives,
PanchayatSamities and other agencies en gaged in the betterment of rural
people.
4.10.1 Mandate of the Directorate of Extension Education :
1. To formulate and impart in-service training to different categories
of officers and functionaries from line departments of State and non -
government organizat ions.
2. To conduct short and long -term vocational trainings for farmers , farm
women, youth and school dropouts.
3. To assess and refine the latest agricultural technology
through front -line demonstrations for their wider adoption.
4. To provide farm information services through various extension
activities, including literature, for the quick dissemination of
technology.
5. Through the DoEE, the university extension service maintains live and
intimate links with the research departments' on one hand and with
the field -level functionaries of different State departments,
development agencies and farmers on the other hand.
4.10.2 Organizational Structure of the Directorate of Extension
Education :
The Directorate of Extension Education (DoEE) conducts its extension
activities through its headquarters. KVKs, Krishi Gyan Kendras (KGKs)
etc. The directorate disseminates the latest technological innovations
through farm advisory, training, information and communication services
by involving scientists from d ifferent departments of the university and
research instit utions. It aims to serve as a l ink between research, extension
and farmers and provide critical feedback for university research as well as
to the main extension system. A well -defined mechanism is followed
involving the Directorate of Research, the line departments and extension
education units while formulating technical programs for different units of
the DoEE.
As per mandate, a Scientific Advisory Committee is constituted at each
KVK for assessin g, reviewing and guiding their programs and progress.
The members of this committee comprise a cross -section of scientific
and fanning communities’ representatives of both government and non-
government organizations who are directly or indirectly involved inthe
process of agricultural training, production and development. The
AT1C is a constituent unit of the directorate, which serves as a single -
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Department of Agriculture
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49 providing solutions to location -specific probl ems and making all
technological information, along with technology inputs, available. The
organizational set up and extension mechanism of the DoEE is presented in
Figures 4.1 and 4.2 (on the next page)
A Typical Organizational Set -Up of the Directorate of Extension
Education at the State Agricultural University Level












4.11 APPROACHES AND METHODS USED BY THE
DIRECTORATE OF EXTENSION EDUCATION
1) Electronic Media Information And Communication t echnology
(ICT)
ICT has a major role to play in al l facets of Indian agriculture. The
extensive use of ICT and its infrastructure would therefore be a critical
component of the strategy to revitalize the national extension system. The
directorate usually arranges radio talk discussion by university expe rts on
All India Radio. The scientists from headquarters, KVK and KGK also
deliver radio andTV talks regularly for the benefit of the farming
community. Integrated use of both the conventional as well as upcoming
electronic media like Intra and Internet, i nformation kiosks, cable TV,
mobile telephones, vernacular press and other print media is the way
forward by pooling and effective use of ICTs. The radio and Doordarshan
(public television broadcaster of India) cover special activities carried out
by th e university such as kisanmela, agricultural officer workshops,
training, field days, kisangoshti.etc.


Formulation
of Technical
Program
Adaptive Dem onstrations On-Farm Extension Advisory Committee
(Review the work, discuss, deliberate and suggest Policy)
Directorate of Extension
Training Line Departments KVK Zonal Research and
Extension Advisory
Committee and Scientific
Advisory Council (ZREAC
and SAC) Research
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50 A Typical Extension Activities Mechanism of the Directorate of
Extension Education:











2) Mass Media :
Among various extension methods, the use (if media is useful in creating
awareness and stimulating interest, along with large coverage of the
audience (Hussain, 1997; Okunade, 2007). New and improved agricultural
technologies, developed in Agricultural Research Institutes, universities,
the privat e sector and often by the farmers themselves, have to be
disseminated among the masses in order to increase productivity and
overcome hunger and poverty. In this context, farmers need adequate
exposure to information on technologies that may be available . Research
has shown that by-and-large farmers' exposure to information is an
important factor influencing their technology adoption behavior. In South
Asian countries, including India, it is primarily the public extension
services that are mandated to di sseminate new agricultural technologies.
3) Organizing Farmer’s Fairs and Field Days:
The directorate is engaged in refining and disseminating agricultural
knowledge to farming communities through a network of KVKs in various
agro-climatic zones. The director ate orgazines farmer’s fairs and field days
for the active participation of farmers and farm women. These activities
give farmers and the public the opportunity to witness the latest. Proven
technologies Exhibitions on the laest technologies are organized for face -
to-face interactions between farmers and scientists. The sale of the lastest
varieties of plants and vegetables aplings creates alarge amount of
publicity on the spot technical solutions are demonstrated at visits of
experimental sites.
Extension Advisory Committee
Line Departments Headquarter Level Directorate of Extension
Agricultural Technology
Information Center (ATIC) Krishi Vigyan Kendra
(KVKs)
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Department of Agriculture
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51 4) Capacity Building of Extension Staff and Farmers :
Human resources development is an important mandatory activity of the
university’s extension education system. The DOEE is organizing various
national level, state -level and in -house personnel trainings, model tra ining
courses, faculty development courses, winter and summer schools, etc.
The directorate is also organizing vocational trainings for economic
empowerment and livelihood security for farm families’ short -term
trainings for farmers, farm women and rural y outh on new production
technologies are organized regularly at the directorate.
The DOEE organizes national level training programs, workshops and
seminars for promoting the professional competency of the officials and
extension personnel working in diff erent time departments of government.
Major training areas include oilseeds and pulse, cropping system approach,
seed production technology post -harvest technology, integrated post
management, arid horticulture, micro -irrigation systemsetc.
The directorate organizes short -term training courses for subject matter
specialists of line departments on subjects like integrated pest
management, organic farming, vermicompost, women in agriculture,
aromatic and medicinal plants, etc. In these courses, the officials are
exposed to emerging problems and their possible solutions as well as
recent technologicaladvances.
To update scientist of SAUs on recent advances in science and technology
the ICAR -sponsored winter / summer schools are being organized by the
DOEE cours es on communication technologies and extension
methodology: innovates breeding methodology. For sustainable, higher
production in course cereals; and advanced media communications,
extension techniques and vocational entrepreneurship for sustainable
liveli hood by agriculture practitioners are being organized.
Scientists of the DOEE are provided trainings with the purpose of updating
skills required for work effectiveness and efficiency. In recent years,
scientists have been trained in the areas of on -farm t esting, post -harvest
management, tally accounting, impact studies, etc.
The DOEE is one of the recognized centers for agro -clinics and agri -
business trainings in the country. These trainings are sponsored by the
ministry of Agriculture and Co -operation. (G overnment of India, New
Delhi) with these trainings, the DOEE is providing 60 day training these
not yet employed in the agriculture sector. The purpose of such training is
to teach entrepreneurial and managerial skills to agricultural graduates so
as to e nable them to establish their own enterprises and provide jobs to
others as well. Major areas where participants establishes their own
business are bio -fertilizers and bio -pesticide production, rural storage
structures (‘godowns’), agricultural input marke ting, custom hiring fruit
and ornamental plant nurseries, agro -clinics retail shops, etc.
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52 5) Training Programs for Farmers :
The directorate is organizing inter -state and state -level short - term courses
for practicing farmers and farm women on crop production , horticulture,
plant protection, animal production, home science and other related
disciplines. These training programs are sponsored by line departments of
agriculture, horticulture soil water conservation and NGOs. These
trainings not only provide the p articipants practical exposure but also give
an opportunity for participants to raise their incomes by adopting new
technologies. These trainings are organized on the principles of ‘Learning
by Doing’ and ‘seeing believes’.
6) Education :
The changes in agricu ltural research investment by center and State
Governments are substantiated by the compound growth water in each
period in Table 4.3. It show that public expenditure on research and
education in India grew at 5.54% from 1960 -70. 54.02% from 1971 -1980.
5.3% from 1981 -1990 and 7.18% from 1991 -2004. The phases of changes
in the real investment correspond to organizational changes in the research
and education system. State research and education pending stagnated all
declined marginally in almost all the Stat es during the but two decades.
From 1971 -1980 it grew rapidly because of the establishment of several
SAUs during the period in manyStates.
4.12 AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITIES IN
MAHARASHTRA
Name of the
University Place Working Area Year
1 Mahatma
Phule
Agricultural
University At Post Rahuri, Dist. Ahemednagar Pune, Satara, Sangali,
Kolhapur, Nagar, Solapur,
Dhule, Nasik, Jalgaon,
Nandurbar 1969
2 Punja brao
Deshmukh
Agricultural Dist. Akola Akola, Amravati, Yavatmaal,
Buldhana, 1969
University Vardha, Nagpur,
Chandrapur, Bhandara,
Gadchiroli, Vashim,
Gondiya
3 Kokan
Agricultural
University Dapoli, Dist.
Ratnagiri Thane, Mumbai, Mumbai
(Sub), Ratnagiri,
Sindhudurga 1972
4 Marathwada
Agricultural
University Parbhanee, Dist.
Parbhanee Beed, Jalna, Latur ,
Aurangabad, Parbhanee,
Hingoli 1972
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53 1) Mahatma Phule Agricultural University:
Introduction:
"The Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth (MPKV), Rahuriis the premier
Agricultural University in Maharashtra that renders services to the farmers
through Education, Re search and Extension Education. In pursuance of
the Maharashtra Agricultural University (KrishiVidyapeeth) Act 1967,
initially, the Maharashtra Agricultural University (Krishi Vidyapeeth) was
established for the entire Maharashtra State and started funct ioning in
March 1968 with its office at Mumbai. The office was shifted to College
of Agriculture, Pune in 1969. Later on in 1972, four agricultural
universities were established in Maharashtra. Mahatma Phule Krishi
Vidyapeeth, Rahuri is one of them established in 1969 for the western
Maharashtra having jurisdiction spread over 10 districts viz. Jalgaon,
Nandurbar, Dhule, Nashik, Ahmednagar, Pune, Solapur, Satara, Sangli
and Kolhapur. The University is named after the great social reformer
‘Mahatma Jyotiba Phule’.
Mandates:
1. To provide education in agriculture and allied sciences.
2. To have further advancement of learning and research in agriculture
and allied sciences. To integrate and co-ordinate the teaching of the
subjects in the different facultie s of the university.
3. To co -ordinate the education, research and extension education
activities for augmentation of agricultural production.
4. To provide integrated agricultural education activities at all
levels for maximum effectiveness and at a minimum cost.
5. To undertake and guide extension education programmes.
Goal:
Sustainable growth of agriculture by interfacing education, research and
extension education initiatives complemented with efficient and effective
institutional, infrastructure ! Support that will create a proper fit between
humanity and its habitat.
Visions of MPKV:
To harness science to ensure comprehensive and sustained physical,
economic and environmental access to food and livelihood security
through generation, assessment, refinement and adoption of appropriate
technologies.
1. MPKV -Recipient of ‘Institution of Excellence Award (2008)’ by
Govt. of India -A Special grants of Rs. 100 crores.
2. MPKV bestowed with the ‘Sardar Patel Best Institution Award’ by
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54 Research and Extension Education.
3. Born as per the Maharashtra Agricultural University (Krishi
Vidyapeeth) Act 1967, in the year 1968 with its headquarter at
Rahuri, Dist. Ahmednagar (M.S.).
4. The H. E. Governor of Maharashtra State is the Chancellor of the
University, The Minister of Agriculture, Maharashtra State is the
Pro-Chancellor, while, Vice -Chancellor is the Head of the
University.
5. The highest policy -making body is the Executive Council. The Hon.
Vice -Chan cellor, MPKV is the Chairman of this Council. The
Council constitutes of nominated peoples representatives, eminent
members from Agriculture and Development Departments,
Scientists, representative of ICAR and progressive farmers.
6. The University is assist ed by Academic Council, Agricultural
Research Council, Extension Education Council, Council for Co -
ordination and Review of Seed Productionand Agriculture
Development Programme.
7. The jurisdiction of MPKV consists of 10 districts of Western and
North Mah arashtra viz., Jalgaon, Dhule, Nandurbar, Nashik,
Ahmednagar, Pune, Solapur, Sangli, Satara and Kolhapur comprising of 5
Agro -climatic Zones.
8. The irrigated area under MPKV jurisdiction is 12 lakhs hectares which
accounts to almost 50% are a of the State. Nearly 80% of drought
prone area in the State is under the jurisdiction of University.
9. MPKV consists of 27 research stations in 5 agro -climatic zones
including 4 State level Crop Specialists, 4 Zonal Agricultural
Research Stations and 17 Strategic and Verifica tion Research
Centres to conductresearch.
10. Three constituent Agriculture Colleges at Pune, Dhule and
Kolhapur; 1 Horticulture College at Pune and 1 Agricultural
Engineering College at Rahuri. 40 affiliated Colleges inthe
jurisdiction of MPKV. A new constit uent Agriculture College is
sanctioned by the Govt. of Maharashtra for Nandurbar district.
11. MPKV offers Post Graduate education at Central Campus, Rahuri
and College of Agriculture. Pune, Kolhapur and Dhule; Ph.D.
Programme at Rahuri; M.Tech. (Agril.Engg.) at Rahuri with high
quality faculty and modern laboratories. Special infrastructure
facilities for international students.
12. Faculty of Lower Agricultural Education offers Diploma courses in
Agriculture through 9 constituent and 85 affiliated Agricultural
Schools under MPKV.
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Maharashtra
55 13. Sixteen KVKs in the jurisdiction of MPKV. Four Krishi Vigyan
Kendras (KVKs) under MPKV including 1 at College of Agriculture,
Dhule and 3 additional sanctioned KVKs established at Mamurabad
(Jalgaon), Borgaon (Satara) and Mohol (Solapur). 12 KVKs are under
NGOs in the jurisdiction of MPKV for transfer of technology.
2) Dr. Balasaheb Sawant Kokan Krishi Vidyapeeth, Dapoli, Dist.
Ratnagiri:
1) About University :
The Kokan region, inspite of being a generous gift of natural resources,
has by and large reminded under -developed. This lad to the peculiar social
problem of migration of able bodies and talented men to nearby areas like
Mumbai and Pune in search of employment leaving behind old men,
women and children to look after agriculture in tradit ional way. Following
are the most primitive methods of cultivation.
2) The University:
The Kokan region is distinguished from the rest of Maharashtra State by
virtue of its distinct agro -climatic conditions - soil types, topography, its
location between the S ahyadriranges and the Arabian sea, crops and
cropping pattern, land holdings and socio -economic conditions of the
farmers. As such, the problems in agricultures and allied sectors are also
entirely different from the other of Maharashtra. Due to this uniq ue
features the Government of Maharashtra established the Kokan Krishi
Vidyapeeth on the 18th May 1972 to import education conduct research on
location specific problems and disseminate the improved crop -production
technologies amongst the farming communi ty. The university was
renamed as Dr. Balasaheb Sawant Kokan Krishi Vidyapeeth, Dapoli on
12th February,2001.
3) Jurisdictions:
In the Kokan region, there are in all 17 different constituent and private
colleges which run UG and PG Programmes and every year 1550 students
are admitted. Out of these 19 colleges, the Maximum number is in
Ratnagiridistict (10) followed by Sindhudurg (4) Raigad (3) and Thane
district (2)
4) Mandate and objectives:
1. To provide education in agriculture and allied sciences by integrating
and co -ordinating teaching in different facilities and examine the
students, conferdegrees diplomas, certificates and other academic
distinctions.
2. To provide research base to improve the productivity of agriculture,
horticulture, live stock, fisheries and agri-allied activities in Konkan
region through basic, applied, adoptive and need based resealed for
attaining economic growth and self - sufficiently at the State.
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56 3. To develop appropriate plants for conservation of natural resources
and their sustainable use.
4. To undertake and guide, extension education programmes including
first line transfer of technology extend technological services for
training conduct demonstrations and developed appropriate
communication network.
5. To Standerised technologies for crop p roduction, protection,
harvesting, marketing, post harvest and also for live stock, poultry and
fisheries for improving the standard of living of the farmers farm
workers and women of Konkan in genital and rural womens in
particular.
6. To provide necessary p roduction support of nucleus breedess and
foundation seed of important crops of the region and also generate
revenue through large firms for sustainable growth of the university.
5) Vision:
To ensre comprehensive and sustained physical economic and
environmen tal access to food and livelihood security, through generation,
assessment and adoption of appropriate technologies.
6) Mission:
The mission statement as below to cater the need of the Konkan region
with regards to education, research and extension education in agriculture.
3) Dr. Punjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola:
Dr. Punjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola was established on
20th October, 1969 with its headquarters at Akola. This Agricultural
University was named after the illustrious son of Vidar bha Dr. Punjabrao
(alias Bhausaheb) Deshmukh, who was the Minister for Agriculture, Govt.
of India. The jurisdiction of this university is spread over the eleven
districts of Vidarbha. According to the University Act 1983 (of the
Government of Maharashtra) , the University is entrusted with the
responsibility of agricultural education, research and extension education
along with breeder and foundation seed programme.
The University has its main campus at Akola. The instructional
programmes at main campus ar e spread over in 5 Colleges namely,
College of Agriculture, College of Agricultural Engineering &
Technology, College of Forestry, College of Horticulture and Post
Graduate Institute. At this campus 4 degree programmes namely B.Sc.
(Agri.), B.Sc. (Hort.), B.Sc. (Forestry) and B.Tech.(Ag. Engg.), two
Master’s Degree Programme viz. M.Sc. (Agri.) and M.Tech. (Agri. Engg.)
and Doctoral Degree Programmes in the faculties of Agriculture and Agril,
Engineering are offered.
The University has its sub -campus at Na gpur with constituent College,
College of Agriculture which offers B.Sc. (Agri.) and M .Sc. (Agri.) degree
programmes. The Nagpur Campus is accomplished with a garden
surrounded by its natural beauty and a well established Zoo which attract
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Department of Agriculture
(Govt. of Maharashtra) and
Agricultural Universities in
Maharashtra
57 being maintained on 22 hectares with a green house for the benefit of
research workers.
In addition there are 2 affiliated grant -in-aid colleges and 14 private non -
grant -in-aid colleges under the umbrella of this University. A Central
Research Station is situated at the main Campus which caters to the need
of research projects undertaken by Crop Scientists of the principle crops of
the region are Cotton Sorghum, Oil seeds and Pulses.
Agro -ecology o f the region :
This region has been divided into four zones on the basis of precipitation,
number of rainy days, soil group, physiology and cropping system. The
zone receiving 700 -950 mm. precipitation with less than 52 rain days
having vertisols of varyi ng depth has been identified as the Assured Kharif
Crop Zone consisting of the district namely, Buldhana, Akola, Amravati
and a part of Washim district while the districts Yavatmal and Wardha and
a part of Nagpur are characterized by its precipitation in the range of 950 -
1250 mm., 52 -62 rainy days having vertisol soils constituted the Moderate
Rainfall Zone. The district, namely, Bhandara, Gondia, Chandrapur and
Gadchiroli have been categorized as the High Rainfall (1250 -1700 mm.)
Zone. While hilly tracks of Amravati district receiving rainfall in the
range of 950 -1700 mm. have been categorized as Moderate to high
Rainfall Zone. TheVidarbha region is endowed with rich forests. The
region has an area of 27.5 lakhs hectares under forest which accounts for
52 per cent of the total forest area of the State and 28 per cent of the
geographical area of the Vidarbha region.
4) Marathwada Krishi Vidyapeeth:
1) Introduction:
Established in 1972, on land grant pattern, Marathwada Agricultural
University (MAU) Parbhani is o ne of the four Agril. Universities in the
State of Maharashtra. Except some industrialization around Aurangabad
and Nanded, the entire region has rural setting. The objectives of the
University are : Education in agriculture & Allied Sci., Undertake
Resear ch based on regional needs and facilitate technology transfer etc.
2) History:
MAU is one of four Agril. Universities in the State of Maharashtra. Prior
to original Maharashtra Agricultural University, it was established on
May 18, 1972 to fulfil the regiona l aspirations of agrarian growth. It is
entrusted with the responsibilities to provide education in agriculture
and allied fields, undertake research and facilitate technology transfer in
Marathwada region of Maharashtra. The first college of Agriculture was
established in this region at Parbhani in 1956 by Hyderabad State
Government just before State reorganization. During Nizam's rule,
however, agricultural education was available only at Hyderabad but
crop research centres viz., sorghum, cotton, fruits ex isted in the
region. The foundation of research was laid by the erstwhile Nizam
State with commencement of the Main Experimental Farm at Parbhani
in 1918 . The famous 'Gaorani’ desicotton is the result of the research
on cotton and local sorghum cultivars were improved by selection by munotes.in

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Agriculture and Its Significance In
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58 the then Economic Botanist. Since then Parbhani remain the hub of
educational, research and extension activities in Marathwada.
3) Mandate :
Provide education in agriculture, allied sciences and humanities. Provide
research base to improve the productivity of important agro -horticulture,
livestock, fisheries and agri -allied activities of Marathwada region.
To develop appropriate plans for conservation of natural resources and
sustainable use.
To undertake and guide extension educa tion programmes, first line transfer
of technology, extend services of training; conduct demonstrations and
develop appropriate communication network.
Standardize technologies for crop production, protection, harvesting,
marketing, post -harvest utilization as also for livestock, fisheries and allied
agro-communities for improving the living status of farmers, farm
workers.
Provide research base to improve the productivity of important agri -
horticulture, livestock, fisheries and agri -allied activities of Mar athwada
region.
To develop appropriate plans for conservation of natural resources and
sustainable use.
To undertake and guide extension education programmes, first line transfer
of technology, extend services of training, conduct demonstrations and
develo p appropriate communication network.
Standardize technologies for crop production, protection, harvesting,
marketing, post -harvest utilization as also for livestock, fisheries and allied
agro-communities for improving the living status of farmers, farm wor kers
and Women of Marathwada.
Provide the necessary production support of nucleus, breeders and
foundation seed of important crops of the region and also generate revenue
through large farms for sustainable growth of the University.
4.13 EXERCISE
1) Explai n the importance and structure of Agricultural Department in
Maharashtra.
2) Discuss the role of agricultural universities in Rural Development.
3) State the various approaches and methods used by Agricultural
Universities for extension education.
4) Write detail n ote on Agricultural Universities in Maharashtra.



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59 5

SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND
ORGANIC FARMING
Unit Structure:
5.1. Objectives
5.2. Introduction
5.3. Concepts and Philosophy
5.4. Goals for sustainable Agriculture
5.5. Dimensions & parameters of sustainable Agriculture
5.6. Strategies of sustainable Agricultural Development
5.7. Compariso n of Sustainable and Conventional Agriculture
5.8. Problems of sustainable Agriculture Development
5.9. Organic Agriculture –Introduction
5.10. Concept of Organic Farming
5.11. The principles of Organic Agriculture
5.12. Methods of Organic Farming
5.13. Exercise
5.1 OBJECTIVES

1) To study th e concept, philosophy and goals of sustainable agriculture.
2) To study the parameters and strategies of sustainable agriculture.
3) To understand the distinguish between sustainable and conventional
agriculture.
4) To understand the various problems of sustainable agriculture.
5) To understand the concept and principles of organic farming.
6) To study the various methods used for organic farming.

5.2. INTRODUCTION
The concept and philosophy of sustainable agriculture assumed global
significance aftermath the adverse social and environmental impact of
modern agriculture. Spearheaded with use of high yielding varieties/
external inputs and non-renewable energy; agricultural modernization was
adopted as essential means for development and transformation of rural
communities and nation's prosperity. However, the euphoria of its potential munotes.in

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Agriculture and Its Significance In
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60 benefits began to wane on account of regional imbalances and social
inequity in development and rapid environmental degradation. Massive and
injudicious application of synthetic fertilizers and toxic pesticides besides
large -scale irrigation led to colossal damage to ecosystem and more
importantly the human and cattle health. Disquieting impacts include.


https://www.krsf.in

1. Contamination of water by pesticide , nitrates and wastes, causing harm
to wildlife, disruption of ecosystem and possible health problem .
2. Contamination of food and fodder by pesticide residues .
3. Damage to farm and natural resources bypesticides .
4. Contamination of atmosphere by ammonia, me thane etc.
5. Formation of ozone depletion, global warming and atmospheric pollution .
6. Overuse of natural resources causing depletion of ground - water .
7. Displacement of traditional varieties and breeds by modern
varieties /breeds .
8. New health hazards due to agrochemicals - during field spray and
working in manufacturing industries.

Injudicious and rampant use of chemical fertilizers has led to imbalance in
soil nutrient status and thus food grains are devoid of essential nutrients
leading to increasing leve ls of hidden hunger. Similarly, the injudicious and
rampant use of pesticides has resulted in the problem of pesticide residues in
blood as well as mothers’ milk. Such effects have put the human and cattle
in trap of deadly diseases and have also threatene d the existence of other
living beings . Realizing the catastrophic impact of pesticides, the famous
American writer Carl Rachel in her famous book ‘The Silent Spring’ has
warned that human being is an integral part of nature and any war against
nature is the war against self. She further advocates that often the
technological advancements become so antagonistic with the nature's
activities and system that it is wise to lay them off.
However, the proponents of modern and exploitative agriculture still argue
in their favor and advocate their continuance for food security and
prosperity.

The debate is mounting between modernists and environmentalists and
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Sustainable Agriculture And
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61 While ensuring food security to burgeoning population is the prime concern,
conservation of natural resources and protection of environment for deriving
benefits in perpetuity are equally important. Consequently vision and
action towards balanced and sustainable development were recognized and
accepted by the global community of scientists, policy -makers and
development agencies.

5.3 CONCEPTS AND PHILOSOPHY
The word sustain, which has been derived from Latin word root ‘sustainer’
(sus- meaning from below and tenere meaning to hold), means to keep
existence or maintain implying long -term support or permanence.

Though the concept of ‘sustainability’ first came up during the energy crisis
of 1970s in relation to supply of oil, when it was defined as ‘maintaining the
present without compromi sing the future’ the term ‘sustainable development’
first appeared in the document 'The World Conservation Strategy"
published in 1980 by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature
and Natural Resources and the notion was been defined as an "integration
of preservation (nature protection) and development to provide a planetary
change which can ensure safe survival and welfare of all people." The
principle of uniform distribution of resources, which was the cornerstone of
Brunt land Commission Report and democratic participation, which was
emphasized by the Second U.N. Conference on the Environment and
Development in Rio de Janeiro are the important features for sustainability.

However, different societies have different conceptualization of sustainability
as well as different requirements of sustainability based upon varying
cultural expectations or environmental constraints. According to Brunt land,
thecore of the idea of sustainability is the concept that current decisions
should not damage the prospects for maintaining or improving living
standards in future .

With mounting criticism and growing recognition of problems with
modernists' approach to agriculture as well as increased public awareness
about environmental issues,search for concept ualization, description
and operationalization of alternative forms of agriculture intensified.
Sustainable agriculture emerged as the term to describe the varied field of
agricultural practices that differ from conventional concepts of modern
agricultural production (Hauptli, et.al. 1990).

Keller cites the observation of the highly renowned agricultural scientist
and thinker, Dr. M. S. Swaminathan that in a world where 30 million
infants were born with mental impairment due to low birth weight and
Third World countries like India had over 250 million people living below
the poverty line, sustainability in agriculture was no longer a choice, which
was a necessity. According to Swaminathan the success of sustainable
agriculture results from a combination of science, technology, service and
public policy. He further quotes ‘Varro’, a Roman landowner as the earliest munotes.in

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Agriculture and Its Significance In
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62 proponent of sustainable agriculture, who said in the First Century
B.C. : "Agriculture is a science which teaches us what crops should be
planted in each kind of soil and what operations are to be carried on, in
order that the land may produce the highest yields in perpetuity."
Sustainable agricultural systems are those, which are capable of maintaining
their productivity and usefulness t o society indefinitely and such systems
must be resource conserving, socially supportive, commercially
competitive and environmentally sound.

Leopold Center in Lowa has defined sustainable agriculture as "farming
systems that are environmentally sound, p rofitable, productive and
maintain the social fabric of the rural community."

Many view sustainable agriculture as philosophy based on co - existence and
communion with nature, where emphasis is upon understanding of long -
term impact of our activities on the environment and on other species.

Brown defines sustainable agriculture as steward ship. It emphasizes steward
ship of both natural and human resources. This includes concern over the
living and working condition of farm laborers, consumer health and
safety, and the needs of rural communities.

In attempt to describe the alternative forms of agriculture in contrast to
modern agriculture many terms were used viz., sustainable agriculture,
regenerative agriculture, eco -agriculture, low external input agr iculture,
low input sustainable agriculture, resource -conserving agriculture,
organic agriculture, permaculture, etc., which led to confusion and
misconception. The most common misconception about sustainable
agriculture has been that it represents a return to some form of low
technology or backward or traditional agricultural practices, which is un
true. It envisages utilization of economically and ecologically viable old as
well as new innovations. Sustainable agriculture does not mandatea specific
set of agricultural practices, rather a basket of options and approaches
according to need could be tried. However, the basic challenge with
sustainable agriculture remains how best to optimally utilize the internal
resources.

5.4 GOALS FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRIC ULTURE
According to Pretty a sustainable agriculture is any system of food or fibre
production that systematically pursues the following goals :

1. Thorough incorporation of natural processes such as nutrient cycling,
nitrogen fixationand pest -predator relationship into agricultural production
process.
2. A reduction in the use of off -farm, external and non -renewable inputs.
3. A more equitable access to productive resources and opportunities, and
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Sustainable Agriculture And
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63 4. Productive use of the biological and genetic potential of plant and animal
species.
5. An increase in self-reliance among farmers and rural people.
6. Long -term sustainability of current production levels.
7. Profitable and efficient production with an emphasis on integrated farm
management, and the conservation of soil, water, energy and biological
resources.

5.5 DIMENSIONS AND PARAMETERS OF
SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
In order to practice sustainability, it is imperative to have its holistic
understanding. Swaminathan ident ified 14 major dimensions of sustainable
agriculture covering the social, economic, technological, political and
environmental facets of sustainability as technological appropriability, economic
feasibility, economic viability, environmental soundness, tem poral stability,
resource -use-efficiency, local adaptability, social acceptability, political
tastiness’, administrative manageability, cultural desirability, equity and
productivity. Lockeretz (1988) delineated following physical andbiological
parameter s for sustainable agriculture.
1. Diversity of cropspecies.
2. Selection of crops and livestock that are adapted to particular environment.
3. Preference for farm generated resources rather than purchased materials.
4. Tightening of nutrient cycles to minimize nutrie ntlosses.
5. Livestock housed and grazed at low stocking densities.
6. Enhancement of storage of nutrient in thesoil.
7. Maintenance of protective cover on thesoil.
8. Rotation that include deep rooted crops and control weeds.
9. Use of soluble in organic fertilizer.
10. Use of pesticide for crops protection only as a lastre sort.

5.6 STRATEGIES OF SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURAL
DEVELOPMENT
Today's economic growth is impoverishing growth or unsustainable
growth is a type of economic growth when the economy has grown in
quantitat ive terms but the economy's reproductive capacity has declined
because of environmental and natural resource degradation and other
associated problems in the economy. Following strategies can be
suggested to the long term sustainable development:

1) Crop Rotations &Pest Management Techniques :
It mitigate weeds, "disease, insect and other pest problems; provide
alternative sources of soil nitrogen; reduce soil erosion; and reduce risk of munotes.in

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Agriculture and Its Significance In
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64 water contamination by agricultural chemicals pest control strategies that are
not harmful to natural systems, farmers, their neighbors or consumers.
Which reduce the need for pesticides by practices such as scouting/ use of
resistant cultivars, timing of planting and biologicalpest controls increased
mechanical / Biological w eed control; more soil and water conservation
practices; and strategic use of animal and green manures use of natural or
synthetic inputs in a way that poses no significant hazard to man, animals
or the environment.

2) Group -based Technologies :
More and mor e emphasis will need to be placed on the group -based
technologies. The areas where group action is called for include :

a) Synchronization of sowing schedules of certain crop to avoid
synchronization with pest reproduction cycle in certain crops where this
is a major problem.
b) Watershed management of both arable and non-arable land belonging to
individuals as well as villages, forest and revenue department.
c) Synchronized sprays compel with pest reducing crop rotations and
mixtures to minimize use of chemicals in the short run and total
elimination in the long run.
d) Biological pestcontrol coupled with water management and drainage.

3) Agro -forestry and Rainwater Harvesting :
The shift from crop to trees (horticultural and/or timber) is taking place
both for reducing the need for outside labour and also for reaping larger
commercial gain by larger farmers. Agro - forestry for high and slow
growth regions thus is an urgent priority. In many parts of the world,
there is renewed interest in the traditional practice of rainwater
harvesting as a method of combating increasing water scarcity. Water
harvesting can be effective in arid, semi -arid and semi -humid areas where
surface or ground -water supplies are not available or are uneconomical to
develop. Run-off water can be collected over large areas (macro -
catchments), from micro -catchments or in the form of floodwater, and is
then stored in reservoirs, cisterns or in the soil. Adoption of this
technology can allow crop production in areas where otherwise it would
not be possible, reduce the risk of crop failure and generally increase
yields in rain -fedagriculture.

4) Development of drought prone regions & Land Development :
The continued neglect of dry regions is really criminal. Hill areas or
drought prone regions which a re depend on domestic servant or a cheap
labour. National Commission on Development of Backward Areas (1981,
Planning Commission, New Delhi) went so far as to say that we should
not try to create conditions by which supply of cheap labour for large
irrigation projects is affected adversely. Need to maintain soil fertility and
water purity, conservation and improvement the chemical, physical and
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Sustainable Agriculture And
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65 energy. Sustainable agriculture produces diverse forms of high quality
foods, fibers and medicines.

5) Integration of Human, Science &Environment :
Need to use locally available renewable resources, appropriate and
affordable technologies and minimizes the use of external and purchased
inputs, there by increasing local independence and self-sufficiency and
insuring a source of stable income for peasants, family and small farmers
and rural communities. This allows more people to stay on the land,
strengthens rural communities and integrates humans with their
environment. Sustainable agriculture respects the ecological principles
of diversity and interdependence and uses the insights of modern science
to improve rather than displace the traditional wisdom accumulated over
centuries by innumerab le farmers around theworld.

6) Equitable and Participatory vision of development :
Sustainable agriculture is a model of social and economic organization
based on an equitable and participatory vision of development which
recognizes the environment and natura l resources as the foundation of
economic activity. Agriculture is sustainable when it is ecologically sound,
economically viable, socially just, culturally appropriate and based on
aholistic scientific approach.

7) Forest Management :
The key point of forest managementis to convert resource potential into
economical values, without affecting sustainability. Present problems are:
too much high quality timber is used as fuel and brushes in marginal
areas are collected exhaustively (by pulling roots, rather tha n cutting
stems). Therefore, suggestions are - a) Save good timber from fuel wood
collecting and alternative sources of energy must be found first, b)
Save brushes in marginal land and planted fuel forest is strongly
recommended to improve the way of collecting firewood, c) Policy
and regulation of forest laws to implement and enforce the law. The
first priority is to set a forest price and keep all licensed logging under
control.

8) Climate change activities :
For facing the challenge ofclimate chang e following steps can be
adopted :
a) making climate information more relevant and usable;
b) developing appropriate tools for prioritizing responses;
c) applying climate risk screening tools at the project level;
d) identifying and using appropriate entry points for climate information;
e) shifting emphasis to implementation, as opposed to developing new
plants; and
f) Encouraging meaningful co -ordination and the sharing of good
practices.
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66 The strategies suggested above require strong, social and economic
capabilities to be implemented effectively.

5.7 COMPARISON OF CHARACTERISTICS OF
SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND
CONVENTIONAL AGRICULTURE

Sustainable Agriculture Conventional Agriculture
General
 Long term sustainability
 Internal solution to internal
problems
 Emphasis on management solutions to problems
 Responsive to feedback and
participatory  Short term benefits
 External solutions to
internal problems
 Emphasis on technology
solutions to problems
 Detachment

Technical
 Low internal input
 To maintain soil f ertility and
productivity, rely uponcrop
 rotation, recycling of residues,
animalmanure
 To manage insects, weeds and other pests utilizes natural cultural
and biological controls
 R & D emphasis on farming system and system approach
 Diversified enterprises within the
farm, crops grown and cultivars
used; biodiversity
 Emphasis is on working with
natural process
 Recognizes location specificity
of technologies,
 use of appropriate and indigenous
technologies
 Use of technologies that preserve
and enrich the natur al resource
base.  High external input
 Use of synthetic
compounded fertilizer
 Use of pesticides, her bicide,
growth regulators,
Pharmaceuticals and live
stock feed additives
 Emphasis on individual crop
 Intensive mono cropping
Genetic erosion
 Emphasis is on controlling
Natural processes
 Belief in universal
technologies, e.g. pesticides,
fertilizers, use of imported
and packaged technologies
 Use of technologies that
exploits and destroys the
natural resource base
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Sustainable Agriculture And
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67 Economic
 Priority is foodsecurity
 Relies on available indigenous farm resource self -reliant  Export andprofit -oriented
 Capital intensive, usually
need credit
 Emphasis on commodity
exchange in the market
 Places high value on human fulfillment and
the environment
Socio -political
 Belief in accountability
and value laden  Socio -politically detached
and ignore consequences

5.8 PROBLEMS OF SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
DEVELOPMENT
Ecologically and environmentally, the continued use of chemical fertilizers
has increased soil erosion and decline soil productivity. Increased resistance
of weeds and insects to herbicides and insecticides, combined with the
destruction of wildlife and beneficial insects by pesticides may trigger a
new vicious cycle both economically and ecologically. As a re sult of the
intensive use of chemicals in agriculture soil and water are more and more
contaminated, human beings are faced with the dilemma of consuming
unsafe food and drinking polluted water or spending extra money to
restore the damaged environment. From the natural resources perspective,
fossil fuel and other chemicals are non -renewable, thus, the depletion of
finite reserves of concentrated plants nutrients is only a matter of time. At
present and in foreseeable future, there are no substitutes t hat can replace
these depleted resources. Therefore, it seems sensible to consider alternative
approaches, like sustainable agriculture. However, many developing
countries have attempted to produce sufficient food to fulfill the needs of
their increasin g populations. This forces them to apply more chemicals to
their land because it is effective in the shortterm.

Most parts of India, rains are seasonal. As a consequence, ground or stored
water has to be used for irrigation, industrial and domestic use.
Pressure on water resources is bound to increase in the future due to
population growth, urbanization, increased industrial requirement and
higher living standards. To enhance the productivity of dry land
agriculture, some protective irrigation will have to be provided in the areas
which receive low rainfall. The water -table in many parts of India is
receding and over exploitation of ground water resources is a major
threat to survival of future generations. Transgenic technologies have little
to contribu te towards all eviating the problems created by the over
exploitation of water resources. However, if transgenic technologies can
contribute towards enhancing productivity and yield stability of crops
adapted to a low water requirement, the overall depen dence on ground
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Agriculture and Its Significance In
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68 Replacement of traditional mixed cropping patterns with mono cultures
requiring unacceptable levels of pesticide use andnegative impacts on bio-
diversity, as well as irrigation induced problems of mine ral contamination,
increased salinity and the lowering of water tables. At the same time, the
Green Revolution may have relieved pressure to expand agriculture into
ecologically fragile areas and reduced the dependence of rural areas on
unsustainable reso urce extraction activities.
The real problem will be the process of integration of the different
technologies into the farming system. That is the process of sorting all the
various legitimate factors that prevent or discourage farmers from
accepting sustainable development and adjusting the socio -economic
environment to overcome these. It will have to be largely a farm level
diagnostic effort to make certain the required extra labour is in fact
available. There is actually enough organic residues to ju stify the
composting process and this could provide the desired nutrients for the
entire intended area or, if not, the percentage of the area that can be
provided. Likewise, the extra land for building leguminoushedgerows needs
to be available and not already committed to subsistence cropping. In many
intensive farming communities in Asia, villages are immediately adjacent
to each other with all in -between land already allocated and in use. Thus,
the extra land may just not be there.

The problems have increased dramatically in recent years. This includes
contamination of water by pesticides and fertilizers, contamination of food
and fodder by residues of pesticides, nitrates and antibiotic, workers and
public, disruption of ecosystem and harm of wildlife, damage to farm
and natural resources by pesticides, causing workers and public,
disruption of ecosystem and harm of wildlife.

5.9 ORGANIC AGRICULTURE -INTRODUCTION
Introduction :
Organic agriculture has grown out of the conscious efforts by inspired
people to create the best possible relationship between the earth and men.
Since its beginning, the sphere surrounding organic agriculture has become
considerably more complex. A major challenge today is certainly its entry
into the policy -makin g arena, its entry into anonymous global market and
the transformation of organic products: into commodities. During the last
twodecades, there has also been a significant sensitization of the global
community towards environmental preservation and assu ring of food
quality. Ardent promoters of organic farming consider that it can meet
both these demands and become the mean for complete development of
rural areas. After almost a century of development organic agriculture is
now being embraced by the main stream and shows great promise
commercially, socially and environmentally. While there is continuum of
thought from earlier days to the present, the modern organic movement is
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69 sustaina bility at its core in addition to the founders concerns for healthy
soil, healthy food and healthy people.

5.10 CONCEPT OF ORGANIC FARMING
Organic farming is very much native to this land. Who soever tries to write
a history of organic farming will have to refer India and China. The
farmers of these two countries are farmers of 40 centuries and it is organic
farming that sustained them. This concept of organic farming is based on
following principles:

 Nature is the best role model for farming, since i t does not use any
inputs nor demand unreasonable quantities of water.
 The entire system is based on intimate understanding of nature's
ways. The system does not believe in mining of the soil of its
nutrients and do not degrade it in any way for today's needs.
 The soil in this system is a livingentity
 The soil's living population of microbes and other organisms are
significant contributors to its fertility on a sustained basis and must
be protected and nurtured at allcost.
 The total environment of the s oil, from soil structure to soil cover is
more important.

5.11 THE PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIC AGRICULTURE
To understand the motivation for organic farming, the practices being used
and what we want to achieve, it is important to understand the guiding
princip les of organic agriculture. These principles encompass the
fundamental goals and caveats that are considered important for producing
high quality food, fiber and other goods in an environmentally sustainable
way. The principles of organic agriculture have changed with the evolution
of the movement and are now codified. The principles apply to agriculture
in the broadest sense, including the way people tend soils, water, plants
and animals in order to produce, prepare and distribute food and other
goods. The y concern the way people interact with living landscapes, relate
to one another and shape the legacy of future generations. The principles
of organic agriculture serve to inspire the organic movement in its full
diversity. They are the roots from which organic agriculture grows and
develops. They express the contribution that organic agriculture can make
to the world and a vision to improve all agriculture in a global context.
The Principles of Organic Agriculture serve to inspire the organic
movement in its full diversity.

The International Federation for Organic Agriculture Movement’s
(IFOAM) definition of Organic agriculture is based on:

The principle of health
The principle of ecology munotes.in

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70 The principle of fairness and
The principle of care

Each princ iple is articulated through a statement followed by an
explanation. The principles are to be used as a whole. They are composed
as ethical principles to inspire action.

1) Principle of health:
Organic Agriculture should sustain and enhance the health of so il, plant,
animal, human and planet as one and indivisible. This principle points out
that the health of individuals and communities cannot be separated from
the health of eco-systems - healthy soils produce healthy crops that foster
the health of anima ls and people. Health is the wholeness and integrity
of living systems. It is not simply the absence of illness, but the
maintenance of physical, mental, social and ecological well -being.
Immunity, resilience and regeneration are key characteristics of health.
The role of organic agriculture, whether in farming, processing, distribution,
or consumption, is to sustain and enhance the health of eco -systems and
organisms from the smallest in the soil to human beings. In particular,
organic agriculture is inte nded to produce high quality, nutritious food
that contributes to preventive health care and well - being. In view of this it
should avoid the use of fertilizers, pesticides, animal drugs and food
additives that may have adverse health effects.

2) Principle o f ecology:
Organic Agriculture should be based on living ecological systems and
cycles, work with them, emulate them and helpsustain them. This
principle roots organic agriculture within living ecological systems. It
states that production is to be based o n ecological processes and recycling.
Nourishment and well -being are achieved through the ecology of the
specific production environment. For example, in the case of crops this is
the living soil; for animals itis the farm eco -system; for fish and marine
organisms, the aquatic environment. Organic farming, pastoral and wild
harvest systems should fit the cycles and ecological balances in nature.
These cycle sare universal but their operation is site-specific.

Organic management must be adapted to local c onditions, ecology, culture
and scale. Inputs should be reduced by reuse, recycling and efficient
management of materials and energy in order to maintain and improve
environmental quality and conserve resources. Organic agriculture should
attain ecologica l balance through the design of farming systems,
establishment of habitats and maintenance of genetic and agricultural
diversity. Those who produce, process, trade or consume organic products
should protect and benefit the common environment including
landscapes, climate, habitats, biodiversity, air and water.

3) Principle of fairness:
Organic Agriculture should build on relationships that ensure fairness with
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71 characterized by equity, respect, justice and stewardship of the shared
world, both among people and in their relations to other living beings. This
principle emphasizes that those involved in organic agriculture should
conduct human relationships in a manner that ensures fairness at all levels
and to all parties - farmers, workers, processors, distributors, traders and
consumers. Organic agriculture should provide everyone involved with a
good quality of life and contribute to food sovereignty and reduction of
poverty. It aims to produce a sufficient supply of good quality food and
other products. This principle insists that animals should be provided
with the conditions and opportunities of life that accord with their
physiology, natural behavior and well-being. Natural and envir onmental
resources that are used for production and consumption should be
managed in a way that is socially and ecologically just and should be held
in trust for future generations. Fairness requires systems of production,
distribution and trade that are open and equitable and account for real
environmental and social costs .

4) Principle of care:
Organic Agriculture should be managed in a precautionary and responsible
manner to protect the health and well -being of current and future
generations and the envi ronment. Organic agriculture is a living and
dynamic system that responds to internal and external demands and
conditions. Practitioners of organic agriculture can enhance efficiency and
increase productivity, but this should not be at the risk of jeopard izing
health and well -being. Consequently, new technologies need to; be
assessed and existing methods reviewed. Given the incomplete
understanding of ecosystems and agriculture, care must be taken. This
principle states that precaution and responsibility a re the key concerns in
management, development and technology choices in organic agriculture.
Science is necessary to ensure that organic agriculture is healthy, safe and
ecologically sound. However, scientific knowledge alone is not
sufficient. Practical experience, accumulated wisdom and traditional and
indigenous knowledge offer valid solutions, tested by time. Organic
agriculture should prevent significant risks by adopting appropriate
technologies and rejecting unpredictable ones, such as genetic engin eering.
Decisions should reflect the values and needs of all who might be
affected, through transparent and participatory processes.

In totality organic agriculture aims at a sustainable production system
based on natural processes. Key characteristics a re that organic
agriculture:

 relies primarily on local, renewable resources;
 makes efficient use of solar energy and the production potential of
biological systems;
 maintains the fertility of the soil;
 maximises recycling of plant nutrients and organi c matter;
 does not use organisms or substances foreign to nature e.g. GMOs, munotes.in

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72 chemical fertilisers or pesticides);
 maintains diversity in the production system as well as the
agricultural landscape;
 Gives farm animals life conditions that correspond to their ecological
role and allow them a natural behaviour.

Organic agriculture is also a sustainable and environmentally friendly
production method, which has particular advantages for small -scale farmers.
Available evidence indicates the appropriateness of o rganic agriculture for
small farmers in developing countries like India. Organic agriculture
contributes to poverty all eviation and food security by a combination of
many features, such as:
 increasing yields in low -input areas;
 conserving bio -diversity and nature resources on the farm and in the
surrounding area;
 increasing income and/or reducing costs;
 producing safe and varied food;
 being sustainable in the long term.

5.12 METHODS OF ORGANIC FARMING
Introduction :
Organic farming methods combine scient ific knowledge of ecology and
modern technology with traditional farming practices based on naturally
occurring biological processes. Organic farming methods are studied in the
field of agro ecology. While conventional agriculture uses synthetic
pesticides and water -soluble synthetically purified fertilizers, organic
farmers are restricted by regulations to using natural pesticides and
fertilizers. The principal methods of organic farming include crop rotation,
green manures andcompost, biological pest control and mechanical
cultivation. These measures use the natural environment to enhance
agricultural productivity: legumes are planted to fix nitrogen into the
soil, natural insect predators are encouraged, crops are rotated to confuse
pests and renew soil and natural materials such as potassium
bicarbonate and mulches are used to control disease and weeds. Organic
farmers are careful in their selection of plant breeds and organic
researchers produce hardier plants through plant breeding rather than
genetic engineering.

a) Crop Diversity:
Crop diversify is a distinctive characteristic of organic farming.
Conventional farming focuses on mass production of one crop in one
location, a practice called monoculture. This makes apparent economic
sense: the large r /the growing area, the lower the per unit cost of
fertilizer, pesticides and specialized machinery for a single plant species.
The science of agro-ecology has revealed the benefits of polyculture
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73 farming. Planting avariety of vegetable crops supports a wider range of
beneficial insects, soil micro -organisms and other factors that add up to
overall farm health, but managing the balance requires expertise and
closeattention.

b) Farm Size :
Farm size in great measure determines the general approach and
specific tools and methods. Today, major food corporations are involved in
all aspects of organic production on a large scale. However, organic
farming originated as a small - scale enterprise , with operations from
under 1 -acre (4,000m2) to under 100 acres (0.40 km2). The mixed vegetable
organic market garden is often associated with fresh, locally -grown
produce, farmers' markets and the like, and this type of farm is often
under 10 acres (40,00 0 m2). Farming at this scale is generally labour -
intensive, involving more manual labor and less mechanization. The type
of crop also determines size: organic grain farms often involve much
larger area. Larger organic farms tend to use methods and equipm ent
similar to conventional farms, centered around the tractor.
c) Plant Nutrition :
Soil Fertility -
The central farming activity of fertilization illustrates the differences.
Organic farming relies heavily on the natural break down of organic
matter, us ing techniques like green manure and composting, to replace
nutrient staken from the soil by previous crops. This biological process,
driven by micro - organisms such as mycorrhiza, allows the
natural production of nutrients in the soil throughout the growing
season and has been referred to as feeding the soil to feed the plant. In
chemical farming, individual nutrients, like nitrogen, are synthesized in a
more or less pure form that plants can use immediately, and applied on a
man-made schedule. Each nutrient is defined and addressed separately.
Problems that may arise from one action e.g. too much nitrogen left in the
soil are usually addressed with additional, corrective products and
procedures e.g. using water to wash excess nitrogen out of the soil. Organic
farming uses a variety of methods to improve soil fertility, including crop
rotation, cover cropping and application of compost.

d) Pest Control :
Biological Pest Control
Biological control of pests in agriculture is a method of controlling pests
including insects, mites, weeds and plant diseases that relies on predation,
parasitism , her bivore or other natural mechanisms. It can be an important
component of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) programs.
Biological Control is defined as the reduction of pest populations by
natural enemies and typically involves an active human role. Natural
enemies of insect pests, also known as biological control agents,
include predators, parasitoids and pathogens. Biological control agents of
plant diseases are most often referred to as antagonists. Biological
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74
Predators, such as lady beetles and lace wings, are mainly free-living
species that consume a large number of preyduring their life time.
Parasi toids are species whose immature stage develops onor within a
single insect host, ultimately killing the host. Most have a very narrow
host range. Many species of wasps and some flies are parasitoids.
Pathogens are disease -causing organisms includin g bacteria, fungi and
viruses. They kill or debilitate their host and are relatively specific to
certain insect groups. There are three basic types of biological control
strategies conservation, classical biological control, and
augmentation.

e) Conservatio n:
The conservation of natural enemies is probably the most important and
readily available biological control practice available to homeowners
and gardeners. Natural enemies occur in all areas, from the backyard
garden to the commercial field. They are adapted to the local
environment and to thetarget pest and their conservation is generally
simple and cost-effective. Lacewings, lady beetles, hover fly larvae,
and parasitized aphidmummiesareal most always present in
aphid colonies.

Fungus -infected adult flies are often common following periods of
high humidity. These naturally occurring biological controls are often
susceptible to the same pesticide used to target their hosts. Preventing the
accidental eradication of natural enemies is termed simple cons ervation.

5.13 EXERCISE
1) Explain the concept and Philosophy of sustainable agriculture.
2) Describe the strategies of sustainable agriculture development.
3) Distinguish between characteristics of sustainable agriculture and
conventional agriculture.
4) State the v arious problems of sustainable agriculture in rural area.
5) Explain the concept and principles of organicagri culture.
6) Explain the various methods of organic farming.




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75 6
GREENHOUSE AND TISSUE
CULTURE
Unit Structure:
6.1 Objectives
6.2 Introduction
6.3 Working of Green Houses
6.4 Types of Green Houses
6.5 Uses of Green Houses
6.6 History of Green Houses
6.7 Green House Ventilisation
6.8 Green House Heating
6.9 Green House Carbon Dioxide Enrichment
6.10 Tissue Culture –Introduction
6.11 Tissue Culture Laboratory
6.12 Glass Goods & Instruments
6.13 Summary
6.14 Exercise
6.1 OBJECTIVES
1) To understand the concept and working of Green houses.
2) To study the various t ypes and uses of Green House.
3) To study the techniques use for plant tissue culture.
4) To study the various tools and equipment’s used for tissue culture in
aboratory.
6.2 INTRODUCTION
A green house (also called a glass house or, if with sufficient heating, a
hothouse) is a structure with walls and roof made chiefly of transparent
material, such as glass, in which plants requiring regulated climatic
conditions are grown. These structures range in size from small sheds to
industrial -sized buildings. A miniature green house is known as a cold munotes.in

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76 frame. The interior of green house exposed to sunlight becomes
significantly warmer than the external ambient temperature, protecting its
contents in cold weather.
Many commercial glass green houses or hothouses are high - tech
production facilities or vegetables or flowers. The glass green house is
filled with equipment including screening installations, heating, cooling,
lighting and may be controlled by a computer to optimize conditions for
plant growth.
6.3 WORKING OF GREE NHOUSES
The explanation given in most sources for the warmer temperature in a
greenhouse is that incident solar radiation (the visible and adjacent
portions of the infrared and ultraviolet ranges of the spectrum) passes
through the glass roof and walls a nd is absorbed by the floor, earth, and
contents, which become warmer and re -emit the energy as longer -
wavelength infrared radiation. Glass and other material used for
greenhouse walls do not transmit infrared radiations, so the infrared cannot
escape via radiative transfer. As the structure is not open to the
atmosphere, heat also cannot escape via convection, so the temperature
inside the greenhouse rises. This is known as ‘greenhouse effect.’ The
greenhouse effect due to the infrared - opaque‘greenhouse’ , including
carbon dioxide ( CO 2) and methane ( CH 4) instead of glass, also affects
the earth as whole; there is no convective cooling as air does not escape
from the earth.

https://link.springer.com
However, R. W. Wood in 1909 constructed two greenhou ses, one with
glass as the transparent material and the other with panes of rock salt,
which is transparent to the infrared. The two greenhouses warmed to the
similar temperatures, suggesting that an actual greenhouse is warmer not
because of the ‘greenhou se effect’ as described in the previous paragraph,
but by preventing connective cooling, not allowing warmed air toescape.
More recent quantitative studies suggest that the effect of infrared radiative
cooling is not negligibly small and may have economic implications in a
heated greenhouse. Analysis of issues of near - infrared radiations in a munotes.in

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77 greenhouse with screens of high co -efficient of reflection concluded that
installation of such screens reduced heat demand by about 8% and
application of dyes to t ransparent surfaces was suggested. Composite less -
reflective glass or less effective but cheaper anti -reflective coated simple
glass, also saving.
6.4 TYPES OF GREENHOUSES
Greenhouses can be divided into glass greenhouses and plastic
greenhouses.
In dom estic greenhouses, the glass used is typically 3 mm (or 1/8”)
horticultural glass grade, which is good quality glass that should not
contain air bubbles (which can produce scorching on leaves by acting like
lenses)
Plastic mostly used are polyethylene fil m and multi wall sheets of
polycarbonate material or PMMA acrylicglass.
Commercial glass greenhouse isoften high -tech production facilities for
vegetables or flowers. The glass greenhouse are filled with equipment
such as screening installations, heatin g, cooling and lighting, and may be
automatically controlled by computer.
6.4.1 Dutch light: In the UK and other Northern European countries a
pane of horticultural glass referred to as ‘Dutch light’ was historically
used as standard unit of constructio n, having dimension of 283/4 " 56" (
approx. 730 mm 142 mm ) . This size gives a larger glazed area when
compared with using smaller panes such as the 600 mm width typically
used in the modern domestic designs which then require more supporting
framework for a given overall gree nhouse size. A style of greenhouse
having sloped sides (resulting in a wider base than at eaves height) and
using these panes uncut is also often referred to as of ‘Dutch light design’,
and a cold frame using a full - or half - pane as being of ‘Dutch’ or ‘half -
Dutch’size.
6.5 USE OF GREENHOUSES
Greenhouses allow for greater control over the growing environment of
plants. Depending upon the technical specification of a greenhouse, key
factors which may be controlled include temperature, levels of light a nd
shade, irrigation, fertilizer application and atmospheric humidity.
Greenhouse may be used to overcome short -comings in the growing
qualities of a piece of land, such as a short growing season of poor levels
and they can thereby improve food productio n in marginal environments.
As they may enable certain crops to be grown throughout the year,
greenhouses are increasingly important in the food supply of high -
latitude countries. One of the largest complexes in the world is in
Almeria, Andalucia, Spa in, where greenhouses cover almost 200 sq.km
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78 Greenhouses are often used for growing flowers, vegetables, fruits and
transplants. Special greenhouse varieties of certain crops, such tomatoes,
are generally used for commercial production. Ma ny vegetables and
flowers can be grown in greenhouses late winter and early spring and then
transplanted outside as the weather warms.
Bumblebees are the pollinators of choice for most pollination, although
other types of bees have been used, as well a s artificial pollination.
Hydroponics can be used to make the most use of the interior space.
The relatively closed environment of a greenhouse has its own unique
management requirements, compared with outdoor production, pests and
diseases, and extremes o f heat and humidity, have to be controlled and
irrigation is necessary to provide water. Most greenhouses use sprinklers
or drip lines. Significant inputs of heat and light may be required,
particularly with winter production of warm - weather vegetables.
Greenhouse also have applications outside of the agriculture industry.
Glass point solar, located in Fremont, California, encloses solar fields in
greenhouses to produce steam or solar -enhanced oil recovery.
6.6 HISTORY OF GREENHOUSES
The idea of growing p lants in environmentally controlled areas has existed
since Roman times. The Roman emperor Tiberius ate a cucumber -like
vegetable daily. The Roman gardeners used artificial methods (similar to
the greenhouse system) of growing to have it available for his table
everyday of the year. Cucumbers were planted in wheeled carts which
were put in the sun daily, then taken inside to keep them warm at night.
The cucumbers were stored under frames or in cucumber houses glazed
with either oiled cloth known as sp ecularia or with sheets of selenite (a. k.
a lapis specularis), according to the description by Pliny the Elder.
In the 13th century, greenhouses were built in Italy to house the exotic
plants that explores brought back from the tropics. They were original ly
called giardinibotanici (botanical gardens) ‘Active’ greenhouses in which
it is possible for the temperature to be increased or decreased manually,
appeared much later. Sangayorok Written in the year 150 A.D. in Korea,
contained description of a greenh ouse which was designed to regulate the
temperature and humidity requirements of plants and crops.
One of the earliest records of the annals of the Joseon Dynasty in 1438
confirms growing mandarin trees in a Korean traditional greenhouse
during the winter and installing a heating system on condole.
The concept of greenhouses also appeared in the Netherlands and then
England in the 17th century, along with the plants. Some of these early
attempts required enormous amounts of work to close up at night or to
winterize. There were serious problems with providing adequate heat in
these early greenhouses. Today, the Netherlands has many of the largest
greenhouses in the world, some of them so vast that they are able to
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79 The French botanist Charles Lucien Bonaparte is often credited with
building the first practical modern greenhouse in Lieden, Holland during
the 1800s to grow medicinal tropical plants. Originally only on the estates
of the rich, the growth of the science of botany caused greenhouses to
spread over the universities. The French called their first greenhouses
orangeries, since they were used to protect orange trees from freezing. As
pine apples became popular, pineries or pine apple pits, were
experimentati on with the design of greenhouses continued during the 17th
century in Europe, as technology produced better glass and construction
techniques improved. The greenhouse at the Palace of Versallies was an
example of their size and elaborateness: it was more than 15 meters (490
ft) long, 13 meters (43 ft) wide, and 14 meters (46 ft) high.
The golden era of the greenhouse was in England during the Victoria era,
where the largest greenhouses yet conceived were constructed as the
wealthy upper class and aspiring botanists completed to build the most
elaborate buildings. A good example of this trend is the pioneering Kew
gardens.
6.7 GREENHOUSE VENTILATION
Ventilation in one of the most important components in a successful
greenhouse. If there is no proper ventila tion in greenhouse and their
growing plants can become prone to problem. The main purposes of
ventilation are regulates the temperature and humidity of the optimal level
and to ensure movement of air and thus prevent build up of plant
pathogens (such as Botrytis cinerea) that prefer still air conditions
ventilation also ensures a supply of fresh air for photosynthesis and plant
respiration and many enable important pollinators to access the greenhouse
crop.
Ventilation can be achieved via use of vents - often controlled
automatically via a computer and recirculation fans.
6.8 GREENHOUSE HEATING
Heating or electricity in on the most considerable costs in the operation of
greenhouses across the globe especially in colder climates. The main
problem with hea ting a greenhouse as apposed to a buidings that has solid
opaque walls in the amount of heats lost through the greenhouse coversing
since the coverings need to allow light of filter into the structure they
converaly cannol insulte very well with traditio nal plastic greenhouse
coverings having an R - value of around 2 a great amount of money
amount of money is therefore spent to continually replace the neat lost
most greenhouses, when supplement as heat is need use natural gas or
electric furnaces.
Passive heating methods inputs solar energy can be captured from periods
or relative abundance (day time/ summer) and released to boot the
temperature during cooler periods ( night time / winter) waste neat from
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80 6.9 GREENHOUSE CARBON DIOXIDE ENRICHMENT
The possibility of using carbon dioxide enrichment in greenhouse
cultivation to enhance plant growth has been known for nearly 100 years.
After the development of equipment for the controlled serial e nrichment of
carbon dioxide the technique was established on a broad scale in the
Netherlands secondary metabatiberies e.g. caddice glycoside in Digitalis
lantana, are produced in higher amounts by greenhouse cultivation at
enhanced temperature and at enha nced carbon dioxide concentration
commercial greenhouse are now frequently located near appropriate
industrial facilities of mutual benefit.
For example Conner Ways Nursery in the UK is strategically placed near a
major sugar refinery.
Consuming both need CO2 form the refinery which would otherwise be
vented to atmosphere the refinery reduce its carbon emissions whistle the
nursery enjoys boosted tomato yields and does not need to provide its own
greenhouse heating.
Enrichment only becomes effectives whereb y Liebig’s law carbon dioxide
has become the limiting factor in a controlled greenhouse irrigation may
be trival and soils may be fertile by default in less controlled gardens and
one fields rising CO2 levels only increases primary production to the
points of solid depletion (assuming on droughts, flooding or both as
demonstrated prima facie by CO2 levels continuing to rise in addition
laboratory experiments free air carbon enrichment (face) test plots and
field measurements provide reliability.
6.10 TECHNIQ UES IN PLANT TISSUE CULTURE
Introduction :
Plant tissue culture is not a separate branch of plant science like taxonomy,
cytology, plant physiology etc. Rather it is a collection of experimental
methods of growing large number of isolated cells or tissues under sterile
and controlled conditions. The cells or tissues are obtained from any part
of the plant like stem, root, leaf etc. which are encouraged to produce more
cells in culture and to express their totipotency (i.e. their genetic ability to
produc e more plants). Cells or tissues are grown in different types of glass
vials containing a medium with mineral nutrients, vitamins and
phytohormones. Therefore, to carry out the experiments using tissue
culture techniques, a well -equipped laboratory is fir st required.
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81

https://labassociates.com
In recent years there has been a large increase in the number of research
laboratories using tissue culture techniques to investigate many
fundamental and applied aspects o f higher plants. However, the use of
these techniques is not confined to research alone. Tissue culture
techniques are being exploited by many commercial laboratories. Even
many horticultural companies are setting up small to multiply plants which
are diff icult to propagate by conventional means.
In this chapter, the general organization of a tissue culture laboratory and
the basic techniques will be discussed under differentsubheadings.
6.11 TISSUE CULTURE LABORATORY
An ideal tissue culture laboratory sho uld have at least two big rooms and
a small room. One big room is for generally laboratory work such as
preparation of media, autoclaving, distillation of water etc. The other big
room is for keeping cultures under controlled light, temperature and
humi dity. The small room is for aseptic work for keeping autoclaved
articles.
General Laboratory :
The general laboratory for tissue culture should be provided with the
following articles and arrangements.
A Washing Area:
This is very important for a tissue cu lture laboratory. It should be
provided with a large sink, running hot and cold tap water, brushes of
various sizes, detergent and a bucket of single distilled water for a final
rinse of the washed glass goods. A number of plastic buckets are required
for soaking the glass goods to be washed. Another separate bucket with lid
is also required for disposing off the used or infected media before
cleaning. Only this bucket should be kept outside the room or clearing area
and should be cleaned twice in aweek.
Hot Air Oven
It is necessary for drying the washed glass goods. For this purpose, a
number of enameled trays of different sizes are required for keeping wet
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82 Refrigerator
It is essential for storing various thermolabile chemic als like vitamins,
hormones, amino acids, casein hydrolysate, yeast extract, coconut milk,
etc. Stock solutions of salts are also kept to prevent contamination.
DistillationPlant
A single distillation and a double distillation water plant are indispensable .
Two big plastic containers are required for storing the distilled water.
Weighing Balance
Three types of weighing balances viz. pan balance, chemical balance and
electric balance are required for weighing chemicals, sugars, agar -agar and
others.
pH mete r :
It is necessary for the measurement and adjustment of pH of the nutrient
medium Fig. 15.1.

Fig. 15.1
Vacuum Pump :
It is required for filtering liquid media, sugar solution etc. through filter
apparatus using air suction.
Autoclave :
It is very impor tant for sterilization of nutrient media, glass goods,
instruments, etc.
Working Tables :
These are necessary for preparation of medium.


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83 Heater :
It is needed for heating or warming the medium to dissolve agar to melt
the agarifted medium.

Simple port able auto clave : Fig. 15.2
Fig. 15.3
An inverted microscope for the observation of living cell and tissue
cultures during experiments
Fig. 15.4
A stereoscopic dissecting microscope
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84 Microscope:
Simple, compound, inverted binocular dissection microscopes a re essential
for various purposes. Some of the microscopes (Fig. 15.4) should be fitted
with a camera for taking photomicrograph.
Microtome:
It is needed for sectioning the cultured tissue.
Wooden Racks :
These are required for keeping the various chemical s.
LABORATORY FOR ASEPTIC INOCULATION:
This room should be without any window or ventilator in order to make it
dust-free. The room should be provided with double doors. The doors
should have a automatic door closer. In - side floor should be fitted wit h a
rubber mat to facilitate cleaning. For entering into the room, shoes should
be left outside. For aseptic work, a large wooden chamber ( Ca, 4'
4'7') is made forshort term work. Upper half of the sidewalls of the
chamber is made of large glass sheets. The chamber should also have
double doors provided with a door closer. The chamber is provided with
two UV (one small, one big) sterilizing lamp s and a fluorescent lamp. The
switches to operate them are present outside the chamber so that the
lamps can be safely switched on and off. Inside the chamber, the working
table and shelves are made of thick glass sheets.
Fig. 15.5
For simple routine work such as aseptic seed germination, harvesting of
cultured tissue from the aseptic stock for cytological work or for
microtome preparations, a small inoculating hood may be used. This can
be placed on a small table at the convenient corner of the room. The figure
of an ideal chamber is given here 15.5.
Laminar airflow cabinet (Fig 15. 6) is the most suitable, convenient and
reliable instrument for aseptic work. It allows one to work for a longer
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85 period, which is not possible inside the inoculation cham ber. Long hours
of work inside the inoculation chamber may also cause suffocation and
needs the interruption of work.

Fig. 15.6
One can work openly and easily for a longer period on the table of laminar
airflow.
Laminar airflow has a number of small blowe r motors to blow air, which
passes through a number of HEPA (high efficiency particulate air)
filters. Such filters remove particles larger than 0.3 m . The ultra -
clean air which is free from fungal and bacterial contaminants, flows at
velocity of about 27 3m / minute through the working area. All
contaminants are blownaway by the ultra clean air and thereby an aseptic
environment is maintained over the working area. Before starting work,
laminar air flow is put on for 10 -15 minute s. The flow of air does not put
out the flame of a spirit lamp. Therefore, a spirit lamp can be used
conveniently during the work.
CULTURE ROOM :

Fig. 15.7
Design for a skeleton rack for keeping culture vessels and Incubation
of culture
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86 The culture roo m means the room for keeping or incubating the culture
under controlled temperature, light and humidity. The culture room is also
fitted with double doors in order to make it dust -free and to maintain a
constant room temperature. One should enter the cul ture room keeping
the shoes outside the door. To maintain the temperature around 2520C
inside the culture room, air coolers are used. This room is also provided
with specially designed shelves (Fig. 15.7) to keep culture vessels. The
shelves are ma de of glass or plywood. Flask, bottles, jars, petriplates can
be placed directly on the shelves. Culture tubes can be kept on a support
such as empty paper cover of fluorescent lamps. Cultures can be grown in
light or in dark. For light arrangement, each culture rack is provided with
fluorescent lamps which are photo - periodically controlled by an
automatic timer. Racks covered with black curtains are suitable for dark
incubation of culture. A thermometer and a hygrometer are fixed on the
wall at the sa fety corner of the room to check temperature and relative
humidity respectively. The relative humidity of the culture room is
maintained above 50%.Some small shelves are placed in the culture room
for temporarily keeping the autoclaved articles and the cul ture vials
containing the medium.
The culture room should also have a shaker for suspension culture or
single cell culture in moving liquid medium. The speed of revolution of
the shaker can be controlled. The platform of the shaker is fitted with clips
for holding conical flasks (150ml to 200ml).
GLASS GOODS AND INSTRUMENTS:
GLASS GOODS
Different types of glass goods are used to culture plant tissues. The
conventional and some specific glass goods are required for culture work.
Glass goods should be of Co rning or Pyrex or similar boro -silicate glass.
Measuring cylinder, conical flask, pipettes, beakers are required for
preparation of media. Plant tissues are grown in wide -necked Erlenmeyer
conical flask (100ml, 150ml, 250ml etc.), culture tubes (25mm in diameter
and 150 mm in length), pretriplates (50, 90,140 mm in length), screw -
capped universal bottle, milk bottle may also be used. Particular care must
be taken to ensure that glass goods are properly cleaned before use. The
traditional method of clean ing new or dirty glass goods is to soak these in
soap water followed by brushing and washing well with tap water and
finally rinsing with single distilled water. These are dried in the hot air
oven and then the clean glass goods are stored in a dust -proof cupboard or
drawer. In order to autoclave the culture medium and to culture the plant
material, culture vessels particularly culture flasks and culture tubes must
be fitted with cotton plugs which exclude microbial contaminants, yet
allow free gas exchan ge. For this tightly rolled plugs of non - absorbent
cotton wrapped in gauge cloth may be used. When in position the
exposed part of each plug and the rim of the culture vessel should be
covered by brown paper or a cap of aluminium foil. This will keep the
plug and vessel rim free from dust and will protect the plug from wetting
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87
Fig. 15.8
A specially designed glass -made bacterial filtration system
In some laboratories, pre -sterilized, disposable plastic wares are used in
order to cu lture plant tissues. Some of these plastic wares are autoclavable.
For the sterilization of medium containing thermolabile compounds or
enzymes for proto -plast isolation a specially designed glass mad bacterial
filter (Fig. 15.8) or an autoclavable plastic made bacterial filter isused.
A small spirit lamp made of glass will be required for the flame
sterilization of instruments using methylatedspirits.

Fig. 15.9
A set of instruments used for tissue culture work
INSTRUMENTS:
Instruments routinely used for culture work include various sizes of scalpel
and forceps, spatula, scissors, etc. (Fig 15.9). All instruments should be
stainless steel.

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88 Summary:
Plant tissue culture is a collection of experimental methods of growing
large number of isolated cells or ti ssues under sterile and controlled
condition. To carry out the experiments using tissue culture techniques, a
well-equipped laboratory is first required. An ideal tissue culture
laboratory should have a big room for general laboratory and a small room
for aseptic work and for keeping autoclaved articles. The general
laboratory should be provided with a washing area, hot air oven, and
refrigerator, distillation plant, weighing balance, pH meter, and vacuum
pump, autoclave, working table, heater, microscope, microtome and
wooden racks.
Laboratory for aseptic inoculation should be without any window or
ventilator in order to make dust -free. The room should be provided with
double door having automatic door closers. For aseptic work, a large
wooden chamber is m ade for short term work. For simple aseptic routine
work a small inoculating hood may be used. Laminar air flow is the most
suitable, convenient and reliable instrument for aseptic work. It has a
number of small blower motor to blow air which passes throug h a number
of HEPA (high efficiency particulate air) filters. Such filters remove
particles larger than 0.3m. The ultraclean air is free of fungal and
bacterial Contaminants.
The culture room means the room for keeping the culture under controlled
tempe rature, light and humidity. To maintain the temperature around 25
20 C inside the culture room, air coolersare used in tropical countries.
This room is also provided with specially designed racks to keep culture
vessels. The relative humidity of the c ulture room is maintained above
50%. The culture room should also have a shaker for suspension culture in
moving liquid medium.
Different types of Corning or Pyrex or similar borosilicate glass goods are
used to culture plant tissues. Plant tissues are gr own in wide necked
Erlenmeyer conical flask, culture tube (25mm in diameter and 150 mm in
length), screw -caped universal bottle. In order to autoclave the culture
medium and to culture the plant tissue, culture vessels particularly culture
tubes and flask s must be fitted with cotton plugs which exclude microbial
contaminants. Yet allow free gas exchange. For the sterilization of medium
containing thermolabile compounds and enzymes, a specially designed
bacterial filter isused.
Instruments routinely used fo r culture work include various sizes of
stainless steel made scalpel, forceps, spatula, scissors etc.
Excised plant tissues and organs will only grow in vitro on a suitable
artificially prepared nutrient gratified or liquid medium, which is known as
cultur e medium. The Murashige and Skoog (MS) based culture media are
commonly used for plant tissue culture and have proven effective for
growth promotion of both mono - cotyledons and dicotyledons. A culture
medium is composed of inorganic salts, an iron sourc e, vitamins, amino
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89 supplied in two groups - as macrosalts and microsalts. The most
commonly used phytohormones are synthetic auxins and cytokinins. The
auxins are 2,4D, IAA, BOTA, NAA, I BA etc. and the cytokinins are
Kinetin, 6 - BAP, Zeatin, 2 iPA etc. The concentration and ratio of
hormones may vary from plant to plant and should be standardized for a
particular plant tissue. Some plant tissues grow in the presence of
complex natural a dditives such as coconut milk, casein hydrolysate, yeast
extract, watermelon extract, maltextract, potatoextract, ripe tomato extract,
orange juice extract etc. Diphenyurea, a growth factor found in coconut
milk, exhibits cytokinin - like responses.
On the basis of constituents, culture media are of two types -
i) Chemically defined in which the composition and concentration of all
constituents are known. ii) Chemically under - fined in which the exact
composition and the concentration of all constituents ar e not known due to
addition of natural additives.
It is not possible to weigh and mix all the constituents just before the
preparation of medium. So it is convenient to prepare the concentrated
stock solutions of macro salts, vitamins, amino acids, hormone s etc. All
stock solutions should be stored in a refrigerator for a limited period.
Several techniques have been adopted for in vitro plant tissue culture.
Among them some are general techniques such as preparation of nutrient
medium, sterilization, asepti c manipulation, maintenance of culture and
some are specific techniques such as organ culture, callus culture,
organogenesis, embryogenesis, suspension culture, anther and pollen
culture, plant proto -plast culture, embryo cultureetc.
6.12 EXERCISE
1) Explain the concept and working of greenhouses.
2) Describe the various types and uses of greenhouses.
3) Explain the concept of tissue culture and write detail note on tissue
culture laboratory.
4) Write short notes on following -
i) Greenhouse
ii) History ofgreenhouse
iii) Tissue culture
iv) Instruments used for tissue culture

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90 7
GROUP FARMING
Unit Structure :
7.1 Objectives
7.2 Introduction
7.3 Definition
7.4 Nature and Implementation of Group Farming Scheme
7.5 Advantages of Group Farming
7.6 Requirement of Group / Group Farming
7.7 Contribution of Women In Agricultu re
7.8 Exercise
7.9 References
7.1 OBJECTIVES
 To know the nature Group Farming.
 To know the advantages of Group Farming.
 To understand the requirement of Group Farming
 To study the contribution of Women in Agriculture Sector.
7.2 INTRODUCTION
India is an agricultural country. 70% of our country's population is
dependent on agriculture. Therefore, various schemes for agricultural
development are implemented at the central and state levels. Group
farming scheme is one of the important schemes. The govern ment
implemented the scheme "Group Farming” on 24th July 2017 to promote
group farming so that farmers can develop themselves through group
farming, develop the group, reduce the cost of agricultural production and
make farming more profitable. According to the approach of the Central
Government, the Group Farming Scheme is being implemented by the
Government of Maharashtra to double the income of the farmers in the
state of Maharashtra. As the land of farmers is less, planning of work
under group farming schemes and modern farming technology is the need
of the hour to increase their farm income. The Maharashtra government is
working to encourage the farmers of the state through group farming
schemes. Due to the increase in population, agricultural land is
continuously being fragmented and inter -divided and its holding capacity
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91 published by the Census of Agriculture, the holding capacity in
Maharashtra in 2070 -71 was 4.28 hectares per holder . It steadily declined
to 1.44 ha per account holder in 2010 -11. In some places, the carrying
capacity is as low as 11 to 15 knots only. Therefore, farming is not
economically viable. Farmers find it difficult to earn income from such a
small area. Group f arming is a sure solution to all these problems.



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Group farming can increase agricultural production by using modern
technology. Also, by adopting high technology, mechanization in
agriculture, the agricultural business can be assuredly facilitated. Group
farming can be helpful in getting a good price for agricultural produce by
saving on production and transportation cost due to collective sale of
agricultural produce.
Group farming is not only farming but also includes vario us businesses.
The aim is to increase the income of the farmers by increasing their
production. These include poultry farming, silk business, fish business,
dairy business, nurseries, beekeeping, nurseries, etc.
Agricultural inputs, training, irrigation, m echanization, post -harvest
technology, agricultural processing and marketing etc. are important to
double the production of farmers, increase crop production according to
the needs of the farmer group. Due to the low land holding of the farmers
in the stat e, there is a need for modern methods and planning of collective
farming for a substantial increase in the income of the farmers. In this
regard, it is necessary to encourage group farming through farmers' groups.
7.3 DEFINITION
1) Farmers of a group come tog ether to do collectively planned farming
in Shiwar geographical areas, process and add value to the agricultural
produce, buy and sell together, bring about the upliftment and
development of themselves and the group through this professional
way of life is group farming.
2) Group farming means that many farmers come together to farm
collectively in contiguous geographical areas within the agricultural
area without owning their own land, doing ancillary business,
processing other agricultural products, adding v alue to them,
marketing agricultural products and making economic progress
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92 3) Farmers in a group come together to do collective farming in the
geographical area of Shivara, process and grow roots of agricultura l
produce, and bring about the development of the group by means of
all these means of organizing the collective form for collective
marketing is group or group farming.
4) Small and marginal landholding farmers come together to collect their
land, agricultur al produce and sell it communally and share the profit
according to the proportion of their land and inputs from the profit
they get for their labor is called group farming.
7.4 NATURE AND IMPLEMENTATION OF GROUP
FARMING SCHEME –
In order to avail the ben efits of Group Farming Scheme, it is necessary to
register a farmer group as a farmer producer company as per the provisions
of the Maharashtra Co -operative Societies Act, 1960 or Companies
Registration Act, 1956. For information on where and how to regist er,
inquire at the office of the Agriculture Officer in the Agriculture
Department of your taluka.
 For group farming, the state government approves the implementation
of various agricultural and supplementary activities in the form of
projects through grou ps of 20 farmers on an area of at least 100 acres.
100 acre area where safe vegetables, safe flowers are produced. Groups
are eligible to benefit from the scheme if the total area of polyhouse or
shade net of one of their groups is 25 acres and the total a rea of 4
subgroups is 100 acres.
 Under the group farming scheme, a subsidy of maximum one croer
rupees is given to each group in two years. A maximum of 200 eligible
farmer groups are selected for this.
 After the approval of the project, the plan of the pr oject is prepared and
the grant installments are given to the groups in four stages namely
20%, 30%, 30% and 20%.
 The groups benefiting from the group farming scheme are given prizes
as first place (Rs. 25 lakh), second place (Rs. 15 lakh) and third place
(Rs. 5 lakh).
 A model of group farming is created for how to do group farming.
 Through group farming, model projects like animal husbandry, dairy
business, fish business, etc. will be included with the aim of making the
farmer group understand the importa nce of agriculture and marketing,
along with agriculture, and farmers should follow it.

 Various types of implements, machines etc. required by the farmers for
farming have been included in group farming.
 Farmers participating under this scheme will be req uired to register as
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93 AtmaSanstha, Maharashtra Co -operative Societies Act, 1960 or
Companies Act, 1958. Also, it will be mandatory for all the members of
the farmer group to link their Aadhaar number wit h the bank account to
avail the benefits under this scheme.
 Members - As group farming is being experimented on an experimental
basis, farmers of a group come together in a contiguous geographical
area in a Shiwar and the selection of the area is being app roved.
 Under the scheme, collective irrigation facilities (e.g., creation of farms,
micro -irrigation, sub -irrigation, private wells and pump sets, installation
of pipelines, automation (automatic micro -irrigation system) by
adopting micro -irrigation over t he entire area, mass cultivation through
mechanization, small farm machinery, As crop protection plant etc. can
be done easily, priority will be given to row area first in group farming.
 Activities will be implemented in the form of projects under this
scheme of group farming. The farmers group formed under the scheme
should be given preferential benefits under the prevailing scheme for
training and guidance as well as micro irrigation, agricultural
engineering, post -harvest processing and handling technolo gy and
marketing of agricultural produce.
 The services of agricultural technical advisors will be provided to
provide advanced farming technology to farmers' groups. For this
purpose, under the guidance of experts nominated by the
Superintendent of Agricul ture Officer, Extension Officer of the
Agriculture Department and the Vice -Chancellor of the concerned
University of Agriculture, the farmer groups are provided with
necessary training, technical guidance as well as collective facilities
required by them, for example - collective irrigation facilities,
agricultural machinery, post -harvest processing, • for storage.
Requirement of godown etc. will be determined. Also individual benefit
schemes like - micro -irrigation, private wells and pump sets, farms,
small farm machinery, crop protection machinery etc. are expected to
be determined with expert technical advice. Agricultural technical
advisory services are proposed to be made available on a collective
basis to impart advanced farming technology to groups of f armers. It
will be necessary to get a recommendation from the experts of the
agricultural universities that the technology recommended by the
foreign experts is useful considering their climate and other factors for
such a project to which the farmer group s will be provided the services
of foreign technicians under the scheme of the government.
 Additional agricultural activities such as collective cowsheds, dairy
processing equipment, fish farming, beekeeping, sericulture, poultry
farming as well as mangrov e farms, works of water resources
department etc. programs should be made available by the concerned
department related to agriculture on a priority basis as per the prevailing
norms of that department. In this regard, if funds are not available from
the c oncerned department as determined in the project, the fixed
amount of Rs. Subsidy should be made available through this scheme
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94  Dayavaya grant under this scheme will be given to the bank account of
the group on priority bas is only for the program of group nature. For
individual project components as well as for individual benefit schemes,
the subsidy payable as per the prevailing norms of the scheme will be
disbursed directly to the members of the beneficiary groups through
DBT in the Aadhaar affiliated bank account.
 For the implementation of the said scheme, a new head will be created
soon for the scheme of promoting farmers' groups and group farming.
13) An ideal model project for group farming should be prepared by
conside ring the cropping method and type of farming and it should
include the ideal model project of animal husbandry, dairy and fisheries
department and silk industry etc.
 Agricultural Equipment Bank should be included in the said scheme.
7.5 ADVANTAGES OF GROUP FARMING
1) As group farming is done collectively, high technology and
modernization are adopted in agriculture.
2) Cost of production decreases and production increases.
3) Farmers get better prices for farm produce due to collective sale of
produce.
4) Reduces tra nsportation costs.
5) A large amount of capital can be raised.
6) Agricultural produce can be processed.
7) Value addition of agricultural produce can be done.
8) Additional agricultural businesses can be developed.
9) Intersection and fragmentation is prevented.
10) Credit is available through NABARD.
11) Grants are received through Govt.
12) Farm produce gets a good price.
13) Group farming helps businesses become profitable by adopting high
technology and mechanization.
14) Collective sale of farm produce increases the profit by saving th e cost
of transportation of produce.
15) It is possible to add value to agricultural products by processing them.
16) Due to group farming, it is possible to do agriculture complementary
businesses like animal husbandry, fish farming, silk business, and
beekeeping .
17) Farmer's standard of living increases.
18) Group farming developed group power among farmers.
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95 20) Group farming enables efficient utilization of natural resources and
various inputs required for agriculture.
7.6 REQUIREMENTS OF GROUP FARMING
1) The continuous division/fragmentation of land along with the increase
in population, the carrying capacity of agriculture is decreasing day by
day. According to the published report of Agricultural Census 2010 -
11, the hol ding capacity in Maharashtra from 4.28 hectares in 1970 -
1971 has steadily declined to 1.44 hectares per holder in 2010 -2011.
In some places, there are 11 to 15 gunthas and the contiguous area is
left for farming. In such a situation, farming on such a smal l area and
producing economically profitable products is becoming very
demanding. All these problems are solved by the collective farming
system and because of the combined area, it becomes convenient to
impart modern technology in the groups.
2) Facilita tion of agricultural business by adopting high technology and
mechanization (Ease of Doing Farming) - Uncertainty of production
in agriculture, as well as migration from rural areas to cities due to
increasing urbanization, there is a shortage of skilled a nd unskilled
manpower in the agricultural sector. Therefore, mechanization and
technical guidance is required for that, it will be convenient to do it
collectively. As the farmer's personal ownership of the land decreases,
he cannot financially afford to p ersonally adopt high technology and
mechanization on his farm. This problem can easily be solved by
doing collective farming and reducing the cost of production.
4) Adoption of a marketing system at the individual level, as the
production of the farmer is low; he cannot properly market his
produce. As a result, he has to sell his goods at a lower price.
Therefore, his goods do not fetch a reasonable price. However, joint
marketing of the produce produced by the collective farming system
will enable it to ca pture distant markets by avoiding transportation and
post-harvest losses and increasing savings in production costs.
5) Post-harvest processing Many times the support received from nature,
tireless efforts of farmers and planning on the agricultural area, if the
production of the farmer is more than expected, the market price falls
and the farmer gets a lower price. Overstocking of perishable produce
like vegetables, fruits, etc. is likely to cause damage, in which case
post-harvest processing can help far mers get a fair price. Also, due to
the processing industry, the experimental technology of the western
country can be used in groups in our state and integrated agriculture
can be developed.
6) Processing Industry and Value Addition - Due to lack of larg e capital
and production, it is not possible for small farmers to process and add
value to the produced goods. However, through collective farming
primary processing as well as value addition of goods can be done on
the farm itself and the investors will g et raw material from the farmer
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96 7) Agriculture supplementary side business Animal husbandry,
sericulture, fishery, dairy business, beekeeping and creating nurseries
etc. along with production of various crops on cultivable land in
collective farming. Items are required. However, due to lack of
manpower as well as low carrying capacity of the land, the farmers
have moved away from animal husbandry. As a result, farmers and
agribusiness are trapped in a vi cious cycle of decreasing availability of
organic fertilizers, decreasing productivity of land, increasing use of
chemical fertilizers and increasing production costs. This problem can
easily be solved by collective management of livestock in the
collectiv e farming system.
The combined effect of all the above factors will help reduce the
production cost of the farmers and increase the net income. Therefore,
adoption of collective farming is becoming the need of the hour.
7.7 CONTRIBUTION OF WOMEN IN AGRICUL TURE
7.7.1 Introduction: Agriculture is the main occupation in rural areas.
Agriculture is a means of livelihood, a means of providing health care. In
rural areas, women are mostly found working in agriculture. They are seen
working as farmers or farm lab ourers. A large number of women work in
agriculture but are not properly accounted for in the labor market. Also,
the attitude towards women's agriculture is not scientifically and
accurately recorded and properly evaluated.

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7.7.2 Features of approach to women labor force in general: -
1) The nature of women's work is partly part -time as they work in the
remaining time after housework.
2) Women's labor power and time is spent to work on their own farm. It
doesn't matter. It is not registered . Their work is neglected because
they are not 'trees' or they do not get paid for working on their own
fields.
3) Women's work status is considered inferior. They do it less efficiently
than men.
4) As they are more interested in family responsibilities and chi ld
rearing, they are not adept at putting their full mind and energy into
farming processes.
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97 6) They lack the skills and ability to use new techniques in agriculture
and agriculture, modern changes in production, updated and modern
machinery and technology.
7) Their position is secondary in agricultural work and its ancillary work.
8) Income from women's work is considered secondary and less
important. It is accepted by the society that the family cannot be
supported by their hard earned income alone.
9) Because women have less decision making power, there is a
possibility of making mistakes in sowing, husbandry, harvesting etc.
10) Women have less power to take responsibility of agriculture in terms
of economic self -reliance, independence and full responsibility.
Science and research have accepted that there is no difference between
men and women intellectually. Although it is accepted that women have to
withdraw themselves from agricultural work for some time due to
pregnancy, childbirth and child care, it must be accepted that these
activities are not unproductive. Also, women have now proved that the
traditional view of women's productivity and efficiency in agricultural
work is wrong. Women's 'creativity' is increasing. Quan titatively and
qualitatively required amount of creativity is coming in women.
There are a large proportion of women in agriculture. It should also be
noted that women's participation is always measured in a slightly different
way in terms of statistics. T he approach taken in all statistical analysis is
always based on the conventional assumption that women are under -
represented. Bhattacharya, S. 1985: Jain D. 1982.
Mistakes in interpretations add to biases in not trying women's
participation indiscriminate ly. Because in the labor market the work done
at home as a prerequisite for agricultural processes is considered
unproductive. Cleaning, grading and storage of seeds for sowing is not
recorded anywhere. At the time of sowing, the help of women is taken but
it is also not measured. Women are doing the work of weeding, breaking
the clods, weeding, building dams, removing the dried pre -crop pods,
weeds and dirt in the field before sowing. They are also heavily involved
in the harvesting process but are they be ing measured and evaluated
properly? This should be noted now. But due to the lack of confidence in
the ability of women to work, there is an attitude of giving them light
work, low wages and seasonal work. Women are given daily work only.
Big farmers refu se to employ permanent servants or as attached labour.
In the non -agricultural sector, the proportion of women workers is clearly
decreasing (Ambhar 1975: Mina A 1979). As a result, the proportion of
women dependent on agriculture and agriculture -related work is
apparently increasing. This is because the number of women laborers has
increased mainly in places where non -grain crops such as sorghum, millet,
rice etc. are grown. Even where cash crops such as cotton, groundnut,
tobacco etc. are grown, women ar e found doing labour. (Acharya and
Panwalkar, 1989) A separate concept of women farmers has not yet
developed. That is, there is a need to give the status of farmers separately
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98 Women's participation in agricultural and non -agricultural activities is
inevitable and increasing.
The role of women is also becoming important in the ancillary business
related to agriculture. Women are becoming successful in the next
agricultural sector by ado pting entrepreneurship, use of technology,
scientific methods and productivity. -
1) Poultry Farming
2) Cow Buffalo Rearing / Dairy Business / Dairy Farming
3) Piggery
4) Sheep Rearing
5) Angora Rabbits
6) Fish Farming
7) Bee-Keeping
8) Mushroom Growing
9) Horticulture
10) Floriculture
The contribution of women in agriculture should not only be broadly
imagined and stated, but it should also be properly surveyed. How many
labor hours are spent by women in agriculture and non -agricultural
sectors? What is their productivity? What is the ac tual income from it?
How much are they involved in agricultural production? What is the
contribution of women labor force in agriculture based and agricultural
processing industries? It is essential to conduct statistical and scientific
research in the con text of etc. In that sense, although the reports of the
findings of women's participation are not available today, the work and
contribution of women in the agricultural sector cannot be denied.
As agricultural laborers and women farmers are given a second ary position
in the agricultural sector as in other sectors, information about
technological changes and up -to-date knowledge in the agricultural sector
is not taken seriously. It is necessary for the government to involve women
in training and extension w ork, agricultural education, seminars and
seminars, action programs and demonstrations, agricultural exhibitions etc.
Globalization, liberalization, open economy, no import -export restrictions,
foreign direct investment, entry of multi -purpose companies, s cope for
export of agricultural products and processed food etc. are having a great
impact on rural life. Innovations in agriculture and agricultural processing,
technological improvements and changes in production methods cannot be
far away from our agric ultural economy. For this reason, it will be very
dangerous to keep the farmers and farm laborers women who contribute a
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99 Not only that the importance of agricultural economy cannot be denied in
our country, even if the industrial sector develops, the importance of
agriculture will not decrease. In a continental and highly populated country
like India, agriculture plays an important role in meeting the demand for
food grains and providing raw materials for industrial development.
That is why it is the need of the hour to educate rural farmers and women
farm workers, to impart skills related to agriculture.
7.7.3 Importance of women in Agriculture:
1) More proportion of women agricultural labourers
2) Women farmers
3) Participation in agro processing industry
4) Participation in farm decision making process
5) Sale of agricultural produce
6) Participation in agribusiness
7) Involvement of women in animal husbandry
8) Involvement in fish farming and fishing business
9) Deve lopment of sustainable agriculture.
10) Food security and backyard
11) Participation in various agricultural activities - sowing, threshing,
planting, irrigation, storage, harvesting etc.
7.7.4. Limitations/ Errors/ Defects/ Shortcomings for Women's
Participation in Agr iculture: -
1) The nature of women's work is partly part -time as they work in the
remaining time after housework.
2) Women's labor is neglected without being recorded or paid.
3) Inferior quality of work - inefficient in the mind of a man
4) They are not adept in apply ing sufficient mind and latent energy in
agricultural processes.
5) Women lag behind in physically demanding work.
6) Women do not have new technology, new changes, modern farming
skills and abilities in agriculture.
7) The position of women in agriculture and anci llary work is secondary.
8) Women's income from agricultural work is meager. Therefore, the
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100 9) Decision making capacity is low; hence there is a high chance of mis-
estimation of agricultural production.
10) Financial self-reliance and the ability to take responsibility for the
family is less in women.
7.7.5 Measures to increase participation of women in Agriculture: -
1) To increase the number of women farmers
2) To impart technical and up -to-date knowledge in the field of
agriculture to women
3) Agricultural education and agricultural extension
4) Crop demonstrations and training
5) Seminars and trips
6) Agricultural exhibitions
7) To increase the literacy rate of women
8) Gender equality
9) Financial independence and independence
10) Increase in ag ricultural income
11) Growth in agro processing industry
12) Agricultural University to try to increase the number of professional
women
13) Increase in agriculture and home science education
14) To increase efficiency and productivity of women
15) To start agricultural scien ce college in every agricultural university in
the state and reserve 30 to 40% seats for women.
16) Agricultural study centers for women should be established at the
regional level.
17) To create agribusiness women
18) With the help of media, women empowerment, econom ic and
agricultural work should be disseminated for rural women.
19) Public awareness
According to the 2011 census, 65 percent of women in the country are
engaged in agriculture. The same ratio is 49.8 percent for men... But what
picture stands in front of our eyes when we say 'farmer'? It has to do with
land ownership. In our patriarchal system, women are often deprived of
the right to land and because of the rule of 'whose name is seven, it is a munotes.in

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101 farmer’; they are not recognized as farmers despite their hard w ork in
agriculture. According to the 2015 -16 agriculture censuses, the proportion
of women landholders in the state is only 15 percent. Since they are not
recognized as farmers, they cannot get the benefits of schemes, training,
loans, tenders etc. The par ticipation of women in agriculture is increasing
day by day. Deforestation, increase in agricultural fertility, and overall
decline in rural -tribal work availability have led to increased migration of
men from rural to urban areas. As a result, the respons ibility of agriculture
on women increased. Basically, the burden of domestic work on women,
restrictions on their activities outside the home, limited education, and
employment opportunities are less for them. Due to this reason, they get
stuck in their ho mes. There is a situation today where there is no
responsibility for agriculture on one hand and no authority over resources
on the other.
Not only this, women's participation in agriculture and water related
institutions are also minimal. For example, th e law has given women
representation in the water utility bodies that are set up for canal water
management. In spite of this, in most water utility organizations, women
are appointed only as a matter of law, but in reality they are not involved
in managem ent. Of course, the proportion of irrigated agriculture in
Maharashtra is not more than 20 percent.
Although the proportion of women in agriculture as a whole is increasing,
where irrigated / horticultural agriculture is dominated by men and dry
land agric ulture shows a similar picture of women. As men migrate for
work in dry land areas, women are often responsible for farming. Due to
non-availability of irrigation facilities, wages are also not sufficient in this
area. Previously, we used to get work for t en months in a year. The
experience of farm laborers says that it has reached six months now... so
often women also have to migrate in search of livelihood.
Also, it is often felt that women have different opinions than men about
what crops to grow in agri culture. As the responsibility of food and
nutritional security of the family rests with women, women try to grow at
least some food grains and vegetables in agriculture. Also, many women
prefer to use organic methods while growing food grains and vegetabl es.
But this type of farming by women does not get any support from
government schemes. This does not even count the invaluable work that
women do along side agriculture such as fetching fodder and firewood,
tending cattle, cooking and other household chor es. The burden of all such
work on women continues to increase manifold.
Of course, women farmers are not a unified group. When we say farmers
here, it includes all women who depend on agriculture and agriculture -
related livelihoods – farmers, farm laborer s, forest harvesters, fisher folk,
and herdsmen. Each of these groups has different questions. Also, the
deprivation of small landholders, tribals, dalits and single women farmers
is more compared to other women farmers. The proportion of single
women farm ers is high in Maharashtra. Especially in the suicide affected
areas of Marathwada and Vidarbha many women are farming alone today. munotes.in

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102 It is not easy for these women to farm alone due to lack of adequate
resources, opposition from family and society. Their op tions for loans,
tenders, markets etc. are also less than other women.
This year, the corona epidemic showed how the basic deprivation of these
women increases during the disaster. Due to the difficulties encountered in
the lockdown, lack of employment, in creased debt in agriculture, the
damage caused due to the heavy rains, all these things have increased the
plight of these women farmers today. There is a possibility that their
situation will get worse due to the three laws implemented by the central
gove rnment.
On the occasion of the ongoing farmers' movement against the new laws,
many issues of farmers have once again come to the fore... but the issue of
women farmers has been somewhat neglected in this discussion. The
hardworking people who depend on ag riculture, forest, fishing, animal
husbandry are facing a great calamity. Increasing number of landless
people and adding to it rural unemployment, agricultural barrenness and
increasing indebtedness, farmer suicides, depletion of natural resources
and pri vatization of resources in the name of development projects, looting
of farmers are all due to various policies of the government and in the
background there is also reference to changing climate.
These questions faced by the farmers today are not only in front of the
women farmers... but at the same time they have different questions as
women farmers. Demands have to be made keeping in mind that they have
different problems as 'women farmers' due to lack of rights on land, lack of
benefit from agricultural schemes, non -participation in the management of
agriculture -water related institutions, the burden of housework along with
agriculture and the restrictions placed on them due to the overall
patriarchal system.
What women farmers need is institutional sec urity. Their major needs are
rights over resources and participation in decision -making processes in
their management, provision of tenders, irrigation and credit to facilitate
farming, market for their goods, guaranteed local purchase of their goods,
prom otion of sustainable agriculture, and availability of work in villages to
avoid migration. By meeting their needs, it is necessary to create favorable
conditions for them in the agricultural sector. Unless concrete measures
are taken and implemented at the organizational level, the picture of
women farmers as it is today will not change.
7. 8 EXERCISE
1. Explain the nature and implementation of Group Farming.
2. Write the various advantages of Group Farming.
3. State the various requirement of Group Farming .
4. Elabor ate the contribution of Women in Agriculture sector. munotes.in

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103 7.9 REFERENCES
1) Bhise Pravin Shamsundar (Feb 2020): Need, Importance and Selective
Materials Production for Agro Processing Industry, Unpublished
Agricultural Science Degree Project, Y.C.M.M.V., Nashik

2) Diploma in Orchard Production (2017 -18) : Harvesting, Handling and
Marketing of Fruits, Text Book -1, Y.Ch.M.M.V., Nashik (AGR -208)

3) Diploma in Orchard Production (2017 -18) : Harvesting, Handling and
Marketing of Fruits, Text Book -2, Y.Ch.M.M.V., Nashik (AG R-208)

4) Dr. Katke Shailendra (September 2019) : College of Food
Technology, V.N.M.A.V., Parbhani, Agricultural Marketing Friend

5) www.fao.com

6) www.agrowon.com

7) https://marathi.krishijagran.com/agriculture -processing

8) ClearIAS Economics Notes


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FOOD AND FRUIT PROCESSING
INDUSTRY
Unit Structure :
8.1. Objectives
8.2. Introduction
8.3. Definition
8.4. Scope of food and fruit processing industry
8.5. Agro -Processing Industry
8.6. Importance of agro processing industry
8.7. Obstacles/Challenges faced by agro processing industries
8.8. Status of Fruit and Vegetable Processing
8.9. Exercise
8.1 OBJECTIVES
 To know the nature Group Farming.
 To know the advantages of Group Farming.
 To understand the requirement of Group Farming
 To study the contribution of Women in Agriculture Sector .
8. 2 INT RODUCTION
Agro industries are important in an agrarian country like India. Still 70
percent of India's population depends on agriculture. Approximately 67
percent of the population lives in rural area. For this, these agro processing
industries are importa nt to eliminate unemployment in rural areas. In a vast
country like India, various climate based industries are found in different
parts of the country. India is the world's leading producer of fruits and
vegetables. Post -harvest management is very importa nt in fruit marketing
and includes grading, packing, pre -cooling, storage, processing,
transportation and marketing. 1 Lakh Crores are being lost every year in
our country due to errors in post -harvest management.

The rate of processing of agricultural co mmodities in India is 2 to 3
percent. While the same ratio is 40 percent in developed countries. munotes.in

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Food And Fruit Processing
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105 Agricultural processing is an important market service. Farmers get a
better price (rate) if they process the produce and sell it instead of taking
the raw mat erial to the market for sale. From that point of view,
agricultural industries are being given a big boost by giving subsidy
(subsidy) to agricultural processing industries in India. Accordingly,
agricultural processing industry should increase, agricultur al production
will double, employment will be available to workers, farmers' income will
be helped to increase and farmers will get hopeful relief due to this,
agricultural processing industries are important.


https://www.indiamart.com

8.3 DEFINITION
Agro-food and fruit processing industry means agro -processing industry.
What is agro -processing industry ? - Factories that process agricultural
products or factories that use agricultural products as raw materials are
called agro -processing industries. Som etimes industries that are
complementary to agriculture are also included in agro -industries. Tawa,
Rubber, Tea, Kalo, Cocoa are some of the agro -based industries.Jaggery,
khandsari and sugar are produced using sugarcane. During the production
of these goo ds, the 'waste' produced from it is used to produce secondary
goods such as alcohol, paper, acetone, etc. Cooperative sugar mills have
made a lot of progress in Maharashtra. In particular, the cooperative
movement that creates equal opportunities for devel opment and confidence
of progress for the strong and the weak has spontaneously emerged in this
industry.

8.4 SCOPE OF FOOD AND FRUIT PROCESSING
INDUSTRY
India's current situation is favorable for agro -based industries. In European
nations, a single c rop is grown over a large area. Due to the state wise crop
diversity in India, the availability of raw material for the processing
industry in India is easy, so the farmer takes up the production of food
grains with great determination and effort. Due to l ack of post -harvest
technology, 25 percent of agricultural produce is wasted every year, so
adding processing industry to it will definitely reduce this amount and
provide a new market for the farmers. Today, forest dwellers as well as munotes.in

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106 rural infrastructure have not been developed properly; many villages are
still deprived of electricity, water, roads, that are why industrial businesses
have not yet developed there. And hence employment opportunities are not
available there. Agricultural materials are easily available in rural areas
and we can start processing industries in small facilities. Through this we
can provide employment to others along with us. Accordingly, the process
industry sector is growing by 30 percent. Currently, various technologies
are ava ilable for dehydration of vegetables. Similarly making pulp, juice,
jam, squash etc. from fruits. Also, many options are available in
agricultural processing such as making wafers, farsan, pickles, moram and
marmalade. Similarly, soybean milk, milk powder, soy paneer, poha from
rice, papad, and various processed products can be made from milk. As the
lifestyle of Indian citizens is changing, ready to eat and ready to cook
products are in demand. If entrepreneurs in the agro processing industry
use packing t echniques like vacuum U packing, nitrogen packing, retort
pouch, flexi pack, tetra pack, Indian products can be sold worldwide. Also,
processing industries should strictly follow food safety standards and
WTO standards. A single farmer cannot become an ent repreneur due to
small land holdings. For this, the farmers must jointly form a company
through a group. If many people come together to set up a processing
industry, the risks are reduced. If the farmers form a group and start the
processing industry, it becomes more profitable in a cooperative manner.
Machinery and technology for processing industries is available through
the Central Food Technological Research Institute (CFTRI).
8.4.1 Availability of fruits and agro -goods: Information about the
climate of the area of the processing unit should be mentioned as to how it
is suitable for the required agricultural produce. The goods proposed to be
processed; Information should be given about the cultivated area under
each crop, variety, total production, producer f armers, their average market
price, if the purchase is to be made with guaranteed price, the exact market
price. Apart from this mention should be made about the availability of
other plants, preservative chemicals, food coloring, packing materials,
labels required for the industry.
8.4.2 Availability of Capital: Before starting a processing industry, a
large amount of financial provision is required, for which borrowing from
government banks or co -operative financial institutions is the order of the
day. Various loan schemes are available from central as well as state
governments for educated unemployed for small scale industries.
There are many schemes of central and state governments for process
industries. Also financial assistance, concessions are avai lable through
various schemes through various banks, NABARD to start processing
industries.

NABARD provides financing for on -farm processing, grading, packing,
cold storage houses for agricultural development, empowerment.
NABARD is providing financial as sistance to farmers, groups for study
tours, training, capacity building. munotes.in

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Food And Fruit Processing
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107 Apart from agriculture, the government is implementing various schemes
for the rural artisans for their business, product marketing.
Good credit schemes are also available through NA BARD for group
farming.70 to 80 percent loan of the project cost is definitely available
from the banks if the required documents are completed.
8.4.3 Classification of Fruit and Vegetable Processing:
Mango: Pickle, Pane, Juice, Mango Powder, Pulp, Can Juice, Jam,
Squash, Mango Flakes, Toffee.
Orange: Juice, soft drink.
Mosambi: Mosambi extract, acid, cosmetics from Mosambi bark.
Chikku : flakes, powder, milk shake, toffee, jam etc.
Pomegranate: Pomegranate, juice, powder, asthma and cough medicines ,
cosmetics.
Grapes: juice, currants, raisins, wine.
Papaya: Papain powder, Twoti Fruity.
Banana: wafers, powder.
Bor: Bor powder, Borkut, Alcohol
Lemon: juice, pickles, citric acid.
Jambhul: juice, syrup, jam, powder
Peru: powder, dr ink, jelly.
Potato: Wafers, finger chips, potato powder
Tomatoes: Purees, sauces, soups, powders
Drumstick: Seed powder, leaf powder, leaf juice, ben oil.
Onion: Onion Powder, Masala Powder, Masala Kanda.
Garlic: Garlic powder, garlic paste.
Okra: Okra powder
Chili: Chili powder, pickles, pickles.
Carrot: Carrot powder, vegetables etc.
Sitaphal: Powder, pulp, juice.



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108 8.5 AGRO -PROCESSING INDUSTRY
8.5.1 fruit and vegetable Processing on the World level.
There are many countries that process fru its and vegetables in the world
and among them the leading countries are Philippines 78 percent, Brazil 70
percent, America 65 percent, Malaysia 3 percent, and India 2 percent.
Hence, the scope and importance of the agricultural processing industry in
India is seen.
Table no. 1
Chart showing the status of the world's fruit and vegetable processing
countries.
Sr No. Country %
1 Philippines 78
2 Brazil 70
3 America 65
4 Malaysia 3
5 India 2

(Source: Krishi Panan Mitra Magazine: June, 2019)
8.5.2 Agro -Processing Industry in India:
The scope of agro -processing industries is spread all over the world. In
post-independence India, the scope of these industries is seen to have
spread to semi -urban and rural areas. The number of agro -processing
industries in India is 27,479 out of which the largest number of 6,313 (23
percent) industries is in Andhra Pradesh alone. Tamil Nadu has 4,000 (15
percent), Punjab has 2,285 (8 per cent) and Maharashtra agro -processing
industry has 2,252 (7 per cent). This means that t he industries of
Maharashtra are seen to be backward today. While the production of fruits
like bananas, mangoes, oranges, grapes, and pomegranates is increasing in
Maharashtra, the lack of processing industries is causing the farmers to
suffer. States lik e Andhra Pradesh have largely set up processing industries
in the state due to the provision of concessions and infrastructure for this
industry, but investors do not seem to be attracted to this industry due to
lack of interest in creating an enabling env ironment for the processing
industry. However, there is an urgent need for such industries for the rural
development of India.

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109 Table no. 2
Table showing number and percentage of agro processing industry in
India.
Sr.No. State Percentage No. of Agro Proce ssing Industries
1 Andhra Pradesh 23 6313
2 Tamil Nadu 15 4000
3 Punjab 8 2285
4 Maharashtra 7 2252

(Source: Krishi Panan Mitra Magazine: June, 2019)
Above table no. 2 shows the number and percentage of agro -processing
industries in India. Acc ording to Krishi Panan Mitra, 2019 data, the total
estimated number of agro -processing industries in India is 27,479.
It has become very necessary to give commercial status to agriculture
through the agricultural processing industry. Agro -based processing
industry can emerge only if agribusiness gets the concessions that are
given to other industries. Due to this, good days will come for agriculture
and it will contribute a lot for the overall development of Baliraja. So if a
group of farmers come together and establish farmer production
companies and start the processing industry, it will be more profitable in
this way. If the agro -processing industry expands to rural areas on a large
scale, the picture of the rural economy changes. In that sense, such
industries are important. Raw materials, markets, customers and sales are
the major factors for setting up an agricultural processing industry and for
this it is necessary to study sales management and competitors in your
field. Also marketing, advertising, an d branding of farm produce is very
important. Separate financial planning should be done for that. Also,
farmers should take guidance from role models, techniques and
experienced people in the business. Thus, proper planning will make it
easy to set up an agro processing industry.
In our country, after harvesting, 25 percent of agricultural produce is
destroyed or damaged due to technology. If this is supported by the agro
processing industry, this will definitely decrease. In the current scenario,
the Food Processing Industries (FPI) sector is witnessing rapid growth in
the country. Around 31 lakh crores of rupees are being traded through this
medium. By the year 2020, the turnover of agro -processed agricultural
products is expected to reach approximately R s 62 lakh crore, according to
a private survey. Therefore, there will be huge demand for the agricultural
processing industry in the future. There is no doubt about it.
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110 Revolutions related to agricultural production and processing: -
1) Pink Revolution - Meat and Poultry Production.
2) Red Revolution - meat and tomato production.
3) Round Revolution - Potato Revolution.
4) Silver Fiber Revolution – Cotton Revolution.
5) Silver Revolution - Egg/Poultry Production.
6) White/White Revolution - Milk/Milk Production (Operation Fl ood).
7) Yellow Revolution - Production of Oilseeds.
8) Evergreen Revolution - Comprehensive development of agriculture.
9) Blue revolution - Fish production.
10) Brown Revolution - Leather / Cocoa Production.
11) Golden Fiber Revolution - Jute production.
12) Golden Revolutio n - Overall horticulture development/ honey
production.
13) Green Revolution – Agriculture in general.
8.6 IMPORTA NCE OF AGRO PROCESSING INDUSTRY
The agro processing industry is of unique importance in India as well as in
Maharashtra. Because Maharashtra is known as an important agricultural
state in India. Maharashtra produces a wide variety of agricultural products
and this provides a large amount of raw material for processing. But there
seems to be a shortage of processing industry. Due to this, the ra w material
from here is going abroad and the foreign entrepreneurs are increasing the
income by five to ten times by producing various value added products
from it. Due to this, the processing industry and the manufacturing of
substances are of special imp ortance.
In India, Mysore has done extensive research on food processing and
agricultural production. This organization has proven that processing of
fruits can produce various products.
Opportunities for agro processing industries:
1) India's position as a m ajor food producer: - India ranks first in the
production of milk, ginger, banana, guava, papaya, mango etc. India
ranks second in the production of rice, wheat, potato, sugarcane, cashew
nuts, tea etc. It is one of the top 5 countries in the production of coffee,
tobacco, spices, seeds etc. With such a large raw material base, we can
easily become the world's leading food supplier.
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Food And Fruit Processing
Industry
111 2) Resource advantage of India: - Different soil types and different
climates for cultivation of different food crops, long coast line suitable
for fishing, large source of domestic animals etc.
3) Employment generation: - More than 10 lakh new employment is
expected to be created.
4) Prevention of Migration: - Provides employment in rural areas, thereby
reducing migration from rural to ur ban areas. It is possible to solve the
problems of urbanization.
5) Curb on food inflation: - Eliminates wastage or middle man problem.
Food grains curb inflation. Indirect relief on non -food inflation as well.
6) Crop diversification: - Due to long shelf life, farmers can diversify their
produce.
7) Demand Potential: - Expected to reach $250 billion by 2015 and $350
billion by 2020. A young population, middle class, rising incomes,
nuclear families, access to mass media, etc. are considered positive
factors.
8) Govern ment initiatives to promote food processing: - Food processing
has been promoted by various government initiatives like attracting
FDI, reduction in excise duty etc.
9) Essential for Indian GDP growth: - Food processing production in the
agriculture sector is about 10% of GDP. It has more potential.
By processing all the above fruits and vegetables, many types of by -
products can be prepared. Moreover, there is a good demand for such
items in the market. Food processing industry has huge scope and
opportunity in rural areas. For this, agricultural universities, producers,
manufacturers, food processing entrepreneurs, as well as expert professors
and policy makers in the state of Maharashtra need to contribute. If India's
rural economy is to be truly developed, th e government's policy towards
this agricultural processing industry should be generous. Moreover,
decentralization of this agro -processing industry with emphasis on
providing various facilities, concessions, infrastructure facilities, I feel that
there wil l definitely be great expected changes in the rural economy of
India and the state. That is why agro processing industry is an opportunity
for farmers. Moreover, to save the farmers, to get them out of the
economic crisis, building an agro -processing indus try has become the need
of the hour.
As the lifestyle of Indian citizens is changing, ready to eat and ready to
cook products are in demand. If entrepreneurs in the agro processing
industry use packing techniques like vacuum U packing, nitrogen packing,
retortcher table pouch, flexi pack, tetra pack, Indian products can be sold
world wide. Also, processing industries should strictly follow food safety
standards and WTO standards. A single farmer cannot become an
entrepreneur due to small land holdings. For this, the farmers must jointly
form a company through a group. If many people come together to set up a
processing industry, the risks are reduced. If the farmers form a group and munotes.in

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Agriculture and Its Significance In
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112 start the processing industry, it becomes more profitable in a cooperative
manner.
8.6 OBSTACLES/ CHALLENGES FACED BY AGRO
PROCESSING INDUSTRIES
1) Small size companies: Indian food processing companies are small
and cannot compete with global multinationals that invest heavily.
2) Lack of good laboratories in India: High -quality stan dards are
demanded for food exports. India lacks good laboratories for testing
heavy metals and other toxic contaminants in food.
3) Lack of skilled manpower.
4) Lack of proper vision and lack of timely support from the government.
5) Lack of good transport fac ilities.

5) Lack of storage facilities and good production techniques.
6) Lack of organized retailing.
7) Constraints in supply chain.
8) Limitation in quality.
9) Lack of modern regulations.
8.8 EXERCISE
1. Define the termand scope of Group Farming in India.
2. Write variou s advantages of Group Farming.
3. Explain the contribution of Women in Agriculture Sector .
8.9 REFERENCES
1) Bhise Pravin Shamsundar (Feb 2020): Need, Importance and Selective
Materials Production for Agro Processing Industry, Unpublished
Agricultural Science D egree Project, Y.C.M.M.V., Nashik
2) Diploma in Orchard Production (2017 -18) : Harvesting, Handling and
Marketing of Fruits, Text Book -1, Y.Ch.M.M.V., Nashik (AGR -208)
3) Diploma in Orchard Production (2017 -18) : Harvesting, Handling and
Marketing of Fruits, Tex t Book -2, Y.Ch.M.M.V., Nashik (AGR -208)
4) Dr. Katke Shailendra (September 2019) : College of Food
Technology, V.N.M.A.V., Parbhani, Agricultural Marketing Friend
5) www.fao.com
6) www.agrowon.com
7) https://marathi.krishijagran.com/agriculture -processing
8) Clear IAS Ec onomics Notes

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Page 113

AGRICULTURE AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE
IN RURAL DEVELOPMENT

Time 3.00 hrs Marks : 70
N. B. : 1. All questions are compulsory.
2. All questions carry equal marks.
Q.1 Explain the meaning of Green Revolution and explain its merits and demerits.
OR
Discuss the agricultural policies in the post Green Revolution era.
Q.2 Explain the role of Krishi Vigyan Kendra in rural development.
OR
Describe the structure and functions of the Department of Agriculture, Government of
Maharashtra.
Q. 3 Define organic farming and explain its factors.
OR
Explain the concept of tissue culture and its importance.
Q.4 Explain the meaning of group farming and its importance.
OR
Explain the concept and importance of agro processing industry.
Q.5 Write short note any Two of the following.
a) Causes of Green Revolution
b) Functions of Indian Councial for Agricultural and Research
c) Certification of Organic Farming
d) Bacterial manure

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