MA-sem-III-Understanding-Social-Psychology-munotes

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DEFINING SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY &
INTERDISCIPLINARY NATURE - I
Unit structure:
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Definition
1.3 Key Aspects of Social Psychology
1.4 History & Development of Social Psychology
1.5 Social Psychology as An Interdisciplinary Nature
1.6 Summary
1.7 Questions
1.8 References
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Social psychology is a subfield of psychology that focuses on how
individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the
presence and actions of others. It explores the ways in which people
perceive, interact with, and are shaped by their social environment. Social
psychologists study a wide range of topics related to human behavior
within a social context, and their research often sheds light on the complex
dynamics of human interactions.
1.2 DE FINITION
Social psychology is a subfield of psychology that focuses on the
scientific study of how individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviours are
influenced by the presence, actions, and perceptions of others. It delves
into the intricate ways in whic h social interactions, group dynamics, and
societal factors shape human behaviour and attitudes.
According to psychologist Gordon Allport , social psychology uses
scientific methods "to understand and explain how the thoughts , feelings,
and behaviour of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, or
implied the presence of other human beings. "Essentially, social
psychology is about understanding how each person's individual
behaviour is influenced by the social environment in which that behaviour
takes place.
Check your progress:
1. Define social psychology munotes.in

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2 1.3 KEY ASPECTS OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY:
1. Social Influence: Social psychology explores the various ways in
which people are influenced by others. This includes topics like
conformity (adjusting one's behaviour to match the group), compliance
(responding to a direct request), and obedience (following orders from an
authority figure).
Social influence is a fundamental aspect of social psy chology that explores
how individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviours are shaped by the
presence and actions of others. It encompasses several key concepts and
mechanisms:
 Conformity: Conformity is the tendency for individuals to adjust
their behaviou r or attitudes to match those of a group or social norm. This
can involve changing opinions, adopting behaviours, or conforming to
group expectations to avoid standing out. A classic experiment illustrating
this is Solomon Asch's line judgment study, where participants conformed
to an incorrect group consensus.
 Compliance: Compliance refers to the act of agreeing to a direct
request from another person or group, often due to social pressure or
persuasion. It involves doing something because someone asked o r told
you to, even if you may not fully endorse the request. Techniques like
foot-in-the-door (starting with a small request before making a larger one)
and door -in-the-face (making a large request first, then a smaller one) are
commonly studied in compli ance research.
 Obedience: Obedience involves following the commands or orders
of an authority figure, even if it goes against one's personal beliefs or
ethics. The Milgram obedience experiments, where participants
administered what they believed were pain ful electric shocks to others
under the authority's instruction, highlighted the power of obedience in
social situations.
 Norms and Social Roles: Social norms are unwritten rules that
govern acceptable behaviour in a particular group or society. People of ten
conform to these norms to fit in and avoid social disapproval. Social roles
are specific positions within a group that come with expected behaviours,
such as the roles of a teacher or a police officer. People often adapt their
behaviour to match the ex pectations of their roles.
 Minority Influence: While conformity usually involves the majority
influencing the minority, minority influence explores how a smaller group
can influence the majority. When a consistent and persuasive minority
presents a differ ent viewpoint, it can lead to gradual attitude change within
the majority.
 Informational vs. Normative Influence: Social influence can be
categorized into informational influence (when people conform because
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3 (when people conform to be accepted or liked by others, even if they don't
believe the information is correct). These distinctions help explain why
individuals may conform in different situations.
 Deindividuation: In certain group settings, individuals may
experience a loss of self -awareness and self -restraint, leading to
behaviours they might not engage in as individuals. This phenomenon,
known as deindividuation, can result in both prosocial and antisocial
behaviours, depending on the context.
 Understanding social influence is crucial because it sheds light on
how individuals adapt and respond to their social environment. It also has
practical implications in fields such as marketing, persuasion, leadership,
and social change effo rts, as it provides insights into how to effectively
influence and persuade others in various contexts.
2. Attitudes and Attitude Change: Researchers in this field investigate
how attitudes are formed, maintained, and altered. They study the
persuasive te chniques used in advertising, politics, and everyday
communication.
Attitudes and attitude change are fundamental aspects of social
psychology, focusing on how individuals form, maintain, and alter their
evaluations or feelings toward people, objects, iss ues, or concepts. Here's
an explanation of these key concepts:
Attitudes: An attitude is a psychological tendency to evaluate something
with varying degrees of favour or disfavour. Attitudes are typically
composed of three components:
 Cognitive Component : This involves beliefs and thoughts about the
object of the attitude. For example, someone might believe that exercise is
good for health.
 Affective Component: This pertains to the emotional aspect of the
attitude, encompassing feelings and emotions asso ciated with the object.
In the case of exercise, someone might feel positive emotions like
enjoyment when they think about it.
 Behavioural Component: This relates to behavioural tendencies or
actions associated with the attitude. In the exercise example, it might
involve engaging in physical activity regularly.
 Attitude Formation: Attitudes can be formed through various
processes, including direct experience, social learning, and exposure to
persuasive communication. Personal experiences and interactions with
others can shape attitudes over time.
 Attitude Change: Attitude change is the process by which
individuals alter their attitudes. Several influential models and strategies
explain how this change occurs: munotes.in

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4  Cognitive Dissonance Theory: This theory prop oses that individuals
experience discomfort (cognitive dissonance) when their attitudes or
beliefs conflict with their actions. To alleviate this discomfort, they may
change their attitudes to align with their behaviour.
 Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) : ELM suggests that the extent
to which people scrutinize and process persuasive messages depends on
their motivation and ability. Attitude change can occur through central
processing (careful evaluation of the message) or peripheral processing
(relying on superficial cues).
 Yale Attitude Change Approach: This model emphasizes three
factors influencing persuasion: the source of the message, the nature of the
message, and the audience's characteristics. Persuasive messages are more
likely to be effective wh en these elements are carefully considered.
 Fear Appeals: Fear appeals involve using fear to persuade
individuals to change their attitudes or behaviours. They work when they
induce moderate fear and provide a clear solution to alleviate that fear.
 Cogni tive Response Theory: This theory focuses on individuals'
cognitive responses to persuasive messages. It suggests that attitude
change occurs when individuals generate favourable thoughts about the
message or engage in counter -arguing against their existin g attitudes.
 Resistance to Attitude Change: People are not always easily swayed
by persuasive messages. Various factors can lead to resistance to attitude
change, such as preexisting strong attitudes, reactance (opposition to
perceived threats to freedom) , and selective exposure (seeking information
that confirms existing attitudes).
 Sleeper Effect: Sometimes, persuasive messages may not have an
immediate impact but can lead to attitude change over time. This delayed
effect, known as the sleeper effect, o ccurs when people forget the source
of the message but remember the message itself.
 Understanding attitudes and attitude change is crucial in marketing,
communication, politics, and various domains where persuasion and
influence play a role. Social psycho logists study these processes to gain
insights into how individuals can be persuaded, how they respond to
persuasive attempts, and how attitudes influence behaviour.
3. Social Perception: This aspect of social psychology focuses on how
individuals form im pressions and make judgments about others. It
examines concepts like stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination.
Social perception is a fundamental aspect of social psychology that
involves how individuals form impressions of others and interpret the
social world around them. It's a crucial process because it influences our
interactions, judgments, and behaviours in social situations. Here are key
components and concepts related to social perception: munotes.in

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5  Impression Formation: Impression formation refers to t he process by
which individuals develop opinions and beliefs about others based on
available information. This information can include physical appearance,
verbal and nonverbal cues, behaviour, and context. These impressions can
be automatic and rapid, oft en occurring within seconds of meeting
someone.
 Schemas: Schemas are mental frameworks or templates that people
use to organize and interpret information about the social world. They are
like cognitive shortcuts that help us make sense of complex social
situations. Schemas can be about individuals (person schemas), groups
(stereotype schemas), or social roles (role schemas). Stereotypes, which
involve making assumptions about a group based on limited information,
are a well -studied aspect of schemas.
 Attribution Theory: Attribution theory examines how people explain
the causes of behaviour, both their own and others'. It distinguishes
between internal attributions (assigning behaviour to personal traits or
characteristics) and external attributions (attrib uting behaviour to
situational factors). This theory helps us understand how we perceive and
judge the actions of others.
 Fundamental Attribution Error: The fundamental attribution error is
a common bias where individuals tend to overemphasize the role of
internal factors (personality, intentions) when explaining others' behaviour
and underemphasize the role of external factors (situational influences).
This bias can lead to misunderstandings and misjudgements of people's
actions.
 Self-Serving Bias: The s elf-serving bias is another attributional bias
in which individuals attribute their successes to internal factors but
attribute their failures to external factors. This bias helps maintain self -
esteem and protect one's self -concept.
 Cultural and Cross -Cultural Influences: Social perception can be
influenced by cultural norms, values, and beliefs. Different cultures may
have distinct schemas, attributions, and ways of interpreting social
information. Cross -cultural research in social psychology explores the se
variations.
 Impression Management: People often engage in impression
management, which involves consciously or unconsciously controlling the
information they present to others to influence the way they are perceived.
This can include efforts to enhance one's likability, competence, or
trustworthiness.
 Nonverbal Communication: Social perception also involves the
interpretation of nonverbal cues, such as facial expressions, body
language, and tone of voice. These cues can convey important information
about emotions, intentions, and attitudes, and they play a significant role
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6  Confirmation Bias: Confirmation bias is the tendency to seek,
interpret, and remember information that confirms our preexisting beliefs
and stereoty pes. It can lead to a self -fulfilling prophecy, where
expectations about others' behaviour influence our actions toward them,
ultimately confirming our initial beliefs.
 Social perception is essential because it shapes how we interact with
others, make jud gments, and navigate social situations. Understanding the
cognitive processes and biases involved in social perception can help
individuals become more aware of their own judgments and improve their
ability to accurately perceive and understand the people they interact with
in diverse social contexts.
4. Social Cognition: Social psychologists explore how people process,
store, and retrieve information about social situations and others. This
includes cognitive biases, heuristics, and the impact of emotions on
decision -making.
 Social cognition is a key aspect of social psychology that focuses on
how individuals perceive, interpret, and make sense of social information
in their interactions with others and the world around them. It
encompasses a range of cog nitive processes and concepts, including:
 Social Perception: Social perception involves how individuals form
impressions of others based on various cues, such as facial expressions,
body language, and verbal communication. People quickly categorize
others into social groups and make initial judgments about their
characteristics, which can influence subsequent interactions.
 Attribution Theory: Attribution theory explores how people explain
the causes of behaviours, both their own and those of others. It
distinguishes between internal attributions (attributing behaviour to
personal characteristics or traits) and external attributions (attributing
behaviour to situational factors). Understanding attributions helps explain
why people make judgments about the i ntentions and motivations of
others.
 Stereotyping: Stereotypes are cognitive schemas or generalized
beliefs about particular social groups. These stereotypes can influence
perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors toward individuals based on their
group membe rship. Social cognition research examines how stereotypes
are formed and their impact on decision -making.
 Prejudice: Prejudice involves holding negative attitudes and
emotions toward individuals or groups based on their perceived social
group membership. Social cognition research explores the cognitive
processes that contribute to prejudice, as well as strategies to reduce bias
and promote tolerance.
 Social Inference: Social inference refers to the process of drawing
conclusions about people's thoughts, f eelings, and intentions based on
limited information. This can include making judgments about someone's munotes.in

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7 trustworthiness, likability, or competence based on subtle cues or
behaviours.
 Heuristics and Biases: People often use mental shortcuts or
heuristics t o simplify complex social information processing. These
shortcuts can lead to cognitive biases, such as confirmation bias (seeking
information that confirms existing beliefs) or the fundamental attribution
error (overemphasizing dispositional factors when explaining others'
behaviour). Social cognition research examines these cognitive biases and
their impact on decision -making.
 Social Schemas: Social schemas are mental frameworks that
organize knowledge about particular social concepts or categories. They
help individuals process information efficiently but can also lead to
cognitive errors when applied inappropriately. For example, gender
schemas may influence how people perceive and evaluate men and women
in different roles.
 Self-Concept: Social cogniti on extends to how individuals perceive
and evaluate themselves in social contexts. This includes self -esteem (the
overall evaluation of one's self -worth) and self -concept (the collection of
beliefs about one's abilities, roles, and characteristics). Social cognition
explores how these self -concepts are influenced by social comparisons and
feedback from others.
 Understanding social cognition is crucial because it provides
insights into the cognitive processes that underlie social interactions,
judgments, an d decision -making. It helps explain why people may form
biases, stereotypes, or engage in certain behaviors in social situations.
Additionally, by studying social cognition, researchers can develop
interventions and strategies to promote more accurate and unbiased social
perceptions and interactions.
5. Interpersonal Relationships: Social psychology investigates the
dynamics of various types of relationships, such as friendships, romantic
partnerships, and family relationships. Topics include attraction, l ove,
intimacy, and conflict resolution.
 Interpersonal relationships are a crucial key aspect of social
psychology that delve into the ways people interact, connect, and relate to
one another within social contexts. This area of study encompasses several
important dimensions:
 Attraction: Social psychology explores why people are drawn to one
another. Factors such as physical attractiveness, similarity, and proximity
play a role in the initial stages of attraction. The theory of "similarity -
attraction" sugg ests that people tend to be attracted to others who are
similar to themselves in attitudes, values, and interests.
 Love and Intimacy: Researchers in this field examine the various
forms of love and intimacy, including romantic love, platonic love, and
familial love. The concept of love can be broken down into components munotes.in

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8 like passion, commitment, and intimacy, as described in Sternberg's
Triangular Theory of Love. Understanding the dynamics of love helps
shed light on the complexities of romantic relationsh ips.
 Social Exchange Theory: This theory explores how individuals
weigh the costs and benefits of being in a relationship. It suggests that
people are more likely to stay in relationships that provide more rewards
than costs and that individuals strive fo r equity in terms of what they give
and receive in a relationship.
 Interpersonal Communication: Effective communication is essential
for building and maintaining relationships. Social psychology studies how
people communicate, resolve conflicts, and expre ss emotions within
relationships. Communication skills, active listening, and nonverbal
communication are all integral components.
 Aggression and Conflict Resolution: Social psychologists
investigate the causes of interpersonal conflicts, including factor s like
frustration, miscommunication, and competition. They also explore
strategies for conflict resolution, which can include negotiation,
compromise, and assertiveness training.
 Prosocial Behaviour: Prosocial behaviour refers to actions that
benefit oth ers and contribute positively to relationships and society as a
whole. Research in this area examines why people help, cooperate, and
show altruism towards others. Understanding the motivations behind
prosocial behaviour can lead to strategies for promotin g kindness and
empathy.
 Social Support: Social support is the help and assistance people
receive from their social networks, such as friends, family, and
communities. It plays a significant role in coping with stress and adversity.
Social psychologists in vestigate how social support influences well -being
and mental health.
 Relationship Satisfaction and Longevity: Researchers explore the
factors that contribute to relationship satisfaction and the maintenance of
long-term relationships. This includes study ing the impact of
communication patterns, conflict resolution strategies, and the
development of shared goals and interests.
 Attachment Theory: Attachment theory examines the emotional
bonds people form in close relationships, particularly in early childh ood
with caregivers. These attachment styles (e.g., secure, anxious, avoidant)
can influence adult relationships and affect how individuals approach
intimacy and closeness.
 Understanding interpersonal relationships is essential for improving
the quality o f personal and professional connections, enhancing mental
health and well -being, and addressing issues related to relationship
difficulties, such as divorce and conflict resolution. Social psychology munotes.in

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9 provides valuable insights into the dynamics, challenges , and joys of
human interactions.
6. Group Dynamics: Understanding how individuals behave in group
settings is a crucial area of study. This includes examining issues like
group cohesion, leadership, social loafing, and the emergence of norms
within group s.
Group dynamics is a vital aspect of social psychology that examines how
individuals interact within groups, how groups form and function, and
how group dynamics influence individual behaviour and decision -making.
Here are key aspects of group dynamics explained in detail:
 Formation of Groups: Groups can form for various reasons,
including shared interests, common goals, or social identity. The process
of forming a group often involves individuals coming together, defining
their roles, and establishing norms and expectations for group behaviour.
 Roles within Groups: In any group, members often take on specific
roles that contribute to the group's functioning. These roles can be formal
(e.g., a leader, facilitator) or informal (e.g., a peacemaker, clown) . Roles
help distribute responsibilities and guide group behaviour.
 Norms and Normative Behaviour: Norms are unwritten rules and
expectations that govern the behaviour of group members. They guide
what is considered acceptable or unacceptable behaviour wi thin the group.
Conforming to group norms is often a way for individuals to gain
acceptance and approval from the group.
 Group Cohesion: Group cohesion refers to the degree of unity and
solidarity within a group. High cohesion often leads to a sense of
belonging and commitment among group members, while low cohesion
can result in conflicts and reduced group effectiveness.
 Social Facilitation: Social facilitation is the phenomenon where the
presence of others can enhance or inhibit an individual's performa nce on a
task. It typically leads to improved performance on simple or well -
practiced tasks (social facilitation effect) but can lead to reduced
performance on complex or novel tasks (social inhibition effect).
 Groupthink: Groupthink is a phenomenon where group members
prioritize consensus and harmony over critical thinking and decision -
making. This can lead to flawed decisions and a failure to consider
alternative viewpoints. It often occurs when there is strong pressure for
group conformity.
 Social Loaf ing: Social loafing is the tendency for individuals to
exert less effort when working in a group compared to when working
alone. This occurs because individuals may feel their contributions are less
noticeable in a group setting, leading to reduced motivat ion. munotes.in

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10  Group Decision -Making: Groups make decisions through various
processes, such as consensus, majority vote, or authoritative leadership.
Understanding how group dynamics influence decision -making is crucial
in contexts like business, politics, and prob lem-solving.
 Conflict and Cooperation: Group dynamics can lead to both conflict
and cooperation. Conflicts may arise from differences in opinions or goals,
while cooperation can result from shared objectives or interdependence
among group members. Effecti ve management of conflict and fostering
cooperation are important group dynamics skills.
 Group Leadership: Leadership styles and behaviours can
significantly impact group dynamics. Leaders can influence the group's
direction, decision -making processes, an d cohesion. Different leadership
styles, such as autocratic, democratic, and transformational leadership,
have distinct effects on group functioning.
 Diversity in Groups: The composition of a group in terms of
diversity in terms of age, gender, ethnicity, and other factors can influence
group dynamics. Diverse groups can bring varied perspectives but may
also face challenges related to prejudice, stereotypes, and communication
barriers.
 Understanding group dynamics is essential in various contexts,
includ ing business teams, educational settings, sports, social movements,
and more. Effective management of group dynamics can lead to better
decision -making, increased productivity, and enhanced collaboration
among group members.
7. Aggression and Prosocial Be haviour: Researchers examine the factors
that contribute to aggressive behaviour, as well as the conditions that
promote helping and altruism. This includes the study of bystander
intervention and the diffusion of responsibility.
Aggression and prosocial behaviour are two important aspects of social
psychology that examine how individuals interact with others in terms of
harmful or helpful actions. Let's delve into each of these key aspects:
Aggression:
Aggression refers to any behaviour intended to harm or injure another
person physically or psychologically. It can manifest in various forms,
from physical violence to verbal abuse or even passive -aggressive actions.
Social psychology explores several facets of aggression:
 Types of Aggression: Researchers distinguish between different
types of aggression, including instrumental aggression (harming others to
achieve a goal), hostile aggression (inflicting harm out of anger or
frustration), and relational aggression (harming social relationships, often
throug h gossip or exclusion). munotes.in

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11  Causes of Aggression: Social psychologists investigate the factors
that contribute to aggression, including biological influences (such as
hormones), environmental factors (like frustration or provocation), and
social learning (how individuals acquire aggressive behaviours through
observation and reinforcement).
 Aggression and Media: Studies have explored the relationship
between exposure to violent media (e.g., video games, television) and
aggressive behaviour, addressing concerns about whether media violence
desensitizes individuals or increases aggressive tendencies.
 Aggression in Groups: Group dynamics can influence aggression.
Factors like deindividuation (loss of self -awareness in groups) and
diffusion of responsibility (wher e individuals in a group feel less
accountable for their actions) can escalate aggressive behaviour.
Prosocial Behaviour:
Prosocial behaviour refers to actions that are intended to benefit or help
others, often without expecting anything in return. This a spect of social
psychology investigates the mechanisms behind why people engage in
helpful behaviours and the conditions that promote such behaviour:
 Altruism: Altruism is a specific form of prosocial behaviour where
individuals act selflessly to benefit others, often at some cost to
themselves. Understanding what motivates altruistic actions, such as
empathy or a sense of moral obligation, is a central focus of research.
 Reciprocity and Social Exchange: Some prosocial behaviours are
driven by the expecta tion of reciprocity —helping others in the hope of
receiving help in return. The concept of social exchange theory explores
the idea that individuals engage in give -and-take interactions to maximize
their outcomes.
 Bystander Effect: This phenomenon explore s how the presence of
other people can influence whether individuals offer assistance to
someone in need. The more bystanders present, the less likely any one
person may be to help, due to diffusion of responsibility and social cues.
 Cultural and Situatio nal Factors: Prosocial behaviour varies across
cultures and situations. Social psychologists examine how cultural norms,
societal values, and situational factors influence whether individuals
choose to help or not.
 Empathy and Compassion: Empathy, the abi lity to understand and
share the feelings of another, plays a significant role in prosocial
behaviour. Research explores how empathy can lead to compassionate
actions, such as helping those in distress.
 Understanding both aggression and prosocial behaviou r is critical
for comprehending how individuals interact within society and how social
dynamics can be influenced for the betterment of communities. These munotes.in

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12 areas of study have implications in fields such as conflict resolution,
education, and interventions aimed at reducing aggression and promoting
positive social behaviours.
8. Social Identity: This area explores how people define themselves in
terms of social groups (e.g., nationality, ethnicity, religion), and how these
group identities can shape attitud es and behaviours.
Social identity is a central concept in social psychology that focuses on
how individuals define themselves in relation to social groups. It plays a
significant role in shaping our self -concept and influencing our attitudes
and behaviou rs. Here's a detailed explanation of social identity as a key
aspect of social psychology:
 Definition of Social Identity: Social identity refers to the part of an
individual's self -concept that is derived from their membership in various
social groups. Th ese groups can be based on characteristics such as race,
ethnicity, gender, religion, nationality, occupation, sports teams, or even
shared hobbies. Social identity theory, developed by Henri Tajfel and John
Turner, is a prominent framework for understandi ng this concept.
 Categorization: People naturally categorize themselves and others
into social groups. This categorization helps simplify a complex social
world by grouping individuals into "us" (in -group) and "them" (out -
group). In -group members are thos e with whom individuals identify, while
out-group members are those perceived as different or outside the group.
 In-Group Bias: Social identity often leads to in -group bias, which is
the tendency to favour and show positive attitudes toward one's own grou p
(in-group) while displaying prejudice or negative attitudes toward other
groups (out -groups). This bias can lead to intergroup conflicts and
discrimination.
 Self-Esteem and Social Comparison: Social identity contributes to
an individual's self -esteem. P eople often derive a sense of self -worth and
positive self -concept from their group memberships. They may engage in
social comparison, where they evaluate their group as superior to other
groups to boost their self -esteem.
 Social Norms and Behaviour Group memberships come with shared
social norms and expectations. Individuals often conform to these norms
to maintain their social identity and group acceptance. This can influence
their behaviour, such as adopting group -specific values or participating in
group activities.
 Identity Salience: The importance of a particular social identity
varies depending on the context. For instance, an individual's gender
identity may become more salient in certain situations, like gender -related
discussions or events. When an identity becomes salient, it can influence
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13  Intersectionality: Many individuals belong to multiple social groups
simultaneously, and their social identities intersect. For example, a person
may identify as both a wom an and a member of a particular racial or
ethnic group. Intersectionality recognizes that these intersecting identities
can influence an individual's experiences and social interactions in unique
ways.
 Social Change: Social identity theory also has implic ations for social
change efforts. By understanding how social identities influence attitudes
and behaviour, activists and policymakers can work to promote positive
intergroup relations, reduce prejudice, and address social inequalities.
In summary, social identity is a crucial aspect of social psychology that
helps us understand how individuals define themselves in the context of
social groups. It has far -reaching implications for our perceptions of self
and others, intergroup relations, and the role of gr oup membership in
shaping attitudes and behaviours.
9. Cultural and Cross -Cultural Psychology: Social psychologists
examine how culture influences social behaviour, attitudes, and values.
Cross -cultural research helps understand the universality and cultu ral
variability of social psychological principles.
 Cultural and cross -cultural psychology are important subfields
within social psychology that focus on the influence of culture on human
behaviour, thoughts, and emotions. These aspects help researchers a nd
practitioners understand how cultural factors shape individuals' social
experiences. Here's an explanation of these key aspects:
 Cultural Psychology: This branch of social psychology examines
how culture, defined as the shared beliefs, values, customs, and practices
of a particular group or society, influences individuals' psychological
processes. Cultural psychologists investigate how culture affects cognitive
processes, emotions, identity, and social behaviour.
 Cultural Differences: Cultural psycholo gists study the differences in
cognition, emotion, and behaviour across different cultures. For example,
they may explore variations in communication styles, decision -making
processes, or concepts of self across cultures.
 Cultural Universals: Despite cult ural differences, cultural
psychology also recognizes the existence of cultural universals —traits or
behaviours that are common to all cultures. Understanding both
differences and universals helps build a comprehensive understanding of
human behaviour.
 Acculturation: Acculturation is the process of adapting to and
adopting elements of a new culture when an individual or group comes
into contact with a different culture. Cultural psychologists investigate
how individuals navigate this process and its effect s on their identity and
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14  Cross -Cultural Psychology: Cross -cultural psychology extends the
study of cultural influences to compare and contrast different cultures
systematically. Researchers in this field aim to identify patterns and
variations in human behaviour across cultures.
 Comparative Research: Cross -cultural psychology involves
conducting research in multiple cultural settings to identify how cultural
factors shape psychological phenomena. Researchers often use cross -
cultural studies to determine whether psychological theories developed in
one cultural context apply universally or have culture -specific variations.
 Cultural Dimensions: Researchers may use cultural dimensions such
as individualism -collectivism, power distance, uncertainty avoidance, and
masculinity -femininity to categorize and compare cultures. These
dimensions help explain cultural variations in social behaviour and
attitudes.
 Cultural Psychology and Globalization: In an increasingly
interconnected world, cross -cultural p sychology is vital for understanding
how globalization impacts cultures and individuals. It explores how
exposure to diverse cultures through media, travel, and communication
technologies affects people's cultural identities and behaviours.
Both cultural and cross -cultural psychology emphasize the importance of
context in understanding human behaviour. They acknowledge that
cultural norms, values, and practices can significantly shape how
individuals perceive themselves, interact with others, and respond t o social
situations. These subfields contribute to a more inclusive and holistic
understanding of social psychology by highlighting the role of culture in
shaping social processes and behaviours. Additionally, their insights are
valuable for addressing cul tural diversity and promoting intercultural
understanding in an increasingly globalized world.
10. Applied Social Psychology: Social psychology is also applied to
address real -world issues, such as prejudice reduction, conflict resolution,
and the promoti on of social change.
Researchers in social psychology use a combination of experimental
methods, surveys, observations, and field studies to gain insights into
these phenomena. The findings from this field help us better understand
human behaviour in vari ous social contexts, which can have practical
applications in areas such as education, marketing, healthcare, and conflict
resolution.
Applied social psychology is a vital and practical aspect of social
psychology that focuses on using the principles and findings of social
psychology to address real -world issues and improve people's lives. It
bridges the gap between theory and practice, aiming to make meaningful
contributions to various domains and help solve societal problems.
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15 Here are some key aspects of applied social psychology:
 Behaviour Change: Applied social psychologists work on strategies
to promote positive behaviour change in individuals and communities.
This includes interventions related to health behaviours (e.g., smoking
cessation, healthy eating), environmental conservation (e.g., reducing
energy consumption), and public policy (e.g., encouraging seatbelt use).
 Health Psychology: This subfield within applied social psychology
focuses on understanding and improving health -related behaviour s and
outcomes. Researchers in health psychology work on topics such as
promoting exercise, preventing risky behaviours (e.g., substance abuse),
and enhancing healthcare communication.
 Social Justice and Equity: Applied social psychology plays a
significa nt role in addressing issues related to social justice,
discrimination, and inequality. It seeks to combat prejudice, bias, and
discrimination by developing interventions and programs that promote
understanding, inclusivity, and fairness.
 Conflict Resolut ion: Applied social psychologists work on strategies
to manage and resolve conflicts, whether at the interpersonal,
organizational, or societal levels. They may design conflict resolution
programs, mediation techniques, and strategies for promoting peace a nd
cooperation.
 Education and Learning: Understanding how people learn and retain
information is a crucial aspect of applied social psychology. Researchers
in this area develop educational interventions, teaching methods, and
assessment tools to enhance l earning outcomes and educational practices.
 Consumer Behaviour: Marketers and advertisers often draw from
applied social psychology to understand consumer behaviour, including
how advertisements influence purchasing decisions and how to design
products th at align with consumer preferences.
 Community Development: Applied social psychology can contribute
to the improvement of communities by addressing issues like community
cohesion, crime prevention, and urban planning. Researchers work on
initiatives to cr eate safer, more vibrant, and supportive neighbourhoods.
 Environmental Psychology: This field explores how people interact
with their physical environment and how their behaviour impacts the
environment. Applied environmental psychologists work on initiat ives to
promote sustainable behaviours and conservation efforts.
 Leadership and Organizational behaviour: Applied social
psychology is relevant in the workplace, where it helps organizations
enhance leadership skills, teamwork, employee motivation, and ov erall
productivity. Strategies may include training programs and interventions
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16  Political and Policy Influences: Applied social psychology can
inform the development and evaluation of public policies. Researchers
exam ine how policy decisions and communication strategies can influence
public opinion and behaviour in areas like voting, public health, and social
welfare.
In essence, applied social psychology takes the theoretical insights from
social psychology and trans lates them into practical solutions to address
real-world challenges. It contributes to positive social change by providing
evidence -based approaches that can enhance the well -being of individuals
and communities while addressing critical societal issues.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:
1. State the key concepts and mechanisms of social influence
2. Define an attitude & state the three components of attitudes
3. Explain the Yale attitude change approach
4. Define social perception
5. What are schemas?
6. What is the confirmation bias?
7. Define group cohesion
8. What is altruism?
9. Define acculturation
1.4 HISTORY & DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL
PSYCHOLOGY:
The history and development of social psychology are marked by
significant milestones and the contributions of various scholars and
researchers. H ere's an overview of the evolution of social psychology:
1. Early Roots (Late 19th to Early 20th Century): The roots of social
psychology can be traced back to the late 19th century, with the work of
psychologists like Gustave Le Bon and William McDougall . Le Bon's
book "The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind" (1895) explored the
behaviour of individuals in group settings, while McDougall emphasized
instinctual factors in social behaviour.
2. Gestalt Psychology Influence (1920s): In the 1920s, the Gestalt
psychologists, particularly Kurt Lewin, made significant contributions to
social psychology. Lewin is often considered the founding figure of
modern social psychology. He introduced the concept of "field theory"
and conducted influential research on group dynamics and social
perception.
3. The Rise of Experimental Social Psychology (1930s -1940s): Social
psychology as an experimental science gained prominence during this
period. Researchers like Solomon Asch, Muzafer Sherif, and Kurt Lewin
conducted pionee ring experiments that examined topics like conformity,
group norms, and social influence. Asch's conformity studies and Sherif's
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17 4. Post -World War II Era (1940s -1950s): The aftermath of World War II
and the Holocaust spurred interest in understanding prejudice and
intergroup relations. Psychologists like Gordon Allport published
influential works on this topic, and the field of social psychology
increasingly focused on issues of social justice and discrimina tion.
5. Cognitive Revolution (1960s -1970s): The 1960s and 1970s saw a shift
towards a cognitive approach in social psychology. Researchers like Leon
Festinger and Albert Bandura explored cognitive processes underlying
attitudes, beliefs, and behaviour. F estinger's theory of cognitive
dissonance and Bandura's social learning theory were major contributions.
6. Social Cognition (1980s -1990s): The 1980s and 1990s witnessed the
development of social cognition as a prominent subfield within social
psychology. Researchers examined how people process social
information, make judgments, and form attitudes. The introduction of
concepts like automatic thinking and heuristics significantly influenced
this era.
7. Contemporary Trends (2000s -Present): Social psycholo gy continues to
evolve, addressing contemporary issues such as the impact of technology
on social behaviour, the psychology of online interactions, and the study
of social neuroscience (examining the neural basis of social behaviour).
Research on topics li ke social identity, prejudice reduction, and social
influence remains active.
8. Interdisciplinary Collaboration: Social psychology increasingly
collaborates with other fields such as sociology, anthropology, and
neuroscience. This interdisciplinary appro ach has led to a broader
understanding of social behaviour.
9. Global Perspectives: As the field has grown, social psychology has
become more inclusive of diverse cultural perspectives. Researchers
recognize the importance of studying social behaviour in various cultural
contexts, leading to the development of cross -cultural and cultural
psychology.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:
1. Create a timeline of important events in the evolution/ development
of social psychology as a field
1.5 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY AS AN
INTERDISC IPLINARY NATURE
Social psychology has an interdisciplinary flavour, meaning it draws upon
and collaborates with various other disciplines to gain a more
comprehensive understanding of human behaviour within social contexts.
Here are some of the key inter disciplinary aspects of social psychology:
1. Psychology: Social psychology is a subfield of psychology, and it
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18 individual cognitive processes, emotions, and motivations to explain social
behaviour.
2. Sociology: Sociology and social psychology often overlap in their study
of society and human behaviour. While sociology tends to focus on
broader social structures and institutions, social psychology examines how
individuals' thought s, feelings, and behaviours are influenced by these
societal factors.
3. Anthropology: Anthropology contributes to social psychology by
providing insights into cultural variations in social behaviour. Cultural
anthropology, in particular, explores how cul ture shapes beliefs, values,
and social norms, influencing individuals' behaviours and attitudes.
4. Neuroscience: Social neuroscience is an emerging interdisciplinary field
that combines social psychology with neuroscience. It investigates the
neural mec hanisms underlying social behaviour, shedding light on how the
brain processes social information and emotions.
5. Economics: Behavioural economics is another interdisciplinary field
that incorporates social psychology. It examines how psychological
factors, such as cognitive biases and emotions, influence economic
decision -making and consumer behaviour.
6. Political Science: Social psychology is often applied to the study of
political behaviour and attitudes. Researchers in this area explore topics
like political ideology, voting behaviour, and the formation of political
opinions.
7. Communication Studies: Communication scholars and social
psychologists collaborate to study how communication processes impact
social interaction, persuasion, and the sprea d of information.
8. Criminology: Social psychologists and criminologists work together to
understand the social and psychological factors that contribute to criminal
behavior, crime prevention, and the criminal justice system.
9. Public Health: Applied social psychology plays a significant role in
public health initiatives by examining factors influencing health
behaviours, disease prevention, and healthcare communication.
10. Environmental Science: Environmental psychologists collaborate with
social ps ychologists to explore the social factors influencing
environmental attitudes and behaviours, such as sustainability practices
and conservation efforts.
11. Education: The field of educational psychology intersects with social
psychology when studying how social factors, peer interactions, and
classroom environments influence learning and academic achievement.
12. Management and Organizational behaviour: Social psychology
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19 teamwork, and em ployee motivation, benefiting organizational
psychology and management studies.
13. Law and Legal Studies: Social psychology is relevant to the legal field
by examining issues like eyewitness testimony, jury decision -making, and
the psychology of criminal behaviour.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:
1. State the key interdisciplinary aspects of social psychology
1.6 SUMMARY
In summary, social psychology examines how individuals' thoughts,
feelings, and behaviours are influenced by their social environment,
including the presence of others, social norms, and cultural factors. It
encompasses a wide range of topics, offering insights into the intricacies
of human social interactions and behaviour.
Overall, the history and development of social psychology reflect its
evolution from early explorations of crowd behaviour to a multifaceted
discipline that examines the complexities of human interaction, social
cognition, and societal issues. It continues to adapt and expand as it
addresses new challenges in an ever -changing s ocial landscape.
In essence, social psychology's interdisciplinary nature allows it to draw
from various fields to enrich its research and provide insights into the
complexities of human behaviour in social settings. This collaborative
approach enhances o ur understanding of how individuals interact, make
decisions, and respond to social and cultural influences.
1.7 QUESTIONS
2. Explain and define social psychology using Gordon Allport’s
definition of social psychology
3. Discuss in detail the key aspects of soc ial psychology
4. What is the fundamental aspect of social psychology? Explain
5. Explain the key concepts and mechanisms of social influence
6. Discuss the key concepts of attitudes and attitude change
7. Define the three components of attitudes
8. What does the elabo ration likelihood model explain?
9. What does the attribution theory explain?
10. State the fundamental attribution error
11. Why is social perception important?
12. Why is Group dynamics a vital aspect of social psychology?
13. Define the following: groupthink, social loafi ng, aggression.
14. Explain aggression and prosocial behavior as a key aspect in social
psychology
15. What is social identity?
16. Discuss the key aspects of applied social psychology
17. Discuss the evolution of social psychology
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20 1.8 REFERENCES
 Fiske, S.T., Gilbert, D.T., &Lindzey, G. (2010). Handbook of Social
Psychology (5th Ed.). NewJersey: John Wiley and Sons Ltd.
 Kruglanski, A. W., Higgins, E.T. (2007). Social Psychology:
Handbook of basic Principles (Secon dEd.). New York: The Guilford
Press.
 Lesko, W. A. (2009). Readings in Social Psychology: General,
Classic and Contemporary Selections (Eighth Ed.). New Delhi:
Pearson.
 DeLamater, J.D., & Myers, D.J. (2011). Social Psychology (Seventh
Ed.). USA: Wadsworth
 Fletcher, G.J.O., &Clark,M.S. (2003). Blackwell Handbook of Social
Psychology: InterpersonalProcesses . USA: Blackwell Publishers
Ldt.
 Baumeister. R. F. &Finkel, E. J. (Eds.) (2010). Advanced Social
Psychology: State of the Science . New York: Oxford Universit y
Press.




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21 2
CORE CONCERNS, AND EMERGING
TRENDS IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY &
THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES IN
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Unit Structure:
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Core concerns in the field of social psychology
2.2 Emerging trends in social psychology
2.3 Theoretical perspect ives in Social Psychology
2.3.1. Social Cognition Theories
2.3.2. Social Influence Theories
2.3.3. Social Identity Theories
2.3.4. Social Exchange Theories
2.3.5. Interpersonal Relationship Theories
2.3.6. Group Dynamics Theories
2.3.7. Intergroup Theories
2.3.8. Prejudice and Stereotyping Theories
2.4 Social Cognitive Theory
2.5. Social Exchange Theory
2.6. Symbolic Interactionism
2.7. Social Learning Theory
2.8 Evolutionary Perspective
2.9 Cultural Psychology Perspective
2.10 Social Identity Theo ry
2.11 Social Constructionism
2.12. Self -Determination Theory
2.13 Summary
2.14 Questions
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22 2.0 INTRODUCTION
Social psychology is a subfield of psychology that explores how
individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by t he
presence and actions of others. It delves into the complex interplay
between individuals and their social environment. These core concerns of
social psychology collectively contribute to our understanding of human
behavior in social contexts, offering i nsights into how individuals interact,
form relationships, and navigate the complexities of the social world.
2.1 CORE CONCERNS IN THE FIELD OF SOCIAL
PSYCHOLOGY
The core concerns in the field of social psychology include:
1. Social Influence: Studying ho w people are affected by the presence
and actions of others, including topics like conformity, obedience, and
persuasion.
2. Attitudes and Beliefs: Exploring how attitudes are formed, changed,
and influenced by social factors.
3. Group Dynamics: Investig ating how individuals behave in groups,
addressing topics like groupthink, social identity, and intergroup
relations.
4. Social Cognition: Examining how people process and interpret social
information, including topics such as stereotypes, prejudice, and
attribution.
5. Social Behaviour: Analysing various aspects of human behaviour in
social contexts, including altruism, aggression, and interpersonal
relationships.
6. Self-Concept and Self -Esteem: Understanding how individuals
perceive themselves and how this perception impacts their interactions
with others.
7. Cultural and Cross -Cultural Psychology: Examining the influence of
culture on social behaviour and cognition, as well as studying cultural
variations in social phenomena.
8. Social Neuroscience: Investigating the neural basis of social
behaviours and interactions.
These concerns collectively help researchers and psychologists understand
how individuals are influenced by their social environment and how they,
in turn, shape that environment throu gh their actions and attitudes.
2.2 EMERGING TRENDS IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY:
In the recent years, several emerging trends and areas of interest in social
psychology were gaining attention. However, it's important to note that the munotes.in

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23 field of psychology continu ally evolves, and new trends may have
emerged since then. Here are some of the emerging trends in social
psychology up to that point:
1. Digital and Online behaviour: With the increasing use of social media
and digital platforms, researchers were focusing on how online
interactions and environments influence social behaviour, identity, and
relationships.
2. Crisis and Collective behaviour: Research on how individuals and
groups respond to crises, such as natural disasters, pandemics, and social
movements, was gaining importance. This includes understanding
collective behaviour, social cohesion, and resilience in such contexts.
3. Implicit Bias and Diversity: Studies on implicit biases, diversity, and
inclusivity were expanding. Researchers were examining ways to reduce
biases and promote more inclusive attitudes and behaviours.
4. Environmental Psychology: Social psychology was increasingly applied
to environmental issues, including understanding pro -environmental
behaviour, the psychology of climate chan ge communication, and
sustainable behaviour change.
5. Neurosocial Psychology: Advances in neuroimaging technology
allowed researchers to explore the neural basis of social behaviour and
cognition. This field was growing to better understand the brain's r ole in
social processes.
6. Behavioural Economics and Nudging: The integration of insights from
behavioural economics into social psychology was becoming more
common. Researchers were interested in how subtle nudges and
interventions could influence socia l behaviour.
7. Positive Psychology and Well -Being: The intersection of social
psychology and positive psychology was gaining attention. Studies were
focusing on factors that contribute to well -being, happiness, and positive
social interactions.
8. Cross -Cultural and Cultural Psychology: An increased emphasis on
cross -cultural research was evident, exploring how culture shapes social
behaviour and cognition and how globalization impacts social psychology.
9. Technology and Virtual Reality: Advances in te chnology, such as
virtual reality, were opening up new avenues for studying social
interactions, empathy, and social influence in immersive digital
environments.
10. Social Neuroscience: The field of social neuroscience, which explores
the neural mechanis ms underlying social behaviour, was expanding,
providing insights into topics like empathy, moral decision -making, and
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24 2.3 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES IN SOCIAL
PSYCHOLOGY
Social psychology encompasses various theoretical perspectives that
provide frameworks for understanding and explaining social behavior and
interactions. Some of the key theoretical perspectives in social psychology
include:
These theories can be categorized into several broad categories:
2.3.1. Social Cognition Theories :
 Attribution Theory: Focuses on how individuals explain the causes
of their own and others' behaviour, including internal and external
attributions.
 Cognitive Dissonance Theory: Explores the discomfort individuals
feel when holding conflicting beliefs or attitudes and how they
resolve this discomfort.
 Schema Theory: Examines how mental frameworks (schemas)
influence the processing of social information and guide behaviour.
2.3.2. Social Influence Theories:
 Conformity: Investigates how individuals change th eir behaviour,
attitudes, or beliefs to fit in with a group's norms or expectations.
 Compliance: Studies the ways in which people are influenced to agree
or comply with a request or suggestion from others.
 Obedience: Focuses on the willingness to follow or ders or commands,
often associated with authority figures.
 Social Norms Theory: Explores how societal norms and cultural
expectations shape behaviour.
2.3.3. Social Identity Theories:
 Social Identity Theory: Examines how individuals categorize
themselves a nd others into social groups and how this impacts self -
concept, stereotypes, and intergroup relations.This theory, proposed
by Henri Tajfel, focuses on how individuals categorize themselves
and others into social groups. It explores how group membership an d
identification can influence attitudes, behaviour, and intergroup
relations.
 Self-Categorization Theory: Builds on social identity theory and
emphasizes the fluidity of group identification and its influence on
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25  In-Group/Out -Group Dynamics: Inv estigates how people perceive and
interact with members of their own group (in -group) compared to
those from other groups (out -group).
2.3.4. Social Exchange Theories:
 Social Exchange Theory: Analyses social interactions as transactions
where individuals s eek to maximize rewards and minimize costs.
 Equity Theory: Focuses on the perception of fairness in social
relationships and how imbalances in equity can affect behaviour and
satisfaction.
2.3.5. Interpersonal Relationship Theories:
 Attachment Theory: Exam ines how early attachment experiences
with caregivers influence the formation and dynamics of adult
relationships.
 Interdependence Theory: Explores how individuals' outcomes in a
relationship are linked to the actions and outcomes of their partners.
 Social Exchange Theories of Romantic Relationships: Applies social
exchange principles to understand the dynamics of romantic
partnerships.
2.3.6. Group Dynamics Theories:
 Groupthink: Investigates how group cohesion and a desire for
consensus can lead to poor de cision -making within groups.
 Social Facilitation and Social Loafing: Examine how the presence of
others can either enhance or reduce individual performance in group
settings.
 Group Polarization: Explores how group discussions can lead to more
extreme opini ons and decisions than individual members initially
held.
2.3.7. Intergroup Theories:
 Realistic Conflict Theory: Focuses on how competition for limited
resources can lead to intergroup conflict and prejudice.
 Social Identity Theory (Intergroup Perspective) : Applies social
identity theory principles to understand intergroup dynamics, conflict,
and cooperation.
2.3.8. Prejudice and Stereotyping Theories:
 Social Cognitive Theories of Prejudice: Investigate how cognitive
processes contribute to the formation an d maintenance of stereotypes
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26  Implicit Bias Theories: Examine the automatic, unconscious biases
that people may hold toward others based on race, gender, or other
characteristics.
These are some of the major categories of theories in social p sychology,
and many theories within each category continue to evolve and adapt as
researchers gain new insights into human social behaviour. Researchers
often use these theories to explore and explain a wide range of social
phenomena, from interpersonal re lationships and group dynamics to
prejudice, conformity, and social influence.
2.4 SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY:
This perspective emphasizes the role of cognitive processes, such as
perception, memory, and judgment, in shaping social behavior. It
examines how people acquire, store, and use social information to make
sense of their social world.
Here's a detailed explanation of the key components of Social Cognitive
Theory:
 Observational Learning (Modeling): A central concept in Social
Cognitive Theory is obse rvational learning, also known as modeling or
imitation. This involves acquiring new behaviors or information by
observing and imitating others. Bandura's research demonstrated that
individuals can learn from watching others, and this process plays a
cruci al role in socialization and skill acquisition.
 Reciprocal Determinism: Social Cognitive Theory posits a dynamic
and reciprocal relationship between three factors that influence behavior:
the individual, the environment, and behavior itself. This means th at an
individual's behavior can influence and be influenced by their environment
and personal factors. For example, a person's behavior can shape their
social environment, and the environment can, in turn, affect the person's
behavior.
 Self-Regulation: So cial Cognitive Theory emphasizes the role of
self-regulation, which refers to an individual's ability to control their
thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. This self -regulation is influenced by
self-efficacy beliefs (confidence in one's ability to perform a specific task),
outcome expectancies (beliefs about the consequences of one's actions),
and self -control.
 Self-Efficacy: Self -efficacy is a key concept in this theory. It refers
to an individual's belief in their ability to successfully perform a particul ar
behavior or task. High self -efficacy tends to lead to increased motivation
and persistence in the face of challenges, while low self -efficacy can result
in avoidance or giving up.
 Triadic Reciprocal Causation: This principle highlights the dynamic
interplay among personal factors (e.g., beliefs, attitudes, self -concept),
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27 these factors can influence the other two, leading to a continuous cycle of
interactions.
 Vicarious Reinforceme nt and Punishment: Social Cognitive Theory
recognizes that individuals not only learn from direct consequences of
their own actions but also from observing the rewards and punishments
experienced by others. This vicarious learning process influences whethe r
individuals choose to adopt or avoid specific behaviors.
 Cognitive Processes: Cognitive processes play a significant role in
this theory. Individuals engage in cognitive activities like attention,
memory, and problem -solving when they observe, interpret , and make
sense of social situations. Cognitive processes mediate the influence of
social information on behavior.
 Self-Concept: Social Cognitive Theory acknowledges the
importance of self -concept, which is an individual's perception of
themselves. Self -concept is influenced by self -evaluation, social
comparisons, and feedback from others. It can affect an individual's self -
efficacy and motivation.
 Development and Change: The theory is applied across the lifespan
and is used to understand how individuals develop new skills, adapt to
changing circumstances, and modify their behaviors over time.
2.5. SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORY:
Rooted in economics and sociology, this theory views social interactions
as a form of exchange, where individuals seek to maximize re wards and
minimize costs. It is often applied to understanding relationships and
interactions based on reciprocity.
Social Exchange Theory is a social psychological and sociological
perspective that seeks to explain social interactions and relationships i n
terms of costs and benefits. It suggests that individuals engage in social
relationships and interactions when they perceive that the benefits
outweigh the costs.
Here's a detailed explanation of the key components of Social Exchange
Theory:
 Rational C hoice: At the core of Social Exchange Theory is the idea
that individuals are rational actors who make decisions based on a rational
assessment of the potential outcomes of their actions. This rationality is
guided by self -interest, with individuals seekin g to maximize their rewards
and minimize their costs.
 Costs and Benefits: Social Exchange Theory identifies two primary
elements in social interactions: costs and benefits. These can be tangible
(e.g., financial resources, time) or intangible (e.g., emoti onal support,
companionship). Costs are what individuals invest or lose in a
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28  Comparison Level (CL): Individuals in social exchange situations
have a comparison level, which is the standard against w hich they judge
the desirability of the outcomes in a given relationship. If the actual
outcomes surpass the comparison level, the individual is likely to perceive
the relationship as rewarding.
 Comparison Level for Alternatives (CLalt): In addition to th e
comparison level, individuals also consider their alternatives when
evaluating a relationship. The comparison level for alternatives assesses
what an individual could achieve in an alternative relationship or by being
alone. If the outcomes in the curren t relationship are superior to the
alternatives, the individual is more likely to remain in the relationship.
 Outcome (O): The outcome in a social exchange is the result of
subtracting the costs from the benefits (O = Benefits - Costs). If the
outcome is positive, the individual is more likely to engage in or continue
the relationship. A negative outcome may lead to dissatisfaction and a
desire to change the relationship or exit it.
 Equity Theory: Equity Theory is often associated with Social
Exchange The ory. It suggests that individuals strive for fairness or equity
in their relationships. They aim to ensure that the ratio of their
contributions (costs) to the benefits received is roughly equivalent to their
partner's contributions.
 Balancing Acts: Socia l Exchange Theory acknowledges that
individuals engage in a continuous process of assessing costs and benefits
throughout a relationship. They may engage in "balancing acts" to
maintain an equilibrium where the perceived benefits continue to
outweigh the c osts.
 Trust and Commitment: Trust and commitment play essential roles
in Social Exchange Theory. Trust is necessary for individuals to believe
that the promised benefits will be delivered, while commitment keeps
individuals invested in a relationship even when there are occasional
negative outcomes.
 Variability of Outcomes: The theory recognizes that outcomes in
social exchanges can vary over time. Relationships may experience
periods of imbalance where costs temporarily outweigh benefits, but
individuals may continue to invest in the hope that the situation will
improve.
Applications: Social Exchange Theory has been applied to various aspects
of human behavior, including interpersonal relationships, economic
decision -making, organizational behavior, and even romantic
relationships. It is used to explain why people enter, maintain, or dissolve
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29 2.6. SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM
This perspective, associated with theorists like George Herbert Mead,
focuses on the role of symbols and language in s haping social reality. It
emphasizes the importance of communication and shared meanings in
social interactions.
Social Interactionism is a sociological and social psychological
perspective that focuses on the ways individuals create and interpret
meaning in their social interactions. It emphasizes the significance of
symbols, language, and communication in shaping human behavior and
society. Here's a detailed explanation of the key components of Social
Interactionism:
 Symbolic Interaction: At the core of Social Interactionism is the idea
that individuals interact with each other and with their environment
through the use of symbols. Symbols can be words, gestures, objects, or
any meaningful representations that convey shared meanings. These
symbols serve as the basis for communication and social interaction.
 Meaning -Making: Social Interactionism emphasizes that individuals
assign meaning to symbols and interpret the world around them based on
these meanings. These meanings are not fixed or universal but a re created
and negotiated through social interactions. For example, a smile can
convey happiness in one context and nervousness in another.
 The Self: The theory places a strong emphasis on the development
of self -concept and self -identity through social i nteractions. According to
Social Interactionism, individuals come to understand themselves through
their interactions with others. The concept of the "looking glass self"
suggests that we see ourselves through the perceptions and judgments of
others.
 Role -Taking: Individuals engage in role -taking, which means they
mentally step into the shoes of others to understand their perspectives and
behaviors. Role -taking allows individuals to anticipate how others might
react to their actions and adjust their behavi or accordingly.
 The Generalized Other: Social Interactionism introduces the concept
of the "generalized other," which represents the collective attitudes,
values, and expectations of society. Individuals consider this generalized
other when making decisio ns and interpreting their own actions and the
actions of others.
 Socialization: Social Interactionism places a strong emphasis on the
role of socialization in shaping individuals' behavior and identity.
Socialization is the process through which individua ls learn the values,
norms, and roles of their culture or society. It occurs through interactions
with family, peers, schools, and other social institutions.
 Micro -Level Analysis: Social Interactionism primarily focuses on
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30 individuals in specific social contexts. It is interested in the small -scale
processes that shape social reality.
 Face -to-Face Interaction: The theory often highlights the importance
of face -to-face interaction i n the creation and negotiation of meaning.
Nonverbal communication, gestures, and facial expressions play a
significant role in conveying and interpreting symbols.
 Deviance and Labeling: Social Interactionism is also concerned with
the labeling and stigma tization of individuals in society. It suggests that
individuals can be labeled as deviant based on how others perceive and
react to their behavior. This labeling can influence an individual's self -
concept and future behavior.
 Research Methods: Researcher s in Social Interactionism often use
qualitative research methods, such as participant observation and in -depth
interviews, to gain insights into the subjective experiences and meanings
individuals attach to their interactions.
2.7. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Developed by Albert Bandura, this theory emphasizes the role of
observational learning and modeling in shaping behavior. It explores how
individuals acquire new behaviors and attitudes by observing and
imitating others.
Social Learning Theory, developed by Albert Bandura, is a comprehensive
theory that focuses on how individuals learn from observing, modeling,
and interacting with others in a social context. It goes beyond traditional
behaviorist theories by incorporating cognitive processes, such as
attention, memory, and motivation, in explaining how behaviors are
acquired and modified.
Here's a detailed explanation of the key components of Social Learning
Theory:
 Observational Learning (Modeling): Observational learning is a
central concept in Social Learning Theory. It suggests that individuals can
acquire new behaviors and information by observing others, including
peers, parents, teachers, and media figures. Observational learning
involves paying attention to a model's actions, retaining those actio ns in
memory, and reproducing them when the opportunity arises.
 Modeling: A model is a person or source that an individual observes
and imitates. Models can be real -life individuals or characters portrayed in
media. Bandura's Bobo doll experiment is a cla ssic example of modeling,
where children who observed aggressive behavior towards a doll were
more likely to replicate that behavior.
 Reinforcement and Punishment: Social Learning Theory
acknowledges the role of reinforcement and punishment in shaping
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31 reinforcement or when it helps individuals avoid punishment. Positive
outcomes strengthen the likelihood of behavior being repeated, while
negative outcomes reduce the likelihood.
 Attention: Before learning can occur through observation,
individuals must pay attention to the model and the behavior being
demonstrated. Factors such as the model's characteristics, the observer's
motivation, and the complexity of the behavior can influence attention.
 Retention: After paying attention to the model, individuals must be
able to remember or retain the observed behavior. This involves encoding
the information into memory for future use.
 Reproduction: Reproduction refers to the ability of the in dividual to
mimic or reproduce the observed behavior. This requires physical and
cognitive capabilities to perform the actions accurately.
 Motivation: Social Learning Theory emphasizes that individuals are
more likely to imitate behaviors if they are moti vated to do so. Motivation
can be influenced by factors such as the expected rewards, consequences,
and personal goals.
 Self-Efficacy: Bandura introduced the concept of self -efficacy,
which refers to an individual's belief in their own ability to perform a
specific behavior successfully. Higher self -efficacy increases motivation
and persistence, while low self -efficacy can lead to avoidance or reduced
effort.
 Vicarious Learning: Individuals can learn from observing the
consequences of others' behaviors wi thout directly experiencing those
consequences themselves. This vicarious learning allows people to adapt
their behavior based on others' experiences.
 Reciprocal Determinism: Social Learning Theory incorporates the
idea of reciprocal determinism, where be havior, the environment, and
personal factors continually interact and influence each other. This
dynamic relationship emphasizes the bidirectional nature of human
behavior.
 Application: The theory is often applied in various settings,
including education , therapy, and advertising. Educators use modeling to
teach new skills, therapists help clients modify behaviors through
observational learning, and advertisers employ models to influence
consumer behavior.
2.8 EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE
Drawing from princi ples of evolution, this perspective seeks to understand
how human social behaviors and instincts have evolved to increase
reproductive fitness. It explores topics like mate selection, altruism, and
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32 The evolution ary perspective in social psychology applies principles of
evolution to understand how human behaviors, emotions, and social
interactions have evolved over time. This perspective assumes that many
aspects of human psychology and behavior can be explained b y
considering how they might have provided evolutionary advantages to our
ancestors.
Here are some key components and principles of the evolutionary
perspective in social psychology:
 Natural Selection: The foundation of the evolutionary perspective is
the concept of natural selection, proposed by Charles Darwin. Natural
selection posits that traits that enhance an organism's chances of survival
and reproduction are more likely to be passed on to future generations.
Therefore, behaviors and psychological t raits that increase an individual's
fitness (ability to reproduce and pass on genes) should be favored by
evolution.
 Adaptations: Evolutionary psychologists study how certain
behaviors and psychological mechanisms are adaptations, meaning they
have evolve d because they provided advantages in terms of survival and
reproduction. For example, traits like cooperation, empathy, and social
bonding are seen as adaptations that helped early humans form social
groups for protection, resource sharing, and reproducti ve success.
 Evolutionary Explanations for Social Behavior: The evolutionary
perspective seeks to explain various social behaviors in terms of their
adaptive value. For instance, mate selection and attraction are explained
by concepts like parental investm ent theory, which suggests that males
and females have different reproductive strategies due to differences in the
costs and benefits of reproduction.
 Kin Selection: This concept suggests that individuals may be more
likely to help close relatives (kin) b ecause doing so indirectly promotes
the survival and reproduction of shared genes. It can explain phenomena
like altruism toward family members.
 Reciprocal Altruism: This idea suggests that individuals might
cooperate and help others, even if they are not closely related, with the
expectation of receiving help in return at some point in the future. This
concept can explain cooperative behaviors in non -kin social groups.
 Evolution of Aggression: The evolutionary perspective also explores
the origins of agg ression, suggesting that aggression might have evolved
as a response to competition for resources, mates, or protection of one's
group. It can help explain both aggressive and protective behaviors in
social contexts.
 Sex Differences: Evolutionary psycholo gy examines sex differences
in behavior, such as differences in mate preferences and aggression,
through the lens of reproductive strategies. These differences are often
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33  Evolutionary M ismatch: Critics of the evolutionary perspective point
out that contemporary societies are very different from the environments
in which our ancestors lived. This "evolutionary mismatch" can lead to
maladaptive behaviors or psychological challenges in mode rn society.
 Cultural Variation: The evolutionary perspective acknowledges that
culture can shape and modify behavior. It doesn't assume that all
behaviors are universal or solely the result of evolution but seeks to
understand how cultural factors interac t with evolved predispositions.
 Research Methods: Evolutionary psychology often relies on cross -
cultural comparisons, studies of behavior in small -scale societies, and
experiments to test hypotheses about evolved psychological mechanisms.
 It's important to note that the evolutionary perspective is just one of
many approaches in social psychology, and it has generated both support
and criticism. While it offers insights into the potential origins of human
social behavior, it is not without controversy and debate, and it is often
used in conjunction with other perspectives to provide a more
comprehensive understanding of human social interactions.
2.9 CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY PERSPECTIVE
This perspective examines how culture influences social behavior,
cognition , and norms. It emphasizes the impact of cultural values, beliefs,
and practices on individuals' social experiences and identities.
Social psychology and cultural psychology are two distinct but closely
related fields within psychology. While social psych ology focuses on
understanding how individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are
influenced by their social interactions and environment, cultural
psychology explores how culture shapes and influences human
psychology, including cognition, emotion, an d behavior. Here's an
explanation of how these two fields intersect and interact:
1. Cultural Context in Social Psychology:
Cultural Norms and Values: Cultural psychology emphasizes the role of
cultural norms, values, and practices in shaping individual and group
behavior. Social psychologists often consider how cultural norms
influence social interactions, attitudes, and conformity. For example,
cultural norms related to politeness or hierarchy can affect social behavior
differently across cultures.
Cultural Influences on Social Perception: Cultural psychology highlights
that people from different cultures may perceive and interpret social
situations differently due to their cultural backgrounds. Social
psychologists investigate how culture influences th e perception of faces,
emotions, and social cues.
Cultural Variations in Social Behavior: Social psychology recognizes that
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34 how cultural factors can lead to variations in behaviors such as aggression,
cooperation, helping, and conformity. Cultural psychology delves deeper
into understanding the specific cultural contexts that shape these
behaviors.
2. Cultural Factors in Social Identity:
Cultural Identity: Cultural psychology emph asizes the importance of
cultural identity in shaping an individual's self -concept. Social
psychologists study how cultural identity influences group membership
and intergroup relations, including issues of prejudice, discrimination, and
identity formation .
Cultural Dimensions: Cultural psychologists have identified dimensions
such as individualism -collectivism, power distance, and uncertainty
avoidance, which have been integrated into social psychology to explore
how these cultural dimensions influence so cial behavior and attitudes. For
instance, individualistic cultures may prioritize personal achievement,
while collectivist cultures emphasize group harmony and interdependence.
3. Cross -Cultural Research in Social Psychology:
Cross -Cultural Studies: Bot h fields recognize the value of cross -cultural
research. Social psychologists conduct cross -cultural studies to examine
whether psychological phenomena observed in one culture hold true in
others. This helps determine the generalizability of social psychol ogical
theories across diverse cultural contexts.
Cultural Variations in Social Influence: Social psychology investigates
how social influence processes like conformity and obedience manifest
differently in various cultural settings. Cultural psychology p rovides
insights into why these variations occur based on cultural norms and
values.
4. Cultural Influences on Emotion and Cognition:
Emotion Expression: Cultural psychology explores how culture shapes
emotional expression and the interpretation of emoti onal cues. Social
psychologists consider these cultural differences when examining
emotional contagion, empathy, and emotional regulation in social
contexts.
Cognitive Processes: Cultural psychology highlights that cognitive
processes, such as perception, memory, and problem -solving, can be
influenced by culture. Social psychologists investigate how cultural
schemas and frames affect the way individuals process and interpret social
information.
2.10 SOCIAL IDENTITY THEORY
Developed by Michael Hogg and Dom inic Abrams, this theory focuses on
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35 how this categorization influences intergroup behavior, such as prejudice
and discrimination.
Social Identity Theory, developed by Henri Tajfel and John Turner in the
1970s, is a social psychological theory that explains how individuals
derive a sense of self and self -esteem from their membership in social
groups. This theory focuses on the cognitive processes and social
categorization that influence our attitudes, behaviors, and interactions in a
group context. Here's a detailed explanation of the key components of
Social Identity Theory:
 Social Categorization: Social Identity Theory begins with the
premise that individuals categorize themselves and others into social
groups based on shared characteristics. These characteristics can include
race, ethnicity, nationality, religion, gender, age, occupation, and even
sports teams. Categorization helps simplify and make sense of the
complex social world.
 Social Identity: Social identity refers to the part of an individual's
self-concept that is derived from their group memberships. For example,
someone may identify themselves as a "student," "parent," "American,"
"Christian," or "football fan." These soci al identities contribute to a
person's sense of who they are in a social context.
 In-Group and Out -Group: Social Identity Theory introduces the
concepts of "in -groups" and "out -groups." An in -group is the group to
which an individual belongs and identifie s with, while an out -group is any
group to which the individual does not belong. People tend to favor their
in-group over out -groups, often leading to in -group bias or favoritism.
 Social Comparison: Within the framework of Social Identity Theory,
individu als engage in social comparison by comparing their in -group to
out-groups. They tend to perceive their in -group as superior in some way,
whether it's in terms of skills, values, or attributes. This comparison
enhances their self -esteem.
 Social Identity Sa lience: The importance or salience of a particular
social identity varies depending on the context. When a specific social
identity becomes salient (e.g., during a sports game, a political debate, or a
national crisis), it can influence an individual's beh avior and attitudes
more strongly.
 Social Identity and Self -Esteem: Social Identity Theory suggests that
an individual's self -esteem is closely tied to their perception of their in -
group's status. When the in -group is viewed positively or when its status is
elevated, individuals experience a boost in self -esteem. Conversely,
threats to the in -group's status can lead to lowered self -esteem.
 Social Mobility and Social Change: The theory acknowledges that
individuals may attempt to improve their social ident ity by moving to a
higher -status group through social mobility. Additionally, social change
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36 experiencing discrimination or injustice, leading them to work together for
social reform.
 Inter-Group Behavior: Social Identity Theory explains inter -group
behaviors such as prejudice, discrimination, and bias as consequences of
social categorization and the desire to enhance the status of one's in -group.
It suggests that these behaviors can be reduced through strategies that
promote positive inter -group relations.
 In-Group Diversity: Social Identity Theory recognizes that even
within a single in -group, there can be diversity. Individuals may identify
with multiple social groups simultaneously, and their sense of self and
behavior can vary depending on which identity is most salient in a given
context.
2.11 SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONISM
This perspective suggests that many aspects of social reality, including
gender, race, and identity, are socially con structed through language,
discourse, and social interactions. It explores how these constructs shape
individuals' experiences and perceptions.
Social constructionism is a theoretical perspective in sociology and social
psychology that asserts that many a spects of our social reality are not
inherent or objective but are instead created and shaped by social
interactions, language, culture, and societal norms. This perspective
challenges the notion of fixed or universal truths and emphasizes the role
of huma n agency and shared beliefs in constructing meaning and reality.
Here's a detailed discussion of social constructionism:
 The Construction of Reality: Social constructionism suggests that
reality, including concepts of knowledge, identity, and meaning, is not
discovered but constructed through social processes. This means that what
we consider to be true, normal, or real is influenced by our social context
and cultural background.
 Language and Discourse: Language is a central element in social
construction ism. It argues that words and language are not neutral but
carry meaning and power. Through language, individuals and societies
define, categorize, and interpret the world. Different cultures and
communities may use language differently, leading to diverse
constructions of reality.
 Social Norms and Beliefs: Social constructionism highlights the role
of societal norms, values, and beliefs in shaping our perceptions and
behaviors. These norms guide how we view gender, race, family
structures, and other socia l categories. For example, the concept of gender
varies across cultures, and what is considered "normal" or "appropriate"
can differ significantly.
 Institutional Influence: Social institutions, such as the legal system,
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37 perpetuating social constructions. These institutions can create, legitimize,
or challenge societal norms and definitions of reality.
 Historical and Cultural Context: Social constructionism emphasizes
the historical and c ultural context in which social realities are constructed.
What is considered normal or deviant, for example, can change over time
and across cultures. This perspective challenges the notion of fixed human
nature and highlights the fluidity of social const ructs.
 Social Identity: Social constructionism is particularly relevant in
discussions of identity. It suggests that aspects of personal identity,
including gender, sexuality, and race, are not predetermined but are
constructed through social interactions and societal expectations. This
perspective supports the idea that identity is socially negotiated and can be
subject to change.
 Critique of Essentialism: Essentialism is the belief that there are
inherent, unchanging qualities that define categories lik e gender, race, or
sexuality. Social constructionism challenges essentialist views by arguing
that these categories are socially constructed and do not have fixed,
universal characteristics.
 Social Change: Social constructionism has been influential in so cial
justice movements. By highlighting the constructed nature of social
realities, it provides a framework for challenging oppressive norms and
advocating for social change. Movements for LGBTQ+ rights and gender
equality, for example, often draw on socia l constructionist perspectives to
challenge traditional norms.
 Postmodern Influence: Social constructionism is often associated
with postmodernism, a philosophical perspective that questions grand
narratives and meta -narratives. Postmodernism emphasizes t he plurality of
perspectives and the idea that there are no objective, overarching truths.
In summary, social constructionism is a theoretical perspective that
emphasizes the role of social interactions, language, culture, and norms in
shaping our underst anding of reality and the construction of social
categories and identities. It challenges essentialist views and highlights the
dynamic, context -dependent nature of social constructs. This perspective
has had a profound impact on fields like sociology, psy chology, gender
studies, and cultural studies.
2.12. SELF -DETERMINATION THEORY:
This theory emphasizes the role of intrinsic motivation and the fulfillment
of basic psychological needs (autonomy, competence, and relatedness) in
driving human behavior, in cluding social interactions and relationships.
Self-Determination Theory (SDT) is a motivational theory in social
psychology that focuses on the factors that drive human behavior,
particularly in the context of personal growth and well -being. Developed
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38 individuals have innate psychological needs that, when satisfied, lead to
increased motivation and well -being. Here's a detailed explanation of the
key components of Self -Determination The ory:
1. Basic Psychological Needs:
 Autonomy: Autonomy is the need to feel a sense of choice and
control over one's actions and behaviors. It involves acting in accordance
with one's own values and interests rather than feeling controlled or
pressured by external forces.
 Competence: Competence is the need to feel effective and capable in
one's actions and interactions with the environment. It involves mastering
tasks, gaining new skills, and experiencing a sense of accomplishment.
 Relatedness: Relatednes s is the need for social connection,
belonging, and meaningful relationships with others. It encompasses
feelings of connection, intimacy, and mutual care.
Types of Motivation:
 Intrinsic Motivation: Intrinsic motivation refers to engaging in an
activity for the sheer enjoyment and inherent satisfaction it provides.
Individuals are driven by internal factors, such as interest, curiosity, or
personal values.
 Extrinsic Motivation: Extrinsic motivation involves engaging in an
activity because of external rew ards or punishments. While external
factors, such as money or praise, can drive behavior, extrinsically
motivated actions may not be as sustainable or fulfilling as intrinsically
motivated ones.
Self-Determination Continuum:
 SDT proposes a continuum of m otivation, ranging from high
autonomy (intrinsic motivation) to low autonomy (controlled or
motivated). At one end, individuals are self -determined, meaning they
engage in activities because they value them. At the other end,
individuals feel pressured or coerced into actions, which can
undermine their motivation.
Support for Autonomy:
 SDT emphasizes the role of environments and social contexts in
facilitating or hindering self -determination. Environments that support
autonomy, by providing choices, ackno wledging individuals'
perspectives, and minimizing external pressure, promote intrinsic
motivation and well -being.
Basic Psychological Needs and Well -Being:
 SDT suggests that when individuals' basic psychological needs for
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39 greater well -being, positive emotions, and psychological health.
Conversely, the thwarting of these needs can lead to negative
outcomes such as stress and psychological distress.
Application to Various Domains:
 SDT h as been applied to various domains, including education, work,
sports, healthcare, and interpersonal relationships. It provides insights
into how to create environments that foster motivation, engagement,
and well -being in these contexts.
Interventions an d Behavior Change:
SDT has also been used to design interventions aimed at promoting
behavior change and fostering well -being. By understanding the role of
autonomy, competence, and relatedness, interventions can be tailored to
enhance individuals' intrin sic motivation and adherence to health
behaviors or other goals.
In summary, Self -Determination Theory posits that individuals have
innate psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness.
When these needs are satisfied, individuals are more likely to experience
intrinsic motivation, well -being, and personal growth. SDT has practical
applications in various fields and is used to understand and enhance
motivation, behavior change, and overall psychological health.
These theoretical perspective s provide different lenses through which
social psychologists can analyze and interpret human behavior and social
phenomena. Researchers often draw from multiple perspectives to gain a
more comprehensive understanding of complex social issues and
behaviors .
2.13 SUMMARY
In a nutshell, Social Cognitive Theory provides a comprehensive
framework for understanding how individuals learn from their social
environment, including through observation and imitation. It highlights the
importance of cognitive processe s, self -regulation, and self -efficacy
beliefs in shaping behavior and personality. This theory has been widely
influential in fields such as education, psychology, and communication,
and it continues to inform research on human behavior and development.
The Social Exchange Theory provides a framework for understanding
social interactions and relationships as a process of cost -benefit analysis. It
emphasizes the rationality of individuals in assessing the rewards and
costs associated with their interactions and decisions to engage or
disengage in social relationships. While it provides valuable insights into
human behavior, it doesn't capture all aspects of complex social
interactions, such as emotions and social norms.
The Social Interactionism is a sociol ogical and social psychological
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40 and social interactions in shaping human behavior and society. It provides
a valuable framework for understanding how individuals construct their
identit ies, roles, and understandings of the world through their interactions
with others.
Social Learning Theory posits that individuals learn through observation
and modeling, taking into account cognitive processes, motivation, and
reinforcement. It emphasize s the role of the social environment in shaping
behavior and provides insights into how behaviors are acquired,
maintained, and modified in social contexts.
Social psychology and cultural psychology intersect in their exploration of
how culture influences social behavior, cognition, and identity. While
social psychology provides a broader understanding of individual and
group behavior in social contexts, cultural psychology delves deeper into
the specific cultural factors that shape these behaviors and psyc hological
processes. Researchers often draw from both fields to gain a more
comprehensive understanding of human social interactions and how
culture plays a pivotal role in shaping them.
Social Identity Theory emphasizes the role of group membership and
social categorization in shaping individuals' self -concept, attitudes, and
behaviors. It helps explain why people tend to favor their in -groups,
sometimes leading to inter -group conflicts and biases. Researchers and
practitioners often use this theory to un derstand and address issues related
to prejudice, discrimination, and inter -group dynamics.
2.14 QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the core concerns in the field of social psychology
2. What are the emerging trends in social psychology
3. Discuss the various categories of the ories in the field of social
psychology
4. In detail, discuss the social identity theory
5. What is the social exchange theory?
6. Explain the correlation of social psychology and cultural psychology
2.15 REFERENCES
 Fiske, S.T., Gilbert, D.T., &Lindzey, G. (2010). Handbook of Social
Psychology (5th Ed.). New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons Ltd.
 Kruglanski, A. W., Higgins, E.T. (2007). Social Psychology:
Handbook of basic Principles (Second Ed.). New York: The
Guilford Press. munotes.in

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41  Lesko, W. A. (2009). Readings in Social Psyc hology: General,
Classic and Contemporary Selections (Eighth Ed.). New Delhi:
Pearson.
 DeLamater, J.D., & Myers, D.J. (2011). Social Psychology (Seventh
Ed.). USA: Wadsworth
 Fletcher, G.J.O., &Clark,M.S. (2003). Blackwell Handbook of Social
Psychology: Int erpersonal Processes . USA: Blackwell Publishers
Ldt.
 Baumeister. R. F. &Finkel, E. J. (Eds.) (2010). Advanced Social
Psychology: State of the Science . New York: Oxford University
Press.


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42 3
SELF AND IDENTITY & SOCIAL
PERCEPTION AND COGNITION
Unit Structure:
3.0 Introduction
3.1 K ey aspects of the self in social psychology
3.1.1. Self -Concept
3.1.2. Self -Esteem:
3.1.3 . Self -Perception
3.1.4. Self -Presentation:
3.1.5. Cultural and Social Influences
3.1.6. Self -Identity and Social Identity
3.2 The self and identity
3.2.1T he correlation between the self and identity in social psychology
3.3 The development of self -identity
3.4 Social perception
3.5 Social cognition
3.6 Summary
3.7 Question s
3.8 References
3.0 INTRODUCTION:
The concept of the self is a fundamental topic in social psychology, as it
plays a central role in understanding how individuals perceive themselves
and interact with others within a social context. Social psychologists s tudy
the self from various perspectives, including self -concept, self -esteem,
self-perception, and self -presentation.


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43 3.1 KEY ASPECTS OF THE SELF IN SOCIAL
PSYCHOLOGY:
3.1.1. Self -Concept:
 Self-concept refers to the way individuals perceive themselves. It
encompasses beliefs, values, attitudes, and perceptions about who we
are. It includes both personal identity (unique characteristics that
distinguish us from others) and social identity (aspects of our identity
that are shaped by group membership, such as gender, ethnicity, or
religion).
 Social psychologists are interested in how self -concept is formed and
maintained. One influential theory is the self -concept maintenance
theory, which suggests that people strive to maintain a positive self -
concept by s eeking out information that confirms their self -views and
avoiding information that challenges them.
3.1.2. Self -Esteem:
 Self-esteem refers to an individual's overall evaluation of their self -
worth. It can be influenced by various factors, including person al
achievements, social comparisons, and feedback from others.
 Social psychologists study self -esteem to understand how it impacts
behavior and well -being. For example, individuals with high self -
esteem tend to be more confident and resilient, while those with low
self-esteem may be more vulnerable to negative social experiences.
3.1.3. Self -Perception:
 Self-perception theory, proposed by Daryl Bem, suggests that
individuals often infer their own attitudes and beliefs by observing
their own behavior in a pa rticular situation. This theory is essential for
understanding how people come to understand their own preferences
and motivations.
3.1.4. Self -Presentation:
 Self-presentation, also known as impression management, involves the
conscious or unconscious proc ess of shaping how one is perceived by
others. People engage in self -presentation to create specific
impressions or maintain a desired social identity.
 Social psychologists explore various strategies and tactics individuals
use for self -presentation, such as self -promotion, ingratiation (trying to
be likable), and intimidation (projecting power).
3.1.5. Cultural and Social Influences:
 The self is not a fixed entity but is influenced by cultural and social
factors. Different cultures and social contexts can shape how
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44  Social psychologists examine how cultural norms, social roles, and
group dynamics impact self -concept and self -esteem. This can lead to
insights about cultural differences in self -constr ual, which refers to
how people define themselves in relation to others.
3.1.6. Self -Identity and Social Identity:
 Social psychologists distinguish between self -identity (personal
aspects) and social identity (group -based aspects). Social identity
theory, developed by Henri Tajfel and John Turner, explores how
people categorize themselves and others into social groups and how
this categorization affects behavior and intergroup relations.
3.2 THE SELF AND IDENTITY
The relationship between the self and identi ty is central to the field of
social psychology. While the terms "self" and "identity" are often used
interchangeably, they refer to slightly different aspects of the individual's
psychological makeup and are closely related.
3.2.1The correlation between the self and identity in social
psychology:
1. Self as a Component of Identity:
 The self is a fundamental component of one's identity. It encompasses
an individual's perceptions, beliefs, and evaluations about themselves.
In other words, the self is how a person defines themselves personally
and socially.
 Personal identity refers to the unique characteristics, attributes, and
experiences that make an individual distinct from others. It includes
aspects like personality traits, talents, and personal history.
 Social identity, on the other hand, involves the aspects of identity that
are shaped by group membership, such as gender, race, nationality,
religion, or any other social category. Social identity often influences
how individuals perceive themselves in re lation to others who share
the same group membership.
2. Self -Identity and Social Identity:
 Social psychologists distinguish between self -identity and social
identity to understand how individuals define themselves in different
contexts.
 Self-identity pert ains to one's individuality and personal attributes. It
reflects who you are as a unique person.
 Social identity, on the other hand, emerges from an individual's
identification with a social group. It is based on the belief that one
belongs to a particular social category and shares common
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45  The relationship between self -identity and social identity is dynamic
and context -dependent. Depending on the situation, individuals may
emphasize one aspect of their iden tity over the other. For example, a
person might emphasize their social identity as a member of a sports
team during a game, but their self -identity as a parent when interacting
with their children.
3. Social Identity Theory:
 Social identity theory, develo ped by Henri Tajfel and John Turner,
provides a framework for understanding how social identity influences
behavior and intergroup relations.
 The theory posits that people categorize themselves and others into
social groups based on shared characteristics. They then derive a sense
of self -esteem and identity from their group memberships.
 Social identity theory explains phenomena such as in -group favoritism
(favoring one's own group), out -group derogation (negative attitudes
towards other groups), and the im pact of group memberships on an
individual's self -concept.
4. Self -Esteem and Identity:
 Self-esteem, which is an individual's evaluation of their self -worth, is
closely related to both self -identity and social identity.
 Self-esteem can be influenced by per sonal achievements and
evaluations of one's personal identity, as well as by the perceived
status and social identity of the groups to which one belongs.
 For instance, a person's self -esteem may be positively affected when
they perceive their social group as prestigious or successful, leading
them to identify more strongly with that group.
3.3 THE DEVELOPMENT OF SELF -IDENTITY
Self-identity development from a social psychology perspective is a
complex process that involves both individual and social factors. Social
psychologists study how individuals come to understand and define
themselves in relation to others and the larger social context. Several
theories and concepts help explain the development of self -identity:
1. Socialization:
 Socialization is the pr ocess by which individuals acquire the norms,
values, beliefs, and behaviors of their culture or social group. It begins
in childhood and continues throughout life.
 Socialization agents, such as family, peers, schools, and media, play a
significant role in shaping an individual's self -identity by transmitting
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46 2. Self -Concept Formation:
 Self-concept is the collection of beliefs and attitudes an individual
holds about themselves. It develops through introspection and self -
reflecti on.
 Social psychologists emphasize that self -concept is influenced by
social comparisons, or the tendency to evaluate oneself by comparing
to others. People may categorize themselves as similar or different
from others, which contributes to the development of self -concept.
3. Social Identity Theory:
 Social identity theory, as mentioned earlier, posits that individuals
categorize themselves into social groups based on shared
characteristics. This process leads to the development of social
identity.
 When peop le identify with a particular group, they adopt the group's
norms, values, and behaviors as part of their self -concept. This group
membership becomes a significant aspect of their self -identity.
4. Reference Groups:
 Reference groups are groups with which i ndividuals identify and use
as a standard for self -evaluation. These groups influence self -concept
by providing a benchmark against which individuals assess
themselves.
 For example, a teenager may develop their self -identity by comparing
themselves to thei r peers, their family, or a role model they admire.
5. Social Feedback and Validation:
 Social feedback from others, such as praise, criticism, and recognition,
plays a vital role in shaping self -identity. Positive feedback can
enhance self -esteem and reinf orce certain aspects of self -identity,
while negative feedback can lead to self -doubt or a desire for self -
improvement.
 Validation from social groups or significant others can also contribute
to an individual's sense of belonging and self -identity. Being a ccepted
and valued by one's social groups can strengthen one's identification
with those groups.
6. Cultural Influences:
 Cultural norms and values significantly influence self -identity.
Different cultures have different expectations and ideals for
individu als, which shape how people perceive themselves and their
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47  Cultural identities, such as nationality, ethnicity, religion, and gender,
can become central components of an individual's self -identity.
7. Life Transitions and Experiences:
 Life experiences, including major life transitions (e.g., becoming a
parent, starting a new job, or moving to a new place), can lead to shifts
in self -identity. These transitions often prompt individuals to
reevaluate their values, priorities, and self -concept in response to
changing social roles and expectations.
3.4 SOCIAL PERCEPTION
Social perception is a fundamental concept in social psychology that
focuses on how individuals perceive, interpret, and make sense of the
social world and the people within it. It involves the cognitive processes
and biases that influence our understanding of others and the social
environment.
Here's a discussion of various aspects of social perception in social
psychology:
1. Attribution Theory:
 Attribution theory is a key comp onent of social perception that
explores how people attribute the causes of behavior, both their own
and that of others. It seeks to answer questions like, "Why did this
person act this way?"
 Attributions can be categorized into two main types: internal
(dispositional) attributions, which attribute behavior to the person's
characteristics, and external (situational) attributions, which attribute
behavior to external circumstances.
 The fundamental attribution error is a common bias in social
perception, wher e individuals tend to overemphasize internal
attributions for others' behavior and underemphasize situational
factors.
2. Schemas and Stereotypes:
 Schemas are mental frameworks or cognitive structures that help
individuals organize and interpret informatio n about the social world.
Stereotypes are a specific type of schema, representing generalized
beliefs about members of particular social groups.
 Schemas and stereotypes can influence social perception by shaping
our expectations about how people from certa in groups will behave.
This can lead to biases and inaccuracies in how we perceive and judge
others.
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48 3. Social Cognition:
 Social cognition refers to the cognitive processes involved in
perceiving, interpreting, and making judgments about the social world.
It encompasses various processes, including attention, memory, and
decision -making.
 Cognitive heuristics, such as availability heuristic (relying on readily
available information) and representativeness heuristic (making
judgments based on perceived simil arity), can affect social perception
and lead to cognitive biases.
4. Nonverbal Communication:
 Nonverbal cues, such as facial expressions, body language, and tone of
voice, play a significant role in social perception. People often rely on
these cues to in fer emotions, intentions, and attitudes of others.
 The accuracy of interpreting nonverbal cues can vary, and
misinterpretations can lead to misunderstandings or misjudgments.
5. Impression Formation and Management:
 Impression formation is the process of cr eating initial judgments and
perceptions about other individuals. These initial impressions can
influence subsequent interactions.
 Impression management involves efforts made by individuals to
control or shape the impressions others have of them. People of ten
engage in self -presentation strategies to create a desired image in
social situations.
6. Cultural Influences:
 Cultural norms and values can impact social perception. What is
considered appropriate or acceptable behavior may vary across
cultures, leadi ng to differences in how individuals perceive and
interpret social interactions.
 Cultural differences can also affect the use of nonverbal cues and the
interpretation of facial expressions and gestures.
7. Confirmation Bias:
 Confirmation bias is the tenden cy to seek, interpret, and remember
information that confirms one's preexisting beliefs and stereotypes
while ignoring or discounting contradictory information.
 Confirmation bias can reinforce existing stereotypes and lead to a self -
perpetuating cycle of b iased social perception.

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49 3.5 SOCIAL COGNITION
Social cognition is a broad field within social psychology that focuses on
how people think about, perceive, remember, and make sense of the social
world and the individuals within it. It examines the mental processes and
cognitive mechanisms that influence social behavior and interactions.
Here's a detailed discussion of social cognition:
1. Cognitive Processes in Social Cognition:
 Attention: Social cognition begins with attention, as individuals
selectively attend to certain aspects of the social environment while
ignoring others. Factors like salience, novelty, and personal relevance
can influence what people pay attention to in social situations.
 Perception: Perception in social cognition involves the inter pretation
of sensory information from the social environment. This includes how
individuals perceive facial expressions, body language, and vocal
tones, which are crucial for understanding emotions and intentions in
others.
 Memory: Memory plays a significa nt role in social cognition. People
store and retrieve information about past social interactions,
individuals, and group stereotypes, which can influence their
judgments and behavior in current social situations.
 Judgment and Decision -Making: Social cogni tion encompasses the
processes of forming judgments and making decisions about others.
This includes attributing causes to behavior (attribution theory),
evaluating the credibility of information (source credibility), and
making choices based on social inf ormation.
 Social Inference: Social inference involves drawing conclusions about
people's thoughts, feelings, and intentions based on available
information. It often involves making inferences about mental states
(mentalizing or theory of mind) and predicti ng future behavior.
2. Cognitive Heuristics and Biases:
 Heuristics: Heuristics are mental shortcuts that people use to simplify
complex social information and make decisions more efficiently. For
example, the availability heuristic involves estimating the frequency or
likelihood of an event based on how easily it comes to mind.
 Biases: Cognitive biases are systematic patterns of deviation from
norm or rationality in judgment and decision -making. Some common
social cognitive biases include confirmation bias (seeking information
that confirms preexisting beliefs), the fundamental attribution error
(attributing others' behavior to dispositional factors), and the self -
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50 3. Schemas and Stereotypes:
 Schemas: Schemas are mental frameworks or templates that help
individuals organize and process information about the social world.
They guide perception, interpretation, and memory of social
information.
 Stereotypes : Stereotypes are specific types of schemas that involve
generalized beliefs and expectations about members of social groups.
Stereotypes can be both explicit (conscious) and implicit
(unconscious) and can influence how individuals perceive and interact
with others.
4. Emotion and Affect:
 Emotions and affective processes are integral to social cognition. They
play a crucial role in how individuals perceive and respond to social
stimuli. Emotions can serve as information about the social
environment and infl uence decision -making, social judgments, and
behavior.
5. Culture and Social Cognition:
 Culture significantly shapes social cognition. Cultural norms, values,
and practices can influence cognitive processes, such as how emotions
are expressed and interpret ed, the importance of social hierarchy, and
the role of individualism versus collectivism in social judgments.
6. Social Cognitive Neuroscience:
 Social cognitive neuroscience is an interdisciplinary field that
combines social psychology with neuroscience t o investigate the
neural basis of social cognition. Researchers use techniques like
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to examine how brain
regions are activated during social perception and decision -making.
3.6 SUMMARY
The self is a complex and multifaceted construct that plays a crucial role
in social psychology. Understanding how individuals perceive themselves,
evaluate their self -worth, and present themselves in social situations
provides valuable insights into human behavior, social interact ions, and
the influence of the social environment on the individual. Social
psychologists continue to explore the intricacies of the self to better
comprehend the dynamics of human behavior in a social context.
The self and identity are intertwined concept s in social psychology. The
self encompasses an individual's personal and social perceptions, while
identity includes both personal and social aspects of who a person is.
Social identity theory helps to explain how individuals navigate their self -
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51 the intricate relationship between the self and identity within social
psychology.
Self-identity development is a dynamic process influenced by both
individual introspection and external soci al factors. Social psychologists
emphasize the role of socialization, social comparisons, group
memberships, feedback, and cultural influences in shaping how
individuals define and understand themselves in relation to others and
their social environment. T his process continues throughout life and is
subject to change as individuals encounter new experiences and social
contexts.
Social perception is a multifaceted area of study within social psychology
that examines how individuals perceive and make sense of the social
world. It involves the attribution of causes for behavior, the influence of
schemas and stereotypes, the role of nonverbal communication, the
formation and management of impressions, cultural influences, and
cognitive biases. Understanding soci al perception is essential for
comprehending how individuals form judgments, make decisions, and
interact with others in a social context.
Social cognition is a multifaceted area of study that explores how
individuals process, interpret, and make sense of social information. It
encompasses various cognitive processes, heuristics, biases, the role of
schemas and stereotypes, the influence of emotions, cultural factors, and
even the underlying neural mechanisms. Understanding social cognition is
essential for comprehending how people navigate the complexities of
social interactions and make judgments and decisions in a social context.
3.7 QUESTIONS
1. Define the key concepts of self
2. Explain the correlation between the self and identity in social
psychology
3. What a re the various aspects of social perception
4. Explain in detail social cognition
3.8 REFERENCES
 Fiske, S.T., Gilbert, D.T., &Lindzey, G. (2010). Handbook of Social
Psychology (5th Ed.). New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons Ltd.
 Kruglanski, A. W., Higgins, E.T. (2 007). Social Psychology:
Handbook of basic Principles (Second Ed.). New York: The Guilford
Press.
 Lesko, W. A. (2009). Readings in Social Psychology: General,
Classic and Contemporary Selections (Eighth Ed.). New Delhi:
Pearson. munotes.in

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52  DeLamater, J.D., & Myers, D.J . (2011). Social Psychology (Seventh
Ed.). USA: Wadsworth
 Fletcher, G.J.O., &Clark,M.S. (2003). Blackwell Handbook of Social
Psychology: Interpersonal Processes . USA: Blackwell Publishers Ldt.
 Baumeister. R. F. &Finkel, E. J. (Eds.) (2010). Advanced Social
Psychology: State of the Science .New York: Oxford University Press.


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53 4
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF THE
PSYCHOLOGY OF DECISION -MAKING &
STATUS OF THEORY AND RESEARCH
ON LOVE
Unit Structure:
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Definition of decision making
4.1.1 Process of decision making
4.1.2 Fundamental principles of decision making
4.2 T he status of theory
4.3 Research of love
4.4 Summary
4.5 Questions
4.6 References
4.0 INTRODUCTION:
Decision making is a fundamental aspect of human behavior, and it plays
a significant role in the field of social psychology. Social psychology is
the sci entific study of how individuals think, feel, and behave in social
situations. It investigates how people make decisions when they are
influenced by others, societal norms, and various situational factors.
Understanding decision making in social psychology can shed light on the
complexities of human interactions and provide valuable insights into
social behavior. Here's an introduction to the key concepts and principles
related to decision making in social psychology:
Decision making in social psychology is a complex and multifaceted
process that is influenced by various social, cognitive, and emotional
factors. Researchers in this field seek to understand how individuals
navigate the intricacies of social interactions and make choices that are
often shaped by social context and interpersonal relationships. By studying
decision making in social psychology, we gain insights into human
behavior in group settings and can develop a deeper understanding of the
factors that influence our choices in social situation s.

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54 4.1 DEFINITION OF DECISION MAKING
Decision -making is often regarded as the cognitive process resulting in the
selection of a belief or a course of action among several possible
alternative options. It could be either rational or irrational. The decision -
making process is a reasoning process based on assumptions
of values , preferences and beliefs of the decision -maker. Every decision -
making process produces a final choice , which may or may not prompt
action.
Decision -making in social psychology involves the study of how
individuals, influenced by social and interpersonal factors, make choices
and decisions in various social contexts.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:
1. Define decision making
4.1.1 Process of decision making:
The process of decision -making in social psychology can be broken down
into several key stages:
1. Identification of the Decision: This is the initial stage wh ere individuals
recognize that they need to make a decision. The decision may pertain to
personal matters, interpersonal relationships, group dynamics, or societal
issues.
2. Problem Definition: Once the decision is identified, individuals need to
define t he problem or goal they are trying to address. In social contexts,
this often involves understanding the social dynamics, norms, and
expectations surrounding the decision.
3. Information Gathering: Decision -makers collect relevant information,
which may in clude facts, opinions, and perspectives from others. In social
decision -making, information often comes from interactions with peers,
family members, experts, or through media and communication channels.
4. Evaluation of Alternatives: Decision -makers consi der various
alternatives or courses of action. In social contexts, this may involve
evaluating how each option aligns with social norms, values, and the
impact on relationships with others.
5. Value Assessment: Individuals assess the importance or value th ey
attach to different aspects of the decision, including personal preferences,
social acceptance, ethical considerations, and potential consequences for
themselves and others.
6. Decision -Making Heuristics: People often use heuristics or mental
shortcuts in social decision -making. These heuristics can include relying
on stereotypes, seeking social approval, or following the actions of others
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55 7. Decision Commitment: After evaluating options and considering values,
individuals make a decision and commit to a particular course of action.
This decision may be influenced by personal preferences, social pressure,
or a combination of factors.
8. Implementation: The chosen course of action is put into practice. In
social decision -making, this can involv e interactions with others,
communication of the decision, and taking steps to achieve the chosen
goal.
9. Outcome Evaluation: Following the implementation of the decision,
individuals assess the outcomes and consequences. This evaluation can
influence fut ure decisions and may lead to adjustments in behavior or
beliefs.
10. Feedback and Learning: Decision -makers often learn from the
outcomes of their decisions and incorporate this feedback into their future
decision -making processes. Social interactions and feedback from others
play a significant role in this learning process.
11. Social Influence: Throughout the decision -making process, social
influence is a key factor. Peer pressure, conformity, persuasion, and social
norms can all impact the choices indiv iduals make in social contexts.
12. Emotional Responses: Emotions, such as empathy, guilt, shame, or
pride, can be closely tied to social decision -making. These emotions can
influence both the decision -making process and how individuals feel about
the deci sions they make.
13. Group Decision -Making: In many social contexts, decisions are made
within groups. Group decision -making involves additional complexities
related to consensus -building, leadership, power dynamics, and collective
influence.
Social psycho logy recognizes that individuals are not isolated decision -
makers but are deeply embedded in social networks and influenced by the
beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors of others. Understanding the intricacies of
social decision -making is essential for compreh ending how individuals
navigate social relationships, conform to or challenge social norms, and
contribute to group dynamics and societal outcomes.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:
2. State the process of decision making
4.1.2 Fundamental principles of decision making
The psychology of decision -making is a complex field that examines how
individuals make choices and decisions in various situations. There are
several fundamental principles and concepts that underlie the study of
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56 1. Bounded Rationality: This concept, introduced by Herbert Simon,
suggests that individuals have cognitive limitations that prevent them from
making perfectly rational decisions. Instead, people use heuristics and
shortcuts to simplify comple x decision -making processes.
2. Utility: Decision -makers seek to maximize their utility, which
represents the satisfaction or benefit they gain from a decision. Utility can
be influenced by both objective factors and individual preferences.
3. Prospect The ory: Developed by Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky,
this theory suggests that people evaluate potential outcomes of decisions
based on perceived gains and losses relative to a reference point, rather
than in absolute terms. Loss aversion, for example, can lead individuals to
make choices to avoid losses rather than seeking gains.
4. Risk and Uncertainty: Decision -makers often face situations involving
risk and uncertainty. Risk refers to situations where probabilities are
known, while uncertainty arises whe n probabilities are unclear or
unknown. How individuals perceive and respond to risk and uncertainty
varies.
5. Confirmation Bias: People tend to seek out and interpret information in
a way that confirms their preexisting beliefs or preferences. This bias can
affect decision -making by limiting exposure to alternative viewpoints and
information.
6. Anchoring: Anchoring is a cognitive bias where individuals rely heavily
on the first piece of information encountered (the "anchor") when making
decisions. Subseq uent information is often evaluated in relation to this
initial anchor.
7. Availability Heuristic: This heuristic involves making judgments and
decisions based on the ease with which relevant information comes to
mind. If an event or outcome is more readil y recalled, it is often perceived
as more likely, even if it's not necessarily the case.
8. Sunk Cost Fallacy: People sometimes continue to invest time, money,
or effort into a decision simply because they have already invested in it
(sunk costs), even whe n it's not rational to do so. This can lead to poor
decision -making.
9. Overconfidence: Many individuals overestimate their own knowledge,
abilities, and the accuracy of their predictions. Overconfidence can lead to
excessive risk -taking and suboptimal dec isions.
10. Emotional Influence: Emotions play a significant role in decision -
making. Emotions such as fear, anger, and excitement can impact
judgment and lead to impulsive or irrational choices.
11. Social Influence: Social and cultural factors can signif icantly affect
decision -making. Peer pressure, social norms, and cultural values can
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57 12. Cognitive Biases: Various cognitive biases, such as confirmation bias,
anchoring, and availability heuristic, can lead to systematic erro rs in
judgment and decision -making.
13. Dual -Process Theory: This theory posits that there are two modes of
thinking: intuitive (automatic and fast) and analytical (slow and
deliberate). Decision -making often involves a combination of these
processes, with the balance depending on the situation and individual.
14. Temporal Discounting: People tend to place less value on future
rewards or costs compared to immediate ones. This can lead to impulsive
decision -making that prioritizes short -term gains over long -term benefits.
Understanding these fundamental principles of the psychology of
decision -making can help individuals and researchers better comprehend
why people make the choices they do and develop strategies for improving
decision quality and avoiding com mon pitfalls.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:
3. What are the fundamental principles of decision making?
4.2 THE STATUS OF THEORY
The status of theory in social psychology can vary depending on several
factors, including its relevance, empirical support, and acceptance within
the field. Social psychology is a dynamic and evolving discipline, and the
status of theories within it can change over time. Here are some key
aspects that influence the status of theories in social psychology:
1. Empirical Support: One of the prim ary criteria for evaluating the status
of a theory in social psychology is the extent to which it is supported by
empirical research. Theories that have a robust body of empirical evidence
to support their key propositions are generally held in higher rega rd.
Researchers often conduct experiments, surveys, and observational studies
to test and refine social psychological theories.
2. Relevance: The status of a theory also depends on its relevance to
contemporary issues and questions in the field. Theories t hat can explain
and address current social phenomena are more likely to be influential.
Social psychology is responsive to changes in society, and theories that
can shed light on pressing social issues tend to gain prominence.
3. Theoretical Integration: T heoretical integration involves connecting and
synthesizing different theories and concepts within social psychology.
Theories that can be integrated with other well -established theories to
provide a more comprehensive understanding of social behavior tend to
have a higher status.
4. Popularity and Citation: The frequency with which a theory is cited in
research papers and textbooks can be an indicator of its status. The more
frequently a theory is referenced, the more influential it is considered to be
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58 5. Historical Significance: Some theories in social psychology are
considered classics due to their historical significance. These theories laid
the foundation for the field and continue to be influential. Examples
include Kurt Lewin's field theory, Festinger's cognitive dissonance theory,
and Milgram's obedience studies.
6. Controversy and Debate: The status of a theory can also be influenced
by controversy and debate within the field. Controversial theories may
attract attention and discuss ion, which can shape their status. Some
theories may be considered groundbreaking but also face criticism or
alternative interpretations.
7. Practical Applications: The application of social psychological theories
to real -world problems and interventions c an enhance their status.
Theories that have practical implications for addressing social issues,
improving relationships, or promoting positive social change are often
valued.
8. Cross -Cultural Validity: Theories that have cross -cultural validity,
meaning they apply to a wide range of cultural contexts, are highly
regarded. Social psychology is increasingly focused on understanding the
universality and cultural variations in social behavior.
9. Evolution and Adaptation: Social psychology is not static, and theories
may need to evolve and adapt to new research findings and societal
changes. Theories that can accommodate new data and insights tend to
maintain their relevance and status.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:
4. Describe the theory of status
4.3 RESEARCH OF LOVE
Research on love is a fascinating and integral part of social psychology.
Love is a complex and multifaceted emotion that plays a central role in
human social interactions and relationships. Social psychologists
investigate various aspects of love, includin g its nature, development,
impact on behavior, and the factors that influence it. Here are some key
areas of research on love within social psychology:
1. Types of Love: Psychologist Robert Sternberg proposed the Triangular
Theory of Love, which identifies three components of love: intimacy,
passion, and commitment. Researchers in social psychology explore how
these components combine to form different types of love, such as
romantic love, companionate love, and consummate love.
2. Attachment Theory: Attach ment theory, developed by John Bowlby and
expanded upon by Mary Ainsworth, examines the bonds people form with
significant others. Social psychologists study how early attachment
experiences with caregivers influence later romantic relationships and
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59 3. Love and Attraction: Researchers investigate the factors that contribute
to romantic attraction. This includes physical attractiveness, similarity in
attitudes and values, proximity, and the role of soc ial norms and cultural
factors in shaping romantic preferences.
4. Love and Relationships: Social psychology explores how love
influences various aspects of romantic relationships, including
communication, conflict resolution, satisfaction, and stability. Research
also delves into the impact of love on the quality and longevity of
relationships.
5. Love and Social Influence: Social psychologists examine how love and
romantic relationships can be influenced by external factors such as peer
pressure, social n orms, and media portrayals of love. This research helps
us understand how societal expectations can shape our experiences of
love.
6. Love and Well -Being: Love is often associated with positive emotions
and well -being. Studies explore the links between lov e and mental health,
happiness, and life satisfaction. Healthy relationships are associated with
better psychological and physical health outcomes.
7. Love and Culture: Cross -cultural research investigates how love and
romantic relationships vary across di fferent cultures. Cultural norms,
values, and traditions play a significant role in shaping how love is
experienced and expressed.
8. Love and Evolution: Evolutionary psychology provides insights into the
evolutionary origins of love and mate selection. Re search examines how
evolutionary processes have shaped human mating strategies, preferences,
and behaviors related to love.
9. Love and Gender: Social psychologists explore gender differences and
similarities in love and romantic relationships. This includ es the study of
gender roles, stereotypes, and the impact of gender on relationship
dynamics.
10. Love and Technology: In the digital age, researchers examine how
technology, particularly online dating and social media, has influenced the
initiation and ma intenance of romantic relationships. This research helps
us understand how technology is changing the landscape of love and
dating.
11. Love and Well -Being: Studies on the connections between love and
well-being have shown that positive, supportive relatio nships can enhance
overall life satisfaction, mental health, and even physical health.
Conversely, the absence of love or the presence of unhealthy relationships
can have detrimental effects.

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60 4.4 SUMMARY:
The psychology of decision -making is a complex fi eld that explores how
individuals make choices and judgments. The fundamental principles
illustrate the multifaceted nature of decision -making and how it is
influenced by cognitive, emotional, social, and even neurological factors.
Researchers in psycholog y continue to explore these principles to gain
deeper insights into how individuals navigate the choices they face in
various aspects of life.
It's important to note that the status of theories in social psychology can be
fluid, with some theories gaining or losing prominence over time as new
research emerges and societal contexts shift. Researchers in the field
continually evaluate, refine, and challenge existing theories to deepen our
understanding of social behavior.
Overall, research on love in social p sychology provides valuable insights
into one of the most fundamental and universal human experiences. It
helps us understand the dynamics of romantic relationships, the factors
that contribute to successful and satisfying partnerships, and the ways in
which love influences our thoughts, emotions, and behaviors in social
contexts.
4.5 QUESTIONS:
1. Define and explain the process of decision making
2. What are the fundamental principles of decision making? Explain
3. Explain the status of theory
4. Discuss the key areas of research on love within social psychology
4.6 REFERENCES
 Fiske, S.T., Gilbert, D.T., &Lindzey, G. (2010). Handbook of Social
Psychology (5th Ed.). New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons Ltd.
 Kruglanski, A. W., Higgins, E.T. (2007). Social Psychology: Handbook
of basic Principles (Second Ed.). New York: The Guilford Press.
 Lesko, W. A. (2009). Readings in Social Psychology: General, Classic
and Contemporary Selections (Eighth Ed.). New Delhi: Pearson.
 DeLamater, J.D., & Myers, D.J. (2011). Social Psychology (Seve nth
Ed.). USA: Wadsworth
 Fletcher, G.J.O., &Clark,M.S. (2003). Blackwell Handbook of Social
Psychology: Interpersonal Processes . USA: Blackwell Publishers Ldt.
 Baumeister. R. F. &Finkel, E. J. (Eds.) (2010). Advanced Social
Psychology: State of the Science .New York: Oxford University Press.
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61 5
ATTITUDE, PERSUASION AND
INTERGROUP CONFLICT,
NEGOTIATION
Unit Structure:
5.0 Objective
5.1 Introduction to Attitude
5.2 Development of Attitude
5.3 Components of Attitude
5.4 Attitudes - Predictors of Behaviour
5.4.1 Attitude -behaviour relationship
5.5. Introduction to Persuasion
5.5.1 Models of Persuasion
5.6. Intergroup conflict
5.6.1 Development of Intergroup conflict
5.6.2 Resolving Intergroup Conflict
5.6.3 Negotiation
5.7 Summery
5.8 Questions
5.9 References
5.0 OBJECTIVES:
1) The learner will be able to understate the nature, component of
attitudes
2) The learner will be able to understand the relationship between
attitudes and behaviour
3) The learner will be able to describe the various models of persuasion
4) The learner will be able to understand t he nature of intergroup conflict
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62 5.1 INTRODUCTION :
Dear learners, let us study the concept of attitude in this unit. The term
attitude refers to your opinion about marri age, your views about which
party to vote for, your views about eating meat. According to
psychologists attitudes are learned tendency to evaluate things in certain
way. Attitudes are our evaluations or feelings toward a person, idea, or
object and typica lly are favourable or unfavourable. ‘ I feel nice when I
recycle my old stuff’, ‘One must recycle to reduce garbage’, ‘Using
recycled products is good for the environment’ from these statements we
can say that this person has a positive attitude towards r ecycling.
statements are example of a person holding positive or we can say positive
attitude towards recycling. Attitude can strongly influence behaviours and
affect. Attitudes which one is aware of can be termed as explicit attitudes
and attitude which o perate at the conscious level is known as implicit
attitude.
5.2 DEVELOPMENT OF ATTITUDE
How do you feel about a dress code in college, telemarketers, eating street
food, people who talk over the cell while driving, gifting a doll to a boy.
Most of us hav e attitudes about these aspects of our lives. Let us try to
understand where do these attitudes come from, how are they developed?
Are these developed only by our experiences or do we learn them from
others. Many of our attitudes develop as a part of socia l learning in which
we acquire new information, behaviours or attitudes from other people.
Now, let us now discuss about how are attitudes formed.
According to some psychologists, attitudes are developed through a
process of socialisation. Socialisation is a life longprocess in which a an
individual learns from environmental sources like, parents, family
members, friends, media. This learning shapes our feelings about things,
these feelings shape our attitudes.
Attitudes can be formed through classical conditioning. For example;
television advertisers may form a favourable attitude toward a sport drink
by showing the drink with young people enjoying on the beach. Classical
conditioning is a process of learning in which one stylus which is neutral
(does not evoke a response) acquires a capacity to evoke a response
through repeated pairing with another stimulus.
If a person is reinforced either through reward or pleasant experiences or
discouraged through negative unpleasant experiences, forming of attit udes
is through instrumental conditioning. For example, if parents praises a
child for completing home work on time will develop favourable attitude
towards home work.
Attitudes are also formed by observing others, comparing ones attitude
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63 Apart from learning from others, the nature of personal experiences with
people, objects , events are shape our attitudes. If we have pleasant
experiences, it will lead to positive attit udes. Similarly bad experiences
lead to negative attitude formation.
5.3 COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE
Attitude comprises of three component namely; affective, cognitive and
behavioural. Affective component which is; how you feel about the
object, person, iss ue or event.
Cognitive component is the the thoughts and beliefs one has regarding the
subject. And the third component of attitude is behavioural component,
which is how attitudes influence your actions or behaviour. The three
components of attitudes may vary. Some attitudes are primarily affective
in nature, when we say ‘ I am scared of cockroaches’ , you may be aware
that cockroaches will not harm you, they are small in size, these cognitive
reasoning may not help you to change the attitude you have to wards
cockroaches. An electric car is cost effective, low maintenance, zero
emission, tax benefit, all these aspects are the cognitive component
attitude regarding buying an electric car. It is not that how you feel about
the car ; rather, it is simply fac tual benefits of buying a car.
Greater consistency between the cognitive and affective components is
associated with greater attitude stability and resistance to persuasion.
Greater consistency is also associated with a stronger relationship between
attitu de and behaviour,
5.4 ATTITUDES - PREDICTORS OF BEHAVIOUR
We may have a favourable attitude towards exercise and understand the
importance of it for a healthy living, inspite of this we may not exercise.
Let us discuss about the conditions in which our att itude will predict
behaviour. Generally it is believed that strong attitudes predict behaviour.
As we have seen above that attitudes have three components, cognitive,
affective and behaviour. From this perspective, cognitive and affective
components can v ary from person to persona as an overall evaluation.
Rosenberg work showed that high cognitive consistency of an attitude
may predict behaviour.
Assessibility of the attitude - We hold many attitudes, some are in our
conscious awareness and others may not b e in our conscious awareness
but situations, events may triggers attitudes, for example, An unknown
and lonely street, with low street lights, can activate fear or feelings of
uneasiness as it activates a stereotypical picture of danger in our minds.
As proposed by Regan and Fazio, direct behavioural experiences with the
attitudinal object will strengthen accessibility of an attitude. Apart from
direct experience, repeated expression may also increase accessibility of
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64 Another predictor of attitude -behaviour link is the cognitive efforts that a
person takes to form the attitude. Attitudes formed via effortful processing
(central route) is more likely to lead to behaviour, this aspect we will
further explore in the topic on persuasion.
Personality variables like self monitoring, self awareness may affect the
attitude strength, relative importance of attitude and consistency of
behaviour. People who are low in self monitoring whose social behaviour
is reflective o f their inner thought processes show higher attitude
behaviour consistency than people with high self monitoring. People who
are high in self awareness will more like exhibit behaviour according to
their attitudes as they will be accessed and use more for behavioural
decision.
5.4.1 Attitude -behaviour relationship
The reason action model was proposed by Fishbein & Ajzen. According
to these models, if there is behavioural intention then it will translate into
behaviour. The behavioural intention arises fro m 1) an attitude about
performing at the behaviour 2) the perceived social consequences of the
behaviour or subjective norms. For example, a person may believe that his
daughter thinks he should buy a new car but his wife strongly disapproves
of buying a c ar, he would be motivated to agree to the wife. Not
complying to his wife would be negative and would weaken the intention
of buying the car. The extension of the theory of reasoned action, known
as theory of planned behaviour, added the variable of percei ved
behavioural control. For example, a person who thinks it will not be easy
to climb the mountain, will be less likely to succeed if she starts to climb
the mountain. Thus, if she perceived behaviour control is not seen, even if
a person acts will not re sult in the targeted behaviour.
5.5 INTRODUCTION TO PERSUASION
Persuasion is a communication to change the attitude of audience towards
an object, practice or ideas. Persuasion through mental efforts an active
attempt by one person to change another person ‘s attitudes, beliefs, or
emotions associated with some issue, person, concept, or object.
Speeches, seminars, written articles, advertisement carry persuasive
message to convince people to change their attitudes.
Research on attitudes has showed that pos itive or negative evaluations of
events, people, situation can be result of novel stimuli being paired
repeatedly with unconditional stimuli will elicit either a positive or
negative stimuli.
5.5.1 - Models of Persuasion:
The process of attitude change ha s been explained by various persuasion
models.
A) The information processing model - this model developed by McGuire
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65 of persuasive message involves 5 steps 1)attention 2) comprehension 3)
yielding 4) retention and 5) behaviour. To change attitude of the recipient
of the message must go through the above mentioned stages.
B) According to the cognitive response model proposed by Greenwald and
his colleagues merely reception of persuasive message will not persuade
the receiver. Recipient of the message actively process the message like a
mental discussion. If the message triggers favourablethought then the
message will be accepted but if it fails to do so then attitude change will
not be s een, Thus, the impact of persuasive message depends on the
argument put forth in the message but it depends on the extent to they
stimulate the individuals to generate favourable or unfavourable thoughts
about the information presented.
C) Elaboration Lik elihood model proposed by John Cacioppo and Richard
Petty how people process messages persuasive messages which may lead
to attitude change depends upon the level of elaboration. Elaboration is
the level of efforts the recipient of the message put in pers uasive
processing the message. These efforts can be high or low level of
elaboration. The elaboration of the message will depend on the recipient’s
motivation and ability to process the information. Depending on the
motivation and ability the person receiv ing the persuasive message , two
ways in which one can change attitudes is either by taking a central route
or the peripheral route. Central route persuasion occurs when interested
people focus on the argument presented in the messages, will analyse it
and accept the message if it appeals them. For people who do not engage
in thinking a per will take the central route or peripheral route to process
the information, The central route is logic driven and uses data and facts to
convince people of an argument ‘s worthiness. For example, a car company
seeking to persuade you to purchase their car will emphasise on the car ‘s
fuel efficiency, safety feature, price. In order for the central route of
persuasion to be effective in changing attitudes, thoughts, and behaviours,
the argument must be strong and, if successful, will result in lasting
attitude change. This route is taken when the recipient of the message are
motivate and analytical.
For people who do not wish to engage in analysing the message, a
periph eral route can be taken. In peripheral route people can be influenced
by incidental cues regarding the message. This route doses not focus on
the factual information of the message but it depends on the positive
characteristics such as positive emotions an d celebrity endorsement of the
message. For example, the legendary actor Amitabh Bachchan
encouraging people to get their children vaccinated against polio. This
route to attitude change does not require much effort or information
processing. Here, the re cipient of the message is not analytical or
motivated to process the information. This method of persuasion may
promote positivity toward the message or product, but it typically results
in less permanent attitude or behaviou r change.
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66 D) Heuristic Systema tic Model:
Another model proposed by which explains how people receive and
process persuasive message was proposed by Chaiken and colleagues.
Similar to the Elaboration likelihood model, the heuristic systematic
model proposes two modes of processing an ef fortless -top-down heuristic
mode and effortful -systematic bottom up mode.These modes are similar
to the central route and peripheral route respectively.
Systematic processing is similar to the central route explained earlier. In
which the recipient of t he message carefully analyses, scrutinises all the
available information while forming their judgements. Systematic
processing effortful. For example; a systematic approach to thinking about
a proposed economic policy might involve reading as many magazine and
newspaper reports as possible to learn and develop an opinion about the
”best” course of action for the economy Heuristic processing is defined as
simple rules of inferences or judgement rules that are learnt and stored in
our memories which are usef ul in interpreting the situation. Thumb rules
like ‘experts are always correct’, ‘go with the majority’, ‘ my own group
can be trusted,’ are examples of heuristic processing. Systematic
processing requires higher level of motivation and capacity than heuri stic
processing. The HSM ‘s least effort principle adopts this classic logic.
Importantly, it assumes that people prefer less effort to more effort, not
because they are lazy, but because they are economy -minded processors
who spend their cognitive res ources only when they are truly
needed -when one ‘s interests are engaged. This suggests that the heuristic
mode is the default processing strategy because it requires much less
effort and much less capacity than systematic processing. According to
this model, the heuristic mode and systematic mode can co -exist.
5.6 INTERGROUP CONFLICT
Intergroup conflict refers to disagreement or confrontation between two or
more groups and their members. This confrontation can involve physical
violence, interperso nal discord, and psychological tension. The intergroup
conflict can be between organised group, or between group belonging
different social categories.
5.6.1 Development of Intergroup conflict
Intergroup conflict develop as groups have opposing interest t hat prevent
them from achieving the goals which leads to friction, hostility and overt
conflict between groups. When members of one group perceives
themselves as different in important ways from another group, the group
may act in a discriminatory way towa rds the other group. Conflict may
also occur when one group threatens or deprives another group of
accessibility to their goals, which provokes aggressive reaction.
A classic study by Muzafer Sherif and colleagues, known as the Robber
Cave study conduc ted in stages demonstrated how underlying conflict of
interest lead to overt conflict in groups. In the first week of the
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67 divided in two groups, activities were conducted in such a way that
contact within groups was high and between groups was minimum. In the
second stage of the experiment conflict was induced between the groups.
This study demonstrated the realistic group conflict theory. It shows that
when groups perceive that attainm ent of ones goals will be at the loss of
the other,, this is called as opposition of interest. This opposition of
interests leads to group member feeling frustrated and result in
antagonistic attitude. Members then develop negative and unfavourable
attitud e towards group members and stroppy get attached to their group.
Solidarity with the group increases and overt conflict with the other group
is seen with the slightest trigger.
Another factor in intergroup conflict is how strongly members identify
with th eir own group which is termed as at the in -group. Although conflict
of interest may not be present but a strong identification with ones group
may lead to bias thinking about the out group. This is known as
ethnocentrism which is a tendency to believe that ones own group is the
superior in every way to the out group. These attitude lead to the in group
members devaluing the out -group members often leading to overt acts
discrimination.
The social identity theory of intergroupbehaviour developed by Tajfel a nd
colleagues. Individual desire to have positive self concept. Self concept
comprises of ones personal identify and social identity both becomes a
part of self concept,. Social identity comes from our membership to the
social groups. In order to maintain a positive self -concept a person is
pressurised to view one’s own group positively and better than the out
group. And will engage in activities to support one’s group activities. This
will lead to a person having higher self esteem and positive self con cept.
An occurrence of an aversive event may lead to inter group conflict. When
the aversive events is thought to be caused by or attributed to the out
group may lead to overt conflict with out group. This is based on the
frustration -aggression hypothes is. According to the hypothesis frustration
leads to anger which quickly turns into aggression under conducive
conditions.
5.6.2 - Resolving Intergroup Conflict
One of the techniques to resolve intergroup conflict is to develop
superordinate goals. Super odinate goal is an goal held by all groups in
conflict that cannot be achieved by the support of the other group
According to the intergroup contact hypothesis, increased contact should
lessen stereotypes and reduce bias and, consequently, lessen antagoni sm
between groups. One of the techniques to resolve intergroup conflict is to
develop superordinate goals. Superodinate goal is an goal held by all
groups in conflict that cannot be achieved by the support of the other
group
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68 between groups . The extent of contact is also important. Research has
suggested that sustained and personal contact will help in reducing
conflict. The theory of cognitive dissonance suggested that group
members will change their attitude towards the out group as a means to
justify their newly acquired behaviour. Secondly contact among members
will lead to send disclosure which would promote interpersonal looking
thus eating to positively outlook towards the members of the out - group.
Sustained contact may also break down the the stereotyping of the out -
group members.
Inter group contact is likely to reduce conflict if the members of in -group
and out -group share an equal status. If institution supported intergroup
contact may reduce the intergroup conflict.
5.6.3 Negotiation:
Negotiation is a communication between two or more parties aimed at
reaching an agreement that will settle a conflict between them.
The following are the strategies generally used by negotiators to resolve
intergroup conflicts.
1) Contending - is aimed at winning the conflict. It is an attempt to
impose one’s will on the other group. Contentious tactics include
inflated de mands, irrevocable commitments, persuasion, and threats.
2) Yielding is also called concession making. The purpose of yielding is
to making early resolution of conflict. It is an act to reduce the
aspiration of the group in order to resolve the conflict. Th is involves
keeping the potter party from leaving the negotiation by repaying
other party’s concession or gain credit with the other party. Yielding
increases the likelihood of agreement but decrease party outcome.
3) Problem solving - aims to satisfy both pa rties needs. Tactics involve
soliciting, providing information of the group’s goals and values and
seeking a win - win situation. Problem solving increases the likelihood
of reaching an agreement which is valued by both parties in conflict.
5.7 SUMMARY
Attitudes are evaluation regarding an object, people or situation. The
attitude has three components affective, cognitive or behavioural.
Attitudes are developed as a result of social learning. Classical and
instrumental conditioning also result in formatio n of the attitudes. The
model of reasoned action and theory of planned behaviour suggests that
attitude will predict behaviour in case we have the behavioural intention.
Persuasion is a communication to change the attitude of audience towards
an object, pr actice or ideas. Various models like information processing
model, cognitive response model suggest the process of persuasion. The
most widely accepted models of persuasion are the elaboration likelihood
model (ELM) and the systematic heuristic model which proposes that the munotes.in

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69 recipient of persuasive message will either take a effortful route of
persuasion (central /systematic route) or process involving less efforts
(Peripheral /heuristic route) while processing the persuasive message.
Intergroup conflict ref ers to disagreement or confrontation between two or
more groups and their members. The intergroup conflict develop as a
result of realistic group conflict, which proposed that conflicts are
generated due to feelings solidarity with the in group members and
development of negative attitude towards the out group members, thus
resulting in overt conflict. Another explanation of intercrop conflict is the
social identity theory. Intergroup conflict can be resolved by having
superordinate goals, which are goals h eld by all the conflicting groups.
Intergroup conflict can also be resolves by increasing the contact between
the conflicting groups. Negotiation is a communication between two or
more parties aimed at reaching an agreement that will settle a conflict
betw een them. Contending, yielding and problem solving are the strategies
that one can use to negotiate in an intergroup conflict.
5.8 QUESTIONS:
Q1) Define attitudes. Describe the various component of attitudes.
Q2) Explain the attitude behaviour relationship .
Q3) With suitable examples explain the models of persuasion.
Q4) What are intergroup conflicts and explain why do they occur.
Q5) Explain the various techniques of negotiations and conflict resolution.
5.9 REFERENCES:
Bar-Tal, D. (Ed.). (2010). Intergrou p Conflicts and Their Resolution: A
Social Psychological Perspective (1st ed.). Psychology Press.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203834091
DeLamater, J.D., & Myers, D.J. (2011). Social Psychology (Seventh E d.).
USA: Wadsworth
Kruglanski, A. W., Higgins, E.T. (2007). Social Psychology: Handbook of
basic Principles (Second
Ed.). New York: The Guilford Press.
Tesser, A., &Schwarz,N (2003). Blackwell Handbook of Social
Psychology: Intraindividual Processes. USA: Blackwell Publishers Ltd.
Bar-Tal, D. (Ed.). (2010). Intergroup Conflicts and Their Resolution: A
Social Psychological Perspective (1st ed.). Psychology Press.
https://doi.org /10.4324/9780203834091
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70 6
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF LEADERSHIP
AND COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOR, SOCIAL
CHANGE
Unit Structure:
6.0 Objectives:
6.1 Introduction to Leadership
6.1.1 Trait perspective
6.1.2 Behavioural perspective
6.1.3 Contingency Theory
6.1.4 Transactional Approach
6.1.5 Transformational Leadership
6.2. Collective Behaviour and Social Movement
6.2.1 Underlying causes of Collective Behaviour
6.3. Introduction to Social Movement
6.3.1 Types of Social Movements
6.3.2 Development of Social Movement
6.4. Summary
6.5 Questions
6.6 Refferences
6.0 OBJECTIVES:
1) The learner will be able to understand the various perspective of
leadership
2) The leaner will be able to explain the various collective behaviour
3) The learn will be able to understand the nature of social movem ent
Social Psychology of Leadership :
In this section let us try to understand how social psychologists explain the
concept of leadership. Just to give you example, when we think of leaders
names like Mahatma Gandhi, Lokmanya Tilak , Dr. Babasaheb
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71 mind. These great people have played a pivotal role and influenced
peoples lives.
Chemers (2001) defines leadership as ”a process of social influence
through which an individual enlists and mobi lizes the aid of others in the
attainment of a collective goal” As leadership is a social influence on a
group, the study of leadership can be approached as a group process.
Leaders influence the group members to adopt a vision and work
towa rds it.
6.1. INTRODUCTION TO LEADERSHIP
Let us now look at the various perspectives on leadership. Leadership
research ranges from identifying personality traits of effective leaders, to
unnderstadinsgbehaviours that make leaders effective. Researchers ha ve
also focused on the situation that make leader or they have also analysed
the relations between the leaders and the subordinates. The concept of
leadership is multi -dimensional and a leader operates in various context
like political, governmental, cultu ral, religious, corporate, artistic,
organisational.
6.1.1 Trait Perspective:
The study of leadership began with identifying personality characteristics
of effective leaders. This approach was known as the trait approach to
leadership. Researchers have identified certain characteristics that make
effective leaders which were adaptability & flexibility, assertiveness,
capacity to motivate. Judge, Bono, Ilies and Gerhardt (2002) conducted a
meta analysis study to establish the relation between traits and effective
leadership, indicated that extraversion/surgency, intellect/openness to
experience, and conscientiousness as the best predictors of effective
leadership. According to some psychologists, the trait approach is non
conclusive as understanding leade rship from a trait perspective is
simplistic approach. In general, correlations among traits, and between
traits and effective leadership, are very low. Non conclusive research on
the trait approach hence some psychologist take a situational approach to
leadership.
6.1.2 Behavioural Perspective: According to this perspective, effective
leadership is an interaction between leaders qualities or styles and the
situational demands. The research arising from this perspective focuses on
the behaviour of the le ader.
One of the earlier studies in social psychology was conducted by Lippitt
and White ‘s (1943) experiment on the effect of three different leadership
styles (autocratic, democratic, and laissez -faire) on group atmosphere,
morale, and effectiveness in af ter- school activities clubs for school boys.
They found that a democratic leadership style was most effective —it
produced a friendly, group -centered, task -oriented atmosphere that was
associated with relatively high group productivity, which was unaffecte d
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72 Another program of research, based on interaction styles in groups (Bales,
1950), identified two key leadership roles: task specialist and socio -
emotional specialist. The task specialists leader is more involved by
offering opinions and giving directions and guidance to the group
members. The task specialist leader is more likely to be dominant leader.
The socio -emotional specialists tend to respond and pay attention to the
feelings of other group me mbers and is less dominant. The two types of
leadership were opposite to each other.
The Ohio State leadership studies identified two styles of leadership 1)
initiating structure and 2) consideration. Leaders rating high on initiating
structure define th e group ‘s objectives and organize members ‘work
toward the attainment of these goals: They are task oriented. Leaders
rating high on consideration are concerned with the welfare of
subordinates and seek to promote harmonious relationships in the group:
They are relationship oriented.
Unlike Bales (1950), who believed that task -oriented and socioemotional
attributes were inversely related, butthe Ohio State researchers believed
that a the same leader could be high on both initiating structure (task -
oriente d) and consideration (socioemotional), and such a person would be
an effective leader.
The general distinction between a leadership style that pays more attention
to the group task and getting things done and one that gives importance to
the relationship s with the group members.
6.1.3 Contingency Theory :
Contingency theories of leadership recognizes that the leadership
effectiveness of particular leadership behaviours or styles is dependent or
contingent on the situation. Some styles are better suited t o some
situations or tasks than are others.
Let us to understand the contingency model to leadership proposed
Austrian psychologist Fred Fiedler.
1) Fiedler ‘s Contingency Theory
According to the contingency theory proposed by Fiedler there is no one
best leadership style but effective leadership is determined by whether the
leader and the environment in which the leader is operating fits with each
other.
To be an effective leader the leadership style must be matched in
accordance with the situational a spect. Thus, the theory looks at two
aspects one being the style of the leader and is the situational dimension.
The leadership style outlined was task oriented and relationship oriented.
To measure the leadership style , he used the Least preferred cowo rker
scale
High LPC scores indicated that the leadership style was relationship -
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73 the person not performing well. And a low LPC scores indicated a task -
oriented style.
Fielder ‘s prediction was that low LPC task -oriented leaders would be most
effective when situational control was low , where the group needed a
directive leader who focuses on getting things done and when it was high,
the group is doing just fine so there is littl e need to worry about morale
and relationships within the group.
High LPC, relationship -oriented leaders are more effective when
situational control lies between these extremes.
The situational dimensions have been classified as Fiedler has classified
as:
1. Leader –member relations is the extent to which the members have
confidence, trust, and respect about their leader.
2. Clarity regarding the task structure, that is, the extent to which the
task given is well defined.
3. Position power is the degree of influen ce a leader like, hiring, firing,
discipline, promotions, and salary increases.
This theory proposes that leadership is easy if the leader - member relation
is good, task at hand is clear and there is great amount of power with
maximal ‘situation control’ leadership is easy. On the other hand if there is
poor leader -member relations, task is unclear, low position power with
minimal situations control leadership is difficult.
2) Normative Decision Theory :
Now, let us understand another contingency theory p roposed by Vroom
and his colleagues. According to their viewpoint, leadership is contingent
on the participation of the group members in the decision making process.
The theory identifies three decision making leadership styles that leaders
can choose from ;1) Autocratic in which the subordinate input is not asked
2) Consultative in which the opinions of the group members issued but the
authority of the final decision lies on the leader. 3) Group decision making
is a shared decision making process in which t he leaders and group
members are equal partners in decision making.
Whether the leader is effective will be dependent on the leader -
subordinate relationship and clarity ,structure of the task. When the
subordinate support are high and take is well defined and clear in such
situation autocratic leadership is effective.Consultative leadership more
effective Task is less clear and greater involvement of group members is
needed. When subordinates are not very committed or supportive, group
decision making strat egy is required to increase participation and
commitment.
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74 3) Path -Goal Theory :
Path-goal theory (PGT) theory was developed by House and his
colleagues. According to the theory, the main function of a leader is to
motivate followers by clarifying the pa th to reach the group goal.
Structuring behaviour and consideration were identified as two classes of
leader behaviour by the theory. In structuring behaviour are behaviours of
a leader in which, the leader directs task -related activities, and
considerati on behaviours, whereby the leader addresses followers ‘
personal and emotional needs.
PGT predicts that when the task is novel, difficult and ambiguous and the
group members are unclear about the goals and ways to achieves the
goals, structuringbehaviours of a leader will be most effective. When
tasks are clear and paths to reach the goal are well defined, structuring
behaviours are less effective. In such situations, leadership behaviours will
be seen as undue meddling and micromanagement done by the lead er.
6.1.4 Transactional Perspective
Transactional leadership has been referred to as a ”process of exchange
that is analogous to contractual relations in economic life and contingent
on the good faith of the participants” (Downton, 1973). Transactional
leaders are leaders who directs their groups by rewarding them for desired
behaviour and take actions to correct mistakes from existing rules.
1) Vertical Dyad Linkage Model and Leader –Member Exchange
Theory
This leadership is about how the leader relates to the followers
George Graen and his associates believed that leaders do not see the
members as one group but they relate to individual followers differently
and hence the followers also have individual perception about the leader.
According to VDL resear chers, leaders develop dyadic exchange
relationships with different specific subordinates. In these dyadic
relationships, the subordinate can either be treated as a close and valued
”in group ” member with the leader or in a more remote manner as an ”out
group” member who is separate from the leader.
Green and associate further develop the leader -member exchange theory
from the vertical dyad linkage model. The LMX approach analysed the
quality of relationship between the leader and the individual member.
According to the theorists, the leader member relationship can be analysed
on a continuum of quality of exchange relationships high LMX to Low
LMX. A high quality LMX was based on mutual trust, respect and
obligation and low quality LMX was based on to ones that are rather
mechanical, task oriented formal relationship between the between leader
and subordinate.
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75 like money, promotions as well as psychological benefits like trust and
confidence. Leader –member exchanges go beyond the formal employment
contract, with managers showing influence and support and giving the
subordinate greater autonomy and responsibilit y. High -quality
relationships should motivate subordinates to internalize the group ‘s and
the leader ‘s goals. In low -quality LMX relationships subordinates are not
favoured by the leader and receive fewer valued resources.
6.1.5 Transformational Leadershi p
Transactional leaders appeal to followers ‘self-interest, whereas
transformational leaders inspire followers to adopt a vision that involves
more than individual self -interest.
Three key components of transformational leadership are (1)
individualized c onsideration, that is, the leaders play careful attention to
follower’s needs, abilities and aspirations so that the followers grow and
aspire for higher goals. (2) Intellectual stimulation in which the leaders
challenge the followers thinking so that the followers develop different
skill sets to achieve better practices. (challenging of followers ‘basic
thinking, assumptions, and practices to help them adopt newer ways of
thinking(3) charismatic/inspiring leadership, which provides the energy,
reasoning, and sense of urgency that transforms followers.
The notion of charisma is integral part of transformational leadership.
Charismatic leadership is linked to the big five personality model.,
extraversion, opens to experience, agreeableness. It is also linke d to the
trait of visionary leadership. Charismatic leaders are seen as emotionally
expressive, enthusiastic, eloquent, self confident, therefore facilitate
effective leadership.
6.2 COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOUR AND SOCIAL
MOVEMENT
6.2.1 What is Collective Behavi our
Collective behaviour refers to two or more persons engaged in behaviour
judged common or concerted on one or more dimensions. Collective
behaviours have three dimensions: spatial, temporal and scale. Collective
behaviours can occur at a single point l ike a street or a building at a larger
site like a stadium or across the entire nation or country. Temporal is the
duration of the collective behaviour can be for a few minutes to several
hours or days. Collective behaviour can occur on a small scale or a large
scale.
Many theorists focus on crowds as a form of collective behaviour. Haven ‘t
we seen crowds doing the ’mexican wave ‘as a way to support home team
at sporting events. We have read about stone pelting instances at railway
stations, where the crowd ransacked the railway station destroying
properties due to train delay.
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76 Crowd: is a temporary gathering of persons in close physical proximity,
engaging in an activity which is unconventional. Crowd incidents are
marked with high levels of emotions, for example a crowd watching an
India -Pakistan cricket match. Gustave Le Bon has proposed that emotion
in a crowd leads to unity and gives direction to the crowd behaviour.
Crowd influences how one thinks, feels and acts.
1. Deindividuation: One influence of the crowd on individual behaviour is
deindividuation. Social Psychologist earlier thought that the individual
members temporarily experience reduction of self awareness and personal
responsibility, therefore people act by impulse to break the social norm.
But recently some social psychologists attributed the behaviours in
deindividuation may be a result of conforming to the norms in the specific
situation.
2. Contagion: it is believed that imitation of behaviour in a crowd can
spread quickly. When crowded in a small area, there is tendency to copy
behaviour. Le Bo concluded that a disease -like contagion was spreading
through the crowd and infecting everyone present. Thus, crowds are
transformed in one unanimous mass. That is why it is said that a crowd
has no face. He thought the hypnotized mass was highly suggestible and
thus could easily be turned to destructive behavior.
Gathering :
Another form of collective behaviour is termed as gathering. Gatherings
are the basis of collective behaviour. People may gather for a variety of
reasons. Some gatherings are for purposes of recreation or ”hanging out,”
as in parks, theaters, swimming pools, or at the scene of an ire, accident,
or arrest. Other gatherings are demonstrations that involve two or more
people me eting in public to protest or celebrate some person, principle, or
condition; these may be political or religious in nature, or involve an
athletic event. Still other gatherings are ceremonies, intended to mark a
change in status or a life -course transitio n; these may be semipublic or
private events.
6.2.1 What are the underlying causes of collective behaviour
The three proposed causes of collective behaviour are strain, relative
deprivation, grievances and competition.
Strain: World over we have witness ed instances of people coming to
protest against banks, attacks on factories & business establishments.
Social change caused by culture, technology, social composition, social
conflict ,economic development & crisis creates strains in the society that
causes individuals to feel stress. The strain and frustration contribute t
collective behaviour

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77 Relative Deprivation: Another theory of the causes of collective behaviour
of revolt is the J -curve theory (Davies, 1962,1971). This theory suggests
that revolt occurs when there is intoreable gap between what people ‘s
expectations of need satisfaction and the actual level of satisfaction they
experience. In response to improved economic and social conditions,
people expect continuing improvement in the satisfacti on of their needs.
As long as they experience satisfaction, there is political stability, even if
there is a gap between expected and actual satisfaction. If the level of
actual satisfaction declines, the gap gets bigger; at some point it becomes
intolerab le, and collective action occurs.
Grievances and competition: In societies across the world some resources
are highly valued as they are scarce and there is unequal distribution of
these resources. When one group has grievances or discontent about the
the distribution of resources leads to collective actions resulting in
collective behaviour. In such situations three types of collective actions
are seen, Competitive action which involves conflicts in communal groups
usually at the local level.Foreg: confli ct that arises due to the ‘son of soil’
ideology. A second type of collective action can be reactive which
involves the local group are in conflict with national political system. Like
the farmer’s protest against the farm laws or the protest against the G ST.
A third type of collective action is proactive involving demands for
material resources, equal rights or power, like the protests for voting rights
for women or the r
or non violent protests for the betterment of the society are all forms of
proactive collective
6.3 SOCIAL CHANGE THROUGH SOCIAL
MOVEMENTS
What are social movements and how are they different from collective
behaviour
You must have read read a social reforms movement against caste and
gender discrimination, a movement to save the jungles - chipko
movement, the Telangana creation movement, the Narmada
bachaoandolan against the height of the Narmada dam and the
rehabilitation of the people affected. All these people protests were aimed
to bring about change in the existing social order. The participating people
felt strongly about the issues and felt the need to act, and people joined
these movements in thousands.
A social movement is a sustained collective action over time. It aims to
bring about change in the social issues. The difference between collective
behaviour and social movement is the extent of involvement and degree
of organization of the participant.

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78 6.3.1 Types of Social Movements
Social Movements can be classified into redemptive or transformatory
reformist and revolutio nary. 1) A redemptive social movements aims to
bring change in the personal consciousness and actions of its individual
members. 2) Reformist social movements aim to change the existing
social and political arrangements gradual change for example the Right to
Information movement. 3) Revolutionary social movement attempt to
bring radical change by capturing state power. How a social movement is
classified is a depends on the perception and interpretation. Like the 1857
movement was termed by the British as a rebellion but the Indian
nationalist termed it as war of independence. Thus, people attach different
meanings to a social movement.
6.3.2 Development of Social Movement
Preconditions: The presumed cause of social movement is discontent,
strain, grieva nces cause social movement. But mere discontent do not
cause social movements, for a social movement to take place people must
perceive their discontent as a result of forces external forces which are
controllable. People also come together because they feel that they have a
right to be satisfies. And our to inaccessibility of the established system
and when their needs are not met. The discontent may take a form of a
social movement. Another factor that can lead to social movements is the
believe that t he social obtained through their can can make something
better.
Ideology and framing: When the people interact, an ideology or
generalized belief is developed. Ideology is a conception of reality that
emphasizes certain values and justifies a movement. T his ideology guides
the movement. It is necessary to have an ideology behind every social
movement as itprovides a way of identifying people and events and a set
of beliefs regarding appropriate behaviour toward them. A second
function of ideology is that it gives a movement a temporal perspective.
That is, it gives a picture of what caused the present undesirable situation
by providing a history, an assessment of what is Wong in the current
situation and gives a goals that can be achieved in the future. W hen the
ideology is defined, articulated for others to follow it is called social
movement framing. The leaders of the movement try to link the
ideologies to the ideologies participants already hold, for example, ‘all
men are create equal.’
Recruitment: The growth of any social movement depends on supports it
gets from the people or the recruitment. Recruitment of supports depends
upon the ideology, identity and the existing social network. Supporters are
drawn to participate in a social movement content and framing of
ideology. Movement can develop if the recruits have a shared
understanding of who they are as a group, that is when they develop
collective identity. Movements spread rapidly, when entire group is
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79 in Delhi, all the student community joined the movement, making it
successful.
Mobilization: Mobilisation is a process through which individuals
surrender personal resources and commit the to the pursuit od group and
group goals , One basis of commitment is moral — anchoring an
individual ‘s worldview in the movement ‘s ideology.
Committed members may become take the leadership positionTo take the
movement forward it is necessary for the to have dedicated individuals.
Thus, in a soc ial movement it is not enough to say that the social problems
exist which aren’t addressed by the current systems. The problems have to
be diagnosed, people have to be convinced and leaders of the movement
mist also outline a corrective action a=plan that will be accepted.
6.4 SUMMARY:
Now, let us take a place of what we studied in this unit. We began with the
concept of leadership, in psychology leadership is viewed as the a group
process in which the leader influence the followers. The research on
leade rship takes various perspectives. The trait perspective focuses factors
or characteristics of effective leaders. The behaviour approach has
identified task oriented and people oriented leadership behaviour styles
which helps us to identify effective leader ship styles. According to the
contingency theories effective leadership depends on the situation in
which the leader operates. We further discussed the relational approach of
leadership which is also known as the transactional approach, which
analyses the leader subordinate transactions. We also learnt about the
transformational and charismatic leadership.
The next section discussed about the collective behaviour, in which two or
more people engage in some common activity. Collective behaviourare in
form of crowds or gatherings. And when the collective movements are
more organised and sustained over time, they take a form of social
movement. We studied the development of social movement from a social
psychology perspective.
6.5 QUESTIONS:
Q1) What is leaders hip? Describe the contingency perspective of
leadership.
Q2) Write a note on behavioural perspective of leader.
Q3) Explain the transactional leadership model.
Q4) What are social movements. With suitable examples explain the types
of social movement.
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80 Q6) Explain the term collective behaviour. Why do people engage in
collective behaviours
6.6 REFERENCES:
 DeLamater, J.D., & Myers, D.J. (2011). Social Psychology (Seventh
Ed.). USA: Wadsworth
 Fletcher, G.J.O., &Clark,M.S. (2003). Blackwell Handbook of Social
Psychology: Interpersonal Processes. USA: Blackwell Publishers Ltd.
 Kruglanski, A. W., Higgins, E.T. (2007). Social Psychology:
Handbook of basic Principles (Second Ed.). New York: The Gui lford
Press.


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81 7
APPLICATIONS OF SOCIAL
PSYCHOLOGY I
Unit Structure
7.0 Objectives
7.1. Introduction
7.2.Social Psychology and the law
7.2.1.Two Basic Principles and Two Contexts
7.2.2.Ascertaining the Truth
7.2.3.Making Sense of Law Inside the Courtroom: Interpreting Our
Own Court Hearings
7.2.4.Making Sense of Law Outside the Courtroom: Perceiving the
Legal System
7.3..Implications of Social psychology for health behaviour
7.3.1 .Social Influence and Health Behaviors
7.3.2 .Attitude Change and Health Behaviors
7.3.3.The Health Belief Model
7.3.4 .Self-Efficacy
7.3.5 .The theory of Planned Behavior
7.3.6 .Limitations of Attitude Change Approaches
7.3.7 .Stress
7.3.8 .Social Support
7.3.9 .Coping Style
7.4.Summary
7.5.Questions
7.6. Reference


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82 7.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
➢ Describe Social Psychology and the law
➢ Understand The Health Belief Mod el
➢ Explain Social Support
7.1. INTRODUCTION
This chapter examines the relationship of social psychology to the law, and
then examines health behavior and the implications of social psychology
for health. With this in mind, attitude change, the effect of message and
social support, and other factors are explored. After that, we focused on
health models, stress management style, self -efficacy and much more.
7.2. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY AND THE LAW
Social psychology can be characterized as a hub science that bri dges
behavioral, societal, and other scientific disciplines by means of careful
conceptual analysis and empirical study; it can well be argued that focusing
on the social psychology of law is timely and important. In exploring this
issue the aim of this ch apter is twofold: (1) to provide a general overview
of the topics that fit under the general umbrella of the "social psychology of
law" and (2) to provide an overall conceptual framework for organizing
these topics by affording a set of basic principles go verning the social
psychology of law.
7.2.1.Two Basic Principles and Two Contexts
Psychological science, including the science of social psychology, can be
depicted as an exploded confetti factory, producing many colorful
empirical findings and fascinatin g mini theories (Ellemers, 2013). It can be
difficult to figure out how the various ideas, research studies, phenomena,
and domains in social psychology (including the social psychology of law)
fit together (Stangor, 2011).The chapter's focus is on the two basic
principles that distinguish in the social psychology of law.
The first social psychological principle that researchers distinguish has to
do with the notion that people working in legal contexts are and should be
busy with ascertaining the truth on which legal decisions should be based.
An important corollary of this principle implies that the presence of bias in
legal functioning and decision making warrants our close attention. In fact,
a lot of legal psychology is oriented toward delineating thes e biases. This
first principle includes the determination by people working in the legal
domain of who is guilty or innocent in criminal law cases. The reliability of
eyewitness testimony and to what extent we can trust human memory in
criminal law is also important here. This basic principle also involves the
striving for the absence of biases and discrimination, as well as the issue of
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83 cases. In short, the first basic principle on which this chapter focuses
examines ascertaining the truth. They label literature on this issue as legal
psychology.
The second social psychological principle I put forward here focuses on the
human justice judgment process is related to the first princi ple and that is
important both inside and outside the courtroom. That is, the law is all
about establishing justice. Thus, when people interpret their court hearings,
perceive the legal system, and try to ascertain the truth in legal contexts,
they rely on their judgments whether justice has prevailed and whether just
treatment and just outcomes were established in the court hearings, by the
law, and in the ascertainment of truth. Therefore, people's judgments of
justice play a pivotal role in various legal contexts and in every topic thus
far mentioned. This assumption implies that the justice judgment process
warrants special attention when studying the social psychology of law.
Researchers propose that to understand social psychology in legal
contexts, i t is pivotal to realize that there are many different legal contexts
that vary in important ways from each other, both from legal and
psychological perspectives. Lawyers distinguish, for example, between
criminal law cases (pertaining to crimes and the app ropriate punishment of
those crimes), civil law cases (having to do with private relations between
members of a community or organizations or businesses within that
community). and constitutional or administrative law cases (referring to the
relationship b etween individu - als and the state). Many different
categorizations are made by lawyers, and many nuances are important to
understand the ins and outs of legal arrangements and different types of law
cases. Thus, lawyers make relevant distinctions between various legal
contexts.
Furthermore, although different legal systems tend to deal with similar
basic issues, jurisdictions categorize and identify their legal subjects in
different ways. As such, systems can differ widely across different
countries (e.g. , the United States vs. the United Kingdom vs. Continental
Europe). The presence or absence of juries is one important difference.
This is not the time and the place to review all the different legal categories
and the various legal contexts that are disti nguished in the legal
literature.the psychological processes involved in different types of law
cases may well vary between cases, in part because different types of
opponents tend to be involved in the different cases and because different
legal issues ar e at stake in these different cases. This is something the
social psychology of law should pay more attention to.
Against this background. Researchers distinguish between two different
legal contexts, namely, what happens inside the courtroom and what occ urs
outside the courtroom (or courthouse). This simple distinction is often
overlooked, yet studies conducted inside or outside the courtroom tend to
examine different social psychological issues and processes. Whereas
studies inside the courtroom examine legal decision making and how
litigants respond to this decision making, studies done outside the
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84 people perceive the functioning of the legal system. Therefore, after having
discussed th e two basic social psychological principles on which this
chapter focuses, pay some attention to the social psychology of people's
reactions to what happens inside versus outside the courtroom as two
relevant legal contexts.
7.2.2. Ascertaining the Truth
The whole justice system, including the criminal justice system, is oriented
toward determining the truth. This does not imply that the law as a system
is always able or even good at finding the truth, and it also does not mean
that "the" truth is always simple to uncover, but it does Suggest that
officials working for the law should be oriented toward ascertaining the
truth. This basic principle of law is the part that many people first think of
when reflecting on psychology and the law. And indeed it is a very
important part of what psychological insight can offer to the field of law. In
fact, the literature on this issue is huge, and is inspired to a large extent by
cognitive psychology and the literature on social cognition (see, e.g.,
Ellsworth & Mauro , 1998; Kovera&Borgida, 2010).
One of the core areas of legal psychology is the groundbreaking research
on eyewitness reports by Loftus (1975) and others. Rooted in the
observation that human memory is often flawed (e.g., Loftus & Greenspan.
2017), it has been shown that the way questions are asked during
interrogations and other interviews can have a dramatic impact on what
people report to have seen (Loftus, 1975). The way that possible guilty
individuals are lined up and presented to those who have to i dentify the
guilty person is also influencing cognitive processes and the decisions of
those who do the identification tasks (Wells & Turtle, 1986). In addition to
system variables such as lineup composition, lineup in - struction, and
lineup presentation t hat all influence witness accuracy, own race,
unconscious transference, and stress of the identifying per - son also affect
the (un)reliability of eyewitness identifications (Kovera&Borgida, 2010).
The criminal law system has been reluctant to accept these conclusions and
the implications that follow from them, but things now seem to be
changing, resulting in eyewitness science paying off in the end (Loftus,
2013). Perhaps the biggest boost to public appreciation of eye - witness
research came as a result of progress in forensic DNA testing. It was DNA
that helped exonerate many wrongfully convicted individuals in the mid -
1990s, and today over 300 innocent people owe their freedom to that
testing. As a result, expert testimony has an easier time being admitte d.
Courts are commenting more favorably on eyewitness science (Loftus,
2013). And expert evidence on eyewitness reports has played a very
important role in important law cases (e.g.. Wagenaar. 1988).This slow -to-
start but exponentially growing collaboratio n among psychologists, legal
professionals, and others has done a great deal to change the justice land -
scape for people accused of crimes (Steblay& Loftus, 2013), although a lot
still needs to be done (see, e.g., Vredeveldt, Hildebrandt, & Van Koppen,
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85 Another important issue in legal psychology is whether there are experts in
deception detection. Bond (2008) presented videotaped statements
produced by paroled felons to students and law enforcement personnel.
Results suggested that those correctional officers who could be identified
as experts were accurate in their assessment of the video statements over 80
or 90% of the trials. Experts showed high discrimination in signal -detection
tasks and did not evidence biased responding . The experts relied on
nonverbal cues to make fast and ac - curate decisions.
O'Sullivan. Frank. Hurley, and Tiwana (2009) note that although most
people have a no better than chance probability of detecting deception,
some groups of police professionals have demonstrated significant lie
detection accuracy. One reason for not detecting expert deception may be
that the types of lies police are asked to judge in scientific experiments
often do not represent the types of lies they see in their profession. Acr oss
23 studies, involving 31 different police groups in eight countries, po - lice
officers tested with lie detection scenarios using high -stakes lies (i.e., the
lie was person - ally involving and/or resulted in substantial re - wards or
punishments for the liar) and were significantly more accurate than law
enforcement officials tested with low -stakes lies.
Vrij and colleagues (2008) argue that observers could improve their deceit
detection performance by taking a more active approach to the task,
specifical ly by asking interviewees to report their stories in reverse order.
Vrij and co authors suggest that this is particularly debilitating for liars
because their cognitive resources have already been partially depleted by
the cognitively demanding task of lyi ng. The authors hypothesized and
found that increased cognitive load would lead to the emergence of more
nonverbal and verbal differences between liars and truth tellers in reverse -
order interviews than in chronological interviews, and that this facilitate s
the observer's task of discriminating between them!
Another issue concerns when expert evidence is admissible in court.
Quality science provides the foundation for applications of social
psychological science to the law. To be admissible in court, exper t
testimony must be legally relevant to the case at hand and scientifically
valid (Kovera&Borgida, 2010). In this respect, it is important that
contemporary social psychologists generally base (or should base) their
understanding of phenomena not on single studies but on large groups of
studies that have been submitted to rigorous statistical analysis to examine
the magnitude and consistency of their findings across samples and
methods. Quality science thus obtained can provide meaningful input, such
as the role of expert knowledge on social cognition in employment
discrimination cases (Fiske &Borgida, 2008).
Legal psychology has been concentrating on decision making of judges, in
part to find out whether the truth is ascertained by means of judicial
decisi on making. Guthrie, Rachlinski, and Wistrich (2001) note that the
quality of the judicial system depends on the quality of decisions that
judges make. Even the most talented and dedicated judges surely commit
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86 systematic errors. This expectation, however, might be unrealistic.
Psychologists who study human judgment and choice have learned that
people frequently fall prey to cognitive illusions that produce systematic
errors in judgme nt. Even though judges are experienced, well -trained, and
highly motivated decision makers, they might be vulnerable to cognitive
illusions. Guthtrie and colleagues reported that five common cognitive
illusions (anchoring, framing, hindsight bias, the repr esentativeness
heuristic, and egocentric biases) influence the decision -making processes of
a sample of 167 federal magistrate judges. Although the judges were
somewhat less susceptible to two of these illusions (framing effects and the
representativeness heuristic) than lay decision makers, the findings suggest
that judges are human, and that their judgment is affected by cognitive
illusions that can produce systematic errors in judgment.
Related to this, Danziger, Levav, and Avnaim - Pesso (2011) studied
extraneous factors in judicial decisions. Their research focused on whether
judicial rulings are based solely on laws and facts. This is an important
issue, as legal formalism holds that judges apply legal reasons to the facts
of a case in a rational, mech anical, and deliberative manner. In contrast,
legal realists argue that the rational application of legal reasons does not
sufficiently explain the decisions of judges, and that psychological,
political, and social factors influence judicial rulings. Legal realism is
sometimes referred to as depicting justice as "what the judge ate for
breakfast." To test this metaphor empirically, Danziger and colleagues
recorded sequential parole decisions made by experienced judges before or
after daily food breaks.
The Danziger and associates (2011) results indicate that the likelihood of a
favorable ruling is greater at the beginning of the workday or after a food
break than later in the sequence of cases. The likelihood of a ruling in favor
of a prisoner spikes at the beginning of each session. The probability of a
favorable ruling steadily declines from (approximately) .65 to nearly zero
and jumps back up to .65 after a break for a meal. The authors interpret
these findings by arguing that when judges make repeated ru lings, they
show an increased tendency to rule in favor of the status quo. This
tendency can be overcome by taking a break to eat a meal, consistent with
previous research demonstrating the effects of a short rest, positive mood,
and glucose on mental reso urce replenishment. These findings add to the
literature that documents how experts are not immune to the influence of
extraneous irrelevant information. Indeed, the metaphor that justice is
"what the judge ate for breakfast" might be an appropriate depict ion of
human decision making in general.
A research project by Cho, Barnes, and Gua - nara (2017) fits with this line
of reasoning. These authors argue that sleep deprivation in judges increases
the severity of their sentences. Taking advantage of the natu ral quasi -
manipulation of sleep deprivation during the shift to daylight saving time in
the spring and analyzing archival data from judicial punishment handed out
in the U.S. federal courts.Guthrie, Rachlinski, and Wistrich (2007) propose
a new model of ju dging. This model accounts for the tendency of the
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87 accurate, but which can also lead to erroneous decisions. The authors argue
that their model provides a more accurate explanation of ju dicial behavior.
In line with this proposition, Ham. Van den Bos. and Van Doorn (2009)
found that when forming justice judgments, unconscious thought can
indeed lead to more accurate justice judgments than do both conscious
thought and immediate judgment.
In legal contexts, not only individuals but also groups make important
decisions, hence. Group processes and group decision making plays an
important role in the ascertainment of truth (Kovera&Borgida, 2010).For
example, in jury decision making, jury size , jury unanimity, jury
competence, and processes of jury deliberation all matter (Ellsworth &
Mauro, 1998).
Following -up on this, Salerno and Peter - Hagene (2013) investigated
whether expressing anger increases social influence for men, but
diminishes soc ial influence for women, during group deliberation. In a
deception paradigm, participants believed they were engaged in a
computer -mediated mock jury deliberation about a murder case. In
actuality, the interaction was scripted. The script included five oth er mock
jurors who provided verdicts and comments in support of the verdicts. Four
of these jurors agreed with the participant, and one was a “holdout”
dissenter. Holdouts expressed their opinions with no emotion, anger, or fear
and had either male or fema le names. Holdouts exerted no influence on
participants' opinions when they expressed no emotion or fear. Partici pants '
confidence in their own verdict dropped Significantly, however, after male
holdouts expressed anger. However , participants became signif icantly more
confident in their original verdicts after female holdouts expressed anger,
even though they were expressing the exact same opinion and emotion as
the male holdouts. This study has implications for group decisions in
general, and jury delibera tions in particular, by suggesting that expressing
anger might lead men to gain influence, but women to lose influence on
societally important decisions, such as jury verdicts.
Recent advances in DNA, blood type, and fingerprint testing have
increased the likelihood that average citizens will confront complex
scientific evidence when serving as jurors in civil and criminal cases.
McAuliff, Kovera, and Nunez (2009) examined the ability of jury - eligible
community members to detect internal validity threats in psychological
science presented during a trial. Participants read a case summary in which
an expert testified about a study that varied in internal validity (valid,
missing control group, confound, and experimenter bias) and ecological
validity (high, l ow). Variations in internal validity did not influence verdict
or ratings of plaintiff credibility, and no differences emerged as a function
of ecological validity. The authors argue that their findings suggest that
training programs on statistics and rese arch methodology for the judiciary
and bar become increasingly important. Future research aimed at
developing new programs or evaluating those already in place is greatly
needed if we genuinely desire to help the legal system better accommodate
jurors' rea soning skills in trials containing psychological science. munotes.in

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88 Group processes such as tunnel vision during police interrogations can also
play an important role in the functioning of the legal system. Directive
police interrogation tactics can even lead to fa lse convictions and false
confessions (Ells - worth & Gross. 2013; Kovera&Borgida, 2010). Kassin
and colleagues (2010) summarize what is known about police -induced
confessions. Interrogation tactics such as excessive interrogation time,
presentation of fals e evidence, and as an interrogator trying to minimize the
crime can lead suspects to see confession as an expedient means to escape
the interrogation interview. The mandatory electronic recording of
interrogations and the reform of interrogation practices can protect
vulnerable suspect populations.
Research shows that justice judgments are important, for one thing because
discrepancies may cause citizens to feel alienated from authority, and
reduce their voluntary compliance with legal codes (Darley, 2001) . Justice
judgments are also important because they can create a link to legitimacy
of the law in society (Tyler & Jost, 2007). And justice judgments are
important as a goal of the legal system for their own sake or because of
moral concerns. After all, th e goal of law is to create justice in society
(Ellsworth & Mauro, 1998). Furthermore, justice judgments are important
because they can have real consequences (Van den Bos, 2018).
Justice judgments are also important because they can create a link to
legitimacy of the law in society (Tyler & Jost, 2007). And justice
judgments are important as a goal of the legal system for their own sake or
because of moral concerns. After all, the goal of law is to create justice in
society (Ellsworth & Mauro, 1998). Furth ermore, justice judgments are
important because they can have real consequences (Van den Bos, 2018).
After all, although justice judgments are important for several reasons, they
can also be susceptible to various subjective factors, which is an issue with
which many lawyers may be uncomfortable. This is understandable, but it
is good to know that social psychological science indicates how to
understand this subjective quality
Not only in law but also in all scientific fields that have examined the
justice concept there exists an ongoing controversy between "rationalist"
and "intuitionist" accounts of justice. Rationalist theories emphasize that
reasoning causes justice judgments to be constructed primarily in a
deliberate, objective, and cognitive way. whe reas intuitionist notions
suggest that justice judgments are mainly the result of automatic or
spontaneous evaluations and are strongly influenced by subjective and
affective factors (for an overview, see Beauchamp, 2001). As a result of
this controversy, the social psychology of law is confronted with scholars
and practitioners who explicitly or implicitly adhere to the notion
(attributed to Aristotle) that "the law is reason, free from passion" versus
those who work from the assumption that justice judgme nts are derived
from feelings, not from reasoning (e.g., Hume, 1739 –1740/1951) and that
subjectivity and affectivity hence play an inescapable role in the forming of
justice judgments and the work - ing of the law. Social psychology suggests
that it makes m ore sense to adopt an integrative approach that studies social
conditions which affect the relative importance of rationalist and
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89 People may construct justice judgments by relying on how they feel about
the event s they have encountered, and justice judgments may hence be
strongly influenced by affected information. Findings indeed show that in
information -uncertain conditions, people's prior affective states that are
unrelated to the justice event in fact strongly influenced justice judgments.
This suggests that in situations of information uncertainty, people's
judgments of justice can be very subjective, susceptible to affective states
that have no logical relationship with the justice judgments they are
construc ting. This insight may have important implications for the social
psychology of law and the rationalist and intuitionist conceptions of justice
in that literature (see also Bandes & Blumenthal, 2012). People may also
adopt rationalistic or intuitionist min dsets, and this may have an impact on
their justice judgments without people being aware of this effect (Maas &
Van den Bos, 2009).
An insight that follows from the justice judgment literature is that besides
issues of relative deprivation, equity of outco mes, and people's belief in a
just world, a core aspect of people's justice judgments is the notion of
perceived "procedural justice." Whereas in organizational and interpersonal
contexts, perceived procedural justice may entail predominantly the
fairness of the way people are treated (Van den Bos, 2005, 2015), due to its
special and formal qualities, perceived procedural justice in legal contexts
also included the fairness and justice of formal procedures and processes
that are used, or should be used, by the legal system. (Thibaut & Walker,
1975). Indeed, both formal and informal aspects of procedural justice
constitute pivotal aspects of justice judgments. in legal contexts and
influence people's behavior and other reactions in these contexts (c.g.,
Holla nder-Blumoff, 2011; Lind & Tyler. 1988; Tyler, 2006).
The importance of perceived procedural justice does not imply that other
notions of justice do not affect people's reactions.The importance of
judgments of justice and injustice is also seen in the dis dain for law in
processes of radicalization. Van den Bos (2018) proposes that judgments of
injustice are closely associated with the process of delegitimization and the
rejection of law and democratic principles that often constitutes a turning
point in th e radicalization process of many people ( Moghaddam, 2005).
Key to understanding the ontogenesis of violent extremism and terrorism
may well be people's rejection of constitutional democracy and law. After
all, when it is hard or impossible for you to work within principles of
constitutional democracy, then you might easily get frustrated that your
wishes and opinions are not put into action. Related to this, when you
cannot really force yourself to be open minded about different opinions and
at least be wi lling to tolerate them, government, law, and other societal
institutions play a crucial role in the radicalization of Muslims, right -wing
groups, and left -wing individuals (Van den Bos, 2018). So the psychology
of judgments of unfairness and injustice can help us to understand violent
extremism and perhaps even ways of countering this by trying to nourish
agree - ment with democratic values (Van den Bos, 2018).
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90 All this is an illustration of the notion that if perceptions are real, they tend
to have real co nsequences (Thomas & Thomas, 1928). Understanding
perceptions in general, and perceptions of justice and injustice in particular,
can be complex, in part because these perceptions can be biased in
important ways. What is just and unjust is really in the ey e of the beholder,
but because injustice perceptions are deeply felt as real and genuine, they
tend to have real consequences and can fuel radical beliefs and extremist
and terrorist behaviors in important ways (Van den Bos, 2018).
7.2.3. Making Sense of Law Inside the Courtroom: Interpreting Our
Own Court Hearings
This adheres to a trend that can be seen in many modern treatments of
psychological science, which is heavily focused on trying to discover
general laws of human thinking, feeling, and behavior (Van den Bos,
McGregor. & Martin, 2015).
However, part of the reason why the study of law is so exciting and
important (also for basic psychological science) is that it makes clear that
differences between contexts do matter a lot and influence people's
thoughts, feelings, and behaviors in important ways. Issues at stake differ
across legal contexts, for instance, and so do the psychological processes
involved in these different contexts. Researchers distinguish between how
people (with direct concerns a t stake) evaluate how their own cases are
being treated inside the courtroom and how people outside the courtroom
(with or without direct concerns at stake) evaluate the legal system.
Insights regarding how people interpret what happens both inside and
outside the courtroom can profit from the robust social psychological
notion that people are sense makers (see, e.g., Kruglanski, 1989; Van den
Bos & Lind, 2013); that is, human beings are heavily interested in trying to
make sense of what is going on in the ir environments. This is especially the
case when what is happening in these environments has special importance
to them. Obviously, when people with legal concerns at stake have to
appear at court hearings, it is important to them which decisions will be
made about their legal cases.
Obviously, when people with legal concerns at stake have to appear at
court hearings, it is important to them which decisions will be made about
their legal cases. Thus, because of outcome reasons, and because of how
they ar e treated signals how they are valued by important figures of soci -
ety (e.g., judges), people interpret what is going on in their court hearings.
Therefore, I note that people are heavily interested in interpret - ing their
own court hearings. They try to make sense of the law as enacted within
their court hearings and to assess whether the trust is ascertained and
justice is done.
Recent research suggests at least one basic psychological process plays an
important role in how litigants make sense of their own court hearings.
That is, in her PhD research Liesbeth Hulst (2017) argues that when
litigants are requested to appear at court hearings, they try to make sense of
what is going on at the hearings and the legitimate system in which these munotes.in

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91 hearings are t aking place. One of the issues people are trying to find out is
whether they can trust the judges in their legal system, and whether they
can assign legitimacy to those powerholders. We know from earlier
research that in situations such as court hearings, procedural justice serves
an important role in people's evaluation processes. After all, when people
perceive that their cases have been treated in a fair manner, this has
positive effects on their evaluations of whether judges can be trusted and
are legit imate power holders. In contrast, unfair treatment of cases leads to
lowered trust and lowered legitimate power of the judges involved in the
legal system (Tyler, 2006).
Hulst, Van den Bos, Akkermans, and Lind (2017b) integrated this
observation with in - sights from cognitive psychology and basic social
psychology that when people are trying to interpret what is going on, they
are inclined to pause momentarily ongoing action to allow for the
processing of potentially useful information and cues about what is going
on and how to behave (Van den Bos, 2015). In cognitive psychology, these
pause -and-check reactions are termed "inhibition effects." since ongoing
patterns of behavior are inhibited as information is checked and attitudes
and behaviors are processe d and relinked (Van den Bos & Lind. 2013).
Indeed, there is now a body of psychological research and theory that
suggests the behavioral inhibition system (Carver & White 1994: Gray &
McNaughton, 2000) is a funda - mental psychological system that facilitat es
sense -making processes (see, eg., Gable, Reis, &Elhot, 2000: Van den Bos
& Lind. 2013). Work on regulatory modes of assessment (i.c., looking and
checking) and locomotion (i.e., act - ing) is also relevant here (e.g., Higgins,
2012; Pierro, Giacomantonio , Pica, Kruglanski, & Higgins, 2011), with the
implication that assessment interrupts locomotion.
Based on this line of reasoning, Hulst and colleagues (2017b) proposed that
litigants who appear at bankruptcy or criminal court hearings try to make
sense o f what is going on in the courtroom and whether they can trust and
find legitimacy in the system's judges. Furthermore, the behavioral
inhibition system is conducive for sense -making processes and is activated
when people engage in novel or potentially un - settling or otherwise
confusing situations (Van den Bos & Lind, 2013). Hulst and coauthors
argued that being summoned to court to have your financial or criminal
history discussed is an experience that for most litigants is novel or at least
potentially u nsettling. Hulst and colleagues (2017b) assumed that
procedural justice serves an important role in these sense -making
processes. Thus, in this presumed state of behavioral inhibition,
experiences of procedural justice encountered in the courtroom are
assumed to be salient and to impact litigants' impressions of how much
trust and legitimate power they can assign to judges in their country.
Combining all this, Hulst and co authors proposed that the behavioral
inhibition system is likely to be activated when litigants are associating
their experiences of procedural justice with their evaluations of trust and
evaluations of judges.
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92 Importantly, Hulst and associates (2017b) argued that if this line of
reasoning has merit, then it should be the case that weake ning the state of
behavioral inhibition should attenuate the association between procedural
justice and litigants evaluations of judges. Thus, when an experimental
manipulation would deactivate people's behavioral inhibition system (e.g.,
as can be done by experimentally reminding people about having acted
without behavioral inhibitions), then litigants should be less likely to
engage in sense -making processes and hence less likely to rely on salient
situational cues such as their perceptions of procedural justice when
forming trust and legitimacy evaluations of judges. Thus, when an
experimental manipulation would deactivate people's behavioral inhibition
system (e.g., as can be done by experimentally reminding people about
having acted without behavioral i nhibitions), then litigants should be less
likely to engage in sense -making processes and hence less likely to rely on
salient situational cues such as their perceptions of procedural justice when
forming trust and legitimacy evaluations of judges. Arguabl y, then, such an
experimental manipulation that has been shown to deactivate people's
behavioral inhibition system ( Vanen Bos, Müller, & Van Bussel, 2009)
should attenuate the positive association between perceived procedural
justice and evaluations wheth er judges in the system can be trusted and
should be assigned legitimate power.
The behavioral inhibition system may also work in other legal contexts. For
example, Fish - bein and colleagues (2009) observed that many inmates do
not respond favorably to st andard treatments routinely offered in prison.
Executive cognitive functioning and emotional regulation may play a key
role in treatment responsivity. Findings indicate that inmates exhibiting a
relative lack of behavioral inhibition were less likely to pr ogress favorably
in a standard correctional treatment program, more likely to drop out early,
and less likely to report improve - ment in aggressive reactions to
provocation Thus, relative deficits in behavioral inhibition significantly
predicted treatment outcomes. How people attribute causes and
responsibilities also plays an important role in court hearings (Borgida&
Fiske, 2008).
7.2.4. Making Sense of Law Outside the Courtroom: Perceiving the
Legal System
In the domain of law, often a distinction is ma de between those who have
direct interests at stake in a certain law case versus those who do not have
direct interests at stake. From a judicial perspective, only those people with
direct interests at stake are considered to be legally relevant, such that they
can be involved in the handling of legal cases. This may be so, but even
when people are not actively involved in legal cases themselves, they
perceive the legal system and try to assess whether the system reveals the
truth and serves justice. Furthe rmore, most people are never in their lives
involved in a court case as a legal party with direct interests at stake in the
case at hand. Nevertheless, even when not involved in legal cases directly,
people scrutinize how the legal system is functioning.
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93 After all, there are important material concerns associated with the working
of the legal system. Furthermore, law is a crucial societal institution, and
what officials affiliated with the law do has important symbolic value. And
a well -functioning legal s ystem conveys that one is living in a fair and just
society where good outcomes will be delivered to good people who behave
decently, and that those who do not behave in appropriate manners will be
given their deserved outcomes. A primary function of law i s the creation of
legitimacy in society. As such, smooth and just functioning of the law
increases objective (legal) and subjective (experienced or psychological)
legitimacy of the societal system. In short, there are several reasons why
people outside the courtroom (parties with and without direct legal
concerns at stake) perceive the legal system and interpret the functioning of
legal institutions (e.g., courts), officials constructing laws (e.g., politicians),
those enacting the law (e.g., police officer s), and people deciding about the
law (e.g., judges) in their abilities to deliver justice.
The social psychology of the legal system examines the links between
courts and their constituents. Understanding how people perceive the legal
system is important , in part because the interconnections of courts/judges
and public opinion seems to work in two ways: Some research posits that
public preferences influence the behavior of judges and courts, while other
studies test the hypothesis that courts and decision s by judges shape public
opinion (Gibson, 2010). The social psychology of the legal system is also
important because it is related to trust in the law and legitimacy of the law
(Tyler, 2006).
The literature on courts and the public is di - verse and too va st to cover in
detail. Social psychology teaches us, however, that people are often much
better and much more oriented toward determining the level of trust they
can put in other people, such as judges who are actively handling real cases
(Van den Bos, 201 1). Thus, studying issues of personal trust is important in
understanding trust in law and legitimacy of the law. At least two social
psychological concepts are relevant for understanding personalized trust in
the law: people's social psychological distanc e from individuals working
for the law and people's political and cultural values.
Social psychological distance from officials working for the law is
important for how people perceive the legal system, in part because this is
related to the amount of inf ormation people have about these officials. In
particular, when forming judgments of trust in law, citizens who have no
legal education tend to rely on their judgments of trust in persons working
for the law, such as judges. Social psychological distance p lays an
important role in forming these trust judgments.Field experiments de -
signed specifically to test this assumption show persons working for the
law, such as judges.
Social psychological distance between the person observing the legal
system and bein g interviewed about this system versus the perceived (legal
authori - ties and others working for the legal system) and researchers
studying trust in the system (e.g., university researchers) plays a crucial
role in trust in law and society. This is an impo rtant observation at a time of munotes.in

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94 polarization within societies and discontent among groups of lower -
educated citizens against the establishment. Lower -educated people
perceive social psychological distance to judges and hold low trust in the
system's judges, at least under some conditions. In a time when social
psychological distance is a growing concern in many societies, this insight
into ingroup -outgroup identities and law and social psychology merits
future investigation, focusing on under investigated pa rticipants such as
those with lower education.
Perceptions of procedural justice may lead people to accept the law as a
system (see also Tyler, 2006). Symbols of judicial authority and legitimacy,
such as the robe, the gavel, and the cathedral -like court building, may also
help with that. Why would researchers, scholars, and practitioners care
about how ordinary people think about the law? First, people are citizens,
and their opinions about the legal system need to be considered when laws
are passed. Seco nd, when societies create legal codes that deviate from
citizens' moral intuitions, citizens can move toward disrespect for the
credibility of the legal codes, as they no longer feel that the laws are a good
guide to right and wrong (Darley & Gromet, 2010) . The current wave of
protests in Poland and other countries concerning the role of the
constitutional court are an example of citizens' discontent with what the
authorities are doing with the law. These and other examples indicate the
importance of the st udy of how people perceive the legal system.
The literature on moral psychology is also important in this respect. For
example, the typical response to learning about a significant moral
transgression is one of moral outrage, based on information about wh at
offenders justly deserve for the wrongs committed. In other words, by
default, people tend to focus on punishing the offender when responding to
crime. Empirical studies also show, however, that people are willing to
make reductions in punishment inflic ted on the transgressor if this is
conducive to restorative goals that are designed to restore harmony within a
community or society. Related to this, the target on which respondents
focus -the offender, victim, or community -influences which sanctions they
select to achieve justice. Thus, there seems to be reliable evidence for the
hypothesis that people's need for punishment does not preclude a desire for
restorative sanctions that address repairing the harm to victims and
communities caused by wrongdoing. These findings suggest that people
view the satisfaction of multiple justice goals as an appropriate and just
response to wrongdoing (Gromet & Darley, 2009).
People's political and cultural values influence how they perceive the law
as a legal system. Exp erimental research also shows that opinions of
judicial leniency can be changed by providing respondents with an example
of the typical case that comes before the court (Stalans & Diamond, 1990).
This indicates that providing relevant information may have some impact
on public dissatisfaction with perceived leniency of the criminal justice
system (but St. Amand & Zamble, 2001).
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95 7.3. IMPLICATIONS OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY FOR
HEALTH BEHAVIOUR
Today we notice huge changes that have occurred in people's lives. T he
way we eat, exercise, the food we consume, the lifestyles we adopt has
tremendously changed. There are high numbers with regards to
malnutrition, smoking, alcohol consumption and an overall unhealthy
lifestyle. As much as technology and the internet are a boon to our
generations, it is also proving to be a challenge in our physical activities
and consumption behaviours in general. This, in turn, threatens our
physical and mental health in ways we most often cannot see. Here we will
highlight the role of social psychology and its application in health and
mental health areas.
7.3.1 Social Influence and Health Behaviors
Social influence processes are important for instilling and modifying
health behaviors. Families, friends, and workplace companions may
motivate either good or poor health behaviors depending on social opinion.
For example, peer pressure often leads to smoking in adolescence, but may
influence people to stop smoking in adulthood. Social networks are critical
to habits such as smoking and obe sity (Cristakis& Fowler, , ). In addition,
health habits are strongly affected by early socialization, especially the
influence of parents as role models and those who control children’s
environments. A number of teachable moments may be identified during
which health behavior interventions are particularly likely to succeed.
There are also predictable windows of vulnerability for health habits,
many of which occur in junior high school, when students are first exposed
to smoking, drugs, alcohol, and diet ary choices outside of the control of
their parents. Social psychologists have devised interventions implemented
through the schools that can help students avoid the temptations that lead to
these health compromising behaviors (Evans, Powers, Hersey, &
Renaud, ).
7.3.2 .Attitude Change and Health Behaviors
Applications to health have been undertaken since the beginning of social
psychological research on attitude formation and attitude change .From
these many studies, a number of generalization s can be drawn: .
Communications should be colorful and vivid rather than steeped in
statistics and jargon. If possible, they should also use case histories (Taylor
& Thompson, 1982). For example, a vivid account of the health benefits of
regular exercise, coupled with a case history of someone who took up
bicycling after a heart attack, may be persuasive to someone at risk for
heart disease. . The communicator should be expert, prestigious,
trustworthy, likable, and similar to the audience (McGuire, 1964). For
example, a health message will be more persuasive if it comes from a
respected, credible physician rather than from the proponent of the latest
health fad. . Strong arguments should be presented at the beginning and end
of a message, not buried in the middle (Zimbardo & Ebbesen, 1969). munotes.in

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96 Messages should be short, clear, and direct (Zimbardo & Ebbesen, 1969). .
Messages should state conclusions explicitly (Zimbardo & Ebbesen, 1969).
Extreme messages produce more attitude change, but only up to a point.
Very extreme messages are discounted (Zimbardo & Ebbesen, 1969). For
example, a message that urges people to exercise for at least half an hour 3
days a week will be more effective than one that recommends several hours
of exercise a day. . For illness dete ction behaviors (such as HIV testing or
obtaining a mammogram), emphasizing the problems that may occur if the
behavior is not undertaken will be most effective (for example, Banks et
al., 1995; Kalichman & Coley, 1996). For health promotion behaviors
(such as sunscreen use), emphasizing the benefits to be gained may be
more effective (Rothman & Salovey, 1997). .
If the recipient of the message has an approach orientation, then messages
phrased in terms of benefits are more successful (e.g., calcium will ke ep
your bones healthy). People who have an avoidance orientation will be
more influenced by messages that stress the risks of not performing a
health behavior (e.g., a low calcium intake will increase bone loss) (Mann,
Sherman, &Updegraff , 2004). . If the audience is receptive to changing a
health habit, then the communication should include only favorable points,
but if the audience is not inclined to accept the message, the
communication should discuss both sides of the issue (Zimbardo &
Ebbesen, 1969).
This approach assumes that if people are fearful that a particular habit is
hurting their health, they will change their behavior to reduce their fear.
Common sense suggests that the relationship between fear and behavior
change should be direct: The more fearful an individual is, the more likely
he or she should be to change the relevant behavior. However, research has
found that this relationship does not always hold (Leventhal, ). Persuasive
messages that elicit too much fear may actually undermine heal th behavior
change (Becker & Janz, ). Moreover, research suggests that fear alone may
not be sufficient to change behavior. Sometimes fear can affect intentions
to change health habits (for example, Sutton & Eiser, ), but it may not
produce long lasting ch anges in health habits unless it is coupled with
recommendations for action or information about the efficacy of the health
behavior (Self & Rogers, ). Providing information does not ensure that
people will perceive that information accurately, however. Wh en people
receive negative information about risks to their health, they may process
that information defensively (Millar & Millar, ). Instead of making
appropriate health behavior changes, the person may reinterpret the
problem as less serious or more com mon than he or she had previously
believed (for example, Croyle, Sun, & Louie, ), particularly if the person
intends to continue the behavior (Gerrard, Gibbons, Benthin, & Hessling, ).
Smokers, for example, know that they are at a greater risk for lung can cer
than nonsmokers, but they see lung cancer as less likely or problematic and
smoking as more common than do nonsmokers.

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97 7.3.3 The Health Belief Model
The most influential attitude theory of why people practice health
behaviors is the health belief mo del (Rosenstock, ). This model states that
whether a person practices a particular health behavior can be understood
by knowing two factors: whether the person perceives a personal health
threat and whether the person believes that a particular health prac tice will
be effective in reducing that threat. The perception of a personal health
threat is influenced by at least three factors: general health values, which
include interest and concern about health; specific beliefs about personal
vulnerability to a p articular disorder; and beliefs about the consequences of
the disorder, such as whether or not they are serious.
Whether a person believes a health measure will reduce the threat has two
subcomponents: whether the individual thinks a health practice will b e
effective and whether the cost of undertaking that measure exceeds the
benefits of the measure (Rosenstock, ). For example, the man who feels
vulnerable to a heart attack and is considering changing his diet may
believe that dietary change alone would no t reduce the risk of a heart attack
and that changing his diet would interfere with his enjoyment of life too
much to justify taking the action. Thus, although his belief in his personal
vulnerability to heart disease may be great, if he lacks the belief t hat a
change of diet would reduce his risk, he would probably not make any
changes.Th e health belief model explains people’s practice of health habits
quite well. The health belief model also predicts some of the circumstances
under which people’s health behaviors will change. Interventions that draw
on the health belief model have generally supported its predictions.
7.3.4 Self-Efficacy
An important determinant of the practice of health behaviors is a sense of
self efficacy: the belief that we are able to control particular behaviors
(Bandura, ; Murphy, Stein, Schlenger, Maibach, & NIMH Multisite HIV
Prevention Trial Group, ). Typically, research finds a strong relationship
between perceptions of self -efficacy and both initial health behaviorchange
and l ong-term maintenance of change.
7.3.5 . The theory of Planned Behavior
Although health beliefs help clarify when people will change their health
habits, increasingly health psychologists are turning their attention to the
analysis of action. A theory that links health attitudes directly to behavior is
Ajzen’s theory of planned behavior (Ajzen & Madden, ; Fishbein & Ajzen,
). According to this theory, a health behavior is the direct result of a
behavioral intention. Behavioral intentions are themselves made up of three
components: attitudes toward the specific action, subjective norms
regarding the action, and perceived behavioral control. Attitudes toward the
action are based on beliefs about the likely outcomes of the action and
evaluations of those outcom es. Subjective norms are what a person believes
others think that person should do (normative beliefs) and the motivation to
comply with those normative references. Perceived behavioral control
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98 believes that the action undertaken will have the intended effect; this
component of the model is very similar to self efficacy. These factors
combine to produce a behavioral intention and, ultimately, behavior
change. The theory of planned behavior is a useful addition to
understanding health behavior change processes for two reasons. First, it
provides a model that links beliefs directly to behavior. Second, it provides
a fine -grained picture of people’s intentions with respect to a particular
healt h habit. It predicts a broad array of health behaviors, such as condom
use among students (Sutton, McVey, & Glanz, ), sunbathing and sunscreen
use (Hillhouse, Stair, & Adler, ), use of oral contraceptives (Doll & Orth, ),
and consumption of soft drinks amo ng adolescents (Kassem & Lee, ).
7.3.6 . Limitations of Attitude Change Approaches
Despite the success of theories that link beliefs to the modification of
health habits, attitudinal approaches are not very successful in explaining
spontaneous behavior cha nge, nor do they predict long -term behavior
change very well. An additional complication is that communications
designed to change people’s attitudes about their health behaviors
sometimes evoke defensive or irrational processes: People may perceive a
health threat to be less relevant than it really is (Liberman & Chaiken, ),
they may falsely see themselves as less vulnerable than others (Clarke,
Lovegrove, Williams, & Macpherson, ), and they may see themselves as
dissimilar to those who have succumbed to a particular health risk
(Thornton, Gibbons, & Gerrard, ). Continued practice of a risky behavior
may itself lead to changes in perception of a person’s degree of risk,
inducing a false sense of complacency (Halpern -Felsher et al., ). Moreover,
thinking abo ut disease can produce a negative mood (Millar & Millar, ),
which may, in turn, lead people to ignore or defensively interpret their risk.
Cultural sensitivity is essential to modifying risky sexual behavior. Another
issue that arises when using social ps ychological theories to design
interventions is whether there are cofactors or environmental factors that
influence the behavior that need to be simultaneously addressed. An
example is alcohol consumption during risky sexual activity.
Adherence to Treatme nt
Changes in the structure of the healthcare delivery system have brought this
issue increasingly to the fore, as patients express dissatisfaction with their
often -fragmented managed care. Because patients typically do not have the
medical expertise to j udge whether their care is technically competent, they
often judge the quality of their care based on how much they like the
practitioner, including how friendly, apparently caring, an d polite he or she
was (Bogart, ). Accordingly, social psychologists have been heavily
involved in interventions to attempt to eliminate the common complaints
that patients report. These include inattentiveness, use of jargon, baby talk,
depersonalization, and brusque, rushed visits. In addition, communication
patterns appear t o be especially eroded when physicians encounter patients
whom they would prefer not to treat. These may include the elderly and
members of minority groups. Women may be stereotyped as seeking
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99 Communication interventions may help to reduce problems such as these.
Communication interventions are most successful if the recommendations
can be learned easily, incorporated into medical routines easily, and
implemented almost automatically.None theless, actions such as these are
seen as signs of warmth and supportiveness by patients (DiMatteo, ).
Simple communication interventions can also improve adherence to
treatment. Asking the patient to repeat what needs to be done, keeping
recommendations as simple as possible, writing them down as well as
communicating them orally, emphasizing the importance of adherence,
acknowledging the patient’s efforts to adhere, involving family members
when possible, using short words and short sentences that includ e concrete,
specific language, and finding out what the patient’s worries are or what
potential barriers to treatment might be also help to improve nonadherence
(Taylor, a). By making messages simple and tailoring them to personal
needs, the practitioner c an help the patient decide to adhere and figure out
how to implement recommendations in his or her life. The private face -to-
face nature of the interaction between the healthcare practitioner and the
patient provides an effective setting for holding attent ion, repeating and
clarifying instructions, extracting commitments for adherence from the
patient, and assessing potential sources of resistance.Th e importance of
communication during medical visits has not been fully recognized. But
with research, much o f which was conducted by social psychologists,
training institutions have become more receptive to the importance of
training programs such as these. The payoffs for the often minimal amount
of time invested in communication training can be very high. Good
communication has been tied directly to patient satisfaction with care, a
disinclination to sue in discretionary medical malpractice cases, and
adherence to treatment.
7.3.7 Stress
Everyone has an intuitive appreciation of stress. It is being late for a n
important appointment, realizing you ran a stoplight and a hidden camera
just took a picture of your license plate, or finding out that your parents
need your help at home during examination time. Stress is formally defined
as a negative emotional experi ence accompanied by predictable
biochemical, physiological, cognitive, and behavioral changes directed
either toward altering the stressful event or acco mmodating to its effects
(Baum, ). Although researchers initially focused on stressful events
themselve s, called stressors, increasingly researchers have recognized that
stress is the consequence of a person’s appraisal processes.
Primary appraisal determines the meaning o f the event (Lazarus &
Folkman, ). Events may be perceived as positive, neutral, or n egative in
their consequences and are further appraised for their possible harm, threat,
or challenge. Secondary appraisal involves the assessment of our coping
abilities and resources, namely whether they will be sufficient to meet the
harm, threat or cha llenge of the event. Ultimately, the subjective experience
of stress is a balance between primary and secondary appraisal. When
people feel able to deal with difficult situations, they experience a sense of
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100 the event, they experience threat (cf. Tomaka, Blascovich, Kelsey, &
Leitten, ). Stress, then, results from the process of appraising events as
harmful, threatening, or challenging, of assessing potential responses, and
of respondi ng to those events
7.3.8 Social Support
Social support is perhaps the most significant coping resource that people
possess. It is the perception or experience that you are loved and cared for
by others, esteemed and valued, and part of a social network of mutual
assistance and obligations (Wills ,). Social support may assume any of
several forms. Tangible assistance involves the provision of material
support, such as services, financial assistance, or goods. Informational
support from others helps people t o understand a stressful event better and
determine what resources and coping strategies must be mustered to deal
with it. Emotional support is provided when a person is reassured by close
others that he or she is a valuable individual who is cared for by others
(Wills, ).
Although the types of support just described involve the actual provision of
help or solace by one person to another, in fact, many of the benefits of
social support come from the perception that social support is available;
that is, peop le carry their support networks around in their heads. Indeed,
when we receive help from another and are aware of it, self -esteem may be
threatened because the act of social support suggests a dependence on
others or potentially a need to reciprocate (Bolg er, Zuckerman, &
Kessler, ). When we receive help from another but are unaware of it, that
help is most likely to benefit the recipient, a type of support called inv isible
support (Bolger &Amarel, ).
Without question, social support is the most health -promoting resource
uncovered by health psychologists. It has health -protective effects on par
with or exceeding such well -established predictors of health as cholesterol
and smoking. And, correspondingly, people who are socially isolated
(Hawkley, Burleson, Berntson, & Cacioppo, ), who are ch ronically shy
(Naliboff et al., ), or who anticipate rejection by others (Cole, Kemeny,
Fahey, Zack, &Naliboff ,) experience elevated mental and physical health
risks. Social isolation is also a risk factor for early death for both humans
and animals (House, Landis, & Umberson,).
Social support probably exerts its health -protective effects by some of the
same routes as other psychosocial resources, that is, by reducing
physiological and neuroendocrine responses to stress. Even undergoing
stressful events in the presence of a pet can keep our heart rate and blood
pressure lower and lead to faster physiological recovery following stress.
Dogs appear to be more adept at providing social support than other pets
(Allen, Blascovich, & Mendes, ). Social support can lower the likelihood of
illness, speed recovery from illness or treatment when it occurs, and reduce
the risk of prolonged illness or risk of mortality due to serious disease
(House, Landis, & Umberson, ; Rut ledge, Matthews, Lui, Stone, & Cauley,
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101 of perceived and actual social support . Social support appears to have
genetic bases in either the ability to construe social support as available or
to establish supportive social networks (Kessler, Kendler, Heath, Neale, &
Eaves, ). During stressful times these genetic predispositions may be
activated, leading people to experience social support as available to them.
On the whole, the evi dence for the beneficial effects of social support is
overwhelming. It is beneficial during nonstressful as well as stressful times
(direct effects hypothesis), but may be especially beneficial during periods
of high stress (the buffering hypothesis). It i s more effective when it
matches the needs that a person has (the matc hing hypothesis; Cohen &
McKay, ) than if the wrong person provides the wrong kind of social
support (Dakof& Taylor, ). When would -be support providers fail to
provide the kind of suppor t that is needed or react in an unsupportive
manner, they actually aggravate the negative event. Negative interactions
can have a more adverse effect on wellbeing than positive interactions can
have on improving it (Rook, ).
There are significant gender an d cultural variations in how social support is
experienced or used. Women are somewhat more likely to draw on their
social networks for coping with stress than are men (Taylor, , for a review).
East Asians and Asian -Americans appear to profit more from soc ial
support that is implicit, that is, achieved through the awareness of knowing
that one is part of a network consisting of mutual obligations; European
Americans, by contrast, appear to benefit from explicit social support, that
is, actually making use o f their network to ask for help or comfort (Taylor,
Welch, Kim, & Sherman, ). These qualifications notwithstanding, social
support is a profoundly important resource that merits research attention
and cultivation.
7.3.9 Coping Style
In addition to individ ual differences in resources, people have general
ways of responding across situations that reflect coping styles, that is,
general propensities to deal with stressful events in a particular way. Many
frameworks for characterizing coping processes have bee n advanced
(Skinner, Edge, Altman, & Sherwood, ). For example, coping strategies are
often organized according to their intended function, such as resolving the
stress (i.e., problem focused coping) or palliating event -related distress
(i.e., emotion -focus ed coping). An important framework is approach -
avoidance. Reflecting a core motivational construct in psychology (e. g.,
Davidson, Jackson, & Kalin, ), the approach -avoidance continuum
characterizes coping efforts and maps easily onto broader theories of
biobehavioral functioning. Examples of approach oriented coping are
problem solving, seeking social support, and creating outlets for emotional
expression. Coping through avoidance includes both cognitive and
behavioral strategies, such as the use of alcohol , drugs, or television to
withdraw from stress. Consistently, researchers find that the use of
avoidance -oriented coping typically predicts elevated distress and less
effective coping. Avoidance -oriented coping may preempt more effective
active coping effo rts, involve damaging behaviors, such as substance use,
or induce intrusion of stress -related thoughts and emotions. Approach -munotes.in

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102 based coping, however, is typically associated with more beneficial health
and mental health outcomes, and has been advanced as an explanation for
the generally beneficial effects of psychosocial resources on health and
mental health (Taylor & Stanton, ).
One widely used measure of connections to related fields developed by
Carver and colleagues (Carver, Scheier, & Weintraub, ) is t he COPE. It
assesses the specific coping strategies of active coping, planning, positive
reframing, acceptance, humor, religion, using emotional support from
others, using instrumental support from others, self -distraction, denial,
venting, substance use, behavioral disengagement, and self -blame. For
example, a person might name a specific stressor and answer questions
such as “I’ve been taking action to try to make the situation better,” an item
that assesses active coping. Perusal of these scales reveals that they map
well onto the approach avoidance continuum just described and also
distinguish between social coping strategies and individual ones.
Many people are unable to develop effective coping strategies on their
own, and so a variety of intervention s have been developed to enable them
to do so, including mindfulnes s training (e.g., Brown & Ryan, ), cognitive -
behavioral stress management inte rventions (e.g., Antoni et al., ), and
writing interventions that encourage emotional expression (e.g.,
Penneba ker, ; Lepore & Smyth, ).
7.4. SUMMARY
Social Psychology and Law are connected and have a really important role
in the study. Social psychology has its influence on health too. Many good
health habits can be followed with some techniques. Attitude change can be
done with some kind of messages and even social support can help in this
aspect. Here we discussed health models and even we go through stress
,self efficacy and coping styles. With the help of this chapter we focused on
many aspects of society whi ch have an influence on social psychology.
7.5.QUESTIONS
Write down short Notes.
1. Self Efficacy
2. Stress
3. Two Basic Principles and Two Contexts
4. The Health Belief Model
7.6. REFERENCE
● Fiske, S.T. , Gilbert D.T., & Lindzey G. (2010) Handbook of social
psych ology (5th ed)John Willy and Sons Ltd.
● Baumeister R.F. &Finkel . J. (2010)Advanced social psychology :State
of the science , Oxford University Press
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APPLICATIONS OF SOCIAL
PSYCHOLOGY II
Unit Structure
8.0 Objectives
8.1. Influences the Accuracy of Clinical Judgements :Introduction
8.1.1.Hindsight and Overconfidence
8.1.2.Clinical versus Statistical Prediction
8.1.3.Cognitive Process Accompany Beha viour Problems
8.1.4.Reactions To illness
8.2.1.Close Relationships and Health
8.2.2.Confiding And Health
8.2.3.Close Relationships and Happiness
8.3.1.Social Psychology and Politics
8.3.2.Social perception And political behaviour
8.3.3.Perceptual bia ses
8.3.4.Attribution
8.3.5.Schemas and Heuristics
8.4.Voting behaviour
8.4.1.Social Influence
8.4.2.Interpersonal Attraction
8.5.Media influence on political behaviour
8.6.Summary
8.7.Questions
8.8.Reference


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104 8.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
➢ Describe Influences the Accuracy of Clinical Judgements
:Introduction
➢ Understand Voting behaviour
➢ Explain Media influence on political behaviour
8.1. INFLUENCES THE ACCURACY OF CLINICAL
JUDGEMENTS :INTRODUCTION
In the contest betwe en heart and head, most psychological clinicians vote
with their hearts. They listen to the whispers from their experience, a still
small voice that clues them. They prefer not to let cold calculations decide
the futures of warm human beings. they are far more likely than
nonclinical (and more research -oriented) psychologists to welcome
nonscientific “ways of knowing.” Feelings trump formulas. Clinical
judgments are also social judgments, notes social -clinical psychologist
James Maddux (2008). The social co nstruction of mental illness works
like this, he says: Someone observes a pattern of atypical or unwanted
thinking and acting. A powerful group sees the desirability or profitability
of diagnosing and treating this problem, and thus gives it a name. News
about this disease spreads, and people begin seeing it in themselves or
family members. And thus is born Body Dysmorphic Disorder (for those
preoccupied with an appearance defect), Oppositional Defiant Disorder
(for toddlers throwing tantrums), Hypoactive S exual Desire Disorder (for
those not wanting sex often enough), or Orgasmic Disorder (for those
having orgasms too late or too soon). “The science of medicine is not
diminished by acknowledging that the notions of health and illness are
socially constructe d,” notes Maddux, “nor is the science of economics
diminished by acknowledging that the notions of poverty and wealth are
socially constructed.”
As social phenomena, clinical judgments are thus vulnerable to illusory
correlations, overconfidence bred by h indsight, and self -confirming
diagnoses (Garb, 2005; Maddux, 1993). Let’s see why alerting mental
health workers to how people form impressions (and misimpressions)
might help avert serious misjudgments (McFall, 1991, 2000).
If it is assumed that people w ith sexual disorders are more likely to
respond to Rorschach ink pads, they may think that they have seen such
associations when they reflect on their own experiences. To determine
when such an observation is an illusory correlation, a psychologist offers a
simple method: ask a doctor to perform and interpret the test. Ask another
doctor to evaluate the same person's signs or symptoms. Repeat this
process with many people. The proof of the pudding is in the eating: some
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105 Drawa -Person test, have much weaker correlations than their users expect
(Lilienfeld et al., 2000, 2005).
Pioneering experiments by Loren Chapman and Jean Chapman (1969,
1971) helped us understand why. They invited bo th college students and
professional doctors to study some of the test results and diagnoses. When
students or doctors expected a certain association, they usually found it
regardless of whether the data supported it.
8.1.1.Hindsight and Overconfidence
When someone we know commits suicide, one common reaction is to
think that we or our loved ones should have been able to predict the
suicide and thereby prevent it: "We should have known!" In hindsight, we
can see signs of suicide and calls for help. One exp eriment presented
participants with a description of a depressed person. Some participants
were told that the person would later commit suicide; this was not told to
the other participants. Compared to those who were not told about suicide,
those who were told were more likely to say that they would "expect it"
(Goggin and Range, 1985). In addition, suicidal narrators had a more
negative view of the victim's family. After a tragedy, "I should have
known" family, friends, and therapists may feel guilty.
In a series of intelligence experiments, Mark Snyder (1984) of the
University of Minnesota, in collaboration with William Swann and others,
provided interviewers with hypotheses about the characteristics of
individuals. Snyder and Swann found that people oft en test a trait in
search of confirmatory information. As with the blind date example, when
people try to figure out if someone is an extrovert, they often ask for
examples of extraversion ("What would you do if you wanted to spice
things up at a party?") . When they test an introvert, they are more likely to
ask, "What factors make it difficult for you to open up to people?" In
response, extraverted subjects appear more sociable and introverted
subjects appear more shy. Our assumptions and expectations of another
help create the kind of person we see.
In other experiments, Snyder and colleagues (1982) tried to get people to
seek out behaviors that would cancel out the trait they were testing. In one
experiment, they told interviewers, "It is meaningful a nd informative to
find out how a person . . . may not be stereotyped." In another experiment,
Snyder (1981) offered "$25 to the person who asks a series of questions
that are the most telling. . . interviewee." However, confirmation bias
remained: people d id not choose "introverted" questions when testing
extraversion.
8.1.2.Clinical versus Statistical Prediction
It will come as no surprise, given these hindsight - and diagnosis -
confirming tendencies, that most clinicians and interviewers express more
confidence in their intuitive assessments than in statistical data (such as
using past grades and aptitude scores to predict success in graduate or
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106 intuitive prediction, the statist ics usually win. Statistical predictions are
indeed unreliable, but human intuition —even expert intuition —is even
more unreliable (Faust & Ziskin, 1988; Meehl, 1954; Swets & others,
2000). Three decades after demonstrating the superiority of statistical ov er
intuitive prediction, Paul Meehl (1986) found the evidence stronger than
ever: There is no controversy in social science which shows [so many]
studies coming out so uniformly in the same direction as this one . . .
When you are pushing 90 investigations , predicting everything from the
outcome of football games to the diagnosis of liver disease and when you
can hardly come up with a half dozen studies showing even a weak
tendency in favor of the clinician, it is time to draw a practical conclusion.
One Un iversity of Minnesota research team conducted an all -
encompassing digest (“meta -analysis”) of 134 studies predicting human
behavior or making psychological or medical diagnoses and prognoses
(Grove & others, 2000). In only 8 of the studies, which were cond ucted
mostly in medical, mental health, or education settings, did clinical
prediction surpass “mechanical” (statistical) prediction. In eight times as
many (63 studies), statistical prediction fared better. (The rest were a
virtual draw.)
Dawes (1976) ex plained why statistical prediction is so often superior to
an interviewer’s intuition when predicting certain outcomes such as
graduate school success: The most reasonable explanation to me lies in
our over evaluation of our cognitive capacity. And it is r eally a cognitive
concept. Consider, for example, what goes into a GPA. Because for most
graduate applicants it is based on at least 3½ years of undergraduate study,
it is a composite measure arising from a minimum of 28 courses and
possibly, with the popu larity of the quarter system, as many as 50 . . . Yet
you and I, looking at a folder or interviewing someone for a half hour, are
supposed to be able to form a better impression than one based on 3½
years of the cumulative evaluations of 20 –40 different pr ofessors. . . .
Finally, if we do wish to ignore GPA, it appears that the only reason for
doing so is believing that the candidate is particularly brilliant even though
his or her record may not show it.The bottom line, contends Dawes (2005)
after three de cades pressing his point, is that, lacking evidence, using
clinical intuition rather than statistical prediction “is simply unethical.”
Implications for Better Clinical Practice Professional clinicians are human;
they are “vulnerable to insidious errors an d biases,” concluded James
Maddux (1993). They are, as we have seen,
• frequently the victims of illusory correlation.
• too readily convinced of their own after -the-fact analyses .
• unaware that erroneous diagnoses can be self -confirming.
• likely to overestimate their clinical intuition.
The implications for mental health workers are easily stated: Be mindful
that clients’ verbal agreement with what you say does not prove its
validity. Beware of the tendency to see relationships that you expect to se e
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107 memory. Rely on your notes more than on your memory. Recognize that
hindsight is seductive: It can lead you to feel overconfident and sometimes
to judge yourself too harshly for not hav ing foreseen outcomes. Guard
against the tendency to ask questions that assume your preconceptions are
correct; consider opposing ideas and test them, too (Garb, 1994).
8.1.3.Cognitive Process Accompany Behaviour Problems
Depression
People who feel depre ssed tend to think in negative terms. They view life
through dark -colored glasses. With seriously depressed people —those
who are feeling worthless, lethargic, uninterested in friends and family,
and unable to sleep or eat normally —the negative thinking is self-
defeating. Their intensely pessimistic outlook leads them to magnify every
bad experience and minimize every good one. They may view advice to
“count your blessings” or “look on the bright side” as hopelessly
unrealistic. As one depressed young woman reported, “The real me is
worthless and inadequate. I can’t move forward with my work because I
become frozen with doubt” (Burns, 1980, p. 29).
DEPRESSED MOODS CAUSE NEGATIVE THINKING
Our moods color our thinking. When we feel happy, we think happy. We
see and recall a good world. But let our mood turn gloomy, and our
thoughts switch to a different track. Off come the rose -colored glasses; on
come the dark glasses. Now the bad mood primes our recollections of
negative events (Bower, 1987; Johnson & Magaro, 1987). Our
relationships seem to sour, our self -images tarnish, our hopes for the
future dim, people’s behavior seems more sinister (Brown & Taylor, 1986;
Mayer & Salovey, 1987). As depression increases, memories and
expectations plummet; when depression lifts, thinking brightens (Barnett
& Gotlib, 1988; Kuiper & Higgins, 1985). When things aren’t going our
way, it may seem as though they never will. A depressed mood also
affects behavior. When depressed, we tend to be withdrawn, glum, and
quick to complai n. Stephen Strack and James Coyne (1983) found that
depressed people were realistic in thinking that others didn’t appreciate
their behavior; their pessimism and bad moods can even trigger social
rejection (Carver & others, 1994). Depressed behavior can al so trigger
reciprocal depression in others. College students who have depressed
roommates tend to become a little depressed themselves (Burchill &
Stiles, 1988; Joiner, 1994; Sanislow& others, 1989).
NEGATIVE THINKING CAUSES DEPRESSED MOODS
Depression is natural when experiencing severe stress —losing a job,
getting divorced or rejected, or suffering any experience that disrupts our
sense of who we are and why we are worthy human beings (Hamilton &
others, 1993; Kendler & others, 1993). The brooding that c omes with this
short -term depression can be adaptive. Much as nausea and pain protect
the body from toxins, depression protects us, by slowing us down, causing
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108 2008). Insights gained dur ing times of depressed inactivity may later result
in better strategies for interacting with the world. But depression -prone
people respond to bad events with intense rumination and self -blame (Mor
& Winquist, 2002; Pyszczynski& others, 1991). Their self -esteem
fluctuates more rapidly up with boosts and down with threats (Butler &
others, 1994). Evidence suggests that when stress -induced rumination is
filtered through a negative explanatory style, the frequent outcome is
depression (Robinson & Alloy, 2003). Colin Sacks and Daphne Bugental
(1987) asked some young women to get acquainted with a stranger who
sometimes acted cold and unfriendly, creating an awkward social
situation. Unlike optimistic women, those with a pessimistic explanatory
style —who characte ristically offer stable, global, and internal attributions
for bad events —reacted to the social failure by feeling depressed.
Moreover, they then behaved more antagonistically toward the next people
they met. Their negative thinking led to a negative mood, which then led
to negative behavior.
Failed courses, careers, and marriages produce despair when we stand
alone, with nothing and no one to fall back on. If, as a macho Fortune ad
declared, you can “make it on your own,” on “your own drive, your own
guts, your own energy, your own ambition,” then whose fault is it if you
don’t make it? In non -Western cultures, where close -knit relationships and
cooperation are the norm, major depression is less common and less tied
to guilt and self -blame over perceived p ersonal failure. In Japan, for
example, depressed people instead tend to report feeling shame over
letting down their family or co -workers (Draguns, 1990). These insights
into the thinking style linked with depression have prompted social
psychologists to study thinking patterns associated with other problems.
Loneliness
If depression is the common cold of psychological disorders, then
loneliness is the headache. Loneliness, whether chronic or temporary, is a
painful awareness that our social relationship s are less numerous or
meaningful than we desire. In modern cultures, close social relationships
are less numerous. One national survey revealed a one -third drop, over
two decades, in the number of people with whom Americans can discuss
“important matters. ” Reflecting on the finding, Robert Putnam (2006)
reported that his data likewise reveal “sharp generational differences —
baby boomers are more socially marooned than their parents, and the
boomers’ kids are lonelier still. Is it because of two -career famil ies?
Ethnic diversity? The Internet? Suburban sprawl? Everyone has a favorite
culprit. Mine is TV, but the jury is still out.” Other researchers have
offered different explanations. In a study of Dutch adults, Jenny de Jong -
Gierveld (1987) documented the l oneliness that unmarried and unattached
people are likely to experience. She speculated that the modern emphasis
on individual fulfillment and the depreciation of marriage and family life
may be “loneliness -provoking” (as well as depression -provoking). Job -
related mobility also makes for fewer long -term family and social ties and
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109 FEELING LONELY AND EXCLUDED
In Loneliness: Human Nature and the Need for Social Connection, John
Cacioppo and William Patrick (2008) explain other physical and
emotional effects of loneliness, which affects stress hormones and immune
activity. Loneliness —which may be evoked by an icy stare or a cold
shoulder —even feels, quite literally, cold. When recalling an experience
of exclusion, people estimate a lower room temperature than when
thinking of being included. After being excluded in a little ball game,
people show a heightened preference for warm foods and drinks (Zhong &
Leonardelli, 2008).
Adolescents more than adults experience l oneliness (Heinrich &Gullone,
2006). When beeped by an electronic pager at various times during a week
and asked to record what they were doing and how they felt, adolescents
more often than adults reported feeling lonely when alone (Larsen &
others, 1982) . Males and females feel lonely under somewhat different
circumstances —males when isolated from group interaction, females
when deprived of close one -to-one relationships (Berg & McQuinn, 1988;
Stokes & Levin, 1986). Men’s relationships, it is said, tend t o be side by -
side; women’s relationships tend to be face -to-face. One exception: After
divorce, men tend to feel lonelier than do women (Dykstra &Fokkema,
2007). But for all people, including those recently widowed, the loss of a
person to whom one has bee n attached can produce unavoidable feelings
of loneliness (Stroebe & others, 1996).
Such feelings can be adaptive. The path of loneliness signals people to
seek social connections, which facilitate survival. Even when loneliness
triggers nostalgia —a longi ng for the past —it serves to remind people of
their social connections (Zhou & others, 2008).
PERCEIVING OTHERS NEGATIVELY
Like depressed people, chronically lonely people seem caught in a vicious
circle of self -defeating social thinking and social behavio rs. They have
some of the negative explanatory style of the depressed; they perceive
their interactions as making a poor impression, blame themselves for their
poor social relationships, and see most things as beyond their control
(Anderson & others, 1994; Christensen & Kashy, 1998; Snodgrass, 1987).
Moreover, they perceive others in negative ways. These negative views
may both reflect and color the lonely person’s experience. Believing in
their social unworthiness and feeling pessimistic about others inhib it
lonely people from acting to reduce their loneliness. Lonely people often
find it hard to introduce themselves, make phone calls, and participate in
groups (Nurmi & others, 1996, 1997; Rook, 1984; Spitzberg& Hurt,
1987). Yet, like mildly depressed peopl e, they are at - tuned to others and
skilled at recognizing emotional expression (Gardner & others, 2005).
Like depression, loneliness is genetically influenced; identical twins are
much more likely than fraternal twins to share moderate to extreme
lonelin ess (Boomsma & others, 2006).
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110 Anxiety and Shyness
Shyness is a form of social anxiety characterized by self -consciousness
and worry about what others think (Anderson & Harvey, 1988; Asendorpf,
1987; Carver & Scheier, 1986). Being interviewed for a much -wanted job,
dating someone for the first time, stepping into a roomful of strangers,
performing before an important audience, or giving a speech (one of the
most common phobias) can make almost anyone feel anxious. But some
people feel anxious in almost any situation in which they may feel they are
being evaluated, such as having a casual lunch with a co -worker. For these
people, anxiety is more a personality trait than a temporary state.
DOUBTING OUR ABILITY IN SOCIAL SITUATIONS
self- presentation theory a ssumes that we are eager to present ourselves in
ways that make a good impression. The implications for social anxiety are
straightforward: We feel anxious when we are motivated to impress others
but have self -doubts. This simple principle helps explain a variety of
research findings, each of which may ring true in your own experience.
We feel most anxious when we are with powerful, high -status people —
people whose impressions of us matter .
• in an evaluative context, such as when making a first impression on the
parents of one’s fiancé .
• self -conscious (as shy people often are), with our attention focused on
ourselves and how we are coming across .
• focused on something central to our self -image, as when a college
professor presents ideas before peers at a professional convention.
• in novel or unstructured situations, such as a first school dance or first
formal dinner, where we are unsure of the social rules .
For most people, the tendency in all such situations is to be cautiously
self- protective: to talk less; to avoid topics that reveal one’s ignorance; to
be guarded about oneself; to be unassertive, agreeable, and smiling.
Ironically, such anxious concern with making a good impression often
makes a bad impression (Broome & Wegner, 1994; Meleshko & Alden,
1993). With time, however, shy people often become well liked. Their
lack of egotism, their modesty, sensitivity, and discretion wear well
(Gough & Thorne, 1986; Paulhus & Morgan, 1997; Shepperd & others,
1995).
OVER PERSONALIZING SITUATIONS
Compared with unshy people, shy, self -conscious people (whose numbers
include many adolescents) see incidental events as somehow relevant to
themselves (Fenigstein, 1984; Fenigstein&Vanable, 1992). Shy, anxious
people over personalize situations, a tendency that breeds anxious concern
and, in extreme cases, paranoia. They also overestimate the extent to
which other people are watching and evaluating them. If their hair won’t
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111 notices and judg es them accordingly. Shy people may even be conscious
of their self -consciousness. They wish they could stop worrying about
blushing, about what others are thinking, or about what to say next
To reduce social anxiety, some people turn to alcohol. Alcohol l owers
anxiety and reduces self -consciousness (Hull & Young, 1983). Thus,
chronically self -conscious people are especially likely to drink following a
failure. If recovering from alcoholism, they are more likely than those low
in self -consciousness to relap se when they again experience stress or
failure. Symptoms as diverse as anxiety and alcohol abuse can also serve a
self- handicapping function. Labeling oneself as anxious, shy, depressed,
or under the influence of alcohol can provide an excuse for failure (Snyder
& Smith, 1986).
8.1.4.REACTIONS TO ILLNESS : NOTICING SYMPTOMS
Chances are you have recently experienced at least one of these physical
complaints: headache, stomachache, nasal congestion, sore muscles,
ringing in the ears, excess perspiration, c old hands, racing heart, dizziness,
stiff joints, and diarrhea or constipation (Pennebaker, 1982). Such
symptoms require interpretation.Noticing and interpreting our body’s
signals is like noticing and interpreting how our car is running. Unless the
signal s are loud and clear, we often miss them. Most of us cannot tell
whether a car needs an oil change merely by listening to its engine.
Similarly, most of us are not astute judges of our heart rate, blood -sugar
level, or blood pressure. People guess their bl ood pressure based on how
they feel, which often is unrelated to their actual blood pressure (Baumann
& Leventhal, 1985). Furthermore, the early signs of many illnesses,
including cancer and heart disease, are subtle and easy to miss.
EMOTIONS AND ILLNESS
The association between depression and heart disease may result from
stress -related inflammation of the arteries (Matthews, 2005; Miller &
Blackwell, 2006). Stress hormones enhance protein production that
contributes to inflammation, which helps fight inf ections. But
inflammation also can exacerbate asthma, clogged arteries, and
depression.
OPTIMISM AND HEALTH
Stories abound of people who take a sudden turn for the worse when
something makes them lose hope, or who suddenly improve when hope is
renewed. To resolve this chicken -and-egg riddle, researchers have (1)
experimentally created hopelessness by subjecting organisms to
uncontrollable stresses and (2) correlated the hopeless explanatory style
with future illnesses
STRESS AND ILLNESS
Animals that hav e learned helplessness react more passively, and blood
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112 humans. But a growing body of evidence reveals that people who undergo
highly stressful experiences become more vulnerable to disea se
(Segerstrom & Miller, 2004). Stress doesn’t make us sick, but it does
divert energy from our disease -fighting immune system, leaving us more
vulnerable to infections and malignancy (Cohen, 2002, 2004). The death
of a spouse, the stress of a space flight landing, even the strain of an exam
week have all been associated with depressed immune defenses (Jemmott
& Locke, 1984). Consider:
• Stress magnifies the severity of symptoms experienced by volunteers
who are knowingly infected with a cold virus (Cohen & others, 2003,
2006; Dixon, 1986).
• Newlywed couples who became angry while discussing problems
suffered more immune system suppression the next day (Kiecolt -Glaser &
others, 1993). When people are stressed by marital conflict, laboratory
puncture wound s take a day or two longer to heal (Kiecolt -Glaser &
others, 2005).
Tennen and Affleck also remind us that every silver lining has a cloud.
Optimists may see themselves as invulnerable and thus fail to take
sensible precautions; for example, those who sm oke cigarettes
optimistically underestimate the risks involved (Segerstrom & others,
1993). And when things go wrong in a big way — when the optimist
encounters a devastating illness —adversity can be shattering. Optimism is
good for health. But remember: Ev en optimists have a mortality rate of
100 percent.
Inducing Internal Change through External Behavior
Consistent with the attitudes -follow -behavior principle, several
psychotherapy techniques prescribe action.
• Behavior therapists try to shape behavior on the theory that the client’s
inner disposition will also change after the behavior changes
. • In assertiveness training, the individual may first role -play assertiveness
in a supportive context, then gradually implement assertive behaviors
in everyday life Rational -emotive therapy assumes that we generate our
own emotions; clients receive “homework” assignments to talk and act
in new ways that will generate new emotions: Challenge that
overbearing relative. Stop telling yourself you’re an unattractive p erson
and ask someone out.
• Self -help groups subtly induce participants to behave in new ways in
front of the group —to express anger, cry, act with high self -esteem,
and express positive feelings. All these techniques share a common
assumption: If we can not directly control our feelings by sheer
willpower, we can influence them indirectly through our behavior.
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113 SOCIAL SKILLS TRAINING
Depression, loneliness, and shyness are not j ust problems in someone’s
mind. To be around a depressed person for any length of time can be
irritating and depressing. As lonely and shy people suspect, they may
indeed come across poorly in social situations. In these cases, social skills
training may h elp. By observing and then practicing new behaviors in safe
situations, the person may develop the confidence to behave more
effectively in other situations. As the person begins to enjoy the rewards
of behaving more skillfully, a more positive self -percep tion develops.
EXPLANATORY STYLE THERAPY
The vicious circles that maintain depression, loneliness, and shyness can
be broken by social skills training, by positive experiences that alter self -
perceptions, and by changing negative thought patterns. Some p eople have
good social skills, but their experiences with hypercritical friends and
family have convinced them otherwise. For such people it may be enough
to help them reverse their negative beliefs about themselves and their
futures. Among the cognitive t herapies with this aim is an explanatory
style therapy proposed by social psychologists (Abramson, 1988; Gillham
& others, 2000; Greenberg & others, 1992).
8.2.1.Close Relationships and Health
Eight extensive investigations, each interviewing thousands of people
across several years, have reached a common conclusion: Close
relationships predict health (Berkman, 1995; Ryff & Singer, 2000). Health
risks are greater among lonely people, who often experience more stress,
sleep less well, and commit suicide mor e often (Cacioppo & Patrick,
2008). Compared with those who have few social ties, those who have
close relationships with friends, kin, or other members of close knit
religious or community organizations are less likely to die prematurely.
Outgoing, affect ionate, relationship -oriented people not only have more
friends, but also are less susceptible to cold viruses with which an
experimenter injects them ( Figure 14.6 ; Cohen & others, 1997, 2003).
Married people also tend to live healthier, longer lives tha n their
unmarried counterparts. The National Center for Health Statistics (2004)
reports that people, regardless of age, sex, race, and income, tend to be
healthier if married. Married folks experience less pain from headaches
and backaches, suffer less st ress, and drink and smoke less.
8.2.2.CONFIDING AND HEALTH
So there is a link between social support and health. Why? Perhaps those
who enjoy close relationships eat better, exercise more, and smoke and
drink less. Perhaps friends and family help bolster o ur self -esteem.
POVERTY, INEQUALITY, AND HEALTH
We have seen connections between health and the feelings of control that
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114 between health and social support. Feelings of control and suppo rt
together with health care and nutritional factors help explain why
economic status correlates with longevity.Poverty and its associated
stresses help explain the lower life expectancy of disadvantaged
minorities.
8.2.3.Close Relationships and Happiness
Confiding painful feelings is good not only for the body but for the soul
as well. That’s the conclusion of studies showing that people are happier
when supported by a network of friends and family. Individualistic
cultures offer independence, privacy, a nd pride in personal achievements.
Collectivist cultures, with their tighter social bonds, offer protection from
loneliness, alienation, divorce, and stress -related diseases.
FRIENDSHIPS AND HAPPINESS
Other findings confirm the importance of social networ ks. Across the life
span, friendships foster self -esteem and well -being (Hartup & Stevens,
1997). For example,
• The happiest university students are those who feel satisfied with their
love life (Emmons & others, 1983).
• Those who enjoy close relations hips cope better with a variety of
stresses, including bereavement, rape, job loss, and illness (Abbey &
Andrews, 1985; Perlman & Rook, 1987).
• Among 800 alumni of Hobart and William Smith colleges surveyed by
Wesley Perkins, those who preferred having v ery close friends and a close
marriage to having a high income and occupational success and prestige
were twice as likely as their former classmates to describe themselves as
“fairly” or “very” happy (Perkins, 1991). When asked “What is necessary
for your happiness?” or “What is it that makes your life meaningful?”
most people mention —before anything else —satisfying close
relationships with family, friends, or romantic partners (Berscheid, 1985;
Berscheid & Peplau, 1983). Happiness hits close to home.
MARI TAL ATTACHMENT AND HAPPINESS
A mountain of data reveals that most people are happier attached than
unattached. Survey after survey of many tens of thousands of Europeans
and Americans has produced a consistent result: Compared with those
single or widowed , and especially compared with those divorced or
separated, married people report being happier and more satisfied with life
(Gove & others, 1990; Inglehart, 1990).First reason is A good marriage
gives each partner a dependable companion, a lover, a frien d. There is a
second, more prosaic, reason why marriage promotes happiness, or at least
buffers us from misery. Marriage offers the roles of spouse and parent,
which can provide additional sources of self -esteem (Crosby, 1987). It is
true that multiple rol es can multiply stress. Our circuits can and do
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115 enrichment, and escape from stress faced in other parts of one’s life. A self
with many identities is like a mansion with many rooms. When fir e struck
one wing of Windsor Castle, most of the castle still remained for royals
and tourists to enjoy. When our personal identity stands on several legs,
it,too, holds up under the loss of any one. If I mess up at work, well, I can
tell myself I’m still a good husband and father, and, in the final analysis,
these parts of me are what matter most.
8.3.1.Social Psychology and Politics
Political behaviour mainly denotes the political attitudes, opinions, values
and beliefs. Thus, an individual’s political opinions, views, ideology and
participation in politics can be studied under political behaviour. In the
present unit, we will focus on social perception and political behaviour,
voting behaviour and media influence on political behaviour.
8.3.2. SOCIAL P ERCEPTION AND POLITICAL BEHAVIOUR
Political behaviour is rooted in social perception. Social perception refers
to how people perceive, think about, and remember information about
others. And this can play an important role in the way the political leaders
are perceived by the general public. There are a number of perceptual
biases as well, like, selective perception and halo effect that can have an
effect on the way the political leaders are perceived. Individuals often
receive a large amount of informatio n which they may not be able to
process and as a result, attention is paid only to some information and thus
the perception is based on certain features that are unique and these
features may not represent the individual and his/ her behaviour. Halo
effect denotes generalizations that are carried out about a person based on
certain limited information. Social perception can be defined as the
process in which the information with regard to how individuals perceive
themselves and others, is selected and inter preted. Thus, it mainly deals
with how we see or view others. And this perception of others is
subjective in nature and thus there could be a number of perceptual biases
that may occur when we perceive others.
8.3.3.Perceptual biases:
Perceptual biases c an be explained as systematic errors that are made
when individuals perceive others. Two main perceptual biases can be
discussed in this context. They are as follows: - Selective perception :
This denotes that individuals are exposed to a large amount of in formation
and thus not all the information is focused on but attention is paid only to
certain information thus leading to selective perception. The perception is
based on the distinctive features and behaviours that as such may not
represent the individua l behaviour. Thus, a political candidate will be
perceived based on certain distinctive characteristics without paying
attention to the overall behaviour of the candidate.
Halo effect: Based on limited information, generalizations are made about
an indivi dual. Thus, again a political candidate is perceived as an effective
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116 can be used in political behaviour to determine how the politicians are
perceived and how certain perceptual biase s could occur when certain
politicians are perceived.
8.3.4.Attribution
Attribution is also a significant concept under social perception. It can be
explained as the inferences drawn about the causes of behaviours
displayed by other individuals, one’s own behaviour and events
(Shetgovekar, 2018). It can also be described as efforts made by an
individual to ascertain the reason or causes of one’s own behaviours and
that of others (Baron and Byrne, 1995). While making attributions,
individuals can also make attribution biases. These are discussed as
follows:
Fundamental attribution error: The behaviours displayed by others are
attributed to their internal factors.
Actor observer bias: The behaviour of others is attributed to internal
factors but one’s own b ehaviour is attributed to external factors.
Self serving bias: This can be explained as where success is attributed to
dispositional characteristics of the individual and failure is attributed to the
situational factors. Errors based on attribution could also occur when we
discuss how the politicians are perceived.
8.3.5. Schemas and Heuristics
In the context of social perception, we can also discuss heuristics and
schemas. Schemas can be defined as “the expectations we have about
certain situations or c ertain persons” (Shetgovekar, 2018, page 71).
Schemas can be explained as mental representations and they are a set of
cognitions about certain concepts. And these cognitions are organized and
structured. Schemas aid in the organisation of knowledge and i nformation
and also plays a role in guiding information processing. Schemas help us
in interpretation of new information regarding social situations, roles,
objects and phenomenon. The information that we obtain from others and
from our social situations c an be quickly processed with the help of
schemas. They can also help in enhancing our memory as the information
received is remembered, interpreted and inferences are drawn on the basis
of information. Further, gaps that are created due to missing informat ion
can also be filled based on the information that is consistent with schema.
Thus, schemas can play an important role in how we perceive situations,
events, people and so on. They operate in an automatic manner and are
unintentional and thus could lead to biases and errors. For instance, when
assumptions about certain political candidates are based on faulty
schemas, the interpretation and inferences that we make would also be
faulty and incorrect. Further, stereotypes that are based on schemas can
also have detrimental effects. Social psychologists can make use of
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117 Schemas can also help in understanding political belief systems from
psychological and social perspectives. In the context of political
behaviour, we can also discuss political schemas. And in this context we
need to highlight that certain aspects related to political knowledge could
be low or high on emotions. Thus, certain political knowledge cou ld evoke
strong emotional and cognitive reactions. Further, the focus also needs to
be on the variation amongst the individuals with regard to the availability
and use of schemas (Conover and Feldman, 1984). Heuristics can be
explained as cognitive shortcu ts as stated by Tversky and Kahneman
(1974, pg 1124) “People rely on a limited number of heuristic principles
which reduce the complex tasks of assessing probabilities and predicting
values to simpler judgemental operations.
In general, these heuristics a re quite useful, but sometimes they lead to
severe and systematic errors”. Some of the commonly used heuristics are
as follows:
Representativeness heuristics: In this the information received from the
environment and the information received through schema s are matched.
These can be explained as mental shortcuts where there is a categorisation
of instances on the basis of how similar they are to atypical members in
certain categories (Barret, 2017). Thus, a political candidate belonging to a
certain politic al party would be perceived in a certain manner based on
how the information about him/ her matches the schema.
The availability heuristics: Availability heuristic is described by Barrett
(2017, pg 92) as “mental shortcuts in which people judge the freque ncy or
likelihood of an event based on how easily relevant examples come to
mind”. Here the inferences are made based on the information that is
easily available. For example, inferences about certain political candidates
or a political party may be drawn based on the information as reflected in
the media.
Simulation heuristics : The simulation heuristic can be explained as “a
tendency of an individual to think the events or situations that can be
easily stimulated mentally or imagined, are more likely to o ccur”
(Shetgovekar, 2018, page 77).
Anchoring heuristics: When we try to understand certain vague or
unclear information, we use anchors. These anchors can be explained as
reference points. It is most commonly used in marketing to influence
consumer behav iour. Schemas and heuristics can play a significant role in
our social perception and they can have an influence on the political
decisions of the individuals.
8.4.VOTING BEHAVIOUR
Social perception and the concepts that we discussed under social
percepti on, like attribution, schemas and heuristics can play a role in
determining the voting behaviour of the individuals. In social psychology
we also discuss social influence and interpersonal attraction. Electoral
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118 frameworks of a given area, informed choices by voters along with an
ability to make inferences and predictions for community welfare.
8.4.1.Social Influence
Social influence can also play a role in determining voting behaviour. It
can be explained as a persuasive effect that the people have on each other.
Social influence can be defined as a change that occurs in the behaviour,
attitude, opinions and judgements of individuals that is as a result of being
exposed to the views and op inions of other individuals. For example,
friends can have an impact on our opinion and views. Media as well can
have an impact on our judgment. Three important terms in this context are
conformity, compliance and obedience.
1) Conformity : Conformity can be explained as pressure to behave in the
ways that others do. It can be explained as pressure to behave the way
others do. An experiment in this regard was carried out by Asch (that you
must have discussed in BPCC107), in which it was found that some of t he
participants gave incorrect answers so that they could go along with the
answers that were given by the majority of the people. Conformity can
have an impact on the voting behaviour and overall political behaviour of
the individuals as individuals may v ote or have certain attitude or opinion
about a political candidate not because either truly believe but because
they want to conform with the viewpoint of the majority. In the context of
conformity, we can discuss normative social norms and informational
social norms. Normative social influence occurs when conformity is an
outcome of desire to be liked and accepted by group members. Whereas,
informational social influence is a tendency in which an individual will
measure his/ her behaviour with that of oth ers and will accept the facts
that he/ she obtained from others as reality. In this context, we also need to
discuss about anti -conformist that denotes individuals who do not give in
to the pressure from others and maintain their opinion, views and
behavio urs. Individuals may not conform as they wish to retain control
over their lives and not be controlled by others. They also want to
maintain their uniqueness in comparison with others (referred to as
individuation).
2) Compliance : Compliance can be explai ned as making changes in
one’s behaviour as a result or suggestion or requests from other
individuals. Some of the prominent techniques in this context are as
follows:
 Ingratiation : In this technique individuals indulge in enhancing their
attractiveness i n order to make others comply with their demands,
opinions etc.
 Foot in the door technique: In this compliance is initially obtained
from smaller requests and then a larger request is put -forth.
 Door in the face technique: In this technique, the individua l will
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That’s Not All (TNA) technique: Using this technique, a deal is sugar
coated in order to make it seem attractive thus leading an individual to
conform. These techniques are effectively used in marketing and sales.
Political candidates and political parties as well could engage this strategy
in order to improve their image and garner votes from the public.
3) Obedience: In this the individual will eng age in giving commands and
directions so as to change the behaviour and actions of other individuals.
Often such individuals have some status or position in society that is
considered as important. Obedience can take varied forms from obedience
to God, to certain persons, social norms, laws and so on. The experiment
carried out by Milgram can be mentioned here which showed that
obedience can have an influence on individuals ’behaviour. Whether a
person will obey or not will depend on factors like his/ her p ersonality,
locus of control, social norms and upbringing of the individual. A
tendency to be submissive to an authoritarian figure is termed as
authoritarian submission (Shetgovekar, 2018).
There are individuals as well who do not obey and they do so bec ause they
feel responsible for their actions and they feel that submissive behaviour
beyond an optimal level is unnecessary and could be harmful. Individuals
could also be made aware about how obeying to certain directions that are
harmful or have ill -effects need to be avoided and that such directions and
authority needs to be challenged. Social influence plays a major role in our
lives. Social psychologists can use the principles of social influence to
develop intervention strategies and awareness program mes that help
people understand how their behaviours are influenced.
8.4.2.Interpersonal Attraction
Interpersonal attraction can be explained in terms of attitude towards other
individuals. Thus, when an individual A likes individual B, then the
attitude would be positive and if individual A dislikes individual B, then
the attitude towards that individual would be negative. There are various
determinants of attraction including physical determinants that are based
on the physical characteristics of the pe rson, warmth displayed by the
other person and competence displayed by the other person. Thus, when
explaining voter behaviour the determinants of attraction can be studied.
Further, similarity and proximity can also play a role in determining
voting behav iour. The main principles of interpersonal attraction that we
can focus on are association and reinforcement. To explain association,
when individuals have a positive attitude towards those individuals with
whom positive experiences can be associated. And reinforcement denotes
that individuals who evaluate us positively or reward us are seen as
attractive. Both the principles can be applied to not only understand
political behaviour, specifically voting behaviour which to a great extent
can be determined on the basis of attraction.
Repeated exposure could also determine voting behaviour besides
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120 exposed to a certain political candidate through billboards, hoardings,
pamphlets , appl iances on television, videos on social media and so on, the
face of that political candidate will become familiar and individuals would
develop a positive attitude and linking towards that individual. Emotions
also play high in this context and politicians who are associated with
positive emotions are preferred or liked and politicians who are associated
with negative emotions are not preferred or disliked. Keeping this in mind,
you will notice that a lot of political campaigning will involve affective
mani pulations where attempts are made to associate the opposing
candidates with negative emotions and to evoke positive emotions, smiling
and happy pictures are placed on the hoardings, billboards and pamphlets
(Baron and Byrne, 1994) Voting behaviour will als o depend on the
perceived leadership qualities of the politician. A leader would be
expected to display certain characteristics like motivation. intelligence,
self confidence. necessary skills and expertise, honesty, knowledge and
creativity (Baron and Byr ne, 1994) and on the basis of these voters
perceptions of the political candidate as a leader would be determined. The
non verbalbehaviour of the candidate can also play an important role in
this context. Political psychologists can thus make uses of the p rinciples as
discussed in this section in order to understand the voting behaviour.
Suitable interventions can be developed to create awareness about political
systems as well.
8.5.MEDIA INFLUENCE ON POLITICAL BEHAVIOUR
In social psychology we mainly foc us on what influences our behaviour in
social set up. And one of the answers is media. Media can have both
positive and negative impacts on human behaviour and thought process.
Thus, the media can also influence our political behaviour. In this context,
we can explain media settings, that can be described as an idea that media
can lead to shaping of thoughts and issues that are perceived as important
by the individuals (Ewoldsen and Roskos, 2012). Thus, if a certain murder
case is extensively covered by th e media, the general public will perceive
that case as important. Thus, the media influences what we think is more
important than what we think. There are three kinds of agenda that can be
discussed here:
Public agenda: This mainly focuses on the issues th at are perceived as
important by the general public.
Policy agenda: This mainly focused on the issues that are perceived as
relevant by the policy makers or government personnel.
Media agenda: This includes issues that are covered extensively by the
medi a. Studies in this regard have indicated that often the public agenda is
determined by the media agenda and the policy agenda is determined by
the public agenda (Ewoldsen and Roskos, 2012). This can be attributed to
the very fact that certain issues are wi dely covered by the media and that
leads to the public thinking that the issue is important and the issue
becomes salient. This then can have an effect on how judgements are
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121 Thus, the issue is easily recalled and reported and is termed as significant.
And if a certain issue is covered by various media or covered by the media
for a considerable period of time, then it is all the more perceived as
significant. Though, we have to remember that i t is not always that the
media agenda determines the public agenda and there could be issues seen
as relevant by the general public that may not be covered in the media
agenda. In the context, we can also discuss political priming that is
especially releva nt when we discuss political behaviour. Political priming
denotes that information used by people to make judgements regarding
politicians is determined by the issues covered by the media. Thus, again
we need to stress that the media does not influence the thinking process
but will include how the information is utilised when such judgements are
made. To take an example, if the media focuses on the way a certain issue
was managed by a politician, the judgement of the people will depend on
how the same was p ortrayed by the media whether positively or
negatively. Similarly if the media focused on how the political candidate
played an important role in international negotiations, the judgement of
the people would be accordingly determined. It is often felt that the media
focuses more on negative aspects when it comes. It is often felt that the
media focuses more on negative aspects when it comes to politics and this
can have an impact on the trust that the people put in the politicians or the
government. Though studies have indicated that exposure to media did
lead to increase in the understanding of the people with regard to the
political system.
These studies did have some limitations as mainly surveys were used
(Ewoldsen and Roskos, 2012). Much also depends o n framing how the
story is presented. It mainly denotes the angle of the story. This is
especially important as depending on the focus of the story, certain
elements of the study would be emphasized and others will be
deemphasised. Framing can also determi ne the trust that the people will
have in a political candidate or the government. Here a reporter could use
an issue frame, that is, the focus will be on relevant issues, its background
and various details. For example during campaigning, certain issues l ike
lack of suitable health facilities in certain constituencies can be
highlighted by the reporter. There can also be a strategy frame that focuses
on the motivations that determine the varied positions taken by the
politician. For example, the strategy f ocus could emphasize on why a
certain policy was launched or backed by a politician. Thus, the media
plays a role in determining political behaviour of the people, though we
cannot deny the contribution of other factors as well.
8.6.SUMMARY
In this chapter we studied how factors and social psychology contribute in
Clinical Psychology.thenwe focus on application of social psychology on
political behaviour. In this context we discussed social perception, voting
behaviour and media influence on political beha viour. Social perception
refers to how people perceive, think about, and remember information
about others. In the context of social perception, we discussed attribution, munotes.in

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122 schemas and heuristics. Voting behaviour was discussed keeping in mind
social influen ce and interpersonal attraction. Lastly, the influence of media
on political behaviour was discussed that focused on how media can have
an influence on the political behaviour of the individuals.
8.7.QUESTIONS
Write down Short Notes.
1. Media Influence on po litical behaviour
2. Perceptual biases
3. Clinical versus Statistical Prediction
8.8.REFERENCES
● DeLamater J D. & Myers D.J. (2011) Social Psychology, Wadsworth .
● Lerner, M. (1995). The politics of meaning. Reading, MA: Addison -
Wesley
● Shetgovekar, S. (2018). An introduction to Social Psychology. Delhi:
Sage.

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