MA-Sociology-SEM-IV-Education-and-Society-English-munotes

Page 1

1 1
EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY AND
SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
Unit Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Meaning of Educational Sociology and Sociology of Education
1.3 Need to study Sociology of Education
1.4 a) Scope of Educational Sociology and
b) Sociology of Education
1.5 Difference between Educational Sociology and Sociology of
Education
1.6 Concept of Social Institution
1.7 Types of Social Institution
1.8 Functions of Social Institution
1.9 Unit End Exercise
1.10 References
1.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to
 Understand the meaning of Sociology of Education and Educational
Sociology

 Understand the scope of Sociology of Education and Educational
Sociology

 Explain the need to study Sociology of Education

 Explain the d ifference between Educational Sociology and Sociology
of Education

 Understand the concept of Social Institution

 Explain the types and functions of Social Institution
1.1 INTRODUCTION
For the study of various subjects the science is divided into t wo basic parts
one is the natural sciences and other is social sciences. Physics, Chemistry
and Biology are the examples of natural sciences. Social sciences study
the sociological phenomenon for e.g. social relations. Society means the munotes.in

Page 2

Education and Society
2 network of social r elationship. August e Comte, A French Philosopher
(Father of Sociology) first coined the term “ Sociology ”. The word
SOCIOLOGY is derived from the Latin word “ Socius ” meaning society
and the Greek word “Logus ” meaning systematic study or science Thus
“Sociolo gy” means the science or study of society.
Scope of sociology is depending upon two important schools one
Specialistic or formalistic school and the other is synthetic school.
According to Specialistic school sociology included the study of social
relatio ns and as per the synthetic school sociology means general science,
means it include the study of other subjects like economics, history and
political science.
1.2 MEANING OF EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY AND
SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
Educational Sociology and Sociol ogy of Education are the branches of
sociology. In 1928 George Payne (Father of Educational Sociology)
published the book “ The Principals of Educational Sociology ” in this
book he threw light on the effect of education. He considered that the
knowledge of social interaction is one of the important elements so social
progress and this knowledge should be grasped through education . John
Dewey threw light on the education is a social process and importance of
educational sociology in his book School a nd Societ y (1900) Democracy
and Education (1916)
According to George Payne by Educational sociology , means the science
which describes and explains the institutions, social groups, and social
processes ,that is ,the social relationships in which or through which the
individual gains and organizes his experience.
 Brown – Educational sociology is the study of the interactions of the
individual and his cultural environment which includes other
individuals, social groups, and patterns of behavior.
 Good – Educational sociology is the scientific study of how people
live in social groups especially including the study of Education i.e.
obtained from by the living in the social groups and education that is
needed by the members to live efficiently in social group.
 Ottow ay – Educational sociology starts with the assumption that
education is an activity which goes on in society and the society in
turn determines the nature of education
 Cook& Cook – Educational sociology is the study of human factors in
the educative proces s, with the aim to improve teaching and learning
in all types of educational system.
Emergence of Sociology of Education
Sociology of education is a later development in Sociological study of
education. It can be said to be as refinement or improvement up on munotes.in

Page 3

Educational Sociology and
Sociology of Education
3 educations Sociology. Main contributors John Dewey, Emile Durkheim,
Robert Angel ,Marx Weber . Lester F. Ward , an American Sociologist
was the first scholar to emphasize the need of studying education
Sociology in his book “ Dynamic Sociology” 1883 and a lso focused
Education as the proximate means of progress.
John Dewey stress upon the school should be treated a social institution in
their respective articles “ My Pedagogic Creed ” and “ the demands of
Pedagogic on Sociology ” published by the university of Chicago press in
1897.
In 1920 Robert Angell was used the name sociology of education. Angell
and his colleague focused educational institutions are the systematic and
scientific sources data collection. In 1963 Journal of Educational
Sociology converted Journal of Sociology of Education.
 Web dictionary - Sociology of education is the study of how public
institution and individual experiences affects education and its
outcomes.
 Brookover & Gottieb- Sociology of education may be defined as the
scientific ana lysis of the social processes and social patterns involved
in educational system.
 Sociology of education is the study of how social institution and forces
affects educational processes and outcomes and vice -versa.
Sociology of education emphasizes the ana lyses of sociological process
involved in educational institution and also the sociological problems in
the realm of education which is the concern of sociologists .
1.2 NEED TO STUDY SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
• Opposition to individualism: The sociological ten dency was born out
of reaction to individualism It stresses the importance of society
against the individual .
• Social progress as the aim of Education: Social welfare is the aim
ascribed to education by the sociological tendency Children should be
trained o nly for this through a system of free and compulsory
education .
• Stress on Professional and Vocational Education: The sociological
tendency lays stress on enabling the child to earn his livelihood.
• Faith in Democracy : The sociological tendency also evinces faith in
Democracy. In a Democracy education is based upon the co -operation
between the state and society and besides success of a Democracy
depends on the education of its members .
• Clarification of Social Problems: The sociological tendency clarifies
social problems and suggests ways and means of solving them through
education many social reforms can be brought about through education munotes.in

Page 4

Education and Society
4 and it can create entirely new generation which may be free from the
defects of the earlier generation .
• Raising the standar d of Social Life: The sociological aim of
education is raising the standard of social life by promoting
comprehensive development of the child. Education must train him to
fulfil his social responsibilities If it falls to do this , education cannot
be said to have any utility .
• Importance to Social Sciences: The presence of sociological
tendency in Education has led to greater importance being attached to
social sciences so that the child can understand social phenomena and
problems and thus be enabled to ma ke some positive contribution to
social welfare .
• Importance to social life in the school: Social life within the school
has been recognized as important because of the sociological tendency .
• Education as an Agency of social progress: According to
sociologi sts education is the best means of social control, social
change, thus leading to social progress .All social changes that are
necessary for social progress can be easily brought out through
education .
1.4 a) SCOPE OF EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY
Educational soc iology studies the effect of social interaction on education
and vice versa. Following important factors should be studied in the
educational sociology.
 Role of education in society
 Interrelations between teacher and students
 Need and significance of teac hers in society
 Relations between School and other social agencies
 Importance of mass media
 Importance of teaching method in the development of students.
1.4 b) SCOPE OF SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
Following important factors should be studied in the educatio nal sociology
• Analysis of the relationship of educational system to other aspects of
society.
a) Education and culture
b) Education and social control & the power system
c) Education and social change munotes.in

Page 5

Educational Sociology and
Sociology of Education
5 d) Education and social class
e) Educat ion and other groups
• School & social system
a) Nature of school culture
b) Structure of school society
• System of interconnected social relationship between the individual
and number of others a social role
a) Social role of teacher
b) Natu re of teachers’ personality
c) The effect of teachers’ personality on pupils’ personality
d) Function of school in the process of socialization of the students
• Education – interaction within the system


• Education & Social system
a) Education & kinship
b) Education & Stratification
c) Education & political system
d) Education & the attitude of knowledge munotes.in

Page 6

Education and Society
6 • School & community
a) Effect of community on educational organization
b) Analysis of educational process in non -school social process of
community
c) Relationship between the school and community and Educational
function
d) Factors of community (Population & environment) and educational
organization
• Different social institute and education
• Relation between Education & job
• Relation between education & social class, culture & language
• Education & economical system of country
• Education & social & cultural change
1.5 DIFFERENCE BET WEEN EDUCATIONAL
SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
Educational sociology is the application of general principles and findings
of sociology to the administration and processes of education. The
approach means the application of sociology to the institu tion of education
as a separate societal unit. Sociology of education depicts an analysis of
the sociological processes involved in the educational institution. It
emphasizes the study within the institution of education.
EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION Jorge pen – Finney, Snedden,
Peters, Clements & Kinneman R.C.Angell – Durkheim, Lester
word, Brookover & Gottlieb
Angell – Educational sociology is a
branch of the pure science of
sociology Angell – Researches develop in
school situation as a sociology of
education According to Smith, Zorbaugh & Kulp – Educational sociology is the
application of Sociology to
educational problems. Sociology of education is Scientific
analysis of the social process &
Social pattern involved in the
educationa l system.
Educational sociology is strictly
technology and not science at all. Development of scientific
generalization about human
relations in educational system
According to new science applying
sociological principles to the whole
process of educati on Educational process goes on both
in formal & informal situations
To analyze the pattern of social To analyze the human relations and munotes.in

Page 7

Educational Sociology and
Sociology of Education
7 interaction and social role within the
school & relation of personalities
within the school to outside the
group. socie ty.


To study the place of teacher in
society To study the social role of teacher
Determination of teaching methods
for the development of child. Determination of teaching methods
for the Socialization of child
To study the school as small unit of
society and their interrelations Study of whole society and other
aspects of society

1.6 CONCEPT OF SOCIAL INSTITUTION
A social institution consists of a group of people who have come together
for a common purpose. Social institution is a social structure and social
mechanisms of social order and cooperation that govern the behavior of its
members. It is a group of social positions, connected by social relations
performing a social role. Social institution is an interrelated set of norms .let’s
study some of the definitions about social institutions.
 Ogburn and Nimkoff - Social institutions are organized and established
ways of satisfying certain basic human needs.
 K Davis -Institution can be defined as a set of interwoven folkways
mores and laws built around o ne or more functions.
 Parsons - Institutions are the normative complexes relating to the major
aspects of our social activity.
 Harry Johnsons - A social institutions are thus a recognized normative
pattern.
 Anderson and parker - Institutions are established normative patterns
operating through institutions agencies, which men develop to achieve
the basic needs or objectives of a society.
A set of organized beliefs rules and practices that establishes how a
society will attempt to meet basic needs .A group of persons bonded
together for common purposes having rights, privileges, liabilities, goals
or objectives distinct and independent from those of individual members.
A social institution may be defined as an organizational system which
functions to satisfy ba sic social needs by providing an ordered framework
linking the individual to the larger culture.

munotes.in

Page 8

Education and Society
8 1.7 TYPES OF SOCIAL INSTITUTION
Major Perspectives –
According to Marx – Social institutions are determined by the ir society’s
mode of production and Social ins titutions serve to maintain the power of
the dominant class.
Weber – Social institutions are independent but no single institutions
determine the rest. The causes and consequences of social institutions
cannot be assumed in advanced.
Durkheim – Set the sta ge for later functionalist analyses of institutions by
concluding that religion promotes social solidarity and collective
conscience.
Functionalist Theory - The social institutions listed in this (along with
other social institutions) fulfill functional pre requisites and are essential.
Conflict theory - Social institutions tend to reinforce and inequalities and
uphold the power of dominant groups. Emphasizes divisions and conflicts
within social institutions.
Symbolic Interactionism - Focuses on interactions a nd other symbolic
communications within social institutions.
General functions of social institutions are -
1. Institutions satisfy the basic needs of society.
2. Institutions define dominant social values.
3. Institutions establish permanent patterns of social beh avior.
4. Institutions support other institutions.
5. Institutions provide roles for individuals.
The five basic institutions are : Family, Education , Religion, Economic
and Political institutions.
1. Family institution - deals with procreation and regulation of sex ual
norms.
2. Educational institution - deals with socialization and preparation for
productive participatory citizenship.
3. Religious institution - deals with the promotion of personal meaning
and understanding of ultimate concerns.
4. Economic institution - deals with the allocation and distribution of
goods and services.
5. Political institution - deals with the authoritative allocation of public
social goals and values. munotes.in

Page 9

Educational Sociology and
Sociology of Education
9

The Family:
The family is the most important social unit in society. It is the building
block o f society. Family, most universal social institution, takes
responsibility for raising the young and teaching those accepted norms and
values.
MacIver & Page - The family is a group defined by sex relationship
sufficiently precise and enduring to provide fo r the procreation and
upbringing of children
Clare -by family we mean a system of relationship existing between
parents and children
Burgess & Locke -a family is a group of persons united by the ties of
marriage, blood or adoption constituting a single househ old interacting
and in intercommunication with each other in their respective social role
of husband and wife, mother and father, son and daughter, brother and
sister creating and maintaining a common culture.
Functions of the family institution -
 The cont rol and regulation of sexual behavior.
 To provide for new members of society.
 To provide for the economic and emotional maintenance of
individuals.
 To provide for primary socialization of children.
Religion Institution:
Religion provides a shared, collec tive explanation of the meaning of life.
Dawson –whenever and wherever man has a sense of dependence on
external powers which are conceived as mysterious as and higher than
man’s own, there is religion”. munotes.in

Page 10

Education and Society
10 Kant -Religion is the recognition of all our duties a s divine
commandments.
Harald Hoffding -the essence of religion is faith in the conversation of
values.
A.N. WHITE -Religion is a vision of something which stands beyond,
behind and within.
Gisbert –Religion is the dynamic belief in and submission to god o r to
gods on whom man feels dependent.
A unified system of beliefs and practices pertaining to the supernatural
and to norms about the right way to live that is shared by a group of
believers. Sociologists treat religion as a social rather than supernatura l
phenomenon.
Durkheim: religion provides social solidarity and collective conscience; it
expresses and celebrates the force of society over the individual.
Functionalist theory: functions of religion include providing meaning for
life, reinforcing social norms, strengthening social bonds and marking
status changes (e.g. marriage) dysfunctions, according to some, include
justifying persecution .
Functions of the Religion -
 Providing solutions for unexplained natural, phenomena.
 Supplying a means for control ling the natural world.
 Religion tends to support the normative structure of the society.
 Furnishing a psychological diversion from unwanted life situations.
 Sustaining the existing class structure.
 Religion serves as an instrument of socialization.
 Religi on may both promote and retard social change.
 Religion may both reduce and encourage conflict in groups.
Economic Institution:
Sociologists understand the economy as the set of arrangements by which
a society produces, distributes, and consumes goods, se rvices, and other
resources. Economic institution, organizes the production, distribution,
and consumption of goods and services.
Marx: economic organization determines the major features of any
society. munotes.in

Page 11

Educational Sociology and
Sociology of Education
11 Functionalist theory: functions of economic institut ions include:
production and distribution of goods, assignment of individuals to
different social roles such as occupations.
Function of the Economic institution -
 Provide methods for the production of goods and services.
 Provide methods for the distributio n of goods and services.
 Enable societies members to consume goods and services which are
produced .
Political Institution (state) :
Political institution is the system of norms that governs the exercise and
distribution of power in society.
Garner -state is a community of person ,more or less numerous,
permanently occupying a definite portion of a territory, independent and
so of a foreign control and possessing an organized government to which
the inhabitants render a habitual obedience.
Weber: defines th e state as an authority that maintains a monopoly on the
use of violence in its territory.
Functionalist theory: Functions of political institution include protection
from external enemies, resolving group conflicts, defining societal goals
and strengtheni ng group identity and norms. Pluralism, a particularly
functional type of political institution, entails distribution of power among
many groups so no one group can gain control.
Function of the Political Institution -
 The institutionalization of norms (la ws).
 The enforcement of laws.
 The adjudication of conflict (court).
 Provide for the welfare of members of society.
 Protection of society from external threat.
 Construction of a national scheme of education .
Education Institution:
Educational institution - deals with socialization and preparation for
productive participatory citizenship. Education ensures the transmission of
values, patterns of behavior, and certain skills and knowledge . Education
institution is a form of learning in which the knowledge, skil ls, and habits
of a group of people are transferred from one generation to the next
through teaching, training or research. munotes.in

Page 12

Education and Society
12 Functions -
Mcnergney and Herbert (2001) described the school as first and foremost
a social institution, that is, an established org anization having an
identifiable structure and a set of functions meant to preserve and extend
social order.
School is the place for the contemplation of reality, and our task as a
teacher, in simplest term, is to show this reality to our students, who are
naturally eager about them.
• Intellectual purpose:
- To teach basic cognitive skills such as reading, writing, and mathematics,
to transmit specific knowledge.
• Political purpose:
- To inculcate allegiance to the existing political order(patriotism)
- To prepare citizens who will participate in the political order
- To assimilate diverse cultural groups into political order
• Social purpose:
- To socialize children into the various roles, behavior and values of
society.
• Economic purpose:
-To prepare stude nts for their later occupational roles, and to select, train,
and allocate individuals into the division of labour.
• Construction of a national scheme of education.
• Training in citizenship.
• Provision of schools.
• Adult education.
• Finance of schools.
• Univers al, compulsory and free education.
• Encouragement of guardians.
• Provision of efficient teachers.
• Provision of military education.
• Provision of standard books.
• Provision of scholarships.
• General control and direction of school system.
• Organization of boards and committees.
• Appointments of commissions.
• Encouragements to educational research
munotes.in

Page 13

Educational Sociology and
Sociology of Education
13 1.8 FUNCTION OF SOCIAL INSTITUTION

1. Social Solidarity - the religious institute teach us to help each other.
Political institute maintain the security of the society through b y laws
and orders.

2. Transmissions of culture - social institutions are transmitting the
culture from one generation to other. Educational institutions imparts
the knowledge .family institution provides values and culture about the
society. Family teach us v arious norms, values, traditions of the
society.

3. Social Welfare and Development - social institutions provide and
satisfying the societal needs. Economic institutions provide the goods
and services. Religious institutions transmit the various values.
Political institutions provide the facilities for the various stakeholders
of the society.

4. Recreational Activities – social institutions are the real source of
recreation for the people .the educational institutions organize various
curricular and extra curr icular activities.political institutions organizes
various national sports, competitions for the people.

1.9 UNIT END EXERCISE

1. Why we study the Sociology of Education?
2. Explain the d ifference between Educational Sociology and Sociology
of Education
3. Explai n the role of social institution the development of society.
4. Discuss the functions of Social Institution.
1.10 REFERENCES:
 Ballantine (1983) The Sociology of Education : A systematic Analysis
Prentice Hall
 N.Jayaram (2015) Sociology of Education in India,Rawat Publication
 Singh, Y. K. (2009) Sociological Foundation of Education. New Delhi:
A.P.H Publishing Corporation.
 Sodhi, T.S. &Suri, A. (2003) : Philosophical and Sociological Foundation of
Education.Patiala:Bawa Publications
 Talesara, H. (2002) Sociologi cal Foundations of Education, New Delhi,
Kanishka Publishers. munotes.in

Page 14

Education and Society
14 Online References :
https://ncte.gov.in/website/OER.aspX NCTE
https://youtu.be/CcnoRcZiYgw
https://youtu.be/UldxQmDBfls
https://youtu.be/Eo75IjFVYhM
https://youtube.com/channel/UCuWXVxVRC9HFUn 2NnY_SgFQ




munotes.in

Page 15

15 2
EDUCATION AND SOCIALIZATION
Unit structure :
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Concept of socialization
2.3 Agents of socialization
2.4 The role of education in socialization
2.5 Summary
2.6 Questions
2.7 References and Further Readings
2.0 OBJECTIVES:
 To understand the concept of socialization
 To familiarize students with different agents of socialization w.r.t.
education
2.1 INTRODUCTION:
Socialization is a term used to describe the processes that take place in
interaction between society and the indi vidual. The socialization of an
individual, in turn, is a process influenced by such factors as family,
formal and informal social groups, education processes, upbringing, etc.
and accompanies the whole life of a person; a process of shaping
individual fun ctional behaviour in accordance with the expectations of the
culture or society in which this person lives. Each society develops its own
culture by preserving and following norms, customs, values, traditions,
social roles, symbols and languages, and socia lization helps an individual
learn, inherit, preserve, and transfer these values over time.
Moreover, it helps him acquire new skills and habits essential for adequate
inclusion in community life. In other words, socialization contributes to
the process o f acceptance of one individual by the society through
cultivating a certain value system. We can state that socialization is the
process through which society and culture continue to exist. It is not only
an end in itself, but it focuses on the ways, patte rns and models through
which the society shapes and controls individuals by imposing certain
norms, standards and values. It relates to learning, internalization and
transfer of customs, norms of behaviour and culture of the society to the
next generations and at the same time plays an important role in preparing munotes.in

Page 16

Education and Society
16 a young man for his active inclusion in various social structures and
relations.
Socialization and education are the processes directly related to the overall
development of an individual. These pr ocesses prepare individuals and
ensure their inclusion in various social spheres and cultural integration.
2.2 CONCEPT OF SOCIALIZATION:
Human child has an innate capacity to learn and to communicate.
Therefore, graduallylearns the group -defined ways of be haviour. It is
human company initially in the formof a family and later other social
institutions like the community, peer group, schooletc. educate the human
child to be a responsible and useful member of society. Theprocess of
learning to internalize the values and norms into its self or the mode
oflearning to live in society is called the process of socialization. To
internalize is toimbibe so deeply that it becomes a part of the individual's
behaviour and personality.
Therefore, socialization is basical ly the learning of socially desired values,
norms, androles by the members of a particular group or society. It may be
defined morecomprehensively as a life -long process of inculcation
whereby an individual learns theprinciples, values and symbols of the
social system in which he participates and theexpression of those values
and norms in the roles he enacts.The socializing agent does not tryto teach
everything at once. He concentrates on onetask or on a few tasks at a time.
Moreover, the process of accompl ishing any one of theaims of
socialization is gradual. Social scientists have earmarked four different
stagesof socialization from infancy to adulthood. These are:
i) The oral stage
ii) The anal stage
iii) The oedipal stage, and
iv) Adolescence.
At the fir st stage the infant builds up fairly definite expectations about
feeding time,and he learns to signal his pressing needs for care. During
this stage, the infant is notinvolved in the family as a whole. He is
involved only in the subsystem consisting ofhims elf and his mother.
The anal stage of socialization covers the period between first and third
year of child'slife. Toilet training is the focus of this stage. During this
stage the child internalizestwo roles - his/her own and that of his/her
mother, now cl early separate. The child receiveslove and care and gives
love in return.
The third stage extends from about the fourth year to puberty. During this
stage thechild becomes a member of the family. The child identifies itself
with thesocial role ascribed to him/her based on his/her sex. munotes.in

Page 17

Education and Socialization
17 The fourth stage begins roughly at puberty. At this stage young boy or girl
wants to befreed from the control of parents. The 'crisis' of this period is
precisely the strain producedby much greater demands for independence.
By the time the individual attains maturitymajor part of socialization is
over, though it continues for whole of the life.
All types of socialization may be classified into two broad groups, viz.
primary socialization and secondary socialization. This divisi on is based
on the primary andsecondary needs of individuals. The basic physical
needs such as thirst, hunger etc. arecalled primary needs while secondary
needs are those which emerge to meet primaryneeds e.g. the need for
learning skills to earn livelihoo d. Family satisfies the basic needs of
human beings; therefore, it is called primary institution where as a school
is asecondary social institution because it meets the derived needs of the
children.
Theparents are primary socializing agents of the child whereas the school
teachers are thesecondary socializing agents. Inculcation of norms and
values within the family is called primary socialization while the process
of imbibing norms, values and behaviouralpatterns of school may be
called secondary sociali zation. Primary socialization takesplace in infancy
and childhood. This is the most crucial stage of socialization as thechild
learns basic behaviour pattern at this stage. Generally secondary
socializationstarts from the later stage of childhood and goes up to
maturity. However, the process of socialization never stops in life. The
school, peer groups and other institutions in whicha person is placed in life
play the role of socializing agents.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:
1. Write a note on types of socialization .
2.3 AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION:
The child is socialized by several social agencies or institutions in which
he or she participates, viz, his/her family, school, peer group,
neighbourhood etc.
Family
The family is the smallest unit of society and represents it in all respects. It
is the locus of early socialization or the internalization of basic values of
culture because the child is most plastic and exposed for longest in
dependent relationship with parents. The basic requirements involved in
walking, talking, playing with other children, eating, toilet training and
generally dealing with adults are learned in aninformal way. The family is
also the source of internalization of the basic cultural vocabulary of the
child.

munotes.in

Page 18

Education and Society
18 Peer Group
Children like to play and mo ve about in group of their age peers. This
group life isvery important for them and has considerable influence on the
development of theirself -concepts. Being in a group gives them
confidence and a sense of security. Being accepted by a group builds up
their self -confidence. Particularly those who are popular learn to think
positively of themselves. In playing together children learn tocooperate.
They learn to adjust their needs and desires to the behaviour of peers. Ina
very real sense, the child begins to develop a sense of self as distinct from
thefamily.
School
In modem industrial society the school system has emerged as one of the
most potent agencies of socialization. Schools offer two contexts for the
students. The first is the formal context of the cla ssroom, wherein the
context of socialization is decided by the prescribed curriculum. The
second context is informal and can be perceived in the interpersonal
relationship of students with teachers and those among the students.
Mass Media
In modem society t he means of mass communication such as television,
radio, cinema,newspaper, books, and audio -video cassettes have become
an integral part of life.They play a very important role in the socialization
process of their viewers, readers and listeners. These ma ss media,
especially the television and radio, simultaneously convey same message
to nationwide audience. Therefore, its impact on the process of
socialization assumes greater significance.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:
1. What isrole of the peers in socializing th e child?
2.4 THE ROLE OF EDUCATION IN SOCIALIZATION:
Education is a social process, which prepares individuals to lead a
meaning ful and dignified life. Together with other social forces it plays
an important role in shaping thestructure of society. Through e ducation
society imparts its knowledge, skill, values andbehavioural patterns to its
younger generations. Thereby ensuring self -preservation and continuity. In
this sense education is a process of socialization. At the same time
changesin society mould the education system itself and it acquires
complexity. Education inthis sense is a process, which prepares the
members of the society to adapt to the constantly changing conditions of a
society.
To say that education is a process of socialization implies:
i) Education takes place through social interaction.
ii) It is much more than mere instruction. munotes.in

Page 19

Education and Socialization
19 iii) People receive a certain degree of education even if they never enter a
school.
iv) Formal education is socialization with a deliberate purpose and in a
desired direction.
The role of education in socialization of each member of the community,
regardless of where, by whom and under what conditions he or she was
raised, is to create conditions for overcoming differences, for integration
and, if necessary, adaptati on. Education supports the socialization of an
individual by providing the necessary foundation of knowledge that enable
communication, inter personal relationships and in general –
understanding, acceptance and communication in the surrounding
environment.
In contemporary society, educational institutions – schools, universities,
institutes, and academies – are the key “figures” in socialization of an
individual. After leaving their family homes, children enter school
environment that shapes their way of co mmunicating with other people.
The school and later the higher education institution socialize a person,
gives him an opportunity to present his qualities, potential and
possibilities, instincts. The school helps and motivates children to develop
their per sonalities and teachers are role models for them. Every small
action, every move or a word of a teacher is imprinted in children`s minds.
Apart from the teacher, children are influenced by other classmates and
groups. These partners or groups are of major importance in determining
the children`s roles in society later in life. During education, personalities
of growing children develop under the influence of other personalities they
interact with. Cultural programmes in school also help pupils improve
their attitudes. The school is expected to transfer knowledge and skills to
its learners so that they can cope with challenges life has prepared for
them. In the context of socialization, education takes into account social
needs of society and aims to introdu ce its new members – those who are to
be educated – to social traditions, norms, customs, etc.
In other words, when a society strives to have strong social organization
and does not allow its members neglect their social traditions, it largely
emphasizes the social goal of education. Both socialization and education
involve learning, but there is one very important difference. Socialization
is something that takes place in our everyday lives, it cannot be planned, it
helps us understand our identities, the reality and find the ways to get
along with others. Education, unlike socialization, is planned, it usually
involves a formal organization responsible for providing and monitoring
learning process and focuses on limited skills and knowledge. In other
word s, socialization is an action through which with the help of
interaction, a person becomes a member of society. It is a learning process
that aims to prepare people for the set of roles they will interpret in the
future.
munotes.in

Page 20

Education and Society
20 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:
1. Explainhow education is important in one’s life.
2.5 SUMMARY:
Socialization and education are directly related to the overall development
of an individual. These processes prepare an individual and ensure their
inclusion in various social spheres and cultural integr ation. In order to
have a positive impact, education should be consistent with the
development processes, individual peculiarities and age, specificity of
macro and microenvironment. Education in the global world should be
fundamental, adapted to the needs of the developing human being and,
finally, take into account the modern achievements of science and
technology.
2.6 QUESTIONS:
 Elaborate on the stages in socialization.
 What is socialization?
 What role does education play in the process of socialization?
 Compare the roles of family and school as agencies of socialization.
2.7 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING:
 Apple, M. W., Ed. The Routledge International Handbook of the
Sociology of Education; Routledge:London, 2010.
 Grusec, J. E.; Hastings, P. D., Eds. Han dbook of Socialization.
Theory and Research; Guilford Press:New York, 2007.
 Stub, Holger R. (1975). The Sociology of Education , Illinois: The
Dorsey Press.
 Terziev, Venelin and Vasileva, Silva, 2022, The role of education in
socialization of an individual.
 Ottaway, A.K.C. (1953). Education and Society, London: Routledge
and Kegan Paul.


munotes.in

Page 21

21 3
SOURCES OF FORMAL EDUCATION
Unit Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Meaning of Formal Education
3.3 Sources of Formal Education in India
3.4 Summary
3.5 Questions
3.6 References
3.0 OBJECTIVES

 To understand the meaning of formal educati on
 To learn about the different sources of formal education in the Indian
context
3.1 INTRODUCTION
It is through learning;by which human species develops its different
behavioural traits. In addition, human beings create and enrol their
children to diff erent educational opportunities for their children in order to
socialise or enculturate them in specific ways. This innate inclination of
the species has given rise to education. Hence even today, diverse cultures
are connected and remains supportive of one another through
communication and education.
Education has been one of the most important and reliable mode/ sources
of information and learning for every child. It is an institution which is
found in every part of the world. Education helps in helping t he child to
learn about different aspects of themselves, society and fellow human
beings. It helps in teaching the child participation, competition, finance
and even helps in learning certain skill sets (OECD).
Children are educated in ways that are disti nct from one another. The
connections between culture, human development, and education are now
significantly more complex due to two standardising influences. In order
to thrive in the current competitive environment, most cultures are eager to
encourage in their children an interest in science and technology, thereby
enhancing literacy, numeracy, and a budding understanding of science. As
a result, basic public schooling that is institutionalised has become
practically universal across all cultures. Despi te the fact that the human
mind grows as a result of socialisation and cultural enculturation, it has
some universal traits that result from the species' evolutionary past. This munotes.in

Page 22

Education and Society
22 suggests that even civilizations with great differences may result in a very
similar pattern of personal growth (G. Hatano, K. Takahashi, 2001). Thus,
education is viewed as the cultural transmission that results from
enculturation and socialization in both informal and formal learning
situations. Thus knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values are transmitted.
In this chapter we are going to learn about how formal education has
evolved with time and its different sources like Boards, University Grants
Commission, Universities, Colleges, School. As students who are yourself
learning ab out the formal education this chapter would help you to learn
about the different aspects of formal education and the sources.
3.2 MEANING OF FORMAL EDUCATION
School imparts the formal education into the lives of children. According
to Bruner (1996), sch ooling is part of how a society indoctrinates the
young into its established ways. In fact, it is a culture's one of the
approaches to integrating children into the requirements of communal
living.Serpell and Hatano (1997) point out that formal education i s
frequently viewed as a process that builds upon itself and has two main
phases: (a) the acquisition of fundamental literacy skills which would be
later be used by the individual, and (b) the acquisition of cultural
knowledge and a deeper level of underst anding. As a result, a sizable
percentage of the initial stage of school is devoted to the teaching and
learning of basic reading and writing abilities.Literacy development is
critical to human development at the individual or community level is still
up for debate.
Formal education follows a strict curriculum and pedagogy. The formal
education is delivered by well qualified teachers who are anticipated to be
excellent teachers. It also enforces strict discipline. Both the teacher and
the student are infor med of the facts and actively engage in the learning
process. Teachers who are well qualified and thought to be good educators
assist in the formal education. Additionally, learning institutions imposes
strict discipline. Each set of groups – learns, teach ers actively participate
in the learning/ sharing process and is aware of the relevant information
conveyed.
In Formal education Students attend classes for learning.
• School grades, Diplomas, and degrees from colleges and universities
• Pre -planned educa tion in a range of subjects using a curriculum learned
through participation in the institution.
 Through knowledgeable and experienced instructors, a structured
educational style, and up -to-date course materials, students learn. A
rigorous, structured appr oach to learning is adopted.
 After taking the intermediate and final exams, students are assured of
progressing to the following grade level. munotes.in

Page 23

Sources of Formal Education
23  Institutions are set up in a management and have physical presence
many a times. Students get certificates after c ompleting their degree
and that is accepted by the government.
 These degree help students to find employment
 A child's immediate surroundings determines his or her access to
formal schooling.

 Education Differentiation Between Formal and Informal
Accordin g to the "Western model," formal education consists of scheduled
instruction in "universal" knowledge and skills that is given at
predetermined times and locations by qualified individuals. Initiation
ceremonies, communities divided by age also offer instr uction, and
various religious educational institutions like schools are other ways that
indigenous peoples receive formal education. There are also cultural
differences in the institutionalization of formal education. The structure of
the educational syste m is also formal, like the relationships between public
and private schools, the minimum number of years that children must
attend school, the length of time they spend in elementary and secondary
school, and the methods used to instruct teachers and stude nts.
 Informal education
As vital as formal education is, informal education also has a significant
impact on people's lives. In addition to formal education, informal
education also involves lifetime of socialization affects from encounters
with peers and family members in environments with culturally
advantageous values and practices. Informal learning takes place in many
cultures within the circumstances of daily life, in response to urgent needs,
and possibly just through observation and imitation (Sega ll et al. 1999).
Many a times, informal traditional education becomes a part of the local
cultural system, which it tends to uphold, and contains moral and spiritual
components as well as manual labor (G. Trommsdorff, P. Dasen, 2011).
 Correspondence as for mal education
Correspondence schools have been well -organized for more than a
century. Numerous writers and works mention that one among the first to
begin correspondence formal education was through Toussaint
Langenscheidt in which program for language s tudy was started by mail in
Berlin in 1856. Graduation program began in 1886 in England through
mail. The first formal way of learning took place in New York in 1883,
and a "Society to Encourage Home Study" was established in Boston in
1873. It was also se en as "Correspondence University". Other countries
also started similar programs, such as "enseignement par correspondance"
in France, "fernUntersuch" and "fernStudium" in Germany. The words
"home study," "postal tuition," and "tuition mail" were used in England;
"ensinoporcorrespondência" and "ensennzaporcorreo" were used in
Portuguese and Spanish, respectively. There are several correspondence
schools/ universities available today. These days, there are several
correspondence schools worldwide offering a range of disciplines. munotes.in

Page 24

Education and Society
24 Students that enrol in correspondence courses are from different
socioeconomic status. In the correspondence pattern the students are given
printed educational material. The approach is also different where there is
limited but purpo seful interaction. Students can also pursue their own
interests and learn at their own pace using a personalized learning
technique in the correspondence learning. The majority of institutional
resources are often created by teachers who are subject expert s. At the
moment, courses also include a range of teaching resources, such as kits,
audio and video cassettes, etc.In general, correspondence courses establish
up a two -way correspondence by mail, supported by the instructor who
reviews the work, gives in structions, and offers any explanations that may
be required. The main determinant of a program's success may be the
student's motivation, which cannot be imposed and is not subject to any
obligations. Even today, the correspondence education plays a impor tant
role in reaching to lakhs of students and empowering them through
education.
 Parents and Formal Education
The most important component in a child's intellectual advancement in
majority of countries is through formal schooling and family. Formal
educa tion is important for the kids. As a result, parents' attitudes toward
education and involvement in educational activities have long been seen as
important factors in how well their kids do in school. Some studies point
out that academic achievement of chi ldren is positively connected with
parental involvement in their formal education: parents of high achievers
are more likely to volunteer at their children's schools, attend school
events, and have better relationships with teachers than parents of poor
achievers. Though we cannot generalize this in every part of the earth.
Some ideas contend that higher socioeconomic class families are more
acclimated to the educational setting and find it easier to contact teachers
and school officials than lower socioec onomic class families. These
hurdles to parental involvement are substantially more severe when
parents are from a low -income minority group and have had unfavourable
contacts with school officials in the past (Clark 1983, cited from Kurtz -
Costes, 2001).
The formal education of the child is also influenced by the parents'
education, as the parents' attitude and perspective toward education
motivates the child to take educational initiatives. If parents believe that
education is a waste of time, especially f or girls, then the child may not
have access to education and all subsequent learning. Additionally, the
youngster might always need help from others as an adult for things like
obtaining a bank account or even just speaking in English. Parents' and
cultur al viewpoints should be taken into account when designing formal
schooling.

munotes.in

Page 25

Sources of Formal Education
25 3.3 SOURCES OF FORMAL EDUCATION IN INDIA
In the Indian context, certain religions had practices where education has
been carried out in isolation under the supervision of a Guru , in a place
called Gurukul. Here, the different skills required for survive right from
bow arrow, religious lessons to good qualities like patience, respecting
elders everything has been taught. Living in a forest in isolation from
parents these students used to learn the lessons through stories, actions.
Serving the Guru was seen as a duty of the student, hence even today, the
teacher is respected. The guru covered all of the child's interests, from
mathematics to metaphysics, from Sanskrit to sacred text s. The pupil
stayed as long or until the guru felt he had covered all there was to cover.
Learning was not limited to memorization of facts; it was everything
strongly connected to nature and living. For example – A student would
not touch a teacher to ta ke blessings in Europe or America. In the Indian
context, the teacher is seen as equal to parents. With time kingdoms
changed the social structure also changed. Occupations were passed on
from one generation to another, apprenticeship under a professional was
also an option. Regional languages schools of learning were also
established. With time the importance of education also grew. Yet, in
many households the girls were denied going out of home to educate
themselves specially after puberty, some were marr ied early too even
today.
Check Your Progress
1. Discuss the relation between parents and formal education
2. Write your understanding of Correspondence Education
 Jyotirao Phule and Savitribai Contribution
Jyotirao Phule, a philosopher of education, wa s the first person to devote
his entire lives to the promotion of public education and the upbringing of
the impoverished communities and women (Bala and Marwaha, 2011).
His beliefs and ideas were revolutionary.
The universalization of elementary educatio n was the main cause for
concern. He focused on issues including the value of primary education,
the qualifications needed for primary school teachers, and the primary
education curriculum. He believed that by getting education and taking the
appropriate s teps, women succeeded in achieving this aim. During Phule's
time, education was like a distant dream for women and people who were
born into certain castes.
In reaction to this situation, he began a historic campaign for the education
of women andfor peopl ebelonging to marginalized castes despite facing
threats to his life. He saw education as a tool for broader social change
than just literacy. According to Mahatma Phule, the only way to address
societal problems was through education. He was emphatic that if social
reforms were to be effective and long -lasting, education should be made
available to people at all levels. munotes.in

Page 26

Education and Society
26 Savitribai Phule also pioneered the opening of schools for girls and
children from marginalized castes in India and ignited a revolution i n the
country's educational system. She was the among the first Indian to make
universal, child -sensitive, critically thinking, and socially reforming
education the main focus of theoverall good of Indian youngsters (Wolf
and Andrade, 2008). According to M anas (2007), Savitribai was one of the
first female educator in contemporary India(Inflibinet).
 English Education
The English education as such had the influence of Britishers in India. In
the year 1830s, Lord Thomas Babington Macaulay brought the modern
educational system and the English language to India. The only "modern"
subjects taught in the curriculum were science and mathematics;
metaphysics and philosophy were thought to be pointless. The link to
nature was broken by the close relationship between the teacher and the
student as well as the confinement of education was limited to the
classroom.
 Board Emergence
The Uttar Pradesh Board of High School and Intermediate Education,
which had authority over Rajputana, Central India, and Gwalior, was the
first board to be founded in India. In 1929, the Rajputana Board of
Intermediate and High School Education was established. Later on, some
states created their own boards. However, the board's charter was
ultimately modified in 1952, and it acquired the new name Central Board
of Secondary Education (CBSE). The Board was in charge of all the
schools in Delhi and otherplaces. It was associated with the affiliated
schools, the Board held the power to determine the curriculum, textbooks,
and created different po licies.
With time, India's new leadership sought to make education universal and
required for all children between the ages of 6 and 14. This is evident from
the fact that it is listed as a directive policy in Article 45 of the
Constitution. But even after more than 50 years, this objective is still far
off. The government of India made universal primary education a
Fundamental Right for all citizens. With the help of the Board, there has
been significant growth and expansion at the secondary level of educa tion,
which has improved the level and calibre of instruction at institutions.
However, the Board's jurisdiction later shrunk to only cover Ajmer,
Bhopal, and Uttar Pradesh as State Universities and State Boards
proliferated across the country. In 1962, th e Board was eventually
reconstituted. The main objectives were to provide better service to
educational institutions and meet the educational needs of students whose
parents worked for the central government and other transferable
positions(CBSE website).
 Maharshtra Board
The Maharashtra State Board of Secondary & Higher Secondary
Education, Pune was established as an independent organization in munotes.in

Page 27

Sources of Formal Education
27 accordance with the provisions of Maharashtra Act No. 41 of 1965. The
Maharashtra State Board of Secondary and Higher Secondary Education
oversees the administration of the HSC and SSC Exams in the state of
Maharashtra through its nine Divisional Boards, which is located in Pune,
Mumbai, Aurangabad, Nasik, Kolhapur, Amravati, Latur, Nagpur, and
Ratnagiri. Around 14 lac HSC and 17 lac SSC students appear for the
main/final exam, which the Board conducts twice a year. There have been
roughly 6 lac HSC and SSC students taking their exams. At present there
are around 21000 schools (SSC) and 7000 Higher Secondary
Schools /Junior Colleges in the entire state. (HSC). (SSC Board Website)
 Schools in India
The Unified district information system for education of India, UDISE is
the body which has the records of the number of schools in India. The
annual report of 2020 -2021 po ints out that -
As the Indian education system is one of the biggest in the world hence,
there is more than 15 lakh schools, over 97 lakh teachers, and almost 26.5
Crore students in pre -primary to higher secondary levels. These students
are from a variety of socioeconomic backgrounds.
In the year 2020 –21, there were roughly 25.38 billion students enrolled in
primary through higher education. Among these 13.17 crore boys were
enrolled, compared to 12.21 crore girls. This demonstrates that there are
0.96 la kh girls who lack access to education. Pre -schoolers were taught in
many of the institutions covered by the UDISE+ system. All UDISE+
schools, from lower elementary to upper secondary, had a combined
enrolment that exceeded 26.44 crore in 2020 –21. The numb er of students
enrolled in upper elementary, intermediate, and higher secondary schools
has grown at every grade level following primary, demonstrating growth
in the system's ability to retain more children in the training of the
educational system over ti me. One of the highest number of schools is in
the state of Uttar PradeshwhileLakshwadeep has only 45 schools (CBSE
Website). The National Education Policy also places a strong emphasis on
inclusive education and participatory learning, with the goal of en abling
every student to master at least one skill by the time they graduate.
 United Grants Commission
The University Grants Commission Act, which created the UGC in its
current form, was approved in 1956, but the organization's roots may be
traced to Brit ish debates on ways to enhance Indian education in the early
1940s. It resulted in the establishment of the Central Advisory Board on
Education in 1944 in order to promote post -war educational expansion.
The University Grants Website lists out that there a re 456 state
universities, Deemed to be Universities are around 126, Central
Universities are around 54, Private Universities are around 421 as on 23rd
August, 2022. On July 5th, 1916, the first Women's University was also
constructed. It was founded by D K Karve and given the name Indian
Women's University at first. In 1920, it changed its name to munotes.in

Page 28

Education and Society
28 ShreematiNathibaiDamodarThackersey Women's University. There are
still not many universities that only accept female students.
Check Your Progress
1. What is the name of first women’s University in India.
2. Discuss the Maharashtra Board
3.4 SUMMARY
In this chapter we began with understanding the meaning of formal
education. Serpell and Hatano (1997) point out that formal education is
frequently viewed as a pro cess that builds upon itself and has two main
phases: (a) the acquisition of fundamental literacy skills which would be
later be used by the individual, and (b) the acquisition of cultural
knowledge and a deeper level of understanding. Formal education fol lows
strict pattern and pedagogy. We also looked into different sources of
formal education like Gurukul, Britishers and their institutions. The
chapter also discusses about Correspondence education which began with
exchange of study material through mails . As the Indian education system
is one of the biggest in the world hence, there is more than 15 lakh
schools, over 97 lakh teachers, and almost 26.5 Crore students in pre -
primary to higher secondary levels. The University Grants Website lists
out that the re are 456 state universities, deemed to be Universities are
around 126, Central Universities are around 54, Private Universities are
around 421 as on 23rd August, 2022. Both the universities and schools
form one of the important institutions for imparting knowledge throughout
the country. These students are from a variety of socioeconomic
backgrounds. We also learnt about social reformers like Mahatma Jyotirao
Phule and Savitri Bai Phule who contributed to the growth of education
for all groups and special ly for girls. They inspired generations of people.
In the chapter there is also discussion about different bodies which were
formed for the development and institutionalizing education like
University Grants Commission for higher education and setup of Boa rds
for school education. Thus, the chapter discusses the different sources of
education with the country and by giving a brief description about the core
concepts of the title like formal education.
3.5 QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the sources of formal education in India
2. Write a note on Correspondence as a form of formal education
3. Discuss the meaning of formal education
3.6 REFERENCES
 B. Kurtz -Costes, 2001, Families as Educational Settings, Editor(s):
Neil J. Smelser, Paul B. Baltes,
 International Encyclopedia of the Social &Behavioral Sciences,
Pergamon, munotes.in

Page 29

Sources of Formal Education
29  Pages 5275 -5279, ISBN 9780080430768, https://doi.org/10.1016/B0 -
08-043076 -7/02373 -1.
 (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/artic le/pii/ B0080430767023731 )
 G. Trommsdorff, P. Dasen, Cross -cultural Study of Education,
Editor(s): Neil J. Smelser, Paul B. Baltes,
 International Encyclopedia of the Social &Behavioral Sciences,
Pergamon, 2001, Pages 3003 -3007,
 ISBN 9780080430768, https:// doi.org/10.1016/B0 -08-043076 -
7/02332 -9.
 (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/ B0080430767023329)
 G. Hatano, K. Takahashi, 2001Cultural Diversity, Human
Development, and Education,
 Editor(s): Neil J. Smelser, Paul B. Baltes,International Encycl opedia of
the Social &Behavioral Sciences,Pergamon,Pages 3041 -3045, ISBN
9780080430768, https://doi.org/10.1016/B0 -08-043076 -7/02322 -
6.(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080430767023
226)
 https://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/epgpdata/uploads/epgp_content/S000033S
O/P000300/M015924/ET/146475552224ET.pdf
 OECD (2016), "Graph C6.a - Sources of information on forma l and/or
non-formal education used by participants (2011): Adult Education
Survey, 25 –64-year-olds", in Education at a Glance 2016: OECD
Indicators , OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/e ag-2016 -
graph200 -en.
 https://www.sundarbanmahavidyalaya.in/working_folder/E -
RESOURSE -G-0-8-5E5F2A6D22661.pdf
 FORMAL, NON -FORMAL AND INFORMAL EDUCATION:
CONCEPTS/APPLICABILITY Claudio Zaki Dib Institute of Physics
University of São Paulo, Brazil Presented at the “Interamerican
Conference on Physics Education”, Oaxtepec, Mexico, 1987.
Published in “Cooperative Networks in Physics Education -
Conference Proce edings 173”, American Institute of Physics, New
York, 1988, pgs. 300 -315.
 https://www.ugc.ac.in/oldpdf/consolidated%20list%20of%20all%20un
iversities.pdf \
 https://udiseplus.gov.in/#/page/about - Report of 2020 -2021 .
 https://www.gnu.org/education/edu -system -india.en.html
 https://www.cbse.gov.in/aboutus.htm
 https://www.mahahsscboard.in/
 https://indianexpress.com/article/research/brief -history -of-ugc-
5235959/
 munotes.in

Page 30

30 4
INTRODUCTION EDUCATION AND
SOCIAL MOBILITY
Unit structure :
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Understanding the concept of Social Mobility
4.3 Types of Social Mobility
4.4 Role of Education in promoting Social Mobility
4.5 Summary
4.6 Questions
4.7 Refe rences and Further Readings
4.0 OBJECTIVES:
 To understand the concept of class, social stratification and
socialmobility
 To familiarize students with the role of education inpromoting/
delimiting social mobility
4.1 INTRODUCTION:
Social mobility means a cha nge in the status of an individual or group. It
is the ability to move up or down the social ladder. While it is generally
used to describe changes in wealth, it can also refer to general social
standing or education. Societies are dynamic in nature and so cial mobility
is a clear expression of it.
While many factors play a role in determining the extent of social mobility
in a society, education can be especially effective in societies like ours
where the traditional modes of stratification, like the caste system,
disallow large scales of upward social mobility. There is significant
evidence to prove that a lack of education often acts as a detriment to the
social mobility of those who have been unable to attain it.
Children of high income and low -income fa milies do not have a great
difference in their abilities at birth. However, the gap between their
performance continues to widen as the higher income families can invest
more and more into their children’s education. Education is often seen as a
way out of poverty as it enables children from low -income families to
move upwards in both social and economic spheres. If provided to munotes.in

Page 31

Introduction Education and
Social Mobility
31 everyone equally, education can act as a great democratizing force, cutting
across the barriers of caste and class.
4.2 UNDERSTANDI NG THE CONCEPT OF SOCIAL
MOBILITY:
The term social mobility refers to the movement of individuals or groups
from one position of a society's stratification system to another.
Sociologists use the terms open class system and closed class system to
distingui sh between two ideal types of class societies in terms of social
mobility. An open system implies that the position of everyone is
influenced by the person's achieved status. Achieved status is a social
position attained by a person largely through his or her own effort. In an
open class system, competition among members of society is encouraged.
At the other extreme of the social mobility system is the closed system, in
which there is little or no possibility of individual mobility. Slavery and
thecaste s ystem of stratification are -examples of closed systems. In such
societies, social placement is based on ascribed characteristics, such as
race and family background, which cannot be easily changed. Ascribed
status is socia1 position assigned to a person by society without regard for
the person's unique characteristics and talents.
Here the key questions concern the way in which achieved status is
obtained and the degree of movement that can take place across
generations. It is in these circumstances that so cial mobility becomes
important, as sociologists examine the way in which individuals compete
for unequal positions. In studying social mobility, sociologists compare
the actual degree of social mobility with the ideal of free movement
through equal opport unity. Therefore, the social position that an individual
achieves may bear no relationship to the positions he acquired at birth.
Movement up or down the social scale is based on merit.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:
1. What is social mobility?
4.3 TYPES OF SOCIAL M OBILITY:
In accordance with the direction of movement of the people in the society,
Social mobility can be categorized into two types:
1. Horizontal Social Mobility
2. Vertical Social Mobility
Horizontal Social Mobility
When the movement of a person occur s from one situation to another at
the same level i.e. within the single stratum, theprocess is called horizontal
social mobility . In other words, in this type of mobility, there is no change
in the social status of the individual but there is a change in his affiliations. munotes.in

Page 32

Education and Society
32 For example, when a Principal of Secondary School at palm joins at the
same post in a Secondary School at South Ex. In this example the status
and role of the person working as a principal remains the same but there is
a change in the pl ace of work which brings about change in these
affiliations, thus he shows horizontal social mobility.
Vertical Social Mobility
The movement of a person from one stratum of the society is referred as
Vertical Social Mobility i.e., in Vertical Social Mobili ty there is a change
in the status of the individual. The individual attains high education and
becomes rich, He moves upward in the social hierarchy. For example,
when a teacher becomes a lecturer in a college is said to have moved
vertically.
Within ver tical social mobility, we have Upward Social Mobility
(Ascending Mobility) and Downward Social Mobility (Descending
mobility).
Upward Social Mobility refers to the movement from lower to higher
occurs from position. Ascending mobility means the entry of i. e., within
persons from lower strata and prestige to higher status and prestige groups.
For example, if a person is born in a family of a sweeper and after
acquiring must learn the cultural behaviors of officers.
Downward Social Mobility Downward or Descen ding mobility means
going down of a person from higher position prestige and status to lower
ones. It may occur due to political changes, economic depression, and
crests of character etc.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:
1. What isvertical social mobility?
4.4 ROLE OF EDUCATION IN PROMOTING SOCIAL
MOBILITY:
Education is a very potent means of encouraging social mobility the
Indian society. It has multidirectional influence in promoting social
mobility. Education plays such an important role in following ways.
1. Educat ion is the need of every person because on it depends proper
development of man. It is education that reveals the latent qualities and
potentiates of man and enables him to understand ‘Self and the
environment surrounding him’.
2. Education sharpens the i ntellect, widens the vision, helps in the
wholesome and balanced development of man and above all it leads to
social, economic and political development of a nation.
3. Both the streams of education i.e. formal and Non -formal play a great
role in bringing about social mobility. munotes.in

Page 33

Introduction Education and
Social Mobility
33 4. Formal education is directly and causally related to social mobility. This
relationship is generally understood to be one in which formal
education itself is a cause or one of the causes of vertical social
mobility.
5. Educatio n is directly related to occupational mobility and the
subsequent improvement in economic status and on the other hand, kit
forms and element of social change. Persons with higher education and
better employment are respected more in the society.
6. It is a purpose of education to develop within the individual such
motivation as will make him to work hard for the improvement of his
social position.
7. Higher education helps in gaining higher income and, thus, education is
an important means for upward soc ial mobility.
8. A change in occupation is the best single indicator of social mobility.
The reason for it is that occupational status is closely correlated with
educational status. Income style of life and the other determinants of
class status.
9. Educa tion helps students belonging to lower strata of the society to go
up in the social scale and gain in a high social position in the society.
10.Education helps in preparing one’s self -employment, which is an
important aspect of social uplift meant.
11.Th e popularity of education among women has considerably led to an
increase in the social status of women. It has helped in raising their
social position, status, and achievement of high social prestige; which
indicates upward social mobility of the women.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:
1. Explain the importance of education.
4.5 SUMMARY:
Formal education is closely linked to upward social mobility and in this
aspect, schools play an important role in sorting out individuals into their
prospective levels, this is done through the system of examinations,
supervision and promotions, Thus, education can assist the movement of
persons into the top positions in society or elite mobility. Hence, formal
education has become a prerequisite for many established professions such
as doctors, lawyers,accountants, teachers, engineers and so forth.
Thus, education is a liberating force and in the present age it is also a
democratizing force, cutting across the barriers of caste and class,
smoothing out inequalities imposed by birth a nd other circumstances,
thereby, bringing about mobility among the people in the social structure
of the society. munotes.in

Page 34

Education and Society
34 4.6 QUESTIONS:
 How social mobility related to education?
 Why are equal educational opportunities needed for everyone?
4.7 REFERENCES AND FURTH ER READING:
 Breen, R. (2010). Educational Expansion and Social Mobility in 20th
Century. Social Forces, Vol.89(2) 365 -388.
 Krishna, A. (2013). Making It in India Examining Social Mobility in
Three Walks of Life. Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.XLVIII,38 -
49.
 Kumar, S., Heath, A., & Heath, O. (2002). Determinants of Social
Mobility in Inida. Economic and Political Weekly, 2983 -2987.
 Viad, D. (2016). Patterns of Social Mobility and Role of Education in
India. Contemporary South Asia, vol. 24 (3) 285 -321.
 Vaid, D. (2012). The Caste -class Association in India: An Empirical
Analysis. Asian Survey, Vol.52(2), 395 -422.




munotes.in

Page 35

35 5
FUNCTIONAL PERSPECTIVES ON
EDUCATION
Unit Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Structural Functionalism
5.3 Summary
5.4 Questions
5.5 References
5.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to
 Understand the various soci ological theories.
 Explain the contributions made by Durkheim and Parsons towards
structural functionalism
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Sociological theories means is a set of statements that seeks to explain
problems, actions or behaviour. Theories guide research and policy
formulation in the sociology of education. They also provide logical
explanation for why things happen the way they do. A theory is a
proposed relationship between two or more concepts. An effective theory
may have an explanatory and predi ctive power. Theories help sociologist
understand the educational system and it also contributes to our
understanding of education as a part of society.
Sociologists study social events, interactions, and patterns. They then
develop theories to explain w hy these occur and what can result from
them. In sociology, a theory is a way to explain different aspects of social
interactions and create testable propositions about society (Allan, 2006).
For example, Durkheim’s proposition, that differences in suicide rate can
be explained by differences in the degree of social integration in different
communities, is a theory. The proponents of sociological theories are Karl
Marks, Emile Durkheim, Max Weber, Talcott Parsons & Robert Merton,
Louis Atthussor & Ralph Dah rendorf, Herbert Mead& Herbert Blummer.
Theories in sociology provide us with different perspectives with which to
view our social world. A perspective is simply a way of looking at the
social world. A theory is a set of interrelated propositions Sociologi cal munotes.in

Page 36

Education and Society
36 theories help us to explain and predict the social world in which we live.
Sociological theories help us to take various pieces of a puzzle and put
them together, using specific framework to help us make sense of it all and
to give us the tools about t he bigger picture of society. Each theoretical
perspective represents a particular way of understanding the social world.
It is like seeing the world through a specific set of glasses. There are three
major theoretical perspectives in sociology. Symbolic I nteractionism,
Structural Functionalism and Conflict Theory.
5.2 STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM
Structural functionalism is a body of theories that understand the world as
a large system of interrelated parts that all work together. Emile Durkheim
and Talcott P arsons are two major theorists in this area. According to
functionalists, the schools prepare the learners to be a part of the
institutions of the society.
Functionalists focus on the positive functions performed by the education
system. The re are four positive functions that education performs
1. Creating social solidarity
2. Teaching skills necessary for work
3. Teaching us core values
4. Role Allocation and meritocracy
Functionalists contend that education is a crucial social institution t hat
contributes to society's needs and stability. Since we are all a member of
the same organism, education serves the purpose of fostering a sense of
identity by imparting fundamental principles and defining duties.
Education, according to functionalists, play both the manifest as well as
latent functions. The manifest functions includes : Socialisation,
Innovation, change, allocation of role and resources, transmission of
culture, whereas, the latent functions includes engaging in group work,
creating a generation gap , restricting activities, etc.
French sociologist Émile Durkheim (1858 –1917) was the first sociologist
of education. He is best known for his theory of moral regulation .in his
writings Moral Education (1925).1 He argued that it is only throu gh
education that a given society can forge a commitment to an underlying
set of common beliefs and values, as well as create a strong sense of
community or nationhood. This moral education prepares us to be
productive members of society by socializing and integrating us.
Durkheim’s belief that society is held together by a common set of values
and morals is at the heart of structural functionalism because it emphasizes
how the various parts of a social system work together.
Durkheim died in 1917 and struct ural functionalism work was largely
ignored until Talcott Parsons. munotes.in

Page 37

Functional Perspectives on
Education
37 In 1950s and 1960 Functionalism reigned as the dominant theoretical
perspective in sociology.
It states that society is made up of various institutions that work together
in cooperation. Talcott Parsons structural functionalism has four
functional impera tives for all general action system also known as AGIL
system.
What is AGIL? It includes Adaptation, Goal attainment, Integration
and Latency.
Adaptation - system must cope up with the external situation, adapt to
its environment and adapt environment to its needs.
Goal attainment - a system must define and achieve its primary goal.
Integration - regulates the interrelationship of its component parts.
Manage the relationship among other three functional imperatives
(AGL)
Latency - furnish , maintain and r enew both the motivation of individual
and the cultural patterns that create and sustain motivation.
AGIL system was designed four system levels; the behavioral organism
is the Action System that handles the adaptation function by adjusting
and transformi ng the external world .
Personality System performs the goal attainment by defining system
goals and mobilizing recourses.
Social System cope up with the integration function by controlling its
component parts .
Cultural System performs the latency functi on by providing the norms
and values that motivates them for action.
Key principles of functionalist theory by Farley (1990) Inter
dependency - every part of the society is depending to some extent to
other parts of the society, so that what happens at one place in society has
important effects elsewhere.
Function of social structure and culture - social structure refers to
organization of the society including its institutional social position and
distribution of resources. Culture is the set of beliefs, rul es values and
language held in a common set of members.
Consensus and cooperation - society have a tendency towards consensus
i. e to have certain values that nearly overcome in the society agrees upon.
Societies tend towards consensus to achieve cooperatio n. munotes.in

Page 38

Education and Society
38 Equilibrium - is a characteristic of a society when it has achieved the form
that is best adapted to its situations. It has reached a state of balance and it
will remain in that condition until it is forced to change by some new.
American sociologist Tal cott Parsons lived from 1902 to 1979. Building
on Durkheim's theories, Parsons argued that secondary socialisation took
place in schools. He believed that in order for kids to be functional, they
needed to learn societal standards and values. As per Parson 's view,
schooling serves as a "focal socialising agent," separating children from
their primary caregivers and family while preparing them to accept and
successfully fill in their social responsibilities.
Parsons contends that educational institutions res pect universalistic norms,
which are impartial in that they assess and hold all students to the same
standards. In contrast to parents' and caregivers' opinions, which are
invariably subjective, educational institutions and teachers' assessments of
student s' talents and abilities are always fair. This practise of judging kids
according to the norms of their own families is referred to as particularistic
standards by Parson where children are not held to the same standards as
the rest of society. These stand ards are solely used within the family,
where children are assessed according to subjective criteria, which are
then based on the family's values. Status is assigned here. On the other
hand, universalistic standards state that regardless of relationships t o one's
family, class, race, ethnicity, gender, or sexual orientation, everyone is
held to the same standards. Status is attained here.
According to Parsons, the education system and society are based on
'meritocratic' principles. Meritocracy refers to a system which expresses
the idea that people should be rewarded based on their efforts and abilities.
5.3 SUMMARY
Sociological theories means is a set of statements that seeks to explain
problems, actions or behavior. Theories in sociology provide us with
different perspectives with which to view our social world. The major
sociological theories offer insight into how we understand educat ion There
are three major theoretical perspectives in sociology. The Conflict,
Structural functionalism and symbolic Interactionism. Functionalists view
education as an important social institution that contributes both manifest
and latent functions. Funct ionalists see education as serving the needs of
society by preparing students for later roles, or functions, in society
5.4 QUESTIONS
Explain the major theorist associated with structural functionalism.


munotes.in

Page 39

Functional Perspectives on
Education
39 5.5 REFERENCES
1. Durkheim, É., ( 1956). EDUCATION AND SOCIOLOGY (Excerpts).
[online] Available at: https://www.raggeduniversity.co.uk/wp -
content/uploads/2014/08/education.pdf
2. M.A .Education study mat erial Institute of open & distance learning,
University of Mumbai .
3. Wind Goodfriend, Sociology's Four Theoretical Perspectives:
Structural -Functional, Social Conflict, Feminism & Symbolic
Interactionism


munotes.in

Page 40

40 6
THE INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE

Unit Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Proponents of sociological theories

6.3 Symbolic Interactionism Theory –George Mead
6.4 Summary
6.5 Unit End Exercise
6.6 References
6.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through th is unit, you will be able to
 Understand the various sociological theories .
 Explain the contributions made by Durkheim and Parsons towards
structural functionalism
 Explain the theory of symbolic Interactionism.
 Understand the role of conflict theory and e xplain the modes of
conflict and causes of conflict
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Sociological theories are a set of statements that seeks to explain
problems, actions or behaviour. Theories guide research and policy
formulation in the sociology of education. Th ey also provide logical
explanation for why things are happens the way they do. A theory is a
proposed relationship between two or more concepts . An effective theory
may have an explanatory and predictive power . Theories help sociologist
understand the edu cational system and it’s also contribute to our
understanding of education as a part of society.
Sociologists study social events, interactions, and patterns. They then
develop theories to explain why these occur and what can result from
them. In sociolog y, a theor y is a way to explain different aspects of social
interactions and create testable propositions about society (Allan, 2006).
For example, Durkheim’s proposition, that differences in suicide rate can munotes.in

Page 41

The Interactionist
Perspective
41 be explained by differences in the degree of so cial integration in different
communities, is a theory.
The proponents of sociological theories are Karl Marks, Emile Durkheim,
Max Weber, Talcott Parsons & Robert Merton, Louis Atthussor & Ralph
Dahrendorf, Herbert Mead& Herbert Blummer.
Theories in soci ology provide us with different perspectives with which to
view our social world . A perspective is simply a way of looking at the
social world. A theory is a set of interrelated propositions Sociological
theories help us to explain and predict the social world in which we live .
Sociological theories help us to take various pieces of a puzzle and put
them together, using specific framework to help us make sense of it all and
to give us the tools about the bigger picture of society.
Each theoretical perspe ctive represents a particular way of understanding
the social world. It is like seeing the world through a specific set of
glasses. There are three major theoretical perspec tives in sociology.
Symbolic Interactionism , Structural Functionalism and Conflict Theory.
6.2 PROPONENTS OF SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES

6.3 SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM
Definition - Interactionism theory analyze society addressing the
subjective meaning that people impose on objects, events,&
behaviours.subjective meanings are given primacy because it is believe
that people behave based on what they believe and not just on what is
objectively true.
The symbolic interaction perspective also called symbolic Interactionism
is a major framework of sociological theory. This perspective relies on the
symbolic meaning that people develop and rely upon in the process of
social interaction. munotes.in

Page 42

Educat ion and Society

42 Symbolic Interactionism looks at individual and group meaning making
focusing on human action instead of large scale social structures.

George Herbert Mead (1863 -1931)








Mead an American Philosopher, S ociologist & Psychologist. One of the
founders of social psychology pioneered the development of symbolic
interaction perspectives. Mead is well known for the his theory of social
self, which is based on the c entral argument that the self is a social
emergent..
The social conception of the self entails that individual selves are the
products of social interaction and not the logical or biological precondition
of that interaction. It is not initially there at bi rth but arises in the process
of social experiences and activity. For mead mind arises out of the social
act and communication meads concept of social act is relevant not only to
his theory of mind but to all facets of his social philosophy.
Symbolic inter action theory in general asserts that the world is
constructed through meanings that individuals attach to social interactions.
Mead’s approach to understanding social life was grounded in his
understanding of the steps in child development. In 1934, he us ed the • George Herbert Mead was born in South Hadley,
Massachusetts in February of 1863.
• In 1894 , Mead moved from The University of Michigan to
Chicago, Illinois, where he would later become the center of
the sociological de partment at The University of Chicago.
• After Mead’s death in 1931 his students at the University
published his Mind, Self, and Society teachings.
• Herbert Blumer, Mead’s pupil, further developed his theory
and coined it “Symbolic Interactionism.”
munotes.in

Page 43

The Interactionist
Perspective
43 terms “I” and “Me” to refer to the process that individual go through in
understanding themselves in a social world.
I & Me Concept - A child enters the world only understanding the concept
of “I” —he or she is mostly unaware of the social world exce pt as it relates
to fulfilling his or her own needs. The “I” is controlled by impulses and
basic human needs and desires. As a child gets older, the social part of the
self—the “Me” —develops. The child learns about other people through
the understanding an d meaning he or she attributes to gestures. The “Me”
develops through interaction with other people and through the social
environment. This happens by learning how individuals respond to
specific acts and gestures made by the individual. The “Me” is the s ocial
self. The “I” is our immediate response to others.
Mead explains that there are two distinct stages that a child goes through
in order to realize “Me.” The first is the play stage, where children learn
how to take the attitude of a single particular other. The second stage —
where full development of the self occurs —is the game stage, where a
child learns to take on the attitude of everyone else. By being able to
internalize the roles of several others, he or she is about to function in
organized groups in society.
Looking -glass self
• Looking -glass self is the process of developing a self -image on the
basis of the messages we get from others, as we understand them.
• There are three components to the looking glass self: 1.Imagine how
we appear to others; 2. Imagine what their judgment of that appearance
must be; 3. Develop some self -feeling, such as pride or mortification,
as a result of our imagining others' judgment.
Generalized Other
• By being able to take on various roles at a time, he or she understan ds
the roles and attitudes of multiple people. This understanding of
collective attitudes of a society is what Mead referred to as
the generalized other . The generalized other keeps individuals
connected to society by an understanding of shared meanings; i t can be
considered a bridge between the individual (micro) and the wider
society (macro).
After Mead’s death in 1931 his students at the University published his
Mind, Self, and Society teachings. Herbert Blumer, Mead’s pupil, further
developed his theory and named it “Symbolic Interactionism.” munotes.in

Page 44

Educat ion and Society

44

Herbert Blumer (1900 -1987 )
This theory is the process of interaction in the formation of meanings for
individuals. In simple form, people act based on symbolic meanings they
find within a given situation.The goa ls of our interactions are to create a
shared meaning. Herbert Blumer came up with three Core principles
for his theory. -Meaning, Language, and Thought.
Meaning -
• Meaning: “Making is a community project”
• Meaning is something that has to be assigned and who assigns it?
• The definition of this word states that it is a intention for a particular
purpose or destination.
• Blumer says that the principle of meaning is central in human behavior
• Meaning is based on human interaction and how we act towards other
people .
This theory tells us that its how people interpret messages and statements.
Each one of us has a different meaning assigned to different things.
Different object have different meanings for different individuals for eg.
Tree – will be different object t o botanist, to poet, home Gardner. Word
“grass” is something that can be defined as green, or something needed to
be cut. To animals, the word “grass” could mean shelter or food. Now in
the case of symbols, meanings also depend on the number of consensual
responses of those who use it
Language -
• Language: “Symbolic naming for the human society”
• Language gives humans a means by which to negotiate meaning
through symbols.
• Mead believed that when you named something, it is assigned a
meaning. An example of this would be me naming my dog Lucifer. munotes.in

Page 45

The Interactionist
Perspective
45 The meaning of this name would be the devil, because maybe the dog
is extremely mean or bites people all of the time.
• In simple terms, this principle says that when we talk to each other,
symbolic interaction means that humans identify meaning or naming,
and then they develop discourse, which is communication orally
• Language is the source of meaning.
• Everything in life has a different meaning.
• All objects, people, and abstract ideas have been assigned certain
names.
• Mean ing has never been inherent
• Spoken words, writt en words, and pictures are all the part of our
language.
• Each word or picture means different things to each individual.
• Each person’s language is shaped by other people.
Thought -
• Thought: “Interpretation of s ymbols”
• Thought is based on language. While in a conversation, your mind is
imagining or thinking about the different points of view or meanings
to what the other person is saying to you.
• What this means is that once your hear someone say something, you
automatically start thinking about what you are going to say next.
• According to Mead “Minding is the two -second delay where
individuals rehearse the next move and anticipate how others will
react.”
• Mead believes that “We naturally talk to ourselves in orde r to sort out
the meaning of a difficult situation.”
• Whatever you think of before acting to an action or responding to a
phrase is your thought. We do this all the time without knowing or
realizing it. It is your own personal meaning that you put on words
• Humans come equipped with a mind wired for thought.
• That mind allows everyone to interpret the symbols of our language.
Blumer, following Mead, claimed that people interact with each other by
interpreting or defining each other's actions instead of merely reacting to
each other's actions.
munotes.in

Page 46

Educat ion and Society

46 6.6 SUMMARY
Sociological theories means is a set of statements that seeks to explain
problems, actions or behavior. Theories in sociology provide us with
different perspectives with which to view our social world. The ma jor
sociological theories offer insight into how we understand education
There are three major theoretical perspectives in sociology. The
Conflict, Structural functionalism and symbolic Interactionism .
The theory of symbolic Interactionism focuses on educa tion as a means
for labeling individuals

6.7 UNIT END EXERCISE

1. Explain the major theorist associated with structural functionalism.
2. Read the articles or review the researches on education based on
theoretical approaches
6.8 REFERENCES :
• M.S. Gore - Sociolo gy of Education :a unique perspective on schools
• Singh, Y. K. (2008) Sociological Foundation of Education. New
Delhi: A.P.H Publishing Corporation.
• Bllantine,J.H. (2011) The Sociology of Education a Systematic
Analysis. New Jersey : Prentice Hall Inc


munotes.in

Page 47

47 7
LIBERAL PERSPECTIVES
Unit structure :
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 What is Liberalism?
7.3 Liberalism and Education
7.4 Summary
7.5 Questions
7.6 References and Further Readings
7.0 OBJECTIVES:
 To understand the concept of liberalism
 To familia rize students with the liberal perspectives in education
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The concept of liberalism has a wide influence on contemporary work
within the field of education. Given this breadth of effect, it is not
surprising that liberalism can be invokedin the service of multiple ends —
many of which appear to be at odds with one another.
Few approaches to social and political life are as capacious as liberalism.
Many, of tenseemingly in commensurate, agendas declare liberalism as a
guiding ethos in their activi ties. It is perhaps due in part to this rich
diversity of perspectives that liberalism hasbecome a dominant view
within the impulses of and conversations about contemporary social
institutions. Unsurprisingly, education does not break from this pattern, as
the influence of liberalism is felt in multiple arguments for educational
arrangements and obligations.
7.2 WHAT IS LIBERALISM?
Liberalism is the dominant ideology of the present -day Western world.
The history of England, Western Europe and America for the l ast 300
years is closely associated with the evolution and development of liberal
thought. Liberalism was the product of the climate of opinion that
emerged at the time of the Renaissance and Reformation in Europe. As an
ideology and a way of life, 'it ref lected the economic, social and political
aspirations of the rising middle class which later on became the capitalist
class'. In the sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries, when the feudal
system was cracking up, a new political system was taking its plac e.
The establishment of the absolute nation -states in England and Europe
gave birth to a kind of political system in which the authority of the king munotes.in

Page 48

Education and Society

48 was absolute. The beginning of liberalism was a protest the hierarchical
and privileged authority and monar chy - a protest which involved every
aspect of life. The main slogan of the protest was freedom - freedom from
every authority which can act capriciously and arbitrarily along with
freedom of the individual to develop all his potentialities as a human bein g
endowed with reason. To achieve the liberty of the individual and to
challenge the authority of the state, liberalism demanded liberty in every
field of life: intellectual, social, religious, cultural, political, and economic
etc.
Indeed, a through line in the history of liberalism, without qualification or
specific focus, necessarily includes an account of the European
Enlightenment, the period ofpolitical revolutions that followed, and a
careful treatment of the work of a range of thinkers as diverse as T homas
Hobbes, John Locke, Adam Smith, Montesquieu, John Stuart Mill,
Immanuel Kant, and many others. These historical moments and thinkers
molded liberalism into the body of commitments that populate the
contemporary context.
Liberalism as a political and mo ral philosophy which is centred on two
main principles - these are individualism and liberty. Firstly, liberalism
places the individual at the heart of society and argues that the highest
value social order is one that is built around the individual. Secon dly, the
purpose of society is to allow individuals to reach their full potential if
they want to, and that the best way to do this is to give the individual as
much liberty as possible. These two key principles are the foundations
upon which the various e lements of liberalism spring forth.
PRINCIPLES OF LIBERALISM include:
SOCIAL
1. liberalism is opposed to all artificial pressure as well as regulations on
individual freedom
2. It believes that the traditions and institutions being outdated will have
no relevance in the prosperity and development.
ECONOMICAL 1. In economic sphere liberalism supports free trade and
production. 2. It vigorously oppose any restriction on imports and exports.
POLITICAL
1. Liberalism has advocated the total restriction of sta te interference in the
freedom of man
2. It is voice in favour of equality before law
3. It advocates freedom of thought and expression
4. It stands for secularism.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:
1. Writea note on the beginning of liberalism.

munotes.in

Page 49

Liberal Perspectives
49 7.3 LIBERALISM AND ED UCATION:
In keeping with the rich and complex history of the tradition, most general
understandings of liberalism, as it currently exists across multiple forms,
identify a dualoccupation with the central aims of equality and liberty.
Although not necessaril y described as such, these two tenets are
differently prioritized and pursued by the variousspecies of liberalism such
that a general account of liberalism in education can beorganized by
appeals to either of the pair. This focus on both liberty and equali ty has,
atits base, an attention to questions of the legitimacy of political power
and the ethicalorganization of relative stability in the service of progress
within a society.
Liberalism’s occupation with questions of equality has come to dominate
discus sions ofeducation, as that institution has, in the last half century,
become a more explicit site of contestation relative to resources and
benefits within a social setting. Although previouseras or non -Western
perspectives may have presented many open ques tions of equalityand
education, it is safe to state that contemporary Western perspectives
demand that education move toward equality in access to and quality of
educational experiences.
Despite this general agreement regarding the essential value of equal ity
with in education, disputes persist. These disagreements stem from a
variety ofsources; chief among them are deliberations regarding whether
equality is realizedin one or another set of circumstances.Within the
richness of these ways of conceiving of equ ality in education, a few
largecategory groups emerge: namely, a focus on rights, outcomes,
opportunity, or adequacy, as prioritized standards for best understanding
the concept of equality in education.
The language of rights is often invoked to clarify an y number of liberal
arguments forequality within education. The idea that every citizen may
have a right to education is arather powerful and relatively contemporary
notion, which is perhaps surprising to thosewho currently examine
education. In line with liberalism’s rise since the 18th century, theidea of a
right to education is popular enough that it is difficult to imagine a time in
whicha declaration of that right would not have been prosaic. Never the
less, the widespread claim of a right to education, h eld equally by diverse
persons, is a relatively new additionto educational thinking.
Of course, arguments over what exactly may be included within a right to
education present interesting challenges for liberalism within education.
What does the right toeduc ation entail? Should a right to education imply
that educational practices and policies ought to mitigate the external
factors and circumstances of one’s situation? There are a number of ways
in which the liberal view of equality can be understood and explore d as it
intersects with rights language within education.
As such, liberal views of equality may suggest that all persons hold
anequal right to education. This argument may be most fully represented
in Article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Right s: “Everyone
has the right to education.” In thisview, the right to education ought not be munotes.in

Page 50

Education and Society

50 limited due to, inter alia, one’s nationality, race, gender, (dis) ability status
or identity. One has right to an equal allotment of educational resources or
education al experiences of a quality equal to their peers.
This account of an equally held right to education tends to be most strictly
regulative inapplication to the more foundational levels of education, such
that the right to primary education tends to be enacte d as a guarantee to be
educated, while possession of anequal right to higher education tends to be
enacted as the guarantee to have access,allocated on the basis of the
demonstration of some meritorious past accomplishments, to educational
opportunities.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:
1. What is‘right to education’?
7.4 SUMMARY
Related to views of education as essential to the process of securing
liberalism’s mostcentral aims, is the view that equality in education ought
to be organized according tothese or other out comes. These potential
outcomes span a rather large spectrum and support for them may be
argued alongside the language of rights, in that they may seekto achieve
ends of social integration, political enfranchisement, or more. Political or
socialequality may be the outcome of an educational project, but various
other outcomes arealso asserted and defended on the grounds of equality.
Liberalism covers a wide range of positions relative to education in the
21st century. It isunlikely that this fact will change in the near future as
liberalism captures most of thepopular lay understandings of the value of
education while also providing a rich set of conceptual tools for advancing
nuanced educational arguments.
7.6 QUESTIONS
 What does the notion of ‘liberty’ mean wi thin the educational
pursuit?
 Does everyone in the world have equal access to education? Why?
7.7 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS
 Anderson, E. (2007). Fair opportunity in education: A democratic
equality perspective. Ethics , 117(4), 595 –622.
 Brighouse, H., & Swift, A. (2003). Defending liberalism in education
theory. Journal ofEducation Policy , 18(4), 355 –373.
 Fawcett, E. (2014). Liberalism: The life of an idea. Princeton, NJ:
Princeton UniversityPress.
 Jonathan, R. (1997). Illusory freedoms: Liberalism, edu cation and the
market. Chichester,U.K.: Wiley.
 Thompson, W. (2017). Liberalism in Education. Oxford Research
Encyclopedia of Education .

munotes.in

Page 51

51 8
CONFLICT THEORY
Unit structure :
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Conflict Theory on e ducation
8.3 Drawbacks of Conflict Theory
8.4 Questions
8.5 References and Further Readings
8.0 OBJECTIVES
 To introduce you to the conflict theory on education.
 To explore the conflicts related to education i n a society.
8.1 INTRODUCTION
The perspective of conflict theory, contrary to the structural functionalist
perspective, believes that society is full of social groups with different
aspirations, different access to life chances and gain different social
rewards. Relations in society, in this view, are mainly based on
exploitation, oppression, domination and su bordination. The several social
theories that emphasize social conflict have roots in the ideas of Karl Marx
(1818 -1883), the great German theorist and political activist. The Marxist
conflict approach emphasizes a materialist interpretation of history, a
dialectical method of analysis, a critical stance toward existing social
arrangements, and a political program of revolution or, at least, reform.
Conflict theories draw attention to power differentials, such as class
conflict, and generally contrast tradi tional or historically -dominant
ideologies. Conflict theory is most commonly associated with Marxism,
but as a reaction to functionalism and positivist methods may also be
associated with critical theory, feminist theory, queer theory, postmodern
theory, p ost-structural theory, postcolonial theory, and a variety of other
perspectives. Some conflict theorists like Max Weber (1864 -1920) believe
education is controlled by the state which is controlled by the powerful,
and its purpose is to reproduce existing i nequalities, as well as
legitimizeacceptableideas which actually work to reinforce the privileged
positions of the dominant group. Connell and White state that the
education system is as much an arbiter of social privilege as a transmitter
of knowledge.

munotes.in

Page 52

Education and Societ y

52 8.2 CONFLICT THEORY ON EDUCATION
Education achieves its purpose by maintaining the status quo, where
lower -class children become lower class adults, and middle and upper
class children become middle and upper -class adults. McLeod argues that
teachers treat lower -class kids like less compete nt students, placing them
‖ in lower ―tracks because they have generally had fewer opportunities to
develop language, critical thinking, and social skills prior to entering
school than middle and upper class kids. When placed in lower tracks,
lower -class ki ds are trained for bluecollar jobs by an emphasis on
obedience and following rules rather than autonomy, higher -order
thinking, and self -expression. They point out that while private schools are
expensive and generally reserved for the upper classes, publi c schools -
like Municipal schools, especially those that serve the poor, are under -
funded, understaffed, and growing worse. Schools are also powerful
agents of socialization that can be used as tools for one group to exert
power over others – for example , by demanding that all students learn
English, schools are ensuring that English -speakers dominate students
from non -English speaking backgrounds This cycle occurs because the
dominant group has, over time, closely aligned education with middle
class valu es and aims, thus alienating people of other classes. Many
teachers assume that students will have particular middle class experiences
at home, and for some children this assumption isn‘t necessarily true.
Some children are expected to help their parents a fter school and carry
considerable domestic responsibilities in their often single -parent home.
The demands of this domestic labour often make it difficult for them to
find time to do all their homework and this affects their academic
performance. Where te achers have softened the formality of regular study
and integrated student‘s preferred working methods into the curriculum,
they noted that particular students displayed strengths they had not been
aware of before. However few teacher deviate from the trad itional
curriculum and the curriculum conveys what constitutes knowledge as
determined by the state - and those in power. This knowledge isn‘t very
meaningful to many of the students, who see it as pointless.
Wilson & Wyn state that the students realise th ere is little or no direct link
between the subjects they are doing and their perceived future in the
labour market. Anti -school values displayed by these children are often
derived from their consciousness of their real interests. Sargent believes
that fo r working class students, striving to succeed and absorbing the
school's middle class values, is accepting their inferior social position as
much as if they were determined to fail. Fitzgerald states that
―irrespective of their academic ability or desire t o learn, students from
poor families have relatively little chance of securing success . On the
other hand, for middle and especially upper -class children, maintaining
their superior position in society requires little effort. The federal
government subsid ises ‗independent‘ private schools enabling the rich to
obtain ‗good education‘ by paying for it. With this ‗good education‘, rich
children perform better, achieve higher and obtain greater rewards. In this
way, the continuation of privilege and wealth for the elite is made munotes.in

Page 53

Conflict Theory
53 possible. Conflict theorists believe this social reproduction continues to
occur because the whole education system is overlain with ideology
provided by the dominant group. In effect, they perpetuate the myth that
education is available to all to provide a means of achieving wealth and
status. Anyone who fails to achieve this goal, according to the myth, has
only themselves to blame. Wrigh t agrees, stating that ―the effect of the
myth is to…stop them from seeing that their personal troubles are part of
major social issues . The duplicity is so successful that many parents
endure appalling jobs for many years, believing that this sacrifice w ill
enable their children to have opportunities in life that they did not have
themselves. These people who are poor and disadvantaged are victims of a
societal confidence trick. They have been encouraged to believe that a
major goal of schooling is to str engthen equality while, in reality, schools
reflect society‘s intention to maintain the previous unequal distribution of
status and power
8.3 DRAWBACK OF CONFLICT THEORY
This perspective has been criticized as deterministic, pessimistic and
allowing no room f or the agency of individuals to improve their situation.
18 It should be recognized however that it is a model, an aspect of reality
which is an important part of the picture.
8.4 Q UESTIO N
1) Explain confl ict theory on education in detail .
8.5 REFERENCES
References: M. Francis Abraham, Modern Sociological Theory and
Introd uction, Oxford University Press. 2008 Jeanne H. Ballantine and Joan
Z. Spad (Ed) Schools and Society: A sociological approach to education,
3rd Edition, Sage publications India Pvt. Ltd. 2008
http://web.grinnell.edu/courses/soc/s00/soc111 -
01/IntroTheories /Conflict.html
http://www.criminology.fsu.edu/crimtheory/conflict.htm
http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Conflict_theory
http://family.jrank.org/pages/1679/Symbolic -Interactionism.htm

munotes.in

Page 54

54 9
RADICAL PERSPECTIVES – DE-SCHOOLING SOCIETY (EVAN
ILLICH)
Unit Structure
9.0 Objective
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Biography of Ivan Illich
9.3 Understanding De -Schooling Society
9.4 Discussion Surrounding De -schooling by different Writer s
9.5 Summary
9.6 Questions
9.7 References
9.0 OBJECTIVES
1. To learn about Evan Illich, work of De -schooling Society
2. To understand the solution, he offers through De -schooling for the
Education system.

9.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter we will learn about De-schooling Society an important
work by Evan Illich. We are learning about this text even today as its very
much relevant to the present conditions of education too. This chapter will
make you think and make you introspect both as a student and as a lear ner
about your experiences with education altogether. This chapter, will help
you to develop and critique or view the education system from a different
dimension. The structure of the chapter is as such we will learn about the
biography of Evan Illich and thereafter his work and then compare it with
the present education system. This chapter, will give a scope for
discussion like is schooling worth the number of years a student spends? Is
it worth when the kind of investment by children and parents in terms of
energy, resources like time, money? This chapter would make you think
on these lines.

munotes.in

Page 55

Radical Perspectives – De-
schooling Society (Evan Illi ch)
55 9.2 BIOGRAPHY OF IVAN ILLICH
Ivan Illich was an Austrian philosopher and Catholic priest who was born
on September 4, 1926, in Vienna, and passed away on December 2, 2002,
in Bremen, Germany. He is well known for his work on radical polemics
(arguments), he argued that many contemporary social systems and
technological advancements had dubious disadvantages in addition to
undermining people's autonomy, freedom, and dignity. He pointed out
how institutionalizing regulates the key facets of life in both the mass
educational system and the contemporary medical establishment.
9.3 RADICAL PERSPECTIVES
As the chapter title uses the term radical perspectives, let us look learn
about the meaning of radical first. Radical according Cambridge
dictionary is that of doing or believingsomething which is about bring
about change in the structure, social political conditions of the society.
Deutsch; Steven(2007) note that the infl uence of a radical movement is
complete, strong and it also involves certain degree of conflicts with the
old pattern.
9.4 DE -SCHOOLING SOCIETY
De-schooling Society was published in the year 1971, it is one of most
well-known and important work, of Illic h which discusses about education
and schooling. Illich saw schools as places where consumerism and
submission to authority were valued over real learning. For him actual
learning was substituted by a process of moving up in the institutional
ladder and ac quiring more not so useful certifications. Illich relied on his
background in philosophy and history as well as his many years of
teaching experience to develop his work De -schooling Society. Illich
believed that instead of mandating universal schooling, i t would be better
to adopt a model of learning in which information and skills were shared
through networks of informal and voluntary encounters (Britannica).
 Institutionalized education
In contrast to schooling, the institutionalized education discourage s the
mind from relying on one's own knowledge and makes one more
dependent upon the system to advance in life, Illich contends that
education should be an intellectual endeavor to improve oneself by
acquiring a greater knowledge base. We wholeheartedly co ncur with Illich
that formal education is institutionalized through schools. Even with a
little child under the age of two, an unidentified bystander, acquaintances,
or family members, we occasionally discover fresh and unusual things.
Not all teaching and learning must occur in formal educational settings.
While going by bus, train, or metro wherever, we study on the road and on
the street. Since there is no upper limit to where people may learn,
learning should not be restricted to school grounds. We beli eve that
learning with others who are different from oneself is much more
enriching and broadens the information one obtains. munotes.in

Page 56

Education and Society

56 Education is to educate one's entire being, not just their mind. De -
schooling education, Illich's believes that education undermin es citizens'
freedom and perpetuates the myth that only education and the degrees
granted by schools can provide for students. They value degrees and
certificates more than they value knowledge. He writes that schools have
an anti -educational impact on soc iety since they are seen as institutions
with a focus on education. Most individuals see academic failures as
personal. There is also evidence that obtaining an education is a highly
expensive, very hard, usually practically impossible endeavour for poor.
He says that schools do not solve the duty of duty of providing education
instead it further complicates the problem.
 Indoctrination through Schools
Through the education system people are indoctrinated by experts of
education, and they are also dependent on them. People aren't content.
Professionals make education as a consumer -driven culture, which trains
the students to be more materialistic and focused on material possessions.
Children are trained to become Information managers which is consider
valuab le knowledge as a commodity. In fact, Children would stop
attending school if such concept are not planted in their minds. Due to the
complex educational system individuals are looking for certain skills and
certifications since there is greater competitio n for available positions.
Services for education and training has become essential for labor forces
to use in order to compete. A person's quality is determined by the
quantity of training and educational level they acquire. Technocrats
provide a degree a s recognition to people who successfully finish a
particular level of education. With each level of education, the job market
of educated people access grows. Although formal education, in our
respective opinions, has the ability to aid individuals in movi ng up the
social scale, it also severely divides society into several socioeconomic
classes. Those who attend school and those who don't, those who graduate
from school and those who don't, are among these many categories.
 Inequality in Education –
Pierre Bourdieu outlines the connection between institutionalization and
polarization in his work in his work The Forms of Capital (1986).
According to Bourdieu, identifying a person's opposed things may help
determine their cultural capital in addition to their position, which is
symbolically conveyed in their environment (Bourdieu 1986). Some kids
could have more access to literature, computers, or other extra learning
resources in a school context than less privileged student groups. If the
school committee do es not promote shared access to educational
resources, other consequences can happen. A person with more object
capital is likely to be more productive. Therefore, we argue that having
access to money is one of the crucial factors affecting a person's acad emic
achievement. These various groups include those who go to school and
those who don't, those who graduate from college and those who don't,
and those who can afford to go to school and those who can't. While Illich
thought that this "social division" w as a result of schooling. There are munotes.in

Page 57

Radical Perspectives – De-
schooling Society (Evan Illi ch)
57 socioeconomic divisions that are getting worse even within schools. For
instance, more pupils from disadvantaged community groups will quit
going to school if the government stops funding free education. The law
will aff ect at the end middle -class than the affluent persons in the
meantime.
Illich discusses the current pattern of classroom. He points out that the
majority of the child’s formative years is spent in a facility with 500 –1000
other convicts who are sorted into classes based on age. These institutions
are what Illich views as the earliest indications of disempowerment. He
focuses on credentials in education and how 'consumer kids' are given
instruction in the form of packages created by technocrats. Thus, are ki ds
being taught to be consumers. Additionally, large public schooling reduces
neighborhood initiatives by appropriating resources and goodwill. When
schooling became mandatory in Britain in the 1860s, working class
schools that relied on parental funding w ere stopped to exist. The author
IIlich also views education, namely the mass, mandatory public schools,
as offering an introduction to a consumerist, packaged, institutionalized,
and impoverished way of life. He contends that the assertion that
instructio n is the primary cause of most learning is demonstrably wrong.
 Marx and De - schooling
Illich views education pattern of classroom as a false redemption
narrative. He makes note of the fact that no matter how much money is
spent on public education, the ou tputs remain flat and more money is
constantly needed. Illich claims that educational alienation in society is
worse than the alienation of labour (as analysed by Marx). People are
taught in schools to consume goods made by others and to believe in the
notion of unending growth. Schooling creates a fantasy that "offers empty
promises of salvation to the underprivileged of the technological era."
According to Illich, de -schooling is essential to the transformation needed
to make society more human. Though fo r Illich Marxists and others who
want social change but see no issue with education are dubious in his eyes.
The way we think about education, according to Illich, is at the core of our
miserable existence. The idea behind the educational system is that it
opens doors to fresh knowledge and a better understanding of the world
though it doesn’t happen in the institutionalized mode.
Check Your Progress
1. What is your view on universalizing school?
2. Which concept of Marx does Illich use in his work?

 Monopoly o f Schooling
Although it is assumed that education will lead the pupils to eternal
happiness and enlightenment. However, it is important to note that the
current educational system has mis produced schools and has not been
successful in achieving its goals for society. Ivan Illich's questions the
uprising against the monopoly educational system. The student is
"schooled" to mistake instruction with learning, grade advancement with munotes.in

Page 58

Education and Society

58 education, a certificate with competence, and fluency with the capacity to
express anything new, according to him. The imagination of the student is
"schooled" to accept service instead of value. Medical care is confused for
health care, while social work is mistaken for improving. The competition
is mistaken for productive employm ent, as is medical treatment for health
care, social work for the development of communal life, police protection
for safety, and military honour for national security. He says that schools
relieve other institutions of the burden of providing education. I nstead of
relying on themselves as individuals for education, all facets of life —
including politics and leisure —depend on schools. Illich considers this to
be a challenge. Illich’s main problem with schooling is that he sees it as
weakening the independenc e of citizens and with the stereotype idea that
only school and degree distributed by school is everything for learners.
They are giving the importance to degree and certificate but not the
knowledge. He describes schooling’s anti -educational effect on soc iety as
“school is recognized as the institution which specializes in education. The
failures of school are taken by most people as a proof that education is a
very costly, very complex, always arcane, and frequently almost
impossible task”. He explains th at school’s take away the responsibility of
education from other institutions. Illich views schools as oppressive
institutions that limit creative expression, foster uniformity, and force
students to embrace and perceive as just the interests of the strong .
According to Illich, this is the "secret curriculum" present in the
classroom. What and how students learn is completely out of their hands.
In De -schooling Society, Ivan Illich also argued that a good education
system should have three aims: to give eve ryone enough access to
resources at any time in their lives, especially those who wants to learn; to
make it possible for everyone who wants to share knowledge and create a
platform for those people who want to learn it from them; and to give
opportunities for those who want to present an issue, arguments to the
general public (1973a: 78). He thus contends that four (or even three)
distinct pathways or learning exchanges which could help in facilitate this.
These are what he refers to as educational or lear ning webs. Ivan Illich
used his interest in "non -formal" approaches and his own experiences with
"free" education to argue in favor of the development of educational webs
or networks (Inflibnet). The present system the child doesn’t have any
voice, they ha ve to just play the role of following than doing anything. It’s
a interest of powerful with massive curriculum, the teaching regime is an
authoritarian one. The best student is seen as someone more marks,
confirming group and the outgroup is seen as not ac cepted. Instead of skill
and human values. Since, school is an important role in the labour market
– and society too follows same yardstick and harms the child. Universal
education is not healthy – each child to transform and learn, share and
caring. The institution base has to be dismantled, deinstitutionalized
education for deinstitutionalized society. Mindless conforming doesn’t
help the society to move in a forward direction.
The present education system has no place for Individuality and
originality. Answers are supposed to be written on pre written norms. Any munotes.in

Page 59

Radical Perspectives – De-
schooling Society (Evan Illi ch)
59 deviation the student could lose marks and fail in the exam, which would
be further leading to stigma zing experience both for students and parents.
 Solution for Schools is Learning Webs
One fascinating idea that sprang from Illich's de -schooling society was the
idea of learning webs. Before the internet was invented, learning webs
provided a platform for self -driven study practices. Illich said that the only
thing that should be institutiona lized is the purported "bank for talent
exchange." The phrase "bank for talent exchange" denoted a public library
with learning materials available to everyone. The bank for skill exchange
became a reality thanks to modern technology. (Soegiono, et.al. 201 8).
The alternative mechanism put out by Illich is a more thorough process for
building learning webs. Illich favours this as his preferred way of
instruction. Learning webs establish a community of teachers and learners
with similar interests who will col laborate on "creative and exploratory"
learning projects on their own initiative.
Through Reference Services to Educational Objects, which make it easier
to access items or procedures needed for formal learning, Illich explains
how these webs may be constr ucted. Some of these can be set aside for
this usage and kept in libraries, rental facilities, labs, and performance
spaces like theatres and museums, while others can be used regularly in
factories, airports, or farms but made available to students as int erns or
during downtime. People can publish their talents, the conditions under
which they are prepared to act as mentors for those looking to gain these
abilities, and the contact information at Skill Exchanges.
Peer-Matching is a communications platform that enables users to define
the learning activity they want to participate in in the hopes of connecting
with a partner for the investigation.
Reference Services to Educators -at-Large is a company that offers a
directory of professionals, paraprofessional s, and independent contractors
with contact information, a description of their services, and terms and
conditions for using them. One can select such instructors, services and
can include surveying or talking to their previous students and can be used
for upgrading children’s creativity.
The core point of De -schooling is it shouldn’t be compulsory to attend or
made compulsory by denying opportunities to students’ learners to attend
school. People should be able to learn from anywhere and giving all the
powers to school isn’t always right. He gives the example of Spanish
teaching. Once, when there was need for teachers,nobody was able to
teach to a group of people who were non -Spanish. The teachers failed to
teach the non -Spanish people as they stuck to a s yllabus, rigid structure.
Thereafter a bunch of teenagers were hired who were living on streets and
they completed the task within a week. The point to draw is that its not
always the degree holders are able to fulfil certain task. Easy solutions
need to b e applied specially those who do not have degree should also be
used. munotes.in

Page 60

Education and Society

60
Check Your Progress
1. What is your view on de -schooling?
2. Which Web is Ivan discussing in his book?
9.5 DISCUSSION SURROUNDING DE -SCHOOLING BY
DIFFERENT WRITERS
Though some points of D e-schooling book can be accepted. It cannot be
completely accepted. Like Abolishing or reducing complete dependence
on schools would mean that there would be no public schools, which
would imply that education would once again be limited to those who can
afford it, condemning the uninformed to poverty as public education has
historically been one of the most effective means of escaping poverty.
Reform, as opposed to school closure, would be preferable. Illich makes
the claim that public education has done a bsolutely nothing to assist lift
people out of poverty. The self -promotional nature of connected
organizations is brought to light by the bureaucratization of society.
Despite the fact that Illich's contributions may not always seem to have an
impact on th e systemic issues facing education in the contemporary
period. (Bano et.al 2017).
When referencing radical education, Fielding and Moss point out that the
prevailing philosophies are challenged by several factors like
standardization, markets, competitiven ess, and competition
managerialism, technical practice, instrumentality. The existing structure
in education strongly emphasizes democracy as a guiding principle,
compassion as a core value, and education in its fullest meaning. They
also support the idea that a child has a lot of potential. They argue that
radical education should take place in the "common school," an
environment that accepts pupils of all ages, is sized on a human scale,
values cooperation, and concentrates on depth of learning. A learni ng
community that prioritizes the needs of each individual member while
collaborating closely with other schools and the local authority; a school
that is seen as a place open to all locals; a community workshop with a
variety of uses and opportunities; an d a learning community that views
each member's needs as a top priority. (Fielding, et.al 2010).
Routray rejects the deinstitutionalization of school’s proposal of Illich,
which is supported by certain academics. Illich's initiatives aid in reducing
the ce ntral technocrat's dominance in education. The strong political
power of the school hegemony will result in a more standardized
education. Services for education are held to a higher standard as a result
of growing competition. Routray prophesied that due to the steady
increase in educational uniformity, society would be split into many
groups that would struggle to survive and compete in the modern
industrial world (Routray 2012:86).
munotes.in

Page 61

Radical Perspectives – De-
schooling Society (Evan Illi ch)
61 9.6 SUMMARY
In this chapter we learnt about Ivan Illich work De -schooling society
which was published in the year 1971. This book questions the existing
education system which creates marginalization among learners to use
Marx’s words alienation among students. The education system through
that of institutionalization redu ces creativity, innovation, originality
among the students. To give a simple example, if a student writes
something new in the exam, that what is written in the textbook, his/ her
perspective would be not accepted. Hence, through de -schooling Ivan
notes th at there needs to be alternative platforms be created like learning
webs where people are able to network, exchange and learn what interests
them than universalizing school and same curriculum for everyone.
He also finds the syllabus, rigid, structured li ke manuals. Schools offer
degree, certificates, diploma which is of no use and those who do not have
are seen as out group and even ignored even though they have the required
skill sets. In a way, schools operate like monopoly created in the market.
Throug h de -schooling Ivan questions, the hegemony of the powerful
people and gives a voice for the student. The student who has to follow the
earlier approved syllabus and who have to no role to play except follow.
Thus, de -schooling society is a path -breaking t ext which is relevant even
today, which the rising school fees and inequality and lack of government
owned schools and rising private schools.
9.7 QUESTIONS
1. Write a note on Institutionalization of Schooling as discussed by
Ivan?
2. Discuss the learning Web as explained by Ivan.
3. Explain the de -schooling society through monopolistic role of school
as discussed by Ivan.
9.8 REFERENCES
1. Fielding, Michael & Moss, Peter. (2010). Radical education and the
common school: A democratic alternative. Radical Education and the
Common School: A Democratic Alternative. 1 -190.
10.4324/9780203837405.

2. https://infed.org/mobi/ivan -illich -deschooling -conviviality -and-
lifelong -learnin g/

3. https://newlearningonline.com/new -learning/chapter -2/supporting -
material -2/ivan -illich -on-deschooling

4. https://monoskop.org/images/1/17/Illich_Ivan_Deschooling_Society.p
df Full book available at this link. munotes.in

Page 62

Education and Society

62 5. Soegiono, Agie& Anis, Aulia&RizqinaMaulida, Saskia. (2018).
Reconsider de -schooling: Alternative towa rds more accessible and
inclusive education. 31. 256 -269. 10.20473/mkp.V31I32018.256 -269.

6. Cooley, A. (2022, August 31). Ivan Illich. Encyclopedia Britannica.
https://www.britannica.com/biograph y/Ivan -Illich

7. NargishBano, Nurul Hod, An attack on modern education system: a
critical review of why we must disestablish school, International
Journal for Innovative Research in Multidisciplinary Field, ISSN –
2455 -0620 Volume - 3, Issue - 8, Aug - 2017 Page 114

8. https://monoskop.org/images/1/17/Illich_Ivan_Deschooling_Society.p
dfEbook written by the author i.e.,Illich is available here in this link.

9. Deutsch, Steven. (2 007). The Radical Perspective in Sociology.
Sociological Inquiry. 40. 85 - 93. 10.1111/j.1475 -682X.1970.tb00981. x.


munotes.in

Page 63

63 10
CULTURAL REPRODUCTION
(BOURDIEU P.)
Unit structure :
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Interface between Education and Society
10.3 Cultural Reproduction: The Concept
10.4 Cultural Reproduction and Education
10.5 Summary
10.6 Questions
10.7 Referenc es and Further Readings
10.0 OBJECTIVES:
 To understand the what is cultural reproduction
 To familiarize students with Bourdieu’s work in the context of
education
10.1 INTRODUCTION:
Development today stands on such a threshold that livelihood issues
cannot be addressed without reference to education. Modern societies have
entered a situation of never being able to dream of development without
achieving ‘mass literacy’. Education is viewed as one of the important
strategies of creating ‘ability’ among citizen s to establish an understanding
of their vision of society and convert it into an operational reality.From the
above perspective, education is considered as one of the prominent agents
of social transformation and as one that takes people towards sustainab le
development.
Bourdieu’s exploration of how the social order is reproduced, and
inequality persists across generations, is more pertinent than ever. The
concepts he marshals shed considerable light, for example, on the
dynamics at work for educators and pedagogues. Schooling, academic
institutions and local structures were of great interest to him.Pierre
Bourdieu’s experiences of the schooling system, and the pressures and
prejudices, focused around those from poorer backgrounds within elite
educational i nstitutions were significant both in terms of the foci of his
work and his concern to generate tools for change. munotes.in

Page 64

Education and Society

64 Bourdieu's work has attracted considerable interest and, not withstanding
criticism of his style and obscure theoretical formulations, has intr oduced
some powerful concepts into social theory.Bourdieu contributed to the
sociology of education and especially by proving an account of socially
differentiated educational attainment. Further, he paid attention to issues
of structure, agency and habitu s, the cultural autonomy of the school,
arbitrary and necessary school cultures, and the distinction between
primary and secondary effects on educational differences.
10.2 INTERFACE BETWEEN EDUCATION AND
SOCIETY:
The above analysis about the importance of studying education from a
sociological perspective highlights the fact that the interaction between
society and education is not mutually exclusive and contradictory.
Education helps people in society to develop their abilities to the best
possible way an d use them appropriately to improve their earning
capacities and living capabilities from time to time.
However, it is also true that not always does education result in such
positive outcomes as progress, equality, and sustainable development.
While the t enets of education could be the same to all in a society, unequal
access to educational opportunities and outcomes of education can result
in unequal reproduction of knowledge and socio -economic power obtained
through such knowledge.
Building his theoretic al framework around what he calls the Habitus, the
Field and the Cultural Capital, Bourdieu upholds that structures determine
people’s choices to participate in the gains of development. The Habitus is
not only comprised of traditionally ascribed structure s (of caste, in the
case of India), it is also based on achieved statuses like education. Traces
of inequality in educational accomplishments were tested against the
concepts of social capitalin the famous ‘French Educational System’.
Bourdieu explored the tension between the reproduction of knowledge
based on traditional patterns vis -à-vis those that emerged from modern,
innovative approaches.
In the final stage, the cultural product of the dominant groups/classes
comes to stay and reproduced socially in education. The argument by
Bourdieu is that the practices of the dominant group get legitimised; the
marginalised students are compelled to be alienated from the educational
capital as they do not possess the required cultural capital (of the dominant
group). Upon this, the situation requires adoption of the cultural capital
alien to them by lower -class students, which is an oppressive step.
Learning becomes a compulsive process of trying to know the hitherto
unfamiliar contexts by shunning one’s own famili ar experiences and
practices and adopting those of the dominant groups.
The sociology of education is centrally concerned with the interrelation
ship educational processes of a society and their social context and
comparativists are similar issues in a cro ss-cultural context. Education is munotes.in

Page 65

Cultural Reproduction
(Bourdieu P.)
65 important for all structures of the society. The structures of the society
mainly classes are involved and tried to be educated in places which are
separated deliberately for the aims. On the other hand, from society to
society the aims and also the expectation can be changed. As an
instrument education needs to be given thought to on and reconsidered for
the individual and social perspectives. Education is one of the main factors
for the social reproduction in the society. That is a nature of the societies
that they want to reproduce themselves as they are. So, society cannot be
separated from reproduction and education.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:
1. How does society reproduce itself through education?
10.3 CULTURAL REPRODUCTION : THE CONCEPT:
Cultural reproduction is a concept developed primarily by the French
sociologist Pierre Bourdieu to describe the method by which dominant
classes within an unequal society replicate and legitimate aspects of their
culture. Pierre Bourdieu an d other theorists argue that cultural
reproduction ensures that the various forms of language, dress, art, and
learning of the dominant class appear as normative to the society at large.
As such, cultural reproduction is theorized to be one of the major to ols by
which the dominant class retains power. Cultural reproduction differs from
the somewhat related cultural production in that cultural production deals
with the development of cultural objects, whereas cultural reproduction is
focused on how existing cultural forms of the dominant class become
prevalent over alternate cultural forms.
Cultural reproduction is frequently considered to describe how cultural
forms (e.g., social inequality, privilege, elite status, ethnicity) and cultures
themselves are tra nsmitted intact, from one generation to another.The
word culture derives from the notion of growth and development and does
not imply stasis or repetition.Drawing on definitions of culture from
anthropologists, scholars suggest that culture embodies the id ea of
accumulated resources (material and immaterial) that a community might
employ, change, and pass on. Essentially it is the socially learned behavior
and the shared symbolism of a community: it reveals and structures,
empowers and constrains.
CHECK YO UR PROGRESS:
1. Explain the concept of cultural reproduction.
10.4 CULTURAL REPRODUCTION AND EDUCATION:
As far as education is concerned, Bourdieu argues that society is divided
into dominant groups by means of the 'pedagogic action' of the elite group
which imposes its 'cultural as the legitimate definition of educational
culture. This, in contrast to a culture conscious choice (a sociological
impossibility) or natural outgrowth of the whole authors argue that all munotes.in

Page 66

Education and Society

66 'pedagogic action' is objectively 'symboli c violence', in imposition of a
cultural arbitrary by an arbitrary power.
Bourdieu argued that the purpose of the school system was the production
and maintenance of elites. As Pierre Bourdieu’s progress through the
French educational system shows, some i ndividuals from outside
dominant classes and wealthy groups can get through, and the offspring of
some in the upper echelon do not. Historically, the latter might well have
‘inherited’ progression but now they must demonstrate achievement in the
schooling system. However, they start with a tremendous advantage in
terms of economic, social, and cultural capital.
The first, and obvious, point to make is that the reproduction of the social
order needs to be a focus when reflecting on our own practice and
processes – and that of the institutions we function within. It should
feature within staff training, discussions of policy and practice, and how
organizations are managed. Furthermore, it must also be a key focus for
exploration by and with learners, students , and other participants.
According the aims of education system, the young generation morally
and culturally rising under one umbrella of the values and knowledge as a
society. It is a functional process with the institutions in the society. It is
functi onal because the process goes nation to nation that’s why social
reproduction is neither perfect nor complete, with its all process it is a
journey to the future.It is normal that with more educated people life
standards and living styles of the societies will be higher.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:
1. How are cultural reproduction and education related?
10.5 SUMMARY:
As Ritzer (2003) put it, one of the impressive things about Pierre
Bourdieu’s work is that he ‘not only built bridges between theory and
research, he crossed the bridges he built to test their strength and
durability’ . His concern with social reproduction in schooling and college
systems remains deeply relevant. It is no accident, for example, that the
big expansion of higher education in recent years has coincided in the UK
and many other countries with a reduction in social mobility.
10.6 QUESTIONS:
 Who was P. Bourdieu? What was his contribution to sociology?
 Is cultural reproduction universal in the world?
 What is the aim of education?
 How does cult ural reproduction take place?


munotes.in

Page 67

Cultural Reproduction
(Bourdieu P.)
67 10.7 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING:
 Banks, J. A. (2012). Cultural reproduction. In Encyclopedia of
diversity in education (Vol. 1, pp. 534 -535). SAGE Publications.
 Broadfoot, P. (1978). Reproduction in Education, Society a nd
Culture. Comparative Education, 14 , 75-82.
 Bourdieu, P. (1973) Cultural Reproduction and Social Reproduction.
In: Brown, R. (Ed.), Knowledge, Education, and Cultural Change.
Willmer Brothers, London.
 Bourdieu, P. (1990) In Other Words: Essays Towards a Reflexive
Sociology. Trans. M. Adamson. Polity Press, Cambridge.
 Jenks, C. (1993) Cultural Reproduction. Routledge, London.
 Nash, R. (1990). Bourdieu on Education and Social and Cultural
Reproduction. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 11 (4),
431-447.




munotes.in

Page 68

68 11
KNOWLEDGE AND POWER
(FOUCAULT M.), CULTURAL
HEGEMONY (A. GRAMSCI)
Unit structure :
11.0 Objectives
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Michael Foucault – Knowledge and Power
11.3 Antonio Gramsci – Cultural Hegemony
11.4 Summary
11.5 Questions
10.6 References and Further Readings
11.0 OBJECTIVES:
 To understand the Foucauldian connection between knowledge and
power
 To familiarize students with the concept of cultural hegemony by
Gramsci
11.1 INTRODUCTION:
For those analysts interested in making sen se of the complexities of
modern forms of social life, both the French philosopher Michel Foucault
and the Italian Marxist thinker Antoni Gramsci are invaluable sources. For
Foucault, “power is everywhere”, and power relations are embedded in
social life. Life in society, literally from the cradle to the grave, inevitably
involves actions being exercised on others actions.
Antoni Gramsci on the other hand had a “nuanced” notion of power and
believed that power operated mostly at the level of mutual interac tions of
culture economy and politics within the realm of a “hegemonic” discourse.
In devising their theories of power and ideology both Gramsci and
Foucault make use of Machiavelli's notion of "relations of force". They
therefore diffuse the power relati ons to the complex mechanisms of
society. Power in Gramscian analysis resides in ideology. Or in other
words, to be conscious of the complex social network -hegemonic forces -
within which an individual realizes himself already generates power. Once
a social group can modify the ensemble of these relations and make it
"common sense", it is creating a hegemonic order. munotes.in

Page 69

Knowledge and Power
(Foucault M.), Cultural
Hegemony (A. Gramsci)
69 The concept of power is everywhere in Foucault's analyses as well as in
his theory. Power is "omnipresent". It comes from everywhere and is
produced every moment. Like Gramsci, Foucault also sees power as a
relation of force that only exists in action. Foucault's basic difference from
Gramsci is that the latter saw power relations in terms of binary
oppositions (such as the leaders and the led, th e rulers and the ruled etc.).
For Foucault though, power, as well as the resistance it generates, are
diffused and not localized in some points.
11.2 MICHAEL FOUCAULT – KNOWLEDGE AND
POWER:
Michel Foucault (1926 –1984) was a French historian and philosopher ,
associated with the structuralist and post -structuralist movements. He has
had strong influence not only in philosophy but also in a wide range of
humanistic and social scientific disciplines.Since its beginnings with
Socrates, philosophy has typically i nvolved the project of questioning the
accepted knowledge of the day.Foucault’s critical philosophy undermines
such claims by exhibiting how they are the outcome of contingent
historical forces, not scientifically grounded truths. Each of his major
books i s a critique of historical reason.
Michel Foucault, the "unclassifiable" famous French historian chose
Nietzsche rather than Marx as his point of departure. Foucault mainly
borrowed from Nietzsche his "genealogy of morals". For Foucault,
Nietzsche "is the philosopher of power, a philosopher who managed to
think of power without having to confine himself within a political
theory". Foucault rejected the notion of a centralized scientific discourse.
Using "genealogy" (deconstruction of the theoretical, formal , unitary
scientific discourse), he tried to eliminate the scientific hierarchization of
knowledge and promote what he calls "local knowledge".
Foucault's main question was to "theorize power".Power is everywhere
and man cannot escape from the complex rela tions of power that make up
the society.One of Michel Foucault’s fundamental concepts is
power/knowledge. We normally think of power and knowledge as two
separate concepts, one political and one epistemological (having to do
with truth for its own sake), o r perhaps pedagogical (having to do with
teaching and education). Foucault, however, argues that power and
knowledge are inextricably linked, such that it doesn’t make sense to
speak of one without the other. Hence, power and knowledge are
conjoined into a single concept, which he calls “power/knowledge.”
According to Foucault, all knowledge is possible and takes place only
within a vast network or system of power relationships that allow that
knowledge to come to be, for statements accepted as “true” in an y context
to be uttered, and in order for what counts as knowledge to be generated in
the first place. For example, scientific knowledge may be produced only
as the result of well -funded academic institutions, for -profit corporations,
and/or governments, e ach of which is rife with its own visible, and often
invisible, power relations, economies, and strata. munotes.in

Page 70

Education and Society

70 Systems of power, whether governmental, academic, cultural, corporate,
or scientific, are all justified and upheld by a complex web of beliefs
generally accepted as “truth” or as “knowledge” by people of various
ranks and roles within any context, such that it’s not possible, even in
principle, to separate the vast web of power relationships from the vast
web of beliefs, each of which feeds off the other in a relationship that is
deeper than mere symbiosis or reciprocity. This, when we speak of either
power or knowledge, according to Foucault, we are really dealing with
power/knowledge as a single, vast web of power relationships and systems
of knowledge, the majority of which are implicit and not commonly called
attention to within any particular society, context, or institution.
To understand Foucault’s concept of power/k nowledge, it’s important to
understand that Foucault does not mean merely top -down power
relationships such is seen in the relationship between a monarch —such as
king or queen —and his or her subjects. Power relationships, for Foucault,
are not always top -down; they can be bottom -up, lateral, overlapping, or
even bidirectional.
Those who are allowed to speak and have influence, as well as those who
are not, are governed by the very same network of power relationships and
systems of knowledge within their sha red contexts, as anyone whose voice
or influence has even been silenced will know all too well, and as anyone
with the power to speak and to influence outcomes also knows and enjoys
all to well while wielding the influence that those very relationships of
power and knowledge make possible.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:
1. Write a brief note on power/knowledge.
11.3 ANTONIO GRAMSCI – CULTURAL HEGEMONY:
Antonio Gramsci (1891 - 1937), besides being an intellectual and
politician, was a founder of the Italian Communist Party whose ideas
greatly influenced Italian communism.
The Italian communist Antonio Gramsci, imprisoned for much of his life
by Mussolini, took his ideas further in his Prison Notebooks with his
widely influential notions of ‘hegemony’ and the ‘manufactu re of
consent’. Gramsci saw the capitalist state as being made up of two
overlapping spheres, a ‘political society’ (which rules through force) and a
‘civil society’ (which rules through consent). Gramsci saw civil society as
the public sphere where trade unions and political parties gained
concessions from the bourgeois state, and the sphere in which ideas and
beliefs were shaped, where bourgeois ‘hegemony’ was reproduced in
cultural life through the media, universities and religious institutions to
‘manu facture consent’ and legitimacy.
The concept of cultural hegemony is much broader than that of ideology,
because it refers to the construction process of the collective experience,
of the modelling of meanings, from the development of values, the munotes.in

Page 71

Knowledge and Power
(Foucault M.), Cultural
Hegemony (A. Gramsci)
71 creation of world conceptions and of the moral, cultural and intellectual
direction of society through education.During different interpretations
throughout history, the concept of hegemony has been shaped under
several forms. What all those forms have had in commo n is the renewal of
critical consciousness as the key to designing a new framework for a new
kind of coexistence. For this reason, in the words of Antonio Gramsci,
hegemony was a process where subalterns had to impose another scenario
not to irretrievably find themselves in the same previous social structure.
For Gramsci, hegemony is exercised by the ruling class not only through
coercion, but also through consensus, managing to impose their
worldview, a philosophy of customs and ‘common sense’ that favour the
recognition of its domination by the dominated classes. Gramsci’s ideas
provide insights for an effective contemporary socialist pedagogical
politics that are based on the principle of critical access to ‘powerful
knowledge' and experiences that promot e critical thinking, in formal
educational institutions and other learning settings.
In short, to miss the educational element embedded in relations of
hegemony is to overlook the central core of hegemony and therefore a
crucial aspect of Gramsci’s concept ion of power and the quest for social
and political transformation. Education, viewed in its all -encompassing
manner, iscentral to the workings of hegemony.
Education in its broader context is, for Gramsci, an essential feature of the
‘ethical state,’ the state as educator if you will. The state and its
institutions have a strong educational dimension.It is against this backdrop
and the nature of relations between state and civil society, force and
consent, in the Gramscian sense, that education in its var ious
manifestations needs to be seen. This has implications for the situation,
under Neoliberalism, when the social contract, that renders education a
public good, is undermined as the bulk of spending shifts towards the
private sector and the military -industrial complex, with provision
becoming a consumer good instead.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:
1. What isGramsci’s notion of cultural hegemony?
11.4 SUMMARY:
This unit compares discourse and hegemony through their distinctive
elaboration in the humanities and the social sciences by two major
twentieth century theoreticians, Michel Foucault and Antonio Gramsci.In
discourse Foucault unmasks the speaker’s – or the scientist’s - conscious
and unconscious intentions in representing phenomena as if they were part
of a co herent and readable whole. This whole results from an ensemble of
discursive practices which prescribe what can be accepted and what has to
be excluded within a certain social formation, a body of recognized and
authoritative knowledge crucial in managing and maintaining power. munotes.in

Page 72

Education and Society

72 Gramsci also acknowledges a close link between knowledge and power,
but his idea of hegemony, unlike Foucauldian discourse, does not deny the
possibility of political agency through which individuals can forge a
political strategy t o improve their lot. Discourse and hegemony are
nowadays essential tools for gauging social confrontations and
understanding forms of coercion or negotiations in cultural
exchange.Suffice is to say at the beginning that both were admirers of
Machiavelli. F oucault like Gramsci adopted Machiaveli's concept of
"relations of force" to do away with the system of Law -and-Sovereign.
But Foucault went one step further. He tried to eliminate all conceptions
of "fundamental source of power".
This is the basic differ ence between Foucault and Gramsci that we should
keep in mind in starting our analysis: Gramsci is a Marxist and does in fact
locate power in some centralized agency while Foucault "dares" to follow
the Nietzschean tradition and diffuses power relations in to the "very grains
of individuals".
11.6 QUESTIONS:
1) How is cultural hegemony and education intertwined?
2) Distinguish the ideas on hegemony as provided by Foucault and
Gramsci.
10.7 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING:
 Borg, C, Buttigieg, J and Mayo, P (2002), I ntroduction. Gramsci and
Education. A Holistic Approach. In Borg, C, Buttigieg, J. A and
Mayo, P. (Eds.), Gramsci and Education, Lanham, Maryland:
Rowman & Littlefield.
 Foucault, Michel. (1980) Power/Knowledge ed. by Colin Gordon.
New -York: Pantheon Books.
 Foucault, Michel. (1983) " Subject and Power" in Hubert Dreyfus
and Paul Rainow Michel Foucault: Beyond Structuralism and
Hermeneutics, University of Chicago Press.
 Gramsci, Antonio (1971) Selections from the Prison Notebooks of
Antonio Gramsci , New York , International Publishers.
 Gramsci, A. (1977), Antonio Gramsci, Selections from Political
writings (1910 - 1920), Hoare, Q and Matthews, J. (eds.), New York:
International Publishers.
 Smart, Barry. (2002) Michel Foucault: Critical Assessments.
Routledge.


munotes.in

Page 73

73 12
FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES
Unit structure :
12.0 Objectives
12.1 Introduction
12.2 What is Feminism?
12.3 Waves of Feminism
12.4 Feminist Perspectives on Education
12.5 Summary
12.6 Questions
12.7 References and Further Readings
12.0 OBJECTIVES:
 To understand the whole range of feminist perspectives on education
 To familiarize students with important feminist scholars on
education
12.1 INTRODUCTION:
Recent years have seen a growing interest in investigating feminism and
post-feminism as multifaceted theories i n relation to works of art,
narrative genres, and ideological political discourse, as exemplified in
several edited volumes, debates and articles. However, it is worthy of note
that there is a paucity of studies relevant to the investigation of the
feminis t perspectives on education and pedagogy, in general.
12.2 WHAT IS FEMINISM?
Feminism is a highly contested term.Broadly conceived, feminism,
‘seek[s] to explain and change historical systems of sexual difference,
whereby ‘men’ and ‘women’ are socially con stituted and positioned in
relations of hierarchy and antagonism’. Feminism then has many
meanings, not one. However, the general focus of feminism can be
summed up in achieving gender equality at economic, political as well as
social levels. This equality encompasses equal rights to vote, employment,
equal payment, properties and lodging as well as education, etc. Feminists
have also worked towards protecting females from rape, domestic
violence, and sexual harassment in addition to securing women’s
reprod uctive rights. munotes.in

Page 74

Education and Society

74 Feminists believe society is male dominated –in other words it is a
patriarchy.Feminists also believe that society is based on conflict between
the sexes. They believe that women have historically been disadvantaged
in society and that men historically have had more power than women.
Feminists believe this is wrong and needs changing. There are many
different feminist theories but they all share things in common – they look
at the differences in society between men and women and try to see h ow
these problems could be solved. Feminists believe that education is an
agent of secondary socialization that helps to enforce patriarchy. They
look at society on a MACRO scale. They want to generalize their ideas
about males and females to the whole of society.
Feminism is an umbrella term for a number of cultural phenomena related
to the ever -deteriorating situation of women under the patriarchal status
quo.The termwas coinedin 1837 by the utopian philosopher and radical
socialist Charles Fournier (1772 –1837)as a reaction to the organized forms
of activism for supporting women’s suffrage. Feminism represents many
schools of philosophical thinking, theories, and moral beliefs.Despite its
multiple forms, it has unanimously mobilized toward alleviating
wome n’ssubjugated positions, private and social alike, by exerting impact
on the economic,political, and cultural fabrics of modern societies.
Feminism represents institutionaland grassroot activities for abolishing
gender -based inequalities with respect to wo menand their social standing.
As a Western movement, it has ensued in four waves thatencompass
several satellite formations of a vicarious or complimentary nature.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:
1. What is feminism?
12.3 WAVES OF FEMINISM:
Cultural critics divide th e history of modern feminism into four parts
which theyterm “waves.” Each wave marks a specific cultural period and
women’s involvementwith the media. Despite the embeddedness of the
wave metaphor in theorizing feminism,the metaphor has been considered
problematic and contested within feminis t literature.
The first wave represents the pioneering stage of feminist activism that
spread inEurope and North America, Egypt, Iran, and India between the
early 1800s and thefirst decades of the 20th century. Despite its
international range, the first wave wasmost active in the United States and
Western Europe as inspired by proto -feminist political writing of authors
such as Mary Wollstonecraft (The Vindication of the Rightsof Women,
1792) or John Stuart Mill (The Sub jection of Women, 1869).
The firstwave mobilized around the idea of the “New Woman” —an ideal
of femininity that challenged limits established by male -centered society.
The first wave relates to social campaigns that expressed dissatisfaction
with women’s l imited rights for work, education, property, reproduction,
marital status, and social agency. It is associated with women’s suffrage —
a movement advocating women’s entitlement to vote, the flagship munotes.in

Page 75

Feminist Perspectives
75 organization of which became the International Woman Suffrage Alliance
(1904).
As the first wave concluded with the acknowledgment of women’s right to
vote, the second wave commenced after the postwar chaos and the
atmosphere of the lique faction of social roles to focus on women’s work
and family environment. Active fr om the early 1960s to the late 1980s, the
second wave asked questions about the constituentsof gender roles and
women’s sexuality. Simone de Beauvoir’s phrase “one is not borna
woman but becomes one” served as a by word for the wave’s effort
toward relaxing t he social idiom of femininity.
The second wave was influenced by poststructuralism, deconstruction, and
psychoanalysis. As such, it showed interest in the relationship between the
structuring of womanhood (in social practice and media representation)
and wo man’s lived experience.As television became the defining medium
for the second quarter of the 20thcentury, the second wave revolved around
women’s struggle for televisual presence.
The era of the internet, which burst out with the beginning of the 1990s,
broughtnew possibilities for representation and communication along the
changing access to technologies and their related media planes. A great
part of the third wave that came around that time subscribed to the benefits
of technological development, pointing to the opportunities emerging from
women’s contribution to tech -evolution and theemergence of cyberspace.
There was an increased focus on using internet technologies(traditionally a
male -dominated arena) for improved networking to advance thefeminist
agend a and restructure the sources of social impact.
In various strands of themedia environment, the third wave witnessed the
emergenceof a wide spectrum of fringe and mainstream icons like Riot
Grrrl and the Guerrilla Girls on the one side and Madonna on the ot her. It
has also mediated the ideas of womanism for inclusion of race issues and
queer minorities in the feminist debate.
Toward the 2010s, feminism revived under actions that spread
internationally across the Web and in the streets to protest violence again st
women and children. Online mobilization on media platforms like
Facebook, Twitter, Tumblr, YouTube, Vimeo, Instagram, and so forth, as
well as the hashtag and blogcampaigns that followed (e.g., Everyday
Sexism Project, #To The Girls, #Everyday Sexism, and mo re recently,
#MeToo, # No More, and # Times Up) mark a new period, newagenda,
and a new manner in the feminist struggle that can be termed as the fourth
wave. The private and organized use of the social media became a real
catalyst for the fight against women’s h arassment, professional
discrimination, media sexism, and gender shaming.
The fourth wave shows interest in essential feminist values and as such
welcomes a transgeneration dialogue in which women of different
feminist periods (late second, third, and four th wavers) share experiences
for a commongoal. Currently, feminism is creating a broad landscape of
activities that marry various social, cultural, political, and aesthetic aspects munotes.in

Page 76

Education and Society

76 of the contemporary condition. Itengages femininity in all social strata an d
manages those aspects of egalitarian politics which decentralize systems
of power toward a more peripheral and therefore more encompassing
social politics.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:
1. What is first wave of feminism?
12.4 FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES ON EDUCATION:
Feminism has undoubtedly fought, since its very beginning, for women’s
right to education and this led to women’s greater access to education
across the globe. Feminists have not given women more places in schools
alone; they have also succeeded in securing women specializations that
used to be male -dominated for a long time, including science and
technology.
Feminist sociologists have large areas of agreement with functionalists
and Marxists in so far as they see the education system as transmitting a
partic ular set of norms and values into the pupils. However, instead of
seeing these as either a neutral value consensus or the values of the ruling
class and capitalism, feminists see the education system as trans mitting
patriarchal values.
For example, the cur riculum teaches patriarchal values in schools. Like the
traditional family structures in textbooks (along with many other gender
stereotypes, subjects aimed towards specific genders, gender divisions in
PE and sport and the gender division of labour in sch ools (predominantly
female teachers and male managers).
Liberal feminists would point out these remaining issues of patriarchy in
education while also acknowledging significant strides towards equality in
the education system. In the 1940s and 50s, under t he tripartite system,
boys had a lower pass rate for the 11+ than girls and some subjects being
specifically for one gender or the other used to be institutional rather than
based on apparent preference. Today, once subjects become optional, there
are quit e clear gender preferences for one subject or another, but all
subjects are open to all pupils. Perhaps the biggest change, since the
1980s, is that girls now out perform boys in education so if the system is a
patriarchal one, designed to favour boys, it i s singularly failing. However,
there will still higher expectations of boys and teachers would be more
likely to recommend boys apply for higher education than girls at the same
academic level.
Radical feminists argue that the education system is still fun damentally
patriarchal and continues to marginalize and oppress women. It does this
through some of the processes already noted (reinforcing patriarchal
ideology through the formal and hidden curriculum and normalizing the
marginalization and oppression of women so that by the time girls leave
school they see it as normal and natural rather than as patriarchal
oppression). Radical feminist research has also looked at sexual munotes.in

Page 77

Feminist Perspectives
77 harassment in education and how it is not treated as seriously as other
forms of bul lying.
Black feminists point out how not all girls have the same experience in
education and that minority -ethnic girls are often victims of specific
stereotyping and assumptions. For example, teachers might assume that
Muslim girls have different aspirati ons in relation to career and family
from their peers.
What all feminists agree on is that the education system does work as an
agent of secondary socialization which teaches girls and boys what are
seen as universal norms and values and gender scripts th at are actually
those of contemporary patriarchy and that girls and boys learning these
values prevents social change and challenges to patriarchy.
Further, there is a glass ceiling and a gender pay gap so the education
system might be creating lots of hig hly-qualified girls, they are still losing
out to their male peers when it comes to top jobs and higher incomes.
They are also still more likely to take time off for child -rearing, work part
time and to carry out most housework tasks. Feminists point out t hat the
education system largely normalizes this (alongside other agents of
socialization such as the family and the media) and so even highly -
qualified women often accept this as inevitable or normal. At the same
time men are socialized to also consider t his normal.
It is also evident that, in Western societies, especially the United States
where feminism has been very influential, these insights offered by
Greene, hooks, Sleeter and Lather on education were the outgrowth of the
clashes between Afro -Americ ans and white Americans towards
eradicating all forms of ‘interlocking systems of domination like sexism,
racism, class oppression, imperialism, and so on.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:
1. Explainthe liberal feminists’ view on education.
12.5 SUMMARY:
Liberal femi nists writing about education use concepts of equal
opportunities, socialization, sex roles and discrimination. Their strategies
involve altering socialization practices, changing attitudes, and making use
of relevant legislation. Critics of the liberal sc hool point to conceptual
limitations and the liberal reluctance to confront power and patriarchy.
Socialist feminists analyze the role of the school in the perpetuation of
gender divisions under capitalism. Major concepts are socio -cultural
reproduction an d to a lesser extent acceptance of and resistance to gender -
based patterns of behaviour.
So far socialist -feminist educational writing is mainly theoretical rather
than practical and has therefore been criticized for its over -determinism
and insufficient empiric foundation. Radical feminists in education have
concentrated mainly on the male monopolization of knowledge and munotes.in

Page 78

Education and Society

78 culture and on sexual politics in schools. Strategies involve putting
women's and girls' concerns first, through separate -sex groups whe n
necessary. Critics argue that radical feminism tends towards biological
reductionism, description rather than explanation and contains
methodological weaknesses.
Mutual criticism of perspectives seems less destructive in educational
writing than in some other categories of feminist scholarship. All the
theoretical frameworks are subject to the same pressures including the
oppressive power of structures, the resilience of individuals, and the
tension between universality (how women are the same) and diver sity
(how women differ on attributes like class and race).
12.6 QUESTIONS:
 Elaborate on second wave of feminism.
 How does feminist thought intersect with education?
 In what ways did third wave feminism look at the issues of
education?
12.7 REFRENCES AND FU RTHER READING:
 Beasley, Chris. 1999. What is feminism anyway? Understanding
contemporary feminism. Sydney: Allen and Unwin.
 Beauvoir, S. (1949/1956).The second sex. London, UK: Jonathan
Cape.
 Coffey, Amanda & Sara Delamont. 2000. Feminism and the
classroom teacher: research, praxis, pedagogy. London: Routledge
Falmer.
 Freire, Paul. 2005. Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York;
Continuum.
 Headley, Clevis. 2008. “On the ethics of education: bell hooks’
conception of education as the practice of freedom.” Wisconsi n
University Archives, 1 -16.
 Reger, J. (Ed.). (2005). Different wavelengths: Studies of the
contemporary women’s movement, London, UK: Routledge.


munotes.in

Page 79

79 13
RIGHT TO EDUCATION
Unit Structure
13.0 Objectives
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Importance of Education
13.3 The Right to Education Act
13.4 Issues connected with Right to Education Act
13.5 Summary
13.6 Questions
13.7 References
13.0 OBJECTIVES
 To und erstand the Right to Education
 To learn about the implementation and case studies of different states.
13.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, you are going to learn about Right to Education which is
an important aspect of every child’s life and even society at large. In this
chapter we will learn initially about the Right to education and thereafter
we will look into the problems, issues associated with its implementation
at the grassroot level. We will also look into the Right to Education Act
which helped the field of education to reach to the distance corners of the
country. Every child is bestowed with certain rights to empower
themselves and accessing that is through education. Understanding this
topic and even further specializing on this topic itself c an help you get
employed into a non -governmental organization working on education or
even you would be able to research and assist in the organizations/
research centres working on education.
13.2 IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATION
According to UIS data there are almost 258 million children and young
people who are not in school.It is estimated that by the year 2030, just six
out of ten young people would have completed secondary school. The
youth literacy rate (15 –24) is 91.73%, meaning 102 million youth do not
have access to the fundamental right of literacy. It is observed that only in
155 nations there is a legal mandate compulsory education for at least nine
years.Legally, only 99 nations provide at least 12 years of free
education.8.2% of children who could be in the age of attending first grade
do not attend school. munotes.in

Page 80

Education and Society

80 Education is also a fundamental human right for everyone, as stated in the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and this right was further
outlined in the Convention against Discrimination in Edu cation.The ability
to exercise other human rights depends on having access to education,
which is a fundamental human right.One of the most important concerns
in education is also inclusive education in practically every nation. Using
the1994 publication o f the Salamanca Statement(UNESCO), numerous
developing nations began modifying their policies toencourage the
integration of disabled studentsenter regular schools.
The importance of education is that it's not a privilege to be educated. It is
a human righ t.
• The right to education is legally guaranteed for everyone without any
form of discrimination
• States must safeguard, uphold, and implement the right to education.
• If the state violates or denies a person their right to education, one can
challenge the state responsible.
It is generally acknowledged that inclusion increases the largest majority
of kids' potential.All school -age children, whether or not they have
disabilities, have a right to an education because they will eventually
become countries citizens.(Singh, 2016).
The goal of a high -quality education is to guarantee the growth of a well -
rounded individual.It is one of the most effective methods for bringing
individuals and children who are socially excluded out of poverty and into
society. According to UNESCO estimates, if all adults obtained a
secondary education, the population of the poor would decrease by more
than half globally.It will alsoreduce the gender gap for both women and
girls. According to UN research, every additional year sp ent in
education cuts the likelihood of new born mortality by 5% to
10%. Hence, there must be an equal opportunity, open access, and
monitored quality standards for this human right to function.
In India, the Right to Education stands for -
 Universal, free , and compulsory primary education.
 Secondary education that is widely available and even open to
everybody, and there are also attempts to make free some technical
and vocational education.
 There are also attempts to make higher education available to
everyone based on individual need and make it progressively free
 Basic education for those who have not finished their education and
chances for professional training.
 Equal educational quality through minimum requirements
 high-quality instruction and instruc tor resources adequate fellowship
programmes and teaching staff living conditions the power to decide
munotes.in

Page 81

Right to Education
81 13.3 THE RIGHT TO EDUCATION ACT
Before learning about Right to Education let us first look into what is the
meaning of a right. The protections and pri vileges that the Constitution
guarantees to the population are known as constitutional rights. The Bill of
Rights contains descriptions of many of these rights, such the freedom of
speech and the right to vote. Given this context, education is seen also as a
right of every child born in the country. The right to education benefits
both people and society. It is essential for creating lasting peace and
sustainable development, as well as being crucial for human, social, and
economic growth. It is an effectiv e tool for ensuring human dignity,
realising everyone's potential, and advancing both individual and group
well-being.
The right to education is a right to empowerment that liberates
marginalised people from poverty, it is essential for the realisation of other
rights, and promotes the total development of the human personality.Let
us now look into Right to Education Act in detail.
Article 21 -A, states that all children between the ages of six and fourteen
have the fundamental right to free and compulsory e ducation. This was
added to the Indian Constitution by the Constitution (Eighty -sixth
Amendment) Act of 2002. The Act also says that every child has the right
to a full -time elementary education of satisfactory and equitable quality in
a formal school. It also complies with certain fundamental norms and
standards, according to the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory
Education (RTE) Act, 2009, which represents the consequential legislation
anticipated under Article 21 -A.
The RTE Act and Article 21 -A cam e into force on April 1, 2010. The
words "free and compulsory" are part of the RTE Act's title. to provide
and guarantee elementary school enrolment, attendance, and completion
for all children aged 6 to 14.
With this, India has advanced toward a rights -based framework and the
Central and State Governments are now legally obligated to implement
this fundamental child right as stated in Article 21A of the Constitution in
accordance with the RTE Act's guidelines.
The Right to Education Act points out that -
Any form of Physical and verbal abuse are prohibited by the law.
Screening measures for youngsters being admitted.
Capitation costs cannot be acquired by school
Private tuition cannot be conducted by a school teacher who is employed.
Unrecognised schools would not be permitted to run.
The Right to Education act makes children to have the right to attend a
local school where their education is free and required until they complete munotes.in

Page 82

Education and Society

82 elementary school.It makes it clear that "compulsory education" refers to
the obligation of the relevant government to guarantee free primary
education. It also ensures that every child in the six to fourteen age range
enrols, attends, and completes elementary school. Free means that no child
will be required to pay any fees, expe nses, or any other costs that would
prohibit them from pursuing and completing basic school.
It includes provisions for the admission of an unadmitted child to a class
that is suitable for his/her age. The distribution of financial and other
responsibiliti es between the Central and State Governments, as well as the
roles and responsibilities of the relevant Governmentand, local authorities
role, parents role, in delivering free and compulsory education, are all
outlined in the Right to Information document. The Right to Information
Act also discusses the rules and requirements for Pupil Teacher Ratios
(PTRs) is 30:1, facilities and infrastructure, school calendars, and teacher
work schedules.
Through the Act it is ensured that the stated pupil teacher ratio i s
maintained for each school, rather than only as an average for the State,
District, or block thereby allowing deployment of required teacher and
preventing an imbalance between urban and rural teacher postings.
Additionally, it forbids the use of teacher s for non -educational tasks. It
also allows for the appointment of teachers who have the necessary entry -
level and academic credentials, or teachers who are suitably trained.
It forbids (a) corporal punishment and verbal abuse, (b) child admission
screenin g practises, (c) capitation fees, (d) teacher -led private tutoring, and
(e) operating schools without recognition. This been an important move as
parents struggle with fees.
In accordance with the values embodied in the Constitution, it calls for the
creation of curriculum the Right to Education ensures a child's overall
development. It also aims to build on that child's knowledge, potential,
and talent, and liberate him/her the child from fear, trauma, and anxiety
through a system of kid -friendly and kid -centred learning. The Act also
ensures providing 25 percent reservation for children’s from marginalized
background.
Check Your Progress
1) When was Right to Education Act implemented in India?
2) What all does the Right to Education Act prohibits.
13.4 ISSUES CONNECTED WITH RIGHT TO
EDUCATION ACT
There are several issues which has emerged post implementation of the
Right to Education Act, Singh discusses some of them like -
 Psychological Uncertainty: Concern over the provision relating to
the reserva tion of 25% of seats for children from poor backgrounds has munotes.in

Page 83

Right to Education
83 seeped into the minds of individuals from all segments of society. When a
child attends a new school, even though parents are cooperative and happy
about child attending a private school. The chil d finds it difficult to mix
and play with other as there is a difference of culture. There are concerns
about managing students with varying academic backgrounds to the
teacher too.
There are differences across the nation despite six decades of
independen ce in both the qualitative and quantitative aspects of education
which effects the child at large. As access to education varies greatly by
region, economic status, social class, and other factors.
 Variations within the country –
The variations in quality a student's level of education makes a big impact
on their ability to get enrolled in higher education and other
socioeconomicadvancement. The problem lies in the quality of education
being different from city to city and that of rural areas. In the rural a reas
there are also complete lack of infrastructure this would make the rural
area child to be unaware and his/ her skill sets be different than a child
who is learning in a city. This would in a large scale effect access, choice
of higher education and at the end his career and interpersonal skills too.
 Policy Gaps -
The Right to Education (RTE) Act's "no fail" policy, which mandates that
all children up to middle class pass their tests, prohibits any child from
Class 1 through 8 from failing, regardless o f how poorly they perform on
their exams.Despite the fact that several state administrations anticipate an
increase in literacy rates andaid underprivileged children, encourage
students to enjoy learning instead of justmany educators and parents
believe it would further reduce the quality if students performed well on
examinations/tests.A simple non -detention policy proclamation is
insufficient to address the core cause of stagnation. In order for the
proclamation to be effective, factors like extensive and ongoing
evaluation, the teacher -to-student ratio, teacher training needs to updated
which would cost more resources and money to the government and
finally the tax payers/ public money.Families are also unsure of the
policy's potential benefits for pupils , as if child doesn’t get the taste of
failure as to how he/she would deal with failure later in life.
 Unanswered queries –
A closer examination of the Right to Education Act's fine print reveals the
significant flaws in the historic legislation. The fac t that the Act's framers
could not anticipate the long -term effects of the revolutionary provision
of giving children of the weaker sections a 25% reserve. The first
significant unanswered the issue is what happens to kids from the less
fortunate areas aft er they graduate from free primary education in the best
institutions. Naturally, these kids will have to go. these schools and revert
to institutions with dubious quality, which is inevitably mentally
distressing. munotes.in

Page 84

Education and Society

84 Second, there have been concerns raised a bout the infrastructure, teacher -
to-student ratio, and other aspects of government schools, including the
availability of drinking water and restrooms. Next, the RTE Act's most
unclear provision relates to educationquality. Unsettling information about
our crucial, life -changing basic education is that the majority of
ourchildren in six lakh villages are taught by teachers with little formal
education.It is evident that the RTE Act places little value on teaching
standards, which are the mainan issue with o ur educational system.
 Policy Implementation in Isolation
The RTE Act's goal is to let the poor and marginalized groups receive
good quality education. Yet, there are dropouts among students. Studies
also point out there is an increase in the dropout rate among students. The
students belonging to groups like orphans who do not have any support or
guidance are unable to take the benefit of the Right to Information Act. In
a way, they are marginalized. For family’ssurvival issues still comes first
thaneducati on.
The schooling system is dominated by the standardising regime. Between
the world of books and the world a child lives in, there is a huge gap.The
world that children live in is not represented in school texts. Hence, the
conflict between these two res ults in two different universes. The
emphasis on exams and the culture of rote learningattitude toward
textbooks minimises the student's personal world and experience. This
authorityof textbooks undermines and reduces the roles of the learner and
the teach er.involvement of creativity in the learning process (Singh, 2016)
 Patterns –
With the Right to Education, every student will be advanced to the next
class automatically. This may encourage community including students be
indifferent and uninterested in their studies.According to age restrictions,
only kids between the ages of 6 and 14 are eligible for the rights.Even
though India endorsed the U.N. charter, which clearly specifies that free
education should be made mandatory for children aged 0 –18, it ign ores the
0–6 and 14 –18 age groups.Regarding reservations, the act mentions
reserving 25% of the seats in unassisted private or public schools for
students from less affluent backgrounds and the kids' tuition costs will be
covered by the state government. T he cost of the charge will be covered
by the government.Yet, the difference between the per -child cost of
schooling and what the government will pay will be substantial. Who will
be responsible for paying this deficit share is now in doubt. The additional
costs of attending a private school, such as uniform, books, stationery, etc.
has the school asks the borne the parents which becomes a burden to the
poor parents. The fees initial amount has to be borne by the parents which
again becomes difficult for par ents.
Additionally, the studentbeing suddenly exposed to a different level of
living. There are several questions like are the teachers and classmates
treat them equally and with respect? Will the poor youngsters' ability to
handle doesn’t turn to be trau matising? There are other issues like parents munotes.in

Page 85

Right to Education
85 unable to get the distance requirements, and difficulties getting the
required certificates from the appropriate government agencies.
In regards to bridge courses, the legislation mandates that the child be
placed in the appropriate class for their age, which is a good idea because
it can prevent years from being lost. However, no bridge course is
recommended that can help the child become used to the admitted class.
Numerous documents, including a birth certifi cate and a Below the
poverty line certificate, Income certificate, are needed at the time of
admission. Getting the certificates is time consuming and someone has to
take out time to get this work done. Orphans appear to have been excluded
from the Act's b enefits by this action. In addition, due to lack of guidance
and enough support the students are not able to take the benefit of the
reservation in private schools.
The RTE -mandated pupil -teacher ratio is impacted by a lack of teachers,
which in turn impa irs the effectiveness of instruction.Only children aged 6
to 14 are eligible for the Right to Education; however, this age range could
be increased to include children aged 0 to 18 to make it more inclusive and
all-encompassing.Children under the age of si x are not protected under the
Act.
A 2019 change to the Act, which addressed the "no detention" policy until
class 8, brought in regular annual tests in classes 5 and 8.If a student fails
the annual exam, they are required to retake it and are offered furt her
instruction. The student may be kept in class if the retest is not
passed.After numerous states argued that frequent exams were necessary
to accurately assess children's learning levels, this modification was
enacted.Six states that had better learning outcomes as a result of their
successful CCE system deployment as required by the Act were opposed
to this revision. Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Goa, Telangana, and
Maharashtra were the six states (5).
Still schools do not have adequate facilities for the marginalized students
specially differently abled students to integrate them. There is lack of
transport infrastructure for students to move freely with ease. Wheelchair,
ramps, accessible places, restrooms have to be constructed by keeping in
mind the students with differently abled. The problem exists not only
within the school but even within the surrounding area, when the child has
to commute to school and if parents are old or have to work and the child
is differently abled, reaching the schoo l would be a task and the situation
may lead to discontinuing of the education at any phase. Hence, even
though the right exists but the child would be unable to take the benefit of
it. As there is no support to commute to school.
Check Your Progress
1) What does AISHE discuss on education
2) List out two challenges in Higher education munotes.in

Page 86

Education and Society

86 13.5 SUMMARY
Education is also a fundamental human right for everyone, as stated in the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights. In India, the Right to Education
stands for - Universal, free, and compulsory primary education.Secondary
education that is widely available and even open to everybody, and there
are also attempts to make free some technical and vocational
education.There are also attempts to make higher education avai lable to
everyone based on individual need and make it progressively free. Basic
education for those who have not finished their education and chances for
professional training.Equal educational quality through minimum
requirements.High -quality instruction and instructor resources adequate
fellowship programmes and teaching staff living conditions the power to
decide. The RTE Act and Article 21 -A came into force on April 1,
2010. The words "free and compulsory" are part of the RTE Act's title. to
provide an d guarantee elementary school enrolment, attendance, and
completion for all children aged 6 to 14. Through the Act a reservation of
25 percent in private schools are allowed for poor children’s. The Act also
discusses about the student teacher ratio. Howev er, there are several issues
and concerns related to the Right to Education Act like lack of enough
teachers and resources to pay these teachers. The sudden change in the
school leads both confusion and trauma among child as the new
environment, new friend s, teachers there could be lack of acceptance
among the child both at the school and individual level. There are issues
like parents unable to pay the extra money required apart from the tuition
fees which the government reimburses like sports uniform, reg ular
uniform, travel expenses, other fees like picnic, project, canteen, sports
fees, training, private tutor fees etc. The lack of exams can also lead to
development of ease behavior among childrens and community at large
leading to lack of seriousness to wards education. Lack of proper exams
could also lead to childrens not facing failure at early life and hence
unable to accept failure later part of the life. In a way, not showing the
reality of life and how the real world works. Like Any Act right to
education has both positive and negative sides. Yet, it is one of the most
important Act to empower childrens and community at large in improving
the education at large in the country.
13.6 QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the problems connected with the Right to Educatio n Act
2. Write in brief the Right to Information Act
3. Discuss the Importance of Education
13.7 REFERENCES
1. https://dsel.education.gov.in/rte
2. Kaushal, M. (2012). Implementation of Right to Education in India:
Issues and Concerns. Journal of Management & Public Policy , 4(1).
3. Singh, J. D. (2016). Inclusive education in India –concept, need and
challenges. S. No. Paper Title Author Name Page No. , 97. munotes.in

Page 87

Right to Education
87 4. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/lucknow/highest -ever-rte-
takes -1-24l-kids-to-pvt-schools/articleshow/92242963.cms
5. https://www.iasparliament.com/current -affairs/challenges -to-rte-
act#:~:text=What%20are%20the%20problems%20in,of%200%2D18
%20years%20old .
6. UNESCO Website - https://en.unesco.org/news/what -you-need -know -
about -right -
education#:~:text=The%20right%20to%20education %20is,of%20pov
erty%20and%20into%20society .
7. https://www.right -to-education.org/page/understanding -education -
right
8. http://data.uis.unesco.org/


munotes.in

Page 88

88 14A
MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION
Unit Structure
14A. 0 Objectives
14A. 1 Introduction
14A. 2 An Overview
14A. 3 Meaning and Concept of Multicultural Education
14A. 4 Characteristics, goals and dimension of Multicultural Education
14A. 5 Principles of Teaching and Learning in a Multicultural Society
14A. 6 Unit End Exercise
14A. 7 References
14A. 0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to
 Know the meaning and concept of Multicultural Education
 Understand the characteristics, goals and dimension of Multicultural
Education.
 Explain the importance of the principles of Teaching and Learning in a
Multicultural Society.
14A. 1 INTRODUCTION
Multicultural education is regarded as an idea or concept, an educational
reform movement, and a process. It helps in incorporating ideas that
students irrespective of class, caste, social structure, ethnicity, racial or
cultural characteristic have an equal right and opportunity to learn in
schools. It provides equal opportunity on the basis of gender and also instil
the values, cultures, traditions and customs that each of the members of
the nation celebrate and it is regarded as unique and respected by all. In
multicultural education, it is the duty of the educators to create an
awareness of the diverse cultures, tradi tions, disseminate them through
their subjects so that unity in diversity is fostered. Through this, it will
help the young generation to understand the importance of accepting and
respecting each community along with their diverse characteristics.
munotes.in

Page 89

Multicultural Education

89 14A. 2 AN OVERVIEW
A form of education that introduces the students to various cultural
backgrounds , values and beliefs is
multicultural education . It is an approach
to reform s chool, an idea or movement to
bring in equity, democracy and social
justice. Multicul tural education aims at
revamping schools so that the knowledge ,
attitudes and skills acquired by the
students helps in proper functioning in a
racially and ethnically diverse nation and
world. Such type of education seeks to
ensure educational equity for members irrespective of diverse socio -
economic groups, cultural, ethnic and racial groups and helps to facilitate
their active participation as critical and reflective citizens in an inclusive
national civic culture.
Multicultural education is a set of ed ucational strategies developed to
provide students with knowledge about the histories, cultures, and
contributions of diverse groups. It draws on insights from multiple fields,
including ethnic studies and women studies, and reinterprets content from
related academic disciplines
14A. 3 MEANING AND CONCEPT OF
MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION
Multicultural education is a type of educational model that helps in the
celebration of equity and diversity. It purposes of multicultural education
is to help all students, specially those who have been historically
underrepresented. It is a form of education that introduces students to
different cultural backgrounds, beliefs and values. According to James
Banks, 1997, it is an idea, an educational reform and seeks to create equa l
educational opportunities for all students, including those from different
racial, ethnic and social -class groups. It therefore refers to any form of
education or teaching that incorporates, integrates the histories, values,
texts, beliefs and perspectiv e of people from various diverse cultural
backgrounds
14A. 4 CHARACTERISTICS, GOALS AND DIMENSION
OF MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION
India, being a multicultural society, we witness people of diverse
ethnicities, races, nationalities that are living together in the same
community. Hence, in such multicultural communities, since they are
living together the people share their own unique life style, food, dressing
style, languages, art traditions and behaviour. Thus, such customs and
traditions are retained, sustaine d and disseminated to the future generation.
munotes.in

Page 90

Education and Society

90 Characteristics of
Multicultural Education :
1. It is an education for
social justice. : Social
justice is central to
education and thus the
curriculum and the
instructional techniques
must be based on social
justice. In order to achieve
this the two important
components of learning
isreflection and action .
The school activities
planned must be in relation to the community needs.
2. It is a critical pedagogy : Pedagogy involves both the teacher and the
students and both are involved in the teaching learning activity, giving real
life situations. While providing real life experiences, the teaching learning
process becomes more effective and thus decision -making skills and social
action skills are fostered.
3. It is pervasive : Multicultural education is all pervasive. It is universal
and can be seen in the teaching learning process, in the planning of the
curriculum, syllabus, lesson planning, instructional objectives, strategies
used in the classroom etc. The talking walls of all educational institution
also speaks volumes of multicultural education.
4. It focuses on basic education :It focuses on the second language,
5. It is antiracist education : Multicultural education is antiracist .It talks
about customs, tradition s, culture, ethnicity irrespective of caste, class and
community. India being a diverse country it is important for people to be
aware of all communities along with their uniqueness so as to accept their
diverse nature to live in peace and harmony.
6. It i s important for all students : Being a part of a citizen of the
country, the nation and world at large it is important that all students are
created awareness of multicultural education, its needs and its importance.
Goals of multicultural education
 Educati onal equity : It fosters equity in order to bring about peace and
harmony in the nation and world at large

 Empowerment : it is one of the goals of multicultural education so that
everyone is independent especially the deprived section of the society.

 Cultu ral pluralism : is fostered through multicultural education as
each one is aware of the uniqueness of the customs, traditions, culture
of those living in and around them
munotes.in

Page 91

Multicultural Education

91
 Intercultural/interethnic/ intergroup understanding : Awareness of
each and every commun ity custom, traditions, culture automatically
fosters intergroup, intercultural and interethnic understanding as
students are made aware of their uniqueness and diverse nature.

 Freedom : it enhances freedom among the individuals, societies,
communities to follow their own customs, traditions and this helps in
preservation of culture

 Expanded knowledgeInformed : The goal of multicultural education
is through the awareness of rich culture, diverse backgrounds and the
dissemination of the same help in expanded knowledge and keep the
people well informed.

 inquisitive multicultural perspective : it enhances, encourages an
inquisitive multicultural perspective so that critical thinking, analytical
and logical thinking is fostered and understanding is gradually
developed.
Dimensions of Multicultural Education
Many schools’ districts refer to James A. Banks's Dimensions of
Multicultural Education to conceptualize and develop courses, programs,
and projects in multicultural education.
As per Banks there are five main c haracteristic s, goals and dimen sions of
multicultural education .They can be listed as follows:










The dimensions of multicultural education

munotes.in

Page 92

Education and Society

92 a. content integration
b. the knowledge construction process
c. Prejudice reduction
d. an equity pedagogy
e. an empowering school culture and social structure
The above dimensions are distinct, however practically they are
interrelated, interconnected and overlap each other.
1. Content integration : includes integrating, correlating, interconnecting
the conten t from the various culture and groups in order to explain
principles, generalizations, concepts and theories in their own subject or
discipline. In a diverse country like India, it is paramount to infuse the
ethnic and cultural content into a subject area for awareness among the
young ones for the need for accepting and respecting each other cultures,
traditions etc. Content integration of ethnicity and cultural aspects are
possible more in some subjects than in others. This is to a greater extent in
subjec ts like social sciences, languages, arts and in music wherein the
content is integrated to illustrate the key concepts, themes and principles.
Although there is lesser opportunity for content integration in maths and
science as it seems to some practitione rs, it is not the case. There can be
content integration of multicultural education even in subjects like maths
and science in the form of word problems wherein in unity in diversity can
be enhanced.
2. The knowledge construction process : Inthe process of constructing
knowledge, the teaching activities must help students to understand,
determine, investigate, and determine the importance of implicit cultural
assumptions, critically review the biases of researchers and text book
writers as they play an impor tant role in influencing the way the
knowledge is constructed. The teachers and students have to understand
the integrities of cultural identities and social positions of researchers
when they are assessing the validity of knowledge claims in the
construc tion process of knowledge. The theories based on multicultural
education firmly believes that the personal histories, values and attitudes
cannot be separated from the knowledge they create. Such theories reject
positivist claims of disinterested and dist ancing knowledge and also
disagree of the possibility of creating such a knowledge that does not have
any cultural assumptions and social position of the knowledge producer.
Multicultural teaching focuses on changing the structure and organization
of schoo l knowledge rather than just infusing the content into the school
curriculum based on ethnicity. It stresses on the way the teacher and
students view and interact with knowledge, helping them to become
producers of knowledge and not merely consumers of the knowledge
produced by others, this will enhance the critical, analytical and logical
thinking as the knowledge produce will be based on theories rather than
their own assumption. Multicultural teaching involves not only infusing munotes.in

Page 93

Multicultural Education

93 ethnic content into the sch ool curriculum, but changing the structure and
organization of school knowledge. It also includes changing the ways in
which teachers and students view and interact with knowledge, helping
them to become knowledge producers, not merely the consumers of
knowledge produced by others. It will be related to life experiences and
thereby a tendency to distort or exclude concepts or even challenge such
concepts so that it can make it more representative and inclusive of the
nation’s diversity and to reshape the fr ames of references, perspectives
and concepts that is included in school knowledge.
3. Prejudice reduction : The prejudice reduction dimension of
multicultural education seeks to help students develop positive and
democratic racial attitudes. It also helps students to understand how ethnic
identity is influenced by the context of schooling and the attitudes and
beliefs of dominant social groups. The theory developed by Gordon
Allport (1954) has significantly influenced research and theory in
intergroup relat ions. He hypothesized that prejudice can be reduced by
interracial contact if the contact situations have these characteristics: (1)
they are cooperative rather than competitive; (2) the individuals
experience equal status; and (3) the contact is sanctione d by authorities
such as parents, principals and teachers.
4.An equity pedagogy : in order to achieve this the teachers will have to
modify their teaching and learning in order to facilitate academic
achievement of students who belong to diverse racial, cul tural,
socioeconomic and language groups. The teacher uses different teaching
and learning styles within various ethnic and cultural groups. Various
methods in order to foster equity pedagogy includes cooperative
techniques .An equity pedagogy assumes that learners from di fferent
cultures and groups come to school with many strengths.Multicultural
theorists describe how cultural identity, communicative styles, and the
social expectations of students from marginalized ethnic and racial groups
often conflict w ith the values, beliefs, and cultural assumptions of
teachers. The middle -class mainstream culture of the schools creates a
cultural dissonance and disconnect that privileges student who have
internalized the school's cultural codes and communication style s.
The t eachers practice culturally responsive teaching when an equity
pedagogy is used. They incorporate important aspects of the family and
community culture of their students in the instructional materials and
practices. Culturally responsive teachers al so use the "cultural knowledge,
prior experiences, frames of reference, and performance styles of
ethnically diverse students to make learning encounters more relevant to
and effective for them" (Gay, p. 29).
5. An empowering school culture : an empowering school culture fosters
equality by restricting the culture and organisation of the school by
involving students from diverse racial, socio economic and language
group. There is an exchange of the uniqueness of different culture into the
social structure of the school. They need to be reformed, examined as per
the social structure in consensus with the needs of the society. munotes.in

Page 94

Education and Society

94 An empowering school structure requires the creation of qualitatively
different relationships among various groups within schools. Relat ionships
are based on mutual and reciprocal respect for cultural differences that are
reflected in school -wide goals, norms, and cultural practices. An
empowering school structure facilitates the practice of multicultural
education by providing teachers wi th opportunities for collective planning
and instruction, and by creating democratic structures that give teachers,
parents, and school staff shared responsibility for school governance.
14A. 5 PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING AND LEARNING IN
A MULTICULTURAL SOCIETY
TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT :
Principle 1 : It should help teachers understand the complex characteristics
of ethnic groups within society and the ways in which race, ethnicity,
language and social class interact to influence student behaviour.
STUDENT LEARNING :
Principle 2: Equitable opportunities to learn and meet high standards must
be ensured by all educational institutions.
Principle 3: The need to help student understand that knowledge is
socially constructed and it reflects personal experiences o f the researcher
as well as the sociological economic and political context in which they
live and work.
Principle 4: Participation of students in curricular and co curricular
activities will enable students to develop the knowledge, skills and
attitudes t hat increase academic achievements and foster positive
interracial relationships.
INTERGROUP RELATIONS
Principle 5: In order to improve intergroup relations schools should create
cross cutting group membership in order to improve intergroup relations.
Prin ciple 6: Learning about stereotyping and other related biases that have
negative effects on racial and ethnic relations should be taught to the
students.
Principle 7: Values shared by virtual and cultural groups should be taught
to students e.g justice, equa lity, freedom, peace, compassion and charity.
Principle 8: Social skills needed to interactive effectively with the students
from other racial, ethnic, cultural, and language groups helps them to
acquire the knowledge.
Principle 9: Need to interact socially under conditions so as to reduce fear
and anxiety should be provided to students.
munotes.in

Page 95

Multicultural Education

95 School Governance, Organization, And Equity;
Principle 10: Educational institutions should ensure that decision making
is fostered among the members of the school community so that they
develop collaborative skills and helps to live and create a caring
environment for students.
Principle 11: Strategies should be developed by leaders that ensure that all
public schools are funded equitably.
Principle 12: Teachers should use va ried techniques that are culturally
sensitive to assess complex cognitive and develop social skills.
14A. 6 UNIT END EXERCISE
1) Explain the meaning of multicultural education
2) What is the concept of multicultural education
3) Explain the characterist ic of multicultural education
4) Elucidate the goals of multicultural education
5) Illustrate the dimension multicultural education
6) Elucidate the Principles of Teaching and Learning in a Multicultural
Society
Write short notes on:
1) Concept of multicu ltural education
2) Dimensions of Multicultural education
3) Goals of Multicultural Education
14A. 7 REFERENCES:
BANKS , JAMES A., and B ANKS , CHERRY A. M CGEE, eds.
2001. Handbook of Research on Multicultural Education. San Francisco:
Jossey -Bass.
BANKS , JAMES A.; C ORTÉS , CARLOS E.; G AY, GENEVA ;
GARCIA , RICARDO L.; and O CHOA , ANNA S.1991. Curriculum
Guidelines for Multicultural Education. Washington, DC: National
Council for the Social Studies.
BANKS , JAMES A., et al. 2001. Diversity within Unity: Essential
Principles for Teaching and Learning in a Multicultural Society. Seattle:
Center for Multicultural Education, University of Washington.
Multicultur al Education - History, The Dimensions of Multicultural
Education, Evidence of the Effectiveness of Multicultural Education -
Students, Cultural, Ethnic, and School - munotes.in

Page 96

Education and Society

96 StateUniversity.com https://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2252/Mul
ticultural -Education.html#ixzz7HfwtzsyF
Webliography
https://www.slideshare.net/hanifnandazakaria/the -characteristics -of-
multicultural -education
https://www.myschoolr.com/blog/what -is-multicultural -education -
advantages -and-disadvantages.html
https://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2252/Multicultural -
Education.html
https://study.com/academy/lesson/multicultural -education -definition -
approaches -quiz.html
Evidence of the Effectiveness of Multicultural Education
The Handbook of Research of Multicultural Education comprehensively
reviews the research on multicultural education and the effectiveness of
various kinds of multicultural curricular interventions. At least three
categories of research that descr ibe the effectiveness of multicultural
education can be identified: (1) research that describes the effectiveness of
multicultural curriculum interventions such as Banks's 2001 research
review; (2) research on the effects of cooperative learning and interr acial
contact, such as Robert Slavin's 2001 research review; and (3) research on
how culturally responsive teaching influences student learning, such as
Carol Lee's 1993 study and Gloria Ladson -Billings's 2001 work. An
extended discussion of studies in the first genre is presented in this entry.
Research reviews of the other two genres are found in the Handbook of
Research on Multicultural Education.
Slavin's 2001 research review and Cohen and Lotan's 1995 research on
cooperative learning and interracial co ntact activities indicate that these
interventions –if they are consistent with Allport's theory of intergroup
contact –help students to develop more positive racial attitudes, to make
more cross -racial friendships, and have positive effects on the academic
achievement of Latino and African -American students. Lee's 1993
research on culturally responsive teaching indicates that when teachers use
the cultural characteristics of students in their teaching the academic
achievement of students from diverse groups can be enhanced.
Read more: Multicultural Education - History, The Dimensions of
Multicultural Education, Evidence of the Effectiveness of Multicultural
Education - Students, Cultural, Ethnic, and School - StateUniversity.com
https://education.stateunivers ity.com/pages/2252/Multicultural -
Education.html#ixzz7Hftbtccr
 munotes.in

Page 97

97 14B
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
Unit Structure
14B. 0 Objectives
14B. 1 Introduction
14B. 2 An Overview
14B. 3 Concept and Types of Social Stratification
14B. 4 Concept and Types of Social Mobility - Factors affecting Education
in relation to Social Stratification and Social Mobility with special
reference to Indian Society
14B. 5 Concept of Modernisation: Individual and Societal Modernity,
Role of Education in Modernisation
14B. 6 Unit End Exercise
14B. 7 References
14B. 0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to
 Know the concept and types of social stratification, social mobility and
modernization
 Aware of the concept of modernisation: Individual and Societal
Modernity
 Understand the factors affecting education in relation to social
stratification and mobility with special reference to Indian society
 Understand the role of Education in Modernisation
14B. 1 INTRODUCTION
Stratification in ancient India was on the basis of the caste. According to
Young and Mack, “in most societies people classify one another into
categories, and rank these categories from higher and lower. The process
of defining such categories is called Social stratification and the resulting
set of ranked categories is called the stratification structure.” The
categories themselves are called strata, popularly known as classes.
Sociologist use the term social stratification to describe the system of
social standing.

munotes.in

Page 98

Education and Society

98 14B. 2 AN OVERVIEW
Social inequity is the basis of social stratification. More or less all
societies encouraged social inequality by stratifying their members.
According to some sociologist, stratification, and its resulting inequalities
are a necessary, functional requirement of all societies. The society has
some highly important functions which are to be performed by i ts
members who are most capable and thus came distribution based on
talents. Labourers performed the lower functions that they were capable
off. The society thus stratifies themselves on the lines of social functions.
Some sociologist differs that such str atification led to social inequality
even though they admit that social inequality is universal.
14B. 3 CONCEPT AND TYPES OF SOCIAL
STRATIFICATION
Social stratification is a particular form of social inequality. Societies
arrange their members in terms of superiority, inferiority and equality.
Social stratification is nothing but division of society into various section
and groups. This division is called stratification because it leads to
formalization of in-groups versus out-group relations. It means that
members belonging to one group behave in a particular way and it differs
from the way the other group behaves.
Stratification is a process of interaction or differentiation whereby some
people come to rank higher than others.
Concept of Social Stratifica tion:Social
stratification refers to a society’s
categorization of its people into groups
based on socioeconomic factors like
wealth, income, race,education,
ethnicity, gender, occupation, social
status, or derived power (social and
political)
Definitions of Social Stratification:
P.W Murray: Social Stratification is horizontal division of society into
‘higher’ and ‘lower’ social units.
Gilbert: “Social Stratification is the division of society into permanent
groups or categories linked with each other by relationship of superiority
and subordination.”
Ogburn and Nimkoff: The process by which individuals and groups are
ranked in more or less enduring hierarchy of status is known as
stratification”.


munotes.in

Page 99

Social Stratification, Mobility
and Modernisation
99 Types of Social Stratification:
Social stratification is based upon a variety of principles. So we have
different type of stratification. The major types of stratification is based on
1. Caste
2. Class
3. Estate
4. Slavery
1. Caste : It is purely due to a
person being born in a particular
religious or caste group .In such a
system the individual’s position
is determined by the position of
his family and the individual has
only limited opportunity to
either rise or fall in the
hierarchy.It is a hereditary
endogamous social group in
which a person’s rank and its
accompanying rights and obligations are ascribed on the basis of his birth
into a particular group. e.g.Stratification based on caste is Brahmins,
Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Sudras.
2. Class: This type of stratification is on the basis of class which is
dominant in modern society. Stratification on the basis of class purely
depends to a very great extent on the achievement and ability of an
individual to use to advantage the inborn characteristic to the maximum
and the wealth that he may possess.
3. Estate: In the medieval Europe, estate system provides another type of
stratification which gave emphasis to birth as well as wealth and
possession. Here each estate had a state
4. Slavery: This type of stratification had an economic basis. The slave
had his master to whom he was subjected and this prime duty was to obey
his master. The master’s power over the slave was unlimited. Most of the
times, the slaves were illtreated and tortured by their masters.
14B. 4 CONCEPT AND TYPES OF SOCIAL MOBILITY:
FACTORS AFFECTING E DUCATION IN RELATION
TO SOCIAL STRATIFICATION AND SOCIAL
MOBILITY WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO INDIAN
SOCIETY
Concept of Social Mobility: Social Mobility indicates that that social
change has taken place and that the society is progressing. The societal
progr ess definitely leads to individual progress. Social mobility refers to
the movement within the social structure, from one position to another. It
means that there is a change in social status. Societies provide some or the
munotes.in

Page 100

Education and Society

100 other opportunity for social mob ility. However, societies differ from each
other to extent in which individuals can move from one class or status
level to another.
The concept of Social Mobility has essential importance in ascertaining
the relative ‘openness’ of a social structure and th is is studied by
sociologist. Improvement in any group will definitely improve its social
status. It differs from society to society and hence, not uniform in all
countries. Since, agriculture is the main occupation in India, and caste
system still prevale nt in India, therefore the rate of social mobility is
naturally low.
Definition of Social Mobility :
Sorokin : By social mobility is meant any transition of an individual from
one position to another in a constellation of social group or strata.”
Headrick : Social mobility is the movement of persons from social group
to social group”
Types of Social mobility :
Sorokin has discussed two types of social mobility:
1. Horizontal social mobility
2. Vertical Social mobility
Horizontal Social Mobility: It refers to t he
movement of people from one social group to
another situated on the same level. It means that
the ranks of these two groups are not different. It
is transition of an individual from one social group
to another situation on the same level. Here the
posit ion of the individual may change but his
status remains the same. eg. A teacher leaves one
school and becomes a teacher in another school.
Vertical Social Mobility : It refers to the movement of people from one
stratum to another or from one status to anoth er. It brings changes in class,
occupation and power. It involves movement from lower to higher or
higher to lower. eg. When a person attains higher education and becomes
rich, it is known as vertical social mobility.
There are two types of vertical mobi lity. One is upward and other is
downward mobility.



munotes.in

Page 101

Social Stratification, Mobility
and Modernisation
101
Upward mobility is when an individual moves from lower status to
higher status eg daughter of a peon joins the bank as an officer.
Downward mobility is when an individual moves down from one
positio n to and other and change his status. eg if a person loses his job due
to his inefficiency or any other reasons, he is downwardly mobile from his
previous job.
Factors affecting education in relation to social stratification and
social mobility with specia l reference to Indian society.
Education and Social Stratification
Sociologists like Durkheim view the major function of education in any
society as the transmission of that society's norms and values. According
to them, education provides a link between t he individual and the society
and it provides the individual specific skills necessary for the future
occupations, which is the most. important factor in the modern social
stratification system. Parsons (1961) believes that the educational system
is an imp ortant mechanism for the selection and allocation of the
individuals in their future roles in the society. It is also regarded as the
ground for proving one's ability and hence selective agency for different
statuses according to their abilities. However, this argument is rejected by
people like Bowles and Gintis who argue that the social relationships in
the schools replicate the hierarchical division of labour in the work place.
There is a close correspondence between the social relationships which
govern the personal relationships at the work place and the social
relationships in the educational system.
Raymond Boudon (1974) also suggests that the inequality of educational
opportunity is primarily a product of social stratification. According to
him, eve n if there were no sub -cultural differences between classes, the
very fact that people stand at different positions in the class system will
produce inequality of educational opportunity. Thus, the essence of social
stratification is social inequality and it manifests itself through many
forms such as differential allocation of income, status and privileges,
opportunities for various social utilities, etc and the educational
achievement is very important in all these aspects. In the open systems of
stratifi cation such as class system, the movement up and down the strata is
possible and in the closed ascription -based stratification systems such
caste, where the boundaries between various strata are rigid, the
movement is extremely difficult. Further, there ar e various correlates of
the relationship between education and social stratification in a society.
Most important of them is that the education is the primary generator of
social mobility in any modern industrial society. This relationship is little
comple x to understand. For instance, the education is the main component
in achieving a status in the social class system, on the one hand, and
stratification system is the deciding factor in the differential access to
education, on the other hand. Therefore, th e relationship between munotes.in

Page 102

Education and Society

102 education and social stratification is very complex and can only be
understood in relation to the concept of social mobility.
Education and Social Mobility As discussed earlier, education in the
present day context is the most import ant and dynamic force in the life of
individual, influencing his social development. It functions I more as an
agent of social change and mobility in social structure. It leads to
economic I development by providing ways and means to improve the
standard o f life. The positive attitude towards education leads to socio -
economic mobility among the individuals and groups. That means, a
person who is born in an agricultural family can, by means of education,
become an administrator or any other government employ ee. Secondly,
education leads to the changes in the lifestyles of people. It modifies the
attitudes, habits, manners and their mode of social living. Thirdly, the
education is responsible for inter -generational mobility among the
individuals and groups. Th rough inter -generational mobility, the social
groups are able to maintain their status and the status of their family.
Therefore, it can be said that education plays an important contributory
role in the mobility of individuals and groups regarding their s ocial
position, occupational structure, styles of life, habits and manners.
14B. 5 CONCEPT OF MODERNISATION: INDIVIDUAL
AND SOCIETAL MODERNITY, ROLE OF
EDUCATION IN MODERNISATION
Concept of Modernisation
The word modern or modernisation is the derivative o f the Latin term
‘MODO ’, which means ‘just now’ ‘or’ ‘the latest’ . Modernisation
involves transformation towards progress democratic, socio -economic and
scientific ideals. Modernisation as a process of change requires both
structural and functional changes . Mutual tolerance, respect for other’s
views and equality among all are the essential requisites of
modernity.Modernisation does not mean elimination of all traditional and
ancient values. Those ancient values are to be preserved and protected
along with induction and modernity has to be intelligently solved to
accommodate overall progress.
The Oxford English Dictionary defines the term ‘ modern ’ as ‘something
of the recent times or something new or latest, not concerned with classic.
Thus, the literal mea ning of the term refers to anything which is New or
Latest in life style, dress, art or thinking .
According to Indian sociologist Prof. Y. Singh , “Modernisation
symbolizes a rational attitude towards issues and their evaluation from
universalistic, not par ticularistic point of view”. For him, Modernisation
involves diffusing scientific and technological know -how.
C.E. Black in his book ‘ Dynamics of Modernisation suggests
modernisation as a process by which historically evolved institution are
adopted to the rapidly changing function that reflect the unprecedented munotes.in

Page 103

Social Stratification, Mobility
and Modernisation
103 increase in man’s knowledge, permitting control over his environment in
the recent centuries that accompanies the scientific revolution.
Concept of Modernity has following distinctive characteristic s:
(i) Intellectual characteristics are like emphasis on science and technology,
reason and rationality, belief in progress and human development,
control over environment and avoidance of superstition and
orthodoxy.
(ii) Political Characteristics, includ e marginalization of religious
influence from State/Political matters, and rise of secular democratic
polity, universal adult suffrage, democratic values.
(iii) Religious Characteristics constitute a secularized society free from
religious orthodoxy and de cline of religiosity.
(iv) Social Characteristics include decline of a traditional social order,
decline of Joint family system, alienated kinship ties
v) In relation of education, it involves literacy, emphasis on knowledge,
trained skill and the lik e.
(vi) Economic Characteristics include changing over to commercial
agriculture, use of machines and advanced technology in agriculture,
growing industrialisation and urbanisation, improvement in
commerce, industry and growth of Market etc. Thus, modernit y
implies a bunch of new socio -economic, politico -religious and
intellectual system, totally separated from the traditional one.
Individual Modernity: is modernity in an individual and is defined as a
syndrome of attitudes and beliefs including progressive , secularity,
optimism, future -oriented perspectives and a sense of self efficacy
Societal Modernity: is associated with evolutionary social change
towards increasing differentiation of structure and increasing
specialization of function
Modernisation has broadly the following salient features:
(1) A Scientific temper outlooks
(2) Reasoning and rationalism
(3) Secularization
(4) High aspirations
(5) Total change in attitude, norms and values,
(6) Developed economy,
(7) Broader national interest
(8) Democra tization munotes.in

Page 104

Education and Society

104 (9) An open society.
(10) A challenging personality and finally
(11) Dynamic leadership to organize socio -economic cultural & political
movement and undertake reforms.
Role of Education in Modernisation: There are certain parameters
that contribut e directly to the process of modernisation
1. Sound political ideology and its effective operation, viable national
economy, functionally literate population, wholesome personality, skilled
man-power, modified values and motivation, concerted national effo rts,
open mindedness etc. are regarded as the gifts of education. Education
disseminates political ideology of a nation, accelerates the growth of
economy, prepares abled and skilled man -power and makes people literate
functionally and expands the minds fo r the larger interests of the society
and nation.
2. Production of skilled Human Resources: Education directly
contributes to the process of modernisation. It is rightly acknowledged that
human resource is the key to national advancement and a sound human
resource is created and developed by education.It produces the skilled
persons with a sound knowledge base to occupy and operate economic,
industrial, technological and social fields. This high -powered human
resource contributes to the growth of national wealth through their creative
abilities and productive efforts. Therefore, education promotes in the
rising generation those knowledge, skills and attitudes which accelerate
the pace of modernisation.
3. Breaks the barriers of traditional thinking : As a dy namic force of
change education breaks the status quo of the traditional thinking, doing,
habits, attitudes and values. It broadens the mental horizon are arouses
interest in innovation and experimentation. It helps Individuals to be
broad -minded and stimu lates their thinking to accept new things and
objects without a compromise with the old thinking and ideas.
4. Education prepares intellectual individual who are sensitive to the
needs of the society : Education creates a cadre of philosophers, scientists,
technocrats, leaders, elite, co -planners, administrators, physician, teachers
etc. who vanguard the chariot of modernisation. They are highly sensitive
to the needs, demands and aspirations of, a modernized society and they
work for consensus building on i mportant issues including national and
emotional integration, and above all international understanding.
They socialize individuals to look at the objects, ideas, things, persons etc.
in the correct perspectives by cultivating scientific temper and fosteri ng
rationality . These two cardinal instruments i.e. scientific temper and spirit
and rational thinking help man to evaluate everything in its correct forms
and perspectives.Therefore, a society is advanced in every respect and
education is the originator a nd creator of everything which steers the
vehicle of modernisation. munotes.in

Page 105

Social Stratification, Mobility
and Modernisation
105 5. Education creates interest in the mind and positively changes the
thinking of the people Education, as a chief instrument of modernisation
arouses, sustains, stimulates and perpetuates i nterest in the minds of
people in the change and growth processes. Education helps in the
evolution of mind which is dispassionate, and objective and enquiring.
Education brings about change in the mind: attitude, value, opinion etc. to
work for the progre ss and prosperity of a nation. Moreover, education
helps in the increase of production and income of a nation. Therefore,
there is a positive correlation between education and the growth of per
capita and national income. Education is regarded as the engin e of
economic growth of a nation .
14B. Education prepares a band of knowledgeable and creative men and
women by imparting appropriate value, skill and knowledge adequately
who, in turn, will commit themselves to the process of modernisation.
Thus, modernis ation is harnessed by education.
7. Education acts as a powerful force of modernisation by developing
national outlook and international understanding. It can help the pupils in
knowing the latest developments in social, economic, technological,
scientific and cultural domains of human life.
8. Education can help in the achievement of emotional and national
integration which is the basis for establishing unity among people and for
development of nation -social, cultural, economic and political and
scientific aspects.
9. Education can help in accelerating the process of modernisation by
fostering a democratic and secular outlook and vision among the
people. Secular attitude helps in developing respect for all religions of the
world and of the nation. Democrati c altitude enables people to live
successfully in the society with others without any difference and feelings.
10. Education helps people to prepare for future life which is essential
for modernization. It helps them to acquire all social skills for leadin g a
better future life. And better future life accelerates the process of
modernisation. Therefore, it is a powerful weapon that can accelerate the
pace of modernisation in the present society for a happier and respectable
life.
14B. 6 UNIT END EXERCISE
Write in brief:
1) Mention the three types of social stratification
2) Briefly identify education as a factor in social mobility
3) Explain the role of education in modernization
4) Elucidate individual modernity munotes.in

Page 106

Education and Society

106 5) Differentiate between upward and downward mobility
6) Explain the need for societal modernity
Write short notes on:
1) Concept of social stratification
2) Concept of social mobility
3) Concept of modernization
14B. 7 REFERENCES:
Bilton, Tony, et al. (1987). Introductory Sociology, London:,Mac Mi llan
Giddens, Anthony. (1990). Sociology, Cambridge: Polity Press
Gupta, Dipankar. (1991). Social Stratification, New Delhi: Oxford
University Press. Sharma, K.L. (1994). Social Stratification and Mobility.
Jaipur, New Delhi: Rawat Publications.
Webliogr aphy
http://pioneerjournal.in/files.php?force&file=Shodh/Role_of_Education_i
n_Modernization_245515705.pdf
https://www.egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/14167/1/Unit -2.pdf
https://www.sociologygroup.com/modernization -indian -traditions -
yogendra -singh -summa ry/











munotes.in

Page 107

107 15
EQUALITY IN EDUCATIONAL
OPPORTUNITIES
Unit Structure :
15.1 Determinates of Social Class
15.2 Objectivesof Equality
15.3 Stratification And Equality of Educational Opportunity
15.4 Unit End Exercise
15.5 Reference Books

15.1 DETERMINANTS OF SOCIAL CLASS
A social class is one or two or more broad group of individuals who are
ranked by the members of the community in socially superior and inferior
positions’ . Max Weber held that classes are aggregate so of individuals
‘who have the same opportunities of acquiring goods, the same, exhibited
standard of living’ . Social class can also be said as‗Culturally defined
group that is accorded a particular position or status within the population
as a whole‘.
Social class is based on several closely related factors; Wealth, the power
derived from wealth,and ‗life chances’ to acquire wealth.
15.2 OBJECTIVE OF EQUALITY
15.2.1 ACCESS:
Without exception modern societies such as our own are socially
stratified.This means that they contain social groups (i.e.), families, classes
or ethnic groups that have unequal access to important advantages, such as
economic resources, power and prestige. Such in equalities have not
always existed, however. During most of human history, more equalitarian
societies were the rule. Such equalitar ian have some differences in
advantages based on age, gender, or particular ability but all the families
with in them have the same access to rights and advantages.
Based upon customs or rules that confer or deny unequal access to
economic resources, power or prestige, anthropologist has a model of
three different kinds of societies.
1. Equalitarian Society
2. Rank Society
3. Class Society
munotes.in

Page 108

Education and Society

108 (1) Equalitarian Societies are unstratified; no social group has unequal
access to economic resources, power or prestige.
(2) Rank Soc ieties are partly stratified; social groups do not have very
unequal access to economic resources or power but they do have
unequal access to prestige.
(3) Class societies are stratified; Social groups have unequal access to
economic resources, power and prest ige. Such stratified societies may
range from some what open class systems to more rigid caste systems
when caste membership is assigned at birth and unlikely to change
throughout life. Within a society composed of people from widely
varied backgrounds and different physical features racism is often
associated with social stratification.
―Race ll is not a scientifi cally useful device for classifying humans.
Access to higher learning should be made possible for all regardless
or race, ethnicity, gender, economic or social class, age, language,
religion, location or disabilities. Equitable access and academic
excellence are essential and compatible aspects of quality higher
education.
(1) Division of society into groups that differ greatly in wealth, power
and prestige.
(2) Class based on achieved status.
(3) Caste based on a scribed status.
15.2.2 Princ iples of social stratification :
Stratification refers to a system of in equality, society is stratified.
Thereare five principles:
(1) It is social, not natural
(2) It‘s persistent, even associeties change.
(3) It is omnipresent in nearly all social settings, even in socialist
systems.
(4) It is supported by ideology.
(5) It is micro –as well as a macro –level.
15.2.3 Liberal and Radical: -
1. Liberals:
Liberals support a moderately high level of social services but tend to
favour equality of opportunity more than equality of so cial condition.
They do believe that society has a duty to help the poor and oppressed,
and to make appropriate arrangements for the young and elderly, but they
would not go as social democrats and other radicals in the pursuit of these munotes.in

Page 109

Equality in Educational
Opportunities
109 goals. Many liberal s also believe that the educated e lite should lead
society and that the p ower of rational persuasion (―ideas again) are
sufficient to convince voters of the moral correctness of their aims ; they
are thus ―idealists in the strict ly philosophi cal sense of the term.
2. Radical :
RADICAL SOCIAL CHANGE
The important theoretical question of whether our interpretation of the
relationship between social structure and personality applies also during
times of radical social change.
Social change as change in the struc ture of the society, not merely as an
eventful or dramatic period in the life of that society: "Change occurs
when there is a shift in pattern, when new relationships emerge...
"By radical social change, we prefer not to the pace of change b ut to the
nature of the change --the transformation of one political and economic
system into a quite different system. The idea of a relationship between
social structure and personality implies a dynamic interchange. What we
learn about this interchange d uring times of social stability offers a static
slice of a dynamic process. Whether what we learn is typical of a more
general process or is specific to times of social stability is an open
question. The null hypothesis, so to speak, is that our general
interpretation of the relationships between social structure and personality
will prove to be valid even during periods of radical social change.
Contrary hypotheses would predict that radical social change might
greatly modify the relationships between soci al structure and personality:
either because the social structures of the countries were themselves in
process of change; or because the relationship between social -structural
position and occupational self direction may weaken during periods of
transition from one system to another, when the occupational structure
itself may be in flux; or because the pivotal role of occupational self
direction as an explanatory link between social -structural position and
personality may be challenged under conditions of change and
uncertainty; or simply because the experience of radical social change --
particularly the uncertainties and fears that it engenders --may itself have
such wide -ranging psychological consequences as to overwhelm all else.
How does one test these hyp otheses? Poland certainly has been
experiencing radical social change, and for our purposes a restudy of
Poland was strategically central. We studied Ukraine for much the same
reason that my collaborators and I originally studied Poland and Japan --to
diffe rentiate social -structural universals from single -nation particularities
15.2.4 Liberal and Distributive Models of Social Justice
The definition of the Distributive Liberal Social Contract’ is proposed
which appears ethically and practically acceptable. The logical
consistency of the liberal social contract is established in a theorem which
proves the existence of such a contract for all initial distributions of
wealth, when individual agents share the common opinions that wealth munotes.in

Page 110

Education and Society

110 should be consumed by individuals rather than disposed of, and that gifts
should flow down the scale of wealth.The distributive liberal social
contracts are then the Pareto ef ficient distributions that are unanimously
preferred to the initial distribution of rights.
15.3 STRATIFICATION AND EQUALITY OF
EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITY
Social stratification refers to differential access to resources, power,
autonomy, and status across soc ial groups. Social stratification implies
social inequality; if some groups have access to more resources than
others, the distribution of those resources is inherently unequal. Societies
can be stratified on any number of dimensions. In the United State s, the
most widely recognized stratification systems are based on race, social
class, and gender. The challenge for those of us interested in
understanding the implications of social stratification and social inequality
for mental health is to trace the p rocesses through which macrostructures
of social stratification become manifest in the micro conditions of
individual lives. Those micro conditions can be objective or subjective,
and the effects of objective conditions often depend on how those
conditions are subjectively perceived. Thus, the study of social
stratification and mental health requires that we think at multiple levels of
analysis and about the connections between objective and subjective
experiences. Given renewed interest in macro -micro links among
sociologists (e.g., Huber, 1990) and the centrality of subjective
perceptions in social -psychological theory, the study of social
stratification and mental health is a quintessentially sociological project.
"Even though social stratification is a multi-disciplinary and multi -
dimensional field of study, there is a tendency to understand it mainly
from the perspective of sociology. Further, most analysts perceive Indian
society as a series of antinomies such as caste/class, caste/power,
structure/cult ure and structure/process. Departing significantly from both
these viewpoints, this book provides a comprehensive understanding of
social stratification and mobility in India drawing essential inputs from
major debates and dialogues in various branches of the social sciences.
"Focusing on different segments of society --such as rural -agrarian and
urban -industrial --K.L. Sharma covers a wide gamut of theoretical and
methodological issues. He emphasizes the need to study the ideology,
structure and process of social inequality both temporally and
contextually. The inclusion of discussions on social stratification
particularly enriches the comparative perspective of the study. The role of
the state and its policies in the structuring of social stratification is also
explored.
"The author maintains that while the cult urological explanation of social
mobility suffers from serious inadequacies, the structural perspective
alone is unable to explain the entire range of structure and change in the
context of social ine quality. He suggests that the caste -class -power nexus
approach is not only more relevant for analyzing social stratification and
mobility, but does away with antinomies as well. munotes.in

Page 111

Equality in Educational
Opportunities
111 "On the whole, this chapter provides a holistic understanding of the
complexit ies of Indian society by analyzing the historical, cultural and
political bases of social stratification. It will be of particular interest to
students and scholars of sociology, social anthropology, and political
sociology, as also to concerned intellectu als and planners."
15.3.1 Equality of Educational Opportunity
Equality is said to exist only when in equality has been removed. But in
reality inequality is not totally eliminated. Whatever measures maybe
taken to ensure equality, inequality will exist to some degree.Thus what
the programmes of equality do or can do is to narrow down the
inequ alities. It means―elimination of that level or type of Inequality whic h
is considered undesirable or unacceptable within the society. ll So the
purist of equality aims not at total equality in the philosophical sense, but
at an equitable distribution of societal resources.
Modern society views education as an important societal resource and a
means of achieving the goal of egalitarianism. Education is looked upon as
a means of raising the social status of an individual in various ways. It is
accepted as a basic human need t o have a desirable quality of life. Given
equal opportunity for general, vocational, technical and professional
education most citizens have equal status in the society. Education is often
considered as an equalizer.
Equality of educational opportunities m eans that an individual has equal
access to education. Equality of educational opportunities is one of the
goals of the ideology of Egalitarianism. However, inequality of
educational opportunities exists throughout the world and more so in
India.
The Educ ation Comm ission (1964-1966) has observed :― The main social
objectives of education is to equalize opportunity, enabling the backward
or underprivileged classes and individuals to use education as a lever for
the improvement of their condition. Every society that values social justice
and is anxio us to improve a lot of the common man and cultivate all
available talent must ensure progressive equality of opportunity to all
sections of the population.
15.3.2 Differential standard of Educational Institutions:
Children from poor families receive educat ion in substandard institutions
which are not properly equipped with teachers, teaching aids and
apparatus. Usually urban schools and colleges are of better standard than
rural schools and colleges. Differences in the standard of educational
institutions ultimately cause in equality in the standard of students.
15.3.3 Positive Discrimination in the Indian context:
In order to ensure equalization of educational opportunities certain
measures to be taken with immediate effect. These measures may be based
on the needs and status of disadvantaged groups, disabled children, and
girls. munotes.in

Page 112

Education and Society

112 1. Primary Education:
Primary education should seek to satisfy the basic needs of all people.
There should not be any differentiation of curricula at this stage. Equality
of educationa l opportunities at the primary stage requires provision of free
and compulsory education for all children without any discrimination.
2. Secondary Education:
Individual differences among boys and girls are more prominent at the
secondary stage diversified cur ricula should be introduced to cater to the
needs, interests and capabilities of students.
3. Higher Professional Education:
At the stage of higher education and professional education emphasis
should be placed on individual capacity or merit and maintenance of
quality and standard.
4. Compensatory Education:
Disadvantaged children have an unstimulating environment. They attend
primary schools without prerequisite learning which are necessary for
successful completion of primary education.
Common School System:
Equalization of educational opportunity necessitates adoption of a
common school system -both at the primary and secondary stages. It will
be a system -
1. Which will be open to all children without any discrimination?
2. Where admission will be based on talent.
3. Which will maintain adequate facilities and reasonably good
standards?
4. Where no tuition fee will be charged.
5. Which will meet the needs and as pirations of the middle and lower
classes.
Nationalization of education system is an important step to equalize
educ ational opportunities. There should be only one agency in the country
to spread and control education. No private agency should be allowed to
function in the field of education. Uniform educational facilities can only
be provided in a national system of ed ucation.
15.3.4 Free Education and Scholarships
To provide free and universal primary education for the age group 6-14 is
a constitutional obligation. All Education should be tuition free. Free text
books and writing materials should be made available to p oor and
meritorious students to ensure equality no limited for introducing large
number of loan-scholarships, improving the method of selection.
munotes.in

Page 113

Equality in Educational
Opportunities
113 15.3.5 Equalization of Educational opportunity
The equalization of educational opportunities is essentially l inked with the
equality notions in the social system. The social system which intends to
provide equal opportunities for the advancement of all has to make
provisions for equal educational opportunities also. In modern industrial
society education has beco me the main agency for socializing new born
into law abiding citizens and productive members of the society. Formal
education has become almost indispensable because to participate in
economic production one needs to learn specialized skills which cannot be
acquired through family or any other agency. Due to the indispensability
of formal education in advanced industrial societies education is provided
by the state as a matter of right for all its citizens. Formal institutions –
schools, colleges and univer sities are organized for this purpose.
In most societies today legislations exist guaranteeing equality of the right
of education. In fact to realize this ideal of equality of educational
opportunities special efforts are made by the welfare states in indu strial
societies to provide compulsory education to the socially deprived. In
developing countries like India state has assumed the responsibility to
provide universal free education at the school level. Special policy
measures have been developed to sprea d modern scientific secular
education to rural areas and policy of protective discriminating has been
adopted to encourage the traditionally deprived section like SC and ST to
take to modern education. However in spite of the creation of a legal
framework in most societies to ensure quality of educational opportunity
such an ideal continues to be elusive in reality even in the industrially
advanced societies.
Bourdon relates the costs and benefits of course selection to family and
peer group solidarity. His work has important implications for practical
solutions to the problem of inequality of education opportunity. Even if
positive discrimination worked and schools were able to compensate for
the primary effects of stratification considerable inequality of educational
opportunity would remain.
Bourdon argues that there are two ways of removing the secondary effects
of stratification. The first involves the educational system. If it provides a
single compulsory curriculum for all students the element of choic e in the
selection of course and duration of stay in the system would be removed.
The individual would no longer be influenced by his courses and remain in
full time education for the same period of time. He said that more the
branching points there are in the educational system point at which the
student can leave or choose between alternative courses the more likely
working class students are to leave or choose lower level courses. The
gradual raising of the school leaving age in all advanced industrial
societies has reduced inequality of educational opportunity but the present
trend indicates that this reduction will at best proceed at a much slower
rate. Bourdon‘s second solution to the problem of inequality of
educational opportunity is the abolition of social stratification. He feels
that this is the direction of economic equality as the most effective way of
reducing inequality or educational opportunity. As a result he argues that munotes.in

Page 114

Education and Society

114 the key to equality of opportunity lies outside rather than inside the
schools. Bourdon concludes: for inequality or educational opportunity to
be eliminated, either a society must be unstratified or its school system
must be completely undifferentiated.
15.3.6 Problems concerning equality of opportunities in education
Educat ion helps in establishing equality and ensuring social justice but the
system of education itself can add to the existing inequalities or at least
perpetuate the same. Inequalities of educational opportunities arise
due to -
 Poverty as the poor cannot afford to meet the expenses of education.
 Children studying in the rural schools have to compete with the
children in urban areas where there are well-equipped schools.
 In the places where no primary, secondary or collegiate educational
institutions exist children do not get the same opportunity as those who
have all these in their neighborhood.
 Wide inequalities also arise from differences in home environments. A
child from a rural household or slum does not have the same
opportunity as a chi ld from an upper class home with educated parents.
 There is wide sex disparity in India. Here girl‘s education is not given
the same encouragement as boys.
 Education of backward classes including SC and ST and economically
backward sections is not at par w ith that of other communities or
classes.
15.3.7 Compensatory Education Programmes
DEFINITION:
COMPENSATORY EDUCATION is a program of supplementary
instruction designed to meet the individual needs of students performing
significantly below expected achie vement levels in language arts, maths,
and/or reading.
POLICY:
1. Compensatory education, in the form of supplementary instruction,
will be provided to selected students who are performing significantly
below expected achievement levels in language arts, math ematics,
and/or reading. The CEP is intended to be primarily for students who
do not require special education services. However, special education
students who meet the CEP entrance requirements would be eligible to
be considered for the CEP.
2. The CEP is d esigned to be a program of Supplementary instruction and
as such will not be used to provide the primary instruction for regular
or special Education students.

munotes.in

Page 115

Equality in Educational
Opportunities
115 3. An ongoing assessment program, which may include criterion
referenced tests, will be conducted to identify students eligible for
compensatory education supplementary instruction and to determine
student progress and program effectiveness.
4. Testing procedures used for placements and progress evaluation of
students will be valid and fair.
5. For staffing , budget, and overall program planning, the number of
students performing at or below the 40th percentile on
norm -referenced standardized tests in language arts, maths, and
reading will be used.
6. Compensatory education programs wil l include a parent involvement
component.
7. Instructional priority will be given to students in grades one through
four. Preventative measures at these grade levels are proven to be the
most reliable.
8. Systematic procedures for annual programe valuation, to include
record keeping, will be used to ensure maintenance and improvement
of compensatory education services.
15.3.8 Responsibilities
1. The Director is responsible for:
a. Ensuring the development, implementation, program –evaluation.
b. Coordinating with the chiefs of the Education, Fiscal, Logistics,
2. The regional director is responsible for:
a. Ensuring the development, implementation, program evaluation, and
improvement of a regional CEP consistent -with concepts identified.
b. Providing enrollment figures, test data, and other pertinent
information, as required, to support staffing and resource
allocations.
3. The district super intendent is responsible for:
a. Coordinating with regional office staff regarding the CEP’s.
b. Ensuring implementation and evaluation of school level CEP's
4. The school principal, where staff is assigned, is responsible for:
a. Ensuring the development, implementation, anannual evaluation,
and improvement of a school CEP consistent with the concepts and
processes identified.
munotes.in

Page 116

Education and Society

116 b. Making recommendations to the district superintendent and/or
regional director identifying the school‘s specific needs in
compensatory education.
c. Utilizing a committee to develop a plan for a school CEP.
d. Implementing the plan for compensatory education services.
e. Providing the regional director and/or district superintendent with
enrollment figures, test data, annual evaluation report, and other
pertinent information, as required, to support staffing and resource
allocations.
15.3.9 Enriching the Compensatory Education Programme
The deve lopment of compensatory education programs has traditionally
been informed by the belief that disadvantaged students can benefit most
from a less challenging curriculum and limited achievement goals.
Evaluations ―effectiveness" reinforce the curriculum deficiency by
measuring only the improvement in scores on reading and arithmetic tests,
and by failing to deal with the overall achievement of students.
15.3.10 Coordination of Regularand Compensatory Education Clas ses
Often there is a lack of clarity about the purpose of compensatory
education services, with divergent perceptions found among the support
staff, the core classroom teachers, and administrators. Most studies
indicate that there are few efforts to coordi nate various special or
supplementary programs with core or regular programs, few procedures
for cooperative/joint planning among the various program teachers at the
school, and even fewer district -or building -level policies to foster
cooperative planning among the various suppliers of programs or
services.Thus, students often end up with less instructional time than other
students.
For instance, regular class room teachers often report that the reading
resource teachers rarely offer instructional informati on, suggestions, or
materials. Support program teachers are often unable to identify the
reading instruction material their remedial students use in the regular
classroom. Regular classroom and reading resource teachers are often
confused about who is resp onsible for which aspects of instructional
planning and delivery. Reading is often taught as an "unrelated skill" --i.e.,
reading of reading texts --not as a skill needed for other learning and study
areas. What is needed is congruence between curricula what is to be
taught, in what order, and using which materials, and between the methods
of instruction (Ellington & Johnson, 1986). Conflicts arise when the
reading strategies taught and learned in one setting are radically different
from those in the second s etting, such as emphasis on decoding versus a
focus on comprehension.
munotes.in

Page 117

Equality in Educational
Opportunities
117 15.3.11 Cognitive Development
A sound educational program provides for learning opportunities in both
cognitive and affective areas, in skills of learning how -to-learn and
learning how to be a" student."
However, the services emphasize mastery learning techniques that may
improve scores on standardized tests, but fail to help students learn how to
work independently and develop coherent mental representations for
school work ingeneral (D oyle, 1986).
If there is a trend, at least among the theorists and researchers, it is that
curriculum and instruction for the disadvantaged should emphasize
developmental over remedial learning. Cognitive science research in
mathematics and reading under scores the importance of emphasis on
meaning and understanding beginning in the early elementary grades. The
Commission on Reading (Anderson, Hilbert, Scott, & Wilkinson, 1985)
concluded that from the beginning children should be given all of the
elements n ecessary for constructing meaning because they must be made
aware that reading is always directed toward meaning. However, students
receive more instruction in factual and lower -level skills --drill and
practice --and less in higher -order skills.
Peterson (1986) concluded that low achieving student scan successfully be
taught a variety of cognitive strategies, such as memory, elaboration, self-
questioning, rehearsal, planning and goal setting, comprehension,
problem -solving, hypothesis generating and study sk ills; and that
compensatory education should give greater emphasis to their
development. Adams (1986) encourages teaching thinking skills to allow
students to create the "schema" necessary for the mind to store, order, and
make sense of various observation s, facts, and events that they are
exposed to.
It should be noted, however, that, as another pullout activity taught by
someone other than the regular classroom teacher, a "thinking class" can
create as many problems as it solves; compensatory education sh ould give
greater emphasis to the development of students' cognitive strategies --the
strategies needed for learning (learning how-to-learn skills).
15.3.12 Reading:
Despite efforts over the last quarter century to improve the reading
achievement of disadv antaged students, the correlation between economic
status and reading achievement remains (Calfee, 1986). In addition, Calfee
asserts, literacy does not begin with a concept of basic skills or minimum
competency; a literate person has "an approach to langu age that transcends
the medium of print" (p. IV -51). Nevertheless, disadvantaged students are
taught relatively low -level skills that do not transfer to the higher level
knowledge and skills that comprise literacy (Calfee, 1986). More attention
needs to be paid to integrating the reading, writing, and oral language
elements of literacy and comprehension.
munotes.in

Page 118

Education and Society

118 15.3.13 Mathematics:
If remedial reading programs fail to provide opportunities for cognitive
development, their mathematics counter part narrows the students' focus
even further. Romberg (1986) observed that compensatory programs in
mathematics fall into three broad categories: enrichment programs, which
are supposed to provide low-income children with experiences and
intellectual challenges that the middl e-class have; differential programs,
which treat disadvantaged students differently from middle -class children,
and are comprised of mastery learning that uses computers and other aids
as management tools and standardized tests asassessment instruments; or
direct drill methods that teach arithmetic skills by emphasizing right
answers rather than appropriate processes; and developmentally based
programs, which are geared to the level of a child's conceptual thoughts
after his or her cognitive functioning has been determined.
Romberg (1986) argues that a mathematically sound program should not
fragment math into literally thousands of pieces as these methods do.
Rather it would provide all children with an opportunity to learn
mathematics by emphasizing the in terdependence of ideas and the use of
reasonable procedures to arrive at an answer. Math should be conceived as
"a language and a science that orders the universe, a tool for representing
situations, defining relationships, solving problems, and thinking ll.
15.3.14 Challengeand Coherence :
The curriculum for disadvantaged students should not be limited to pullout
instruction in reading and math. It should be as rich and balanced as that
provided high achieving students.While student success on basic tests of
reading and achievement is important, such minimal competencies are
only a part of the total educational goals and objectives for all students.
Disadvantaged students need access to a sound core curriculum of reading
and language arts, writing, mathemat ics, social studies, science, fine arts,
health, physical education, and even possibly a second language. They
also need access to vocational and technical curricula, and a rich array of
electives. The skills, knowledge, understanding, and insights that
constitute a general and common education (especially at the elementary
level) are essential for all children. They constitute the" cultural
imperatives," and the remediation services of compensatory education
should provide access to them.
15.3.15 Education as a right and as an element of social stratification
There exists some social differentiation in all human societies. Societies
are divided into ranks corresponding to the social positions they have for
their individual members.
These ranks are based directly or indirectly on the division of labour and
influenced by the historical context. This vertical hierarchy is called―social stratification ll. The concept of stratification is usual ly
applied to studies of structural social inequ ality. That means studies of any munotes.in

Page 119

Equality in Educational
Opportunities
119 systematic inequalities between groups of people, which arise as
unintended consequences of social processes and relationships. The major
variables in this respect are social class, gender and ‗race‘ (or ethnic
group). Gend erand ‗race‘ cannot be reduced to social class.
In contemporary societies education is one of the most important elements
for social stratification because the knowledge, skills and attitudes learnt
in school are considered important for the sustaining and development of a
society. However, basic education is also a social right by e.g. the United
Nation‘s Declaration of Human Rights. Every individual should have right
to education despite her/his social class, income and place of residence.
Globally, we are far from this goal. Nearly one third of world‘s adult
population is illiterate. In industrially developed societies, equal
opportunities to education have realized rather well in many areas.
The reason to the expansion of education is not, however, only justice, but
also a particular ideology called meritocracy (Halsey et al.1997, 632).
Meritocracy has become the major justification for the process of
socialization, selection and control exercised by education system.
According to meritocracy individuals s hould be treated by their abilities. It
should be allowed to an individual to make efforts for her/his success
based on her/his personal abilities or as an equation:
INTELLIGENCE+EFFORT=MERIT
By the educational expansion the number of students from lower social
classes and from different ethnic background as well as the number of
female students has increased tremendously. In terms of relative and
relational differences inequality is still there and often it has increased.
Definitions of educational equalit y
1. Provision (quantity and quality of education available, organization of
education system),
2. Access (selection and its criteria), 3. utilization (meaning of education
in people‘s life) and
3. Outcomes (degrees and performances and the definitions of them). The
perfecte quality of out comes would be both impossible and
undesirable, but still it is grounded to analyze the out comes.
We can identify an arrow or conservative and wide or radical definition of
educational equality depending on whether an interventio n into conditions
to inequality is included or not the definition of equal opportunity (Husen
1972).
One way to assess equal opportunity from a wide perspective is to
compare the distributions of students and graduates by socialclass, sex and
ethnic group to the corresponding distributions in the whole age group.
This practice is common in social research as is connecting this analysis to
intergenerational social mobility by including parents‘ social and cultural
background. munotes.in

Page 120

Education and Society

120 The highly optimistic view of ed ucation‘s role in reducing social
inequality prevalent in 1960‘s and early 1970‘s has not realised. A more
pessimistic view is well expressed in Shavit‘s and Blossfeld‘s (1993)
comparative study on education and inter generational mobility in 13
countries. The title of this book is‗Persistent Inequality‘.
Explanations of inequality
On the comparative level, patterns of social mobility are very similar in
countries where a market economy and a nuclear family are central social
institutions . morel remark is that it seems to have been rather similar also
in those communist countries in Eastern and Central Europe that
participated in comparative studies. Does it mean that a nuclear family is a
sufficient condition to inequality or are there other explanations.
An accelerated economic competition and globalization have been
influencing social inequality in general and thus less and more indirectly
educational inequality. There is a female majority among secondary and
higher educated population in some countries, An understanding of the
expansion of the number of women in education must consider, in addition
to the structure of the educational system, recent economic, demographic,
social and cultural changes in contemporary Europe (Jonsson 2003).
The first conclusi on was that Sweden is not a very different case but an
extreme case within the same pattern. Second, equalization has not
touched all social classes and not the whole after World War II period. In
a detailed statistical analysis of the survey data, two variables explained
more than 50% of the correlation between social class and participation in
education in all countries. Those variables were school achievement and
attitude to transitions.
In sever al studies, including my own studies on educational life courses
and life histories, it has been observed and interpreted, that since the early
school years an individual often follows the cultural manu script of her/his
social class and its way of life wi th images of self and personal abilities.
Theoretically, Pierre Bourdieu‘s concept of habitus as a system of
cognitive (eldos‘), ethical and moral (ethos‘) and body ( hexis‘) schemes
dispositions could explain this phenomenon (Bourdieu 1990).
The first h abitus, primary habitus, has been formed already in early (class -
based ) family socialization. The secondary habitus acquired at school and
among peers can be different, but not without struggle against structural
constrains. Often, the change of habitus r equires a change in life course in
the form of challenge or even crisis.
15.4 UNIT END EXERCISE
1. What are the problems concerning to equality of education in India?
2. Do you think Indians have Equality in attaining educational
opportunities?

munotes.in

Page 121

Equality in Educational
Opportunities
121 15.5 REFERENCE BOO KS
1) Gordon Marshall (ed) A Dictionary of Sociology
(Article: Sociology of Education), Oxford University Press, 1998
2) Jacob, A. (2001) Research links poverty and literacy, ABC Radio
Transcript Foster, L.E. (1987) Australian Education : A Sociological
Perspe ctive (2nd Ed), Prentice Hall, Sydney
3) Furze, B. and Healy, P. (1997) ― Understanding society and change ll
in Stafford, C. and Furze, B. (eds) Society and Change (2nd Ed),
Macmillan Education Australia, Melbourne
4) Connell, R.W. and White, V., (1989) ‗Child poverty and educational
action ‘in Edgar, D., Keane, D. & McDonald, P. (eds), Child Poverty,
Allen & Unwin, Sydney.
5) Wilson, B. and Wyn, J. (1987) Shaping Futures : Youth Action for
Livelihood, Allen & Unwin, Hong Kong
6) Henry, M., Knight, J., Lingard, R. and Taylor, S. (1988)
Understanding Schooling : An Introductory Sociology o f Australian
Education, Routledge, Sydney
7) Harker, R., (1990) ―Education and Cultu ral Capital ll in Harker, R.,
Mahar, C. & Wilkes, C., (eds) (1990) An Introduction to the Work of
Pierre Bourdieu; the practice of theory, Macmillan Press, London.
8) Mrs. Y. M. Singh, ―Sociological Foundations of Edu cation, Kanishka
Publishers Distributors -- → 2007
9) F Williams, 1988, Social policy, Polity.
10) D Miller, 1990, Market state and community, Oxford University Press.
11) R Titmuss, 1968, "Welfare state and welfare society", in Commitment
to Welfare, Allen and Unwin.
12) See P Spicker, 1984, Stigmaand Social Welfare, Croom Helm.
13) C Wright Mills, 1956, The Power Elite, Oxford University Press.
14) P Bachrach, M Baratz, 1970, Power and poverty, Oxford University
Press.
15) J Lewis,1992,Gender and the development of welfare regimes, Journal
of European S ocial Policy 2(3)159 -173.
16) H Hartmann, 1995, The Unhappy marriage of marxism and feminism,
in D Tallack (ed) Critical theory: a reader, Harvester Wheats heaf.
17) J Mitchell, 1971, Women's estate, Penguin.
18) CLévi -Strauss, 1949, The elementary structures of kinship, Eyre and
Spottiswoode. munotes.in

Page 122

Education and Society

122 19) E Lemert, 1972, Human deviance, Prentice Hall.
20) Bogart, J. H., 1985, ―Lockean Provisos and State of Nature Theoriesll
Ethics, 95: 824 -836
21) Christman, John, 1991, ―Self-Ownership, Equality, and the Structure
of Property Rights ll, Political Theory, 19:28 -46
22) Cohen, G.A., 1995, Self-Ownership, Freedom, and Equality (New
York: Cambridge University Press)
23) Hayek, Friedrich A., 1960, The Constitution of Liberty (London,
Routledge and Kegan Paul)
24) Kymlicka, Will, 1990 , Contemporary Polit ical Philosophy (Oxford:
Clarendon Press)
25) Lomasky, LorenE., 1987, Persons, Rights, and the Moral Community
(New York: Oxford University Press)
26) Nozick, Robert, 1974, Anarchy, Stateand Utopia (New York: Basic
Books)
27) Steiner, H., 1981, Liberty and Equality, Political Studies, 29: 555 -569




munotes.in

Page 123

123 16
PRIVATIZATION OF EDUCATION
Unit structure :
16.0 Objectives
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Privatization of Education
16.3 Effects of Privatization of Education
16.4 Policy Implications
16.5 Summary
16.6 Questions
16.7 References and Further Readings
16.0 OBJE CTIVES
 To understand the what is privatization.
 To familiarize students with the issues of privatization of education
16.1 INTRODUCTION
Privatization has its roots in a liberal perspective of the role of the state in
education, according to which central ized education systems are often
criticized for being largely inefficient.Privatization is the transfer of
activities, assets and responsibilities from government/public institutions
and organizations to private individuals and agencies. Also, privatizatio n
is often thought of as ‘liberalization’ – where agents are freed from
government regulations, or as ‘marketization’ – where new markets are
created as alternatives to government services or state allocation systems.
Privatization trends are developing as education policies across each of the
three sectors of primary, secondary, and higher education.
The privatization of education is a growing and complex
issue.Privatization is a process, which can be defined as the 'transfer of
assets, management, functi ons or responsibilities [relating to education]
previously owned or carried out by the state to private actors'. Private
actors may include companies, religious institutions, or non -governmental
organizations. There are many ways in which privatization can occur,
through for example, the development of public private partnerships.
Additionally, the unmonitored and unregulated expansion of private sector
provision of education, such as for -profit schools or low fee private
schools, may have a privatizing eff ect if students have no other choice of
school. munotes.in

Page 124

Education and Society

124 Just after independence, the education sector was the top priority for the
country and several initiatives were taken up by the government of India
to provide education to the masses. Some areas which belong ed to the
masses like elementary education were still under the government’s
purview. For private institutions, there was always a feeling that they take
care of the quality aspect in a better way but are meant mainly for the
elites rather than the masses.
But now at the school level, the demand for private educational
institutions is on the rise, across the classes. This is mainly due to the
limitations of the government in providing quality education to the
masses. Private institutions offering higher and professional education are
getting popular due to the limitations of the public sector in fulfilling the
needs in this area.
16.2 PRIVATIZATION OF EDUCATION
While state governance aims at supplying education as a public good to
the population, the provis ion of education as a private good through the
market results from the equilibrium between provider and consumer
choice. Private education providers can govern education by deciding
which products they offer and which prices they charge. Consumers of
these products, i.e. students and parents indirectly, have the option to
choose whichkind of education products they purchase and how much
they will spend, and thus feel empowered to ask for better services.
Instead of a rather standardized and homogeneous prov ision of a normally
free state education aiming at social integration and the creation of human
capital, market governance seeks to satisfy individual interests and needs
and is driven by profit motives.
Participation of the private sector in the field of education are available
under the following stack of ownership:
 Individual owners and Trusts: Under this type of ownership,
Educational institutes/organizations are owned and controlled by trusts
created for educational purposes by the individual(s) and co rporate
houses.
 NGOs (non -government organizations): Under this type of
ownership, organizations help in providing education to the segmented
sections like women, disabled, rural, and urban people.
 Religious bodies: Under this type of ownership, religious
organizations such as Buddhist monasteries, Vidyapeeth’s, Christian
missionaries, The Khalsa group, Arya Samaj, Ram Krishna mission
promotes education.
 Corporate houses: Under this type of ownership, corporate houses
like the Tatas, the Birla’s, the Relian ce group, etc. are actively
involved in providing education. munotes.in

Page 125

Privatization of Education
125 The government on its own cannot take care of providing quality
education to the masses. However, the constitutional provisions make the
government responsible for providing elementary education, and hence it
is felt that the government should allow the private sector to handle higher
and professional education.
In the field of higher and professional education, there are many private
institutions that offer quality education. Private professional institutions
offer better infrastructure, follow a dynamic curriculum, provide research
facilities for quality education. Thus, enabling the private sector to
function as centers of excellence for providing quality education.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:
1. Descr ibe the privatization of education in India.
16.3 EFFECT S OF PRIVATIZATION OF EDUCATION
Evidence on the effects of privatization is scarce and ambiguous and
drawing universal conclusions from context -specific empirical research is
difficult. One implicati on of privatization is that it leads to a remarkable
growth in the creation and advancement of national assessment and quality
assurance systems, seeking to improve the quality of information that
consumers have to make better choices, both at individual a nd collective
levels.
Private actors have the liberty to establish and direct educational
institutions, under international human rights law. This liberty is subject to
the requirement that these private actors must conform to minimum
standards laid down b y the state. It is also closely associated with the
state’s obligation to respect the liberty of parents to choose schools other
than public schools for their children if they wish to do so. The
educational choice of parents ensures that families can choos e education
that is in line with their own religious and moral convictions.
The effects of the privatization of education have been discussed
extensively but are scientifically unsettled. While some studies argue that
privatization is a catalyst of social inequality, others contend that it
encourages overall educational efficiency. What clearly emerges from this
debate is that privatization entails an efficiency -versus -equity trade -off in
education, which has to be seen as a continuum rather than as an inev itable
choice.
In Indian perspective there are two types of impacts of privatization of
higher education ---
A. Positive impact of Privatization of Higher Education:
1. Easy access to high education : To get higher education has become
easy due to privatiza tion number of educational institutions, that is,
colleges and universities are increased. Again different methods of munotes.in

Page 126

Education and Society

126 communications are developed so that teaching and learning process can
be done anywhere and anytime.
2. Reduce distance of educational ins titutions : Privatization of higher
education increases the number of educational institutions in rural and
urban areas. So, the distance is decreased between educational institutions
and residential place of students.
3. Relief of financial burden : Privati zation of higher education decreases
the financial burden of the state and the central governments on higher
education.
4. To provide of quality education : Better quality higher education can
also be provided by private sector. As we know, government is facing
acute shortage of funds and grants given by government for higher
education has been cut on a drastic scale and on the other side demand of
higher education is increasing, then only feasible way is privatization of
education. So this is the major factor r esponsible for it.
5. Join any course irrespective of merit : Privatization not only increase
the number of higher education institutions but also helps the students to
join any courses irrespective of their merits. So, administration is made
according to t heir fiscal capacity not on intellectual ability. This is the
present status in most of the private educational institutions in the Indian
society.
6. Shaping the curriculum in accordanceto global, national and local
needs: Privatization of Higher Educatio n will definitely expose the
students and teachers to international education standards thereby
throwing better opportunities for employment on a global basis as well as
national and local basis. It also will lead to greater reach to rural areas
through th e on-line education systems in the long run. The teachers are of
the opinion that though higher salaries may be the norm in the short period
but in the long run it will stabilize and rationalize.
7. Free from political intervention : Private sectors are alm ost
independent of political interventions. According to Honorable Supreme
Court, unaided professional institutes are autonomous in their
administration and decisions. But they have to follow necessary guidelines
notified by regulating agencies regarding a dmission, examination,
recruitment of staff etc.
8. Better employment : Privatization of higher education causes the
generation of employment opportunities to the graduates, post - graduates,
researcher and trainees in different fields. Generation of employm ent and
income opportunities to educated youth is positive impact of privatization
of higher education in the Indian labour market.
9. Fulfilling the need of the country in liberalization, privatization, and
globalization: Private sector is very sensitive for any change which is
occurredand for any change which is likely to be occurred.10. munotes.in

Page 127

Privatization of Education
127 Competition. Privatization of higher education brings about radical
structural changes providing momentum in the competitive sectors.
B. Negative Impact of Privatization in India:
1. High Cost of Education : In higher education the privatization always
increases the cost of education. The authority collects different fees to
increase its income. This situation is beyond the fixed capacity of poor and
middle -class income gro ups.
2. Poor Faculty : The main object behind privatization of higher
education is said to be quality improvement, this object is not fulfilled. In
majority of educational institutions quality compromise is observed. Their
staff is not properly qualified an d provides services for fewer sums. By
using such staff such institutions earn considerable amount of profit but in
return do not provide better quality education.
3. Inadequate infrastructure : The infrastructure facilities in the self -
financed college an d university is inadequate and poor. Most of the
colleges do not have separate buildings, especially for staff and library, no
proper class room, no technological devices etc. Moreover, basic facilities
such as drinking water, hygienic toilet and equipped laboratories are not
available in many colleges which affect the learning environment and
otherrelated objects.
4. Education a Business : At higher education level, Mushroom Colleges
have grown rapidly. Such colleges are becoming the center for selling
degrees. After paying money, you need not attend the classes. Such
institutions are more in professional courses like Engineering, Pharmacy,
Education and Management courses.
5. Lack of Quality Education but restless work : The private
educational institutions do not provide the education of better quality.
6. Exploitation : Private institutions also exploit the teachers and
professors by paying those amounts which are not according to the amount
specified by regulating agencies like UGC etc. This may lead to
slackening in the efforts of teachers and professors and may finally result
in the fall of standard of education.
7. Violation of right to education : Privatization of higher education has
resulted into violation of right to education. It has created a big prob lem in
our country.
8. Disparity in access to higher education : There are four kinds of
disparity in higher education are visible in India: gender disparity,
geographical disparity, minority -majority based disparity, and disparity
based on economic class. The above -mentioned disparities in access to
privatization of higher education.
9. Focus on quantity : Private sectors have their focus on quantity and not
on quality. munotes.in

Page 128

Education and Society

128 10. Capitation fees : Capitation fee refers to an illegal transaction
whereby an institutio n that provides educational services collects a fee that
is more than what is approved by regulatory norms.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:
1. What are social effects of privatization of education?
16.4 POLICY IMPLICATIONS
The state is ultimately responsible for ens uring that the right to education
is upheld regardless of the provider of education. Under international
human rights law, states have the obligation to regulate and to monitor
private education institutions. The state must ensure that private providers
meet minimum standards, as laid down by the state, and that educational
freedoms do not lead to extreme disparities of educational opportunity for
some groups in society.
As many developing countries struggle to guarantee access to good quality
education to all children, developing the private provision of schooling is
often regarded as a promising avenue. In particular, low -cost private
schools seem to rise for several reasons related to failures in the
government provision of schooling, be that due to insuf ficient school
numbers that usually translate into longer journeys or, frequently, because
parents perceive that private schools provide better quality than public
schools or are simply more convenient because of opening hours.
Therefore, should the state be held accountable and responsible for
ensuring collective goods, even if tasks are delegated to other actors, or
not. There is, in this respect, a great deal of evidence indicating that the
quality of governance is important in broadly contributing to b etter social
and economic outcomes.
In many developing countries, states lack the resources and capacity to
keep track of developing the private sector and enforcing the rules.
Regulations, wherever they exist, are hardly enforced, and if so unevenly
as they can often be evaded through bribery. Governments can be called
on to regulate the private sector more effectively; however, the best way
forward to promote the right to education would be to use government
resources to raise the quality of public schoo ls. Where state provision of
education is failing, and where constrained budgets imply tradeoffs, there
is nothing to be gained in wasting precious resources on trying to regulate
private schools or, at least, in giving this priority over the reform of the
public provision to make it more efficient.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:
1. What policies can a State have to save its education from the negative
impact of the private players?
munotes.in

Page 129

Privatization of Education
129 16.5 SUMMARY
Privatization of education is sometimes promoted as a means of filling
gaps in the provision of education. However, the ongoing trend of
privatization of education raises serious concerns about its negative
impacts on the enjoyment of the right to education, particularly regarding
the availability and accessibility of free ed ucation, equality of educational
opportunities, and education quality.
On the one hand, teaching in private schools often appears to be of better
quality and may account for better academic outcomes. On the other hand,
the development of private provision of education as it is - even when
low-cost - seems unlikely to address the issue of poor children who cannot
access schools and may even increase segregation and reinforce
inequalities in educational opportunity.
To ensure access to higher education by we aker section of society,
government must increase public expenditure on higher education.
Overall, an improvement in the standards of education could be achieved
through a balanced relationship between public and private sector.
Although there are many dra wbacks of privatization of higher education in
India, it is sure to improve the present educational system.
16.6 QUESTIONS
 Why is private education becoming a global phenomenon?
 What are the positive effects of private education?
 What are the policy imp lication for the State in encouraging private
education?
16.7 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
 Abrol, M. (2016). Emerging Trends of Privatization of Education in
India, International Journal of Educational Administration. 8(1), 1 -6.
 Belfield, C.R & Levin, H .M (2002). Education privatization: causes,
consequences and planning implication: International Institute for
Educational Planning.
 Gautam, R., Parihar, A. S. &Khare, S. (2015). Analysis of
globalization/privatization of higher education in India. Interna tional
Conference on Science, Technology and Management.
 Naik, P. K. (2015). Globalization and its Impact on Higher Education
in India, International Journal of Humanities and Management
Sciences (IJHMS), 3(6).
 Ravi, S. (2015). Impact of Privatization of E ducation in Indian
Society,Journal of Culture, Society and Development, An International
Peer-reviewed Journal, Vol. 6.


munotes.in

Page 130

130 17
HIGHER EDUCATION IN INDIA
Unit Structure
17.0 Objectives
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Meaning of Higher Education
17.3 History of Higher education
17.4 Higher education in India
17.5 Data on Higher Education in India.
17.6 Challenges in Higher Educatio n in India
17.7 Privatization and Higher Education in India
17.8 Government Schemes
17.9 Summary
17.10 Questions
17.11 References
17.0 OBJECTIVES
 To understand the different schemes in the higher education in India.
 To learn about the challenges in th e higher education system in
India.

17.1 INTRODUCTION
Education can be seen as the dissemination of a society's values and
collective wisdom. Social scientists relate education to socialisation or
enculturation. Some scholars also have the view that educatio n is intended
to help children learn the culture. Education also helps in shaping
the behaviour of an adult, and point them in the direction of their ultimate
place in society. The general aims, content, organisational structure, and
educational practises are all being developed as society places more and
more value on education (Britannica). Education helps every generation to
survive in a better way. As students who are pursuing higher education this
chapter would be very much useful for you. Here, the dif ferent schemes,
initiatives, challenges impacting the higher education and society at large
is discussed.
17.2 MEANING OF HIGHER EDUCATION
Higher educationis the different types of education offered in
postsecondary schools of learning, usually resultin g in awarding a degree, munotes.in

Page 131

Higher Education in India
131 diploma, or certificate of higher studies to the learner. Universities,
colleges, and professional schools that offer training in subjects like law,
theology, medicine, business, music, and art are also seen as higher
education inst itutions. Junior colleges, institutes of technology, and
schools for creating future teachers are also considered to be part of higher
education. The completion of secondary education is the standard entrance
criterion for the majority of higher educationa l institutions, and the
entrance age is often about 18 years.
17.3 HISTORY OF HIGHER EDUCATION
The first university was found in the Middle Ages, further developing the
modern higher education system. The models developed in mighty nations
like France, Germany, Great Britain, and the United States have had a
significant influence on modern higher education. (Britannica). There also
exists different types of educational institutions like religious education,
community college, academic institutes like uni versity.
17.4 HIGHER EDUCATION IN INDIA
India being a country with second largest population after China and the
United States, the student strength also is one of the world's largest and
hence the higher education system catering to the students also is a large
one. After India's independence, a number of universities, college -level
institutions, and other higher education institutions has significantly
increased with the growth of youth population.
The government of India believes in providing everyone who higher
education who qualifies, especially the most vulnerable groups, more
equitable access to higher education possibilities, as education would help
the vulnerable groups to increase their way of life, standard of living. The
Government also tries to increase in the infrastructure for students by
building new institutions, strengthening existing ones, and providing
support to state governments, non -governmental organizations, and civil
society to support current public efforts to eliminate regional or other
disparities. There are also initiatives towards establishing policies and
programs to support innovation and research, and motivate public and
commercial organizations to push the limits of knowledge. (Government
of India, Higher Education, websit e).
17.5 DATA ON HIGHER EDUCATION IN INDIA
The survey conducted by AISHE - All India Survey on Higher Education,
reveals that there are around 1043Universities, 42343 Colleges and 11,779
Stand Alone Institutions in India. The survey conducted by AISHE also
notes that 307 universities have colleges which are affiliated with them. It
also reports that there are 396 privately run universities. Survey also
shows that there are 420 universities in rural areas. Out which there are
three universities Rajasthan and two in Karnataka are solely meant for
women. On the Other hand, there is only one university for women in
Tamil Nadu, Delhi, Haryana, Assam, Bihar, and Andhra Pradesh, West munotes.in

Page 132

Education and Society

132 Bengal, Himachal Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha, and Uttarakhand. There
is also14 St ate Open Universities, 1 Central Open University, and there
are 110 Dual mode Universities, all of which are State, Private Open
Universities and they are also providing lessons, courses, instruction via
distance learning. There are such 13 universities in Tamil Nadu alone.
This shows that there is still need for improvement in universities for
students specially women.
AISHE reports that an estimated 38.5 million students have enrolled into
different courses for higher education in India. The gender ratio of
students is that of 19.6 million boys and 18.9 million are girls. Female
students make up 49% of the total enrollment. Share of female students is
lowest in Institutions of National Importance followed by Deemed
University -Government, State Private Univ ersity (Aishe, 2019 -2020).
Though the data of AISHE published is of 2019 -20 it gives a general
estimate of the present situation in the country.
SCOPE OF HIGHER EDUCATION
There is further requirement of developing innovative courses which
would hel p individuals to get access to quick jobs or set up their own
businesses and create jobs for others. India being one of the world’s
second largest population with larger amount of youth. It is necessary to
channelize the human resources into proper directi on. There is a need of
developing more higher education centres which focus on health care,
yoga, naturopathy, sports etc. with the growing population and growing
lifestyle diseases and due to growth of technology.
The need for courses catering female in terms of providing seed capital,
courses have to be increased. The differently abled population in the
country is also a large section which has been ignored since long has to be
have courses which could help them get jobs and be self -dependent.
According to the Census of India, 2011 more than 21 million people (or
2.1% of the population) have a disability of some type. Out of which the
Males and females with disabilities are around 12.6 million and 9.3
million of the overall population, respectively. The figure would have
increased at present, as the census hasn’t been carried out in this year, due
to pandemic the percentage would have increased at present.
There is also the third gender who are in need of special assistance,
guidance, career growth oppor tunities, job opportunities, educational
encouragement and opportunities. The first count of third gender revealed
the population is that of 4.9 lakh in India. Though the data available is that
of the year 2014. In a way, the study could have been done a y ear before.
At present in 2022 data, we can estimate that the population would have
massively increased. Hence, there is need of community colleges, higher
education institutions unlike

munotes.in

Page 133

Higher Education in India
133 17.6 CHALLENGES IN HIGHER EDUCATION IN INDIA
One of the main challe nges in the grassroot level is lack of elementary,
secondary education in several remote parts of villages. This leads to
youth unable to take the benefits of higher education at times even though
the reservation facilities exist many a times. Lack of role model, mentor
and guidance leads to marginalized people very often not able to take the
benefit of higher education. Poverty is still one of the major reason due to
which individuals do not pursue higher education in India. The
stratification at the eleme ntary level due to wealth among parents lead to
accessibility of higher education. There are several other challenges like -
 Enrollment: When compared to developed and growing countries,
India's higher education gross enrollment ratio (GER) is quite low wh ich
is only 15%. The nation's demand for more schools to enroll students has
outpaced the development in the number of higher education institutions
that can meet the growing demand for education.

 Equity: There isn't any equity among the many social group ings in
GER (gross enrollment ratio). Studies also show that the Male and females
in India's higher education experience greater differences in GER. There is
also several regional variations and systematic imbalances in higher
education since some states h ave high GERs while others lag well below
the national GER.

 Quality is a comprehensive, multilayered, and dynamic concept in
higher education. Currently, one of India's top priorities is assuring the
quality of higher education. The government, however, n ever ceases
highlighting top -notch education. Many colleges and Indian institutions
are still unable to meet the fundamental requirements established by the
UGC, and our universities are unable to place themselves among the best
in the world.

 Political me ddling: A large number of educational institutions are
owned by political figures who also hold significant positions in the
governing bodies of the colleges. They are profiting on the students'
helplessness by exploiting them, organizing campaigns, losing sight of
their own objectives, and establishing a career in politics.

 Faculty shortages and the state educational system's inability to find
and keep instructors with the requisite credentials have long been
obstacles to high -quality education. Even toda y many PhD and NET
candidates are unable to obtain employment.

 Research and innovation: Impactful research have to be carried out.
The focus on research in higher education institutions is insufficient.
There aren't enough resources for students to use, including equipment and
facilities as well as excellent lecturers. Most research researchers are
either without fellowships or are not able to obtain them in a timely munotes.in

Page 134

Education and Society

134 manner, which has an impact on their research either directly or indirectly.
Additionally , research institutions are connected to higher education
institutions in India. As a result, this creates yet another challenge for
higher education in India.

 Organizational challenges in higher education: Some educational
system suffers from over centra lization, bureaucratic structures, a lack of
accountability, and openness.

 Unfilled posts –In a speech given by the Union Education Ministry,
Rajya Sabha informed that IITs, IIMs, and central universities all have
more than 10,000 open teaching positions. Education Minister
Dharmendra Pradhan stated in a written response that there were 6,535
full-time teaching positions open in the central universities, 403 in the 20
IIMs, and 3,876 in the 23 IITs. There are also 54 central universities in the
country. Th e administration had informed the Parliament in writing during
the monsoon session that 40% of all teaching seats are vacant in the
central universities. The institutes also do poorly in terms of the
representation of OBC, SC, and ST people in teaching pos itions. 1,015 SC
professor vacancies, 590 ST positions, and 1,767 OBC positions are open
in the core universities. Together, the IITs have 462 OBC, 183 SC, and 32
ST faculty members. For IIMs, the comparable numbers are 5, 27, and 45.
The Constitution requ ires that at least 7.5% of teaching jobs in educational
institutions be held by STs, 15% by SCs, and 27% by OBCs. (Indian
Express, Dec 15th 2021).

 Global Challenges - The educational systems of the most powerful
countries have long been replicated outsid e of the Western Hemisphere,
though not always for the better. The major problem is that many
developing countries need significantly more technical institutes than
academic schools to produce professionals and scientists who can address
their particular p roblems. Language barriers is also a problem in many
countries because of which many of the technologies developed in the
West require a vocabulary that many languages lack.
Check Your Progress
1) What does AISHE discuss on education
2) List out two cha llenges in Higher education
17.7 PRIVATIZATION AND HIGHER EDUCATION IN
INDIA
As Privatization is entering every sector, it has also influenced and entered
the education too.Privatization of education has both positive and negative
effects. Currently ther e are 419 number of private Universities offering
higher education in the country (UGC Website). The Privatization of
University and education is problematic. As private university/institutes
are not directly in control of the Government Educational bodies . The fees munotes.in

Page 135

Higher Education in India
135 structures are built according to the demand/ management decisions. Profit
remains a strong motive among some Private institutes unlike Government
owned educational where there are reservations, low fees and service
remains a major motto.
There are several problems associated with the privatization like the
existence of fake university. Due to ignorance/ lack of awareness the
students end up joining the course in these universities and later realise the
university/ institute turns out to be fake . As a result, the students suffer
and even lose their money and even lose hope and undergo through career
crisis. The UGC website lists out time and again notice on list of fake
universities. With privatization and the lack of direct control such fake
universities are a problem. Many private universities are recognized to as
higher education but after certain period the accreditation and recognition
are taken away from them, yet they continue to operate through different
ways hence the students suffer spec ially in remote villages, where there
are students who are first generation learners.
At present the private sector supports/ contributes around 60% of higher
education institutions in India. With the mushrooming of colleges,
Urbanization, technology, pop ulation in the past ten years, India now
consists of a large amount of higher education institutions per capita in the
entire globe and we also have high enrollments are at a record level
(Shaguri, 2013).
Privatization further marginalizes the society at l arge many a times. As
privatization does not have reservation and hence the teachers from
reserved category fail to get jobs. To understand the impact of
privatization from Gramsci’s concept of Hegemony, it is the powerful
who would be build the schools, colleges, control their own authority and
even produce and spread the knowledge according to their will . While
further marginalizing the poor man psychologically, unconsciously at a
slow process. As even today, the parents in India, view education as a wa y
of upgrading the standard of living through education. Hence, with the rise
in the price of fees the students especially poor cannot afford it and it
would also become a burden for the poor.
17.8 GOVERNMENT SCHEMES
Government Schemes towards Higher Edu cation - Some important
schemes of government towards Higher education are –
 Impactful Policy Research in Social Science (IMPRESS) - Impress
was designed to support the social science research in the higher
educational institutions and to enable research t o guide policy makings. A
total cost of Rs.414 Crore for implementation up to 31st March 2021. The
organization in charge of carrying out the initiative is the Indian Council
of Social Science Research (ICSSR), New Delhi.

 SWAYAM 2.0 is a website through w hich several courses are
offered. The courses are free unless one needs a certificate. The cost is munotes.in

Page 136

Education and Society

136 nominal like Rs. 1000 for the exam certificate. The course is conducted by
several professors who are from well -known universities like IIT, IIM.
These cours es are even based to improve skills and specially designed for
people who could get jobs. It is skill enhancement and vocational courses.
These courses require electronic devices like mobile phone or computer
with internet.

 The Pradhan Mantri Innovative Learning Program (DHRUV) seeks
to recognize and support gifted kids to broaden their skill sets and
knowledge. In order to strengthen the nation's culture of research and
innovation, MHRD also introduced a number of new programs in the
Higher Education Dep artment. Education Quality Upgrading and
Inclusion Programme, a five -year vision plan, has been completed and
made public by the HRD Ministry's Department of Higher Education
(EQUIP). Several additional significant Department of Higher Education
initiative s, including SWAYAM 2.0, Deeksharambh, and PARAMARSH,
were introduced in 2019.

 The Department of Higher Education of the HRD Ministry has
finalized and launched a five -year vision plan titled Education Quality
Upgrading and Inclusion Programme in complian ce with the Prime
Minister's order that each Ministry finalize a five -year vision plan
(EQUIP). This report was created following a thorough exercise by the
Experts. It aims to improve employability in higher education and develop
the ideals of Access, Inc lusion, Quality, and Excellence. The EQUIP
vision plan seeks to change the higher education system in India by
carrying out sector -specific strategic interventions over a five -year period
(2019 -2024). Currently, EQUIP has been presented for in principal
approval of EFC. • EQUIP was created based on reports of Ten expert
groups formed to discuss significant elements of Higher Education.

 Right to education is one of the important Act which brought about
massive changes in the field of education. Article 21 -A,states that all
children between the ages of six and fourteen have the fundamental right
to free and compulsory education, and it was added to the Indian
Constitution by the Constitution (Eighty -sixth Amendment) Act of 2002.
(Ministry of Education, Websit e)

 RISE - Revitalizing Infrastructure and Systems in Education,
discusses about infrastructure development and educational systems. The
scheme tries to provide good quality research facilities to Indian higher
education institutions, to create it a globa l centre for education. The
project is even aimed at raising 1,000,000 crores through Higher
Education Financing Agency (HEFA). The scheme is also trying to
provide greater autonomy to educational institutions and collaborations
with international institut ions.

 Online courses – There are several new initiatives in the education
system with the introduction of technology. The University Grants
Commission encourages developing the MOOC Courses, increasing more munotes.in

Page 137

Higher Education in India
137 online and distance education so that higher ed ucation is available for all.
There are also measures to provide accreditation to different universities
and ranking them. Based on the accreditation there would be more funding
and grants provided to the organizations for research and development.

 The N ew Education Policy is path breaking policy after the 1986.
There are several good initiatives like focus on regional languages,
vocational courses. The aim is to increase the Gross Enrolment Ratio in
higher education, including vocational education,which is expected to rise
from 26.3% in 2018 to 50% in 2035, according to NEP 2020. The New
Education Policy also aims at increasing the number of seats in higher
education institutions by 3.5 billion. It encourages use of newer
technology – ICT. The policy also intends to bring 2030, universal
enrollment in secondary education will be achieved, corresponding with
SDG 4's goal of achieving basic literacy and numeracy skills through
national action by 2025. The New education policy plans that by 2030, the
Pre-Scho ol to Secondary Level will be 100% GER. It also focusses on
bringing back 2 million Out -of-School students. By 2023, teachers will be
ready for assessment reforms. By 2030, a system of inclusive and
equitable education is visualized and planned. The policy also ensures that
each child will graduate from school having mastered at least one
skill.Every student will graduate from school with at least one skill in
hand, according to the Common Standards of Learning in Public and
Private Schools. The new educati on policy also encourages and
emphasizes on the use of regional languages in learning.
Check Your Progress
1) Discuss Right to education
2) What online courses UGC has started list out few names.
17.9 SUMMARY
The chapter tries to understand the higher education in India and its
challenges and scope. The chapter begins with understanding the meaning
of higher education i.e., Higher education can be seen as any of the many
different types of education offered in postsecondary schools of learning,
usually resulting in awarding a degree, diploma, or certificate of higher
studies to the learner.The government of India believes in providing
everyone who higher education who qualifies, especially the most
vulnerable groups, more equitable access to higher educ ation possibilities,
as education would help the vulnerable groups to increase their way of
life, standard of living. We also saw about the data related to the number
of universities in India. The chapter also discusses different schemes,
policies related to education. For example – The development of ICT
(Information and Communication and Technology to promote education.
In the chapter there is also discussion about the New Education policy
which is supposed to be launched soon. The New education policy ai ms at
building one skill by the time the child completes his education. The New
education policy also aims at increasing the gross enrollment in the
secondary education and achieving the Sustainable development goal munotes.in

Page 138

Education and Society

138 number 4. The chapter in addition discus ses the impact of privatization in
education which has created in a segregated growth of student’s
development leading those who can afford to better quality education to
rise up in the standard of living.
17.10 QUESTIONS

1. Discuss the challenges in highe r education.
2. Explain the privatization in education
3. Write a note on the different schemes in Higher education
4. Discuss the New Education Policy.
17.11 REFERENCE
 Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopedia. "Higher education".
Encyclopedia Britannica, 3 Mar. 2016,
https://www.britannica.com/topic/higher -education. Accessed 5
August 2022 .
 Education, Swink, R. Lee , Lawson, . Robert Frederic , Ipfling, .
Heinz -Jürgen , Szyliowicz, . Joseph S. , Arnove, . Robert F. , Huq, .
Muhammad Shamsul , Chen, . Theodore Hsi -en , Graham, . Hugh F.
, Scanlon, . David G. , Marrou, . Henri -Irénée , Naka, . Arata ,
Bowen, . James , Chambliss, . J.J. , Browning, . Robert , Nakosteen, .
Mehdi K. , Meyer, . Adolphe Erich , Vázquez, . Josefina Zoraida ,
Riché, . Pierre , Gelpi, . Ettore , Shimahara, . Nobuo , Anweiler, .
Oskar , Lauwerys, . Joseph Albert , Mukerji, . S.N. , Thomas, . R.
Murray and Moumouni, . Abdou (2021, November 1). educ ation.
Encyclopedia Britannica.
https://www.britannica.com/topic/education
 https://www.education.gov.in/en/overview
 All India Survey on Higher Education, AISHE, 2019 -20, Ministry of
Education, Departme nt of Higher Education ., New Delhi.
https://www.education.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/statistics -
new/aishe_eng.pdf Indian Express, Dec 15th 2021) .
 Ministry of Higher Education, Press Release
 https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=1537917
 Sheikh, Y. A. (2017). Higher education in India: Challenges and
opportunit ies. Journal of Education and Practice , 8(1), 39 -42.
 Alam, Khabirul & Halder, Ujjwal. (2016). The Emergence and
Impact of Privatization of Higher Education: Indian Overview. 6.
146-157.
 https://dsel.education.gov.in/rte#:~:text=Overview,may%2C%20by
%20law%2C%20determine . (Ministry of Education, Website).
 https://www.dr ishtiias.com/to -the-points/Paper2/higher -education -
in-india -1
 https://vikaspedia.in/education/policies -and-schemes/national -
education -policy -2020
munotes.in