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1 INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION THEORY AND COMMUNICATION MODELS Unit Structure 1.1 Objectives 1.2 Introduction 1.3 Characteristics of Communication 1.4 Types of Communication 1.5 Objectives of Mass Communication 1.6 Theories of Mass Communication 1.7 Models of Mass Communication 1.8 Summary 1.9 Questions 1.10 References 1.1 OBJECTIVES • To understand the term communication and its importance • To know the characteristics of communication • To understand the various theories and models of mass communication 1.2 INTRODUCTION A human being is a social animal. He cannot survive without communication. He has to live in the society in which he influences the society and also gets influenced by society. One can't live in isolation. In The film Cast Away the protagonist is castaway on an uninhabited island. He is the only man stranded on the island. Though he succeeds in surviving by making some arrangements for his living, he feels isolated. To spend his time better, he brings a ball from the rubble of the wrecked plane and paints eyes, nose, mouth on the ball and talks to that ball. This way he tries to communicate and keep his spirits up. People want to express their joy, mirth, desire, wish, thought etc. to each other all the time. One cannot simply suppress this. It is human to express. In the old days, society would excommunicate a person if he or she needed to be punished for some reason. Excommunication was considered to be one of the stringent punishments. The person would be cut away from society. This tells us the importance of communication in one's life. 1 munotes.in

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2 Communication Theory Communication is as old as mankind. In the ancient days, man communicated using gestures, facial expressions, painting, drawing and imitating various sounds of birds, animals when the language was not evolved. Since then, communication has come a long way. The methods of communication have evolved and the mediums of communication have changed. Various inventions like the invention of paper, woodblock printing, movable types, Gutenberg's printing technique, steam engine, telegraph, radio, TV, internet have revolutionized communication throughout the history of mankind. Communication means any transmission of a meaningful message which is understood. If the message is not complete and meaningful, it cannot be fully understood. If the medium chosen is faulty, the message may not be received. If there is no receiver of the message or he/she is unable to decipher the message the communication is not complete. In such cases, it could be either miscommunication or no communication. Transmission of the message becomes communication only when it is understood, acknowledged and reacted to by the receiver of the message. In the communication process, both the sender of the message and the receiver of the message are important. The word communication has been derived from the Latin term 'communis' which means to make common, to impart or to transmit a message. One can use words as well as actions, gestures, body language, dress, secret code, facial expressions etc. to communicate effectively. 1.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMUNICATION Communication is a two-way process: One needs to have a sender and the receiver in the communication process. The sender encodes and sends the message and the receiver receives and interprets the message. This way, both people can make communication possible. Communication is a flux: It means it is never a static process. It is an ongoing process as it is a cyclic process. The meaning of words are dynamic. They change as per the context, socio-cultural factors etc. The meaning of the message depends upon various socio-cultural factors and contexts: Different contexts can give a different meaning to the same word. The same word or the same gesture may have different meanings in different cultures. For example in some parts of the Western world kissing on the cheek is considered as a way of greeting but that may not be considered as a way of greeting in countries like India. It could be considered an obscene act in the Indian continent. Language is the medium of communication and we know very well that language itself is very flexible. The meaning of any message or text would depend upon the various factors. The 2 reader's understanding of the text also depends upon various factors like munotes.in

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3 his own comprehension level and social-cultural background. The language uses symbols to communicate. Words are nothing but symbols and the words may give multiple meanings. The meaning of the words may change or add on over the years. For example, 30 to 40 years ago the word mobile meant 'able to move' a different meaning than it perceived today. The moment someone utters the word mobile we perceive it to be a mobile device used for communication. Communication requires a channel: It needs to be sent through a medium through which the message can be sent. With the help of words, gestures, actions, signs, symbols etc. one can communicate. One can send the message through Radio, TV, newspaper, books etc. At least one medium is required to communicate. 1.4 TYPES OF COMMUNICATION There are three types of communication: • Interpersonal communication, • Business communication and • Mass communication. Interpersonal Communication: Communication between two or more persons at the personal level is considered as interpersonal communication. Ex. a group of friends, family members having a talk at a dinner table etc. Business Communication: A communication process in which business is the core of the message. Trade agreements, reports, memos, meetings, notices, interviews, sales letters, order letters, emails etc. are some examples of business communication. Mass Communication: A communication process in which a large number of people are addressed to. TV, Radio, Newspapers, and digital platforms are examples of mass media. According to The Oxford dictionary, “Mass Communication is the imparting or exchanging of information on a large scale to a wide range of people.” Mass communication has a larger and undifferentiated audience. Low unit costs to the customers and rapid distribution and delivery are the other features of Mass Communication. Before the introduction of mass communication, people used to physically communicate with each other, which was time-consuming and had minimal reach. Usually the sender of the message in mass communication is a professional communicator who communicates with mass in order to impart knowledge, inform, educate or entertain. Mass communication caters to a large number of heterogeneous audiences. According to Dennis Introduction to Communication Theory and Communication Models munotes.in

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4 4 Communication Theory McQuail, “Mass communication comprises the institutions and techniques by which press, radio, television, film and to disseminate symbolic contents to a large, heterogeneous and widely dispersed audience.” 1.5 OBJECTIVES OF MASS COMMUNICATION Some of the objectives of mass communication are as under: 1. To inform 2. To educate 3. To entertain 4. To impart knowledge 5. To persuade the target audience 6. To be a link between the government and the audience 1.6 THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION Mass media has a tremendous effect on the audience. In order to study this effect, understanding the theories of mass communication is crucial. Mass communication theory began with humans transmitting messages to multiple receivers from a single source. The prominent theories of Mass Communication are: 1. Authoritarian Theory 2. Free Press Theory 3. Social Responsibility Theory 4. Development Media Theory 5. Alternative Media Theory We will now look at the prominent theories in detail: 1) Authoritarian Theory: This theory came into existence in the 16th and 17th Century. This theory suggests that all forms of communication are under the direct control of the government or influential bureaucrats. If it is not under direct control, the media and press are expected to respect the authority. They must consider themselves subordinates to the authority and should not communicate anything that is offensive to them. Journalists do not have much room to voice their opinions and thoughts. Before their reports are published, they have to be submitted to the respective authority for censorship. Censorship is the suppression of speech, public communication, or other information. In an authoritarian setup, the authority or the government considers censorship to protect and prevent munotes.in

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5 people from national threats. Any media under this setup has to strictly follow the guidelines of the authority. Any violation can lead to the revoking of the license the media holds. 2) Free Press Theory: Free Press theory is on the theories of Normative theories. Normative theory is a justified explanation of how public disclosure should be carried out to find solutions to the problems. It tries to explain how public disclosures can lead to better solutions. Free Press theory is also known as Libertatrian Theory. It suggests that a person is free to publish his/her ideas and thoughts and no one should restrict it. This theory came into existence in the 16th Century and was advocated by John Milton, an English poet. Under this setup, there is no censorship. Anyone can speak for or against the authority. It is based on the fundamental right of freedom of expression. 3) Social Responsibility Theory: This theory is between the two extremes, i.e Authoritarian Theory and Free Press Theory. Under this theory, the media is free to express its opinions. They are free from government censorship. However, when dispersing the news they have to also keep in mind the impact it will have on the society as well. According to Sibert, Peterson and Schramm: “Freedom of expression under the social responsibility theory is not an absolute right, as under pure libertarian theory. One‟s right to free expression must be balanced against the private rights of others and against vital society interest.” 4) Alternative Media Theory: These are media sources which are different from the mainstream media or mass media. These media sources are called subversive, grassroots, progessive, anarchist, radical, under-ground, independent, dissident etc. The word „alternate‟ literally defines the theory. Alternative media have an objective of bringing change towards a more equitable social, cultural and economic whole in which the individual is not reduced to an object. Alternative media highlights non-commercial projects. It tries to reach out to the marginalized section who are excluded from mainstream media. 5) Development Media Theory: This theory was proposed by Dennis Mcquail. This theory states that in developing nations, the media must support the government when it is trying to develop the nation. It should be supportive than critical of the government as any bad news may hamper the economic growth of the nation. It is expected that the media promotes the policies of the Introduction to Communication Theory and Communication Models munotes.in

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6 6 Communication Theory government which are towards the development of the nation, promotion of socio economic and political lives of the people 1.7 MODELS OF MASS COMMUNICATION Mass communication models help in understanding the concepts better. Generally, the models of mass communication are classified into three broad categories: linear, interactive and transactional. A one way model of communication is called a linear model of communication. A communication in which sender and receiver alternate the positions is called interactive communication. Transactional model of communication suggests that the participants simultaneously communicate as sender and receiver. Following are the common models of mass communication: • Aristotle‟s Model of Communication • Shannon – Weaver Model of Communication • Berlo‟s SMCR Model of Communication • Lasswell‟s Model of Communication • Wilber Schramm‟s Model of Communication • The Gatekeeper Model of Communication Aristotle’s Model of Communication: This model was developed by Aristotle around 300 B.C. This model mainly focuses on the way the speaker speaks and influences the audience. This is a one way communication from the speaker to the receiver (audience). This model is used even today by politicians, army chiefs, and managers of organizations to organize their speech. It is a tool used in public speaking In this model, Aristotle mentions that the speech of the speaker should have three parts. These are connected to each other and the speaker must consider these in order to deliver an influential speech. 1) Ethos: This is essentially the credibility of the speaker. It is the reason why the audience should listen to you. Without credibility, the words of the speaker may not be able to persuade the audience. Credibility is the quality of being trusted and to be believed in. For example: A politician can be credible if he/she has a past record of working diligently for people. A person, when sick, goes to a doctor because doctors have a qualification to prove that they have the required knowledge. Similarly, a person having vast experience in financial munotes.in

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7 planning enjoys credibility because of the diverse clientele he has served over the years. This is the first part in Aristotle‟s model. A speaker, in his speech, should clearly call out his achievements and make people believe in him. He/ She should gain the confidence of the audience by demonstrating his achievements, qualification, experience etc. 2) Pathos: This is establishing an emotional connection with the audience by using various techniques like voice modulation, pauses, anger, sadness etc. For example: On a battlefield, the chief, with extreme passion, would talk about how great martyrdom and patriotism is. He would do so to encourage the soldiers to fight with valor. 3) Logos: The above two i.e. Ethos and Pathos are incomplete without Logos. Logos means the logic behind what the speaker is saying. An audience will be influenced by the credibility and emotional connection with the speaker but in order to firm their confidence, the speaker must state the logic behind his words. For Example: If a manager is bringing about an organization wide change, his communication should clearly call out the logic behind this activity. Whether it will reduce costs or reduce workload of employees, the logic has to be clearly articulated. Otherwise the audience may be left thinking about the end result of the change. The model can be explained through a diagram: a) Speaker is the main piece in the model b) A speaker delivers his/her speech considering Ethos, Pathos and Logos c) The occasion could be a battlefield, political rally, corporate setup. d) Lastly the speech has an effect on the audience. Shannon – Weaver Model of Communication: This model was first developed by Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver in 1948.This is a widely accepted model due to its simplicity. The model identifies: 1) Sender (Information source): This is the origin of the message. It could be a person, object or any other information source. The sender chooses what message to send, whom to send, which medium/media to use. The message could be oral, written, body language etc. Introduction to Communication Theory and Communication Models munotes.in

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8 8 Communication Theory 2) Encoder: This source converts the message from the sender into signals that can be transmitted to the sender. It could be a device such as telephone or a person such as a translator. 3) Channel: Also known as the medium through which the message is relayed. If it is an email, then the medium is the internet. If it is a mobile device, then the medium is RF waves. If it is face to face communication, then it is sound waves. 4) Noise: Noise is anything that creeps in the medium and creates a disturbance in the communication. Noise can be external or internal. • Internal is when the sender mentions the wrong spelling of a particular word or mispronounces a particular word. Similarly, when the receiver decodes the message, he/she might interpret the meaning of the sentence incorrectly. • External is when the noise is out of the control of the receiver / sender. Example could be Honking of vehicles, blaring noise from loudspeakers etc. 5) Decoder: Decoder is the opposite of Encoder. A source which converts the signals from the transmitter to receiver in a way that the sender can understand. 6) Receiver (End Destination): This penultimate piece in the communication process wherein the receiver receives the message. 7) Feedback: This is the last bit in the communication process where the receiver affirms that the message relayed to him/her is understood. Berlo’s SMCR Model of Communication: Berlo‟s SMCR model talks about 4 components in the communication process namely Sender, Message, Channel, Receiver. These 4 components are influenced by various factors. Sender: The Sender is the point where the message originates. It is the start of the communication process. According to the model, the sender is affected by the below munotes.in

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9 a) Communication Skills: These are skills which one uses while receiving and imparting communication. It includes reading, writing, speaking, listening etc. b) Attitude: This means the attitude of the speaker towards the audience. c) Knowledge: The speaker‟s familiarity with the topic. d) Social System: Values, beliefs, religion, mindset of society also influence the sender. e) Culture: The culture also influences the message of the Sender Message: a) Content: The body of the message can be understood as Content. It has a beginning and an end. b) Elements: These elements include body language, gestures, and facial expressions to convey the message effectively. c) Treatment: It refers to the way the message is conveyed, passed on or delivered. d) Structure: It means structure of the message. Example :The beginning, main matter and conclusion e) Code: It is the form in which the message is sent. Example text, video etc. Channel: • It is the medium through which the message flows from the Sender to the Receiver. • It is essentially the five sense organs. Receiver: The Receiver is the person to whom the message is intended to be conveyed to. He / She decodes the message. The same factors which influence the Sender also influence the receiver. f) Communication Skills: These are skills which one uses while receiving and imparting communication. It includes reading, writing, speaking, listening etc. g) Attitude: This means the attitude of the speaker towards the audience. h) Knowledge: The speaker‟s familiarity with the topic. i) Social System: Values, beliefs, religion, mindset of society also influence the receiver Introduction to Communication Theory and Communication Models munotes.in

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10 10 Communication Theory j) Culture: The culture also influences the message of the receiver. Lasswell’s Model of Communication: Lasswell was an American politician. He proposed an appropriate way to relate to a message or any communication is to answer five questions 1) Who: Who refers to the originator of the message. The point where the communication emanates. 2) Says what: To understand/analyze the message of the Sender. 3) In which channel: This essentially means the medium through which the Sender has transmitted the message. For Example: TV commercials, radio, email etc. 4) To Whom: The receiver of the message. It could be an individual or a group of people. 5) With what effect: to understand the effect on the receiver Example of Lasswell Model of Communication: • Who: Radio Presenter • Says What: Announcement of Two day National Mourning • In which channel: Radio (Audio) • To whom: General Public • With what effect: To inform about the death of a famous personality and to observe two day national mourning. The Gatekeeper Model of Communication: The Gatekeeper Model was developed by Kurt Lewin, a German born American psychologist known for his work in the field of theory of behavior. In this model, the “Gate” here acts as a filter. A filter which passed through only selected information to the audience. The controller of this filter or “Gate” is known as the “Gatekeeper”.. The Gatekeeper is the one who gets the communication from various sources. Based on his personal beliefs, opinions he/she filters the information and lets through only relevant information. It could be discarding all that information which may be controversial, any information which may create unrest in the society, harm the sentiments of a particular section of the society. For Example: A news editor of a TV news channel gets information/news inputs from various sources and on a variety of topics. For instance, he may get inputs on weather forecast, news on sports, politics etc. The editor may choose to discard a few inputs as they would be of less importance or may instill a political unrest etc. munotes.in

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Wilber Schramm’s Model of Communication: Introduction to Communication Theory and Communication Models This straightforward communication model was developed by Wilber Schramm in 1954. This model emphasizes on the three basic elements: the sender, the message, and the destination . The model explains in detail about encoding and decoding. According to this model, the receiver and the sender share the common fields of experience without communication is not possible. If the sender and receiver share the common field of experience the communication becomes simple and easy. According to Wilber Schramm the communication can be considered successful only when the receiver understands the intended message of the sender. The connotative and denotative meaning of the words learnt by the communicator with the experience. The complexity of the message is comprehended easily due to this learning. The superficial as well as deep meaning can be understood by the communicator. 1.8 SUMMARY Communication is a two way process. It is the greatest distinguishing criteria between humans and animals. Communication process has evolved through the history of mankind. There are various types of communication. The communication scholars have developed communication theories and models. These theories and models help us understand the communication system better. In the age of globalization, it is important to communicate effectively. It will be possible with the better understanding of the communication process through the study of theories and models. 1.9 QUESTIONS 1. Explain the meaning and origin of the word communication. 2. What are the characteristics of communication? 3. Discuss the types of communication. 4. What is the importance of mass communication? 5. Discuss the objectives of mass communication in detail. 6. Discuss the theories of mass communication in detail. 7. How is Authoritarian theory different from Free Press theory? 8. Elucidate Shannon – Weaver Model of Communication. 9. What is the significance of the Gatekeeper Model of communication? 1.10 REFERENCES • (2021, October 28). Communication Studies theories: overview by category | University of Twente. Retrieved October 13, 2022, from https://www.utwente.nl/en/bms/communication-theories/ 11 munotes.in

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12 12 Communication Theory • Aristotle's Communication Model. (n.d.). Communication Theory. Retrieved October 13, 2022, from https://www.communicationtheory.org/aristotle%E2%80%99s- communication-model/ • Authoritarian Theory. (n.d.). Communication Theory. Retrieved October 13, 2022, from https://www.communicationtheory.org/authoritarian-theory/ • Bajracharya, S. (n.d.). Social Responsibility Theory. Businesstopia. Retrieved October 13, 2022, from https://www.businesstopia.net/mass-communication/social- responsibility-theory • Berlo's Model of Communication. (n.d.). Management Study Guide. Retrieved October 13, 2022, from https://www.managementstudyguide.com/berlo-model-of- communication.htm • BERLO'S SMCR MODEL OF COMMUNICATION. (n.d.). Communication Theory. Retrieved October 13, 2022, from https://www.communicationtheory.org/berlos-smcr-model-of- communication/ • De Bens, E., McQuail, D., & Golding, P. (Eds.). (2005). Communication Theory and Research. SAGE Publications. • Drew, C. (2019, September 29). Shannon Weaver Model of Communication - 7 Key Concepts (2022). Helpful Professor. Retrieved October 13, 2022, from https://helpfulprofessor.com/shannon-weaver-model/ • Four Theories of the Press: Authoritarian, Libertarian, Social Responsibility. (2021, August 5). Newsmoor. Retrieved October 13, 2022, from https://newsmoor.com/four-theories-of-the-press- authoritarian-libertarian-social-responsibility-theory/ • Hartley, J. (2002). Communication, Cultural and Media Studies: The Key Concepts. Routledge. • Kumar, K. J. (2000). Mass Communication in India (4th Edition). Jaico Publishing House. • Littlejohn, S. W., & Foss, K. A. (Eds.). (2009). Encyclopedia of Communication Theory. SAGE Publications. • McQuail, D. (2012, December 27). NORMATIVE THEORIES OF THE PRESS - 6 THEORIES. Firstclass Information. Retrieved October 13, 2022, from http://bizzybrain2013.blogspot.com/2012/12/normative-theories-of- press.html munotes.in

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• Normative Theory – Four Theories of the Press. (n.d.). Introduction to Communication Communication Theory. Retrieved October 13, 2022, from https://www.communicationtheory.org/normative-theory-four- theories-of-the-press • Social Responsibility Theory. (n.d.). Communication Theory. Retrieved October 13, 2022, from https://www.communicationtheory.org/social-responsibility-theory/ • West, R. L., & Turner, L. H. (2004). Introducing Communication Theory: Analysis and Application. McGraw-Hill. ***** Theory and Communication Models
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2 COMMUNICATION- MEANING, SIGNS, CODES AND SIGNIFICATION Unit Structure 2.1 Objectives 2.2 Introduction to communication 2.3 Signs and Symbols 2.4 Communication Codes 2.5 Encoding, Decoding 2.6 Types of Communication Codes 2.7 Theory of Signification 2.8 Importance of Communication 2.9 Let‟s sum up 2.10 Questions 2.11 References 2.1 OBJECTIVES • Understand the meaning of signs and symbols • Understand the importance of signs and symbols in communication • Understand the communication codes • Know the theory of signification and its importance in communication 2.2 INTRODUCTION The word communication means transfer of a message by a sender to a receiver in an understandable manner. Without the next person understanding the intended message of the sender, the communication is incomplete. It is half cooked broth which can be hard to digest. Human beings communicate in order to share their thoughts, ideas, opinions, joy, sorrow, disappointment etc. It is said that birds fly, fish swim and humans talk. Human beings are able to communicate better than any other living beings in the world. It is the gift which differentiates humans from other animals. Animals can only communicate immediate issues such as food, danger, threat etc. On the other hand, along with the basic issues, humans can communicate on several topics such as war, philosophy, science, mathematics, poetry, etc. The word communication is defined in various ways. The Oxford dictionary defines communication as “the activity or process of expressing ideas and feelings or of giving people information”. The Cambridge dictionary defines communication as “to share information with others by 14 munotes.in

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speaking, writing, moving your body, or using other signals…” We can see clearly here that communication is an act involving at least two people who communicate with each other in order to share the information. The word communication is derived from the Latin noun „communis‟ or the verb „communicare‟ which means „to make common‟. The ideas or the messages are made common between the sender and the receiver in the process of communication. Communication has been used extensively in all human endeavors and fields, for example, in Philosophy, Mathematics, History, Arts, Science, business world etc. It is useful in all these fields. The rapid growth of advanced technology in the form of various inventions like the printing press, telegraph, radio, tv, internet has influenced the way we communicate with each other. Communication was very limited in the old days. Now we are in an age which is termed as „communication age‟. Communication is useful to an individual, to the family, to the society and to the government. The governments need to communicate with the public with regards to its policies, plans etc. The birth of Mass Communication has eased the process of communication in all the sectors like education, agriculture, health, commerce, industry etc. How we started communicating is a very complex question to answer. Obviously, we did not start communicating just after a meeting of a bunch of people at a table. We did not start to talk about any word deliberately. Human languages have taken thousands of years to evolve in the present form. According to Brian Handwerk the evolutionary shift in the structure of the throat has enabled humans to speak. It can be said that humans might have developed language of gestures before they used words. They might have started communicating using shrill cries, grunts, hooting, giggling etc. Communication is not merely a flow of information. Communication is a complex process which involves sending, receiving and interpreting the messages. There is plenty of information that flows from various sources. In the age of big data, the information explosion is a common thing. However, that merely comes in effective communication. In order to consider that information as communication, it should be passed in such a manner that the receiver understands the message completely. If the receiver is unable to comprehend what is passed on to him, that can be termed as incomplete communication or miscommunication or no communication at all. With the advent of technology the face of communication has changed a lot. The journey has been from personal communication to mass communication and from mass communication to modern interactive communication. With the help of new media, we are able to do interactive communication with the help of video, videotex, teletext, tele-shopping, telephones, mobile phones, electronic mail etc. 2.3 SIGNS AND SYMBOLS Signs, symbols, gestures, tone, etc. are extensively used to communicate. Communication - Meaning, Signs, Codes and Signification
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16 Communication Theory 16 communicate. The meaning of these signs could be connotative or denotative. The semiotics explores the study of signs and symbols as a part of communication. The theory of semiotics was brought forth by the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure. Saussure considered language as a sign system. Another scholar, Charles Sanders Peirce, defined a sign as “something which stands to somebody for something.” He categorized signs into three categories: 1. Icon, 2. Index and 3. Symbol. Pierce emphasized that a sign can never have a definite meaning. No sign can convey its ieda adequately and yet it has to be used under necessity since no more adequate sign is available. Signs are the foundations of all communication. It is the smallest unit of meaning. A sign denotes something other than itself. The meaning is the link between an object or idea and a sign. There is a relationship between a sign, an object or idea and a meaning. Signs are used to inform, warn, advise, prohibit etc. Often we talk of warning signs, signs of love, friendship etc. When we see a horn crossed on a school road, we know that it is a silent zone. When a word „table‟ is spoken, the listener understands its meaning as he connects the word „table‟ with the object „table‟. „A picture‟ of the table instead of the word „table‟ can also be used as a sign to convey the desired meaning to the recipient of the message. Physical actions can also be used as signs to express something. A smoke in the forest is a sign of fire in the forest. A symbol is something that stands for something else in a particular culture. Symbols have a specific meaning. They are used to send information from one person to another person. Symbols usually give connotative meaning. They are used to evoke specific emotions among the recipient of the message. With the help of symbols, people can share interpretations of the physical world. Symbol can represent an action, an even, a person, a season, an emotion, etc. Symbols can be used for both receptive and expressive communication. Objects, parts of objects, pictures, print, actions, gestures, signs, and speech can all be symbols. Colors, flags, signs have been used to symbolize the meaning since ages such as white flag to show surrender, rose to express love etc. In literature, symbols are employed by the poets to visualize and to emote certain feelings, emotions, thoughts, actions etc. Communication is generally symbolic. What we want to say to mean something is always symbolic as the words we use are nothing but the symbols which stand to mean something else than themselves. The relation between the „words‟ and the meaning of the words is arbitrary except Onomatopoeic words like hiss, bow-wow, crack, splash etc. The symbolic meaning is also conventional. Symbols can be both verbal and non-verbal. The non-verbal communication is an important tool that supports verbal communication. Various facial expressions, gestures, postures convey a particular meaning. These are culturally and traditionally codified in a certain way which is understood by the interpretive community. The munotes.in

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gestures act as the symbols. However, gestures may mean differently in different cultures. Something generally accepted in one culture may be considered as taboo in another culture. 2.4 COMMUNICATIVE CODES Generally coding means to use a particular system for identifying things. Musical notation, mathematical symbols, punctuation marks etc. are some examples of code systems. Words are the main tool of communication. The words are nothing but codes which are used to communicate to send or receive a message. In everyday life, we may use code for a number of things. An army personnel may use a system of language that can be deciphered only by the people who are aware about the system. A couple might use a different system in which they can communicate secretly. In communication theory the tem „code‟ is used in a similar way. „Code‟ is a system in which one thing stands for another thing. A system which defines the meaning of a message. To distinguish between codes in the general sense and codes that have a first-order role in the creation of understanding between people, we will call the latter as communicative codes. A code is a set of correspondence rules used by a group or person. In order to understand this better, we may take an example of a traffic signal. At the traffic signal various colors are used as codes to convey a message to the people traveling on the road. If a green light is shown, people understand that it is OK to continue, if it is a red light, people know that they have to stop. This is a code system that is understood by the people. Codes are very important in understanding Semiotics. These codes are used by the senders and the receivers of the message in order to communicate a message effectively. There are two terms associated with it: encoding and decoding. 2.5 ENCODING, DECODING Encoding: In a communication cycle encoding means putting a message into a code. The information, the ideas, opinions, etc. are put into a code which is common between the sender and the receiver of the message. In the words of Stanly Fish, it is an „interpretive community‟. If a person is of a different language, he or she may not understand the message. For example, if you go to a village where everyone speaks in Telugu and nobody knows Hindi and you start speaking in Hindi, the people of the village will not be able to understand you at all. Therefore, putting the message in the right code and the context is important. Decoding: The encoded message is understood only by the people who are part of the particular language system. The comprehension of a message is done by the process of decoding. In this process a message received is converted Communication - Meaning, Signs, Codes and Signification
into thoughts by interpreting the meaning of the message. The process of 17 munotes.in

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18 18 Communication Theory decoding involves interpretation and analysis of a message. Effective decoding is an essential criteria of successful communication. Any misinterpretation of a message may lead to miscommunication. It will lead to confusion and misunderstanding. The meaning of the message depends upon the receiver‟s perception, understanding of the context and his knowledge of the code system. The words given meaning in context. Communication scholars have categorized the communication codes into two categories: verbal codes and nonverbal codes. Some communication codes are as under: Language: This is the most important communication code of mankind which differentiates them from the other living beings. Language has both written and spoken forms. Language has been a very essential tool in the progress of mankind. 2.6 TYPES OF COMMUNICATION CODES Aesthetic Codes: All the arts employ aesthetic codes to express. Various art forms like singing, dancing, sculpture, architecture, acting are the great examples of human excellence. They communicate thoughts, emotions, desires etc. Aesthetic codes are further divided into audio, visual and written codes. Songs, narratives, idioms etc. are the examples of audio codes. Photography, theater, painting, architecture, acting etc. are the examples of visual codes. Novels, drama, poetry, etc. are examples of written aesthetic codes. The Indian Rasa theory encampasses detailed study on the communicative value of aesthetic codes. The signifier in aesthetic codes can stand for more than one signified. Hence they are called polysemic. The meaning is connotative in aesthetic codes. Logical Codes: These are the communicative codes that are used by science. Mathematics, Morse code, Braille etc. are examples of logical codes. These codes convey a specific meaning to the recipient of the message. Logical codes give one particular meaning as the signifier stands for one signified. The meaning is denotative as the codes are monosemic. Vocalic Code: It is not only words but how the words are said matters in communication. Pitch, accent, stress, tone, etc. are considered as paralanguage. These elements of paralanguage support the language in communication. When someone says the same sentence with different tones, it means differently. For example, “Did you have tea?” can be said in different tones to mean differently. The rate of the pitch or stress can also change the intention behind the message. Commas, semi-colons, periods, ellipses, question marks, exclamation marks are all indicators of vocalic behavior. munotes.in

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19 Check your Progress: Communication - Meaning, Signs, Codes and Signification 1. How are signs and symbols used for communication? 2. What is the importance of decoding? 3. What are vocalic codes? 2.7 THE THEORY OF SIGNIFICATION According to Merriam: Webster dictionary signification means “the act or process of signifying by signs or other symbolic means.” The linguist Ferdinand de Saussure in his book The Course in General Linguistics (1916) introduces the concept of sign. He says that sign has two elements: signifier and signified. Signifier stands for something else, for example the written or spoken word „table‟ stands for the object „table‟. The signified is the idea or object that the communicator wants to evoke. Saussure says that there is no inherent link between signifier and signified. It is an arbitrary relation. There is no natural link between the word „table‟ used to communicate the object „table‟. Charles Sanders Peirce, the American linguist developed these ideas further dividing the signs into three categories as icon, index and symbol. An icon is anything that has physical resemblance to the idea or the object that is being communicated. The picture or photograph of the table has the inherent link with the object „table‟. An index is a sign which has a direct relation with the idea or the object. Smoke coming from fire is an example of an index. A symbol does not have any inherent relation between the signifier and signified. The link that is understood by the communicator is conventionally applied. These links are socially and culturally constructed. The symbols could be expressed in the form of words, pictures, colours, gestures, etc. munotes.in

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18 20 Communication Theory “Saussure makes a crucial distinction between linguistic value and signification. While he concedes that value is one element in signification, he insists that the two terms are not identical…A word may have a certain signification or meaning but this will not be the same as its value since the latter is determined by “the concurrence of everything that exists outside it.” (M A R Habib, A History of Literary Criticism). 2.8 IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION “Be silent or say something better than silence”— Pythagoras The value of communication is immense as it is used by all living beings. Even birds, insects and animals communicate. The dogs bark to communicate and the wolves howl to come together. The birds chirp. However, human communication is more advanced and sophisticated. If communication is stopped the entire life comes to a halt. Communication is the basic need. Especially the social animals are required to communicate with each other. Communication is required to live together, to share the information, to share joy and sorrow, to defend, to attack, to hunt and to love. “A human being‟s need for communication is as strong and as basic as the need to eat, sleep and love. It is both an individual and social need.” (Kumar, Keval J. Mass Communication in India) We all need communication as a physical, biological and social need. We can communicate using all the five senses: touch, taste, hear, see and smell. If we want to punish a person, we use excommunication as a punishment. Isolation is the worst kind of punishment given to a person. Even animals use this kind of practice. If the isolate an animal from the pack, it means death to that animal. Lack of communication may lead to emotional trauma and other psychological problems. As stated earlier, communication is useful in all the sectors like agriculture, education, health, commerce, industry, security etc. The government uses mass communication methods to communicate with its citizens. It communicates its policies regarding these all sectors. The media becomes the connecting link between the public and the government. The arrival of digital platforms has changed the way we communicate tremendously. The runners, horses, carts were used in the old days to communicate which would consume a lot of time. Now the communication has become brisk. Within a fraction of second, one can reach out to the recipients of the message. The government uses digital platforms effectively to connect with the public in a short period of time. It is useful in the times of adversities. The speed of communication saves several lives as the message sent on time becomes crucial. Check your Progress: 1. What is the theory of signification? munotes.in

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21 Communication - Meaning, Signs, Codes and Signification 2. What is the importance of decoding? 3. What are logical codes? 2.9 LET’S SUM UP Communication is as old as mankind. In order to effectively communicate, humans have developed the language system that conveys the meaning of the intended message. Communication codes. With the help signs, humans communicate with each other. The scholars of communication theory have tried to understand the phenomena of communication. There are several codes of communication that have been developed. The father of modern linguistics Ferdinand de Saussure and other scholars have studied the importance of signification in communication. 2.10 QUESTIONS 1. Meaning of the message depends upon the context. Substantiate. 2. Explain the importance of the study of signs and symbols in communication? 3. What is communication? Why is it necessary to communicate effectively? 4. What is encoding and decoding? 5. Explain the importance of encoding and decoding in the communication process. 6. Explain the theory of signification in detail. 7. Discuss the various types of communication codes. 8. Explain the communication revolution. munotes.in

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18 22 Communication Theory 9. Has the evolution of communication helped in the development of mankind? Substantiate your answer. 2.11 REFERENCES 1. Compiled by Allison, David. 2006, Media Studies Key Concepts. 2. Kumar, Keval J. 2018, Jaico Publication 3. McQuail, Denis. 1969, Towards a Sociology of Mass Communication, London,. Collier-Macmillan 4. Baran, Stanley J. Dennis K Davis. 2012, Mass Communication Theory. Sixth Ed., Wadsworth 5. McQuail, Denis. 2009, Mass Communication Theory, Sage Publication 6. West, Richard. Lynn H Turner. 2018, Introducing Communication Theory Analysis and Application. McGraw Hill publication 7. Fortner, R. S., & Fackler, P. M. (Eds.). (2014). The Handbook of Media and Mass Communication Theory. Wiley. 8. Griffin, E. A. (2002). A First Look at Communication Theory. McGraw-Hill Higher Education. 9. Host, S. (2019). Information and Communication Theory. Wiley. 10. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/human-ancestors- may-have-evolved-physical-ability-speak-more-25-million-years-ago- 180973759/#:~:text=A%20long%2Dpopular%20theory%20of,moder n%20humans%2C%20to%20begin%20speaking. 11. https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/faq-how-did-language- begin ***** munotes.in

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23 3 SEMIOTIC METHODS AND APPLICATIONS, STRUCTURALIST THEORY AND APPLICATIONS Unit Structure 3.1 Objectives 3.2 Introduction 3.3 Semiotic Methods 3.4 Semiotic Applications 3.5 Structuralist Theory 3.6 Structuralist Applications 3.7 Summary 3.8 Questions 3.9 References 3.1 OBJECTIVES • To understand the importance of effective communication • To know the tools employed for effective and impactful communication • To understand semiotics to know the sign system better • To understand the contribution of Ferdinand de Saussure in Semiotics and Structuralism • To know the impact of structuralism on creation of meaning 3.2 INTRODUCTION Understanding or the interpretation of the message received is the most important aspect in communication. Humans have created the language. However, they are not in control of it while using it many times due to the ambiguous nature of the language. The words have connotative and denotative meanings. It is the connotative meaning that makes the messages ambiguous. In our daily life, we communicate with each other all the time. Our several actions and thoughts depend upon how effectively we communicate with each other. This age is called the „communication age‟ due to its growing importance in human life. Businesses thrive on effective communication. Governments need effective communication methods to deliver their message. Health sector relies on effective communication. A teacher will be only effective if he or she is a good communicator. Communication is an essential, pervasive, and consequential behavior in our society. munotes.in

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24 Communication Theory 24 In order to communicate effectively one must understand the nuances of communication thoroughly. The learner should know how the communication process works, how the communication elements interact with each other, how the communication theory works. “Communication is a social process in which individuals employ symbols to establish and interpret meaning in their environment.” (West & Turner, Introducing Communication Theory). Communication employs tools like signs and symbols in order to convey a message. The study of signs and how they are used in a language system for effective communication is essential. Let us dive deeper into the study of Semiotics and Structuralism. 3.3 SEMIOTICS Semiotics is the study of signs that are used to convey a message by a communicator. Semiotics studies how signs work in communication. It is a way of looking at the world and understanding how profoundly the landscapes and cultures in which we subconsciously live affect us all.The study of signs in communication is also termed as semiology. The word semiotics derives from the Greek “semision” which means “sign”. The definition of semiotics is “the study of signs or an epistemology about the existence or the actuality of sign in social life” Initially, it were the Greeks who while studying medicine and philosophy who brought this notion that signs and symbols convey the message in the process of communication. They studied signs (symptoms) of the illness to find out the cause of disease. Aristotle‟s works were instrumental in developing the theory of semiotics. Later, St Augustine classified signs into three categories: natural, conventional and sacred. John Lock in his “Essay Concerning Human Understanding" explained the interrelation between signification and human knowledge. The Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure developed the modern Semiotics theory. Sign represents something other than itself. Signs used for communication are of various types. Apart from explicit communication systems like language, Morse Code, Traffic signals, there are several systems that consist of signs to convey a message. Symbol is a type of sign which stands for something else and conveys connotative meanings. Symbols have a conventional meaning. Symbols are used in the form of words, people, marks, locations, or abstract ideas to represent something beyond the literal meaning. Symbols are not just used in literature but also in various other fields like business, mathematics, technology, sports, design, etc.Symbols are used at the traffic signals to control the traffic, in a factory to instruct the workers handling the machinery, and symbols can also be used to represent for safety and security instructions. Body postures, gestures, social rituals, dressing sense, etc. convey a meaning to the member of a particular community who practices the same set of social norms and conventions. Semiotics studies the conventional, cultural practices that assign a definite meaning to the signs. As studied in the previous chapter, after Ferdinand de Saussure, Charles Sanders Pierce (father of American semiotics) divided signs into three munotes.in

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25 types: Icons, indexes and symbols. An icon conveys meaning directly with its inherent similarities. For example a photo of a dog conveys the meaning of a four legged barking animal. Index has a natural relation with its signified, for example smoke as a sign indicating fire. The third element symbol is a sign proper. The relation between the signifier and signified here is conventional. It is not natural. The signs can be visual, aural or sonic. We unconsciously interpret the meaning of the words, gestures, postures, images etc as the meaning is conventionally imbibed in the language system which we learn since our birth. The ability of the interpretation of these meanings depend upon our understanding of the conventions and the culture of the society in which we live. In order to comprehend these signs we should be able to understand the context, culture, convention clearly. The same gesture might mean something different in different contexts. A sign of a man showing thumbs up means all is OK in one context. If the same man uses the same gesture at a roadside and signals it to the vehicles passing by, it means he is asking for a lift. “Saussure proposes that semiology be “recognized as an independent science with its own object like all the other sciences.” Language needs to be studied “in itself,” rather than, as in the past, in its connection with other things. The task of linguistics is to discover what makes Language a “special system,” but to do this, the linguist must learn what language has in common with other semiological systems” (M A R Habib, A History of Literary Criticism) The study of semiotics is highly influenced by Saussure‟s theoretical framework. Many semioticians are also structuralists. The semioticians “deal with any set of social phenomena or productions as "texts"; that is, as constituted by self-sufficient, self- ordering, hierarchical structures of differentially determined signs, codes, and rules of combination and transformation which make the texts "meaningful" to members of a particular society who are competent in that signifying system.” (M H Abrams, A Glossary of Literary Criticism). Claude Levi-Strauss applied semiotics to cultural anthropology. Lacan has applied semiotics to Freudian psychoanalysis. Roland Barthes has also employed Saussur‟s theory of semiotics in his semiotic analysis of advertisements. Roland Barthes‟ Elements of Semiology is a classic book on structuralism. In this book he writes that there is no extensive system of signs outside of language. Barthes suggests that the “elements” of semiology are contained in four sets of terms: (1) language and speech; (2) signifier and signified; (3) syntagm and system; and (4) denotation and connotation. A word may have both denotative and connotative meaning. Denotative meaning is a specific and direct meaning. It has a referential meaning. Connotative meaning is a suggestive meaning. The word gets the quality of ambiguity due to its connotative nature. The highly complex thoughts, ideas, emotions of human beings can be expressed connotatively. Therefore, in literature connotative meaning has the higher value. On the other hand, the language of law, business, and science has to be denotative. There is no scope of ambiguity in it. “Talking of Saussure‟s connection between language (as a structure) and speech (as a series of individual acts), Barthes agrees with many other theorists in Semiotic Methods and Applications, Structuralist Theory and Applications munotes.in

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26 Communication Theory 26 defining language as “a collective contract which one must accept in its entirety if one wishes to communicate”” (M A R Habib, History of Literary Criticism) New criticism - a widely practiced theory was challenged in the form of structuralism and deconstruction theory. Before that the language was analyzed from historical and philological perspectives. It was a diachronic approach to study the language. However, Saussure brings a synchronic approach to the study of language. 3.4 SEMIOTICS APPLICATIONS: Semiotics not only studies linguistic sign systems but also non-linguistic sign systems. The Italian semiotician and novelist Umberto Eco proposed that every cultural phenomenon may be studied as communication. The theory of semiotics is applied in many fields. French semiotician Roland Barthes applied semiotics theory to marketing in the 1950s. He stressed on the importance of using semiotics in the study of media and its effect on the audience in his book “Mythologies” in 1957. He examined the relationship between the audience and media in it. Several scholars applied the theory of semiotics to various fields later on. Holman used the theory of semiotics in the field of marketing in 1976 in his dissertation “Clothing as Communication: an empirical investigation” in which he studied consumer behavior and culture. Verbal and non-verbal signs are used in advertising and marketing to convey the message to the audience. The brands code the message which is decoded by the consumers. In the process of decoding the consumer filters the message through myths, beliefs, values, symbols etc. In order to understand this semiotics one has to analyze verbal signs, visual signs, and symbolic messages. Let us understand this with an example.
(Source: https://cxl.com/blog/semiotics-marketing/ https://advsoc2013.wordpress.com/2013/03/04/semiotic-analysis-heinz- ketchup-advertisement/)
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27 The semiotic analysis of the ad is as followed: Semiotic Methods and Applications, Structuralist Theory and Applications Source: https://cxl.com/blog/semiotics-marketing/ The theory of semiotics is used in several other fields like comics, cognitive study, anthropology, culture, literature, film, music, photography, theater, translation etc. Check your Progress: 1. What is semiotic theory? 2. How are signs divided? 3. Discuss semiotic applications in detail. 3.5 STRUCTURALIST THEORY Origin and Development of Structuralism: Semiotics evolves further into structuralist theory. Ferdinand de Saussure's work is the basis of this structuralist theory. He is also considered as the founder of modern linguistics. Structuralism has emerged as a major school of thought since World War II. Structuralism in linguistics and
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28 Communication Theory 28 literary studies found its major starting point in the work of the Swiss linguist, Ferdinand de Saussure, at the turn of the twentieth century. The book Course in General Linguistics (1916) which is a collection of Saussure‟s lectures compiled by his students is a seminal work related to structuralism. The term “structuralism” was coined in the ongoing work in linguistics, Semiotics, and literary analysis of Roman Jakobson. “In its early form, as manifested by Lévi-Strauss and other writers in the 1950s and 1960s, structuralism cuts across the traditional disciplinary areas of the humanities and social sciences by undertaking to provide an objective account of all social and cultural practices, in a range that includes mythical narratives, literary texts, advertisements, fashions in clothes, and patterns of social decorum.” (M H Abrams, Glossary of Literary Terms) In order to understand the term structuralism better, let us take one example. A window, if taken out of a building or a house, will not have a sense as a window. It only makes sense as a window when it's the part of the entire structure called a building. Window, doors etc. become meaningful only within the specific context of the building. The presence of a window makes sense when it is put in the context of the entire structure; when it is put in relation with the wall. There are two aspects in this example.In a structure the constituent parts are always subordinate to the whole. The second aspect is the constituent parts are meaningful when they are put in relation to other constituent parts of the same structure. The constituent parts themselves can not make sense outside the structure in the same way as they do when put in the structure. The relationship of the constituent parts within a structure that gives them their meaning is arbitrary. It is not logical, rational or natural. The rules of the structure are arbitrary and there is no inherent meaning in it. Saussure says that language operates as a structure. Language is constituted of independently meaningful words that are put together for communication. Language is a system of signifying. In the previous chapter, we have already studied Saussure‟s theory of sign, signifier and signified. Sign has the two components: the sound component of sign is signifier and the concept component of sign is signified. Signifier is a word image and the signified is a mental concept. Saussure further goes on saying that there is no inherent or natural relationship between the signifier and signified. The relation is arbitrary as we can see that signifiers are different in different languages for the same signified. For example, „chair‟ is called „Khursi‟ in Hindi and „Khurchi‟ in Marathi. According to Saussure, the signifier is not derived from the signified, otherwise there should have been some inherent relationship between the two. Saussure claims that a signifier is able to signify something when it is put in relation with other signifiers in a language system. Out of the context, it may not give the meaning on its own. Language functions like a structure as seen in the example of a building. The constituent parts of language derive the meaning with reference to their relationship with each other in the language system. The meaning of the constituent parts of the language system depends on its negatively being related to each other within the language. Each word is in an oppositional relationship. In structuralism, language is conceived as a self-contained, self-regulating munotes.in

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semiotic system whose elements are defined by their relationship to other elements within the system. The language has its unique rules and regulations. Unlike Stylistics, a linguistic approach to literature that tries to explain the way in which language is used in a particular literary work, structuralist approach to literature takes linguistics as a model to explain literature. Structuralism is not concerned with the meaning of a particular work but it asks a fundamental question as to how meaning is possible at all. It is concerned about the conditions of meaning, the systems that make meaning possible. Both structuralism and semiotics have developed as the study in linguistics expanded. Ferdinand de Saussure developed some crucial ideas of structuralism and semiotics. Ferdinand de Saussure expounds that the meaning of the words is arbitrary in nature. There is no inherent, natural or logical relationship between the meaning of the word and the spoken or written „word‟ that is used to represent that meaning. There is no perfect and fixed meaning of a text. The meaning of the words are attached to them conventionally and culturally. If the words are used in isolation or out of context, they may not give a definite meaning. The meaning changes according to the context. A single word may mean differently in different contexts. Let us examine the following sentence: He gifted his date a date box on the date night. In this sentence the word date is used to mean differently. The same word in one sentence can give different meanings. Saussure writes, “In language there are only differences without positive terms. Whether we take the signifier or signified, language has neither ideas nor sounds that existed before the linguistic system, but only conceptual and phonic differences that have issued from the system”. Ferdinand de Saussure further talks about langue and parole in synchronic structural analysis. Language system exists as a structure of communication between several individuals. He says that the individual utterances of a person can only be a part of the entire structure but can never be the structure itself. Using the example of a chess game, Saussure explains how langue means a system of internalized, shared rules governing a national language‟s vocabulary, grammar, and sound system and parole means actual oral and written communication by a member or members of a particular speech community. Parole is a concrete language performance at a given point of time. Langue is shared by all the people using a language system. It is the shared quality of langue that makes the parole understandable. Saussure also talks about the connection between thought and language. The thoughts are given proper shape and character with the use of language. Before the appearance of language the ideas are just hip bricks scattered. The role of language is to “serve as a link between thought and Semiotic Methods and Applications, Structuralist Theory and Applications
sound”. Saussure attacked the conventional theory of meaning. The theory 29 munotes.in

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30 30 Communication Theory of structuralism was prominent in France. It was brought to America during the 1960s. The leading scholars of the theory were Roman Jakobson, Jonathan Culler, Michael Riffaterre, Claudio Guillen, Gerald Prince, C. S. Peirce, Charles Morris, and Noam Chomsky. Saussure’s contribution to linguistics and structuralism can be summed up in the following way: 1. The concept of sign, signifier and signified 2. The arbitrary relationship between signifier and signified except onomatopoeic words 3. The identity of all elements of language determined by differences 4. The concept of langue and parole Roland Barthes carried on the legacy of Ferdinand de Saussure and further developed the theory of structuralism. In fact, this development is seen as the transition of structuralism into post-structuralism. Roland Barthes brings the idea of the text as a site of free play or pleasure by bringing the concept of “death of the author”. Roland Barthes was influenced bySaussure, Sartre, and Marxist writers such as Brecht. His influential works are Writing Degree Zero (1953), Mythologies (1957) and The Pleasure of the Text (1973). His most famous essay “The Death of the Author” appeared in 1968. Barthes‟ most fundamental suggestion is that myth is not an object, a concept, or an idea but a language, a type of speech. It is a mode of signification and is defined by the way in which it utters its message. Deriving his theory from Saussure‟s semiology Barthes says that semiology consists of three terms: signifier, signified and sign. He says that sign is the combination of signifier and signified. Contrary to Saussure‟s concept of arbitrariness between signifier and signified, Barthes claims a connection between both of them. Barthes claims that there is a necessary connection between the signifier and signified which is a result of collective contract and training. “The connection, the act of signification, is a process, the result of a collective contract and, over a period of time, the connection becomes naturalized” (M A R Habib, History of Literary Criticism) In his essay “The Death of Author” Roland Barthes quotes a sentence from Balzac‟s novella Sarrasine: “This was woman herself, with her sudden fears, her irrational whims, her instinctive worries.” He starts his discussion with a barrage of questions and questions the authorship of the words. Are these words of the character or the author himself? Does the author draw this line from the universal wisdom or his own notions? Barthes claims that we can never have answers to these questions. He writes, “writing is the destruction of every voice, of every point of origin.” Who is the author? The author is the product of society. All the wisdom he gains from the society, its conventions, its practices. According to Barthes, the idea of authorship is modern. Authorship did not exist in the ancient days. The works were attributed to the collective wisdom of the society. In munotes.in

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31 fact, people used to believe that the author is merely a mortal mediator between the divine and humanity. The author can not give a single meaning to the text. This argument seems to be the stem of reader response theory developed later. The text can not have a single meaning. The text is a tissue of quotations drawn from the innumerable centres of Culture: One cannot give a final meaning (signified) to the text. It is alive and continuously evolving at the cost of the death of the author. Therefore, literature does not give a definite and ultimate meaning to the text. “Structuralism is in explicit opposition to mimetic criticism (the view that literature is primarily an imitation of reality), to expressive criticism (the view that literature primarily expresses the feelings or temperament or creative imagination of its author), and to any form of the view that literature is a mode of communication between author and readers.” (M H Abrams, A Glossary of Literary Criticism) “The focus of structuralist criticism, accordingly, is on the impersonal process of reading which, by bringing into play the requisite conventions, codes, and expectations, makes literary sense of the sequence of words, phrases, and sentences that constitute a text.” (M H Abrams, A Glossary of Literary Criticism) 3.6 APPLICATION OF STRUCTURALISM The theory of structuralism has been applied in various fields like anthropology, literature, film, music, painting, sociology, psychology, architecture etc. In the field of anthropology, structuralism is employed to study various human rituals, religious rites, food preparation methods, celebrations, games, entertainment activities etc. These all activities have definite structures which communicate meaning. Levi-strauss studied binary oppositions like man-woman, chair-table, white-black, hot-cold, good-bad etc. Lévi-Strauss employed this study in his conceptualization of the universal structures of the mind. Structuralism is applied in literary criticism to study a text arguing that there is a definite structure in every text. In Mass communication, structuralism is applied to understand the deep structures that frame understanding and perceptions of reality of the society. Structuralism puts communication at the center of society. Structuralism is concerned with the identification of systems that generate meaning. Structuralists do not give much importance to aesthetic value but concentrate more on the rules and conventions that determine the meaning. Structuralism is also employed in film criticism to analyze films as constructed mediums, created through an underlying set of codes and conventions that shape their meanings. For example, Rick Altman studies the film Top Hat (1935) through the lenses of structuralism and emphasizes on understanding the Hollywood convention to interpret the film. He stresses that the film's meanings are organized around binary oppositions. The structuralists study the binary oppositions like hero- Semiotic Methods and Applications, Structuralist Theory and Applications munotes.in

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32 32 Communication Theory villain, hero-heroine, good-bad, culture-nature, individual-society to analyze and interpret the meaning the film conveys. Check your Progress: 1. Discuss the applications of structuralism? 2. What are semiotics? 3. What is Saussure‟s contribution to linguistics and structuralism? 3.7 SUMMARY Both semiotics and structuralism are the theories that study the sign system in communication. Verbal and non-verbal signs are employed by communicators to convey a message. The study of semiotics and structuralism helps us understand the meaning of communication which is the most important part in the communication process. 3.8 QUESTIONS 1. Discuss the importance of semiotics in the interpretation study. 2. Discuss the importance of the contribution of Ferdinand de Saussure in linguistics, semiotics and structuralism. 3. Do you agree with the notion of “death of author” by Roland Barthes. Substantiate your answer. 4. How is the theory of semiotics applied to culture? 5. How is the theory of semiotics applied in film studies? 6. Explain the application of structuralist theory in visual communication. munotes.in

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33 Semiotic Methods and Applications, Structuralist Theory and Applications 1. Abrams, M. H. 2007, A Glossary of Literary Terms (8th Edition) New Delhi: Akash Press 2. Berger, A. A. (1995). Essentials of Mass Communication Theory. SAGE Publications. 3. Dainton, M., & Zelley, E. D. (2017). Applying Communication Theory for Professional Life: A Practical Introduction. SAGE Publications. 4. Striphas, T., Shepherd, G. J., St. John, J., & Striphas, T. G. (Eds.). (2006). Communication as ...: Perspectives on Theory. SAGE Publications. 5. Habib, M. A. R. 2005, A History of Literary Criticism: From Plato to the Present. London: Blackwell 6. Lodge, David (Ed.) 1972, Twentieth Century Literary Criticism. London: Longman 7. Compiled by Allison, David. 2006, Media Studies Key Concepts. 8. Kumar, Keval J. 2018, Jaico Publication 9. McQuail, Denis. 1969, Towards a Sociology of Mass Communication, London,. Collier-Macmillan 10. Baran, Stanley J. Dennis K Davis. 2012, Mass Communication Theory. Sixth Ed., Wadsworth 11. McQuail, Denis. 2009, Mass Communication Theory, Sage Publication 12. West, Richard. Lynn H Turner. 2018, Introducing Communication Theory Analysis and Application. McGraw Hill publication 13. https://signsalad.com/our-thoughts/what-is-semiotics/ 14. https://cxl.com/blog/semiotics-marketing/ 15. http://web.pdx.edu/~singlem/coursesite/begsem.html 16. http://communication.iresearchnet.com/visual- communication/structuralism-in-visual- communication/#:~:text=Structuralism%2C%20of%20the%20kind%2 0influenced,of%20systems%20that%20generate%20meaning. ***** 3.9 REFERENCES munotes.in

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4 EMPIRICAL METHODS, IDEOLOGY AND MEANINGS Unit Structure 4.0 Objectives 4.1 What is an empirical study? 4.1.1 Definition 4.1.2 Meaning 4.2 Steps of empirical analysis cycle 4.3 Types and Methods 4.4 Need for an empirical approach 4.5 Merits and demerits of an empirical approach 4.6 Let’s sum up 4.7 Questions 4.8 References 4.0 OBJECTIVES After reading this unit you will be able to understand: • Application of the empirical approach • Different empirical methods • Process of the empirical analysis cycle • Merits and demerits of the empirical approach 4.1 WHAT IS AN EMPIRICAL STUDY? 4.1.1 Definition: The word empiric comes from the Latin empīricus, which comes from the Greek empeirikós, which means "based on observation and experience." The Greek word (-peiros) is derived from peîra, which means "attempt, try, or test. In an empirical study, the results are drawn from real empirical evidence. This form of evidence is frequently referred to as "verifiable" evidence. Quantitative or qualitative methodologies are used to acquire this evidence. If a researcher wanted to know if listening to joyful music boosts prosocial behavior, an example of empirical analysis might be. An experiment could be conducted in which one group of audience members is exposed to 34 munotes.in

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35 cheerful music while the other is not. The findings are then analyzed to see if cheerful music influences practical behavior. 4.1.2 Meaning: Empirical approaches have their origins in the expression "I will not believe it unless I experience it for myself." Empirical analysis is a method of evaluating and interpreting data that is based on evidence. Rather than theories and ideas, the empirical approach relies on actual information, statistics, and outcomes. Empirical analysis is a key component of the scientific method, and it is the most common way for researching subjects and determining a likely answer through quantitative observations of empirical evidence. Empirical analysis, on the other hand, never provides a definitive answer, only a most likely one based on probability. Empiricism is the belief that knowledge is gained largely via experience and the five senses. Contrary to rationalism, empiricism believes that knowledge is mostly achieved through concept exploration, deduction, intuition, and revelation. Empirical research frequently starts with a query like: Does chatting on the phone while driving degrade driving ability? A research hypothesis can be proposed based on this initial question: Driving while talking on a cell phone is dangerous. That hypothesis can then be tested using either primary data collected by the researcher for that specific study or existing secondary data gathered by others. For example, empirical data could be acquired by primary research, such as connecting police records or interviewing with a police department official, or secondary research, such as reviewing previously produced studies. It can be determined whether the hypothesis is supported or not based on the acquired facts, and then move toward a conclusion. 4.2 STEPS OF EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS CYCLE Every study of a scholar goes through phases and processes that they follow to ensure a proper assessment. A.D. de Groot created the present five-stage empirical analysis cycle in 1969, explaining that each step is equally crucial while conducting a study. Researchers can construct hypotheses and provide responses using this analysis structure, which can aid in understanding global changes. This also helps researchers to follow a set of guidelines when performing studies, providing more realistic results. The five steps of the empirical analysis cycle are as follows: Empirical Methods, Ideology and Meanings munotes.in

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36 Communication Theory Step 1:
Source: Wikipedia Observation: During the observation stage, researchers use their five senses to obtain as much empirical data as possible. For example, researchers may notice that the hue of a certain bloom varies based on its location. The research hypothesis is created using the information acquired at this step. Step 2: Induction: Inductive reasoning is used to construct probable research findings based on their observations in the preceding step. They use commonly held assumptions or information to explain their initial observations. For instance, a researcher could wonder in the case of a flower that "Does the soil acidity cause the flower to change color?". A different researcher then conducts an experiment, picking a group of flowers, altering the soil acidity, and monitoring any color changes to support or refute their findings. Step 3: Deduction: Using their deductive reasoning skills, researchers construct hypotheses to test in the deduction stage. To obtain unbiased results, researchers must rely on logic and rationale. Referring to the above example researchers can conclude that soil acidity affects the color of flowers if the flowers change color as the soil acidity changes. Step 4: Testing: Researchers utilize qualitative and quantitative tools to test their hypotheses at this stage. Statistical tools aid in the interpretation of data collected during testing. Testing results may validate the researcher's ideas, but they do not prove their validity. Testing may sometimes uncover fresh information that contradicts the initial deductions, forcing researchers to start over with a new hypothesis. With reference to the 36
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above-stated example, if researchers uncover those variations in acidity produce color changes in flowers, they will have data to back up their initial theory that soil acidity impacts flower color. Step 5: Evaluation: Researchers discuss their findings, problems encountered, supporting arguments, and conclusions at this last stage. This step also includes explanations of the researcher's constraints encountered during the analysis. At this step, the researchers frequently provide advice for people who want to continue their research in the future. 4.3 TYPES AND METHODS In communication studies, empirical approaches are used in an attempt to produce objective and consistent results. This approach is positivistic in that it considers the social world to be governed by laws or law-like principles that make it predictable. The use of quantitative measurements (e.g., content analyses, surveys) and primary data gathering and analysis were initially equated with empirical approaches. Secondary analyses and qualitative research are now regarded as empirical as well. To the degree that researchers disclose adequate information to allow replication of their findings, qualitative research could be classified as empirical (e.g., sampling strategy, data collection, and analysis). This classification, however, is likely to be questioned. Empirical studies can be performed and analyzed by using qualitative and quantitative methods: 1. Qualitative Methods: Non-numerical data is collected using qualitative methodologies. It is used to elicit meanings, ideas, or root causes from its subjects. These are unstructured or semi-structured methods. The sample size for this type of study is typically small, and it is a conversational way of providing additional insight or in-depth information about the issue. Focus groups, experiments, interviews, and other types of approaches are among the most popular. In many circumstances, researchers have to analyze the behavior of a target audience, so descriptive results are required. The outcomes of qualitative research are descriptive rather than predictive. It allows the researcher to construct or support theories in preparation for a future quantitative study. In this case, qualitative research methods are employed to arrive at a result that supports the theory or hypothesis under consideration. a. Case Study: The case study method is used to gather additional knowledge by carefully examining existing cases. It's frequently employed in corporate research or to obtain empirical evidence for an investigation. It's a technique for investigating a topic in its real-world setting using existing cases. The Empirical Methods, Ideology and Meanings
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38 Communication Theory 38 and variables in the present case are identical to those in the case under investigation. Conclusions can be reached about the topic being examined based on the data from the case study. For instance, a report describing a company's solution to a client. The difficulties they encountered throughout start and execution, as well as the case's findings and solutions. Most businesses employ case studies like this since it provides empirical proof for them to advertise in order to gain more business. b. Observational Method: The observational method is a method of observing and collecting data from a target. It takes time and is very personal because it is a qualitative procedure. The observational approach, which is also used to obtain empirical evidence, might be considered a subset of ethnographic research. This is typically a qualitative type of study, but it can also be quantitative in some situations, depending on the topic. For instance, setting up a study to watch a certain animal in the Amazon rainforests. Such studies normally take a long time since the subject must be observed for a specific amount of time in order to investigate patterns of behavior. Another common example nowadays is observing people shopping in a mall to determine customer purchasing habits. c. Face-to-Face Interview: One of the most often utilized qualitative methods is this one. The rationale for this is that if the appropriate questions are asked, it allows a researcher to obtain precise and useful data. It's a conversational strategy for gathering in-depth information based on where the conversation leads. For instance, a one-on-one interview with the finance minister to obtain information on the country's financial policies and their effects on the general populace. d. When a researcher wishes to uncover answers to why, what, and how questions, focus groups are used. This strategy is usually used with a small group, and it is not necessary to interact with the group in person. If the group is being addressed in person, a moderator is usually required to gather helpful information. Product firms utilize this to collect information on their brands and products. For instance, a mobile phone company might want to get comments on the dimensions of one of its upcoming models. These studies aid the organization in meeting client demand and positioning its model appropriately in the market. e. Content Analysis: In comparison to the other methods, text analysis is relatively fresh. This strategy is used to examine a person's social life by looking at the imagery or words he or she uses. In today's society, where social media is such an important part of everyone's life, such a strategy allows the researcher to follow a pattern that is relevant to his research. For instance, many organizations request detailed feedback from customers, including how satisfied they are with their customer service personnel. This information munotes.in

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39 allows the researcher to make informed judgments on how to improve their support team. 2. Quantitative Methods: Quantitative methods rely on numerical data to acquire knowledge. It's used to measure things like opinions, behaviors, and other well-defined factors. These are pre-determined and are presented in a more organized manner. Surveys, longitudinal studies, polls, and other methodologies are widely applied. This method helps in analyzing the collected empirical data. A researcher might use these to see if his theory is supported or not. a. Survey Method: In order to obtain a big amount of data, survey method usually involves a large audience. This is a quantitative method that uses a set of closed questions that are relatively simple to answer. High responses are achieved due to the simplicity of such an approach. In today's world, it is one of the most often used approaches for all types of study. Previously, only face- to-face surveys with a recorder were conducted. However, new mediums such as emails and social media have emerged as a result of technological advancements and convenience. For instance, depletion of energy resources is an increasing worry, necessitating increased knowledge of renewable energy sources. To figure out why a study of the general public's views on green energy and the elements that impact their decision to switch to renewable energy can be done. A poll like this can assist institutions or governing bodies in promoting proper awareness and incentive programs to encourage the usage of greener energy. b. Experimental Method: An experiment is set up and a hypothesis is tested in an experimental method by manipulating one of the variables. This is also used to determine the cause-and-effect relationship. It is put to the test to examine what happens to the independent variable when the dependent variable is deleted or changed. Proposing a hypothesis, testing it, assessing the results, and reporting them to see if they support the theory or not is usually the process for such a method. For example, a product company is attempting to determine what is preventing them from capturing the market. As a result, the company alters each of its processes, including manufacturing, marketing, sales, and operations. They learned from the experiment that sales training has a direct impact on market coverage for their product. The product will have better coverage if the person is well trained. c. Correlation Method: The purpose of the correlational method is to discover a link between two sets of variables. To forecast the consequences of such a strategy, regression is commonly used. Correlation can be positive, negative, or neutral. Empirical Methods, Ideology and Meanings munotes.in

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0 Communication Theory Individuals with a better education, for example, will be offered higher- paying positions. This means that a greater education leads to a higher- paying employment, whereas a lower education leads to a lower-paying one. d. Longitudinal Method: After frequently examining a subject over a period of time, a longitudinal method is used to understand the qualities or behavior of the person under observation. The information gathered by this method can be qualitative or quantitative. Consider the following scenario: A study to determine the health advantages of exercise. The target is required to exercise every day for a set period of time, with the outcomes demonstrating increased endurance, stamina, and muscular growth. This proves that exercise is beneficial to a person's body. e. Cross-sectional Method: It is an observational method in which a group of people is monitored at a specific time. In this type, a group of people is chosen in such a way that all of the variables except the one being studied are identical. Because it is not seen over a long length of time, this type does not allow the researcher to establish a cause-and-effect relationship. It is primarily used in the healthcare or retail industries. For instance, a medical investigation into the frequency of malnutrition disorders in children in a specific population. This will entail examining a variety of factors such as age, race, geography, income, and social backgrounds. If a large proportion of children from low-income families show signs of malnutrition, the researcher can look into it further. A longitudinal method is usually conducted after a cross-sectional investigation to determine the specific reason. f. Casual-comparative Method: This method is based on the comparison. Causal-Comparative Research: This method is based on the comparison. It is mostly used to determine the cause-and-effect relationship between two or more variables. For instance, a researcher compared the productivity of employees at a company that provided breaks during the workday versus those in a company that did not provide breaks at all. Check your Progress: 1. What is an empirical study? munotes.in

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41 2. What do you mean by the correlation method? 3. What do you mean by an observational method of analysis? 4.4 NEED FOR AN EMPIRICAL APPROACH In today's society, empirical research is crucial since most individuals believe in only what they can see, hear, or experience. It's used to test multiple hypotheses and expand human knowledge, and it's used to make progress in different sectors. Pharmaceutical corporations, for example, employ empirical research to test a certain drug on controlled or random populations in order to determine its effect and cause. This demonstrates the validity of some hypotheses they had given for a specific medicine. Such study is critical because it can occasionally lead to the discovery of a cure for an illness that has been around for a long time. Such research is beneficial not only in science, but also in many other domains such as history, social sciences, and business. Empirical research has become vital as well as a norm in many professions in order to support their hypothesis and gather more knowledge as the globe has progressed. The methods listed above are highly effective for conducting such research, but when the nature of new investigation issues becomes more distinctive or changes, new ways will emerge. 4.5 MERITS AND DEMERITS OF AN EMPIRICAL APPROACH 4.5.1 Merits: The empirical approach is one of the most extensively employed methods for a reason. There are a few benefits that come with it. A couple of them are listed below. 1. Through numerous trials and observations, it is utilized to verify traditional research. Empirical Methods, Ideology and Meanings munotes.in

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42 42 Communication Theory 2. This research methodology improves the credibility and authenticity of the research being undertaken. 3. It helps a researcher to comprehend the potential for dynamic changes and adjust his technique accordingly. 4. The researcher can control various factors because the level of control in such a study is high. 5. It plays an important role in boosting internal validity. 4.5.2 Demerits: 1. Empirical research has a few drawbacks, despite the fact that it makes research more competent and authentic. A couple of them are listed below. 2. Patience is required for such study because it can take a long period. The researcher must collect data from a variety of sources, and the parameters involved are numerous, resulting in a lengthy investigation. 3. Most of the time, a researcher will need to do research in several distinct locations or conditions, which might be costly. 4. Permissions are required since there are a few restrictions that must be followed when doing experiments. Obtaining appropriate rights to carry out various ways of this research can be problematic at times. 5. Data collection can be a challenge at times, as it must be gathered from a number of sources using various ways. Check your Progress: 1. What are the merits of empirical research? 2. Explain the demerits of empirical study? 3. Discuss the need of an empirical approach? munotes.in

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Meanings 4.6 LET’S SUM UP Empirical Methods, Ideology and The empirical approach is a form of research approach that relies on verifiable evidence to come up with conclusions. In other words, evidence collected from observation or scientific data gathering methods is the sole basis for this form of research. Depending on the data sample, such as quantifiable or non-numerical data, empirical research can be conducted utilizing qualitative or quantitative observation methods. Unlike theoretical research, which is based on preconceived beliefs about the research variables, empirical research uses a scientific approach to determine the experimental probability of the variables under study. Every study of a scholar goes through phases and processes that they follow to ensure a proper assessment. A.D. de Groot created the present five-stage empirical analysis cycle in 1969, explaining that each step is equally crucial while conducting a study. Researchers can construct hypotheses and provide responses using this analysis structure, which can aid in understanding global changes. This also helps researchers to follow a set of guidelines when performing studies, providing more realistic results. The five steps of the empirical analysis cycle are as follows: 1. Observation: During the observation stage, researchers use their five senses to obtain as much empirical data as possible. 2. Induction: Inductive reasoning is used to construct probable research findings based on their observations in the preceding step. They use commonly held assumptions or information to explain their initial observations. 3. Deduction: Using their deductive reasoning skills, researchers construct hypotheses to test in the deduction stage. To obtain unbiased results, researchers must rely on logic and rationale. 4. Testing: Researchers utilize qualitative and quantitative tools to test their hypotheses at this stage. Statistical tools aid in the interpretation of data collected during testing. Testing results may validate the researcher's ideas, but they do not prove their validity. Testing may sometimes uncover fresh information that contradicts the initial deductions, forcing researchers to start over with a new hypothesis. 5. Evaluation: Researchers discuss their findings, problems encountered, supporting arguments, and conclusions at this last stage. This step also includes explanations of the researcher's constraints encountered during the analysis. At this step, the researchers frequently provide advice for people who want to continue their research in the future. In communication studies, empirical approaches are used in an attempt to produce objective and consistent results. This approach is positivistic in that it considers the social world to be governed by laws or law-like principles that make it predictable. The use of quantitative measurements (e.g., content analyses, surveys) and primary data gathering and analysis 43 munotes.in

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44 44 Communication Theory were initially equated with empirical approaches. Secondary analyses and qualitative research are now regarded as empirical as well. To the degree that researchers disclose adequate information to allow replication of their findings, qualitative research could be classified as empirical (e.g., sampling strategy, data collection, and analysis). In today's society, empirical research is crucial since most individuals believe in only what they can see, hear, or experience. It's used to test multiple hypotheses and expand human knowledge, and it's used to make progress in different sectors. Pharmaceutical corporations, for example, employ empirical research to test a certain drug on controlled or random populations in order to determine its effect and cause. This demonstrates the validity of some hypotheses they had given for a specific medicine. Such study is critical because it can occasionally lead to the discovery of a cure for an illness that has been around for a long time. Such research is beneficial not only in science, but also in many other domains such as history, social sciences, and business. Empirical research is used to verify the results of prior experiments and empirical observations. This research methodology improves the validity and accuracy of the study. Understanding dynamic changes require an empirical approach. Empirical analysis is used to help researchers understand dynamic changes in the area, thanks to the extensive process of literature review. It also allows them to devise appropriate strategies. By allowing researchers to control various factors under examination, the empirical approach allows them to demonstrate a level of control. Empirical research methodology boosts Internal validity. An empirical approach with a high level of control in the research process provides for a high level of internal validity. 4.7 QUESTIONS 1. What is an Empirical study? Need for an empirical approach in communication theory. 2. What is the Empirical Analysis Cycle? Explain the five steps of the empirical analysis cycle with examples. 3. Explain the qualitative method of analysis. Also, explain various methods through which qualitative research can be conducted. 4. Write short notes on: a. Merits of the empirical approach b. Demerits of the empirical approach c. Need for an empirical method d. Empirical Analysis Cycle munotes.in

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Meanings 4.8 REFERENCES Empirical Methods, Ideology and • Adamy, D. (2014). Practical Communication Theory. Institution of Engineering and Technology. • Holmes, D. (2005). Communication Theory: Media, Technology and Society. SAGE Publications. • Salwen, M. B., & Stacks, D. W. (Eds.). (2014). An Integrated Approach to Communication Theory and Research. Taylor & Francis. • (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.ls1.ifkw.uni- muenchen.de/personen/wiss_ma/dan_viorela/empirical_and_non_emp irical.pdf • (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.voxco.com/blog/empirical- research/ • (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career- development/empirical-analysis • Definition of empirical. (n.d.). Retrieved from Merriam-Webster: https://www.merriam- webster.com/dictionary/empirical#:~:text=Empirical%20Has%20Roo ts%20in%20Latin%20and%20Greek,- When%20empirical%20first&text=The%20name%20empiric%20deri ves%20from,attempt%2C%20trial%2C%20test.%22 • What is Empirical Research Study? [Examples & Method]. (n.d.). Retrieved from formplus: https://www.formpl.us/blog/empirical- research ***** 45 munotes.in

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5 COMMUNICATION THEORY: THEORY OF MEDIA AND SOCIETY, NEW MEDIA THEORY Unit Structure 5.0 Objective 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Theory of Media and Society 5.2.1 The role of Mass media in society. 5.2.2 What are the theories of Media and Society 5.2.3 How does Media influence Culture 5.3 New media: What is new media? Meaning and influence on society 5.4 Let’s sum up 5.5 Questions 5.6 References 5.0 OBJECTIVE After reading this unit you will be able to understand: • What are the theories of media and society? • How does media influence society and culture? • What is new media and what are new media theories. 5.1 INTRODUCTION There are various cultures that we follow or believe in which makes what we call a society. There are norms, ethics beliefs, doings that we all do individually which when combined creates a society. Mass communication influences both society and culture. Different societies have different media systems, and the way they are set up by law influences how the society works. Different forms of communication, including messages in the mass media, give shape and structure to society. Today media has become a part of everyone’s life and plays a major role today, now media become food to strengthen or weaken society. The media has a primary purpose to provide information about current news, gossips, Fashion, and the latest gadgets in the marketplace of the people. The role of the media must be one way trading and marketing of products, and prejudices. It gives geographical knowledge about how people divided. The media claimed to be governed by righteousness and equity for the common man to the rich man. Society is influenced by 46 munotes.in

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media in so many ways. It is the media for the masses that helps them to get information about a lot of things and form opinions and make a judgment regarding various issues. It is the media, which keeps people updated and informed about what is happening around them and the world that everyone draws something from it. Media is considered as ―mirror‖ of the modern society, infect, it is the media which shapes our lives. It takes discipline not to let social media steal your time. Media has had a bad effect on a generation, mainly because youth is strongly influenced by media teenagers and children are intended to follow their people, who are recognized and follow what they do to get noticed. Sometimes they focus bad part of a media, and influence to do it. Media has become a drug to this generation because social media is changing the way we communicate and the way we are perceived, both positively and negatively. Every time you post a photo or update your status, you are contributing to your own digital footprint and personal brand. In today’s world, the media’s the most powerful entity on earth. They have the power to make the innocent guilty and to make the guilty innocent, and that’s power. Because they control the minds of the masses. So, it’s in the hands of the people to take control of their minds. And decide what is correct. For this social media is the ultimate equalizer. It gives a voice and platform to anyone willing to engage. 5.2 THEORY OF MEDIA AND SOCIETY 5.2.1 The role of Mass media in society: There are different forms of communication. At the broadest level, communication is an exchange of meaning between people using symbols. The most common symbols we use are verbal and written words, but there are also many forms of nonverbal communication such as American Sign Language. What sign language, verbal communication and written communication have in common is the use of abstract symbols to convey meaning. Whether you say ―thank you‖ in face-to-face communication, send someone a card with the words ―thank you‖ written on it, or use nonverbal cues to express thanks, the meaning is the same. Interpersonal communication generally refers to the exchange of meaning between two or more people on a personal, often one-on-one, level. Interpersonal communication can be verbal or nonverbal. Most often, it happens in face-to-face settings. It differs from mass communication, which involves sharing meaning through symbolic messages to a wide audience from one source to many receivers. Sometimes, particularly in computer-mediated communication, messages conveyed using computers, it can be difficult to tell the difference between interpersonal communication and mass communication because individuals can send Communication Theory: Theory of Media and Society, New Media Theory
messages intended only for other individuals that might quickly reach 47 munotes.in

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48 Communication Theory 48 large numbers of people. Social media platforms are often structured in ways that allow interpersonal messages to ―go viral‖ and become mass messages whether the original sender intended to address a mass audience or not. It is not the type of message that determines interpersonal or mass communication. It is the way the message is distributed and the relationships between sender and receiver(s). This text will continue to grapple with the overlap of interpersonal communication and mass communication structures on networked communication platforms, but first, another form of communication commonly studied in academic settings should be introduced. Organizational communication is the symbolic exchange of messages carrying specific meaning for members belonging to formal organizations. In practical terms, it is the internal communication that helps governments, businesses, schools and hospitals to run. People working together in organizations get usually things done by communicating directly with one another or in small groups. Organizations cannot function without communication. Organizational communication effectiveness can influence the success or failure of businesses and other social institutions. Thus, communication does not merely happen within organizations; it is an essential part of the way they are structured. Organizational communication is a separate field of study, introduced well in this YouTube video. Successful communication, whether intended for personal use, for use within an organization, or for a wide audience, can help people to understand each other and to get things done. If good organizational communication is necessary for groups to function with a formal purpose, mass communication is essential for societies to function. Societies are made up of formal organizations of various sizes. Usually, the larger the group, the more complex its communication structures. Communication structure refers to a combination of information and communication technologies (ICTs), guidelines for using those technologies, and professional workers dedicated to managing information and messages. In the mass communication field, communication structures are more than computers and transmission networks. The guidelines for using networks to create and distribute messages for mass consumption are a matter of corporate policy as well as law. It has been noted that a society is made up of small groups, larger communities, and vast institutions. A more complete definition of the term comes from the field of sociology. A society is a very large group of people organized into institutions held together over time through formalized relationships. Nations, for example, are made up of formal institutions organized by law. Governments of different size, economic munotes.in

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institutions, educational institutions and others all come together to form a society. By comparison, culture — the knowledge, beliefs, and practices of groups large and small — is not necessarily formalized. Culture is necessary for enjoying and making sense of the human experience, but there are few formalized rules governing culture. Mass communication influences both society and culture. Different societies have different media systems, and the way they are set up by law influences how the society works. Different forms of communication, including messages in the mass media, give shape and structure to society. Additionally, mass media outlets can spread cultural knowledge and artistic works around the globe. People exercise cultural preferences when it comes to consuming media, but mass media corporations often decide which stories to tell and which to promote, particularly when it comes to forms of mass media that are costly to produce such as major motion pictures, major video game releases and global news products. More than any other, the field of mass communication transmits culture. At the same time, it helps institutional society try to understand itself and whether its structures are working. 5.2.2 What are the theories of Media and Society: There are various theories that corelated media and society, these theories show the relation between how a society reacts and adopts to the changes that media brings in it. Media is the trend setter in the society now and alters the behaviour of many people especially the teenagers. These theories consist of theories like (a) Hypodermic needle theory, (b) Agenda setting theory, (c) Uses and gratification theory, (d) Spiral of silence, (e) Cultivation theory. (a) Hypodermic Needle Theory: We need to understand that media is one of the most influential entities in the modern society, in our everyday life anything that we do is influenced by media. The movie that we watch, the news that is shown, all the applications that we use all effect our lives in a way or other and that is what media does. People today have the tendency to blindly do things that media show or present, even though there are reasons backing the reaction and behaviour of people to do this, but they are just not justified in the most appropriate way. There was a time when a huge amount of audience used to listen to radios, even if not needed just because it was fed in the minds of people they tend to listen to radios for hours. This behaviour of Communication Theory: Theory of Media and Society, New Media Theory
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50 Communication Theory 50 Technique‖ in the world war. In 1938, Lazarsfeld and Herta Herzog testified the hypodermic needle theory in a radio broadcast ―The War of the Worlds‖ (a famous comic program) by insert a news bulletin which made a widespread reaction and panic among the American Mass audience. Through this investigation he found the media messages may affect or may not affect audience. The Hypodermic needle theory states that the media has the power to inject highly influential message to passive audience and since the audience have no other source of information or confirmation or even to compare to what media is providing they are left with no choice but to act on the information provided by the media. This theory is also known by another name as ―Magic bullet theory‖, ―Transmission Belt theory‖ and ―Hypodermic Syringe model‖ There are various other communication theories, however the hypodermic needle theory is not a result of empirical research instead it was found on the assumption that humans are controlled by their biological nature and will react instinctively to a stimuli in a certain or similar way. Empirical research has since disproved the theory which resulted in replacement of this theory with a more sophisticated theory like the ―Agenda setting theory‖. (b) Agenda setting theory: The agenda setting theory introduced by Maxwell McCombs and Donal Shaw is a sophisticated version of the hypodermic needle theory. One thing that we are sure about the modern time is that the influence of media affects the presentation of the report and issues made in the news that affects the minds of the people. In a simple version any news that is shown as important by the media is automatically perceived as an important news by the audience, the priorities of which news comes first and which next are all set by the media and not according to how people think and how much influence will it have among the audience. This is what the agenda setting theory states, that media as an institution will set an event for the audience to see and talk about and then the people will only talk about that sometimes these topics do not even affect our lives in any way, yet they be the hot topic of discussion. Eg: media talking about when will salman khan get married, which is not relevant for the audience (except his fans) yet the whole society will talk about this because media sets an agenda for the audience to talk about and that is what is done. With the new media this has become even more common and calling them as trends, the media will set and start a trend (an agenda) and people will talk about it and follow the trends to, even though trend in media and agenda setting theory are two topics to discuss but are related closely. There are different levels of Agenda setting: Level one: Is where the researchers study the media user and objectives that it creates on the audience and study how the audience react to the information given by the media. munotes.in

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51 Level two: Is where the media focuses on how people should think about the nature of the issue that is shown to them and thus study the reaction the media can sensationalize a news or report or plan it to go viral. (c) Uses and Gratification Theory: The uses and gratification theory states that how the consumers use the media to satisfy their specific needs or desires. A typical uses and gratification study the motive of media consumption and the consequences associated with the use of that media. The use of media also creates a social standing in the society as people with different use towards media sometimes have similar interest and use with some one else in the society, to understand this with an example assume you like to go for a morning walk and use your media to listen song on an application or on a radio, there will be people who like to walk quietly or talk as they do their morning run, but there will be people who also like to listen to songs while running so you both have a similar use for media at that time which might create a social standing for you both. Uses and gratifications theories of media are often applied to contemporary media issues. The analysis of the relationship between media and violence that you read about in preceding sections exemplifies this. Researchers employed the uses and gratifications theory in this case to reveal a nuanced set of circumstances surrounding violent media consumption, as individuals with aggressive tendencies were drawn to violent media Researchers have identified several common motives for media consumption. These include relaxation, social interaction, entertainment, arousal, escape, and a host of interpersonal and social needs. By examining the motives behind the consumption of a particular form of media, researchers can better understand both the reasons for that medium’s popularity and the roles that the medium fills in society. A study of the motives behind a given user’s interaction with Facebook, for example, could explain the role Facebook takes in society and the reasons for its appeal. (d) Spiral of Silence: The theory of spiral of silence is an all-encompassing theory of public opinion that connects disparate processes of social psychology interpersonal communication, and mass media. In easy term the theory refers to the tendency of the people to remain silent when they feel that their views / opinions are opposite to the majority on any specific subject. This theory was originally proposed by German political scientist Elisabeth Noelle – Neumann in 1947. Communication Theory: Theory of Media and Society, New Media Theory munotes.in

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52 52 Communication Theory The theorist enlightened two main reasons for the person to remain silent: (i) Fear of isolation: in the case when the group or the people realize that the individual has a different opinion from them. (ii) Fear of reprisal: This is in the sense that voicing the individual’s opinion might lead to some more serious consequences or complete isolation form the group. The spiral effect is experienced insomuch as this activates a downward spiral where fears continually build within the minority opinion holder, hence the minority opinion is never voiced. Since it’s appearing on this blog you could assume that the theory posits that the mass media has a effect on this process, if you’re assuming that… you’re right on. The media plays an important role in this process, especially in dictating or perceptually dictating the majority opinion.
(e) Cultivation Theory: Cultivation theory is different from agenda setting theory and spiral of silence theory in two aspects, first is that it is mainly based on one specific medium that is ―television‖ and second is that it does not directly impacts our thinking about specific issue or the attributes of that, but on the very way and every aspect of how we view the world.
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53 The theory is based on a few assumptions on about television and how we view it. (i) The nature of television: Several characteristics contribute to the power of television. First, television is pervasive, almost all Americans households owned a television, and most had more than one set. Television is also highly accessible, regardless of literacy or other skills. But perhaps the most important point cultivation theories make about television is that it is coherent, presenting the same basic messages about society across programming and across time. (ii) The Nature of Viewing: Cultivation theorists have also developed ideas about how we view television. Specifically, they argued that the viewers watch bye the clock. That is, most of the people do not choose to watch shows or even a particular genre of shows. Rather, there are certain times of the day when they watch, and whatever is on at that time will be watch. This cultivation has great effects on society and people. Given the unique nature of television and the centrality of television viewing in our lives, Gerbner and his colleagues then propose that television will serve to cultivate our views of the world. The notion of cultivation describes a long-term and cumulative impact of television on our views of reality. Cultivation theorists believe that television can create and maintain very basic sets of beliefs about the world and that these influences are cumulative and long-lived ones. Check your Progress: 1. Discuss cultivation theory. 2. What is uses and gratification theory? 3. Discuss agenda setting theory in detail. Communication Theory: Theory of Media and Society, New Media Theory
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54 54 Communication Theory 5.2.3 How does media influence culture: Media influences the culture in various ways, some positive and some negative, but before we go into the details of how media is affecting or influencing culture lets understand what culture is? Culture is an intangible aspect of our social life which consists of values, belief, communication, system of language and practice that people share. It also consists of the material object that are common to the group or society. Where media comes into the place is when these cultures change, over years there have been a lot of traditions and commonalities between people in a constructive society, but media has been the one to change or as we can call update in modern term the culture. The mass media has got a great influence on the cultural patterns of the society depending on the way respond to the influence. The role of men and women in the society has been greatly defined by the media and in the process affecting both intercultural and international communication. Many people across the world have been trying to understand the meaning of culture and its influence on how human beings behave. The media has been instrumental in trying to explain to the people the meaning of culture and in the end enabling them to have a cultural identity. The mass media presents information about a particular aspect or region of a culture to the whole world and is therefore very important for the information to be proper, the people who watch and adopt the new culture (giving the people a cultural identity) it becomes very crucial that all the aspects are explained clearly by the media, as if the media is showcasing the cultural aspects clearly it can easily influence the people and thus the culture. Through socialization, different societies can share languages, traditions, customs, roles and values. The media has become a significant social force in recent years especially for the young people. Whereas the older generations view the media as a source of entertainment and information, the majority of young people see it as a perfect platform for socialization. The mass media had a great contribution in creation of many societies across the world and therefore becoming very important agents of socialization, we have moved into a time where media is influencing every small aspect of our life, like online shopping has become a culture in youth which was not even a concept for a very long time and now is a culture believed and followed by a huge population across the globe. The mass media agents such as the television, internet, films and radio have been very instrumental in promoting socialization by providing a perfect platform exchanging ideas and opinions in various issues that affect life. Networks have also been able to affect different cultures across the world. 5.3 NEW MEDIA: WHAT IS NEW MEDIA? MEANING AND INFLUENCE ON SOCIETY Media has undergone a huge transition over the decade especially during the Covid pandemic, we shifted from traditional media to new media in a munotes.in

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55 jiffy and has adopted the reality without hesitation. Traditional media such as television and radio provided content in a one-directional manner, disseminating content created by a company or corporation to be consumed by passive viewers. Whereas new media also called ―the social media‖ has introduced a whole new method of communication where it allowed the passive viewers to communicate with the content provider, give immediate feedback and get a response quickly, the media is filled with examples for this each photo you share on your Instagram is communication, every comment you make on YouTube is communication (as you provide your feedback to the creator) and not only commenting the emoji reply on facebook is the prime example of how easy new media has made communication amongst the modern era. New media are digital, and often have the characteristics of being manipulatable, networkable, dense, compressible, and interactive (Flew & Smith, 2011). The emergence of new, digital technologies ―signals a potentially radical shift of who is in control of information, experience and resources‖ (Shapiro, 1999). In this setting of dramatic change and rapid advancement, this chapter will consider social media and health behaviour theory. The media ecology theory here can help us to understand as to why people continue to interact online despite of loss of control over their private and personal boundaries. Society quickly become use to change and reliant on digital media and its features (as noted by McLuhan in 1964). Technology has progressed overtime and directly or indirectly forced people to adapt it majority of the work today is dependent on technology and not just work- related aspects let it be a small task we are dependent on technology and media. If you need a cab, you have uber, if you need food, you have Zomato, for clothing you have countless number of applications, and then there is Amazon which provides everything on just a click. The evolution of technology has made us dependent on it and in some cases wastage of time rather than using it for smart quick working. The theories for the new media are just an extension of the old media and Traditional communication theories have been applied to many new technologies, such as video games and internet use (Papacharissi & Rubin, 2000). One study found that while newspapers were the predominant written news source pre-internet, people now seek out news on the internet for the same reasons that they did before – the need for orientation (Dimmick, Chen, & Li, 2004). Another study evaluating early cell phone use utilized UGT for understanding how consumers utilized mobile phones and landlines differently. Although these early mobile phones were contextually different than landlines, many of the same intentions of use were found between the two (Leung & Wei, 2000) Check your Progress: 1. What is new media? Communication Theory: Theory of Media and Society, New Media Theory
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56 Communication Theory 2. Explain the influence of new media in society? 3. How does the media influence culture? 5.4 LET’S SUM UP In modern society, mass media often drive our perceptions. It is important to recognize that different cultures have different moral values and to acknowledge that some practices should be universally abhorred and stopped, even if they are partially or wholly accepted in other cultures. Media has been an important part of our life for decades now, ever since globalization and evolution of technology people have been very dependent on it. Media is mainly supposed to serve three purposes for the society namely: to inform, educate and entertain and media has been doing the job amazingly, for anything and everything we look into the media system. Television and radio (as traditional medium of media) started the one-way communication but with time as we evolved the media got advanced too. Theorists who introduced various media theories studies the behaviour of people to how their behaviour got altered when media informed about any issue. In conclusion we understood that as media plays an important role in deciding what is to be given to the audience, how the audience should think about the issue and even for how long the audience should talk about it, but there has been a change in this scenario since ―citizen journalism‖ has taken a rise and that happened due to new media. Our new media consists of all modern platforms like Instagram, youtube, facebook, reddit etc where the media is still informing, educating and entertaining the audience but with more percent of transparency and a huge amount of growth in response rate from the audience which also resulted in understanding how much consumption of media has increased since everything got so handy (via smartphones). In a nutshell, media has always been a major factor in shaping the throughs of the society but now society has also understood to how much to use the media and how much to believe the information provided by media, as with new media spread of fake news has also increased which puts the audience in a tough spot to decide to believe it or not. So next 56 time you get any information try and rectify the credibility of the issue. munotes.in

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57 Communication Theory: Theory of Media and Society, New Media Theory 1. Write in brief the importance of media in shaping the society? 2. Has the introduction of new media changed the perception of people towards the information that is presented. Explain in brief. 3. Explain in detail (a) Uses and gratification theory (b) Cultivation theory (c) Spiral of silence theory 4. How does media sets a direction for the audience as to what they need to think and discuss about? (Explain using a theory of media and society) 5. What is new media? Discuss how new media plays an important role in influencing the culture. 5.6 REFERENCES 1. Kincaid, D.L. (Ed.). (2013). Communication Theory: Eastern and Western Perspectives. Elsevier Science. 2. McQuail, D. (2010). McQuail′s Mass Communication Theory. SAGE Publications. 3. Sugimoto, C. R. (Ed.). (2016). Theories of Informetrics and Scholarly Communication. De Gruyter. 4. Mc Quail’s Communication theory – Media and society https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/McQuail_s_Mass_Communic ation_Theory/CvcvLsDxhvEC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=inauthor:%22De nis+McQuail%22&printsec=frontcover ***** 5.5 QUESTIONS munotes.in

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6 MEDIA STRUCTURE AND PERFORMANCE: PRINCIPLES AND ACCOUNTABILITY, MEDIA ECONOMICS AND GOVERNANCE, GLOBAL MASS COMMUNICATION Unit structure 6.0 Objective 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Media Structure hierarchy and working 6.2.1 Structure and ownership in media 6.2.2 Media economics and governance 6.2.3 Mass communication 6.3 New media and increased global communication 6.3.1 Advantages of media for global expansion 6.4 Let’s sum it up 6.5 Questions 6.6 References 6.0 OBJECTIVE After reading this unit you will be able to understand: • What do you mean by media structure? • Concepts of media principles, accountability, economics, and global mass communication. • Why new media is important for global communication 6.1 INTRODUCTION On the one hand, we are interested in influences of media systems and media organizations on the media’s performance. The production of media content is not coincidental but depends on characteristics of the media system, ownership structures or the organizational design of media corporations, among other factors. On the other hand, we focus on how media policy and regulation shape media structures. Media systems do not emerge naturally but are politically created. Various actors are involved in such policy-making processes and are trying to realize their interests and values. To analyse the regulation and 58 munotes.in

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59 governance of legacy media and new intermediaries we often perform international comparisons. Every professional organization adopts the principal of division of labour for optimum output. A print media organization structure specifies its division of work activities and shows how different activities are linked. It also indicates the distribution of work activities according to specialization and refers to the hierarchy, authority, structure, and relationship in the media organization. The performance of any organization can be defined by the way it is structured, who is taking the major decision? Who is determined to detect errors? Who has the authority to discard and take decisions during an emergency? All of these factors make a whole lot of difference especially when it comes to a media organization as the work of the media is to be quick, specific and informative any wrong decision or print or post made on any social media platform can cause a great harm to then organization, thus making it an important aspect to have a defined organizational structure. 6.2 MEDIA STRUCTURE HIERARCHY AND WORKING 6.2.1 Structure and ownership: The Media Industry is one that is vast and big and growing more and more every day. It is not simple to state the structure in fact, since there is so many parts of the industry it is in fact split into so many sections from FILM to TELEVISION to GAMES and RADIO. Not to mention that there is PRINT and INTERNET based media as well as advertising. There are many various sectors and companies spanning various aspects of the industry it’s very hard to cut this chapter down to simple parts of the industry. Media companies are today one of the most accredited and busy companies in the industry. A media company may specialize themselves working in one field or may get itself involved in various field. Media organizations are widely structured in various fields which includes: (i) Production: Well this is also quite the most vital aspect of the Media Company since without the production department, the ads created by the copywriter and art director would be nothing more than words and pictures on paper. (ii) Creatives: This department majorly incorporates the following job positions which are also arranged in a manner of highest job position at the top and then proceeding further – • Creative Director: These professionals are required to develop the conceptual designs to meet up the requirements of the client in order to advance the company’s brand. These are required to figure out the best ways for visually presenting a company’s identity. Media Structure and Performance: Principles and Accountability, Media Economics and Governance, Global Mass Communication munotes.in

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60 Communication Theory • Art Director: Art directors are expected to design materials for clients and represent their company expectantly. • Copywriter: The major job duties include persuading customers to purchase a new product or demonstrating why a business needs a specific service. • Production Artists: These are fresher hired at entry level. (iii) Accounts: Usually for all the accounts purposes professionals are hired by the media companies who deal with all the finances and even legal customers matters if monetary terms are involved. To understand the ownership of a media organization let us understand the hierarchy of a media organization. The hierarchy of Media Company is quite critical since it is such a wide field. Well to make it simple the hierarchy of Media Company has been categorized into these three core levels: (a) Senior Level: These are the ones who are the highest job title attainable in the hierarchy of a media organization as they are also loaded with a lot of responsibilities and decision making on which the future of the organization depends. Following are a few profiles that get hold of middle level in the hierarchy of a media organization: • Director of the organization • Chief media officer • Creative director • Media company manager • General media manager • Chief media executive • Media branch manager • Art director • Section editor • Producer • Assistant media manager • Multimedia designer 60 munotes.in

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61 (b) Middle level: This level features all the job profiles at middle executive levels. Following are few profiles that get hold of middle level in the hierarchy of Media Company • Media Administrator • Copywriter • Production artist • Corporate Communications Specialist • Reporter • Program Coordinator • Public Affairs Specialist • Media Information Specialist • Concept Development Manager • Publicist (c) Lower Level: The professionals at this level of hierarchy of Media Company incorporates both fresher as well as experienced one. Following are few profiles that get hold of middle level in the hierarchy of Media Company • Media Technical Supervisor • Media Information Officer • Photographer Head • Media Information Assistant • Web development expert • Social Media Specialist • Assistant Photographer • Technical Writer • Relationship Manager • Sound Mixer • Stagehand • Media Analyst • Senior Media Associates Media Structure and Performance: Principles and Accountability, Media Economics and Governance, Global Mass Communication munotes.in

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62 Communication Theory 62 • Media Mentor • Media Associate • Trainee Hierarchy is important in an organization as it maintains a sense of class work ethic in the organization and especially in a media organization the hierarchy is very important to maintain as the positions are not just achieve by reference but by experience. An experienced individual can understand the urgency or authenticity of any new / report that the organization must publish. In definitive terms the term hierarchy in an organization means the pecking order in the chain of command. Here every position along with all the pertaining rules and regulations from top to bottom is defined. There is no confusion about the person to whom an employee is going to report and this is applicable for every job profile and position within the company. 6.2.2 Media economics and governance: Media have grown up in response to social and cultural needs of individuals and societies. Media institution activities such as economic and political are dependent on changing technologies. Mass media have an important play in public life, essentially within public domain; they must operate according to dictates of market economies. Media is at the centre of three forces Economics, politics and of course technology. Most media systems are a chance of the historical growth and development of technology. Some media products can be regarded as belonging to specific genres. Google, AOL and BBC are portals or gateways that have the function of selection and control. The key to differentiate economic and governance is the dual character of media, both are commercial enterprises, key elements in the political, cultural, and social life of the society. They cannot be closely regulated; mass media can only be regulated in marginal or indirect ways by governments. Forms of governance varied include (internal, external, formal, and informal) means. The internal and the informal are the most important. Forms of governance are rooted in history and political cultures of each national society. The first victim of advertising on Internet was the newspaper. The distribution divides in consumer market, advertising market, one-off products, and continuous media services. Advertising can operate (TV, radio, newspaper, magazine) the higher independence on advertising as a source of revenue, the less independent the content from interests of advertisers. Advertising is assessed according to number and type of consumers. Most of the times homogeneous audiences are often more cost- effective for advertisers than heterogeneous, this is one reason for viability of the free newspaper. Competition of different media for the same advertising munotes.in

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63 income can encourage diversity. According to the copy cost, well is when the first original product will be more expensive cost production, but if we make a lot of copies will be cheaper than the first copy. Example: Film movies. In this chapter also they talk about Ownership, Altschull´s second law of journalism states that contents of media reflect interest of those who finance them. Owners sometimes pay for privilege of influencing content. There are three categories of ownership, the commercial companies, private or profit bodies and public sectors. The commercial media to make profit to survive often involves taking decisions. (Cutting costs, closing, hiding staff). Power becomes bad in the ownership when concentrated or used selectively to limit or deny access. Ownership influence and decide on content. Even though concerns like these have been a taunting topic in our society but the fact remains constant that governance and ownership / power in the society influences what content is passed into the society. There are certain media agencies who remain pro government and hence will not print / post anything negative about the government and this helps the agencies / organizations to improve their economy. Corruption acts as a tax on productive activities in an economy, leading to the flow of resources to unproductive ones. An independent media that monitors those in power and delivers accurate information to citizens has been shown to be an effective check on corruption across multiple studies Media can also indirectly reduce corruption. A 2000 study found that in countries with weak civic monitoring capabilities (including a strong, independent media) high levels of education might not have the expectedly positive impact on corruption (i.e. better educated bureaucrats should provide better public services). Without being monitored, politicians may use their education to become more efficiently corrupt. The study “examine(s) the impact of higher education on corruption…, while controlling progressively for other variables that have been identified to influence corruption (e.g. press freedom).” The results support the study’s hypothesis that “in countries with low levels of civic monitoring of those in power, education may actually increase corruption. Check your Progress: 1. Discuss the hierarchy of a media organisation? 2. Discuss the three categories of ownership? Media Structure and Performance: Principles and Accountability, Media Economics and Governance, Global Mass Communication
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64 64 Communication Theory 3. Who is a creative director? 6.2.3 Mass communication: Mass communication in simple terms defined is a means of interacting with a large audience in one specific time or moment. Over the period of time, we as a society has developed and studies human nature in terms of reacting to certain things. How communication made certain things ritual in our life (as coined by James cary) that just because our friends or neighbours read newspaper and we have to discuss with them the report and incidents we read them too, or lets say to be up to date we read the newspaper. When there is a match, we all sit together and watch it which we figured that is a common interest amongst a lot of us, which we understood through communication. Media rituals include the activities of media organizations and their staff but also those aspects of the content of the media that portray a sense of the importance of being in the media or that recruit audience members to these ideas. The state of global mass communication today can be identified through a discussion of key concepts at play. Those concepts are: (i) globalization, (ii) media concentration or conglomeration, (iii) electronic colonialism, and consumerism. Many of these terms, such as globalization, struggle to have one widely accepted meaning. Globalization can be defined as a form of imperialism in which consumption and consumer values are extended, imposed upon the oppressed to fully assure identification with metropolitan values and to create the world in its own economic cultural image (Christmas, 2008). Many of these terms, such as globalization, struggle to have one widely accepted meaning. The challenges facing a standard in defining many of the international mass communications terms is often no more than a matter of point of view. Globalization defined then is strongly tied to the movement of resources (raw goods, information, technology, capital, culture etc. across borders. We’ll discuss later the implications of globalization in the state of international mass communications today. Media concentration or conglomeration can be identified as the hyper- concentration of corporate holdings, including media properties (print, broadcast and digital) under giant corporate parents. In other words, the munotes.in

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65 movement of media owned by many, to media owned by few and driven by corporate interests. Electronic colonialism is a concept that can trace its roots to theory and “focuses on how global media (particularly digital and electronic) influence how people look, think and act” (McPhail, 2010) Additionally, it also implies a power of a dominant ideology over another. These four terms, all share a common stakeholder, economics. Indeed, the flow of information is key to political, social, and cultural power that eventually delivers a wealth of economic power to a dominant ideology. Global mass communication today: The early 2000s saw companies dominated by western ideology gobble up enormous media and communication capacity, a notion that decade’s prior had global organizations alarmed. During the decades of the Cold War, the flow of information arose as a key topic in global affairs. As Western, particularly American interests, fought for the hearts and minds of countries at risk of falling to Soviet control the impact of international mass communication power and information took center stage. The state of international mass communications then, is in many ways the same as then if only accelerated more today by technological advances. Those who own information and its flow maintain economic, political and cultural control and this is facilitated through conglomeration, globalization, electronic colonialism and consumerism. Media corporations have always possessed the power to affect politics. That is not new in history. But the five dominant corporations: Time Warner, Disney, News Corporation, Viacom, and Bertelsmann, have the power that media in the past history did not, power created by new technology and the near uniformity of their political goals (Bagdikian, 2004) 6.3 NEW MEDIA AND INCREASED GLOBAL COMMUNICATION 6.3.1 Advantages of media for global communication: Globalization has as much to do with the corporate structure of a media company as with the products that a media company produces, vertical integration in multinational media companies becomes a necessary aspect of studying globalized media. Many large media companies practice vertical integration: Newspaper chains take care of their own reporting, printing, and distribution of television companies control their own production and broadcasting; and even small film studios often have parent companies that handle international distribution. Media rely on the speedy ability to react to current events and trends a vertically integrated company can do all of this in a globalized rather than a localized marketplace; different branches of the company are readily able to handle different markets. Further, production values for single-country distribution are basically the same as those for multiple countries, so vertical integration allows, for example, a single film studio to make Media Structure and Performance: Principles and Accountability, Media Economics and Governance, Global Mass Communication munotes.in

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64 66 Communication Theory higher-budget movies than it may otherwise be able to produce without a distribution company that has as a global reach. Globalization as a world economic trend generally refers to the lowering of economic trade borders, but it has much to do with culture as well. Just as transfer of industry and technology often encourages outside influence through the influx of foreign money into the economy, the transfer of culture opens these same markets. The media industry is, in many ways, perfect for globalization, or the spread of global trade without regard for traditional political borders. As discussed earlier, the low marginal costs of media mean that reaching a wider market creates much larger profit margins for media companies. Because information is not a physical good, shipping costs are generally inconsequential. Finally, the global reach of media allows it to be relevant in many different countries. However, some have argued that media is a partial cause of globalization, rather than just another globalized industry. Media is largely a cultural product, and the transfer of such a product is likely to have an influence on the recipient’s culture. Increasingly, technology has also been propelling globalization. Technology allows for quick communication, fast and coordinated transport, and efficient mass marketing, all of which have allowed globalization especially globalized media to take hold. Mass media play an important to enhance globalization, facilities cultural exchanges and varied flows of information and image between countries through international news broadcasts, television, programming, new technologies, film, and music. Most communication media have become increasingly global going beyond the nation-state scope. During 1990’s, the mainstream media then were relatively only national or local in perspective. Globalization may result to cultural imperialism both within and between countries. The media in developing countries would import foreign news items, cultural and television genre formats and such values of capitalist consumerism and individualism. Unfortunately, the scenario led to a relationship of subordinations of the developing states in relation to the First World countries. The letter had an established relationship with the historical roots in European colonialism, which culminated in a core periphery relationship. Mass media is an important aspect for globalization but there are certain areas due to which the globalization has worked well, if not for technological advancement there wouldn’t have been so mane sting operations and due to availability of resources took birth modern citizen journalism. How in the above section we studied that governance influences media content but due to citizen journalism a lot of powerful people have limit the use of their power due to the fear of being caught and being on social media by a local citizen journalist, if globalization has its pros, it has its con as well. munotes.in

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Check your Progress: 1. What is globalisation? Media Structure and Performance: Principles and Accountability, Media Economics and Governance, Global Mass Communication 2. Explain the influence of new media in promoting globalisation? 3. Discuss the impact of global mass communication today 6.4 CONCLUSION Media plays a vital role in our society it is the source of majority of our information and reports or rather what is happening around us we get to know through media. Like ever organization the media needs to have a certain organizational structure which defines the principals and working of the agency. This organization structure in corporate terms is said to be the hierarchy of the organization which defines the role of the employee in the organization from top (most important) to lower level of working staff. The topmost management is the one which makes majority of the decisions and define the principals on which the organization will reply and work on they are the one dependent to make the company stand in difficult times. The economy of any organization depends on their productivity, but for any media organization the situation is very different they must understand that what governance is ruling the society if they must sustain in the society, they have to let the powerful people stir the wheel of the ship. In a few movies where it is shown that when a journalist tries to speak the truth they are killed in an accident, even though this statement is very bollywoodish but this is the fact, sometimes in order to sustain and survive in the society you have to look over a few aspects as sometimes your hands are tied by the power (organization)and sometimes by pity, but globalization has brought a drastic change in our society and in media as with globalization and technological advancement a lot has become possible, now the news and reporting has become instant it takes only a minute or so to make the content live and viral. Technology allows for quick communication, transport, and mass marketing, greatly contributing to a globalized marketplace. Media economies of scale 67 munotes.in

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68 68 Communication Theory achieve much larger profit margins by using digital technology to sell information instantly over a global market. Foreign markets offer excellent profit potential as they contribute to media companies’ economies of scale. The addition of new audiences and consumer markets that may help a company build a global following in the long run (period). 6.5 QUESTIONS 1. What do you mean by media structure and why is it important of have a hierarchy in any organization? Discuss one level of hierarchy in detail. 2. How is media economics and governance related? Give a brief explanation. 3. Explain in detail: (a) Mass media culture (b) Media and globalization (c) Conglomeration 4. Comment on the relation between media and global communication. 5. Discuss any two theories of mass communication. 6.6 REFERENCES • Mumby, D. K., & May, D. S. K. (Eds.). (n.d.). Engaging Organizational Communication Theory and Research: Multiple Perspectives. SAGE Publications. • Theories of Human Communication: Twelfth Edition. (2021). Waveland Press. • Vicker, L. A., & Rosenberry, J. (2017). Applied Mass Communication Theory: A Guide for Media Practitioners. Taylor & Francis. • Media organization and policy https://www.unifr.ch/dcm/en/research/media-structures.html • Media and globalization • Globalization of Media (saylordotorg.github.io) ***** munotes.in

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69 7 THE MEDIA ORGANIZATION: PRESSURE AND DEMANDS, THE PRODUCTION OF MEDIA CULTURE Unit structure 7.0 Objective 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Media organization, our society and content 7.2.1 Change in the media consumption 7.2.2 Media influencing the society 7.2.3 User generated content 7.3 Media relation with organization and others 7.3.1 Media usage in organizational relations 7.3.2 Media Conceptions 7.3.3 Media relation with pressure groups and interest groups 7.3.4 Media relation with owner and client 7.3.5 Media relation with audience 7.4 Let‟s sum up 7.5 Questions 7.6 References 7.0 OBJECTIVE After reading this unit you will be able to understand: • How do media-organizational routines and procedures for selecting and processing content influence what is produced? • How is content influenced by media workers‟ socialization and attitudes. • What degree of freedom does a media organization possess in relation to the wider society. 7.1 INTRODUCTION The wide society that we all are a part of has grown fundamentally and the requirement of everyone has brought the media to an extent where there is so much diversity in the content that is provided by the media. Even through one factor of media content is that we as an audience consume what is been given to us by the media but sometimes the case is a little opposite as well, where-in the media is forced to provide the content that audience needs. The latest example of this is the new show on Alt Balaji munotes.in

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68 70 Communication Theory known as “lock-up” hosted by known actress Kangana Ranaut. People in the society have interest towards such content especially after shows like big boss that these platforms are now forced to create such shows or else it will be really hard for them to survive in the society. In general, the theory has been formulated based on research into media organizations, while fragmentary, has been consistent. It supports the view that content is systematically more influenced by organizational routines, practices, and goals than by personal or ideological factors. The bias that has been observed in media content is more likely to be caused by work routines than by hidden ideology. Any theoretical account of media organizations and occupation must take note of a number of different relationships within and across the boundaries of the organizations. These relationships are often active negotiations and exchanges and sometimes conflicts, latent, or actual. The content that media creates is sometimes influenced by what the society needs but usually it‟s the other way around, the society is influenced by the content that media creates as studied in the agenda setting theory. Here we understand the methodology about media organizations, especially about the types of influences or relationships, as well as conflicts that impact media production. This includes outside influences such as the public and media market, as well as the influence of media owners, advertisers, and media audiences. These researchers will primarily look at it from the communicator's own perspective. In addition, we also understand the internal relationship in media organization and on conflicts, pressure and problem faced by media organizations. The main pressure for a media organization arises from the dilemma about the potential conflict around whether the media organization is concerned about profit or art and social use, as the focus or motive of the organization will define the kind of content the organization is bound to create which will influence the society. If the motive is profit, the content will me more controlled by the business section of the society and if its is art and social use, the readers will receive the truth in the purest form. 7.2 MEDIA ORGANIZATION, OUR SOCIETY AND CONTENT 7.2.1 Change in the media consumption: Our society or as popularly known as the modern world we are constantly confronted by the media as living in the modern world it has become an important aspect of it. They are so firmly established in our daily life, that we cannot even imagine our existence without them. This increase in the media consumption initially started when social application like Facebook got launched it allowed people to connect with their friends and eventually update status, let people know where you are what you do and eventually welcome the advertisers into the digital world. munotes.in

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71 This is a bitter fact of our society (this involves the whole wide world) that majority content that we see on social media is influenced by the corporates of the world, they advertisers and not the viewers. Our consumption of any type of specific content has led to a time and place where every brand understands what you are looking for, our media consumption has made us very predictable. It happens often that you simply look for the new iPhone price on google and next moment you see, amazon will show a exciting offer on the same iPhone that you were looking for, is it a coincident? Not really. With the relentless treadmill of disruption, the potential of media and entertainment companies to understand their customer‟s digital consumption behaviour today is greater than at any time in history. Among the digital devices, mobile devices have taken over as the preferred medium of consuming content online. The smartphone market has seen unprecedented growth. Now let us understand how the switch of consumption has taken place, if you look back into the times when people used to watch television, or listen to radio the content was emotional and family driven, if they had to show any kind of sensational scene – two flowers would come on the screen and audience would simply understand, the shows focus was TRP based on what story line they can have, how much the audience can relate to the type of content that is been given and to what extent will the people adopt and accept the content, these were the thoughts, but with westernization of everything the consumption of content also changed. Audience started to consume more controversial content, where there is fight, argument, drama and controversies. Hence the media organizations also developed the taste for change in content production. There is a reason why shows like big boss are more popular than shows like KBC. Now with new media (i.e. Mobile phones) and introduction of OTT (over the top) platforms the content consumption has evolved more, sensational content is no more actually censored, now you call it modernization or evolution of change in mentality and content requirement, but this is happening. Consumers are shifting their preferences towards digital media consumption as compared to traditional forms of media such as TV, print press, and radio. People are spending more time on digital forms of media rather than traditional mediums. This increase is mainly coming by cannibalizing traditional advertising mediums. The increasing popularity of digital media has provided for a paradigm shift in global advertising spends. Marketers who are seeking to monetize content and capture growth are following the changing trend and increasingly allocating their budget to digital mediums. The new generation popularly known as the Gen Z generation has proven to be consuming media content more than it has ever been consumed having an invigoratingly different attitude, Gen Z has a tremendous effect on the overall perception and digital media consumption. They prove to be more entrepreneurial; growing up with search engines they like to discover The Media Organization: Pressure and Demands, The Production of Media Culture munotes.in

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72 Communication Theory 72 content for themselves. They also like to be involved in the process contribute to the solution and be more absorbed in experiences. Though a wide range of digital consumption, the Gen Z capture insights from an array of sources. Translating these resources into viable products, services and business models will go a long way in defining the leaders of today and the leaders of tomorrow. 7.2.2 Media influencing the society: The media and its influential effect on the masses have increased exponentially in the past five decades. Initially, the news and media channels were limited to the telegraph. The technological inventions then found many channels to spread the news to the masses such as the radio, newspapers, magazines, television, websites, and now mobile applications as well. The mass media have become an inseparable part of society and the lives of citizens and that‟s why it is necessary to understand the mass media influence on people. From economy to entertainment and from politics to beauty, everything is now influenced by mass media. The effect of mass media on the actions, manner, and contemplations of individuals and audiences is called mass media influence. This influence can be negative or positive. The negative effects of mass media on society can lead people towards poverty, crime, nudity, violence, bad mental and physical health disorders and others as such severe outcomes. For example, mob hitting innocents by getting carried away from the rumors spread on the internet has been common. These unauthorized news headlines are the biggest example of the negative impact of mass media on society. Furthermore, the cases of children killing innocents by acquiring weapons are considered as one of the major negative effects of mass media on the children as they usually get carried away by provoking news stories, action movies, and games. It does not indicate that media only has negative effect or impact there are also situations where positivity is the result of mass media influence. For example, the people helping each other in the situations of natural disasters encourage humanity and empathy in children and adults, so more volunteers come forward to help the needy ones. Also, the quiz-based games, educational news broadcast and similar programs emphasize the positive effects of mass media which increase literacy in the audiences. Also, one of the positive impacts of mass media on society is their right to information. Today‟s generation is much more educated and aware of their rights and that helps them gain various personal and professional benefits. People usually come across different pieces of information via direct or indirect sources, but in any case, the mass media influence is clearly visible in society. From educated to illiterate people are part of this wave and that‟s why the responsibilities of the media people and controlling authorities increase. They must be more careful about the timing and approach of conveying news. The positive or negative effects of mass media can be crucial in some cases. This is one of the major reasons munotes.in

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citizens face situations of news broadcast and internet service ban during some sensitive situations in the city or state. Being a responsible citizen, make sure you cross verify any news coming across you before spreading that to others as it can create a serious impact on society. If you can think of this in an example what‟s app forwards are the best one, instead of simply forwarding one news or message take some time to understand if it is fake or real and influence others to do so. The media influence is not only in terms of sharing and consumptions factor there are other things especially accepting one true self, because of media influence a lot of trans people have had the chance and opportunity to open about their interests and be themselves. The media has exposed individuals of all ages to different aspects of the world that previous generation had no exposure to. This vast revelation has educated the youth and has changed the approach towards various content in a huge aspect which makes them more aware and resourceful about the world today. Media delivers message across the globe in a matter of minutes, providing us with information about the most current events around the world. Even though we consider that the modern media influences the society more but, media has been influencing the society since decades, as in how bell bottoms were worn by film starts becomes a fashion for all the young men in the society. On a whole the media has created many advantage for our society and has created a whole new generation and way if life, yet on the other hand it has equally corrupted the mind set of young ones and not to forget media‟s role in making children forget their culture and traditions and totally adopting to the western culture. 7.2.3 User generated content: As the term is the meaning is also simple that user generated content is one which is generated by the audience or the customers of any brand or product that is posted by the consumers on their social media pages which helps in the marketing of the company. User-generated content (also known as UGC or consumer-generated content) is original, brand-specific content created by customers and published on social media or other channels. UGC comes in many forms, including images, videos, reviews, a testimonial, or even a podcast. There are various factor which derive user generated content like Customers who will make an unboxing video of any product and then share it on their social media pages tagging the company which automatically gives them a promotional activity. Second is Brand loyalists these are the people who are so passionate about worshiping at the alter brand, this audience segment is ripe to reach out and ask specific UGC content. Nowadays, brands must fight to be seen online, and competition is fierce for audience attention. As a result, buyers are more selective about the The Media Organization: Pressure and Demands, The Production of Media Culture
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74 Communication Theory 74 fickle Gen-Z and it‟s not just consumers who are passionate about authentic content. 60% of marketers agree that authenticity and quality are equally important elements of successful content. And there‟s no other content type that‟s more authentic than UGC from your customers. Don‟t be tempted to fake your user-generated posts or campaign. Audiences will quickly sniff out the false sentiment, which could seriously damage your brand reputation. Instead, always ensure that your UGC comes from one of three cohorts: your customers, brand loyalists or employees. Check your Progress: 1. Discuss User Generated Content in detail? 2. How does Media influence the society? 3. Discuss the change in the media consumption? 7.3 MEDIA AND ORGANIZATIONAL RELATION 7.3.1 Media usage in organizational relations: First let us understand what is meant and described by the word media in a mainstream organizational structure and the easiest way to figure this is to understand how the term media is used in the same through this analysis, we demonstrate what the word „media‟ in organizational studies currently reveals, makes visible, emphasizes, renders intelligible, and discloses. Looking at papers published in leading organizational journals, we found three broad usages of the term „media‟ within existing organizational research. In a typical organization the media (in the current time) mainly helps in creation of brand image and propaganda in the society, companies do mergers and collaboration and simply announce the news on their “media handle” and the society is simply aware about it (eg: how Elon musk took munotes.in

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75 it to twitter to challenge putin) although it is not directly related to the organization but here the person posting represents multiple organizations hence it becomes the responsibility of the organization as well. The first use of the term „media‟ understands media as mass media. Research drawing on this conception of media investigates, for example, how mass media outlets cover specific events that are of concern to organizations, such as mergers and acquisitions initial public offering. The second use of the term „media‟ understands media as specific communication channels that have effects that can be researched. Media researched include „direct‟ communication, such as face-to-face or meetings however, more often, researchers are interested in „mediated‟ communication, making use of technologies such as telephone, fax, voicemail, video telephony, video, electronic data interchange, and email. More recently, researchers are interested in exploring the fit between media and task, arguing that media are most effective when they match the ambiguity level of tasks. The third use of the term „media‟ describes computer-mediated communication (CMC). Some studies look at the group level, studying communication practices in virtual teams communication patterns in virtual groups or social interaction and exchange patterns in online communities. Others look at desirable outcomes associated with CMC, such as the development of trust in virtual teams or help-seeking behaviour. 7.3.2 Media conceptions: In the early 20th century media circulation started to draw attention in fields such as economic history or culture and society. Drawing on these early approaches in media theory, a new generation of scholars expanded the perspective on automation and bureaucracy, electronic media, television, „technical media‟ and media networks, computer technology, cybernetics, utility and industrial film, consulting and management algorithms digital infrastructure, and the like. To date, there is a wide range of heterogeneous theories and approaches for describing media and mediation phenomena. They cover media from the perspective of culture, technology, and process, using analytical and historical approaches. The media for better understanding was divided into three branches which were Culture and power, Technology and infrastructure and process and change. The first branch of media theories focuses on a critical examination of the relationships between media, culture, and power. Media are understood and situated as cultural phenomena within society. From this perspective, media are at the same time formed by society while also in general structuring social relations and in particular, power relations. The second branch of media theories that we aim to depict here encompasses approaches that perceive and describe media as technologies structuring society at a basic level. They emphasize that society depends on technology for the transmission and storage of communication and culture. Technology determines how and what kind of knowledge can be The Media Organization: Pressure and Demands, The Production of Media Culture munotes.in

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76 Communication Theory communicated and generated, as technology provides the infrastructure and the formats for storing, transmitting, and processing information. At the same time, media technology is not perceived as a rational tool-like configuration but as a part of and influenced by cultural settings. Theories falling into the third branch question the possibility of differentiating between media and content and introduce a historical lens into the research of contemporary media from this perspective, the development of media is always a play-off between social necessity and suppression, which relates already existing and novel technological and cultural concepts. Historical patterns of change and development in communication present „a field (the social sphere) in which two elements (science and technology) intersect. This branch acknowledges that the technological development of media is always encapsulated in a discourse that defines them as „new media‟ but that at the same time, such „new media‟ are structured by already existing and well-established technologies, hierarchies, and aesthetic principles. Subsequently, research looks at the evolution and development of technological aspects, while considering the emergence of aesthetic concepts. This enables the analysis of the „rapid development of new digital media‟ while reflecting on the discourse that defines shifting media configurations. 7.3.3 Media relation with pressure groups and interest groups: The relationship between the media and society is an informal but organized one. Pressure groups seek direct influence on what the media does, especially trying to limit what is aired by the media, such as religious issues, work or politics, morality, and others. In some countries, people can legally pressure the media to give positive attention to ethnic groups, women, gays and lesbians, children, the poor, the disabled, the homeless, and the mentally ill. The media is careful to deal with any pressures and objections, and succumbs to the rules, sometimes this success is also due to the influence of outside agencies. This happens when commercial media becomes a threat to other media, or when the media preaches bad things that are feared can cause various problems. Success also depends on the level of support between the public and the defence group. It is impossible to divide the impropriety of a media's pressure from a general tendency and try to please its audience (and advertisers), as it is possible to avoid hurting minorities and encouraging anti-social activists. The media is wary of acts of revenge and is inclined to avoid uncertain controversies within the scope of the public domain. 7.3.4 Media relation with owner and client: The main issue in this relationship is to expand media organizations that can demand to exercise autonomy in the relationship, the first aimed at the owner himself, and the second to other economic agents in their environment, especially operational fund providers (investors, advertisers, sponsors). There is usually some autonomy review on the communicator. 76 munotes.in

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77 Influence of the Owner: Media owners are free to use their media for propaganda, but the risk is to lose readers and credibility of the newspaper itself. The general impact of media ownership monopolies is proving difficult to mitigate, although there is little doubt that media ownership monopolies are limited by freedom of expression and consumer choice. Advertiser Influence: The structure of most mass media industries in capitalist countries reflects the interests of advertisers and is not an accident where media demand is often in unison with other consumer divisions. Media design, lay outs, planning, and scheduling often reflect interest. The most easily demonstrated is where advertisers can directly influence their publication decisions significantly according to their individual interests, beyond what is complete in the system. 7.3.5 Media relation with audience: Audiences are the most important part of the client and influence any media organization. Research shows that audiences have a slow protrusion for many communicators. After all, management always follows ratings and sales figures. Enemies to The Audience: The most dominant criterion applied by media organizations is rating. Most media organizations with some justification do not recognize ratings as a highly reliable measuring tool for measuring quality from within. It is possible that hostility to audiences is something that is exaggerated by the media itself, because there is evidence that some media communities have positive behavior for their audiences even on an abstract level. Tension between the professionalism of the media and the demands of the audience. Ratings are the dominant criterion for organizational media. But ratings are not the most important for media professionals. Alienation and Uncertainty: Most communicators in established media do not concentrate themselves on audience response, and they can make decisions about media content in a mature manner from any response. Behavior in the audience is directed and differentiated based on the rules. Audience Image: Audience participation in filmmaking based on the image of the audience is already understood by the makers. Shoemaker and Reese concluded that journalists write for the primary benefit of themselves, their editors, and for other journalists. It should be remembered that communicating with a wide audience has problems getting cross messages. The audience is simply the audience, which observes and appreciates, but does not interact The Media Organization: Pressure and Demands, The Production of Media Culture munotes.in

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78 Communication Theory 78 with the sender of the message and the viewer. Feedback from ratings can't tell you how to fix a television program even after it's been created. Check your Progress: 1. Discuss audience participation in filmmaking? 2. Discuss media influence on society? 3. Discuss the change in the media consumption with reference to interest groups? 7.4 CONCLUSION The reality about the media in the history has always been a weak institution in comparison to institutions like law and health, but over the period and decade this approach has changed. Outside of performance skills, it is difficult to determine the core of media achievement. This can be seen from the ability to attract attention and arouse public interest, the ability to read public tastes, and the ability to present programs that can be understood and enjoyed by the public. In other words, "know the media business" or "have a nose for news". None of these factors can be compared to other professions. The main difference that makes it incomparable to traditional levels of professionalism, perhaps because the media values freedom, creativity and critical approach. It is very difficult to identify the archetypes of the communication profession of the times. The main dilemma is likely to be freedom versus the rules of the institution, which ideologically values originality and freedom, but organizationally has binding control. This is when we talk about media and our society how times have altered the situation that even media has to understand the requirement of the people and give content related to it, but if we talk about organizational relation and media one thing we need to understand is that there is huge potential for organizational research to engage more deeply with media and by looking at organizational media over longer timeframes investigate not only successful but also failed munotes.in

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79 media. Developing three ideal-typical branches, we seek to help understand the intrinsic logic that drives and shapes organizational media. While this approach is useful for introducing a wide range of media theories and locating them in relation to each other, it limited our ability to engage deeply with individual theories; thus, future research should investigate more thoroughly the insights offered by individual media theories for organizational research in the context of specific empirical settings. This in turn may offer a means where insights from organizational research can help in informing media theories that engage with organizations, markets, and economies. 7.5 QUESTIONS 1. What is user generated content? How is society influenced by it? Explain in brief 2. With globalization how has the consumption of media changed? What factors play and important role in change of media consumption? 3. Explain in detail: (a) Media relation with audience (b) Content generation with new media. (c) Media relation amongst owner and client 4. Explain the three branches of media conceptions. 5. Media usage in organization. Explain with old and new media examples. 7.6 REFERENCES • Berry, D. (2007). Health Communication: Theory and Practice. McGraw-Hill Companies,Incorporated. • Berry, D. (2007). Health Communication: Theory and Practice. McGraw-Hill Companies,Incorporated. • Croucher, S. M. (2015). Understanding Communication Theory: A Beginner's Guide. Taylor & Francis. • Media consumption • Media consumption behavior across generations | Deloitte Insights • Media influencing our society • How Mass Media Influence Our Society (nimcj.org) ***** The Media Organization: Pressure and Demands, The Production of Media Culture munotes.in

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8 MEDIA CONTENT ISSUES, CONCEPTS AND METHODS OF ANALYSIS, MEDIA GENRES, AND TEXTS Unit Structure 8.0 Objective 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Understanding the modern media 8.2.1 Media approach with content and its issues 8.2.2 Media Effect theories 8.2.3 Challenges of media 8.3 Media categories 8.3.1 Understanding media genres 8.4 Let‘s sum up 8.5 Questions 8.6 References 8.0 OBJECTIVE After reading this unit you will be able to understand: • What challenges does media face with content? • Theories and media effect. • Different genres of media. • Why is it important to have specifications of genre in media? 8.1 INTRODUCTION For any media to be interactive, it needs to co-exist with some sort of communication techniques, for which social media is not an exception. To twirl communication into an interactive dialogue, the social media turns to be one of the most successful applications of Satmass Media. As of now, there is no single renowned definition of social media. However, of the many definitions that exist, it can be said that social media is the set of web-based broadcast technologies that enable the democratization of content, giving people the ability to emerge from consumers of content to publishers. With the ability to achieve massive scalability in real time, the social media technologies allow people to connect with each other to produce or re- produce value through online conversation and collaboration. 80 munotes.in

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Over a period, social media changed into a behemoth that is changing the way how people connect and converse with corporations, governments, traditional media, and each other. The monopoly of the message held by the traditional media lost its reins with the advent of social media due to the domineering facts of social media over the traditional media. Over a period, social media changed into a behemoth that is changing the way how people connect and converse with corporations, governments, traditional media, and each other. The monopoly of the message held by the traditional media lost its reins with the advent of social media due to the domineering facts of social media over the traditional media. More importantly the transition of usage of media was witnessed recently by the entire world during the time of pandemic. Indians specially shifted to online platforms as if there is nothing else left. As the time passed, today, social media has rapidly turned to be the way of how people communicate with each other. Over the past one decade, it has transformed the way people and organizations communicate. This has become a reality with the ubiquitous spreading of broadband internet in every nook and corner of the societies. The multimedia compatibility of the social media like easy uploading of audio-video content, text and images, another dimension of immediate global access has been added to the social media, thereby causing a great threat to the prevailing traditional and conventional media. Social media paved a way for every individual to become a publisher of his ideas and views. The social media not only brought advantages, but also equal number of threats along with its inception. The modern media has consumed us so much that it has sadly become our reality and if we have to be content specific you would realize that there are or can still be areas which are not explored, in terms of written content there are still limitation but for visual content there are none, if not any channel an OTT platform will give content to an extent where we couldn‘t even image 5 years ago. 8.2 UNDERSTANDING THE MODERN MEDIA 8.2.1 Media approach with content and it issues: Social media content is content which is created by individuals or companies for social networks such as Facebook, Instagram, or Twitter. These platforms are of particular interest to companies because they allow a much more direct interaction with users than classic marketing measures. However, in order to realize their full effect, any content initiatives employed must also be carefully oriented towards the target group and not simply become just another advertising measure. Social media and its content also increasingly serve as a source of information and have even replaced traditional media such as television or newspapers. Thus, social media content can play an important role in a company‘s overall content marketing strategy. Content on social media channels can have a considerable reach, and because of its close proximity to the user Media Content Issues, Concepts and Methods of Analysis, Media Genres, and Texts
can often prove more effective than classic advertising. In certain 81 munotes.in

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82 82 Communication Theory circumstances, positive comments on social media can even boost Google rankings. However, social media content also follows its own rules, and therefore requires its own dedicated strategy. Content on media does not necessarily plays a role in advertising but also it helps in spreading information to the audience or to the society as a whole. In theories of communication under ―Communication as information transmission‖ we understood that communication is about reaching of information from point A to point B The key works associated with this perspective came from engineering, and the technological problems that drove the theorizing concerned the modernizing of the telephone system and the development of high-speed computers that could process a great deal of information in a short span of time. The high degree of interaction is a special feature of social media – users can give direct feedback or comment on specific content by clicking on a ―Like‖ button, or something similar. In addition, by sharing content, users can directly contribute to the spreading of content right across social media. In order to be successful on social media and thus profit from user ‗word of mouth‘ promotion, content must be both high-quality and also carefully directed towards the chosen target group. Except understanding the modern media as a tool of communication if we investigate the issues that are faced as a society and as for the media agencies, we will have a detailed knowledge of the reality. As an organization the content that is created by media needs to adapted into the society that is the main challenge for the organization, there have been a lot of cases where in the content (in any form video or written) have had backlash when released the prime example of it has been the Gillette advertisement where they raised the issue or boys being boys, the AXE deo advertisement and even news agencies mis-spelling names of known personalities, even though they can fall under the name of petty mistakes but the time where anything can become a ―trending‖ topic today has no space for petty mistakes. Speaking in terms of issues from the end of the society the first and major most issue is of gatekeeping, there is no specific gatekeeping when it comes to content being released platforms like Instagram, Facebook have a very poor gatekeeping process, people in the society post obscene content the only way of that content being highlighted is if it is reported by the majority otherwise it will be visible until violated under any specific guideline. Freedom to express has been another issue, it does not mean that the right that we as a society have been wrong, but people need to understand that these things affect others. Like posting abusive comment on someone‘s images or video is a form of communication it is wrong, but just because there is no gatekeeping and other people liking and reacting to those comment it gives praise to the commenters to continue that. There can be solutions to that, but the matter is about who is willing to take actions on it? As a society it is our responsibility to not encourage anything as such and stop the violation of the right and resource that we munotes.in

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have. With the introduction of citizen journalism, we have taken a lot of responsibility into our hands to bring out the truth, to stand for the right, to speak for the weak but no one is talking or looking into the matters where you need to. The other issue with content is that with evolution of media and cheap internet the quality of content has decreased on a greater rate, trends once created by one are just followed by others which does not add anything to the society but just distract the youth from the reality. The features of social media platforms are useful if used in a proper manner. 8.2.2 Media Effect theories: Early media studies focused on the use of mass media in propaganda and persuasion. However, journalists and researchers soon looked to behavioural sciences to help figure out the effect of mass media and communications on society. Scholars have developed many different approaches and theories to figure this out. You can refer to these theories as you research and consider the media‘s effect on culture. Marshall McLuhan’s influence on media: During the early 1960s, English professor Marshall McLuhan wrote two books that had an enormous effect on the history of media studies. Published in 1962 and 1964, respectively, the Gutenberg Galaxy and Understanding Media both traced the history of media technology and illustrated the ways these innovations had changed both individual behaviour and the wider culture. Understanding Media introduced a phrase that McLuhan has become known for: ―The medium is the message.‖ This notion represented a novel take on attitudes toward media—that the media themselves are instrumental in shaping human and cultural experience. His bold statements about media gained McLuhan a great deal of attention as both his supporters and critics responded to his utopian views about the ways media could transform 20th-century life. McLuhan spoke of a media-inspired ―global village‖ at a time when Cold War paranoia was at its peak and the Vietnam War was a hotly debated subject. Although 1960s-era utopians received these statements positively, social realists found them cause for scorn. Despite—or perhaps because of—these controversies, McLuhan became a pop culture icon, mentioned frequently in the television sketch-comedy program Laugh-In and appearing as himself in Woody Allen‘s film Annie Hall. The Internet and its accompanying cultural revolution have made McLuhan‘s bold utopian visions seem like prophecies. Indeed, his work has received a great deal of attention in recent years. Analysis of McLuhan‘s work has, interestingly, not changed very much since his works were published. His supporters point to the hopes and achievements of digital technology and the utopian state that such innovations promise. The current critique of McLuhan, however, is a bit more revealing of the state of modern media studies. Media scholars are much more numerous now than they were during the 1960s, and many of these scholars criticize McLuhan‘s lack of methodology and theoretical framework. Media Content Issues, Concepts and Methods of Analysis, Media Genres, and Texts 83 munotes.in

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84 84 Communication Theory His work brought the idea of media effects into the public arena and created a new way for the public to consider the influence of media on culture (Stille, 2000). Symbolic Interactionism: Another commonly used media theory, symbolic interactionism, states that the self is derived from and develops through human interaction. This means the way you act toward someone, or something is based on the meaning you have for a person or thing. To effectively communicate, people use symbols with shared cultural meanings. Symbols can be constructed from just about anything, including material goods, education, or even the way people talk. Consequentially, these symbols are instrumental in the development of the self. This theory helps media researchers better understand the field because of the important role the media plays in creating and propagating shared symbols. Because of the media‘s power, it can construct symbols on its own. By using symbolic interactionist theory, researchers can look at the ways media affects a society‘s shared symbols and, in turn, the influence of those symbols on the individual (Jansson-Boyd, 2010). One of the ways the media creates and uses cultural symbols to affect an individual‘s sense of self is advertising. Advertisers work to give certain products a shared cultural meaning to make them desirable. For example, when you see someone driving a BMW, what do you think about that person? You may assume the person is successful or powerful because of the car he or she is driving. Ownership of luxury automobiles signifies membership in a certain socioeconomic class. Equally, technology company Apple has used advertising and public relations to attempt to become a symbol of innovation and nonconformity. Use of an Apple product, therefore, may have a symbolic meaning and may send a particular message about the product‘s owner. Media also propagate other non-commercial symbols. National and state flags, religious images, and celebrities gain shared symbolic meanings through their representation in the media. Media Logic: The media logic theory states that common media formats and styles serve as a means of perceiving the world. Today, the deep rooting of media in the cultural consciousness means that media consumers need engage for only a few moments with a particular television program to understand that it is a news show, a comedy, or a reality show. The pervasiveness of these formats means that our culture uses the style and content of these shows as ways to interpret reality. For example, think about a TV news program that frequently shows heated debates between opposing sides on public policy issues. This style of debate has become a template for handling disagreement to those who consistently watch this type of program. munotes.in

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Media logic affects institutions as well as individuals. The modern televangelist has evolved from the adoption of television-style promotion by religious figures, while the utilization of television in political campaigns has led candidates to consider their physical image as an important part of a campaign (Altheide & Snow, 1991). 8.2.3 Challenges of media: The public‘s expectations of the media industry have shifted greatly with the influx of technology. This growth in technology has provided more access to both live and on-demand coverage. Audiences are now consuming media and news, not just on their TV, but on all devices and platforms. They‘re also consuming media in a variety of formats. The media is tasked with creating various forms of content. Media content needs to be strategically built to be consumed differently based on the device the viewer is watching it on. Content which works well in one format, such as long-form for television or Netflix, doesn‘t necessarily work well on mobile or social where users expect more snackable content. Becoming mobile and social friendly is now a necessity to stay competitive and keep viewership strong. Media providers and news outlets must act quickly and present easy user experiences in order to beat out the competition. When it comes to news, viewers want up-to-date coverage and will leave one media outlet for another if reports are coming in faster. When it comes to entertainment, they want easy-to-use interfaces compiled with a plethora of content to choose from on-demand. Netflix is leading the game due to its ease of use combined with its library of unique content. With the influx of fake media and fake news available and making headlines, media outlets must also look to establish credibility with viewers. Misreporting the facts or misrepresenting what was said can be the end to a reporter‘s career and hurt the network‘s credibility overall. With politics more divisive than ever, networks need to be especially cautious and do everything possible to gain the public‘s trust and keep it. Every individual‘s social news feed looks different. All the content displayed, and stories and videos shown are personalized to them based on their interests and the past articles and videos they have consumed. Artificial intelligence is being used to create more personalized media experiences. All networks, social and online, are tracking what everyone consumes and suggesting the next article or video to consume because of this consumer‘s behaviour. They are using algorithms developed specifically to do this and predict what an individual will do next, as well as how to keep them engaged with their content. Key challenges faced by media: Privacy: The primary challenge posed by the social media is the privacy. Many people restrain themselves from taking part in a dialogue with a fear of Media Content Issues, Concepts and Methods of Analysis, Media Genres, and Texts
losing their privacy. 85 munotes.in

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86 86 Communication Theory Commercial advertising on social media: Advertising on social media should follow the formalities of censor; and porn content in advertisements should be avoided on the websites, intended for the very purpose of social networking. If such restrictions are not imposed, strictly, it may ruin the minds of youth, thereby indirectly increasing the crime rate. This is one of the vital challenges posed by the social media in the contemporary web world. Terms of agreements: Most of the social media sites allow the audience to create an account, after accepting terms of agreement, which are often vague. The terms of agreement can be interpreted in multiple ways. They pose a threat, indirectly. Most of the social networking websites get an agreement accepted by the users that their information can be used by the owners of the social media. It indirectly causes invasion of privacy. Such a challenge is one of the crucial confront posed by the social media. Security Concerns: Social media sites pose an equal threat to the security of personal information and other concerned data. Hacking of the websites is the most common feature; with hacking there is an imminent threat to the audience of social media. This turns to be another key challenge posed by the social media. Deception: The identity of the individual who joins the social networking sites may either original or fake. The veracity of his/her identity is not known to the fellow user. In the recent past, many cases of deception around the world have been registered. Social media turns to be an easy way of deceiving people using the technology. Check your Progress: 1. Discuss the key challenges faced by the media? 2. Discuss what you mean by media logic? munotes.in

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3. Discuss Marshall McLuhan‘s influence on the media? Media Content Issues, Concepts and Methods of Analysis, Media Genres, and Texts 8.3 MEDIA CATEGORIES 8.3.1 Understanding media genres: Media genres appear within a medium in film, television precisely can be defined such as the "horror" film or the television "situation comedy". Each genre has a set of distinguishing features. These features associated with a genre's style and content may be, for example, a particular setting, character types, technical codes (lighting or music). Genre does not really rely on what is in media text but the way it is put together. A media text is said to belong to a certain genre, in that it adopts the codes and conventions of other texts in that genre and behaves and looks in almost the same sort of way and the general lay out of the whole persona is like others labelled in that category, for example, a program on premier league football can be compared to that of the match magazine as they are both under the category of sport. There six genres of writing: descriptive, expository, persuasive, narrative, technical and poetic. Compare and Contrast: you examine similarities and differences between two people, places, ideas, or things. The Function of Genre is to be able to organize writings based on their form, content, and style. For example, this allows readers to discern whether the events being written about in a piece are factual or imaginative. The style of a movie / film follows a certain convention in the way that they are constructed in a magazine there is usually some sort of contents page at the start before any of the articles or in a romantic comedy there is usually a wedding or some sort of happy event at the end of the film. The audiences have a certain set of expectations as to what a genre text will contain in terms of the characters use the costumes and the actors who are in the film this makes sure that the viewer knows what sort of film that they are watching and gives them a clear picture as to what they expect from that certain film. Distinguishing characteristics of different types of media product for example, if there was a scene that contained some sort of blood and gore then this would be categized as horror or thriller or if there is a room with two people sitting at a desk and a there is text rolling across the screen then this would be a news report of some sort. 87 munotes.in

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88 88 Communication Theory There are various genres in type of media: • Newspapers can be printed or online publications. India has many national newspapers, and these may have a particular political bias or social perspective. Religion-specific newspapers, entertain and inform their readers about religious, social and political issues from that particular religion's perspective. So deciding the kind of specification a news paper needs becomes its genre. Eg: DNA‘s after hours (although DNA is shut) but their afterhours was all about Bollywood gossip. • Magazines are usually printed or online publications covering a variety of topics to suit personal choice and interests. Religion- specific magazines cover news from a particular religion's point of view. • Digital TV is found in all homes worldwide. TV programmes are mostly secular, although some digital channels. Well digital source usually covers all genre so it‘s a multiplatform, but it is upto the user to choose the specification. • Radio stations, local and national, target different audiences. Most are secular, although some may contain aspects of religion. Some channels focus specifically on religious news, debate, teaching and music, such as Red FM. • The internet can be used for entertainment, research, education, and information. Religion-specific websites. They can be intended for their own faith community or aim at informing the wider world. Charities such as Christian Aid and Muslim Aid advertise the work they do and invite donations online. • Films cover different stories, topics, themes, and genres. They are often first released at the cinema and then become available for personal viewing at home. Irrespective of any sort or type of media one wants to have focused attention towards, it is important to understand the genre seems reliable and interested, it provides a sense of clarity and belongingness to an induvial to understand the best genre for themselves, let it be an organization or one individual in a big society. Genre is important for audiences because it allows them to know what kind of film they are going to see and what they can expect when going to see a film. Also, certain audiences prefer certain genres. The genre allows the audience to choose what type of films they like to watch. Check your Progress: 1. Discuss at least three genres of media? munotes.in

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2. Discuss what are the six genres of writing? Media Content Issues, Concepts and Methods of Analysis, Media Genres, and Texts 3. Discuss the future challenges of the media. 8.4 LET’S SUM UP In this chapter we understood the reality and approach of media and its content today plays a vital role in influencing the society. As studied in the earlier chapters how media sets agenda for us to think and talk about but, with modern media the times have changed where media content has also become consumer driven. Audience looks for controversies and spicy stories and that is what media is giving now days. Content in traditional media was the most important part of media organization as it was what was given to the audience to consume but it is seen that in the last two decades, we have seen a great increase in the digital consumption where traditional media completely turned into new media including computerized, digital and networked information and communication. From one end, the respondents are of the opinion that they cannot even imagine a world without new media; and from the other end, there are many challenges posed by the new media. At this juncture, the only option left with is, the addressing of these challenges posed by the new media in a desired way, so that the maximum can be obtained out of the social media. Both service providers and the concerned competitive authorities at appropriate level should investigate this matter, so as to provide a better new media environment to the audience along with this media has its own limitations and issues which will vary with time and technology but we as a society have to understand and find a way to overcome them and keep on building a new better society in terms of media consumption. The media was mainly supposed to provide access to important news information and analysis about the world, as well as top entertainment content, quickly and effortlessly for viewers, presenting media professionals with an array of challenges but technology has shown us a new phase, let‘s see how far and to what extent we can go on with this. 8.5 QUESTIONS 1. Why is content important in media? What are the issues faced by a media organization in regarding the same? 89 munotes.in

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90 90 Communication Theory 2. Explain in detail McLuhan‘s influence in media. 3. Explain in detail (a) Symbolic Interactionism (b) Media Logic (c) Genres in media 4. Explain in detail the key challenges faced by media. 5. The transition of media from traditional to modern has affected the lifestyle of billions but, as an evolving society is modern media a blessing? Comment. 8.6 REFERENCES • DeFleur, M. H., & DeFleur, M. L. (2016). Mass Communication Theories: Explaining Origins, Processes, and Effects. Taylor & Francis. • El-Shennawy, K. (2014). Communication Theory and Signal Processing for Transform Coding. Bentham Science Publishers. • Fuchs, C. (2016). Critical Theory of Communication: New Readings of Lukács, Adorno, Marcuse, Honneth and Habermas in the Age of the Internet. University of Westminster Press. • Media content https://caluniv.ac.in/global-mdia- journal/COMMENTARY-JUNE-2014/C_1.pdf • Social media content Social Media Content: What you should know | Content Marketing Glossary (textbroker.com) • Mc Luhan‘s influence on media 2.2 Media Effects Theories – Understanding Media and Culture (umn.edu) • Key challenges faced by media https://caluniv.ac.in/global-mdia- journal/COMMENTARY-JUNE-2014/C_1.pdf • Genres in media • https://createmedianow.wordpress.com/2013/04/18/genres-in-media- text/ • Media effect theories https://open.lib.umn.edu/mediaandculture/chapter/2-2-media-effects- theories/#:~:text=%202.2%20Media%20Effects%20Theories%20%2 01%20Agenda- Setting,hold%20a%20minority%20opinion%20silence%20themselves ...%20More%20 ***** munotes.in

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91 9 AUDIENCE THEORY AND RESEARCH TRADITIONS, AUDIENCE FORMATION AND EXPERIENCE Unit Structure 9.0 Objectives 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Concept of Audience 9.3 The Audience's Origin 9.4 What Is a Mass Audience? 9.5 Market as Audience 9.6 Key Audience Theories 9.6.1 Hypodermic Needle Theory 9.6.2 Gratification Set as Audience 9.6.3 Reception Theory 9.6.4 Types of Audience 9.6.7 Social Group or Public 9.6.8 Medium Audience 9.7 Structure of Audience Theories 9.8 Structural Model of Media Use 9.9 Expectancy — Value Model of Media Gratification 9.9.1 Gratification and Uses - The study of Audience Theory requires an approach. 9.9.2 Integrated Model of Audience Choice 9.9.3 Audience Factor 9.10 Media and Audience 9.10.1 Fragmentation of the Audience 9.10.2 Interactive Audience 9.10.3 Audience Research 9.11 Questions 9.12 Conclusion 9.13 References 9.0 OBJECTIVES • discuss the concept of audience in mass media; • analyse the way in which the audience becomes a market; • examine key audience theories and their characteristics; munotes.in

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90 92 Communication Theory • describe interactive audience; and • explain and apply audience theories in your own work. 9.1 INTRODUCTION The audience, as you may know, is the final user of media. The audience's feedback is critical throughout the communication process. The communication process is deemed to be effective "if and only if" the receiver responds. The imagined, intended audience of a communicator is referred to as an ideal audience. The communicator or speaker imagines a target audience when writing a rhetorical text, a group of people who will be addressed, convinced, or affected by the speech or rhetorical text. The audience can be a single individual or a group of people of various sizes and types. The audience theories are based on the behaviour of the audience or how they are impacted. We'll look at several parts of the audience and theories in this unit, as well as the interaction between audience, communicators, channels, and content. The focus is on the audience and how it interacts with the message or material. The impact of media regulations and content on the audience is one of the major topics covered in this unit. 9.2 CONCEPT OF AUDIENCE As you may know, an audience is a group of individuals who attend a performance of art, literature (readers), theatre (watchers), music (listeners), or video games (players) in any medium. An audience for the media can range from one person reading a newspaper or magazine to billions of people watching world events on television. Historically, audience meant several things; it may have been individuals reading newspapers, books, or magazines. Following the arrival of the films, a number of people gathered in the cinemas to view them. However, the development of radio, and then television, altered the concept of audience. The individuals or groups formed a split audience of groups or an individual audience. A group of people could listen to the radio from anywhere in the world. The evolution of technology at The audience is divided by the online video games. However, there is another side to it: television programmes that are watched by people all over the world bring them all together. 9.3 THE AUDIENCE'S ORIGIN The audience's origins can be traced back to a group of people sitting together behind an imaginary line watching any kind of performer. The first audience appeared during theatres, which began as a ritual with tribal dances and festivals that required a community gathering. It was a munotes.in

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93 participatory type of theatre in which peasants would join the actors. Many of these types of people still exist throughout Asia and India. The first audience was reported in Greece (4th and 5th centuries BC), where villagers celebrated harvest by invoking Gods. Seats were reserved according to one's social rank in this type of audience; the wealthy were given front row, elaborate seats, while peasants and other lower-class people were sat in the back. The Romans developed the concept of 'Spectator' to include a vibrant audience. Theatre arose in Asia as a result of agricultural festivals. The definitions of audience, which are a group of listeners or spectators, help to clarify the situation. It could have started at a music concert when listeners were forced to listen to music while also watching others sing. The audience is a group of fervent admirers; in the theatre, the crowd admits the artists. It has been seen over the years that audiences might be pleasant, apathetic, misinformed, or hostile. The communicator must have various approaches for each of these audiences. If they are friendly, you must support their ideas; if they are apathetic, you must persuade them that it matters to them; if they are misinformed, you must educate them before offering a course of action; if they are hostile, you must respect them and their point of view. 9.4 WHAT IS A MASS AUDIENCE? Before defining Mass Audience, one must first define the term "mass." According to Blumer's Mass Communication Theory, mass is heterogeneous, huge, and anonymous, as previously stated. Different classes of individuals are referred to as heterogeneity of mass; they can be of different ages, genders, incomes, religions, and vocations or locations. A representation of the masses can be found in either India or the United States; it is a big number of people who are likely nameless, anonymous, and unknown. We can deduct from the theory, Mass audience, that when people watch a movie or read a magazine at home, they become part of a 'Mass audience'; everyone who encounters a media text becomes part of that text's mass audience. This is similar to a FIFA World Cup crowd at a match, where everyone is watching the same game, but the audience in the media is divided by space and time. The people are distinguishable all over since the bulk is quite huge in size and physical terms, and they are anonymous to each other. They are completely unaware of each other. The masses are disorganised because the people are anonymous. The multitudes, unlike at a public assembly, do not have a shared purpose to fulfil. Audience Theory and Research Traditions, Audience Formation and Experience munotes.in

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90 94 Communication Theory Check your progress: 1. What is a mass audience? 2. Why is the audience feedback critical? 3. Define the importance of the audience in the media. There are four different approaches to comprehending mass audiences: Media Reach: It refers to the reach of all media, including newspaper/magazine readers, radio listeners, TV viewers, and, in the case of new media, netizens. Media Access: Mass media may be available, but access is determined by one's ability or inclination to use it. Newspapers may be available, yet they may not be read by the general public; Media Exposure: Many people of the general public may be unaware of new media technology or other forms of mainstream media. Furthermore, no one is exposed to the entirety of any medium's material. However, not all users of media content are exposed in the same way. Media Effects: Another consideration for media audiences is if they have changed their knowledge, attitudes, or behaviours as a result of their exposure to the media. munotes.in

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95 Audience Theory and Research Traditions, Audience Formation and Experience Journalism served as a social institution and the Fourth Estate of Democracy throughout the early days of modern media, particularly print media. The expansion and technological advancement of the mass media altered the entire dynamic; now, media is a multibillion-dollar industry with a primary goal of profit. The media's commercialization has turned the audience into a market. The media content is a commodity that is delivered to the consumer/audience with all of the necessary ingredients. With profit as the primary goal, producer competition has risen. According to market theory, an audience is a group of potential customers with a recognised socioeconomic profile who are targeted by a medium or message. Audience is important in two ways as a consumer concept: for content and for advertising. The most important source of money for the media is advertising. Advertisements direct profits; as a result, the more advertisements in newspapers, commercials on television, and radio jingles, the higher the profits. The goal of competition-driven media is to increase ad revenue. Since a result, advertising often determine the content of the media, as the lure of income influences the media's policy. The audience takes on the role of a market in this hellish nexus. Audiences exist only as a fictitious entity, an abstraction created from the institution's perspective and for the institution's benefit. Audience is defined not just by demographics like gender, age, and socioeconomic class, but also by psychographics like hobbies, habits, and interests. Genre, Narrative, Representation, Audience, and Media Language all play a role in the main concept of audience theory in this context. 9.6 KEY AUDIENCE THEORIES 9.6.1 Hypodermic Needle Theory: The Effects Theory, also known as the Hypodermic Needle Theory, is defined as media content that reaches the audience immediately, similar to a needle pricking the body and causing an impact. This is comparable to the 'Stimulus - Response' hypothesis in psychology. The audience is influenced by the intake of media texts. Audiences are powerless to resist the effect since they are passive. The text's message has the most power. Like a result, the media acts as a narcotic, and the public becomes addicted, doped, or even fooled. Indeed, the Frankfurt School hypothesised in the 1920s and 1930s that the media manipulated audiences to promote capitalists and the government. Another key study that supported the Hypodermic Needle Model in 1963 was Albert Bandura's Bobo Doll, which claimed that children who see violence on television become violent. 9.5 MARKET AS AUDIENCE munotes.in

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90 96 Communication Theory 9.6.2 Gratification Set as Audience: The audience as a satisfaction set differs from the Hypodermic Needle Model in that this audience chooses what to do with the media rather than the media influencing the audience directly. The audience turns to the media to satisfy a want. They look to the media to interpret the message (what they want). This is a subjective and picky audience. This is an audience that seeks knowledge in order to keep itself informed (on the type of information required); to identify themselves (personal identity); to escape tension, boredom, and relieve (escapism); and to relate to characters in television shows. Gratification can also develop to a dependency on the media. The more an individual or audience uses media to meet their needs, the more autonomous they become, and the media's influence over them grows. 9.6.3 Reception Theory: According to the Effects model, media causes inactivity, makes us 'couch potatoes,' students do not study and thus do not get jobs; media also causes violence because viewers are influenced by violent programming; media also causes 'copycat behaviour,' and advertisements in media cause mindless and unwanted shopping, among other things. According to Stuart Hall (1973), the audience responds to content in three ways: a) Preferred/Dominant readings: In this situation, the producer gives the same type of text that the audience needs based on their socio- cultural background, and the audience has little to challenge. b) Negotiate readings: In this situation, the audience may not agree with the context completely, but they try to adjust to what is written/ seen in order to get the most out of what they read/ saw. c) Opposition/Resistant Readings: The audience objects to the context read/viewed since the content may be socio-culturally incompatible with the values held by the viewers. 9.6.4 Types of Audience: The many types of audiences can be identified based on their demographics and mental makeup: 1) Elite Audience: Elite audiences are made up of people who make decisions and establish trends in society. They are well-off financially and have a good education. They have a high social standing. Although they are few in number, they have a significant impact. They could also be the proprietors or controllers of media companies. Early adopters of communication technologies are members of the elite audiences. In general, they do not consume a lot of media. munotes.in

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97 2) General Audiences: These are vast, diversified groups that represent a broad cross-section of the population. The vast majority of people fall under this category. They are mostly targeted by media content. The success or failure of a content or medium is determined by their participation. 3) Special Interest Audiences: These audiences are made up of people who share similar interests. They are a small group of people. Special content is created for these audiences by the mass media. Tribals, housewives, college students, and other particular interest audiences are examples of programmes. Journals like Mainstream, Economic and Political Weekly, and Media Asia, on the other hand, have a small but well-known readership. 9.6.7 Social Group or Public: A family can be the basis of a social community. A larger social group emerges from a family gathering at a function or an event such as an engagement. As a result, social gatherings occur at significant events such as weddings, parties, and even an exclusive group of people assembling for a charity function. Furthermore, all of these organisations share a same goal. In a small group, everyone knows everyone else. They are conscious of their common membership, share similar beliefs, and have a definite connection structure. They work together to achieve a common goal. The larger the group, the more difficult it is to interact. The target audience of social groups is generally simple to handle. Because one can comprehend and study a social group, as well as their requirements and desires. Producers can create such shows and treat their viewers as a single, homogeneous group. The general public is dispersed. They can range in size from little to enormous. The term "public" is usually associated with a cause, goal, or activity. The public may be diverse, and members may not know one another. When it comes to disseminating information about their policies and intentions, political parties treat members of social groups as public. Because of their diversity, publics as target audiences are challenging to persuade and motivate. 9.6.8 Medium Audience: The audience of mass media is diverse, and each medium has its own audience. Media-based mass communication reaches a large audience. Newspapers are used to communicate information to readers. Electronically, the broadcast media informs the public. Radio is a medium for listeners; television is an audio-visual medium; and film is an audio- visual medium as well. Reading, listening, and watching are all part of New Communication Technology. Audience Theory and Research Traditions, Audience Formation and Experience munotes.in

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90 98 Communication Theory Because of digital technology, mainstream media audiences that were once very popular have been redefined. Furthermore, media audiences are today fragmented. As a result of the fragmentation, each medium's viewership has shrunk. The broadcast media are responsible for a large portion of the media audience. Sitcoms and soap operas are popular among this demographic. The 'Niche Audience,' which chooses customised programmes or reads solely personalised content, is the other media audience. This is, in fact, a small number of people. Different classifications and categories of medial medium audiences exist. This classification might be based on vocations, social classes, and other factors. 9.7 STRUCTURE OF AUDIENCE THEORIES It is primarily concerned with what should be done rather than with what actually occurs. It is dissimilar to positive science. While positive science is concerned with facts and their causes, ethics is concerned with morals. It assesses the standards or rules by which we can determine if human activity is correct or incorrect. Additionally, logic and aesthetics are considered normative sciences. The effect created on the audience is the core framework of audience theories. The SMCR model is the foundational framework for comprehending audience theories. All factors in the communication process have an effect on the listener, whether direct or indirect. Berlo's Communication Model demonstrates how each part of the communication process is interconnected and influences each other as well as the listener. 9.8 STRUCTURAL MODEL OF MEDIA USE Jay Blumer and McQuail investigated the motivations for watching various political programmes on television during the 1964 election in the United Kingdom in 1969. McQuail's Structural Model entails categorising the audience's or viewers' needs to watch the programme. In other words, McQuail's Structural Model of Media Usage proposes that audience media consumption has a 'Structure,' which may be classified into several 'needs.' Denis McQuail, Jay Blumer, and Joseph Brown proposed four categories for the uses of various sorts of media in 1972: diversion, personal relationship, personal identity, and monitoring. People's use of media and the enjoyment they seek from it are intrinsically linked to the world in which they live, according to Blumer, McQuail, and other theorists. They noted in 1974 that people's'social situations' can be 'engaged in the development of media related wants' in five ways: • Tensions and disputes in social systems might lead to media consumption to care about the same. • Social situations can raise awareness of issues that require attention, which can be achieved through the media. munotes.in

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99 • Real-life options to meet some needs may be limited due to social circumstances, and the media may serve as a substitute. • Specific values are frequently elicited in social contexts, and subsequently affirmation can be aided by media. • Social settings necessitate acquaintance with the media, which the media may provide; The relatively continuous array of channels; the choice of information that is available in a given place and time is referred to as media structure. 9.9 EXPECTANCY — VALUE MODEL OF MEDIA GRATIFICATION 9.9.1 Gratification and Uses - The study of Audience Theory requires an approach: Uses and Gratification Theory are inextricably tied to Expectancy — Value Theory. In 1970, Martin Fishbein proposed this theory. Behavior is a result of one's 'expectancies' and the 'value' of the thing toward which one is working, according to this idea. When more than one behaviour is conceivable, such an approach predicts that the behaviour chosen will have the highest combination of predicted success value. The audience's social influence, in particular, has an impact on attitude and attitude change. The audience's social impact is responsible for media satisfaction. Audiences seek for specific media content as a result of the attitudes they have evolved as a result of social influence. This notion has also been refined as a tool in a variety of industries, including advertising and education. For example, the societal impact on a certain brand of clothing may cause viewers to seek out advertising for that brand on television and build a desire to purchase the product. Individuals respond to knowledge about an object (invariably gained via the media) or behaviour by establishing a belief about it, according to Fishbein (EVT/ Mode). If a belief already exists (for example, organic foods are good for your health), additional facts may change it (characteristics of organic foods). Individuals then assign a value to each attribute 'on which' a belief is founded (organic food help in making you healthy). Finally, based on the circulation of beliefs and values, an expectation is established or modified (to buy the newly brought out organic food advertised). 9.9.2 Integrated Model of Audience Choice: This model was influenced by Webster and Wakshlag, according to Dennis McQuail(2000:391) (1983). This approach combines audience and media factors to provide both audience and media perspectives. The two sides are explained by the following factors: Audience Theory and Research Traditions, Audience Formation and Experience munotes.in

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100 100 Communication Theory The Influence of the Audience: 1) Socioeconomic background, particularly social class, education, religion, culture, political climate, and family, as well as residence location, impact media choosing. 2) Personal characteristics such as age, gender, family status, education, career, income, and lifestyle influence media consumption. 3) Personal media content preferences are influenced by genres, forms, and individual material. 4) Media habits in leisure time and other time available are important. 5) A component where engaged audiences can be anticipated to arrange their own media usage that you like is awareness in picking the volume and type of information. 9.9.3 Audience Factor: 1) Audience attention is influenced by the media system (members, range, and type of media available) and the distinctive characteristics of various media channels - national, local, language, and formats. 2) Media structure refers to the basic pattern of whether the media gives the public the information they want. 3) Content availability, which has an impact on the formats and genres available to a potential audience. 4) Advertising and image development by the media for their own objectives are referred to as media publicity or promotional programmes. 5) Time and attendance - specialised tactics of time, schedule, and content design in accordance with the competition strategy to get the audience influence media selection and use. To combat the competition, most regional language TV networks, for example, run the same formats and programmes at the same time. These considerations point to an integrated strategy in which the audience and media are mutually reliant. 9.10 MEDIA AND AUDIENCE The media and the audience are both important aspects of the communication process. The media for the audience, who are the receivers, are the content suppliers. A media audience can be as little as one person (a single person watching TV or reading a newspaper) or as huge as billions or an infinite number of people watching events or programmes all over the world at any given moment. The audience is extremely crucial to media producers since there would be no media if munotes.in

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101 there were no audience. It's crucial for the media since they're the ones who keep them competitive, successful, and in business. The audiences are active, yet they can be primary or secondary, as well as single or large groups. They can be enormous or little, and, thanks to technological advancements, they can be interactive. 9.10.1 Fragmentation of the Audience: The number of media channels available has expanded thrice as a result of advances in media technology. Due to the great range of media platforms, audience fragmentation refers to the division of audiences into multiple groups (small or large). The technique of splitting people into homogeneous groupings based on stated criteria such as demographics, communication behaviour, media use, and so on is known as audience fragmentation. For example, the age group of youth and senior citizens may be fragmented. The audience can be divided into groups based on their media consumption habits, such as TV watchers, Internet users, and FM listeners. In the case of newspaper readers, there is the possibility of additional segmentation into those who read hardcopy and those who read e-papers online. Media convergence is at the root of audience fragmentation. In all media, the same content is available. If you read a news report in the newspaper, it is also available in e-paper and appears in a brief form on social media sites even before the next morning's issue. Advertisers face challenges as a result of audience fragmentation because they must cater to audiences of many types and regions at the same time. Because a huge number of people are reading/viewing the same content at the same time or at various times, digital technology has increased audience uncertainty. In the world of technology, audience fragmentation is crucial. Narrowcasting, the polar opposite of broadcasting, uses specialised Cable TV to reach smaller audiences, whereas 'Zone casting' in technology delivers different commercials to specific neighbourhoods, and location-based mobile advertising uses technology to follow you around and sell things 24 hours a day, seven days a week. 9.10.2 Interactive Audience: Ethics is not a practical science; it merely directs us toward a specific objective. Its path is distinct from that of practical science, which is a means to an end or set of values. For instance, medical science is a technique of eradicating disease's causes. Thus, ethics seeks to determine what the ultimate purpose of life is and how it might be accomplished. As you may know, interactive media refers to products and services delivered via digital computer-based systems that respond to user activities by displaying material such as text, moving images, animation, video, audio, and video games in response to the user's actions. Large- audience interaction systems open up a world of possibilities for Audience Theory and Research Traditions, Audience Formation and Experience munotes.in

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102 102 Communication Theory entertainment, education, and information. Interactive media develops visuals and animations for a variety of media channels as well as electronic devices like mobile phone apps, web-based computer games, and interactive television. The primary distinguishing feature of an interactive audience is that they respond to digital input. An audience reading or viewing traditional media, such as print or broadcast, has no way of navigating. With the commercialization of the Internet in the 1990s, one-way communication was supplanted by interactive audiences. The following are some examples of participatory audiences: Application Software: Software created for a knowledge management platform; for example, if you want to know "How to keep pests away," this application will assist you. Apps: The most popular form of interactive medial audience, such as Zomato and Swiggy — interact and organise. Games: Interactive games and activities are great for both groups and individuals (s). Family Tree, Little Thief, and more interactive games are available on the digital platform. Interactive Video: Video and television includes interactive features such as video/TV streaming, which allows you to live stream and engage with programmes. Social Media: The social media or SNS internet communities that allow media to be navigated, shared, and generated, such as YouTube, account for the majority of interactive audience. Advertising: Interactive components in digital, outdoor, and in-store advertising, such as a digital poster that interacts to people passing by. All of the following are popular kinds of interactive media that have a large number of interactive audiences throughout the world. 9.10.3 Audience Research: Audience research is used to gather, analyse, and interpret information on a certain audience segment's attitudes, knowledge, interest, behaviour, and preferences in relation to a specific subject or event. It's usually done to figure out who the media's target audience is. Advertisers want to know what the audience's wants are, how they react to a product, how they may munotes.in

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improve the product by understanding the audience's demands, and how to encourage and persuade them. The audience is divided into several demographic groups, including income, gender, profession, marital status, and religion. Surveys using questionnaires, market research online forums, interviews, and focus groups are all examples of audience research. Audience research is beneficial since it can reveal the audience's likes and dislikes as well as critical information regarding the channel's content. It'll help you define your target audience by allowing you to develop an audience profile. However, research takes time and money, and it can be costly if questions are skewed. As a result, if replies are ambiguous or incomplete, the results may be inaccurate. Surveys are done to determine the readership of newspapers and magazines, radio listenership, and television and cinema viewership. Ratings (TV Rating Points — TRP) are based on TV viewership research. In the case of the Internet and Social Media, research has gained traction, and the necessity, as well as the results, have been developed to comprehend the rise in popularity of the New Media. The use of digital media, particularly smart phones, has grown increasingly common in audience research approaches. Check your progress: 1. Discuss audience research in detail. 2. Discuss who are interactive audiences? 3. What do you mean by fragmentation of the audience. 9.11 QUESTION 1. Explain the concept of Audience and define Mass Audience. Audience Theory and Research Traditions, Audience Formation and Experience
2. Briefly explain : Social Groups, Public and Gratification set. 103 munotes.in

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104 104 Communication Theory 3. Briefly explain the structural Model of Media Use by Dennis McQuail. 4. Discuss ‘Expectancy Value of Media’. 5. Explain in detail Audience fragmentation and Audience Research. 9.12 CONCLUSION The audience remains a key integral part in the communication process. It is important to acknowledge the perspectives of the audience and to study the factors affecting the audience media relationship. The growth of media has resulted in dynamic interactions since its inception and therefore the need of a audience centric research remains of utmost importance in the future 9.13 REFERENCES • Harindranath, Ramaswamy (2009). Audience-Citizens: The Media, Public Knowledge, and Interpretive Practice. New Delhi. Sage Publications. • Banaji, Shakuntala (2011). South Asian Media Cultures: Audiences, Representations, Contexts. New Delhi; Anthem Press. • Mytton, Graham et a1 (2016). Media Audience Research: A Guide for Professionals. New Delhi; SAGE Publications. • Nightingale, Virginia (2011a. The Handbook of Media Audiences. New Jersey; John Wiley & Sons. • Ruddock, Andy (2001). Understanding Audiences: Theory and Method. New Delhi; Sage Publications. • Sullivan, John L(2012). Media Audiences. Effects, Users, Institutions, and Power. • New Delhi; Sage Publications. • Allen, M. (Ed.). (2017). The SAGE Encyclopedia of Communication Research Methods. SAGE Publications. • DeFleur, M. H., & DeFleur, M. L. (2016). Mass Communication Theories: Explaining Origins, Processes, and Effects. Taylor & Francis. • Rosenberry, J., & Vicker, L. A. (2021). Applied Mass Communication Theory: A Guide for Media Practitioners. Taylor & Francis. ***** munotes.in

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10 PROCESS AND MODELS OF MEDIA EFFECTS, SOCIO-CULTURAL EFFECTS Unit Structure 10.0 Objectives 10.1 The Premise of Media Effect 10.2 The Natural History of Media Effect Research and Theory: Four Phases 10.3 Media power can vary with the times 10.4 Types of Communicative Power 10.5 Levels and Kinds of Effects 10.6 Main kinds of media-induced change 10.7 Processes of Media Effect: A Typology 10.8 Mediating Conditions of Effect 10.9 Social-Cultural Effects 10.9.1 A Model of Behavioural Effect 10.10 The Media, Crime, and Violence 10.11 Theory 10.12 Content 10.13 Proof of the influence 10.14 Fear-inducing techniques 10.15 Crime and the media 10.16 Children and Young People in the Media 10.17 Collective Reaction Effects 10.18 Civil Disorder 10.19 Innovation and Development Diffusion 10.20 Mass media and development 10.21 Knowledge Distribution in Society 10.22 Theory of Social Learning 10.23 Socialization 10.24 Consciousness Formation and Social Control 10.25 Cultivation 10.26 Long-Term Social and Cultural Change and the Media 10.27 Effects of Entertainment 10.28 Questions 10.29 References 105 munotes.in

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106 106 Communication Theory 10.0 OBJECTIVES • To understand the premise of media effect • To study the natural history of media effect research and theory and its phases 10.1 THE PREMISE OF MEDIA EFFECT As previously said, the entire field of mass communication research is predicated on the assumption that the media have major impacts, yet there is little consensus on the nature and scope of these anticipated effects. This ambiguity is even the more unexpected given how many, albeit modest, examples of impact can be seen in everyday life. We dress for the weather, buy something because of an advertisement, go to a movie that was mentioned in the newspaper, and react in a variety of ways to media news, films, radio music, and so on. The impact of good or negative economic news on company and consumer confidence is undeniable. There have been numerous incidents of unfavourable media coverage of food contamination or adulteration, which has resulted in major changes in food consumption behaviour, sometimes with significant economic consequences. Media portrayals appear to be copied or spurred acts of violence or suicide. Many policies and regulations are aimed at preventing the media from harming people, and some people even want the media to do good. Our heads are stuffed with media-generated data and impressions. We live in a world flooded with media noises and visuals, where politics, government, and business all work under the assumption that we are aware of global events. Few of us can recall a personal experience in which the media helped us learn important information or form an opinion. Much money and effort is also spent on guiding the media to produce such results, particularly through advertising and public relations, and it's difficult to suppose that this would happen unless there's a strong belief that it works, more or less as planned. The media, for one, appear to be confident in their ability to produce desired results. Nonetheless, there is a lot of scepticism. The contradiction can be explained in part by the distinction between the general and the specific. We can be certain that certain effects are occurring all of the time without being able to see or forecast the aggregate outcome, or knowing how much of it can be attributed to the media after the fact. There can be a plethora of impacts with no discernible structure or direction. The media are rarely the only essential or sufficient source of an effect, and determining their proportional involvement is difficult. There are numerous strong theoretical explanations for this ambiguity, and even common sense and "practical knowledge" falter when it comes to concerns of media effect in the contentious areas of morals, opinion, and deviant behaviour that have gotten the greatest public attention. There can be no munotes.in

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107 question that the media is a primary or sufficient cause in many of these cases, and it is impossible to account for all possible psychological, social, and cultural aspects. Furthermore, speaking of 'the media' as if they were a single entity rather than the bearers of a vast array of messages, pictures, and ideas makes no sense. The majority of this content does not originate with the media, but rather 'comes from society' and is ‘sent back' to society via the media. The majority of effect study has been launched by people outside of the media, such as social critics, politicians, and interest groups. The fundamental notion has been that the media is a 'problem' for society as a whole. Although harmful components of media effects continue to shape public debate on the media, especially newer forms such as the Internet, this is no longer totally true. The chasm between those who proclaim or fear the media's dominance and those who question it will never be bridged. The belief system of ‘media power' has far too many vested interests, and critics' evidentiary standards are far too high to be easily satisfied. Even still, this divergence of opinions can be beneficial. It serves as a warning to be wary of taking the assertions of 'persuaders' or critics at face value, to avoid conflating specific messages with the medium as a whole, and to differentiate carefully between different forms of effect and different contexts. Most importantly, we must recognise that the effects are influenced at least as much by the receiver as they are by the transmitter. 10.2 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MEDIA EFFECT RESEARCH AND THEORY: FOUR PHASES As previously said, the entire field of mass communication research is predicated on the assumption that the media have major impacts, yet there is little consensus on the nature and scope of these anticipated effects. This ambiguity is even the more unexpected given how many, albeit modest, examples of impact can be seen in everyday life. We dress for the weather, buy something because of an advertisement, go to a movie that was mentioned in the newspaper, and react in a variety of ways to media news, films, radio music, and so on. The impact of good or negative economic news on company and consumer confidence is undeniable. There have been numerous incidents of unfavourable media coverage of food contamination or adulteration, which has resulted in major changes in food consumption behaviour, sometimes with significant economic consequences. Media portrayals appear to be copied or spurred acts of violence or suicide. Many policies and regulations are aimed at preventing the media from harming people, and some people even want the media to do good. Our heads are stuffed with media-generated data and impressions. We live in a world flooded with media noises and visuals, where politics, government, and business all work under the assumption that we are aware Process and Models of Media Effects, Socio-Cultural Effects munotes.in

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106 108 Communication Theory of global events. Few of us can recall a personal experience in which the media helped us learn important information or form an opinion. Much money and effort is also spent on guiding the media to produce such results, particularly through advertising and public relations, and it's difficult to suppose that this would happen unless there's a strong belief that it works, more or less as planned. The media, for one, appear to be confident in their ability to produce desired results. Nonetheless, there is a lot of scepticism. The contradiction can be explained in part by the distinction between the general and the specific. We can be certain that certain effects are occurring all of the time without being able to see or forecast the aggregate outcome, or knowing how much of it can be attributed to the media after the fact. There can be a plethora of impacts with no discernible structure or direction. The media are rarely the only essential or sufficient source of an effect, and determining their proportional involvement is difficult. There are numerous strong theoretical explanations for this ambiguity, and even common sense and "practical knowledge" falter when it comes to concerns of media effect in the contentious areas of morals, opinion, and deviant behaviour that have gotten the greatest public attention. There can be no question that the media is a primary or sufficient cause in many of these cases, and it is impossible to account for all possible psychological, social, and cultural aspects. Furthermore, speaking of 'the media' as if they were a single entity rather than the bearers of a vast array of messages, pictures, and ideas makes no sense. The majority of this content does not originate with the media, but rather 'comes from society' and is'sent back' to society via the media. The majority of effect study has been launched by people outside of the media, such as social critics, politicians, and interest groups. The fundamental notion has been that the media is a 'problem' for society as a whole. Although harmful components of media effects continue to shape public debate on the media, especially newer forms such as the Internet, this is no longer totally true. The chasm between those who proclaim or fear the media's dominance and those who question it will never be bridged. The belief system of 'media power' has far too many vested interests, and critics' evidentiary standards are far too high to be easily satisfied. Even still, this divergence of opinions can be beneficial. It serves as a warning to be wary of taking the assertions of 'persuaders' or critics at face value, to avoid conflating specific messages with the medium as a whole, and to differentiate carefully between different forms of effect and different contexts. Most importantly, we must recognise that the effects are influenced at least as much by the receiver as they are by the transmitter. • direct effects; • conditional effects (varying according to social and psychological factors); munotes.in

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109 • cumulative effects (gradual and long term); Process and Models of Media Effects, Socio-Cultural Effects • cognitive-transactional (with particular reference to schemata and framing). In fact, these models correspond quite closely to the four phases described above: Nature of effects Media content
variables Audience
variables Direct Immediate, uniform,
observable short term
emphasis on change Salience,
arousal, realism Not relevant Conditional Individualized,
Reinforcement as well as
change Cognitive, affective,
and behavioural long or
short term Not relevant Social categories
Social
relationships
Individual
differences Cumulative Based on cumulative
exposure Cognitive or affect
Rarely behavioural Enduring
effects Consonant
across channels
Repetition Not relevant Cognitive -
transactional Immediate and short term ,
Based on one-shot exposure
Cognitive and affective;
behavioural effects possible Salience of
visual cues Schema makeup
Mood
Goals 10.3 MEDIA POWER CAN VARY WITH THE TIMES Before we move on from the historical part of media impacts research, it's worth considering Carey's (1988) suggestion that fluctuations in belief in the power of mass communications may have a historical explanation. 'It can be claimed that the fundamental reason for the movement in the argument about the consequences from a powerful to a limited to a more powerful model is that the social reality was changing during this period,' he adds. In a time of global turmoil around the two world wars, powerful consequences were indeed signalled, but the calmer 1950s and 1960s appeared more stable, until peace was again disrupted by social unrest. When society's stability is threatened by crime, war, economic depression, or any form of'moral panic,' the mass media appear to bear some of the blame. We can only hypothesise about the causes of such temporal correlations, but we can't rule out the idea that media are more influential in specific ways at times of crisis or increased awareness. This might be true of the aftermath of the fall of communism in Europe, as well as foreign conflicts like the Gulf and Balkan wars of the 1990s, as well as the Afghanistan and Iraq wars that followed 9/11. This is possible for a variety of reasons. People frequently learn about major historical events solely through the media, and they may link the message with the medium. People are more likely to rely on the media as a source of information and advice during munotes.in

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110 Communication Theory 110 times of transition and uncertainty (Ball-Rokeach and DeFleur, 1976; Ball-Rokeach, 1985; 1998). The media has also been demonstrated to have a greater influence on issues that are not directly related to personal experience. In times of stress and uncertainty, government, business, and other elites and interests frequently strive to influence and control public opinion through the media. Rosengren and Windahl (1989) indicate that differences in evidence about the influence of television itself may reflect the fact that television was truly different in content and as a social experience in the 1980s compared to the 1950s when the first research was conducted. It also varies depending on the society. If this is accurate, it has ramifications for today's television viewing experience, which has altered in many ways. The key, if obvious, point is that media influence, whether potential or actual, varies with time and between locations. 10.4 TYPES OF COMMUNICATIVE POWER Not only in regard to the media, but also in general, the concept of power has proven difficult to define. Two different paths have been taken when it has been defined. One follows a behavioural and causal line of reasoning consistent with stimulus-response thinking, in which power is equated with the chance of obtaining a specific outcome, whether intended or not. The alternative model is sociological, and it is based on Max Weber's definition of power as the "chance of a man or group of men to actualize their will in a community activity even in the face of resistance from other participants" (1964: 152). A relationship is assumed to exist between the partners to action in this understanding of power, and coercion is possible to attain some goal. In addition, there are winners and losers (a zero-sum situation). While both models are pertinent to the subject of media effects, the second has greater explanatory power, even when effects are unintended, because most effects require the target of influence's cooperation or compliance. When it comes to mass communication, however, there may not be visible partners in action, and true coercion is unlikely. Because it is based on non-material criteria (trust, reason, respect, affec•tion, and so on), communicative or symbolic power differs from other types of power. The point to emphasise here is that symbolic power can be applied in a variety of ways. The following are the primary types: • as a source of information • by acting as a catalyst; • by focusing attention in different ways; • by use of persuasion; munotes.in

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111 • by framing 'reality' and defining circumstances Process and Models of Media Effects, Socio-Cultural Effects While each of these avenues has some indication of media effect, they do not have equal potential, at least not for an independent communication effect. More effects from media occur as a result of defining situations and framing reality, providing information, or the differential direction of attention (including the amplification of certain images and ideas) than from persuasion or stimulation to action, for a variety of reasons (including the lack of resistance and low threshold for an effect). Aid compatible with the 'negotiated influence' phase mentioned above essentially indicates these points. 10.5 LEVELS AND KINDS OF EFFECTS Media 'effects' are simply the results of what the media does, whether intentionally or unintentionally. The term 'media power,' on the other hand, refers to the media's overall ability to produce consequences, particularly those that are intended. 'Media efficacy' is a statement about the effectiveness of media in achieving a specific purpose, and it always involves some sort of communication goal. Although it is difficult to maintain a consistent usage, such differences are necessary for precision. The distinction between 'levels' of occurrence, particularly the levels of individual, group or organisation, social institution, national society, and culture, is even more important for research and theory. Mass communication can affect any or all of them, and effects at one level (especially a 'higher' level) frequently indicate effects at other levels. The majority of media influence research has been conducted at the individual level, but with the goal of drawing conclusions about collective or higher levels. The multitude and complexity of the phenomena involved in effect research is perhaps the most perplexing part. Effects on cognition (knowledge and opinion), affective (attitude and feelings), and behavioural effects are usually divided into three categories. Early study interpreted this tripartite distinction as following a logical order from the first to the third, with an assumed rise in relevance (behaviour counting more than knowledge). In fact, maintaining the separation between the three conceptions, as well as accepting the unique logic of that particular order of occurrence, is becoming increasingly difficult (see p. 472). Neither is behaviour (such as voting or purchasing) always more important than other types of effect. Differentiating between the different sorts of media effects can be done in a number of ways. Klapper (1960) distinguished between conversion, minor change, and reinforcement, which are defined as a change of opinion or belief based on the communicator's intention, a change in the form or intensity of cognition, belief, or behaviour, and confirmation of an existing belief, opinion, or behaviour pattern by the receiver. munotes.in

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112 112 Communication Theory This three-fold distinction should be broadened to accommodate various possibilities, particularly at levels higher than the individual. Different notions of media processes are involved in the two effect categories that imply the absence of any effect. Reinforcement is likely to occur in the instance of an individual as a result of the receiver's selective and sustained attention to content that is consistent with his or her existing beliefs. 10.6 MAIN KINDS OF MEDIA-INDUCED CHANGE The media has the ability to: • Bring about the desired transformation • Unintentionally change the situation • Make a tiny alteration (form or intensity) • Change should be made easier (intended or not) • Consolidate what already exists (no change) • Preventing change is essential. Any of these changes can occur at the individual, societal, institutional, or cultural levels. 'Preventing change,' on the other hand, refers to the intentional distribution of one-sided or ideologically moulded content in order to keep a conforming audience from changing. Frequently, this simply refers to the repetition of agreed-upon viewpoints and the absence of any pushback. Because of its long-term repercussions, the media's 'no change' effect, which we have so much evidence of, demands extremely attentive attention. It's a rather misleading phrase, because anything that changes the probability of future opinion or belief distribution is a social process intervention, and hence an effect. Other forms of effects have been seen, according to Lang and Lang (1981), including 'reciprocal,' 'boomerang,' and 'third-party' effects. The first refers to the implications of becoming the subject of media attention for a person or even an institution. The mere fact of being televised, for example, might drastically alter a planned event. The contact between the media and the subjects of reporting is common. For example, Gitlin (1980) demonstrated how the 1960s student movement in the United States was impacted by its own publicity. In campaigning, the 'boomerang' effect, which causes change in the opposite direction than anticipated, is a well-known phenomenon (or risk). The belief that other people are likely to be affected but not oneself is known as the 'third-party' effect. The term 'sleeper effect' has also been applied to effects that do not manifest themselves for a long time. munotes.in

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McLeod et al. (1991) distinguish between effects that are diffuse or general (such as the alleged effects of television as a medium) and effects that are content specific in their discussion of effects dimensions. In the latter situation, an innate structure or inclination (such as a political prejudice) is identified as a potential catalyst for transformation. 10.7 PROCESSES OF MEDIA EFFECT: A TYPOLOGY To give an overview of recent advances in theory and research, we'll start by connecting two of the previously mentioned distinctions: planned and unintended effects, as well as short- and long-term effects. Golding (1981) proposed this approach to help discern between different concepts of news and their impacts. In the case of news, he argues that intended short-term effects are 'bias,' while unwanted short-term effects are 'unwitting bias,' intended long-term consequences are 'policy' (of the media involved), and unintended long- term impacts of news are 'ideology.' A similar style of thinking can help us map out the key types of media effect processes that have been studied in the research literature in terms of these two coordinates. Short-term and planned: Propaganda: Jowett and O'Donnell (1999) define propaganda as "the purposeful and systematic endeavour to mould perceptions, alter cognitions, and guide behaviour to obtain a reaction that furthers the propagandist's desired intent." Long-term propaganda is also possible. Individual responses are possible: Individuals change or resist change as a result of being exposed to messages intended to alter their attitude, knowledge, or behaviour. Campaign in the media: A circumstance in which a variety of media are employed in a coordinated fashion to achieve a persuasive or informational goal with a specific audience. Learning about the news: The short-term cognitive impact of news exposure as measured by audience recall, recognition, and comprehension tests. Framing: The adoption by the audience of the same interpretative frameworks and'spin' used to contextualise news stories and event accounts is referred to as a media effect. Priming (where the media emphasises the criteria for Process and Models of Media Effects, Socio-Cultural Effects
evaluating public events or persons) is a related practise. 113 munotes.in

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114 114 Communication Theory Agenda-setting: The process through which the relative importance given to items or issues in news coverage effects the public's knowledge of issues and their attribution of importance. 10.7.1 Short-term and unplanned: An individual's response: Individual exposure to a media stimulus has unintended or unexpected repercussions. This has primarily been observed in the form of imitation and learning, particularly in the context of violent or deviant behaviour (including suicide). 'Triggering' is another term that has been used. Strong emotional responses, sexual arousal, and fear or anxiety reactions are all examples of similar effects. Reaction as a group: Many persons in a common location or context are exposed to some of the same effects at the same time, leading to unregulated and non-institutional collaborative action. The most powerful reactions are fear, anxiety, and rage, which can lead to panic or civil unrest. Effects of policy: The unforeseen consequences of news coverage of a crisis, abuse, or danger on government policy and action. The so-called CNN effect on foreign policy is a prime example. Long-term and planned: Diffusion of development: The deliberate use of communication for long-term development, campaigns, and other forms of influence, particularly within the community or society's interpersonal network and authority structure. News dissemination: The rate at which a given population becomes aware of certain (news) occurrences over time, with special attention to the level of pene•tration (the fraction of the population who knows) and the means by which information is obtained (personal versus media sources). Innovation diffusion: is a term used to describe the spread of new ideas. The process of a specific population adopting technological breakthroughs, frequently as a result of advertisement or broad public awareness. It can have both an unintended and an intended consequence. munotes.in

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Knowledge is distributed: Process and Models of Media Effects, Socio-Cultural Effects The impact of news and information in the media on the spread of knowledge among social groups. The primary focus is on closing or growing 'knowledge gaps.' The 'digital divide' is a related phenomenon. Long-term and unplanned: Control of the social environment: Systematic tendencies that promote adherence to an established order or pattern of behaviour are referred to here. This might be viewed as a planned or unintended extension of socialisation, depending on one's social philosophy. Socialization: The media's unofficial contribution to the learning and adoption of social roles and situations' standards, values, and expectations of behaviour. The outcome of the event: Referring to the role of the media in the course and resolution of big 'critical' events in collaboration with institutional forces (see Lang and Lang, 1981). Revolutions, massive domestic political upheavals, and war and peace issues are all possible examples. Elections and other less significant events could also play a role (Chaffee, 1975). The formation of meaning and the definition of reality: Effects on public perceptions and interpretation frames. This type of influence necessitates the receivers' more or less active participation in the process of creating their own meaning. Changes in the institutions: Existing institutions' adaptation to media changes, particularly those influencing their own communication functions (cf. the concept of 'reciprocal effects'). Displacement the numerous implications of devoting time to media use at the expense of other (often free-time) activities, such as social participation. Changes in culture and society: Shifts in the overall pattern of values, behaviours, and symbolic forms that characterise a society's sector (such as youth), a whole society, or a collection of societies. Effects such as the prospective strengthening or weakening of cultural identity are another example. Integration into society: Integration (or its lack thereof) can be noticed at various levels, most notably at the local community and national levels, which correlate to 115 munotes.in

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116 116 Communication Theory media distribution areas. Short-term effects can also occur, such as in the aftermath of a large-scale public disaster or emergency. 10.8 MEDIATING CONDITIONS OF EFFECT The identification of circumstances that mediate effects was part of the stimulus-response model's revision. The primary types of variables, according to McGuire (1973), are source, content, channel, receivers, and destination. There is reason to suppose that communications coming from an authoritative and reliable source, as well as those coming from sources that are attractive or similar to the receiver, will be more effective. In terms of content, repetition, consistency, and a lack of options are all linked to effectiveness (a monopoly situation). It's also more likely when the topic matter is clear and specific (Trenaman, 1967). In general, the desired effect will be stronger on topics that are far away from, or less essential to, the receiver (lower degree of ego involvement or prior commitment). Style (such as personalising), forms of appeal (such as emotional versus intellectual), and argument sequence and balance have all been found to play a role, but the results are too varied to make any broad predictions. Because content and receiver factors determine learning outcomes, channel (medium) factors have been studied extensively, with conflicting results. Distinguishing between fundamental channel differences and differences between media in which channels are embedded is also difficult (such as press versus television). In general, research has failed to clearly demonstrate the relative worth of different modes (audio, visual, and so on) in any consistent way, while tests of memory or comprehension suggest that written or spoken verbal messages take precedence over graphical visuals (for example, Katz et al., 1977). A variety of obvious receiver characteristics can be significant to effect, as we've seen, but motivation, interest, and prior knowledge level should perhaps be given extra attention. The degree of motivation or involvement has frequently been highlighted as being particularly important in the influence process and in defining the order in which various types of effect occur (Krugman, 1965). The usual 'effect hierarchy,' as found, for example, in the work of Hovland et al. (1949), is a process that leads from cognitive learning (the most common effect) to emotive reaction (like or hate, opinion, attitude) to 'conative' effect, according to Ray (1973). (behaviour or action). Ray contends, with some evidence, that this paradigm is only natural in high- involvement situations (high interest and attention). When there is little engagement (as is common in many television viewing contexts, particularly advertising), the sequence may flow from cognition to behaviour directly, with affective adjustment occurring later to bring attitude into line with behaviour (reduction of dissonance: Festinger, 1957). munotes.in

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117 This concept calls into question the logic and design of many persuasive communication programmes that presume attitude is a clear correlate and predictor of behaviour. There's also some scepticism about campaign ratings based solely on metrics of attitude change. There's also the issue of consistency between the three aspects. High participation, according to Chaffee and Roser (1986), is also believed to be an essential prerequisite for effect consistency, and therefore for a steady and persistent influence. Their favoured media effect model incorporates a repeated pattern of low participation, dissonance perception, and learning, with cumulative outcomes. In this view, superficial and easily forgotten knowledge can develop into a well-thought-out set of ideas and into action, particularly when exposed to it repeatedly (as in a systematic campaign). Individual receivers will choose which stimulus to attention to or ignore in any natural (non-laboratory) media setting, will interpret its meaning differently, and will react or not react behaviorally, depending on their choice (Bauer, 1964). This casts doubt on the validity of the conditioning paradigm, because the factors controlling selectivity are inevitably linked to the nature of the stimulus, either favouring or discouraging the occurrence of an effect. As a result, our attention should be moved away from the simple reality of perceiving a stimulus and toward the mediating variables outlined above, particularly in their entirety and mutual interplay. This approach to the effect problem is more or less what Klapper (1960: 5) advised and described as a "phenomenistic" approach, in which "media are influences acting among other influences in a complete environment," as articulated by Klapper (1960: 5). 10.9 SOCIAL-CULTURAL EFFECTS 10.9.1 A Model of Behavioural Effect: The theoretical advances outlined in Chapter 17 help to move beyond the simple conditioning model and account for some of the complications seen in research. It is self-evident that in situations involving unforeseen consequences, some people will be more likely than others to react or respond to stimuli, putting them "at risk." Comstock et al. (1978) established an expansion of the basic stimulus-response model for the example of television viewing to help organise the results of research in this subject, particularly relative to violence. It is based on the premise that media exposure is no different in essence from any other experience, act, or observation that may have learning or behavioural effects. The model's depiction of the process, takes the shape of a series of events that occur after the initial act of 'exposure' to a type of behaviour on television ( "'Actor on television'). This is the first and most important 'input' for learning or copying the desired behaviour. Other important inputs include the level of excitement and arousal ('TV arousal') and the extent to which alternative behaviours ("TV alternatives') are depicted: the Process and Models of Media Effects, Socio-Cultural Effects munotes.in

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116 118 Communication Theory higher the arousal and the fewer the behaviours (or the more repetition), the more likely it is that learning will occur. Two additional conditions (inputs) concern the portrayal of consequences ('TV perceived consequences') and the degree of reality ('TV perceived reality'): the more positive consequences appear to outnumber negative ones, and the more realistic the television behaviour appears to be, the more likely learning ('T TV act') occurs. When the prerequisites for effect are not met (P = 0), the individual is sent back to the beginning of the process; when there is a chance of effect (P > 0), the question of action becomes relevant. All of the above factors influence the likelihood of learning the action (the effect), but any subsequent behaviour is contingent on the ability to put the action into practise. Apart from opportunity, the most important condition is 'arousal,' because learning is impossible without arousal (which also refers to interest and attention). While research has yet to corroborate this model, it is an improvement over the simple conditioning model and beneficial for directing attention to essential parts of any given situation. 10.10 THE MEDIA, CRIME, AND VIOLENCE The potential for media to encourage, if not cause, crime, violence, and aggressive, antisocial, and even criminal behaviour has gotten a lot of attention. The primary source of concern is the consistent showing of the high level of portrayal of crime and violence in popular media of all types (see Smith et al., 2002; and Chapter 14). A secondary explanation is the popular belief, whether right or not, that the aforementioned social ills grew in lockstep with the rise of mass media in the twentieth century. Each new popular medium has sparked a new round of concern about its potential consequences. The Internet and popular music have recently been connected to random acts of violence committed by young people in particular. Apart from the 'problem' brought by new media that is beyond the control of society and parents, there has been a general shift in media that has fostered a new perspective on an old issue. There has been a proliferation of television channels, a fall in regulation, and a lowering of permissible thresh•olds, making it more likely than ever before that youngster will be exposed to far more broadcast violence (and also 'adult content'). Thousands of research studies have been conducted in the idea that screen violence (in particular) is a source of actual violence and aggression, although there is no consensus on the degree of causal influence from the media. Nonetheless, according to Lowery and DeFleur (1995), a research programme conducted for the US Surgeon General at the end of the 1960s yielded three primary conclusions: • Violence is prevalent in television programming. • Children are being exposed to more and more violent content. munotes.in

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119 • Overall, the evidence supports the concept that watching violent entertainment makes people more likely to act aggressively. • More than thirty years later, these conclusions appear to be correct. 10.11 THEORY The primary components of violent effect ideas have stayed quite stable. Wartella et al. (1998: 58-9) present three key theoretical frameworks for explaining how people learn and imitate media violence. One is Albert Bandura's 'social learning theory,' according to which youngsters learn from media models which behaviours will be rewarded and which will be punished. Second, there are 'priming' effects (Berkowitz, 1984): when people see violence, it activates or 'primes' other related thoughts and evaluations, increasing the likelihood of using violence in interpersonal contexts. Third, according to Huesmann's (1986) script theory, social behaviour is governed by'scripts' that specify how to react to occurrences. As a result of aggressive writing, violence on television is encoded in such a way that it leads to violence. Aside from learning and modelling effects, it is widely believed that exposure to violent depictions causes a general 'desensitisation' that decreases inhibitions against and enhances tolerance for violent behaviour. There are many variables influencing a person's disposition, and several relating to the depiction of violence, as with all such theories. The main contextual factors (in content) influencing audience reactions have already been identified. Aside from personal disposition and content, the viewing scenario is also essential, particularly whether you are alone or with parents or classmates. Figure 18.1 depicts a behavioural effect model that applies to several of the effects discussed. 10.12 CONTENT The above-mentioned principal findings of the Surgeon General's study have frequently been confirmed (see, for example, Bryant and Zillman, 2002; Comstock, 1988; Oliver, 2003). There has continued to be a lot of violence depicted on television, and it attracts a lot of young people. According to Wilson and Smith (2002), the 1998 US National Television and Violence Study indicated that children's programming had more violence than other types of programming (Smith et al., 2002). It's difficult to say whether average exposure has increased or decreased over time, but the ability to see screen violence, as well as the means of viewing, has gradually spread to most parts of the world. Groebel (1998), writing for Unesco, commented on the universality of media violence and the pervasive attraction with aggressive media hero figures, particularly among males, in a global assessment of television violence including 5000 children in 23 countries. He discovered, for example, that 88 percent of Process and Models of Media Effects, Socio-Cultural Effects munotes.in

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116 120 Communication Theory the world's children were familiar with Arnold Schwarzenegger's Terminator (1998:182). 10.13 PROOF OF THE INFLUENCE The third finding, regarding behavioural consequences, is significantly less universal and has always been contentious due to industry and regulatory ramifications. It's difficult to be clear about this, and any broad authority pronouncement takes on a political tone (Ball-Rokeach, 2001). 'There is almost no doubt that people who are heavy watchers of this [television] violence display higher acceptance of violent attitudes and more aggressive behaviour,' according to the American Psychological Association (1993). (cited in Wartella et al., 1998). Even so, this falls short of a precise assertion of causation and ignores the possibility of additional factors such as the environment. Children from high-aggression situations (crime and conflict) and those in a 'problematic emotional state' were far more prone than others to observe and be attracted to aggressive violence, according to Groebel (1998). In a survey of European academic academics on media and violence, Linne (1998) inquired about the causal relationship between media violence and societal violence. There was a 'obvious causal link' for 22% of respondents, a 'vague causal link for some children' for 33%, and a 'no causal link' for 4%. The rest of the group thought the problem was too complex to be solved with such a basic solution. In general, Linne discovered that studies has evolved away from the question of causation and toward an understanding of the undeniable appeal of violence. According to Groebel's research (see above), "children's violent behaviour patterns and views are a mirror of what they encounter in their real environment: frustration; hostility; challenging conditions" (1998: 195). 'Media violence... is primarily presented in a rewarding context... [and] serves multiple demands,' he continues (1998:198). It "compensates" for personal disappointments and shortcomings in problematic areas.' It provides 'thrills for kids in a less dangerous atmosphere.' It provides a frame of reference for "attractive role models" for boys... Aggression's "reward qualities" are reinforced more systematically than non-aggressive ways of dealing with life.' These findings are not new, and they reaffirm what has been learned from much earlier research. We know that watching television violence has negative consequences, however they are usually mediated by other factors that may or may not be the'real' or fundamental reason. It has been suggested that media portrayals of violence and hostility may have some positive impacts by permitting a virtual and harmless release of emotion and aggression (see Perse, 2001: 220-1). This process has been given the name 'catharsis,' which comes from Aristotle's theory of play (Feshbach, 1955). Although it is obvious that the majority of aggressiveness elicited by media portrayals is released vicariously without munotes.in

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121 harming others, there is little scientific support for a theory that suggests there is a benefit to being exposed to violence. 10.14 FEAR-INDUCING TECHNIQUES Fear arousal and emotional disturbance are two other common effects of violent and "horror" content (Cantor, 2002). Adults and children alike seek out fright-inducing content for thrills and amusement, yet some people have unanticipated and bad results. Fear instilled by the media can be powerful and last for a long time. It's not always easy to tell which stuff is going to be upsetting. We must discriminate between categories of material (e.g. physical or psychological threat), degree of realism, motive for 'exposure,' and receiver factors like age personality and emotional stability when estimating the likely degree of and harm from frightening content. Girls appear to be more vulnerable to media-induced dread than boys (Cantor, 2002). The context of exposure might also affect the outcome. According to Valkenburg et al. (2000), 31 percent of youngsters surveyed in Holland said they were scared by television, but almost usually by films or adult shows. Check your progress: 1. What is a mass audience? 2. Why is the audience feedback critical? 3. Define the importance of the audience in the media. 10.15 Crime and the media Despite the fact that the media is frequently cited as a possible cause of real crime (apart from hostility and violence), study has found no such link. The reasons for classifying the media as suspects are mostly Process and Models of Media Effects, Socio-Cultural Effects munotes.in

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122 Communication Theory 122 speculative. Theoretical reasons include the likelihood that the media glamorises crime, demonstrates the benefits of crime, and teaches tactics. Nonetheless, the media's overarching message has always been that crime does not pay and that criminals are unattractive individuals. While there are questions concerning the effects of media portrayals of crime, both true and false, on behaviour, there is no doubt that they influence public perceptions of crime (Lowry et al., 2003) and the risks of becoming a victim. Some incidents of seemingly motiveless killings, where a linkage of the perpetrators with particular media may be proved, such as the 1999 Columbine School shooting and a similar event in Erfurt, Germany in 2002, have highlighted the possible link between media portrayal and actual violence. In the United States, a number of legal actions have been filed alleging media stimulation as a cause of violence, but none have been successful. According to Dee (1987), culpability was assumed to be based primarily on the issue of negligence, which is determined by whether the media took undue risks. Because such incidents of alleged effect are extremely rare, it's difficult to construct a case against the media without causing widespread suppression and censorship. In the case of the consequences of sexually explicit content, a similar concern occurs. According to Perse's evaluation of data, pornographic material encourages women to accept violence against them and desensitises those who are exposed to it: "exposure to pornography appears to be related with detrimental repercussions" (2001: 229). Despite this, the matter remains unresolved. Einseidel (1988) examined the conclusions of three public commissions (in the United Kingdom, Canada, and the United States) and came to the conclusion that social scientific evidence had failed to resolve the matter. Political and ideological concerns must be factored into evidence interpretation. A potential discrepancy exists between legal thinking, which often uses a direct model of consequences, and content and media theory, which has questioned this paradigm (see Calvert, 1997; Wackwitz, 2002). Violence perpetrated at the instigation of the media against certain minorities, outgroups, or hate figures is a category of media effect not covered by the preceding debate. Despite the fact that it is illegal for the media to publicly advocate violence, they can knowingly denigrate identifiable individuals or groups in such a way that there is a real risk of violence through individual or collective action. Violence has been aimed at groups such as child sex offenders, other sexual deviants, ethnic minorities of various kinds, conscientious objectors, alleged terrorists, gipsies, migrants, and others, with a plausible link to (effectively) hate campaigns in some media. Other factors must be present, but there is no question the media played a role in some of the numerous cases documented. There's also the issue of media instigation to civil or national wars. There is grounds to suspect that the media played a munotes.in

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role in inciting ethnic violence in Yugoslavia in the early 1990s when the wars broke out. 10.16 CHILDREN AND YOUNG PEOPLE IN THE MEDIA Aside from the topic of violence and criminality, the general and research literature on the influence of media on children abounds with expectations and anxieties (mainly the latter). From the beginning to the present, a great deal of research has been done on children's usage of and reactions to media (particularly television) (e.g. Schramm et al., 1961; Himmelweit et al., 1958; Noble, 1975; Brown, 1976; Buckingham, 2002; Livingstone, 2002; Carlsson and von Felitzen, 1998). The following expectations from media are among the concepts expressed and tested about negative effects: • social isolation is becoming more prevalent; • reduction in assignment time and attentiveness; • Passivity has risen; • (displacement) less time for leisure and exercise • less reading time (due to television); • parental authority is being eroded; • understanding and experience of sexual activity at a young age; • Obesity and improper eating • Anorexia is caused by the fostering of concern about one's own looks. • predisposition to depression The following are some of the positive benefits attributed to media: • establishing a foundation for social engagement; • learning about the world in general; • prosocial attitudes and behaviours are learned; • educational outcomes; • aid in the formation of an identity; • expanding one's imagination According to social learning theory (see p. 493), several of the following theories are reasonable, and a few have been examined (see Perse, 2001). There can be no general conclusion, and none of these can be considered fully proven or completely ruled out. The many other elements that contribute to each one of these 'effects,' according to study experience, Process and Models of Media Effects, Socio-Cultural Effects
should be considered. Despite this, psychologists appear to agree that 123 munotes.in

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124 124 Communication Theory children are better off on the whole if they are not exposed to a lot of television. Adult perceptions of the risks of television, however, differ according to social class, gender, and other characteristics, as shown by Seiter (2000). 10.17 COLLECTIVE REACTION EFFECTS Although other elements are present, collective response to mass media may be handled with using the logic of the stimulus-response paradigm. The new elements are mostly concerned with how reactions are transmitted to others, which is generally done at a high rate and with significant amplification of overall impacts. At work, there is frequently a self-generating and self-fulfilling process. In such situations, the term of 'contagion' has been used, particularly where masses congregate physically, but also where individuals are dispersed and reached by mass media and personal interactions. In response to alarming, insufficient, or inaccurate information, one key type of effect is widespread panic. The much-cited (but now debunked) panic reaction to Orson Welles' radio broadcast of The War of the Worlds in 1938, when fake news bulletins announced a Martian invasion, is an example of this (Canrril et al., 1940). It was also demonstrated by the media's alleged role in provoking civil unrest in various US cities in the late 1960s. The communal response to the terrorist bombing in Madrid in 2004, which occurred just before a general election, was seen to be aided by personal relationships and affected by scepticism of official explanations of the tragedy as reported in the media. In all of these examples, the role of the media is a little hazy. The increased risk of unanticipated terrorist attacks has raised the importance of such impacts, even if natural disasters such as earthquakes and industrial emergencies such as power outages and nuclear accidents provide plenty of possible stimuli. There's no denying that the conditions for a panic reaction to news do exist in some situations. We're talking about a unique type of rumour Shibutani, 1966), one that entails a pressing need for information and a limited supply. The media contributes the element of reaching a large number of individuals at the same time with the same piece of news (which may or may not be subject to independent verification), which can either cause or ease worry. Anxiety, worry, and uncertainty are some factors that might trigger a panic response. Beyond that, incompleteness or inaccuracy of information appear to be triggering elements of panic, leading to an eager hunt for information, usually through personal channels, thus giving the initial message more currency (Rosengren, 1976). Many acts of terrorism are planned, threatened, or carried out for political reasons by persons aiming to utilise the media for their own ends, however inadvertently. As a result, the two have a complicated interaction. munotes.in

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125 Terrorists want to get attention for their cause by instilling fear and anxiety in the general people. It's also possible that blackmail is involved. Violence, according to Schmid and de Graaf (1982), is both a way of gaining access to media platforms and a message in and of itself. The media is torn between two powerful pressures: the first is to apply conventional news values to dramatic events, and the second is to avoid being a weapon of mass destruction and a stumbling block to counter- terrorism efforts. Despite extensive studies (Alali and Eke, 1991; Paletz and Schmid, 1991), there is no conclusive assessment of the prevalent assumption that the media actively promotes terrorism's growth. The media can have a wide range of effects (Picard, 1991). Despite the degree of shock and anguish, and the complete lack of readiness for such occurrences, studies of the reaction to the 9/11 terror attacks in New York reveal that there was no widespread public panic (Greenberg et al., 2002). We can assume that extensive media coverage, far beyond the local site, aided in the de-escalation of the situation. The 1995 great Hanshin (Kobe) earthquake offered several lessons regarding the importance of media in disasters and the consequences of media failure (Takahiro, 2004). The sequence of aircraft hijacking events in 1971-2, which exhibited clear symptoms of being modelled on news stories, is another example of possible contagion effects. Holden (1986) revealed comparable correlational evidence that appears to point to the influence of media publicity. Other empirical evidence has been found to support the hypothesis that news stories can 'spark' abnormal behaviour in individuals. Suicides, motor vehicle deaths, and commercial and non-commercial plane fatalities all increased after press coverage of suicides or murder- suicides, according to Phillips (1980). He was also able to statistically link the depiction of suicide in television fiction with the real-life occurrence of suicide (Phillips, 1982), however his findings have been questioned due to methodological issues (Hessler and Stipp, 1985). At the very least, there appears to be some evidence to support an imitation or 'contagion' impact. Since the publication of Goethe's novel, The Sorrows of Young Wertfter in 1774, there have been numerous cases of suicides triggered by fiction and news. Jamieson et al. (2003) analyse the findings and make recommendations for how reporting should be handled to reduce dangers to vulnerable people. 10.18 CIVIL DISORDER Non-institutionalized and violent collective behaviour has been intensively examined due to the possible threat to the established order, and the media has been implicated in the quest for explanations of such behaviour. It has been proposed that the media may, among other things, cause a riot, promote a culture of rioting, teach people how to riot, and transmit a riot from one location to another. Process and Models of Media Effects, Socio-Cultural Effects munotes.in

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124 126 Communication Theory Although it appears to be agreed that personal contact has a larger role than media in every riot situation, the evidence for or against these ideas is thin and fragmented. Even yet, there is some evidence that the media can help by merely announcing the incidence and location of a riot (Singer, 1970), by publicising situations that cause riot behaviour, or by announcing the potential possibility of rioting in advance. In general, it appears that the media have the ability to define the nature of events, and even if they are ultimately "on the side" of established order, they can unintentionally exacerbate polarisation in specific circumstances. While the media has not been proven to be a primary or principal cause of rioting (see, for example, Kerner et al., 1968; Tumber, 1982), they can impact the timing and shape of rioting. On the basis of very bad evidence, Spilerman (1976) offers some support to this and other possibilities. Despite extensive research, he was unable to come up with a good structural explanation for many US urban riots (that is, explanations in terms of community conditions). He came to the conclusion that television and its network news structure were mostly to blame, particularly for instilling a sense of "black solidarity that would transcend the bounds of community." In present time, rather than as an unintended byproduct of mass media, mobilisation to collective action appears to be more likely to be accomplished via cell phone or the Internet. The Madrid case and the organised protest actions directed against world economic summits, which began in Seattle in 1998, are two examples (Kahn and Kellner, 2004). When discussing panic and rioting together, it's worth mentioning that the most popular response to the hazards previously mentioned, the control or silence of news (Paletz and Dunn, 1969), could cause local fear due to a lack of explanation for observable neighbourhood disruptions. 10.19 INNOVATION AND DEVELOPMENT DIFFUSION The majority of the data stems from several attempts in developing nations since WWII to use mass media to promote technical advancement, health, and education, frequently using models developed in rural America (Katz et al., 1963). Early media and development theory (for example, Lerner, 1958) depicted the media's influence as 'modernizing' simply by disseminating western ideas and appetites. The traditional perspective of the media influence has been as a mass educator working in collaboration with officials, specialists, and local leaders to achieve specific change goals. Everett Rogers (1962; Rogers and Shoemaker, 1973) was a key figure in this school, with his four-stage model of information diffusion: information, persuasion, decision or adoption, and confirmation. This sequence is similar to McGuire's (1973) persuasive phases (see p. 47). However, the media's function in the adoption process is limited to the first stage (knowledge and awareness), after which personal relationships, organised expertise and counsel, and practical experience take over. munotes.in

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127 Early diffusionists emphasised organisation and planning, linearity of impact, hierarchy (of status and skill), social structure (and hence personal experience), reinforcement, and feedback. Rogers (1976) predicted the 'passing' of this 'dominant paradigm,' pointing to its flaws in these similar traits, as well as its over-reliance on 'manipulation' from on high. Rogers and Kincaid (1981) proposed an alternative 'convergence model' of communication, emphasising the need of a continuous process of interpretation and response, resulting in greater mutual understanding between sender and recipient (see also Rogers, 1986). In the 1970s, critical thought associated attempts at external development with the maintenance of reliance. Newer development theories assign mass media a more limited role, with success reliant on their ability to stay connected to the society's core and its original culture. The concept of participatory communication has been promoted and is becoming more widely used (Huesca, 2003; Servaes, 1999). It's worth mentioning that mass communication is an innovation in and of itself that must be disseminated before it can participate in diffusion processes like those found in modern or developed civilizations (DeFleur, 1970; Rogers, 1986). Other modernity requirements, such as individuation, trust in bureaucracies and technology, and awareness of the basis of media authority, legitimacy, and objectivity, may be required for media to be effective. While donor countries continue to provide development aid for communication projects and the improvement of mass media infrastructure, there is now a considerably lower expectation of large-scale development outcomes. There is a greater understanding of the limitations of information-technology solutions, as well as the unequal distribution of any benefits that may result. As a precondition for success, there is also a greater emphasis on the need to strengthen public communication for the general public and communication freedom as a human right. 10.20 MASS MEDIA AND DEVELOPMENT The mass media play a role in development by: • Technical know-how is disseminated. • Individual change and movement are encouraged. • Democracies are spreading (elections) • Increasing customer demand • Assisting in literacy, education, health, and population management, among other things. Process and Models of Media Effects, Socio-Cultural Effects munotes.in

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128 128 Communication Theory Check your progress: 1. Discuss .how does mass media plays an important role in development. 2. Discuss Violence and Media in detail? 3. What do you mean by civil disorder? 10.21 KNOWLEDGE DISTRIBUTION IN SOCIETY Here we look at one of the most commonly anticipated and significant media effects: their ability to inform and keep a large-scale society informed in a way that is consistent with the needs of a contemporary economy and a participatory democratic process. While mass-mediated information significantly increases the average and minimum levels of 'knowledge' in a society, as well as the speed with which information is circulated, there is much debate about the persistence of inequalities and the varying capacities of different media to achieve these results. The emergence of the Internet, with its immense infor•mative potential but varied dispersion and actual use, has given the issue new energy and urgency. It has resulted in the creation of a new word - the 'digital divide' - to replace the earlier term 'knowledge gap' (Norris, 2002). It has long been expected that because the press and broadcasting have considerably increased the flow of public information, they will have aided in the modification of knowledge gaps caused by educational and social inequality (Gaziano, 1983). Political campaign research suggest that such 'knowledge gap-closing' between social groupings can happen quickly (for example, Blumler and McQuail, 1968). However, evidence of the opposite impact has been found, demonstrating that an attentive minority gets far more knowledge than the rest, expanding the gap between particular segments of the public. munotes.in

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129 The 'knowledge gap hypothesis,' according to Tichenor et al. (1970), "does not hold that lower status population segments remain wholly unaware" (or that the poorer in knowledge get poorer in an absolute sense). Instead, the hypothesis is that knowledge growth is disproportionately greater among those with higher socioeconomic position. ' There is undoubtedly a class bias in attention to 'information-rich' sources, with high relationships between social class, attention to these sources, and the ability to answer information questions on political, social, and economic issues. The knowledge gap hypothesis has two basic components: one is concerned with the general distribution of aggregate information in society between socioeconomic classes, and the other is concerned with specific subjects or themes about which some people are more knowledgeable than others. The first 'gap' is likely to be rooted in fundamental socioeconomic imbalances that the media cannot change on its own. In terms of the second, there are numerous ways to open and close gaps, and it is likely that the media will close some while opening others. There are several elements that influence the direction of the media effect. Donohue et al. (1975) emphasised the importance of media in closing gaps on matters that are of broad significance to small communities, particularly during times of conflict, in order to increase attention and learning. Motivation and perceived utility influence information seeking and learning in general, and these factors are influenced more by social context than by media. It has been argued, however, that different media may act in different ways, and that print media, rather than television, are more likely to expand disparities (Robinson, 1972), because these are the preferred sources for the privileged classes. The idea that television can have the opposite impact (benefiting the less fortunate) is based on the fact that it reaches a larger part of a community with similar news and information and is largely viewed as reliable. However, a lot relies on the institutional forms that a community uses. Television used to provide a popular and uniform source of shared information on national and international concerns, thanks to public broadcasting systems in Western Europe and, to a lesser extent, the national network system in the United States (owing to their de facto oligopoly). This vast audience for information is dwindling as a result of current trends toward channel multiplication, increased competition, and audience fragmentation. Television is becoming into a more distinct source of information, similar to print media, but without the benefit of a captive mass audience. Even in the days of mass viewing, Robinson and Levy's (1986) research on news learning from television does not inspire much confidence in television's ability to close knowledge gaps. Gaziano (1997) reviewed 39 studies on the knowledge gap hypothesis and concluded that the media's effect on closing or narrowing gaps is unknown, but the gaps persist (see also Visvanath and Finnegan, 1996). Process and Models of Media Effects, Socio-Cultural Effects munotes.in

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130 130 Communication Theory The uneven spread of new computer-based information technology contributes to the widening of the gap between the information wealthy and the information poor (Katz and Rice, 2002). As a result, according to knowledge gap theory, the gaps will increase, as those who are already well-informed, with superior information skills and resources, will move even further ahead of others who are less well-informed. It's debatable if the 'knowledge gap' notion is still valid. It assumes a foundational body of knowledge that we all require in order to function in society. This premise becomes increasingly dubious in the face of increased knowledge abundance and specialisation, yet it may still be relevant for the democratic political process of electing governments. 10.22 THEORY OF SOCIAL LEARNING Bandura's (1986) social learning (or observational learning) hypothesis is a widely referenced model of media effects, particularly in respect to children and young people. The primary premise is that we can't learn what we need to govern our own development and behaviour via direct personal observation and experience. We must learn a great deal from illegitimate sources, including the media. Attention, retention, production, and motivation are the four essential phases of social learning, according to Bandura's model. Our focus is on media content that has the potential to be relevant to our lives, personal needs, and interests. We may then remember what we've learned and add it to our existing knowledge base. The third stage, production, refers to the actual application of lessons learned in behaviour, which may be rewarded (reinforced) or punished, resulting in increased or decreased motivation to follow a specific path. The hypothesis can be applied to the socialising impacts of media as well as the adoption of various action models. Clothing, look, style, eating and drinking, styles of engagement, and personal consumption are only a few examples. Long-term trends can also be supported. The idea only applies to behaviour that is directly represented in symbolic form, according to Bandura (1986). The theory also assumes active participation on the side of the learner, as well as the ability to self-reflect. It's not the same as mimicry or imitation. The media is rarely the sole source of social learning, and its influence is influenced by other factors such as parents, friends, and teachers. On social learning, there are tremendous collective influences. Nonetheless, according to social learning theory, media can have direct impacts on people, and their influence does not have to be mediated through personal influence or social networks (see Bandura, 2002: 140). 10.23 SOCIALIZATION Although the nature of the case makes it difficult to verify, it is widely thought that the media play a role in the early socialisation of children and the long-term socialisation of people. This is partially due to the fact that it is such a long-term process, and partly due to the fact that any media munotes.in

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effect interacts with other social background influences and different ways of socialisation within families (Hedinsson, 1981). Rare longitudinal studies of development have occasionally yielded prima facie evidence of media-mediated socialisation (for example, Rosengren and Windahl, 1989). Nonetheless, certain basic assumptions regarding the potential socialisation impacts of media are frequently integrated into media control policies, media decisions, and the norms and expectations that parents apply or hold in respect to their children's media use. The media socialisation thesis has two sides: on the one hand, the media can reinforce and support other socialisation agencies; on the other hand, they are also seen as a possible challenge to the values set by parents, educators, and other social control agents. The thesis' fundamental premise is that the media can teach norms and values through symbolic reward and punishment for various types of behaviour as depicted in the media. Another viewpoint is that it is a learning process in which we all learn how to behave in specific settings and the expectations that come with a particular role or social status. As a result, the media is always presenting images of life and models of behaviour ahead of actual experience. Early studies of children's media use (e.g., Wolfe and Fiske, 1949; Himmelweit et al., 1958; Noble, 1975; Brown, 1976) indicated a propensity for children to seek out life lessons and connect them to their own experiences. The systematic presentation of representations of social life, which could profoundly impact children's expectations and aspirations, has also been highlighted in content studies. The conformist role of media is often emphasised in socialisation theory. According to this perspective, the media is neither "prosocial" nor "antisocial," but rather favours the most prevalent and established values. The general notion that media have a socialising effect is evident in any formulation, although it is only indirectly supported by actual evidence. 10.24 CONSCIOUSNESS FORMATION AND SOCIAL CONTROL The degree and purposefulness of the mass media as a social control agent is the subject of a spectrum of theoretical viewpoints. A popular belief is that the media act inadvertently to support the dominant ideals in a community or nation, based on a combination of personal and institutional decision, operational constraints, external pressure, and anticipating what a broad and diverse audience expects and desires. Because of a combination of market factors (particularly large-firm ownership) and subordination to national and state objectives, a stronger and more critical form of this position sees the media as fundamentally conservative. These alternative hypotheses tend to rely on similar evidence, with the majority of it referring to systematic content patterns and very little directly about effects. In the form of a 'propaganda model,' Herman and Chomsky (1988) created Process and Models of Media Effects, Socio-Cultural Effects
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132 132 Communication Theory this, news in capitalist countries must be filtered through a number of 'filters,' including financial integration of the media with the rest of the economy, advertising, news management campaigns, society's dominant worldview, and dependence on official sources of information. Other studies, such as Reese et al. (1994) and Manheim (1994), have uncovered a lot of circumstantial evidence of the last-named filter at work, as have Herman and Chomsky (1998). Manufacturing Consent is the title of Herman and Chomsky's book, which is based on Walter Lippmann's (1922: 158) statement that the "manufacturing of consent is capable of vast refinements... and the prospects for manipulation open to anyone who understands the process are apparent enough." The weakness of the Herman and Chomsky positions is that they take such little account of later study and evidence. Lippmann's ideas represent what was referred to above as the first phase (that of 'all-powerful media') in the evolution of thought about the power of the media (Klaehn, 2002). The content of the most popular media appears to be broadly supportive of established social norms and practises (a form of socialisation and 'cultivation'). In the mass media, fundamental challenges to the national state or its established institutions are hard to come by. The thesis that mass media tend to support the status quo is thus founded on evidence of what is present in media material as well as what is lacking. The former comprises 'conformist' or patriotic behaviour being rewarded (in fiction), established elites and points of view receiving a lot of attention and privileged (often direct) access, and non-institutional or deviant behaviour being treated negatively or unequally. The mass media is frequently depicted as promoting national or communal agreement and as tending to portray problems as solvable within society's and culture's established 'rules.' Evidence of a link between television reliance and the acceptance of consensus or middle-of-the-road political views is one of the findings of 'cultivation' research (Gerbner et al., 1984). In a similar vein, the media frequently characterises certain types of behaviour and groups as both deviant and hazardous to society. Aside from the obviously criminal, these include teen gangs, drug addicts, "football hooligans," and some sexual deviants. The media has been accused of exaggerating the true threat and significance of such groups and their activities (Cohen and Young, 1973) and of inducing "moral panics" (Cohen, 1972). Those who rely on government benefits may be labelled "welfare scroungers" (Golding and Middleton, 1982; Sotirovic, 2001), and the same can be said of immigrants, refugees, or travellers (Horsti, 2003), and even the impoverished (Clauson and Trice, 2001). The process is known as 'blaming the victim,' and it is a common element of collective opinion formation to which the media can contribute significantly. The effect is to offer scapegoats and objects of anger in society, to divert attention away from actual issues with causes in society's institutions, and to gather support for law enforcement forces. munotes.in

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133 Evidence of media omission is difficult to come by, however comparative content assessments of news from different countries have added to the evidence of systematic omission in the attention paid to specific subjects and sections of the world (Golding and Elliott, 1979). The Glasgow Media Group (1976; 1980; 1985) conducted detailed investigations of news content and discovered several major patterns of omission. We should keep in mind the equally plausible hypotheses of the limited capacity for media effect when assessing the frequently eloquent and compelling theoretical arguments for the ideological effects of the media. The evidence of audience selectivity and 'differential decoding' is particularly pertinent (Jensen, 1986; 1998; Liebes and Riback, 1994). The majority of ideas concerning ideological or hegemonic influences are based on media and content observation rather than audience or 'effects.' Even though they come from the same critical school, the lessons of'reception' research provide a counterbalance. It's nearly impossible to measure the extent to which the impacts predicted by this corpus of theory and study actually occur. Nonetheless, the media are mostly owned and controlled by (typically big) business interests or (indirectly) by the government - and thus by the interests who wield the most political and economic power (Dreier, 1982). There is a good lot of prima facie evidence that such media ownership is valued (by its owners) for reasons other than immediate financial gain, particularly for political and social influence and status. The results aren't always positive or supportive of the existing quo. T he observation made by Gans (1979: 68) that "news is not so much conservative or liberal as it is reformist" undoubtedly still holds true today. The media are committed to serving as a carrier of messages (for example, concerning scandals, crises, societal evils, and innovations) that can also be an incentive to change, as defined by their own self-defined job and ideology. Within the limitations of systems with some capacity for generating change, they most likely provoke a lot of activity, agitation, and worry, disrupting the existing order. 10.25 CULTIVATION Gerbner's (1973) cultivation theory is arguably the most well-documented and researched of the long-term media effect ideas (see Signorielli and Morgan, 1990). It claims that, among modern media, television has taken such a significant role in daily life that it now dominates our'symbolic environment,' replacing its (distorted) message about reality for personal experience and other ways of learning about the world. Television is also described as the "culture arm of the established industrial order," "serving mostly to maintain, sustain, and reinforce customary beliefs and behaviours rather than to alter, disrupt, or undermine them" (Gross, 1977: 180). Process and Models of Media Effects, Socio-Cultural Effects munotes.in

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132 134 Communication Theory This assertion takes the cultivation effect extremely near to what the Frankfurt School critical theorists proposed, as well as to later Marxist theory. Signorielli and Morgan (1990:15) claim that: Cultivation analysis is the third component of a research paradigm known as 'Cultural Indicators,' which looks into (1) institutional processes underlying media content production, (2) images in media content, and (3) relationships between audience beliefs and behaviours and exposure to television's message. Putting the theory to the test: Those who watch more television are expected to have their views of reality deviate more from the recognised picture of the social world and more toward the 'television' picture of the world. The study of violence and crime has always been a prominent emphasis of the research, with culti•vation studies focusing on its media portrayal, real incidence, and differential risks on the one hand, and public awareness of and attitudes toward crime on the other. Early findings from cultivation study (Gerbner and Gross, 1976) demonstrated that the more people watched television, the more likely they were to inflate the occurrence of crime in the real world and the personal hazards they faced. At least in the United States, this association appears to still exist (Romer et al., 2003). Other political and social issues have been investigated, such as the media's role in the formation of political consensus (Gerbner et al., 1984). Hawkins and Pingree (1983) discovered many scattered evidence of the expected links in an exhaustive analysis of various studies of the television construction of reality, but no definitive proof of the direction of the relationship between television viewing and thoughts about social reality. They claim that television may teach about social reality, and that the relationship between viewing and social reality may be reciprocal: television viewing leads a social reality to be formed in a certain way, but this social reality construction may also guide viewing behaviour. Morgan and Shanahan (1997) conclude in a recent comprehensive review of culture literature that cultivation effects definitely exist, but they are minor on average. The television experience is likely to be more differentiated and non- cumulative than the theory allows for, and this may become more so as output and supply expand (both in the USA and elsewhere). For example, a research of the cul•tivation effects of television on marriage expectancies (Segrin and Nabi, 2002) found that viewing of genre-specific 'romantic' content, but not general TV viewing, was linked to unrealistic expectations. In contrast to previous sources, Sotirovic (2001) discovered negative images of welfare beneficiaries among viewers of cable TV news and entertainment programming. munotes.in

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135 In Germany, Rossler and Brosius (2001) discovered minimal cultivation effects from specific talk show contents, but not from all television or the genre in general. The premise of the long-term cumulative influence of powerful'message systems' is further challenged by active audience theory (see Chapter 15). Several scholars have questioned the causal relationship proposed between statistics on television viewing and survey data on values and opinions (Hirsch, 1980; 1981; Hughes, 1980). In the United States, where (mainstream) television material is more commercial and less diverse, the 'cultivation' effect appears to be more prevalent. Despite the quantity of work that has been done, evidence from other nations is still mixed. Wober (1978) found little support for images of a violent society in British data, and Doob and McDonald (1979) found the same in Canadian data. However, according to Hedinsson (1981: 188), evidence amounted to "if not a direct support, at least a non-refutation of Gerbner's theory." Rosengren and Windahl (1989) provide a variety of data about long-term changes in young people's television viewing habits that might be used to support the cultivation hypothesis. One example is the world's 'mental maps,' which fluctuate dramatically depending on how much television is watched. Apart from North America, the world beyond Sweden consists of little for high-viewing adolescent boys. Given the numerous intervening variables, it is nearly impossible to deal successfully with the intricacy of claimed links between symbolic structures, audience behaviour, and audience attitudes, no matter how reasonable the theory is. It's also difficult to distinguish any 'cultivation' process from normal socialisation. Despite this, it appears that the line of inquiry represented by cultural indicators and cultivation research is not exhausted, and that it can lend itself to more specialised and detailed investigations on certain themes (Signorielli and Morgan, 1990) 10.26 LONG-TERM SOCIAL AND CULTURAL CHANGE AND THE MEDIA The theories of mass communication propose a number of major social and cultural repercussions in one way or another. Any such effects, however, are likely to be modest, long-term, and difficult to quantify. There are also a lot of different and even contradictory options. Mass communication, for example, has been linked to personal isolation, individuation, societal diversity, and even fragmentation. Putnam (2000) attributes the fall in 'social capital' in America, as well as a reduction in civic and social activity, to television viewing. Moy et al. discovered some evidence to support this viewpoint (1999). Other theorists have credited (or criticised) the media for increasing homogeneity and social solidarity, sometimes to an unhealthy degree (see p. 495). The media has been accused for lowering cultural standards (and Process and Models of Media Effects, Socio-Cultural Effects munotes.in

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136 Communication Theory 136 reducing material to the lowest common denominator), as well as commended for more extensively disseminating traditional and contemporary culture. Despite the plausibility of these and other concepts regarding the impact of mass media on culture and society, there is little solid proof of the claimed broad consequences. The ability of the media to describe circumstances, establish frames of reference, and distribute representations of social groupings is central to the process by which they contribute to social and cultural change. In the lack of significant historical knowledge, they also serve as the 'collective memory' of a specific national society. The media are not the primary creators or sources of any of these, but they do weave them into more or less constant and recurring narratives that serve as secondary sources for people's perceptions about their own society and their place within it. The media, which has an insatiable thirst for both novelty and continuity, contributes to change by catching up on every new fad, fear, or noteworthy information that might become part of a larger story, whether in news or fiction, and thus contributes to change. The media essentially becomes the gatekeepers of change for the majority of people, especially when they appear to agree on the same selection and perspective of what is going on. Much depends on the assessor's perspective and early assumptions about the problem at hand in determining these and other questions. It's also important to remember that media and society are always in conversation. Cultural and social change do not have a simple one-way causal relationship with the media, whether as technology or as cultural material. The outcomes of these interactions are very changeable, unpredictable, and different depending on the conditions. Without a doubt, the media have diverted time and attention away from other activities (displacement effects); they have become a channel for reaching more people with more information than was available under 'pre-mass-media' conditions; and they have changed the way information and ideas circulate. These findings have ramifications for any social entity seeking public attention and communicating with the general population. Other institutions are under pressure to adapt or respond to the media in some way, or to employ media channels themselves. They are likely to adjust their own practises as a result of this. The media's influence is more likely to be indirect. They work to alter public expectations, resource availability, and, most importantly, the way things are done in other social organisations. These have become increasingly reliant on the media for their public communication, and communication has adapted to what has been dubbed a "media logic" (see p. 331), which has substantial implications for their behaviour. ' Today, all social institutions are media institutions,' as Altheide and Snow (1991: viii) put it. In Chapter 19, the case of the political institution is examined, but similar conclusions can be drawn for cultural and social institutions. munotes.in

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137 Check your progress: Process and Models of Media Effects, Socio-Cultural Effects 1. Discuss the cultural change in the media. 2. Discuss what do you mean by cultivation theory? 3. What do you mean by manufacturing consent? 10.27 EFFECTS OF ENTERTAINMENT The most common type of media material is probably referred to as 'entertainment,' and it is the primary cause for media's popularity. Zillmann and Bryant (1994) remind us that entertainment has many effects beyond the widely studied unintended negative repercussions, and that entertainment is also an effect in and of itself, intended by producers and audiences. Although the main idea appears to be diversion and being caught up in some story or spectacle, entertainment has proven difficult to describe. It can also be thought of in terms of more particular types of effect, such as being amused; being emotionally stirred, resulting in feelings of grief, happiness, rage, relief, excitement, fear, and so on; being diverted from anxiety; and so on. Music, in particular, has been linked to a variety of affects, including emotions and dispositions, as well as arousal (Knobloch and Zillmann, 2002). The appeal of drama, according to Zillmann (1980), is based on the satisfaction and annoyance produced by the shifting fortunes of positively or adversely portrayed people. Zillmann and Bryant (1994) raise more concerns than they can answer about the appeal of suspense, particularly the seeming attractiveness of news reports of terrible events, which seem to enthral even when there is little cause to despise the principal victims, unlike in many fictions. munotes.in

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138 Communication Theory 138 The study tradition of 'uses and gratifications' (provides some avenues for unearthing the satisfactions (intended effects) sought by viewers, as well as some pertinent findings, but there is still a lack of coherent conceptualization in this neglected area of media effects. The term 'escapism' is insufficient to account for the effects of entertainment, and the numerous theories of pleasure proposed (see Bryant and Miron, 2002) do not lend themselves to precise formulation and testing. 10.28 QUESTIONS 1. Explain the premise of media effect. 2. Discuss the Natural History of Media Effect Research and Theory: Four Phases 3. State the types of communicative powers. 4. Briefly explain the process of media effect: A Typology. 5. Discuss the Model of Behavioural Effect. 10.29 REFERENCES • Bryant, J. and Zillman, D. (eds) (2002) Perspectives on Media Effects, 3rd edn. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. • Iyengar, S. and Reeves, R. (eds) (1997) Do the Media Govern? Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. • Lowery, S.A. and DeFleur, M.L. (eds) (1995) Milestones in Mass Communication Research, 3rd edn. New York: Longman. • Perse, E.M. (2001) Media Effects and Society. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. • These journal articles and book chapter can be accessed from the companion website to this book: www.sagepub.co.uk/mcquail5 • Grabe, M.E., Lang, A. and Zhao, X. (2003) 'News content and form: implications for memory and audience evaluation', Communication Research, 30 (4): 387-413. • Lovas, P.E. (2003) 'The "War against terror". A PR challenge for the Pentagon', Gazette, 65 (3): 211-30. • Yang, J. (2003) 'Framing the Nato airstrikes on Kosovo across countries: comparison of Chinese and US newspaper coverage', Gazette, 63 (3): 231-49. • McDonald, D.G. (2004) 'Twentieth century media effect research', in J.D.H. Downing, D. McQuail, P. Schlesinger and E. Wartella (eds), The Sage Handbook of Media Studies, pp. 183-200. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. munotes.in

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139 • Carlsson, U. and von Felitzen, C. (1998) Children and Media Violence. Goteborg: Unesco. • Gitlin, T. (1980) The Whole World Is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. • Oliver, M.B. (2003) 'Race and crime in the media', in A.N. Valdivia (ed.), The Companion to Media Studies. Oxford: Blackwell. • Perse, E.M. (2001) Media Effects and Society. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. • Rosengren, K.E. and Windahl, S. (1989) Media Matter. Norwood, NJ: Ablex. • These journal articles and book chapter can be accessed from the companion website to this book: www.sagepub.co.uk/mcquail5 • Isfati, Y. and Capella, J.N. (2003) 'Do people watch what they do not trust? Exploring the association between news media, scepticism and exposure', Communication Research, 30 (5): 504-29. • Robinson, P. (2001) 'Theorizing the influence of media on world polities', European Journal of Communication, 16 (4): 523-44. • Valkenberg, P., Cantor, J. and Peeters, A.L. (2000) 'Fright reactions to TV', Communication Research, 27 (1): 82-94. • Smith, S.L., Moyer-Guse, E. and Donnerstein, E. (2004) 'Media violence and sex: What are the concerns, issues and effects?', in J.D.H. Downing, D. McQuail, P. Schlesinger and E. Wartella (eds), The Sage Handbook of Media Studies, pp. 541-68. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage • Middleton, D. (1996). An Introduction to Statistical Communication Theory: An IEEE Press Classic Reissue. Wiley. • Mortensen, C. D. (Ed.). (2017). Communication Theory. Taylor & Francis. • Stocklmayer, S. M., Gore, M.M., Bryant, C.R., & Stocklmayer, S.M. (Eds.). (2001). Science Communication in Theory and Practice. Springer Netherlands. ***** Process and Models of Media Effects, Socio-Cultural Effects munotes.in

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11 NEWS, PUBLIC OPINION AND POLITICAL COMMUNICATION Unit Structure 11.0 Objectives 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Schemata for news and news processing 11.3 Newsworthiness 11.4 News Diffusion 11.5 Framing Effects 11.6 Agenda -Setting 11.7 Effects on Public Opinion and Attitudes 11.8 The Spiral of Silence: The Formation of Opinion Climates 11.9 Effects of Political Communication in Democracies 11.10 Let’s sum up 11.11 Questions 11.12 References 11.0 OBJECTIVES • To Learning from news • To study News diffusion • To understand Framing effect and Agenda-setting • Learn the Effects on public opinion and attitudes • Study the spiral of silence: the formation of climates of opinion • To understand Political communication effects in democracies 11.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter examines yet another set of potential media impacts, defined principally by their relationship to various types of informational media material, particularly news and various forms of political communication. The consequences in question concern public 'knowledge,' beliefs, and attitudes, particularly those that are short- or medium-term in nature. Some of the impacts are deliberate (as in election campaigns and propaganda), while others are not (as in general news), but the distinction is blurry. Intentional communication can have unexpected repercussions, while inadvertent communication can have systematic and predictable effects (for example, an unwitting bias can be found in otherwise objective news). 140 munotes.in

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Furthermore, it has become routine to notice that deliberate News, Public Opinion and Political communicators (propagandists of various kinds) frequently try to hide their advocacy within the 'news,' or just aim to get attention and free publicity. In general, news and political communication are areas of mass communication where traditional media face the most competition and threat from new online media, particularly the Internet. The Internet has many more sources and types of news than any newspaper or television station, and it allows the recipient to choose according to his or her own preferences. It also offers the possibility of interacting with and responding to news sources. There are also constraints and roadblocks to the audience's utilisation of the new potential, and so effects are limited. News does not usually have learning objectives, but rather provides a service in which a variety of information is Learning from news made available to members of an audience to choose from based on their interests. The circumstances of mass media news consumption are often considerably distinct from other informational settings, particularly in terms of attention voluntariness, the frequent lack of specific motivation, and the high level of inattention that follow broadcast news use non particular. News content is frequently perishable and incidental. Nonetheless, the overall goal is to inform, and news content is normally evaluated based on a set of information value standards. Furthermore, individuals do learn from the news and as a result become more informed. The amount to which news has an impact is determined by whether or not it reaches an audience that pays attention to the material, comprehends it, and can recall or recognise part of it after the event has occurred. Comprehension and recall, like other types of effects, are influenced by both message and sender characteristics as well as audience elements. News communications can be relevant, attention-getting, engaging, and intelligible in varying degrees. News sources are likely to differ depending on the level of trust and credibility they have with their audience. On the audience side, overall motivation for following news, prior acquaintance with the issues, and general educational level are likely to be the most important aspects. It's apparent that a lot of information is 'received' without much thought and with little active 'processing.' There isn't much study on learning from news that has been published (although important contributions have been made, especially by Findahl and Hoijer, 1981; 1985; Robinson and Levy, 1986; Woodall, 1986; Gunter, 1987; 1999; Davis and Robinson, 1989; Robinson and Davis, 1990; Newhagen and Reeves, 1992). So far, the findings have tended to corroborate the findings of decades of basic communication study (Trenaman, 1967). Thus, in addition to a favourable educational background, the interest, Communication
relevance, and concreteness of news items enhance comprehension, and 141 munotes.in

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142 Communication Theory 142 prior knowledge and the habit of discussing news subjects with others are still important. Despite the fact that television is frequently cited by the public as the primary source of news, Robinson and Levy (1986) found it to be overestimated as a source of public-policy knowledge. They also discovered that a number of standard news production and presentation strategies often worked against listeners' ability to comprehend the news (see also Cohen, 2001). Graber (1990) reveals, on the other hand, that images do assist recall of television news material. The typical degree of learning, as assessed by comprehension or memory, is very poor, and what is learned is fragmentary, according to (television) news study. People in natural conditions, according to Findahl (2001), remember fewer than 5% of news. Even yet, the selection and structuring of knowledge as given shapes what is learned. 11.2 SCHEMATA FOR NEWS AND NEWS PROCESSING Much news is presented inside meaning frameworks that derive from the way news is gathered and processed, according to news content study. For easier comprehension, news is 'framed' topically and thematically, and it's logical to assume that audiences use some of the same frames in their processing of incoming news. This kind of thought was applied to news processing by Graber (1984). The interpretative frames or schemata mentioned previously are jointly built and broadly shared guides to selection, relevance, and cognition. A schema is a "cognitive framework comprised of organised knowledge about circumstances and individuals that has been abstracted from earlier experiences," according to Graber. It's utilised to process new data and retrieve previously stored data' (1984: 23). Schemata aid in the evaluation of new data and the filling in of gaps when data is lacking or confusing. They can also help you remember important information. The most broad and long-lasting frames may have an international currency (for example, 'the Cold War,' 'international terrorism,' or 'danger to the global environment,' for example), but others may be more local and localised. Graber discovered that the 'schemata in people's heads' were extremely diverse, fragmented, and disorganised. Schemata were utilised in a variety of ways in response to news material, with numerous different techniques being seen. News learning, according to this paradigm, is the integration of new knowledge into pre-existing schemata. This helps to explain why having past knowledge is linked to having more learning capacity. Although information is frequently supplied in the form of pre-existing schemata that are simply taken over by a receiver rather than being critically analysed, an active activity by the receiver is presumed. Exemplification: The use of 'exemplification,' or the quoting of specific concrete incidents to illustrate more general themes and justify general conclusions, is a munotes.in

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143 common element of news that has been researched in terms of impacts. One type of framing is this. However, in cases where the instance is not representative, the method might lead to disinformation or bias. According to Zillmann (2002), there are four conceivable outcomes. When concrete examples are utilised instead of abstract arguments, when examples are emotionally stimulating, when several instances of the same kind are offered, and when the presentation is vivid, there will be a higher influence on the perception of issues. In general, research has backed up these claims (Zillmann and Brosius, 2000). Reception that differs: Other study has confirmed the concept that actual news interpretations are greatly influenced at the point of reception by the circumstances, outlook, and prejudices of the individual audience member in a domestic and 'daily life' scenario, in the tradition of 'reception analysis' (see Jensen, 1986; 1998). The 'meta-messages' those viewers bring to television news are described by Gurevitch and Levy (1986: 132) as 'latent meanings that are incorporated in audience decodings,' which help to relate individual sense- making to broader tales. They assume that viewers, like journalists, have "tacit ideas" that help them frame their understanding of world events and process information. Jensen (2001), based on a comparison of news reception in several countries, backed up this claim. He discovered that the'super-themes' employed by journalists to structure news narratives do not correspond to the themes utilised by less educated and engaged news audience members. The opinions that emerge frequently cut over genuine news issues, particularly foreign news. Jensen identified four categories via which audiences make sense of news: • Space: Audiences decide whether or whether distant events will have an impact on them. • Power: Audiences are more inclined to perceive news as affecting them as well as the powerful. • Time: Audiences interpret events in terms of their own personal history, both past and future. • Identity: Audiences associate or detach themselves from news events, places, and individuals. The initial types of news reception study (Alasuutari, 1999) were based on Stuart Hall's (1974/1980) encoding/decoding paradigm, which proposed that news may be interpreted in 'hegemonic,' 'negotiated,' or 'opposi•tional' ways depending on the receiver's outlook. Although there isn't much data to back this up, a study of Palestinian and Jewish reactions to news of the Intifada appears to back it up (Liebes and Riback, 1994). 'Extremists' on both sides tended to take the news in a 'hegemonic' or 'oppositional' manner, while moderates on both sides used a 'negotiated' approach. News, Public Opinion and Political Communication munotes.in

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144 144 Communication Theory Factors Associated with News Learning: • The audience's prior knowledge and interest • The topic's perceived importance • a reliable and trustworthy news source or channel • Illustrations in pictures • The topic is concrete, and it has a 'hard news' feel to it. • The news can be interpreted in a variety of ways. • Repetition of information 11.3 NEWSWORTHINESS The attribution of believability by an audience is a condition of news to accomplish learning effects, as indicated in Box 19.1. In order for a news source to be effective, it must have some level of trust, yet there is plenty of evidence that people pay attention to media outlets they don't believe (see Kifati and Capella, 2003). According to Gaziano and McGrath (1987), perceived fairness, lack of bias, and good faith were more important than perceived correctness or trustworthiness of information. It is the source's quality, not the information, that is important. A view of a medium as having the public's best interests at heart was a significant factor. After the 1960s, television quickly surpassed newspapers as the most trusted source of news in the United States and the United Kingdom. Although the belief that pictures are more trustworthy than words plays a role, television's mandated impartiality is also a factor for public trust. In some nations, a clear distinction between a more trustworthy public television and a less trustworthy private television emerges (in Germany, Japan and the UK). Public knowledge of varied levels of newspaper credibility, particularly between quality and 'tabloid' versions, is also demonstrated by survey findings. There are additional variances across the country. Within Europe, the press in the United Kingdom is far less trustworthy than the press in practically every other Western European country (Eurobarometer, 1999). Credibility perceptions appear to reflect true distinctions across sources and are subject to change. There is still the issue of precisely what is being measured. With the advent of the Internet as a news medium, the question of credibility has resurfaced. Users face inherent difficulty in determining the credibility of material on the Internet unless it originates from well-known media outlets, but there is a widespread belief that the Internet can bring answers to problems. It's still too early to see a clear pattern of public opinion emerge, and research findings have been uneven. In Germany (Schweiger, 2000) and munotes.in

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145 the United States (Kiousis, 2001; Johnson and Kaye, 2002; Flanagan and Metzger, 2000; Metzger et al, 2003), research comparing the Internet with television and newspapers as news sources revealed that the Internet lags behind in perceived trust. Younger (student) users appear to have a higher level of trust in internet sources than others (Bucy, 2003). Those who are sceptical about politics in general prefer to get their information from non- mainstream sources, such as the Internet, in line with the concept that there is more diversity. 11.4 NEWS DIFFUSION The adoption and absorption of news into people's 'knowledge' is primarily a short- or medium-term phenomenon. The majority of early news effect research was on 'diffusion,' or the spread of news as assessed by the ability to recall specific events. In this case, four primary variables have gotten a lot of attention. They are the extent to which people (in a given population) are aware of a particular event; the relative importance or perceived salience of the event; the volume of information about it that is disseminated; and the extent to which knowledge of an event is gained through news media or personal contact. The various interactions between these four are numerous, but one form of interaction is depicted by the J-curved relationship between those who are aware of an occurrence and those who heard about the same event through an interpersonal source (Greenberg, 1964). The J-shape represents the following findings: when practically everyone knows about an incident (such as John F. Kennedy's assassination in 1963, Princess Diana's death in 1997, or the 9/11 attacks), a very high proportion (over half) are likely to have heard about it from a personal contact (associated conditions here being high event salience and rapid diffusion). When a smaller proportion of the public is aware of events, the percentage of personal contact origination lowers while the percentage of media source grows (associated conditions are lower salience and slower diffusion rates). However, there is a category of occurrences about which only a small minority of the public is knowledgeable. These are minorities for whom the event or topic is extremely important, and because personal contact networks are activated in these situations, the proportion of knowledge gained from personal contact rises again in comparison to media sources. The pattern of news information dispersion can adopt a number of shapes that depart from the 'standard' S-curve (a slow start, then an acceleration, then a flattening as the upper limit is reached). One essential form of variant is the J-curve, which has recently been described. Incomplete diffusion, very rapid early acceleration, and overly slow acceleration are three alternate patterns presented by Chaffee (1975). Different answers should be sought in terms of 'content-specific' factors, source variables, and receiver variables, which are frequently combined. News, Public Opinion and Political Communication munotes.in

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144 146 Communication Theory The bias of study towards a certain type of events, particularly 'hard news,' which has a high degree of unexpectedness, is still holding back theory regarding news diffusion (Rosengren, 1973; 1987). More evidence about'soft news' and normal or foreseeable events would be needed to have a more complete view of news diffusion processes. We're also constrained by the challenge of assessing event relevance without regard to the quantity of coverage given by the media, and keeping in mind the diverse interests of various segments of society. The proliferation of channels and the relative fall of centralised mass news outlets have complicated the dissemination of information. Despite the supposed collapse of social contacts in modern society, the fact that word of mouth plays a major role in the dissemination of certain types of dramatic news is regularly reconfirmed. In the instance of the New York terrorist attack on September 11, 2001, interviews performed a day later on people's immediate news source revealed that 50% of respondents heard first from someone else, 33% from television, and 15% from radio. It took two hours to attain full diffusion (Greenberg, 2002). Check your Progress: 1. What is news diffusion? 2. What do you mean by news worthiness? 3. What do you mean by learning of news? 11.5 FRAMING EFFECTS The concept of framing is appealing, because it presents a solid premise that what an audience learns would be influenced by journalistic frames. It will also pick up on the frames. However, it is unclear how framing will function as an effect. 'The way the news is framed by journalists and how the audience frames it may be same or different,' as Cappella and Jamieson (1997: 98) put it. munotes.in

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147 The same authors suggested a model of framing effects, based on the concept that particular inferences, ideas, judgments, and contrasts about topics, policies, and politicians are activated by news frames. Their main focus was to see if consistently portraying political news as'strategic' (dealing with attempts to achieve campaign advantage) or 'conflict oriented' (as opposed to honestly reporting substance) would increase public scepticism about politics. Their findings backs up the hypothesis of growing cynicism as a result of a cumulative (spiralling) media effect. Scheufele (1999) proposed a process model of framing effects, which recognises them as the result of interactions among three types of actors: interested sources and media organisations; journalists (media); and viewers. We're dealing with two types of frames, as he points out: media frames and individual (receiver) frames. Both types of frames might be independent (cause) or dependent (effect) (an effect). According to the paradigm, these players are involved in four interrelated framing processes. The first is the creation and usage of media frames by journalists and others working in news organisations who are continuously interacting with sources and applying 'news values' and 'news angles' to event reports while working under pressure. Second, 'framed' news reports (e.g., a cynical perspective of politicians) are broadcast to the audience. Finally, audience members adopt specific frames, which has implications for their attitudes, worldview (e.g. cynicism), and behaviour (e.g. non- participation). Entman (1993) provided the foundation for much framing research, but his goal to construct a single general para•digm of the framing process has been criticised. According to D'Angelo (2002), the literature suggests that there are at least three main framing paradigms. The first is a cognitivist approach, which holds that the texts of journalistic articles become embodied in the thoughts and words of individuals who have been impacted. Second, there is a constructionist version of the process, in which journalists provide 'interpretive packages' of the perspectives of news sponsors (i.e. sources). Finally, there is a critical perspective that considers frames to be the result of news gathering procedures and elite ideals. Framing is said to have a hegemonic influence in this way. Despite the difficulties, there is enough evidence, particularly from political communication research, to show that effects on audiences aligned with news framing do occur. Iyengar (1991) found that the manner news about social problems was presented influenced whether or not people were more prone to blame the victim for their problems. The framing of news during the 1991 Gulf War influenced people to support military rather than diplomatic solutions, according to research (Iyengar and Simon, 1997). Entman (1991) found strong evidence of public opinion forming in line with the inbuilt news frames in the news coverage of the two air disasters discussed in Chapter 14 (Box 14.3): the Soviets were strongly condemned for the loss of the Korean plane, while the Americans were largely News, Public Opinion and Political Communication munotes.in

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144 148 Communication Theory absolved of responsibility for the Iranian loss. According to McLeod and Detenber (1999), different framings of the same protests had different effects on viewers. Jamieson and Waldman (2003) ascribe Al Gore's loss in his challenge to George W. Bush over the disputed US presidential election outcome to the way the matter was framed. 11.6 AGENDA - SETTING McCombs and Shaw (1972; 1993) developed the term 'agenda-setting' to characterise a phenomenon that had long been seen and studied in the context of election campaigns. The core notion is that the news media inform the public about the major concerns of the day, which is reflected in popular perceptions of the major topics. 'The evidence strongly shows that people think about what they are told, but at no level do they think what they are told,' Trenaman and McQuail wrote (1961:178). Data showing a correlation between the order of importance given to 'problems' in the media and the order of relevance ascribed to the same topics by politicians and the public was collected during the time, and considerably since. The process, according to Dearing and Rogers (1996), is "an continual fight among issue protagonists for the attention of media professionals, the public, and policy elites." It was referred to as the power to 'structure issues' by Lazarsfeld et al. (1944). Politicians try to persuade voters that the most significant problems are the ones with which they are most familiar. This is an important aspect of advocacy and attempts to sway public opinion. Agenda-setting, as a hypothesis, appears to have avoided the widespread conclusion that persuasive tactics have little or no impact. The agenda-setting hypothesis is based on this, but there isn't enough data to prove a causal link between the numerous topic 'agendas.' We'll need to know the content of party programmes, proof of opinion changes over time in a specific segment of the public (ideally with panel data), and a content analysis of media attention to various issues during the relevant period. We also require some evidence of the public's use of relevant media. In support of the theory of agenda-setting, such data has rarely, if ever, been provided at the same time. The closer one gets to investigating actual situations and moving away from the generic idea that media guide attention and form cognitions, the less confident it becomes that such an effect exists. Previous agenda-setting research, according to Davis and Robinson (1986), ignored probable implications on people's perceptions of who is important, where important things happen, and why things are important. According to Rogers and Dearing (1987), we must distinguish between three distinct agendas: media priorities, public priorities, and policy priorities. These interact in intricate ways and can have a variety of outcomes. munotes.in

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149 The same authors also point out that the media's credibility varies, that personal experience and the media's portrayal of events may differ, and that the public and the media may not have the same values concerning news events. Furthermore, 'real-world events' may intrude in unanticipated ways, causing earlier objectives to be disrupted (Iyengar and Kinder, 1987). According to Reese (1991), a lot depends on the relative balance of power between media and sources, which changes a lot from instance to case. Each of these remarks adds a fresh source of diversity to the mix. Despite the challenges, agenda-setting has piqued the interest of mass communication experts as a viable alternative to the quest for directional media effects on individual attitudes and behaviour modification. According to Dearing and Rogers (1996: 15), agenda-setting is linked to a number of other factors, including the bandwagon effect, the spiral of silence, news diffusion, and media gatekeeping. The majority of evidence (e.g., Behr and Iyengar, 1985) is inconclusive, and appraisals (e.g., Kraus and Davis, 1976; Becker, 1982; Reese, 1991; Rogers et al., 1993) tend to treat agenda-setting as a feasible but unproven concept. Doubts arise not only because of the severe methodological requirements for proving a causal link, but also because of theoretical uncertainties. The idea assumes a chain of influence from governmental or other interest groups' priorities to media priorities, in which news values and audience interests play a significant role, and from there to public opinion. There are probably other versions of this relationship, the most prominent of which would reverse the flow and assert that underlying public concerns will affect problem definition by both political elites and the media. A process like this is essential to both political theory and the logic of free media. It's conceivable that the media contribute to the convergence of the three 'agendas' stated above, but that's not the same as deciding which one to pursue. Several generalisations concerning agenda-setting are offered by Dearing and Rogers (1996). One is that diverse media outlets tend to agree on a range of problems' relative importance. Second, media objectives don't always correspond to "real-world" indications. It is the relative strength of forces and people attempting to define and promote an issue that counts, not its absolute importance. Finally, the 'importance of an issue in the public agenda is largely determined by its place on the media agenda' (1996: 192). Despite the importance of agenda-setting in political communication research, the effect is likely to be classified as a 'peripheral' effect in terms of the ELM model (see p. 517), because it derives from accidental cues of significance provided by presentation (Perse, 2001:100). This does not negate the importance of such influences, which help to shape public perceptions of political and social reality. Different mass media tend to have the same set of news priorities, which is a frequent condition for agenda-setting. The availability of numerous new online news sources, as News, Public Opinion and Political Communication munotes.in

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144 150 Communication Theory well as the increased possibility for a 'news user' to seek news according to a particular agenda, are putting a strain on this situation. 11.7 EFFECTS ON PUBLIC OPINION AND ATTITUDES The goal of mass communication research was to establish evidence of major media influences on public opinion and attitudes. The distinction made between the many types of effect, particularly knowledge, behaviour, views, and attitudes, is significant and deserves some attention. In terms of conceptualization and observation, the first two are the easiest. Opinion and attitude are difficult to quantify since they cannot be witnessed directly or defined exactly enough. Attitudes are underlying dispositions or mental attitudes toward a certain object that are often assessed by verbal answers to evaluative statements. These responses are usually transformed into a scale that depicts an individual's leaning direction and strength in relation to an object (for instance a political party or leader or issue). Attitudes toward various items are assumed to be linked, resulting in a framework of more or less consistent attitudes in a person. Individuals' attitudes are largely valuations and attributions, while 'public attitudes' can be defined as an appraisal of the dominating tendency in a group or aggregate. An opinion is a declaration of preference for one side of a debate or choice. It is both cognitive and evaluative in nature. It has a distinct and provisional character, and a person can have a variety of viewpoints on various topics without requiring any consistency. Opinions differ in terms of how strongly they are held and how well they are founded on accurate information. Opinions are also individual, yet they can be grouped together to produce something termed public opinion, which is commonly understood to refer to the population's overall leanings or total of views. Public opinion, on the other hand, has some independence from the people who contribute to it. This is demonstrated by the fact that people have a perception of public opinion as the prevalent perspective and the view of others, whether accurate or not. As seen below, this view can have consequences. Second, when 'public opinion' is reflected in media accounts, it gains some independence. It becomes an objective "social truth" that political and other players must take into account. The following are the implications for media effects theories. Individuals' perspectives are likely to be influenced significantly by the media, if sometimes unintentionally, through offering information about situations and options. They provide another layer of possible impact by publishing opinion poll results or expressing editorially what the public's opinion is on a specific topic. Even when they provide fresh and important evaluative information, the media has a considerably lower likelihood of influencing attitudes than munotes.in

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151 opinions. Attitudes shift slowly and are difficult to change. They are joined in a greater perspective on the world through each other. The grounding of both attitude and opinion in membership of social groups and the effect of the social context in which we move is a key principle of organisation. Consistency or balance is the second principle. When our diverse likes and dislikes, as well as our opinions, are compatible, we feel more at ease. The concept of 'cognitive consistency' encapsulates this. The hypothesis of cognitive dissonance (the opposite condition) predicts that we will seek out information or ideas that are consistent and avoid the discomfort of opposing viewpoints (Festinger, 1957). This also implies that fresh information has the potential to shake up existing attitudes and cause realignment. This is one of the reasons why the long-term learning or informational effects of mass media are more essential. The chances of discovering proof of causal links between media, opinions, and attitudes are substantially lower than in the past. 11.8 THE SPIRAL OF SILENCE : THE FORMATION OF OPINION CLIMATES The concept of the 'spiral of silence' comes from a larger body of public opinion theory established and tested over many years by Noelle- Neumann (1974; 1984; 1991). The relevant theory is concerned with the interaction of four elements: mass media, interpersonal communication and social interactions, individual expressions of opinion, and individual judgments of their own social environment's 'climate of opinion.' The following are the theory's main assumptions (Noelle-Neumann, 1991): • Isolation is a threat to deviant people in society. • Individuals are constantly afraid of being alone. • Individuals strive to gauge the climate of opinion at all times because they are afraid of isolation. The findings of this study have an impact on their public behaviour, particularly their desire or unwillingness to share their thoughts freely. In a nutshell, the theory claims that many people are driven by what they perceive to be dominant or diminishing opinions in their society in order to avoid isolation on key public matters (such as political party support). People tend to keep their opinions to themselves if they believe they are in the minority, but they are more inclined to share them if they believe they are in the majority. As a result, those who are regarded to be dominant gain even more ground, while alternatives withdraw even farther. This is what the spiralling effect is all about. The important point in this case is that the mass media are the most easily accessible source for analysing the current climate, and that if a particular News, Public Opinion and Political Communication munotes.in

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144 152 Communication Theory viewpoint predominates in the media, it will tend to be amplified in future stages of personal opinion creation and expression. The idea was developed and tested to explain perplexing findings in German politics, where opinion poll results were contradictory with other evidence regarding election expectations and failed to predict the outcome. The rationale offered was that the media presented a distorted picture of public opinion consensus. They were considered to be leaning left, contrary to the (silent) majority's opinion. Two Swedish studies described in Rosengren (1981a) confirmed the influence of the Swedish press on popular opinion regarding the Middle East and political opinion, which appeared to validate Noelle-and Neumann's other proponents of the "powerful mass media" and the spiral of silence. The hypothesis was put to a different test when it came to nuclear energy. Noelle-Neumann (1991) discovered evidence of rising media interest in the subject, as well as a consistent rise in unfavourable reporting. The public's support for nuclear power has dwindled significantly over time, and the timing and sequence of changes revealed an interaction spiralling effect, as predicted by the theory. The spiral of silence hypothesis is a near relative of mass society theory, and both share a negative outlook on the quality of social relations (Taylor, 1982). Its legitimacy, according to Katz (1983), will be determined by the extent to which alternative reference groups are still active in social life. The more this is true, the less room the process outlined has to function, because there will be support for minority or deviant viewpoints. Moscovici (1991) also suggests that we should pay less attention to silent majorities in public opinion development and more attention to 'loud minorities,' who often play a larger role in opinion shift. The spiral of silence idea is considerably more than a media effect theory; it encompasses multiple dimensions that must be explored simultaneously. It's not unexpected that it's still hypothetical, or that the evidence is inconclusive and inconsistent from one scenario to the next. For example, Glynn et al. (1997) concluded from a recent meta-analysis of survey research that there is little evidence that one's desire to speak out is related to one's feeling of support for one's own opinion. Even yet, there is evidence to support a simplified form of the hypothesis that media coverage does impact individual perceptions of public mood on current topics (e.g. Mutz and Soss, 1997; Gunther, 1998). There is also growing support for the idea that 'fear of isolation' is a major factor influencing people's willingness to speak out on contentious issues. Moy et al. (2001) examined the case of a contentious and morally charged Washington state proposal to prohibit positive discrimination in employment and education, which was opposed by a large portion of the public. Speaking out in support of a perceived minority position was hampered by a fear of solitude. However, rather than the general public, the relevant 'environment' was discovered to be a micro-climate of immediate relatives and friends. munotes.in

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153 Communication 11.9 EFFECTS OF POLITICAL COMMUNICATION IN News, Public Opinion and Political DEMOCRACIES In any government, there has always been a close relationship between mass communication and the conduct of politics. In totalitarian or authoritarian countries, ruling elites use media control to enforce conformity and compliance, as well as to suppress opposition in various ways. The media has a complicated connection with power sources and the political system in democracies. On the one hand, they frequently find their raison d'être in the service of their audiences, to whom they supply information and opinions based on interest and need judgments. They must be independent of the state and powerful interests in order to do this job. On the other hand, they give avenues for the state and powerful interests to communicate with the public, as well as platforms for political parties and other interest groups to express themselves. They also encourage the dissemination of news and opinions among those who are interested in politics. This general view of the media's neutral and mediating role in politics must be modified to account for a variety of situations, particularly those in which specific media choose to play a partisan role on behalf of a party or interest, or are closely allied with a powerful economic interest or ideological block. There is a third alternative, in which the state wields significant effective authority over nominally free media and exploits it. This appears to be the case in Putin's Russia more and more, and other countries, such as Italy under Berlusconi, have approached a similar situation. The issue is not exceptional on a worldwide scale. In light of this, we may identify and quickly summarise the key kinds of political communication that fall under the category of 'effects.' First, there are periodic election campaigns in which competing candidates and parties typically make extensive use of the media. Then there's the constant flow of news, which conveys information about events that have a favourable or negative impact on governments and other political actors. This opens up a lot of possibilities for news management and public relations. Third, independent of elections, there are various degrees of opportunity for political advertising by the same actors. On behalf of various lobbies and pressure organisations, specific attempts are sometimes undertaken to sway public opinion on certain subjects using various ways. The election campaign is the most researched communication type, with research dating back to at least 1940, when Lazarsfeld et al. (1944) conducted a thorough investigation into the presidential election of that year. Thousands of democratic elections have been studied since then (see Semetko, 2004), with considerable consistency in broad effects findings. For starters, election campaigns are often brief and intense, with little net change in voter intentions. Campaigners make extensive use of the media, munotes.in

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154 Communication Theory 154 but voters are typically less interested. It's hard to uncover conclusive evidence that the media has a significant impact on an election's outcome. They have a minor impact on voting (or not voting). Basic political beliefs are usually too firmly ingrained to change much, while an increasing separation from rigid allegiances opens the door to more power. Opinions on specific issues may be impacted by the media, and there is evidence of the potential for learning about issues and policy positions, particularly among the relatively uneducated and uninterested. This reflects the 'agenda-setting' process mentioned above to some extent. When learning effects lead to a shift in attitude or, more frequently, to biased perceptions of reality, they can be significant. Norris et al. (1999) conducted a unique piece of experimental study in a British general election, finding that exposure to party positions in news broadcasts could considerably impact opinions toward the parties in the short term. Election campaigns draw a wide range of motivated audience attention (and a lot of inattention), and the impacts they have are more dependent on voter dispositions and motives than on campaigners' goals. An extensive general election campaign, according to Blumler and McQuail (1968), had greater effects when it reached parts of a more or less captive public that were previously misinformed and had no clear allegiances. This is referred to as a 'trap' effect by Schoenbach and Lauf (2002). Although different media have varying impact potentials, data suggests that none are fundamentally superior, and that the message, combined with the audience's disposition, is still what matters (Norris and Sanders, 2003). Aside from selective attention and fluctuating motivation, the relative lack of decisive effects from campaigns can be linked to a number of variables. The paucity of potential for change on old), and the routine nature of much campaigning that gives nothing that is fresh of any substance are just a few examples. The amount and quality of attention given to the top contenders tends to be relatively similar in many Western democracies where the media is not co-opted by political parties (Norris et al, 1999; D'Alessio and Allen, 2000; Noin, 2001). Campaigns tend to sustain the status quo, but if one side fails to campaign, we can expect big consequences, and sometimes a single episode can dramatically alter the equilibrium. Electoral campaigns are frequently oriented at maintaining the status quo rather than bringing about change. Campaigning parties and candidates typically select from a variety of communication techniques based on their circumstances and resources, as well as whether they are incumbent or not. They may try to link themselves to specific concerns for which they have a track record or a claim. It helps to be able to frame topics and set news agendas in this situation. They could try to win on the basis of ideology or principle, but this is more difficult and riskier. Rather than following rules, they can strive for an appealing image by association, style, or personality. They can attack munotes.in

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155 an opponent on any weakness that arises, while negativity tends to demotivate voters in general. The use of general news in political communication represents a continual process of news management and rivalry to define events and problems. Professional news managers (spin doctors) are employed by all major players to secure favourable access to normal everyday news and to give a news story the highest possible gloss. Check your progress: 1. What is a mass audience? 2. Why is the audience feedback critical? 3. Define the importance of the audience in the media. 11.10 LET’S SUM UP Although it is impossible to assess the impact of such influences, there is excellent evidence in principle that the news creates a favourable environment for influential messages, because it is usually characterised by source independence, reliability, and a lack of propagandist linkages. In practise, most functional democracies provide more or less equal access to news to the primary candidates for office, which is sufficient to prevent the news from taking on a single dominant shape. Political advertising, on the other hand, is reliant on resources, but its potential is restricted by its propagandist nature. It may have unforeseen side effects, and unambiguous evidence of the usefulness of political advertising is difficult to come across (Goldstein and Freedman, 2002), however simple attrition and repetition may function as intended. All campaigns with a political objec•tive are the same. They run into the types of challenges listed in Box 19.3. Advertising on television has a News, Public Opinion and Political Communication munotes.in

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156 Communication Theory history of taking on negative connotations, as evidenced by the concerns listed above. This campaign format has been promoted as a means of enlivening politics and giving a decisive test of leader skill and persuasiveness since the memorable Kennedy-Nixon television debate in 1960. It's been tried out in a variety of ways (Kraus and Davis, 1976). The fear of calamity attests to the power that such events have. However, study findings (e.g., Coleman, 2000) have shown few significant electoral implications (as was the case in the original debate), albeit they do lead to changes in candidate perceptions and some policy learning. They appear to have a reinforcing influence on voter preferences. In truth, incumbent politicians have always avoided discussions, saw no clear benefit and fearing uncontrollable consequences. This brief overview of the effects of mass communication in election campaigns may appear at odds with the reality of modern political campaigning, in which communication strategies are meticulously planned by a slew of advisers and professional publicists, and a slew of new ways to spend large sums of money are discovered, particularly by those in media advertising. Even while the possibilities of decisively influencing the outcome of an election by communication are often limited, it is simple to lose an election by not campaigning or communicating poorly. It is a vital component of the institutional ritual and the plea for public support to mount a sparkling, intelligent, and confident campaign, and failing to do so would mean not being regarded seriously as a candidate. 11.11 QUESTIONS 1. Explain ‘Learning from news’. 2. Discuss ‘News diffusion’. 3. Explain in detail the Framing effect. 4. Briefly explain the spiral of silence: the formation of climates of opinion 5. Describe - Political communication effects in democracies 11.12 REFERENCES • Gitlin, T. (1980) The Whole World Is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. • Glynn, C.J., Herbst, S., O'Keefe, G.J. and Shapiro, R.Y. (1999) Public Opinion. Boulder, CO: Westview. 156 munotes.in

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157 • Graber, D., McQuail, D. and Norris, P. (1998) News of Politics: Politics of News. Washington, DC: CQ • Jamieson, J.H. and Waldman, P. (2003) The Press Effect. New York: Basic. Norris, P., Curtice, J., Sanders, D., Scammell, M. and Semetko, H. (1999) On Message: Communicating the Campaign. London: Sage. • These journal articles and book chapter can be accessed from the companion website to this book: www.sagepub.co.uk/mcquail5 • Brewer, P.R., Graf, J. and Willnat, L. (2003) 'Priming or framing? Media influence on attitudes towards foreign countries', Gazette, 65 (6): 493-508. • Scheufele, D.A. and Nisbet, M.C. (2002) 'Being a citizen online: new opportunities and dead ends', Harvard Journal of Press/Politics, 7 (3): 55-75. • Schweiger, W. (2000) 'Media credibility: experience or image?', European Journal of Communication, 15 (1): 37-60. • Semetko, H.A. (2004) 'Media, public opinion and political action', in J.D.H. Downing, D. McQuail, P. Schlesinger and E. Wartella (eds), The Sage Handbook of Media Studies, pp. 351-74. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. • Tse, D., & Viswanath, P. (2005). Fundamentals of wireless communication. Cambridge University Press. • Weaver, W., & Shannon, C. E. (2015). The Mathematical Theory of Communication. University of Illinois Press. • Zhong, B. (2021). Social Media Communication: Trends and Theories. Wiley. ***** News, Public Opinion and Political Communication munotes.in

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12 DE-WESTERNIZING MEDIA AND COMMUNICATION THEORY Unit Structure 12.0 Objectives 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Why to De-Westernize and Decolonize Media Studies 12.3 The Foundations of De-Westernization Discourse 12.4 De-Westernizing Theories and Epistemologies 12.4.1 What exactly do you mean by "west"? 12.4.2 What is the best way to de-Westernize? 12.4.3 Why is it possible to criticise de-Westernization? 12.5 Communication Theory 12.6 Framework for Communication Theory 12.7 Communication Models 12.7.1 What is the definition of a model? 12.8 Aristotle Model of Communication 12.8.1 Berlo’s Model of Communication 12.8.2 Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication 12.8.3 Schramm’s Model of Communication 12.9 Let's sum up 12.10 Questions 12.11 References 12.0 OBJECTIVES • To study De-Westernizing of Media • To Understand why to De-Westernize Media • To learn Communication Theory • To study types of Communication Theories 12.1 INTRODUCTION Concerns over a hegemonic elitist "Western" axiology and epistemology of universal validity, which rejects indigenous and localised philosophical traditions from non-Western contexts, motivate the need to de-Westernize and decolonize communication and media studies. Scholars from the Global South continue to express concern about the inherent Eurocentric bias that drives many Anglo-American and European research programmes. Scholars warn against the pervasiveness of foreign-imposed 158 munotes.in

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ideals such as modernity and development, as well as universal assumptions about the use of specific categories and ontologies to analyse and grasp media all over the world. De-Westernization involves a rethinking of power relations in global academic knowledge creation and transmission, as the West is viewed as a power centre rather than a fixed geographical entity. Curran and Park made the most renowned demand for de-Westernizing media studies in the early 2000s, challenging a Western academic community to review and re- evaluate their theories, epistemologies, methodologies, and empirical research procedures, particularly in study aimed at the Global South. Similarly, the call for decolonization urges people to investigate and investigate colonial power imbalances, power dependencies, and colonial legacies. It criticises the uncritical adoption of former colonial powers' research epistemologies and methodology in solving local problems, stating that they fail to comprehend the complexities of non-Western institutions and people, and calls for "decolonial epistemic disobedience." Despite de-Westernization initiatives aiming at a Western research community, scholars from the Global South have pushed for decades for international recognition of their voices and intellectual contributions to a global academic community. Their work is influenced by postcolonialism, subaltern studies, and critical-reflective sociology. Many initiatives have been launched to address the global imbalance in media studies knowledge generation. However, replacing theories with indigenous concepts or relegating countries of the Global South to case studies that deliver raw data will not help them gain traction, as research efforts must incorporate both local realities and broader contextualization, or the call for research with a region rather than just about or from it. As proven by the enormous scholar networks in Latin America, Africa, and Asia, collaborative South-South endeavours are more successful. De-Westernization and decolonization are ongoing processes. The most serious issues appear to be disparities in resource availability and distribution, conference attendance, and publishing opportunities. In this sense, journalism and media studies curricula continue to demonstrate a significant Anglophone bias, as well as a lack of awareness of local difficulties and expectations. More meditative de-Westernizing practises can aid in bridging these gaps. De-Westernization, on the other hand, cannot be the final solution to re-balancing academic knowledge flow between powerful and weaker parties because it is based on fuzzy geographical categorizations. 12.2 WHY TO DE-WESTERNIZE AND DECOLONIZE MEDIA STUDIES At the turn of the twenty-first century, the demand for de-Westernization of academic subjects in the West gave new life to the social sciences and humanities. De-Westernization refers to academics' criticism of a De-Westernizing Media and Communication Theory
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160 160 Communication Theory production. The primary issue is that the "professional centre of gravity in the United States" (Kim, 2009, p. 419), and to a lesser extent, European academics, have unequal intellectual dominance. Critics argue for an epistemological change toward a greater range of academic perspectives since their theories do not necessarily reflect and apply to present debates and issues in developing countries. Finally, this could lead to a more widespread inclusion of fundamental theories, methodologies, and concepts. Media and communication studies are one of the most visible examples of this tendency. Despite its inherent openness to other disciplines, media studies have always been shaped and controlled by US-driven concerns, ideas, and practises. Critics contend that, due to the location of information, US-American methodologies cannot always solve problems in other parts of the world with different contexts and epistemologies (Rao, 2011). These non-American methods must be taken seriously and explored in order to establish a broader knowledge framework. As a result, "provincializing Europe" (Chakrabarty, 2000) has evolved into a call for increased global recognition of previously marginalised voices, a diminution in the dominance of Eurocentric ideas, and equality of diverse perspectives regardless of geography or geopolitics. Decolonization is intrinsically related with de-Westernization. This refers, in a limited sense, to the process by which former colonies and protectorates attained political and economic independence during the twentieth century. However, the official departure of colonisers and foreign ruling elites does not always mean the abandonment of their institutional and intellectual legacies. Former oppressors' ideologies have frequently shaped political and economic structures and organisations, and their views continue to have an impact on social and cultural reality. As a result, the first stage in a genuine decolonization effort must be "decolonizing the mind" from colonial thinking processes (Ngg wa Thiong'o, 1986). This includes a reconsideration and reflection on the epistemologies that have been abandoned (Mignolo, 2011). Both discourses seek to undermine Western hegemony and superiority in defining the fundamental principles of media studies, primarily by targeting Western academics who need to reconsider their own epistemologies and preconceptions. While calls for decolonization of global knowledge production mechanisms date back to the 1950s and address both former colonial subjects and rulers, explicit calls for de- Westernization efforts appear to be more recent, and appear to be primarily directed at Western academics who wish to de-Westernize their work. munotes.in

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Communication Theory 12.3 THE FOUNDATIONS OF DE-WESTERNIZATION De-Westernizing Media and DISCOURSE While academics from the Global South have been raising the issue of unequal global power structures and, as a result, dismissal of their media and communication scholarship in Western academia for decades with varying degrees of success, similar calls from Western scholars to Western academics appear isolated and recent. Western hegemonic self- understanding has long assumed theoretical supremacy. In his early contribution, Golding (1977) emphasised how Western media concepts fail to be transmitted to the Global South. Kincaid (1987) took a decade to publish a groundbreaking study on Eastern and Western perspectives in communication theory, and Downing (1996) took another decade to highlight the rather exceptional nature of the very similar UK and US leitmotifs and data shaping global communication theory, implying universality. Curran and Park's (2000) idea for "De-Westernizing Media Studies" only gained hold in the Western academic world in 2000, inspiring interest and a broader understanding that "takes account of the experience of countries beyond the Anglo-American orbit" (Curran & Park, 2000, p. 11). Some elements help us understand how vast disparities in global knowledge development and reception evolved in the past. They are summarised here and serve as the foundation for de-Westernization arguments. First, the knowledge distribution mismatch dates back to colonial times, when countries in the Global South were forced to embrace and adapt Western epistemologies, models, and curriculum in universities and disciplines such as sociology, anthropology, and, later, psychology and economics. Hegemonic engagement lasted in postcolonial settings long after independence. Second, the West's long-standing global hegemony meant that calls for De-Westernization from the South fell on deaf ears in many places, as US- American and European (white) specialists saw no reason to listen. This emerged initially in the colonial and then bipolar Cold War systems, and it has definitely triumphed since 1990 through Anglo-American approaches that eschewed structural and class analysis. For a long time, much Western academic study remained uncritical under these settings, presuming universal significance for modernist principles. Media studies, in particular, is a young discipline that was first formed by US-American research goals and assumptions. These delays happened in the West despite significant international attempts to aid De - Westernizing media initiatives, such as UNESCO's MacBride Commission. The MacBride Commission called for the establishment of a New World Information and Communication Order in 1979. (NWICO). Following discussions on cultural imperialism and the potential for Southern communicative counterflows, African, Latin 161 munotes.in

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162 162 Communication Theory American, and Indian subcontinent communication researchers criticised Eurocentric prejudice and expressed increased concern about knowledge decolonization and indigenization. De-Westernization concepts were clearly alive and thriving, even if they lacked the potential (yet) to have a considerable impact on Western international communication scholarship. Scholars from the South made substantial contributions to "One World, Many Voices." This increased reflection on epistemologies of knowledge and global structures of academic research became visible in discussions about the subaltern on the Indian subcontinent (Ludden, 2002), in Latin American debates and modifications of European theories, and in the formation of cross-national Southern communication associations. However, networking efforts such as South–South conferences, improved knowledge circulation, and increased awareness among Western researchers were insufficient to eradicate imbalances in terms of resources, recognition, voice, and knowledge development. Curran and Park's endeavour of de-Westernizing knowledge is still ongoing, as seen by Thussu's (2009) "Internationalizing Media Studies" or Wang's (2011) demand for "De-Westernizing Communication Research." Scholars from the Global South, in general, continue to struggle for a reorganisation of global knowledge generation in the field of media and communication studies. Nonetheless, some encouraging developments are taking place. First, the gap between those who recognise the need for de-Westernization and those who do not begins to narrow. While parts of the Global South see academic life outside of their own traditions as a valid way to develop their own epistemologies, it took decades for a critical mass of Western scholars to accept it. This trend is becoming more visible in major conference organisations and publications in and about the Global South. Second, knowledge created in and with the Global South is becoming increasingly crucial, acting as a dynamic early warning system for future global changes and newly emerging difficulties when traditional (Western) paradigms fail to provide the necessary imaginative remedies (Wasserman, 2018). As the traditional understanding of the nation-state deteriorates in the twenty-first century, space for a fresh viewpoint on the Global South opens up. 12.4 DE-WESTERNIZING THEORIES AND EPISTEMOLOGIES The first step toward better understanding the motivations behind the desire to de-Westernize media studies is to define "the West"—along with "the rest." Before delving into the criticism of these debates, the primary target of de-Westernization and decolonization discourses is identified. munotes.in

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163 12.4.1 What exactly do you mean by "west"?: De-Westernizing Media and Communication Theory While many truth systems have appeared and vanished throughout human history, no human project has been as successful and long-lasting in dominating the globe as the "Western Code" (Mignolo, 2011)—the rise of "Western" civilization with the beginning of the Enlightenment period, and its adoption as a political project. However, when linked with geo-analytical barriers, locating the "West" in knowledge production becomes a slippery slope. Because the West is not a homogeneous fixed knowledge territory, using absolute and essential categorizations is as ineffectual in the West as it is in the Global South (Waisbord & Mellado, 2014). Western refers to Europe's "old" industrialised countries, as well as North America's "new" English-speaking states, as well as Australia and New Zealand. It adheres to positivism, rationalism, detachment, self-interest, and individualism, all of which are closely related to the creation of Western science. Looking back in time, a number of European countries are credited with originating modern science, which shaped some of the most essential evaluative notions for how to perceive, classify, and analyse knowledge. These countries created the social and intellectual groundwork for modern educational systems and academic cultures, which continue to have an impact on the worldwide academic landscape in terms of teaching and research. According to Gunaratne (2010, p. 474), the "oligopoly of social scientific capacities" is linked to discipline, language (English), and geography. According to him, the United States and the United Kingdom are at the top, while France, Germany, Japan, the Netherlands, and Italy are in second position. This oligopoly reinforces the current "European universalism." The Enlightenment was a watershed moment in world history, and Eurocentrism and, later, Orientalism (Said, 1978) gained traction as means of retaining dominion over knowledge. Justifications for the Eurocentric narrative included declaring the arrival of (modern) Western civilization as "the arrival of human history" (Mignolo, 2011, p. xiv), with Europe appropriating the reference point of global history as heirs of Hellenistic classical culture, while previous historical epochs were obscured by the invention of a "dark Middle age" past. This paradigm dominated early American scholars' understanding of the media and its role in society. 12.4.2 What is the best way to de-Westernize?: Decolonization and de-Westernization are ongoing processes. De- Westernization can have a variety of meanings. According to Waisbord and Mellado (2014), it is a "act of cultural defence, an anti-imperialist strategy to cultivating academic sovereignty, and a demand for acceptance of an analytical perspective that represents a de-centered, dynamic modern munotes.in

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164 164 Communication Theory world." The conceptions challenge and reposition "the West's (real or imagined) supremacy as a conceptual 'force' and representational norm" (Bâ & Higbee, 2012, p. 3). The most popular de-Westernization and decolonization criticisms centre on an elitist "Western" axiology and epistemology of universal validity that rejects indigenous and regional philosophical traditions. In the global hierarchy of knowledge, they are under-researched or neglected as a research subject. Theories from the Global South may be dismissed or severely criticised. Western and non-Western researchers can both contribute to de- Westernization attempts and strategies. Western scholars should strive for more cross-cultural inclusiveness and inclusion of subaltern perspectives in their research and courses, reflecting and counteracting potential parochialism and provincialism in their research. Non-Western academics may attempt to position their work in reference to Eurocentrism, foreign-imposed notions, and ontology. Access to a global academic discourse and having a voice within it are two major obstacles for non-Western researchers (Ray, 2012). A de-Westernization of academia or global knowledge production in general is proposed across all stages of the research process, including "the subject of study, the body of evidence, theoretical and methodological ideas, research inquiries, and academic professional cultures" (Waisbord & Mellado, 2014, p. 363). Non-Western conditions are given extra consideration in order to strengthen conclusions and ensure that results and arguments may be generalised. However, it is clear that research must go beyond just testing US- American communication theories in non-Western settings or insensitively applying "foreign" categories of distinct ontological understandings. 12.4.3 Why is it possible to criticise de-Westernization?: As previously stated, geographical limits on the flow of ideas might lead knowledge to become muddled or false dichotomies to emerge. In actuality, ideas have always circulated. Even in Western societies, views are not monolithic or unanimous, and outlooks are not monolithic or unanimous in non-Western communities. While some people want to defend their culture from globalisation (or neoliberal Westernization), others, especially women and the poor, appreciate self-determination values. Feminist theoretical ideas reflect this. Similarly, theorists who insist on only indigenous or localised research (for example, arguments about Asian or African values and ethics) appear to ignore the inherently composite nature of culture, communication, politics, and society. Opponents argue that they risk succumbing to a new provincialism rather than focusing on what is most important to the Global South: a critique of modern power structures that influence information creation and movement. munotes.in

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165 The particular nature of the argument demonstrates that de-Westernization is primarily a problem of Western academia, which has tentatively attempted to self-critically reflect on it. A search on Wikipedia for de- Westernization as a specific phrase (or its translation into other major languages of the global North and South) finds no hits. This notable absence of de-Westernization discourses in the Global South (e.g., decolonization) suggests not only that de-Westernization discourses are led under alternative names in the Global South, but also that it remains a topic that is largely ignored on Western discursive agendas. 12.5 COMMUNICATION THEORY Consider the possibility of a world without communication. You have a fantastic idea, but you are unable to articulate it. You have a strong desire for something yet are unable to express it. The earth would be uninhabitable, and life would be drab and lifeless. Communication has tremendous power. Communication is the essence of being. It's a legal necessity. Communication is required for humans to express themselves. An individual needs communicate in order to express his feelings, pass on knowledge to other humans, and share his thoughts and feelings. Is it true that humans are the only ones who communicate? Consider the following examples: Ted stumbled spotted a lonely, nearly-dead dog weeping softly on the streets. He lost no time in transporting the dog to a nearby vet and providing him with the basic medical treatment he required. Have you ever wondered how Ted discovered that the puppy requires immediate attention? The puppy couldn't communicate. The answer to the previous question is communication: Ted only found out about the puppy's sickness through speech. The crying of the puppy was actually an indication that the creature needed to see a doctor straight away. Ted's cries expressed his deteriorating condition and need for medical intervention. Another example: A gardener waters the plants when the leaves begin to turn brown, become dry, and show signs of withering. By turning brown and drying its leaves, the tree is attempting to communicate to the gardener that it is dying and needs to be watered immediately. Check your Progress: 1. What do you mean by Communication theory? De-Westernizing Media and Communication Theory
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166 166 Communication Theory 2. Discuss westernisation? 3. Discuss criticism of de-westernisation ? 12.5.1 What is Communication Theory, and how does it work?: S. F. Scudder proposed communication theory in 1980. It states that all living beings on the planet communicate, although their modes of communication differ. Plants communicate their need for immediate care and watering through visible changes in leaf colour, as well as the dropping of leaves and blossoms. Animals employ a range of behaviours and sounds to communicate when they are hungry, unwell, or in need of medical attention. A mother will never realise her new born is hungry unless and until she screams. Crying is another way for a child to communicate that he is hungry and needs to be fed. When he is harmed, he uses weeping to express his anguish and the need for rapid medical assistance. Thus, according to the universal law of communication theory, all living beings, whether plants, animals, or humans, communicate through sound, speech, visible changes, body movements, gestures, or in the best possible way to make others aware of their thoughts, feelings, problems, happiness, or any other information through sound, speech, visible changes, body movements, gestures, or in the best possible way to make others aware of their thoughts, feelings, problems, happiness, or any other information through sound, speech, visible changes, body movements, gesture If a child has low exam grades, his parents will refrain from speaking to him for a period of time in an attempt to communicate that the parents are disappointed with the child's performance and that he must improve for future exams. If you irritate a stray dog, he will almost probably bark at you, which is an animal's way of saying he is angry and should not be irritated any further. munotes.in

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167 Animals, like humans, use gestures and bodily motions to communicate with one another. Monkeys always carry their young with them wherever they go, which is another way for the mother to communicate that their children are safe and that she will look after them. During animal mating season, gestures, such to how a peacock dances to court its lover, play an important function in bringing them closer together. Communication, according to another paradigm, is simply the process of passing information from the sender to the recipient, who then decodes the information and acts on it. A substantial proportion of people agree with this communication model. 12.6 FRAMEWORK FOR COMMUNICATION THEORY Consider the following perspectives on communication and communication theory: Mechanistic: According to the mechanistic viewpoint, communication is merely the conveyance of information from one side to another. The sender is the first party, while the receiver is the second. Psychological: Communication, according to the psychological perspective, is not only the flow of information from the sender to the receiver, but rather the sender's ideas and feelings that he tries to transmit with the receivers. It also comprises the receiver's reactions and sentiments after decoding the information. Communication is viewed as a result of interaction between the sender and the receiver from a social perspective. It simply states that the content of the speech has a direct impact on communication. The social view point is based on "how one communicates." Systemic: According to the systemic viewpoint, communication is essentially a fresh and distinct message that is formed when diverse persons perceive it in their own unique way, then reinterpret it and come to their own conclusions. Critical: According to the critical viewpoint, communication is merely a means by which an individual exhibits his power and authority among other people. To recapitulate, the communication theory posits that every living creature, in order to exist, must communicate with others as well as among itself. Survival necessitates communication. De-Westernizing Media and Communication Theory munotes.in

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168 168 Communication Theory 12.7 COMMUNICATION MODELS 12.7.1 What is the definition of a model?: A model is a tool that is commonly used to describe any idea, notion, or concept in a more straightforward manner using diagrams, visual representations, and other means. Models go a great way toward making any topic understandable and apparent. A model makes it simple to comprehend a process and draw inferences from it. In other terms, a model simplifies the learning process. 12.8 ARISTOTLE MODEL OF COMMUNICATION Aristotle was the first to develop a communication paradigm on his own. Let us begin with a simple situation. In a political gathering, the future leader addresses the audience, pleading with them to vote for him. He works hard to persuade the audience in the best way possible so that he can win. What precisely is he up to? He's delivering his speech in such a way that the audience will be persuaded and vote only in his favour, or, in other words, respond in the manner planned by the speaker. The focus is on the leader, speaker, or sender, with the audience behaving as passive listeners. The anecdote perfectly explains Aristotle's communication strategy. According to this paradigm, the speaker is essential to communication. He is in charge of the entire communication system. The sender first generates content by carefully putting his thoughts into words in order to persuade the listeners or recipients to respond in the way that the sender wishes. There's no use in presuming that the content in this model has to be exceptional in order for the audience or recipients to be persuaded. According to the model, the speaker communicates in such a way that the listeners are impacted and respond appropriately. The speaker must be very careful with his choice of words and content in this form of communication. Before planning his speech, he should decide who his target audience is. To make an impression on the audience, make eye contact with the second party. Let's go through the first example again. Before writing his speech, the politician must first understand the demands of his constituency, such as the need for a shopping mall, a better transportation system, and the protection of girls. To gain the most votes, his speech should cover all of the above themes and focus on providing solutions to their problems. His tone and pitch should be loud and clear enough for the audience to hear and understand him. It is essential to avoid stammering and becoming anxious in the middle of a conversation. Voice modulation is also important for achieving the desired effect. Blank looks, perplexed eyes, and a steady pitch throughout the speech make it repetitious and less munotes.in

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169 effective. In order to sway the audience, the speaker needs be aware of where to apply extra emphasis and which words to emphasise. A mobile phone will surely be purchased from a store where the salesperson provides a captivating demonstration of the gadget. It is up to the salesperson to pick what to say and how to say it so that the listeners respond in the way he wants them to, i.e., by acquiring the handset and raising his billing. The Aristotle model of communication is the most well recognised and utilised model of communication, in which the sender delivers information or a message to the recipients in order to influence and lead them to respond and act in a certain way. The Aristotle model of communication is the golden rule for excelling in public speaking, seminars, and lectures, in which the sender makes his argument clear by creating impressive content, then passes the message on to the second section, who just responds properly. The active participant is the sender, whereas the passive participant is the recipient. 12.8.1 Berlo’s Model of Communication: While the Aristotle model of communication places the speaker in the centre and implies that the speaker is the one who drives the entire communication, Berlo's model considers the emotional aspect of the message. Berlo's communication model is based on the SMCR paradigm. According to the SMCR model, S – Source M - Message R - Receiver C - Channel Let's take a closer look at each factor: S stands for source: The source, also known as the sender, is the person from whom the notion comes. After carefully putting his thoughts into words, he is the one who delivers the knowledge to the receiver. How does the sender or source of information get it to the recipient? Communication skills, attitude, knowledge, social system, and culture are used to accomplish this. Communication Capabilities: In order for a person's communication to be effective and have an impact on the listeners, he or she must have outstanding communication skills. The speaker must understand when to pause, when to repeat words, how to De-Westernizing Media and Communication Theory munotes.in

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170 170 Communication Theory utter a specific sentence, how to pronounce a word, and so forth. It is not acceptable for the speaker to go on and on. He should also double-check his work with the recipients and listen to their concerns. When communicating, one must be aware of his or her accent. A chat with a terrible accent is uninteresting. Attitude: The saying goes that if you have the correct attitude, the world is at your feet. If a person has the appropriate mindset, he will not be able to stop. A guy may be an excellent speaker, but if he lacks the correct mindset, he will never be a winner. To leave a lasting effect on the listeners, the sender must have the correct mindset. Even if a person has an MBA from a reputable institution, he would get lost in the crowd if he does not have the correct mentality. Knowledge: The speaker's educational background or the number of degrees in his portfolio have no bearing on his knowledge. The clarity of the information that the speaker wishes to convey to the second person is known as knowledge. One must be thorough in what he says and have a solid understanding of the issue. Remember that questions might arise at any time, and you must be prepared to respond. You must be completely knowledgeable about the topic at hand. Before giving any speech, read as much as you can and thoroughly prepare the subject, paying attention to even the slightest detail. System of Social Relations: Consider a politician making a speech proposing the construction of a temple in a Muslim-dominated area. What would the audience's reaction be if they heard this? Obviously, they aren't interested. Was there a problem with the leader's communication skills or did he have the wrong attitude? The listeners' dissatisfaction stemmed from the speaker's disregard for the social structure of the environment in which he was communicating. He had forgotten about the second party's opinions, cultural values, and religious feelings. His speech would have been tremendously stunning if it had been given in a Hindu-dominated society. Culture: The cultural background of the community or listeners with whom the speaker is communicating or delivering his speech is referred to as culture. M stands for Message: A message is generated when a person puts his thoughts into words. Encoding is another name for the procedure. munotes.in

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171 Any message also has the following components: De-Westernizing Media and Communication Theory Content: One cannot reveal his grey matter to others in order for them to understand what he is thinking. It is necessary to put a thought into words and to develop material. The subject of the talk, or the script, is called content. It is, to put it another way, the foundation of any communication. "I'm pretty tired today," Ted says to Jenny, "so let's arrange for the movie tomorrow evening." The content of the communication is whatever Ted has communicated with Jenny. It is critical for the speaker to carefully select his or her words and to pay close attention to the topic of the speech. To hit the listeners right on the head and make an immediate effect, the content must be sensible, accurate, crisp, and relevant to the notion. Element: Speech alone, it has been noted, cannot make a difference in communication. If you continue to speak incessantly, your audience will eventually lose interest. To attract the attention of the audience and make the speech spectacular, the speaker should use a variety of hand movements, gestures, postures, facial expressions, and body movements. The aspects of the communication include hand movements, gestures, postures, facial expressions, body movements, and gestures. Treatment: The way one treats his message and transmits it to the listeners is referred to as treatment. The value of the message must be understood, as well as how to manage it. If a boss wishes to fire one of his employees, he must be firm and cannot communicate his message in a casual manner. The treatment of the communication is the term for this. One must know how to express his message in order for it to be conveyed in the most correct manner possible. Structure: A message cannot be conveyed in a single sitting. It must be well- structured in order to convey the message in the most effective way possible. Code: If you enter the erroneous code, the locks will not open. If you enter an incorrect password, you will be unable to access your email account. In the same way, the communication code must be correct. Your body language, expressions, and gestures are the communication's codes, and they must be right or else the message will be twisted, and the recipient will never be able to decipher the correct information. munotes.in

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172 Communication Theory 172 The letter C stands for channel: The conduit through which information moves from the sender to the receiver is referred to as a channel. What is the best way to figure out what the other person is saying? - By means of hearing How can one tell if the pasta he's ordering is cooked with white sauce or not? - By way of tasting. How does one know if there is a detour or a no parking zone ahead? - By observing. How can a person tell if the food is fresh or stale? How do we determine a perfume's fragrance? - By smelling it. How are you going to know if the milk is hot or not? - By putting your hands together. All five senses are avenues via which humans communicate with one another. R stands for receiver: When the communication reaches the recipient, he tries to figure out what the sender is trying to say and then responds appropriately. Decoding is another term for this. For a smooth flow of information and greater understanding of the message, the receiver should be on the same platform as the speaker. To grasp what the speaker is attempting to say, he needs have good Communication skills: He must have the proper mindset in order to comprehend the information in a positive light. His knowledge should be comparable to that of the audience, and he must be knowledgeable about the subject. He should also have a similar social and cultural background as the speaker. The communication model proposed by Berlo has significant flaws. According to Berlo's model of communication, for easy conversion, the speaker and the listener must be on the same page, which is not always the case in practise. 12.8.2 Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication: Shannon and Weaver's model is the most popular and well-known communication model in the world. To further comprehend the model, consider the following illustration. Peter is the Vice President of Marketing for a prominent worldwide company. Mike is currently in command of a small crew under his supervision. Peter requested that Mike compose an in-depth analysis of munotes.in

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173 marketing strategies that could be utilised to achieve the company's goals. He also desired a comprehensive review of the competitor's operations before the end of the day. While he was speaking, a company servant interrupted him to collect the lunch order. Mike then assigned roles to his team members once he had gathered all the essential information. He did his best to convey what Peter had in mind for the preparation of his team. The team finished the report and emailed it to Peter at the end of the day, but it contained a few errors that they later fixed. Let's examine the example in greater detail now. What is the name of Peter? Peter is the one who suggested generating a detailed report in order to increase the organization's output. He had the first inspiration for the concept. Peter was the one who suggested building a marketing strategy for the business. As a result, Peter is the information source. Peter's idea would not have benefited the organisation if he had kept it to himself and not shared it with his coworkers. It is essential for a person to share his or her ideas and information with others in order to maximise the information's utility. Do you believe Mike and his team would have discovered Peter's proposition had he kept it to himself? Obviously, no. Peter had to put his thoughts into words and then articulate the facts out. Here, the mouth works as a transmitter, facilitating in the passage of information and messages from the brain to the mouth once the idea has been carefully articulated through words. The words or voice of Peter are the signal delivered to Mike regarding what he is expected to perform. Peter spoke about the reports he sought from his staff, and the words or voice of Peter are essentially a signal to Mike regarding what he must accomplish. Mike will not know what he is supposed to do if there is no signal or information. Review the example once again. The conversation came to a halt when a servant arrived to take the lunch order. Signals are similarly affected by multiple noises and disturbances during their journey from the transmitter to the receiver. Horns on crowded streets, the bustle of the market, babies crying, and people screaming are examples of noises connected with the signal or information. Mike was able to obtain all of Peter's information and transmit it to his team, who were responsible for drafting the report after ignoring what the peon claimed. According to the Shannon and Weaver paradigm, communication begins with the person who gets the thought or information. The sender is sometimes referred to as the Information Source or the Information Source. The information is then transmitted from the brain to the lips as a signal, which is then received by the recipient after being mingled with various sounds and other distractions. The recipient then transmits the message to its final destination or to other individuals' minds. De-Westernizing Media and Communication Theory munotes.in

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174 Communication Theory 174 Information Source (Thought / message) Transmitter (Brain to mouth) [Along with noise and distractions- external barriers] Signal Recipient (Receives the signal) Final Destination (Finally gets the message) Let's go through the example from before once again. The crew completed the report, however there were a few inaccuracies that were corrected afterwards. Shannon Weaver's model has a flaw in it. The message may become corrupted as it travels to its final destination because various people interpret communications differently. Mike's marketing strategy might be branding, while the team's marketing strategy might be easy sales approaches to boost output. As a result, even a basic communication might take on a new significance once it reaches its intended recipient. 12.8.3 Schramm’s Model of Communication: Learn Schramm's communication model, which is based on the Shannon weaver model, after understanding the Shannon weaver model. Wilber Schramm introduced the communication model in 1954. Information is useless unless it is meticulously recorded and shared with others. Encoding is essential because it initiates the communication process by materialising the concept. When information reaches the recipient, it is his responsibility to decipher the speaker's intent. Until the recipient can interpret or decode the information that the sender desires to express, the communication is meaningless. Therefore, encoding and decoding are two of the most important parts of effective communication, without which information cannot be transmitted between two parties. This concept is also at the core of Schramm's paradigm. According to Schramm's theory, the two fundamental phases of effective communication are encoding and decoding. In addition, he emphasises that communication is incomplete until the sender receives a response from the recipient. Consider a scenario in which a person expresses his ideas to a buddy who does not respond. Is the exchanged information exhaustive? NO. According to Schramm, communication between the first and second parties is a two-way process. munotes.in

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Let's obtain a better grasp with the help of an example. De-Westernizing Media and Communication Theory Will you accompany me to a movie? Jennifer asks Sam. Sam's silence and lack of response left the conversation between Sam and Jennifer unfinished. Sam might have commented or notified Jennifer of his disinterest in the film if he had been uninterested in it. According to Schramm's concept, it is the responsibility of the recipient to provide feedback and let the sender know if he has received the message exactly as the sender intended. If he has any questions or concerns, he should check with the speaker. As a result, when the speaker transmits a message to the listener, the listener decodes it and, upon comprehension, sends it back to the speaker, thus completing the circle. According to Schramm, an individual's knowledge, experience, and culture influence their communication. Numerous cultures, faiths, and ethnic groups interpret the message differently. Billy says to the servant, "Please get me something warm to drink since I am suffering from a sore throat." Billy requested a cup of hot chocolate coffee, but the waitress brought him cold water instead. The servant's interpretation alters as a result. He was not on the same level as Billy and could not comprehend his master's words. It wasn't Billy's or the servant's fault; rather, the difference in their upbringings was to blame. Consider another illustration: John says to Teddy, "I'm constantly late for work, so please get me a clock." John was never late for work again after Teddy purchased an alarm clock for him at a neighbouring store. He could have misunderstood the message, but how could he comprehend his friend's desire if he did? Whether Teddy or anyone else is required to carry it, a clock is always a clock. Never confuse a clock with a wristwatch or anything else for that matter. There are messages with global applicability. They are known as denotative communications, which are almost same for all persons, hence removing the risk of misinterpretation and confusion. Please refer back to John and Teddy's previous position and modify the situation somewhat. Since he was concerned that John would be late, Teddy bought John two clocks although he requested just one. John desired only one clock in this circumstance, but Teddy intervened with his emotional quotient and personal attachment. Connotative meanings are those that are affected by emotional factors. Multiple factors, including body language, gestures, facial expressions, and others, might misinterpret a message. According to this model of communication, when a sender provides information to a receiver, the receiver must interpret it in the right form for the sender and provide feedback or respond appropriately. Any 175 munotes.in

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176 Communication Theory communication in which the sender does not obtain a response is incomplete and, consequently, failed. Check your Progress: 1. Discuss Wilbur Schramm’s model of communication? 2. Discuss Birlo’s model of communication? 3. Discuss communication model in detail? 12.9 LET’S SUM UP The westernisation of news remains a crucial study to understand the growth and the challenges of news that have impacted how communication and the process of communication works. In the next few years, it is assumed that the de-westernisation discourse will impact key communication process and the emergence of a new world order of communication process shall play a clear role in creating a communication identity. 12.10 QUESTIONS 1. Explain Why to De-Westernize and Decolonize Media Studies 2. Discuss the Foundations of De-Westernization Discourse 3. What is Communication Theory, and how does it work? State the framework of Communication Theory. 4. Explain in detail the types of Communication Models. 5. Write Short Notes on: a) Aristotle Model of Communication 176 b) Discuss Shannon and Weaver Model munotes.in

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177 De-Westernizing Media and Communication Theory • Adhikary, N. M. (2014). Re-orientation, ferment and prospects of communication theory in South Asia. China Media Research, 10(2), 24–28. • Arjomand, S. A. (2008). Southern theory: An Illusion Raewyn Connell , Southern Theory. The Global Dynamics of Knowledge in Social Science. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, 2007. [Book review] European Journal of Sociology/ Archives Européennes de Sociologie, 49(3), 546–549. • Bâ, S. M., & Higbee, W. (2012). Introduction: De-westernizing film studies. In S. M. Bâ & W. Higbee (Eds.), De-westernizing film studies (pp. 1–15). New York, NY: Routledge. • Banda, F. (2009). Kasoma’s Afriethics: A reappraisal . International Communication Gazette, 71(4), 227–242. • Bhambra, G. K. (2014). Postcolonial and decolonial dialogues . Postcolonial Studies, 17(2), 115–121. • Bosch, T. (2018). Rethinking media research in Africa. In B. Mutsvairo (Ed.), The Palgrave handbook of media and communication research in Africa (pp. 413–426). Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan. • Brown, K. (2013). Asian and African values: The problem of human rights . Polity. Deepening Democracy through Access to Information. • Chakrabarty, D. (2000). Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial thought and historical difference. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. • Chakravartty, P., Kuo, R., Grubbs, V., & McIlwain, C. (2018). #CommunicationSoWhite . Journal of Communication, 68(2), 254– 266. • Chang, T.-K., & Tai, Z. (2005). Mass communication research and the invisible college revisited: The changing landscape and emerging fronts in journalism-related studies. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 82(3), 672– 694. • Combs, S. C. (2005). The Dao of rhetoric. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. • Casmir, F. L. (Ed.). (2013). Building Communication Theories: A Socio/cultural Approach. Taylor & Francis. • Han, Z., Saad, W., Başar, T., & Niyato, D. (2019). Game Theory for Next Generation Wireless and Communication Networks: Modeling, Analysis, and Design. Cambridge University Press. • Mitchell, D., & Crowley, D. J. (Eds.). (1994). Communication Theory Today. Stanford University Press. ***** 12.11 REFERENCES munotes.in

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13 THE INDIAN COMMUNICATION & MEDIA UNIVERSE Unit Structure 13.0 Objective 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Ancient India 13.3 Colonized India 13.4 Pre - Independence 13.5 Post - Independence 13.6 The 21st Century 13.7 Let’s sum up 13.8 Questions 13.9 References 13.0 OBJECTIVE After reading this unit you will be able to understand: • History of media • Origin and growth of journalism in India • Evolution of the Press in India • State of modern mass media 13.1 INTRODUCTION Indian Media consists of several different outlets of communication channels: Newspapers, magazines, posters, television, radio, cinema and Internet-based social media, websites/portals. India's media has been free and autonomous for most of its history, even before Ashoka the Great founded the Indian empire on the principles of justice, openness, morality, and spirituality. Prime Minister Indira Gandhi established a state of emergency from 1975 to 1977, during which India's media faced the threat of government retaliation. Today's mass communication media appears to defy all logic, exposing its message to all possible variations before finally obliterating it. The goal of mass communication is always to disseminate any content in an unbiased manner, and the internet is no exception, and it is unquestionably the most effective media tool. Over the past two decades, India’s media sector has undergone substantial and dramatic change reflected in the increase of both channels and 178 munotes.in

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179 audiences. According to latest figures, the country has over a hundred news channels reaching 161 million TV households, 94,067 newspapers, and more than 200 million Internet users. These changes have triggered a significant conversation about India's media's expansion and dynamism. 13.2 ANCIENT INDIA Written documentation and records date all the way back to the Indus Valley civilizations in India. Carvings on copper plates and engravings on various surfaces of wood, bone, ivory, and other materials are reported to have been used to make the land gifts. During Emperor Ashoka's reign, rock inscriptions and pillar inscriptions were also used to communicate. Asoka is also said to have used overseers, secret agents, and spies to collect information for him. A king's court or darbar, was traditionally where he gathered news from his prime minister, counselors, and officials. As a result, the roots of journalism may be traced all the way back to ancient civilisations and periods. Communication, which has existed for generations, plays a critical role in governance. This manner of working persisted even during the Sultanate period. The kings have always desired to protect or expand their kingdoms. Spies played a significant part in both cases. News, executive orders, and decisions were announced in public via announcements in front of crowds assembled to the beat of the drum. On rocks and coins, monuments and temples, inscriptions and records were kept. All of them were progenitors to what we now know as full-fledged journalism. One of the most significant aspects in delaying the development of printing in India was the employment of calligraphists. The concept of printing, on the other hand, did not reach India until after Guttenberg's first press had printed the Bible. The Jesuits installed the first press in Saint Paul's College, Old Goa, in 1556, at the request of the Christian Missionaries, which resulted in the compilation of Conclusiones Philosophicae. As a result, the first stages of mass printing began, which subsequently grew. By the 17th century, India had already begun large-scale printing in a variety of languages, with a focus on religious texts. 13.3 COLONIZED INDIA It is also said that India's communication system was less developed than that of many other Western countries. The British colonists of India began concentrating their efforts on developing transportation systems primarily for commercial and financial purposes. They were aiming for India's raw resources. Roadways, rivers, and railways were gradually built as a result of this. Dalhousie was the one who pioneered the use of the electric telegraph in India for speedier communication. The East India Company The Indian Communication & Media Universe munotes.in

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180 180 Communication Theory made extensive use of all available resources in order to expand their commerce. As a result, all of these tools supported journalism as well. Historically, the British were the pioneers of journalism. It is also believed that the newspaper was allegedly brought by Britishers and pushed upon us. The prevailing nationalist ideology did not include acquiring a foreign language, 'English,' which was derisively referred to in India as Mlechhas' language, or the language of morally degraded people. The East India Company, on the other hand, was not on board. Because they were afraid of criticism, they were wary of all journalists and media. Second, the publication exposed many Britishers' private lives, which enraged them and prompted them to bury the information. As Indians' awareness of the need to fight for freedom grew, many freedom fighters turned to the press to write about it, both in English as well as in the vernacular language. 13.4 PRE-INDEPENDENCE In 1776, William Bolts attempted to launch the first newspaper, but was unable to support himself and was forced to abandon the venture due to inspection by the East India Company. Another individual, James Augustus Hickey, launched a newspaper called the Bengal Gazette or the Calcutta General Advertiser on January 29, 1780, which is now regarded as India's first English newspaper. Hickey is known as the "Father of Indian Journalism." "Weekly political and commercial papers open to all parties but influenced by none," he said of the Bengal Gazette. Hickey's newspaper was a mix of tabloid and satire. It didn't have the same extremely "serious news" tone as other British newspapers at the time. Initially, he used the newspaper to take on personal rivals by mocking them. The major purpose of the article was to criticize the East India Company. Hickey, though, added other four-page gazettes like a gossip column, a poet’s corner, news related to European scandals and most importantly the advertisements to make it more appealing and readable. In the same year, i.e., 1780, as a setback and fierce competition, Peter Reed and B. Messinck launched the Indian Gazette, a newspaper with improved content and presentation. Hickey also got into trouble with Governor-General Warren Hastings after writing a letter critical of the Governor himself. In comparison to Hickey's newspaper, India Gazette was a new, high-quality publication. It benefited from Warren Hastings' sponsorship in the form of all of his amenities. The Calcutta Gazette, published under the direct sponsorship of the Government, appeared four years later, followed by the Bengal Journal and a monthly, the Oriental Magazine of Calcutta Amusements, the following year. Calcutta had four weekly newspapers and one monthly magazine when the Calcutta Chronicle was first published in 1786. Richard Johnson, the Government Printer, launched the Madras Courier, the city's first newspaper, in 1785. munotes.in

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181 The Bombay Herald, Bombay's (now Mumbai's) first newspaper, was established in 1789, and was followed by The Courier in 1790, which included advertisements in gujarati language A year later, in 1791, the Bombay Gazette was published, but it was eventually merged with the Bombay Herald for official notifications. However, the government subsequently tightened down on press freedom, clearly shaken by widespread criticism from the latter. The press was censored for more than two decades following that, as successive Governor Generals in India refused to grant freedom of press. The Madras Courier had a successful run for over ten years, until R. Williams published another newspaper, the Madras Gazette in 1795, followed by the India Herald in 1796. However, the India Herald ran into difficulties since it was not authorized, and its owner, Humphreys, was deported to England. As a result, in 1795, censorship was enforced. In 1816, with the help of Raja Rammohan Roy, Ganga Kishore (Ganghadar) Bhattacharya published the first Bangla weekly, 'Bengal Gazette,' the first newspaper under Indian administration. It supported Raja Rammohan Roy's reforms. The rights to publish 'The Guardian' were acquired by John Burton and James Mackenzie in 1818. The prerequisite for publishing this report was that moral issues would take precedence over other topics. Another Britisher, James silk Buckingham, known as a man of principle came to India in 1818 as the editor of the “Calcutta Chronicle” . It was a biweekly of 8 pages which contained political, commercial and literary news and views. This created a new norm in Calcutta journalism, as the correspondence columns were available to anyone with a complaint. Buckingham's paper was interested in discussing the acts and policies of the Bengal government, postal service, the police, the military establishment and government attitudes to various matters of public interest. Buckingham slammed the government's refusal to eliminate the sati programme. The Calcutta Journal was recognised as the best-produced paper, as well as the best in terms of content and presentation. He was one of the first Europeans to fight for a free press in India. Buckingham prioritized local news and reported local conditions above styles, the lives of the people over the social scene, and criticism over invective. Buckingham established the "Oriental Herald" in England. In the meantime, the Baptist Missionaries started their printing venture by publishing 'Dig-Darshan,' a vernacular Bengali language monthly that published historical data, notices, and political news, and in 1819, they published Samachar Darpan, a first Bengali weekly newspaper that bypassed controversial news and thus gained government support, and it criticized Vedanta philosophy. In 1820, a newspaper called 'Friend of India' was released, which concentrated on issues related to India. The Indian Communication & Media Universe munotes.in

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180 182 Communication Theory Raja Ram Mohan Roy launched Brahmanical Magazine- Brahmin Sevadhi in response to Samachar Darpan's attack on Vedanta philosophy. The purpose of the pamphlet was to vindicate Hinduism against Christian missionaries by attacking Christian missionaries for their misconception of Hinduism. Through his books, Raja Ram Mohan Roy sparked the Indian public's desire for independence. The publishing of three newspapers is given to Raja Rammohan Roy. Following the loosening of press rules, he formed Sambaad Kaumudi in 1821. To fight the Serampore Missionaries, he launched another Persian weekly called 'Mirat-ul-Akhbar.' Roy's Persian poem Mirat-ul-Akhbar expressed his deep reflections on fundamental truths and doctrines. He used his publications as a reformer to raise awareness about social ills such as "Sati" (a barbaric tradition in which a deceased man's widow immolates herself on her husband's pyre). Lord William Bentinck, a rather liberal Governor General at the time, backed Indian reform efforts, resulting in 33 English and 16 Indian language publications in India by 1830. The "Udant Martand '' (The Rising Sun) was the first Hindi language newspaper, originally published as a weekly in 1826 by Pandit Jugal Kishore Shukla, a lawyer by profession. Since the local language press was particularly outspoken and vocal in its criticism of the British administration, the Vernacular Press Act was enacted in 1878 to regulate the non-English, Indian language press. After the Vernacular Press Act, the popular Amrit Bazar Patrika in Kolkata was translated into English. In 1876, The Hindu was first published. Under the leadership of Allan Hume, the Indian National Congress was created in 1885. Congress began to urge for a stronger involvement in the administration, and the media began to print remarks made by congress leaders. The Indian press covered the debates and discussions that took place in Indian councils. The Hindu community backed the Congress' policies. The Statesman, Amrit Bazar Patrika, The Banga Basi, and The Kesari all backed the Congress. Indian newspapers began to take on a more political tone over time. These publications were crucial in the struggle for national independence. During World War I, Indians sided with the Allies. After the war, Indians aspired for independence. Annie Besant created the Home Rule League, which was later joined by Tilak. For India, Besant desired "Dominion Status." Annie Besant edited New India and used it to propagate her thoughts. Tilak afterwards established a Maharashtra home rule league. Tilak, also known as Lokmanya and renowned as Maharashtra's lion, was an extremist Congress leader. He published the books Kesari and Maratha, which spread the message of the independence movement. He opposed Bengal's partition. Tilak was expelled from the country for six years after opposing the sedition ordinance in 1908. Tilak was a brave journalist who excelled in his field. Tilak's ability to turn local Ganesha and Shivaji munotes.in

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183 festivals into national festivals demonstrates his organizational skills and shrewdness. In 1915, Mahatma Gandhi returned to India. In Africa, he had battled against white bigotry. In South Africa, he used the Indian Opinion, a newspaper, to disseminate his ideals. In India, he published Young India (in English) and Navjivan (in Hindi) (Gujarati). He permitted other newspapers to freely reproduce the content of his papers. Hatred and disdain for the government. He instilled in the Indians a sense of belonging. Gandhi advocated Hindu-Muslim harmony, Khadi and other village industries, the use of spinning wheels, and the abolition of untouchability in his essays. Under the leadership of Motilal Nehru and C R Das, the Swaraj party was founded in 1923. They founded the Hindustan Times in order to disseminate their Swaraj ideology. The paper was created by a group of educated Sikhs who intended to free the Sikh shrines from the Mahants' grasp. They later sold it to the leaders of the swaraj party. Other notable periodicals included AJ (1920), a nationalist publication founded by Shiv Prasad Gupta, the swarajya (1922), founded by T Prakasam, advocating Gandhian philosophy, and the forward (1923), founded by C R Das and widely circulated in Bengal. Shubhash Chandra Bose later revised it to preach Democratic values. Raja Ram Mohan Roy and others fought for social reforms and aided in the awakening of the people. Payam-e-Azadi began publishing in Hindi and Urdu in 1857, calling on Indians to oppose the British. 'Firman,' by Bahadur Shah Zafar, was published by Doorbeen and Sultan-ul-Akhar, asking the people to force the British out of India. Neel Darpan, a play written by a Hindi patriot, was released in 1861. (Indigo Revolt). Dadabhai Naoroji was the founder of the 'Voice of India' and the 'Indian Spectator,' which he started in Mumbai (then Bombay) in 1885 and focused on events in London rather than local events. As a result, social reformers used the media as a potent tool to enact reforms and raise the stakes in the fight against social problems. As a result, India has a long and illustrious history of journalism. While most Britishers launched the newspaper, the people of the country eventually took over the pen—a weapon more powerful than the sword— with enormous zeal. Under the support of stalwart leaders, publications were a key contributor to the freedom struggle and a medium of information education. Check your Progress: 1. Discuss the growth of Bombay Herald in detail. The Indian Communication & Media Universe
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184 Communication Theory 2. Discuss the history of Calcutta Herald. 3. Discuss why do we need to study newspapers in detail 184 13.5 POST-INDEPENDENCE It is said that during the post-independence era, when Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru was Prime Minister, the freedom of the press was respected after a long period of toil and turmoil under British repression. Jawaharlal Nehru, as the country's first Prime Minister, never shied away from criticism. He was a staunch supporter of press freedom. However, there was one time when Nehru had to speak out against press freedom because it was fueling sectarian rioting and dividing India. On October 23, 1951, he signed a new Act known as "The Press Objectionable Matters Act." The only reason for this was to prevent newspapers from using pictures and words to promote communal division. Any comments, signs, or visible representations that were likely to incite or encourage anybody to use violence or sabotage to overturn or undermine the government, or to disrupt the supply and distribution of food or other critical commodities or services, were considered objectionable. The press played an adversarial role in pre-independence India. It took a positive attitude toward the incoming administration. It evolved into a means of communication between the government and the citizens It is stated that during the Chinese aggression in 1961, when an Emergency was declared, Nehru's stance on press censorship was mild compared to the restrictions imposed during his daughter Indira Gandhi's prime ministership. It is worth noting that under the leadership of late Indira Gandhi, journalistic freedom was completely suppressed. The Indian Defense and Internal Security Act was later brought into law.This Act prohibited to print or publish any newspaper, book, or other document that was harmful to India's defense and security; it allowed the government to demand security from any newspaper or publisher, or to forfeit security already given; it gave the government the power to confiscate copies of any inflammatory printed matter and shut down presses; and it gave state and local governments the power to impose censorship. munotes.in

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185 In the early hours of June 26, 1975, India's then-President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed announced a state of emergency, citing "internal disturbances" as a threat to national security. Indira Gandhi, the then-prime minister, suspended civil freedoms, including the freedom of the press, and the Constitution was revised and altered. During the emergency, the Draconian dictatorship of the Indira Gandhi administration imprisoned journalists, opposition leaders, and activists. "The President has declared a state of emergency." "There is no need to be alarmed," Indira Gandhi proclaimed on All India Radio. While things changed overnight and India was in the midst of a constitutional crisis during the Emergency, press freedom took a turn for the worst. As a result of the suspension of freedom of speech as a fundamental right, printing presses were raided, and newspapers were taken out of circulation for the next two days. The Indira Gandhi government established various ground rules for journalists all around the country, as well as "guidelines" to follow. One of the many rules was that if news was clearly damaging, publications should help the Chief Press Adviser by censoring it themselves. If there are any doubts, the nearest press adviser should be consulted. During the 21- month emergency, the country's media was under attack, and the international media was racing to get stories out about the situation in the country, where constitutional rights had been suspended. The government passed two laws: the first limited journalists' ability to report on legislative processes, and the second imposed limits on reporting that could "incite hatred, contempt, or disaffection toward the government." The Indian press was told not to believe the rumors. The Chief Press Advisor, a position established to censor the news, asked all of the country's media to seek approval before publishing any news. The majority of the mainstream media's periodicals and magazines were subjected to the Emergency's fury. Major publishers like Himmat, Janata, Frontier, Sadhana, and Swarajya, among others, were slashed by censors' scissors. Some were threatened with being kicked out of publications, while others were sentenced to prison. The Indian Express and the Statesman were among the first to express their displeasure in their print editions. The Indian Express and the Statesman, in a show of defiance, left their editorial pages blank. This was quickly followed by similar moves by other media. Journalists from The Times of London, The Washington Post, and The Los Angeles Times were reportedly dismissed, according to IE. After receiving threats, the correspondents of The Guardian and The Economist flew back to the United Kingdom. The Indian Communication & Media Universe munotes.in

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186 186 Communication Theory The voice of BBC, Mark Tully has been removed from the channel. Almost 7,000 journalists and media people were arrested in May 1976, according to the Home Ministry. Kuldip Nayar, a journalist, was arrested by the police in Delhi for protesting the emergency with other journalists. Across the country, opposition leaders were fighting for the same cause. One of them was LK Advani, the then-leader of the Bharatiya Janata Party, who spent months in jail during the Emergency. After the Emergency was lifted, Advani's comments echoed in every Indian's ears. "You were asked only to bend, but you crawled," he added to the reporters. The newspaper industry was in shambles. When Indira Gandhi was ousted from power and Morarji Desai was elected, journalistic freedom was restored. On the advice of his Minister for Information and Broadcasting, L.K. Advani, who was also a journalist by profession and had been imprisoned during the emergency, repealed the Prevention of Publication of the Objectionable Matter Act of 1976 with the required procedural consent of both houses of Parliament. Morarji Desai lost power in 1979, and Indira Gandhi took over. The press was once again subjected to hostility, though not to the same degree as during the emergency. Many state governments, on the other hand, have ignored the press. Rajiv Gandhi rose to power as a wave of sympathy by the citizens after Indira Gandhi was assassinated in 1984. Rajiv Gandhi, too, became suspicious of the press in the aftermath of the press's negative coverage of his government in 1988. So, like his mother, he introduced a 'Defamation bill' with the intention of curtailing press freedom, but he was unable to do so because the bill was not passed at the outset. After a few years, Rajiv Gandhi, who was liberal, couldn't cope with the negative press. However, in succeeding years, the press appeared to be more free, despite the long-term influence and economic pressures. Development journalism and repertory journalists were popular. 13.6 THE 21ST CENTURY Newspapers continue to give information, entertainment, education, and a generous dose of Yellow journalism, among other things. Unlike in the past, today's newspapers provide news with a variety of features for students interested in fashion, style, environment, and other topics. The publications are divided into pages that cover a wide range of issues such as state, national, and international news, business, and sports. The majority of these are now also available in online formats. The Indian press today, on the cusp of the twenty-first century, compares favorably with the best press in the world. In practically all languages, Indian newspapers have been totally modernized in every aspect of their munotes.in

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187 operations, including news reporting, editing, design-layout, production, distribution, advertising, sales management, and editorial content. The quality is on par with the best in the globe. Saturday/Sunday magazines and daily supplements in some newspapers, such as The Hindu and the Eenadu (Telugu daily), cover a wide range of topics, from cosmetics to quality management, religion to science. From Kashmir to Kerala, from Kohima to Kutch, the Indian press today is known for its amazing innovations. It is well-prepared to overcome the challenge of the communication revolution, which is molding the world out of shape every hour of every day. Though the Indian press' tone and tenor have always mirrored the times' pressures and strains, it is extremely individualistic, wholly independent, fully professional, and thoroughly forward-looking. At present there are over 35,000 newspapers, journals, and magazines published in India, in 92 languages and dialects. While most dailies and periodicals in all Indian languages use modern computer and technology, there are still newspapers that are written by hand, typed on manual typewriters, cyclostyled, and photocopied; others rely on hand composition or monotype or linotype composition, employ letterpress printing, and use outdated rotaries. In every aspect of management, the industry uses the most up-to-date practices. Newspapers and magazines' business features, such as advertising, circulation, and sales management, are all organized efficiently and effectively. Newspapers in all languages must look forward to a bright future as literacy rates rise, wages rise, and there is a greater desire for news. Newspaper owners are now enticed by rising circulations and soaring advertising earnings. In the last two decades, dailies in all languages have established editions in regions where people previously could not have imagined seeing copies of newspapers. In addition, some newspapers have launched sister publications in a variety of regional languages. The Indian Express group, for example, publishes a Tamil, Gujarati, Hindi, Telugu, Kannada, and Marathi newspaper in addition to an English daily version distributed from 16 locations around the country It also owns a daily financial publication, a film weekly (in three languages), and a monthly television programme. Similarly, the Ananda Bazar Patrika group publishes a Bengali and an English-language newspaper, as well as a financial daily and a biweekly on film, sports, economics, and business. More than a half-dozen towns publish Hindi newspapers such as Jagran, Bhaskar, Nav Bharat, and others. The Indian press has a bright future in the 21st century; it is destined to reach new and greater heights in all facets of newspaper production. The Press has been heavily monetised and corporatised in the twenty-first century, with news being sacrificed on the altar of advertising to generate the much-needed income to keep a newspaper afloat. Most businesses have a newspaper, a news channel, and a website. Technology has advanced at a breakneck pace. The Indian Communication & Media Universe munotes.in

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188 188 Communication Theory While newspapers continue to give information and many remain faithful to the roots of journalism, others are willing to put a spin on the news in order to please their corporate owners and the political parties that sponsor them. Many deserving people's plights are not presented to the forum for fear of political retaliation from certain political groups. Although newspapers publish news, the majority of it comes from news sources such as news service portals and news agencies. On foot, there are very few journalists. Many television newsrooms have turned into battlegrounds, with reporters debating who said what to whom and why rather than presenting topics. A few objections are mentioned, but they are overshadowed by other discussions. Many newspapers and news outlets align themselves with the government and corporate entities that own significant stakes in their enterprises. In exchange, many journalists have turned to social networking sites to deliver news snippets that are not doctored or subject to the whims of the government and other corporations. Check your Progress: 1. Discuss the growth of news in Indian independence industry? 2. Discuss newspapers pre independance? 3. Discuss Newspapers in the 21st century? 13.7 LET’S SUM UP Journalism is the fourth pillar of democracy, and it has made a significant contribution to the country's progress. It continues to do so because there are so many untainted journalists in the country. However, the journalists' independence must be safeguarded. The press, for its part, should be encouraged to exercise moderation when discussing sensitive themes that divide the country or security concerns. munotes.in

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189 However, it should be urged to concentrate on journalism that promotes the development of all of its citizens, rather than the tabletop journalism and page three material (with an emphasis on parties and dressing) that most news forums cater to. It's also fascinating to see how traditional media is becoming increasingly susceptible to blogs and do-it-yourself information. This development is not attributable to a desire for more democratic sources of information. On the contrary, the pressure is increasing as the number of eyes (cameras and other digital gadgets) viewing the same events that the mainstream media is reporting to us increases: the chances of being exposed are too great, and broadcast journalists are compelled to tell the truth (or at least a plausible version of it). 13.8 QUESTIONS 1. How has Indian communication evolved from ancient India to the twenty-first century? 2. What impact has technology had on the way news is conveyed to the public? 3. Discuss in detail about the form of media available In India during pre - independence. 4. Write a note on the contribution of Indian Leaders in the development of press in India. 13.9 REFERENCES • Chadha, K. (2017, May 8). The Indian news media industry: Structural trends and journalistic implications. Global Media and Communication, Vol 13(Issue 2), 139-156. August 1, 2017 • Michelle, S. (2019, February 22). Journalism in Post-Independence India. ROLE OF PRESS IN INDIA’S FREEDOM STRUGGLE. • Koerner, A., Krcmar, M., & Ewoldsen, D. R. (2016). Communication Science Theory and Research: An Advanced Introduction. Taylor & Francis. • Middleton, D. (2012). Non-Gaussian Statistical Communication Theory. Wiley. • Weitkamp, E., & Wilkinson, C. (2016). Creative Research Communication: Theory and Practice. Manchester University Press. ***** The Indian Communication & Media Universe munotes.in

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14 INDIAN COMMUNICATION & ITS DESIGN Unit Structure 14.0 Objective 14.1 Indian Communication Design 14.2 Sadharanikaran model of communication 14.2.1 Introduction to Sadharanikaran model of communication 14.2.2 Elements of Sadharanikaran model of communication 14.2.3 Outline of the Sadharanikaran model of communication 14.3 Rasa Theory 14.3.1 Definitive nouns to understand the process of Rasas 14.3.2 An analysis of the Rasas 14.3.3 Rasa Theory & Communication 14.4 Let’s sum up 14.5 Questions 14.6 References 14.0 OBJECTIVE After reading this unit you will be able to understand: • Roots of Indian communication design in traditional Indian theories • Classical way of Indian Communication • Traditional Indian Theories of communication • How aesthetic communication differs from everyday communication 14.1 INDIAN COMMUNICATION DESIGN Communication design is a system-based concept that creates an integral relationship between the visuals and the person viewing them. It refers to the approach taken by the communication designers to engage their viewer and communicate the information and knowledge in the message accurately and clearly via media. Besides creating messages the process of communication design also creates the channels to deliver the said messages to its target audience. Communication design in simple terms is a process through which the designs are created that will have maximum impact upon the viewer. From Johannes Gutenberg (1468), the founder of the first printing press, to Steve Jobs (2011), the inventor of personal computers and smartphones, communication has come a long way. The invention of the telephone may 190 munotes.in

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be traced back to the beginning of modern communication studies. Communication has come a long way since then, both in terms of use and understanding. In the current scenario, Communication is now referred to as the cyber age, information age, networking age, 3G, 4G age, and so on. In India, the government supported the growth of communication as a discipline to spread the message of family planning, social development, and national integration. In India nowadays, communication is primarily used in the domains of advertising and mass communication. Indian communication studies are still based on ancient literature, fine arts, customs and traditions, and freedom struggle discourses in terms of theoretical understanding. Indian communication theories are grounded in Indian religious literature, Indian philosophy, and fine arts. It was originally employed by Bharata in his commentary "Natyashastra" in the 10th century, which was the primary source of information for the Indian idea of communication. Indian communication ideas are also rooted in fine art traditions, in addition to literature. It is made up of a persistent mood termed "bhava" that is expressed through various dance forms. According to Bharata's Natyashastra, the essence of communication was to achieve commonality and oneness. 14.2 SADHARANIKARAN MODEL OF COMMUNICATION Sadharanikaran model of communication (SMC) was constructed and developed by Dr. Nirmala Mani Adhikary. This model of communication is often regarded among the Asian and Hindu philosophies and communication theories. 14.2.1 Introduction to Sadharanikaran model of communication: The Sadharanikaran model of communication (SMC) is a Hindu viewpoint of the communication process. Sadharanikaran is a Sanskrit word that signifies "mutual understanding," "commonness” or "oneness" among individuals. It depicts how interacting parties engage in a system (i.e., the sadharanikaran process) in order to achieve saharidayata. When senders and receivers complete the sadharanikaran process, they acquire saharidayata and become sahridayas. In other words, when interacting parties, such as actors and audiences, engage in a communicative relationship that leads to the accomplishment of saharidayata, they become sahridayas, and it is at this stage that sadharanikaran is attained. Sadharanikaran's meaning is based on the main premise of sahridayata. It's a state of common orientation, commonality, mutual understanding, or oneness. The SMC sees communication as a means of communion in this light. Sadharanikaran is grounded in Bharata's Natyashastra. Bhattanayaka is Indian Communication & Its Design
widely credited with inventing the notion of sadharanikaran. He is also 191 munotes.in

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192 192 Communication Theory credited with coining the phrase to explain the concept of rasa in his commentary on Natyashastra. Sadharanikaran's true purpose is to achieve commonness and oneness among the people. From a Bharatvarshiya / Hindu perspective, it is also the first communication model in diagrammatic form. 14.2.2 Elements of Sadharanikaran model of communication: Sadharanikaran model comprises of the following elements: 1. Sahridayas (Preshaka, i.e. sender and Prapaka, i.e. receiver) 2. Bhava (Moods or emotions) 3. Abhivyanjana (Expression or encoding) 4. Sandesh (Message or information) 5. Sarani (Channel) 6. Rasaswadana (Firstly receiving, decoding and interpreting the message and finally achieving the rasa) 7. Doshas (Noises) 8. Sandarbha (Context) 9. Pratikriya (Process of feedback) Sahridayas are referred to as people with an ability to send and receive messages. They are the parties involved in communication and are capable of recognizing each other as the process's sender and receiver. If communication is perceived as a step-by-step process, the initiator is the sahridaya-preshaka (sender), who has the bhavas (moods, emotions, or thoughts) in mind. The bhavas are to be shared with the sahridaya-prapaka (receiver). He or she must complete the rasaswadana process. The activities that a source engages in, in order to translate bhavas into a form that can be perceived by the senses are referred to as abhivyanjana. In English, it might be regarded as an expression or encoding. Here, simplicity is the most important factor. The speaker (source) simplifies complicated concepts and ideas with visuals and terminologies appropriate for the listener's understanding during the communication process (receiver of the message). Bhavas are manifested as sandesha after the abhivyanjana process is completed. Sandeha, in other words, is the result of the abhivyanjana process. A sarani is required for the transmission of sandesha (channel or medium). Auditory, tactile, visual, olfactory, and taste channels are examples of natural channels. Paintings, sculptures, letters, etc. are examples of artifactuals. Rasaswadana is the act of receiving a message, decoding it, and then relishing the rasa of the sandesha. munotes.in

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Doshas are noises that disrupt the message and cause misunderstanding. Indian Communication & Its All noises, including semantic, mechanical, and environmental disturbances, should be included in the model's interpretation. Sandarbha is context, and any message's effectiveness is determined by the communication environment. In different circumstances, the same communication might have distinct interpretations. The receiver's responses after receiving the message are referred to as pratikriya. It is the feedback mechanism that allows the recipient to participate actively in the communication process. 14.2.3 Outline of the Sadharanikaran model of communication: 1. The model's structure is non-linear. It incorporates the concept of a two-way communication process that results in the communicating parties' mutual understanding. As a result, it is not constrained by the restrictions of linear communication models. 2. The model demonstrates how successful communication is viable in Hindu society, which is characterized by complicated caste hierarchies, languages, cultures, and religious traditions. Sahridayata assists persons conversing in overcoming the unequal relationships that exist in society, and the communication process itself is facilitated. 3. In sadharanikaran, the connection between the communicating parties is critical. The essence of the relationship is not the cause of the relationship, but the relationship itself. The guru-shishya relationship, for example, is always regarded as sacred within itself. And, unlike most Western communication theories and models, this does not place a high value on sender dominance. Rather, the model prioritizes both communicating parties equally. 4. The model demonstrates that the fundamental functions in communication are abhivyanjana (encoding) and rasaswadana (decoding). They are, in other words, pivotal points in sadharanikaran (communication). 5. It illustrates that the Hindu perspective on communication places a greater emphasis on internal or intrapersonal communication. In their optimum form, both the encoding and decoding operations consist of a four-layer mechanism. Communication entails greater internal experience than the sensory organs' objective logic. The model shows how meaning can be imparted to a communication even if the sender is unknown to the receiver by providing sandarbha (context). By considering contextual circumstances, it is possible to determine the intended meaning of any message without learning the speaker's real purpose. As a result of the context, a text's 'objective' meaning can be preserved. Design
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194 194 Communication Theory 7. From a Hindu perspective, communication has a wide range of applications. Communication, as envisioned in the model, is broad enough to address all three elements of life: adhibhautika (physical or mundane), adhidaivika (mental), and adhyatmika (spiritual). In a social or global setting, communication is a technique by which humans reach sahridayata under ideal conditions. Communication is the process of getting real knowledge as well as equivalent mutual experience in a mental framework. But that's not the complete story; there's also a spiritual aspect to it. 8. The model's purpose of communication is unquestionably to achieve common ground or mutual understanding. However, the goal would not be restricted to this. The model envisions communication capable of achieving purushartha chatustayas (i.e., four main goals goals of life: artha, kama, dharma, and moksha), just as Hinduism prioritises achieving all four of them. As a result, the model is perfectly compatible with Hindu worldview. The model is based on two primary sources: Bharata's Natyashastra and Bhartrihari's Vakyapadiya. The majority of the concepts used (such as sadharanikaran, sahridayata, rasaswadana, sakshatkara, and others) are formal terms based on Sanskrit poetics, aesthetics, and linguistics, as well as other Hindu religious-philosophical knowledge systems. The SMC is built on the foundations of these concepts. The concept/theory of sadharanikaran must not be confused with the sadharanikaran model of communication (SMC). The former, which is associated with Bhattanayaka and is one of the most important theories in Sanskrit poetics and other fields, has its origins in Bharata Muni's Natyashastra. The SMC, on the other hand, is a communication model that was first developed and proposed in 2003 and draws on the traditional concept/theory of sadharanikaran as well as other resources to illustrate Hindu viewpoints on communication. The model's meta-theoretical assumption is Vedantic. Internal or intrapersonal activity is clearly emphasised in Hindu communication. It's understandable that abhivyanjana and rasaswadana are the foundational acts in communication, and communication in Hindu life entails more experience than objective rationality of the sensory organs. This propensity makes it easier to put sahridayata and other notions into practice. In Hindu society, communication leads to communion. Check your Progress: 1. Discuss the growth of news in Indian independence industry? munotes.in

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2. Discuss newspapers pre independance? Indian Communication & Its Design 3. Discuss Newspapers in the 21st century? 14.3 RASA THEORY Rasa is the key theme of Indian dramatics & poetics. Rasa is one that can be tasted (aaswad). Rasa is defined in this way. There are six kinds of Rasas – Katu (bitter), Tikhat (spicy), Kashaay (acrid), Madhur (sweet), lavan (salty), Aamla (sour). Only with the sense of taste one can experience these Rasas. The six-Rasa-food is a dish that is made up of all of these Rasas. Drama and poetry both use the same concept of taste. As a result, both drama and poetry are said to have the same 'tastefulness,' and therefore Rasas. Shringaar (beauty), Hasya (laughter), Karuna (sadness), Raudra (anger), Veer (bravery), Bhayanak (dangerous), Bibhatsa (obscene), and Adabhut (miraculous) are the eight primary Rasas. Rasas have been proposed by a variety of drama theorists. Bharata's Natyashastra is thought to be the earliest work to explore the structure of the Rasa process. The most significant principle of Poetics is that Rasa is life. The Rasas are liable for the poetry that emerges from words. Poetry devoid of Rasa is a parody of poetry. The Rasas are responsible for poetry's charm. To be able to experience Rasa, the object being tasted must be worthy of being tasted. However, in the case of poetry and drama, this taste must be experienced through the senses of hearing and sight. When these organs taste the Rasas, they produce happy and sad sensations that reach the mind, and if the mind is working properly, emotions like happiness and sorrow are awakened. The more intense the sensations, the more intense the emotions, which are mirrored in the human body parts. Exclamations develop unintentionally when emotions reach a peak, and other organs of the body react to these feelings at the same time. The poet's description of an incident or event becomes a real experience for the person listening to the poetry. 14.3.1 Definitive nouns to understand the process of Rasas: While explaining the process of Rasas some definitive nouns have been given. These are as follows: 195 munotes.in

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196 196 Communication Theory 1. Sthayee Bhaava: These are the Bhaavas or Dharmas that exist indefinitely. Sthayee Bhaavas are basic and self-existent Bhaavas that, when triggered by the Rasas, expand to encompass the fullness of one's mind and leave an impression later on. 2. Vibhaava: Vaasana is a term that is introduced here. Vaasana is knowledge acquired from memory also known as Bhaavana which is an impression left unconsciously on the mind by past activities that cause feelings of joy or misery, Vaasana is also a fancy or false idea, ignorance, a wish, a desire, or an inclination. The Sthayee Bhaava can be found in the human mind as Vaasana, or memory. The Vibhaava make the Sthayee Bhaava taste worthy and bring forth the Rasas. The Vibhaava enhances the flavour of the Sthayee Bhaava and brings forth the Rasas. The Vibhaava gives life to the Sthayee Bhaava and help them flourish. As a result, Vibhaava are the catalysts that cause the Sthayee Bhaava to transform into Rasa. The Aalambana Vibhaava is the character that leads to the complete expression of the Bhaavana or the Sthaayee Bhaava. This is the characterization of the Aalambana Vibhaava. The process of revealing a character's personality is known as characterization. Direct characterization informs the audience who the character is. Indirect characterization depicts details that reflect a character's personality. It employs speech, ideas, the character's effect on others, the character's actions, and the character's appearance, which includes makeup and costume. Uddipan Vibhaava is the stimuli. Uddipan Vibhaava refers to the characters' acts as well as the location, time, and situations that stimulate the Sthaayee Bhaava. 3. Anubhaava: By performing Anubhaava, one can physically experience the Sthaayee Bhaava. In Anubhaava, the physical location of the experience is quite evident. These can be found in both the performer and the audience. As a result, Anubhaava affects both the performer and the audience. 4. Vyabhichaari Bhaava: These are also known as Sanchaari Bhaava. The Vyabhichaari or Sanchaari Bhaavas are the Bhaavas that make the Sthaayee Bhava pass through the entire work - whether ist poetry or drama. Sanchaar is to spread. Sanchaari are those who have the ability to disperse. A Rasa and a Vyabhichaari Bhaava do not have a direct relationship. They appear in the presence of any Rasa and cause it to grow. They leave a lingering aftertaste. The Vibhaava, Anubhaava, and Vyabhichaari or Sanchaari Bhaava, according to Bharata's Rasa rule in the Natya Shastra, are the three munotes.in

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197 elements that combine to make Rasa. This Rasa is formed in both the performer and the audience, as we have seen. 14.3.2 An analysis of the Rasas: 1. Shringarasa: The sexual attraction among males and females is known as rati. The Shringarasa is reliant on the two people who are drawn to each other in this way. As a result, these people are known as the Vibhaava of the Shringarasa. Rati's mood is stimulated by the stars, the moon, the arrival of spring, the discourse between such individuals that reveals the nature of their desire, attractive attire, sensual imagery, love songs, and so on. As a result, they are Shringarasa's Uddipan Vibhaava. Touching, embracing, and other actions occur when sexual desire is sparked. These are the Anubhaava of this Rasa. The Vyabhichaari Bhaava of this Rasa involves laughing, feeling shy, feeling as if one has lost all control of one's senses, feeling sluggish, and so on. 2. Haasyarasa: The main emotion of this Rasa is laughter, hence the Sthaayee Bhaava. This Rasa's Aalamban Vibhaava is the one who makes people laugh. The Uddipan Vibhaava of the Rasa is that person's deeds or statements. When you laugh, tears flow out of your eyes, your mouth is open, and so on, these are the Anubhava of the Rasa's. The Rasa's Vyabhichaari Bhaava is the urge to sleep, feel lethargic, fatigued, and so on. 3. Karunarasa: This Rasa is created by death (of a beloved), separation (from a beloved), devastation, disease, and so on. It's Sthaayee Bhaava is an expression of grief or sorrow. The Aalanban Vibhaava is the item or person that is shattered and leads to the Rasa. The Uddipan Vibhaava is the rise in grief caused by news of damage, agony, distance, etc., or the suffering of a person. The Rasa's Anubhaava includes crying, cursing fate, falling to the ground, beating oneself, howling, and so on. The Rasa's Vyabhichaari Bhaava involves the body becoming pale, feeble, abandoning all desires, losing awareness, feeling anxious, or becoming insane. 4. Raudrarasa: This Rasa's Sthaayee Bhaava is Anger. The Rasa's Aalanban Bhaava is the enemy. The Uddipan Bhaava are the enemy's activities that elicit feelings of rage. The Uddipan Vibhaava of this Rasa is hitting with a fist, tossing an enemy to the ground, beating, burning, cutting, defacing, and so on. The Anubhaava are the bodily manifestations of the Rasa, such as hair rising on the body, raising of the eyebrows, biting of the lips, flinging weapons, using sharp words, and so on. Aggression, jealousy, and envy are examples of the Rasa's Vyabhichaari Bhaava. Indian Communication & Its Design munotes.in

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198 198 Communication Theory 5. Veerarasa: This Rasa's Sthaayee Bhaava is Energy. The Aalanban Bhaava is the enemy. The enemy's invasion, the enemy invading the area, espionage, fomenting secessionist activity, an arms race, training the army, and other activities all create energy, and thus are the Uddipan Bhaava. The Anubhaava include intelligence, stability, bringing together one's supporters, and so on. The Vyabhichaari Bhaava consists of pride, reasoning, delight, and constancy. 6. Bhayaanakarasa: This Rasa's Sthaayee Bhaava is Fear. The Aalanban Bhaava of the Rasa is that from which one tries to escape, and the Uddipan Bhaava are the activities that lead to one escaping. The Anubhaava is tongue-tied, shivering, seeking around for security, and escaping in flight, whereas the Vyabhichaari Bhaava is helplessness, anxiousness, and unable to move. 7. Beebhatsarasa (Beebhatsarasa): Disgust is thought to be the sensation that causes the Beebhatsa emotion or Rasa. That disgust is known as Jugupsaa, and it is the Rasa's Sthayee Bhaava. The Rasa's Aalaban Bhaava is blood, meat, and foul-smelling substances. The Uddipan Vibhaava are foul odours, decomposing waste, and so on. The Anubhaava are spitting, turning away or covering the face, and closing the eyes, while the Vyabhichaari Bhaava are losing consciousness, feeling nauseous, swimming of the head, and so on. 8. Adbhutarasa: This Rasa's Sthaayee Bhaava is a surprise or shock. The Aalanban Bhaava is the cause of such surprise. The Uddipan Bhaava is a description of what surprises you. The Anubhaava are being halted in one's tracks, becoming perplexed in one's thinking, and enlarging one's eyes. The Vyabhichaari Bhaava is the shivering of speech and the hair standing on end on one's body. 14.3.3 Rasa Theory & Communication: At least three significant points for the study of communication can be found in the Rasa theory. First, Bharata and Abhinavagupta place a high value on the audience in their account. Art objects are only useful if they have some type of interaction with a real-life audience. This concept is similar to Aristotelian and current notions of audience-centered and effect- driven communication. The auditor is said to have a key role in the implementation of rasas. This entails being ready or open in a particular way, as well as approaching the art item as an art object. While this may lead one to believe that there is some sort of identification going on behind the rasa, this is mitigated by the second argument made by rasa theory concerning communication. In rasa theory, artistic communication occurs only when the audience is detached and munotes.in

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199 uninterested in the drama's events. As a result, an audience member does not connect with a character on stage in terms of his or her own ego demands, but rather feels the general state of emotion created by watching that character. The main identity in such an encounter lies in the mood that both the character and the audience are experiencing. In communication, Rasa theory tends to leverage the evocation of experience in an audience, although in a non-identification-based manner. The third intriguing issue raised by rasa theory in regards to communication is that the detached communication that occurs in an artistic environment cannot be experienced in regular conversation. Classical rasa theory was explicit about this fascinating, unique and individualized experience that leads only to momentary or transient bhavas, not to a transcendental emotion experience (i.e., the rasa). To extend the detachment and disinterestedness characteristics of dramatic play experiences to the interested and attached activity of everyday life, more theory would be required. As a result, from the perspective of rasa theory, aesthetic communication differs from everyday communication. 14.4 LET’S SUM UP The Indian communication theory is believed to be dominated by content and emotions. They are more rooted in Hindu philosophical thought, which is guided by the law of Dharma. Dharma is an universal law that governs human existence and individual relationships. The Indian communication paradigm is characterized by its complexity and plurality. It is comprehensive and intuitive, and it believes in a single reality. Individualism and manipulation have no place in the austere and spiritualistic Indian communication tradition. In the Indian tradition of communication, the major focus is on an internal search for meaning, a process that leads to self-awareness, then freedom, and finally truth. As a result, it is focused on interpretation or reception and transcends language and meaning. Intra-personal communication has a greater significance than interpersonal communication. 14.5 QUESTIONS 1. Write a brief note on Sadharanikaran Model of Communication 2. Explain in details the elements of Sadharanikaran Model of Communication 3. Describe in detail about Rasa theory 4. Make a list of the eight Rasas and write a note about them. 5. Write a short note on Rasa theory & Communication Indian Communication & Its Design munotes.in

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200 200 Communication Theory 14.6 REFERENCES • Madan. (2015). Fundamentals of sadharanikaran model of communication. Sadharanikaran. • Stephen W. Littlejohn & Karen A. Foss, T. O. (2009). Encyclopedia of Communication Theory. Sage Publication. • Fuchs, C. (2020). Communication and Capitalism: A Critical Theory. University of Westminster Press. • Krolokke, C., & Sorensen, A. S. (2006). Gender Communication Theories and Analyses: From Silence to Performance. SAGE Publications. • Rancer, A., & Avtgis, T. A. (n.d.). Argumentative and Aggressive Communication: Theory, Research, and Application. SAGE Publications. ***** munotes.in

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201 Unit Structure 15.0 Objective 15 THE FUTURE OF MASS COMMUNICATION 15.1 Introduction 15.2 How Technology has changed Communication 15.2.1 From Print to Digital 15.2.2 Seeking Participation in the Era of “Fake News” 15.3 Future of Communication concepts with respect to Indian Media 15.3.1 Mobile Video Marketing 15.3.2 Data Analytics & Public Relations 15.3.3 Augmented Reality (AR) & Virtual Reality (VR) 15.4 Future of Digital Media Trends 15.4.1 The Rise of Social Movements 15.4.2 Social Media Scrutiny 15.4.3 The Power of Influencers 15.5 The Indian News Media Industry 15.5.1 Mobile as a public information broadcast network 15.5.2 Podcasting 15.6 Let’s sum up 15.7 Questions 15.8 References 15.0 OBJECTIVE After reading this unit you will be able to understand: • How technology has changed communication • Future of communication with respect to Indian Media • What is the future of digital media trends • Changes in Indian news media industry 15.1 INTRODUCTION We live in a world where technological advancements outpace our ability to adapt to them. We don't know what the future holds for technology, but we may speculate on how we will communicate with others. munotes.in

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202 202 Communication Theory The Internet's importance in communication will continue to grow. VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) is already widely used in a variety of communication products and services. Users can interact with networks of individuals using sites like Facebook and Twitter. People now have a platform to address the world thanks to the rise of the Internet. Only celebrities and politicians could address such a large crowd at once in the past. But now, the same thing might be done by anyone who has access to the internet. One way we might see communication grow in the future is through augmented reality. You see the world through a technology overlay in an augmented-reality system. This may be in the form of a hand-held device, such as a smartphone, that currently has various augmented-reality apps. A set of augmented-reality glasses is another prospective application. In either instance, you may look around you and see real-time digital data on what you're looking at. Language barriers are also vanishing. People from different countries and cultures can converse without the use of an interpreter thanks to technology that can translate languages in real time. 15.2 HOW TECHNOLOGY HAS CHANGED COMMUNICATION Journalists have used the written text to communicate news about political events and public interests, conflict, corruption & war stories, as well as comedy, editorials, advertorials, biographies, classified ads, and horoscopes since the invention of the printing press. Newspapers grew over time into a medium that informed, educated, and entertained people. The printing press of Johannes Gutenberg in the 15th century laid the groundwork for hundreds of years of printing technology, but the public's love affair with and thirst for news in print has been gradually changing since the 19th century, and as our ways of consuming news have evolved, so has the public's relationship with the media. In the media, technology plays a significant role. Some individuals believe that the diffusion of ideas is preceded by the development of technology. While no one can say one way or the other regarding this, there is no questioning that technology plays a significant influence in how communications are transmitted and received. Communication is more diverse than ever, whether it's a personal dialogue with family, friends, and colleagues or a large brand's communications to a consumer base. The internet became widely used in the early 1990s, bringing with it fresh and novel communication techniques such as digital media channels, which allow users to send messages more quickly and across long ranges. These technological advancements opened the path for digital media to have a significant impact on how businesses and brands interact with their customers. munotes.in

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15.2.1 From Print to Digital: The Future of Mass Communication The format and design of newspapers changed dramatically as technology improved during the twentieth century. The telegraph gave way to computer networks for rapid information gathering, digital pagination substituted the "hot type" method of printing news, and color ink and graphics technology allowed more rich and bright material for printing. The Internet, on the other hand, has radically revolutionized how news is reported, viewed, and consumed, making it the most industry-changing technological invention to date. The Internet has been a fantastic technology for news gathering and distribution, but it has had a major influence on print media circulation, with newsrooms lowering payrolls and journalists claiming "print is dead" Readers are increasingly dissatisfied with print products or preferring to receive their news from cheaper sources from online platforms as publishers aim to bolster dwindling ad sales, which account for the majority of many publications' earnings. 15.2.2 Seeking Participation in the Era of “Fake News”: Traditional journalism seemed to be giving way to less-objective, more public-interest-driven content at the initial stage of the 21st century ,with declining circulation levels, a mad rush to "give them what they want" ensues. While editors have generally served as gatekeepers, verifying that articles written are accurate and balanced, Digital content creators and bloggers typically do not, with the resultant higher viewership, readership and interaction on occasion. The credibility of the media has weakened as a result of the proliferation of strongly biased publications that draw large numbers of readers and ad revenue. However, the time is changing as people are becoming dissatisfied with "fake news" and are wanting for objective, well-informed news coverage from reliable sources. Many of these publications, however, have struggled to attract sufficient readers to pay for online and print subscriptions, which are required to keep them afloat. 15.3 FUTURE OF COMMUNICATION CONCEPTS WITH RESPECT TO INDIAN MEDIA How Indians consume and distribute information is dominated by digital media. As a result, major influences are emerging that will have an impact on the field's future. When it comes to media, innovation is the new normal, and that tendency is unlikely to change as we turn to future media trends. Social media, digital marketing, and expanded internet access via numerous devices have all influenced media concepts. As new tools develop, users express new expectations, and technology quality and accessibility increase, the future of digital media will change. Mobile video, virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), and more 203 munotes.in

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204 Communication Theory 204 sophisticated data analytics will all have an impact on the future of digital media. 15.3.1 Mobile Video Marketing: The future of media is constantly changing, and advertisers' methods for reaching out to consumers must change with it. With Over The Top (OTT) platforms clearly leading the way in terms of online video streaming consumption in India, MoMAGIC carried out a survey to better understand end consumer preferences and choices when it comes to consuming online video content in India's present exciting and disruptive OTT (and DTH) segment. Each year, more customers are opting for online video platforms such as Disney + Hotstar, Amazon Prime, Netflix, Zee5, Sony Liv, and others over traditional television and DTH, and many of them are doing so using their mobile devices. This suggests that the future of media, especially video, will demand a mobile-first approach. This goes beyond advertising on top video streaming channels and requires a review of how businesses present themselves in the marketplace. Having mobile-friendly, searchable video content is critical now that videos may be accessed across platforms. 15.3.2 Incorporation of Data Analysis in Public Relations: Public relations has incorporated big data, and findings obtained from it have been used to enhance PR efforts. More than merely the success of a specific ad campaign, many such campaigns can be tracked by online advertising analytics like SEM Rush, google ad analytics etc. They also have the ability to find out if any changes in the campaign are required. Advertisers can use the data acquired to fine-tune their communication message, determine which channels to use, and figure out who is viewing or listening. PR experts are using data analysis to design more effective outreach campaigns. With today's vast amounts of data, communication specialists can predict news cycles and interest,can find out which publications cover the news of their organization the most, as well as establish potential partnerships with media outlets, other companies, and influencers. While some of the measurements used in public relations may appear intangible, data is helping to influence the future of media trends in Public relations through its potential to create a sense of all the intangible noise. 15.3.3 Augmented Reality (AR) & Virtual Reality (VR): Virtual reality (VR) recreates the physical settings using specialized software and technology, whilst augmented reality (AR) enriches physical visuals. Both the industries that have grown together, have recently gotten additional attention, and each one is growing at a lightning speed. According to market research firm Research and Markets, the global VR and AR business is anticipated to grow to $1.3 trillion by 2030 (from $37 billion in 2019). Many experts predict that these technologies will allow customers to have immersive experiences with products before purchasing munotes.in

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205 them, helping to convert advertising budgets into genuine customer purchases. These technologies also aid in the integration of print and digital media, as well as the usage of real-time data to provide customers with strong, personalized experiences. The restaurant review is a classic example of augmented reality. Without ever walking inside, you could stop at the front of a restaurant and check customer reviews or browse daily deals using augmented-reality technology. Eg., McDonald's application. However, the applications do not have to be restricted to specific locations. People may be able to use augmented reality technologies as well. Imagine viewing a stranger's name, Facebook profile, Twitter handle, and other personal information. Presumably, augmented reality systems will create privacy and security problems, but such systems are currently in the works. We've also seen an outbreak of short, funny videos on Instagram Reels, Tiktok, and Snapchat as a result of the pandemic and most of the world trying to survive. People have begun to share their regular updates with friends and relatives via short videos. They frequently use video editing tools to augment their video footage with Augmented reality technology such as lenses, virtual backgrounds, and face filters to make their movies more entertaining. AR avatars are getting more popular as people's demand for their personal privacy and a drive to make online communication more personalized and unique increases. Now in Japan, there are more than 4000 virtual YouTubers. Rather than confronting the camera, many individuals choose to use a digital edition of themselves in the form of an avatar. AR technology is no longer restricted to Snapchat's amusing filters or Pokemon Go. This software is used in essentially every aspect of our lives, including education, work, healthcare, and entertainment. The degree to which organizations can adjust it to their benefit will have a lasting impact based on their competitive edge and the efficiency with which they can establish long-term client relationships. Check your Progress: 1. Discuss Augmented reality in detail. 2. How would you define Fake news? The Future of Mass Communication
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206 206 Communication Theory 3. Discuss how has technology changed the idea of communication? 15.4 FUTURE OF DIGITAL MEDIA TRENDS The use of digital media in professional and personal interactions has been growing at a breakneck pace since the past few years, and to this the COVID-19 pandemic has only amplified that trend. Lockdowns, illness fears, loneliness and restrictions on in-person interactions have all pushed people to use the internet more, to stay connected with the people. According to market research firm GlobalWebIndex (GWI), 43 % of users spent more time on social media in August 2020 as a result of the pandemic. With the pandemic being the initial start, dozens of new digital media trends are likely to have long-term effects on the digital landscape, which people in the media industry should be aware of. Some of those future digital media trends include the following: 15.4.1 The Rise of Social Movements: For social activists and average individuals, social media is becoming one of the most significant tools for spreading the word about crucial issues and persuading others to join their cause. For much of the summer of 2020, the Black Lives Matter campaign, for example, blanketed social media. These activists and customers, particularly the younger generation, frequently want businesses they patronize to participate in such conversations. Organizations that choose to speak out on significant issues must know how to communicate in a way that enhances rather than detracts from their brand and image. 15.4.2 Social Media Scrutiny: The momentum has been made to hold Facebook, Twitter, and other social media companies liable for some of the content that is transmitted over their networks that have become quite popular among the users. By 2020, this momentum had reached a breaking point. Misinformation and excessive rhetoric surrounding the coronavirus and the US presidential election reached a boiling point. Politicians have focused attention on social media corporations via senate hearings and legislative proposals. Additionally, some customers and even employees have expressed dissatisfaction with how these social media powerhouses have dealt with the situation so far. These organizations will most likely have to impose stronger internal content rules in the future, or deal with government regulations. munotes.in

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207 15.4.3 The Power of Influencers: The Future of Mass Communication Influencers on social media usually have tens of thousands, if not hundreds of thousands, of fans. Interestingly, a recent study by marketing firm Amra & Elma discovered that pandemic-related increases in social media usage resulted in a rise in influencer engagement. According to the study's findings, influencers saw a 67 % rise in likes and a 51 % increase in comments during the start of the pandemic. It's also worth mentioning that, despite increased engagement rates, the cost of influencer posts has only increased by 3.1%. According to the poll, "a little increase in pricing means that companies are now likely to receive much more reach for the same budget as they would have received pre-pandemic." The survey also indicated that engagement has increased, accompanied by small increases in revenue for influencer - sponsored posts, which means that brands can take an edge over a lower cost per impression. 15.5 THE INDIAN NEWS MEDIA INDUSTRY India's media sector has seen significant and dramatic change in the last two decades, as evidenced by the growth of channels and audiences. According to latest figures, the country has over a hundred news channels reaching 161 million TV households, 94,067 newspapers, and more than 200 million Internet users. These changes have sparked a significant conversation about India's media's expansion and dynamism. This predictable celebratory narrative, on the other hand, ignores the more concerning structural patterns that are rapidly defining the country's media landscape. Consumerism, increasing levels of concentration and cross- media ownership, as well as the proliferation of political and industrial control over the media, are all examples. It is necessary to determine whether the popular perception of India as an evolving and pluralistic media landscape, as well as the argument that current trends in the Indian media landscape have considerable and deeply negative implications for news production and overall journalism quality in the country, are true. News organizations that publish journalism articles have become beholden to Facebook and Google's distribution systems. Finally, there's the issue of boredom to consider. News publications are frequently regarded as a waste of people's time. Nonetheless, a citizen's need for news and information tools to engage in a democracy remains critical. The news industry has also been pushed to adapt and alter as a result of the Internet and other digital advancements, with mixed results. Journalists are embracing new technology, such as virtual reality and artificial intelligence, and experimenting with them. Mobile, Podcasting, Reporting, and Automation are some of the new types of journalism that have emerged. munotes.in

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206 208 Communication Theory Eighty percent of the world's population currently has access to a mobile phone. The Internet of Things will have grown to 50 billion devices by 2025, that will result in five billion connected people on the planet. "The world's poorest individuals will someday have smartphones," stated Gabby Stern, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation's Director of Media & External Relations. Further he also stated, "this allows people to immediately reach out to those who are encountering issues and engage with them in order to gain a better understanding of what would help them live healthy, productive lives." Fifth-generation wireless experiments (also known as 5G), are expected to start later this year, which will allow mobile phones to receive data at gigabit speeds. 15.5.1 Mobile as a public information broadcast network: In the same way as radio and television did in the previous century, the advent of mobile technology represents a continued potential to communicate public information in the twenty-first century. The way we consume information has changed as a result of mobile journalism. This digital form of storytelling has taken the world by storm, thanks to quick updates and live streams. While portable electronic gadgets enabled this creative form, newsrooms, cell phone carriers, and social media platforms have all contributed to its continuous rise. The immediate communication methods of social media have raised new demands in the world of journalism. Today's news must be updated in real time if it is to attract the interest of customers. Journalists are expected to be jacks-of-all-trades, having the capability of writing, shooting, and managing social media accounts as a result of this. We have been told that there is no need to wait for information in a culture of instant gratification. The reality is that mobile journalism does exactly that. On the other hand, Conventional reporting has a more limited scope because it is dependent on a small group of people rather than a large group. Mobile journalists communicate story part by part as they are revealed, whereas traditional journalists develop distinct and finished works for mass media. Mobile journalists communicate parts of the story as they are disclosed, whereas traditional journalists generate distinct and finished works for mass media. People may quickly stay up to date with breaking events via live media coverage on social media sites such as Facebook and Twitter. These services, among other things, provide stories, streaming, and live discussions. While live media is not new, its popularity is growing. According to the Interactive Advertising Bureau, 47 percent of customers around the world have increased their use of live-streaming in the past year. munotes.in

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One of the most important contributors to globalization is mobile journalism. Its use of the media is critical in alerting the populace about events taking place outside of their immediate environment. This interconnection serves as a bridge across countries and regions, facilitating the interchange of ideas and cultures. Information is more accessible and global than it has ever been. Citizen journalism is the collection and sharing of information by the general people as a result of mobile journalism. A citizen journalist can be anyone with a smartphone or other internet-connected device. The potential of anyone, qualified or untrained in the field, to be a citizen journalist has raised debates about the credibility of an eyewitness account film captured on a cell phone and put on the internet vs a conventional broadcast on a television channel. 15.5.2 Podcasting: Podcasting as well as podcasts aren't completely new concepts. They've been around for nearly two decades, but the format has developed significantly in the past six years. The proliferation of shows, celebrity involvement, financing from huge firms such as Spotify, and the adoption of technologies that boost awareness, such as smart speakers, have all helped for growth of the podcast. Since the mid-2000s, podcasts have gained popularity and are now widely distributed. For national public radio on mobile phones, podcasting has emerged as a viable prospect. The high advertising prices generated by podcasts have some in public radio questioning if it's a bubble. Podcasts are seen by many as a new business and content frontier for media organizations. Apple's iTunes marketplace, on the other hand, controlled the great bulk of podcast distribution and consumption. However nowadays there are other platforms like Spotify, Google podcasts, Pocketcasts also available in the marketplace. In India, the use of podcast entertainment has steadily increased over the previous few years. The introduction of DIY platforms has aided the rise of independent content creators, resulting in an increase in the availability of fresh content. In the first year of the pandemic, India's podcast consumption surged by 29.3 percent, according to KPMG's Media and Entertainment Report 2020. According to PwC's Global Entertainment & Media Outlook 2020 research, India is the third largest user of podcasts (after the United States and China), with 57.6 million monthly listeners, and is anticipated to reach 17.61 million by 2023. The podcast facilitates a screen-free alternative to receiving stories and news, as well as participating in debates and interviews, in the midst of the pandemic's constrained lifestyles. In 2020, several of these sites, particularly those that are locally produced, witnessed a spike in podcast content. Spotify, the largest global music and podcast streaming platform, The Future of Mass Communication
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210 210 Communication Theory while an Indian streaming platform, JioSaavn, saw its content rise 200 times in 2020 as compared to 2019. The surge might also be characterized by listeners' high desire for self- help and motivational content throughout the pandemic. As a result of this motivational drive, podcast streaming on several of these sites has increased. According to a survey performed in 2021 by Spotify and YouGov, 50 percent of Indians prefer listening to at least one episode of such a podcast every week. This shows how podcasts have gained popularity in India. Podcasts in India are available in a variety of languages like Hindi, English, Telugu, Tamil, Bengali, Kannada, Gujarati, Marathi, and other vernacular languages as well. In podcasts, this diversity stimulates interest and encourages a longer attention span. This knowledge is useful not only for marketers, but also for podcasters in India who want to create monetizable content. Moreover, many podcasts use AI Transcription Technology, which allows advertisers to protect their brands by only offering advertising to podcast shows or episodes with specified topics as a central theme. The purchasing, targeting, optimization, reporting and analyzing of podcast ad inventory will all be automated in real time thanks to this partnership. Marketers will also be able to choose their location, time, and demographics as the volume of information increases. What's more interesting is that one of the main reasons why podcasts are gaining popularity among Indians is that the information is available in a variety of languages. This platform can also be used to enable local advertising. The fact that younger generations are rapidly turning to podcasts for entertainment, self-improvement, and awareness is contributing to the expansion of podcasts in India. The strong relationship that listeners have with podcast hosts, which is not the case with visual content, is maybe the most significant cause for the growth. Since its inception, podcast content has grown dramatically, and it has quickly become one of the most diverse content-driven industries in the country. There are now podcasts on queerness and sexuality, as well as many more connected to other cultural traditions, available in a variety of regional languages. The first two seasons of 'Lifetime,' a Spotify original show co-produced with media organization All Things Small (ATS), featured the lives of two notable actors-turned-politicians from South India: M.G. Ramachandran or M.G.R. from Tamil Nadu and N.T. Rama Rao or N.T.R. from Andhra Pradesh. The two seasons were released in Tamil and Telugu separately and were incredibly popular. Similarly, the podcast 'Keeping it Queer' sees through a queer perspective. Many of these creators benefit from the podcast industry since it allows them to experiment with various sorts of content. munotes.in

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Top Indian news organizations have their own podcast where they discuss current affairs, regional developments, politics, sports, business and world affairs. Following are the examples of podcast by Indian news organization: 1. The Hindu's In Focus, 2. The Indian Express' 3 Things, 3. NDTV's Top Headlines, and many others Check your Progress: 1. Discuss the rise of social movements that have happened in the virtual space 2. Discuss the importance of mobile technology in communication 3. Discuss the importance of podcasting in communication? The Future of Mass Communication
15.6 LET’S SUM UP We are being engulfed in a cloud of communications, from always-on smartphones to networked teddy bears to digital interfaces implanted into our own bodies. The ways we collaborate, interact, and communicate will expand and decouple from the constraints of geography, time, and even language during the next decade. Fragmentation will intensify as we strive to deliver significant information in easily digestible formats in the face of increasing competition for our time and attention. Meanwhile, as we're increasingly called to work across generations, geographies, scales, and even with bots and machines, collaboration has never been more crucial. It is observed that though all of this reflects a world of divided attention, it also conceals a future of tools, interfaces, and technologies that might bring coherence and accuracy to the way we communicate and share 211 munotes.in

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212 212 Communication Theory information and knowledge. The early signs are pointing in the right direction. Adaptive interfaces examine a pilot's brain waves in real time to modify the amount and form of data they're viewing to suit stress levels, hinting at a future where our communications are not just individualized, but also adaptable to our circumstances evaluated at the granular, biological level. Meanwhile, ever-more advanced machine learning algorithms evaluate and execute ever-more complicated ad campaigns, bringing us closer to a genuine marketing science. These new communications tools, technology, and applications are changing how we connect emotionally as well as ushering in a future of tailored personalisation. Smart clothes will provide tangible, visceral feelings to a sports enthusiast watching a game from her living room, while couples will be able to share immersive romantic moments over huge distances. Indeed, virtual reality technology may allow you to have the sense of swapping bodies with someone else. In the not-too-distant future, we may be able to communicate by transmitting our ideas directly into the brains of others via a network. Although such technology is decades away, scientists are working on developing brain-computer interfaces that allow humans to send their thoughts straight to a computer. Perhaps in 50 years' time, we'll all be using an electronic sort of telepathy. Communication technology advances at a breakneck speed. It's possible that our predictions are only scratching the surface. Only time will tell. 15.7 QUESTIONS 1. What is the future of communication? Explain with relevant examples. 2. How has the Internet changed the way we communicate? 3. What impact does technology have on Indian media? 4. Write a note on digital media trends. 15.8 REFERENCES • Kreit, B. (2016, October 23). When Everything is Media: The Future of Communication and Technology. Technology Horizons 2016 Research Agenda. • Sharon Pian Chan, R. (2017). The Future of Journalism. Washington, D.C.: The Aspen Institute Communications and Society Program. • Anderson, J. A. (1996). Communication Theory: Epistemological Foundations. Guilford Publications. munotes.in

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• Cobley, P. (Ed.). (1996). The Communication Theory Reader. Routledge. • Heath, R. L., & Bryant, J. (2013). Human Communication Theory and Research: Concepts, Contexts, and Challenges. Taylor & Francis. ***** The Future of Mass Communication 213 munotes.in