MA-Sem-III-Practicum-Book-munotes

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FIELD VISITS AND PLACEMENTS
Unit Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Field Visit and Placement
1.1.2 Case study
1.2 Exercise to perform: Conducting case study and reporting it
1.3 Summary
1.4 Questions
1.5 References
1.0 OBJECTIVES  To know what are field visits and placement
 To understand your role/involvement in field visits and placement
 To understand what is a case study and how to write it
 To perform an exercise to conduct case studies and report them.
1.1 INTRODUCTION Since sc hool days, we have been learning the fact that humans are social
animals. We, as humans, have intelligence and a wide range of emotions
that distinguish us from other animals. Like other animals and organisms,
we have a continuous interaction with the envi ronment in which we live.
We have interaction with other people in our society, community,
workplace, etc. This interaction is mostly active in nature. Whenever we
come into contact with other people, we learn their behaviours, habits,
nature, etc. Based o n this learning, we tend to develop some kind of
relationship with many other people whom we come across frequently
throughout our lifespan. This is in the context of our day -to-day
interpersonal and social life.
However, many times we also need to interac t with other people as a part
of our work. We also may need to interact with them as a part of some
scientific study, wherein we are trying to learn and understand a particular
phenomenon. We develop some hypotheses or research questions or
formulate some research problem in order to study that phenomenon and
try to reach the answer to those questions or solutions to those research
problems. For this purpose, we adopt some methods that will provide us
with a formal platform for making contacts with people a nd collecting
data from people whom we want to study or for visiting the places that
will enable us to study the phenomenon of our interest. munotes.in

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2 In this unit, we will be learning two such methods which help us in
studying people and/or a phenomenon formally an d scientifically. They
are field visits and placements, and other ones called case studies, which
are interrelated activities. We will also learn the way of dealing with
people we want to study and reporting such studies in a somewhat
structured format. Le t us have a look at these two important concepts.
1.1.1 Field Visit and Placements:
Field visit in simple words is generally a student‟s visit to any such place,
often in the community, for required hours, which combines a great
learning experience with th eoretical knowledge for students. Placement,
on the other hand, is a program of placing the students in community -
based places, assigning them to such field visits. Field visits are short -term
experiential placements of students in a hospital or any other community -
based institution or organization. Generally, these visits may last
anywhere between 1 hour and 10 days. However, the duration of the visits
may differ as per the field or need of the academic courses.
Students attending these field visits, most ly as a part of their academic
course, are called interns, who benefit from this activity in terms of
enriched learning experience. Hence, as a flexible approach to a
meaningful learning opportunity, field visits through placements are a very
promising pla tform for students for working in the community and for the
community.
Arranging placements and field visits:
Placements and field visits are generally arranged by the course -provider
institutions/course teachers, who are handling that subject in particul ar.
For this purpose, they often need to coordinate with authorities in hospitals
or community -based places, such as schools, NGOs, etc. that can offer
field visit facilities to students. Here are a few important steps specified,
once the placement program is fixed and field visits with the required
duration are arranged:
 An introductory lecture is conducted for students by the concerned
authority and/or teacher. Students are informed about the aim of field
visits, visit schedules, the precautions that shou ld be taken and
expected behaviour by students while dealing with cases, and the
rules that they are expected to follow when present on the premises of
these community -based places.
 Teachers announce some common instructions, provide guidelines,
and may s hare useful tips before students attend their first day of field
visits. This enables students to gain confidence and understand the
role clearly that they are supposed to play professionally during these
field visits.
 A large number of students can be gr ouped and group leaders can be
handed over the responsibility to coordinate between their respective
groups and authorities of both institutions - their own and from the munotes.in

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3 places of their field visits. Teachers also may take the help of
assistants who may ha ndle the charge of these field visits on behalf of
teachers and report to them about the progress of field visits timely.
 A formal meeting also may be arranged at the decided place on the
first day of the field visit. It is mainly aimed to introduce studen ts to
the concerned authorities and the supportive staff at the place of field
visit. This enables students to feel secure and know whom they should
approach readily during their field visit hours, if they come across any
difficulty when their teachers may not be available, to bring the
situation under control.
 Once the field visits start regularly as per the decided schedule,
subsequent lectures or meetings can be arranged in between till the
field visits end at a particular place. The purpose of such
lectures/meetings is to provide students with the opportunity to share
their experiences on the field and with solutions to their difficulties on
the field, if any.
 Such meetings also enable students to reflect on their behaviour, any
mistake committed by the m, etc. in particular, which they should
correct to avoid further possible difficulties during their next visits.
 Finally, a concluding meeting is also arranged in which teachers get
updates from the students about their overall progress in the field visit
and their overall experience with this learning experience. Also, they
may be further instructed about a case study reporting task which they
are supposed to do after the completion of field visits and provide
them with guidelines for the same.
Thus, over all such placement and field visits offer students not only
learning experiences, but also provide them with opportunities to exercise
some freedom as in charge and learn to apply their knowledge to deal with
present situations. This helps them boost their confidence, and improve
social skills, and practical skills like decision -making and problem -
solving. Thus, field visits and placements offer students a live experience
of being a part of their future workplace/s. In other words, students get to
learn how to deal with the problems of actual patients/clients, and how to
handle the overall situation in future, such as dealing with the clients‟
family members whenever required, providing clients and their family
members with required help and support, etc. Al so, providing support and
encouragement is important during such field visits and placements that
motivate students to use their initiative when engaged in such placements
and visits (Smith & Flint, 2006).
A research study by Cummins et al. (2010) showed t hat nursing students
evaluated field visits very positively. These students‟ responses indicated
that the field visits provided them with a wealth of learning opportunities
and enhanced their knowledge and awareness of services available to
children and th eir families in the community. Thus, field visits have value
as one of the important teaching methods and short -term experiential munotes.in

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4 placements (Scarce, 1997). However, placements need to be done very
carefully, so that one placement area should not have a ri sk of getting
burdened with too many students.
In Australia, providing students with community placements has been
proposed as one strategy for future graduate nurses to become familiar
with the rural workplace and future employment opportunities in the
community (Smith et al., 2001). Also, another project -focused community
placement for nurses (Smith & Flint, 2006) introduced in Australia aimed
to facilitate students gain an appreciation of citizens‟ needs as a basis for
developing skills towards working in partnership with communities as
registered nurses. Cummins et al. (2010) pointed out the fact that the value
of field visits and placements as meaningful learning opportunities has
been undermined and that there is limited literature to date regarding t his.
Advantages of field visits and placements:
There are many advantages of field visits and placements to students as
well as to the community. They are as follows:
 Field visits and placements serve as a secondary learning experience.
 They are one of th e important teaching methods (Scarce, 1997).
 They are integrated and community approach to learning.
 They are a flexible approach to meaningful learning opportunities for
students.
 They provide students with an opportunity to get familiar with the
workplac e and its functioning.
 They involve reflection on experience, with both the nature and
quality of the experience which is significant to overall learning
(Scarce, 1997).
 They make students aware of a range of services available for people
in need in the co mmunity.
 They make students learn about appreciating the need of people
seeking services.
 They provide opportunities for new placement experiences that can
increase time in the community if they are structured to enhance the
integration of learning between theory and practice.
 They are likely to generate future employment opportunities in the
community.
 Learning through direct involvement in the form of field visits is
likely to increase motivation and encourage them to have control over
their learning (Swa llow & Coates, 2004). munotes.in

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5 Shortcomings of field visits and placements:
A few shortcomings of the field visits through placements are as follows:
 Failure in arranging proper placements leads to a risk of one or just a
few places getting overcrowded with studen ts.
 Students may fail to learn adequately if too many students are placed
at a time in the same institution or organization (Harrison, 2004).
 Shortage of placements can result in little time or flexibility to expose
students to a broader range of service s that are accessed in the
community.
 Modules in the courses are structured into distinct units of study. This
can lead to a risk that students are likely to compartmentalize their
learning rather than make connections between learning (Rust, 2000).
This often makes it difficult to work towards an integrated curriculum
in modularized programmes, which can reduce the effectiveness of
the placement programmes.
However, considering the maximum advantages of the field visits and
placements, short placement ini tiatives are planned in many countries like
the United Kingdom, Australia, and Ireland, mainly for broadening
students‟ practice placement with a focus on the community. The structure
and process of such placement programs and field visits may differ in
different countries and according to the field. The timetable of the field
visits should be planned in such a way that it should bridge practice with
theory and it should encourage the integration of learning among students.
It is also important to guide stu dents about the broad aim of the field visits
and why they are planned in their course curriculum. Students should be
provided with guidelines that include a list of a range of community
services that they could access as field visits. To overcome a shorta ge of
placement, students can be handed over responsibility at times to negotiate
access to field visits. They can be encouraged to seek out services in their
hometown community areas.
Challenges for field visits and placements:
Considering advantages and disadvantages, there are some challenges in
initiating placement and field visit programs that could be as follows:
 Placing the increasing number of students in proportion to avoid
overcrowding at one or only a few community -based places.
 Dealing with a sh ortage of placements to maximize the integrated
experience of learning for students
 Providing students with ample time and flexibility to expose them to a
broader range of services accessed in the community
 Planning a timetable of field visits in order to bridge practice and
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6  Working towards an integrated curriculum in modularized
programmes.
In this section, we have learned about field visits and placements and their
practical value. However, an overall scenario suggests a few possibilities
in this c ontext when it is said that the practical value of field visits and
placements is undermined as suggested by Cummins et al. (2010). They
are as follows:
 There may be a limited number of places for arranging field visits and
placements in comparison to an increasing number of students who
are willing to earn practical knowledge through such learning
experiences. In such cases, fear of overcrowding the available places
arises as suggested by Harrison (2004).
 Academic institutions themselves may feel reluctan t or find it difficult
to arrange such placements due to the amount of effort and resources
that need to invest while arranging them.
 In some other cases, academic institutions themselves may be lacking
adequate facilities in their institutions or adequate motivation
discouraging them to plan such field visits and placement for their
students in other institutions.
 It may be difficult to arrange due to incapability on the part of either
party – academic institutions or the possible community -based places.
 Some hospitals and/or community -based places may deny allowing
such field visits in their institutions due to some kind of temporary or
permanent technical difficulties or even due to the risk involved in
allowing such field visits, considering their polici es regarding ethical
considerations related to people seeking services from them.
 Arranging such field visits and placements for students learning in
distant mode from open universities would be practically difficult
because a large number of students ca nnot attend such visits as they
are working.
 As Cummins et al. (2010) suggested, there is little literature to date
addressing the potential about the potential of community field visits
as meaningful learning opportunities which prevents awareness of the
same and in turn prevents such field visits and placements also being
conducted.
The next sub -section will introduce you to another important activity
related to field visits and placement called case studies. Let us learn in
detail about this activity.
1.1.2 Case Study :
Typically, a case study involves participants with a problem situation. It
can be effective in helping people to transfer learning to real -life
situations. It may be a description of real or hypothetical problem munotes.in

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7 situations that may exist in a group of people. It is helpful to understand
some dynamics of such groups with a problem situation in terms of
description of the situation, people who are affected by it, possible causes
of problems; and strengths and weaknesses of the groups facing th e
problem. The role that can be played by the facilitator (e.g., president of
the organization, principal or class -teacher in the school, etc.) also can be
understood for more ease in the activity.
The purpose of conducting case studies may differ accordi ng to the
various fields. Accordingly, methods of conducting case studies and
writing case study reports will differ according to the fields. For example,
in college settings, a case study is used as training for future roles and is
primarily designed for people who can make decisions or take actions in
their own organizations or who have authority or responsibility (NA,
1998). Hence, these people are participants in a case study. Also, in
organizational settings, a case study is used more like a role -play
technique often involving group discussions with these participants, where
a facilitator is like a therapist/counselor in the psychological counselling
sessions.
However, in the field of psychology, a case study is more like
interviewing the person with an intended problem situation undertaken for
the study and case study reports are mere objective descriptions of the
cases, which later may be studied by the researchers interested in studying
that particular problem situation in future. These case studies m ay serve as
a source of knowledge about that particular situation and people who
faced those problem situations.
According to Willings (1968), there are four types of cases in a very
general sense: a) individual problem, b) isolated incident, c) organizati onal
problems, and d) a combination of some of these three types. Thus, a focus
of a case study can be a person, incident, or situation. According to
Willings (1969), the case study process includes a stated problem and
existing information (the written ca se), required information, the actual
problem, objectives in problem -solving, possible solutions, possible
effects of them, best action/s, and ways to deal with the effects and
prevent problems in the future.
A good case study achieves a balance between fa cts and people and their
feelings. It also explains how the situation developed and how it was dealt
with. Since the case study is believed to be the domain of the participants,
it is suggested that the case writers do not include their own opinions,
analy sis, evaluation, or answers. The case study is used to develop critical
analysis and decision -making skills.
How to conduct case studies?
A case study can be conducted individually, as well as in a group.
Conducting such case studies involves the following general steps:
Gathering basic knowledge about a problem situation : munotes.in

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8 A person who is intended to take a case study is supposed to gather some
basic knowledge about a problem situation. He or she should also learn
some basic techniques for dealing with par ticipants with such problem
situations. This helps the person to conduct case studies with ease. We will
learn more about this gradually as we proceed further.
Preparing a list of questions :
The next step is to prepare a list of questions that will help in studying the
problem situation among the intended participants. This will give clarity
about the information that is to be gathered and the way it should be
gathered with ease from the participants through a case study.
Identifying the places for conduc ting case studies :
Once this basic preparation is done, one has to identify the places from
where he or she can find the participants with the same problem situation
of his or her interest.
Identifying the facilitators, if required :
After listing down s uch various possible places, one may also identify the
person/s who would help in establishing the primary contact between the
person intending to take the case study and the participants. Such
facilitators could be authorities, such as the principal of th e school/college,
the in -charge of the institutions, the chairperson of the society, etc. if the
participants of the case studies are to be chosen from the formal settings.
In other cases, wherein the places are not so formal, the facilitator could
be such people who have better knowledge about a particular area, or
geographical location from where the participants can be identified.
Sometimes translators or interpreters also may be required if the intended
participants belong to different cultures and lang uages. With the help of
such mediating people, possibly a day can be fixed for taking case studies
according to the convenience of both sides. If possible, fixing the day also
can be done by contacting the willing participants directly without any
mediator .
Reaching the place on the decided day and time :
It is important to reach the place for taking case studies most possibly on
the decided day and time, planning neatly by considering possible delays
in travelling and/or some other time -consuming tasks. T his will reflect
one‟s respect for the participants‟ time, genuineness in the purpose of
studying, and dedication to his or her own work. This will also increase
the chances of cooperation on the participants‟ side and get the intended
information from the m.
Rapport -building :
For this purpose, again the help of mediators may be acquired in
contacting the participants. With their help, some informal conversations
may take place between the case study interviewer and the participants for munotes.in

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9 rapport -building. Ra pport -building is essential for making the participants
comfortable to obtain maximum information from them with ease.
Communicating ethical considerations to participants :
This can be done by ensuring the privacy and confidentiality of the
information t hat will be shared by the participants. They should be
communicated that the information shared by them will not be disclosed
anywhere without their permission. Also, they are given the understanding
of the freedom they have for withdrawing from the case s tudy. This will
help in making the participants feel secure and comfortable, which will
increase cooperation on their side.
Interviewing the participants :
This is a very important and critical stage of conducting the case studies. It
is actually the step , where one needs to apply all relevant counselling -
related skills, which we have been studying as a student of Psychology. A
few guidelines that should be followed while conducting a case study
interview are as follows:
Way of interviewing :
Once all the background is set, one can start interviewing the participants
with a prepared set of questions about the problem situation he or she
wants to study. However, the interview should not take place in a
mechanical way. The interviewer must ask the questions to the
participants in a very sensitive manner. A wrong way of asking questions
can create some disturbance or discomfort in the participant. This can also
lead to the discontinuation of the interview due to further non -cooperation
by the participants. Hen ce, the interviewer should ask the questions in a
very composed manner by regulating all his or her curiosity, excitement,
and other such positive or negative feelings which may not be appropriate
at the moment and may cause discomfort to the participant. Thus, „how the
questions are being asked‟ matters more than „what questions are being
asked‟ at this stage, which determines the level of cooperation from the
participants in order to make the interview successful. Thus, not only the
interviewer will be sa tisfied with achieving what he or she intended, but
the participants also may have the feeling of relaxation for having the
opportunity to share their feelings and thoughts, maybe for the reason that
they could not do before by expressing so freely.
Active listening :
The interviewer must practice active listening throughout the interview
session. Thus, participants should be encouraged to share maximum
information through appropriate behaviour with the least interference by
the interviewer when they are an swering the questions or want to share
some information willingly. In case, the participants are talkative and start
sharing some unnecessary details, the interviewer should listen to it
passively, that is without interrogating much into it, which will in turn munotes.in

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10 help in discouraging such communication without any kind of disrespect
to the participant and with ease for the interviewer.
Way of responding to the participant :
The interviewer should maintain balance in responding neutrally and with
emotions, when ever necessary. Remember, this is not a formal counselling
session where the client approaches you for professional help, but just an
interview where you are collecting some required information from
participants. So, responding with some amount of emotion s, including
empathy can be exercised a little. However, the interviewer‟s way of
responding should not reflect any judgement or prejudice. This will make
the participants understand that their feelings, thoughts, opinions, and
experiences are being unders tood and respected by the interviewer.
Nature of questions :
Though the way of asking questions is very important while interviewing,
the nature of the questions being asked is also equally important. This also
determines the level of cooperation from the participants. Possibly such
questions should be avoided that may cause discomfort to the participants.
Also, there should be a shorter list of questions, which will make the
interview process shorter and more convenient for both considering the
time facto r. Hence, it is also important to have such powerful questions
which would help in gathering maximum information from the
participants in lesser time without putting them in discomfort.
Duration of the case study :
This is one more important aspect that sh ould be considered in
combination with the nature of the questions discussed above. That is, the
list of questions should be shorter, so that the duration of case studies will
be reduced automatically. This will help in gathering the maximum
required infor mation conveniently in a shorter period of time. Also, it will
not be a frustrating and boring task for both – the case study interviewer
and especially, the participants.
Way of recording responses :
One more important precaution should be practised when recording the
responses of the participants. Whatever means will be used for recording
the responses, must be used after making the participants aware of it and
with their consent and permission. In case, the participant is not
comfortable with any particu lar method for his or her responses being
recorded, it should be changed. For example, if the participant is not
comfortable for some reason with his or her responses being tape -
recorded, the interviewer should change the method and may simply note
down th e responses of the participants in a notebook instead of tape -
recording the responses.
Thus, taking maximum precautions will enable one to get more valuable
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11 side for study purposes. H ere the stage of conducting case studies is
completed. The next stage is documenting or reporting the case studies,
called case study reports. Let us have a look at this process.
How to report case studies?
While reporting case studies also we should keep some guidelines in mind.
Here we will need to take care of the language and manner of presenting
the case study. Some of the guidelines have been provided in the next
Section 1.2 in brief. In this section, we will understand them minutely.
Intention of re porting case studies :
The intention of reporting the case studies should be very genuine. It
should not be done for the sake of academic benefit as a student or other
such gains in professional life. Such case studies report may have the
potential to prov ide insight into some other unseen problem situation,
which can be investigated in future to benefit many other people with the
same.
Way of reporting case studies :
Case studies should be reported in a very sensitive, responsible, and
careful manner. One should keep in mind that he or she is documenting
some important information shared by the participant with trust.
Language of reporting case studies :
The language that should be used to report case studies should be
objective, and free of biases and prej udices. It should be non -judgemental
and should not reflect any extreme views about the participant. That is it
should be neutral and simple. Also, the language should not be
metaphorical, highlighting the positive or negative aspects. The most
important t hing is a case study report should be written in the past tense
since it was part of a case study interview which has already been
completed.
Maintain originality :
Case studies should reflect the observations of the interviewer of the case
study rather th an copying others‟ content in your case study reports as
yours. Copying others‟ content or even whole case study reports as yours
or copying your own previously submitted report for some other course
may spoil your impression when detected. Also, the case study reports
presented will be misleading and will be of no practical use. This tendency
called plagiarism and self -plagiarism may cost you academically and even
professionally in later life.
Ethical considerations :
While writing the case study reports o ne should strictly follow the ethical
principles regarding privacy and confidentiality. There could be some very
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12 the case study interviewer with trust. As a case study reporter, y ou should
report such personal material with extreme care without being
judgemental only in case there is any possible connection between these
issues and the current problem situation that you are studying. Reporting
such issues can be avoided safely othe rwise, respecting participants‟
privacy.
After learning about field visits, placements and case studies in this
section, you will be confident enough to have your live experiences with
field visits, placements and case studies; which will enhance your
know ledge and skills in the field of psychology from the practical point of
view. Once you complete your field visits with assigned placements and
conduct case studies, the next exercise will be writing case study reports.
Sections 1.1.2 and 1.2 combinedly wi ll guide and help you in this writing
exercise.
1.2 EXERCISE TO PERFORM: CONDUCTING CASE STUDY AND REPORTING IT In this exercise, as discussed in Section 1.1, you might have had enriched
experiences on your field visits and placement programs in some
institutions/ organizations in consultation with their course teacher/s. Also,
you might have dealt with individual cases, called a “case study” to study
them from a social -psychological perspective. You would have surely
exercised the required precautions whi le dealing with the cases as
discussed in the previous section. Now here you have a final exercise, in
which you are expected to submit two detailed case study reports as per
your syllabus based on the work they have done.
Keeping these general guidelines in mind, you will have to submit your
case study reports based on the work you have done. For submitting these
reports, you will require a format or a structure following which you have
to complete this exercise. You are provided here with a format/struct ure,
that will give you an idea about what are the points that should be covered
while writing case study reports. By maintaining the same structure and
guidelines provided for writing case study reports, you can have some
freedom in writing your reports.
Before you start writing your case study reports following the format or
structure provided to you, you must remember that you are a student of
psychology and have some precautions while writing the reports. A few
guidelines for the same are as follows whi ch can be considered as DOs
and DON’Ts :
 Do not write the reports just for the sake of completing the activity for
good marks in your undertaken academic course.
 Write your reports with a neutral and objective perspective, that is do
not write the reports i n such a way that they will reflect your
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13 negative emotions/feelings like disappointment. Your report should be
a mere objective description of the case.
 Use your creativity in writing the re ports sensitively .
 Avoid the use of metaphors to describe any situation, unless it is
required.
 Avoid mentioning the confidential information shared by the
participants which they might have shared with you with trust. If it is
essential to mention in your case studies reports to support your
observation, report it carefully and sensitively.
 Let your reports reflect the originality. Use your own observations to
write the report wisely which will reflect your understanding of the
case.
 Strictly avoid copyin g others‟ reports or any unique elements of their
reports as your own as it will reflect plagiarism which gives a bad
impression of your work as well as your attitude towards academic
activities.
 Take the exercise positively and take it as an opportunity t o develop
your observations, abilities, understanding, perspectives, attitudes,
and sensitivity about the social incidents/places/problems that you
study and describe them in a sensitive manner.
 There is no such word limit for writing the reports, but base d on the
structure provided to you and the content that you choose to write, it
should be up to approximately 2 to 3 pages (including the introduction
to the problem situation).
Table 1.1 Format/Structure for writing case studies  Introduction to Problem Situation: Background information on Problem Situation being studied (About 1 to 1 and a half page).  Name of the Participant:  Age/Sex of the Participant:  Occupation:  Type of Case: (For example, student, elderly, alcoholic, etc.)  Problem situation studied: (For example, study-related difficulties, health-related, etc.)  Nature of the problem situation: Discuss in one or two paragraphs, as required. For example, when the problem started (age of the participant and/or any particular year), what is the current status of the problem situation, etc. munotes.in

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14  Other related problems experienced by the participant due to the problem situation: For example, did the person experience face any negativity in his or her surroundings (maybe at the workplace, family, friend circle, etc.)? What are the emotions that he or she experienced/ or is experiencing during the phase of the problem situation?  How was the problem situation dealt with? Describe the efforts taken by the participant to deal with his or her problem situation, if any. For example, Did the person approach any informal (family, relatives, friends) or formal (psychologists, social workers, etc.) help to deal with the situation? Did the person receive any help or social support from any informal or formal sources?  Your observations about the case/participant (in brief): Note down your own observations here in sufficiently required paragraphs. If there is nothing that you have observed anything particular, you can write “NIL”. These observations could be about the participants‟ nature/ personality aspects (e.g. reserved, open-minded, talkative, etc.), behaviour (e.g., friendly, tantrum, etc.), and whether you see any connection between these observed facts and the person‟s problem situation. Use neutral language for noting down your observations. Avoid using harsh/ too good language which may create a very negative/ positive impression about the participants, which may not be true about the participants. Remember that based on this structure provided for case study reports ,
your list of questions should be strictly shorter as discussed in Section
1.1.2, considering the time factor. It is also because this is your learning
experience, and therefore it is suggested that you should not be entering
the depth, which may cause an y inconvenience to anyone, especially to the
participants.
1.3 SUMMARY We learned about field visits and placements in detail. Section 1.1.1
described what is field visits and placement, how they are arranged and
scheduled, and what are their advantages a nd shortcomings. Then, we had
a look at some challenges that may arise while arranging field visits and
placements. We also had a glance at a few possibilities regarding why
arranging field visits and placements would be difficult at all in some
situations .
In Section 1.1.2, we learned about case studies in terms of how to conduct
them and how to report them. We saw the different aspects in detail that munotes.in

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15 should be considered while conducting the case studies and reporting
them.
The next Section 1.2 described the format or structure to guide you about
how to write the case studies that you worked on during your field visits
and placements.
1.4 QUESTIONS 1. Discuss the field visits and placements in detail.
2. Discuss case studies in detail in terms of how to conduc t and report
them.
3. Write short notes:
a) Advantages and shortcomings of the field visits and placements
b) Challenges while arranging the field visits and placements
c) Conducting case studies
d) Reporting case studies
1.5 REFERENCES  NA. (1998). Structured experiences , role plays, case studies,
simulations and games at Pfeiffer and Company. The Pfeiffer
Library Volume 21 , Second edition. Retrieved from
http://home.snu.edu/~jsmith/library/body/v21.pdf
 Cumm ins, A., McCloskey, S., O‟Shea, M., O‟Sullivan, B.,
Whooley, K., & Savage, E. (2010). Field visit placements: An
integrated and community approach to learning in children‟s
nursing. Nurse Education in Practice, 10 (2), 108 -112. DOI:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nepr.2009.04.004 .


*****
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16 2
ACTION RESEARCH
Unit Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Action Research
2.1.2 Action Plan and Research Proposal
2.2 Exercise to Perform: Formulating the Action Plan with Detailed
Proposal
2.3 Summary
2.4 Questions
2.5 References
2.6 Appendix: Possible Topics for Research
2.0 OBJECTIVES  To understand what is action research.
 To understand how to formulate the action plan with a detailed
proposal.
2.1 INTRODUCTION There have been several debates about action research, even in the present
era. However, action research is recognized today as a valid form of
enquiry with its own methodologies and epistemologies, and its own
criteria and standards of judgement. Debates that take place are about the
nature of action research, the method ology used by people for carrying out
their research and their purposes for research (McNiff in McNiff &
Whitehead, 2002).
As a part of the academic course that you have undertaken, you will need
to take up action research which should aim to contribute to the practical
concerns of people in an immediate problematic situation. Also, you will
need to formulate the action plan regarding the action research and submit
a detailed proposal accordingly. In this unit, we are going to learn in detail
about – what i s action research and how to formulate a research proposal
for action research. We will also have a look at the different aspects
involved in it.
2.1.1 Action Research :
The idea of action research refers to the theoretical framework, which
guides practice . Hence, action research is often referred to as practitioner
research, or practitioner -led or practitioner -based research, since it is done
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17 practitioners do not matter in the case of action research. Thus, it can also
be called a kind of self -reflective practice, because it involves one to think
carefully about what he or she is doing.
Action research is always related to learning, which is related to education
and growth. Hence, acti on research is also considered to be a form of
educational research. It is carried out in a variety of fields, including social
and caring sciences, education, organization and administration studies,
and management. The term action research always implies a process of
people interacting with one another.
Action researchers are believed to share certain sets of beliefs,
commitments, and hopes. Hence, the action research carried out by them is
a set of practices that demonstrates those beliefs, commitments, and hopes
in practice. Thus, action researchers undertake the research to help them
learn how to create social hope (Rorty, 1999) and to take action to try to
realize hope in terms of social evolution. Thus, action research mainly
aims at the generation of knowledge that leads to the improvement of
understanding and experience for social benefit.
Some of the key theorists in action research are John Collier, Kurt Lewin,
Lawrence Stenhouse, Stephen Kemmis, and John Elliott. Action research
has significant po tential for human betterment. It stands for the realization
of human needs towards autonomy, loving relationships, and productive
work, the urge towards freedom, creativity and self -recreation. The
political counterpart of action research is liberal democr acy, while its
spiritual counterpart is a sense of unity between the self and the cosmos.
What is action research?
McNiff (in McNiff & Whitehead, 2002) saw action research not as a set of
concrete steps, but as a process of learning from experience, a dia lectical
interaction between practice, reflection, and learning. He saw the link
between action research and the creation of good order. McNiff describes
action research as follows, which explains why action research is called
so:
“Action research is a nam e given to a particular way of researching your
own learning. It is a practical way of looking at your practice in order to
check whether it is as you feel it should be. If you feel that your practice is
satisfactory, you will be able to explain how and wh y you believe this is
the case; you will be able to produce evidence to support your claims. If
you feel that your practice needs attention in some way, you will be able
to take action to improve it, and then produce evidence to show in what
way the practi ce has improved.”
Overall, action research is said to be an enquiry by the self into the self,
undertaken in companionship with others, who are acting as research
participants and critical learning partners. The most important thing is that
the discussion about action research takes place within the real -life
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18 Table 2.1 : Major differences between Action Research and
Traditional/Empirical Research Action Research Traditional/Empirical Research Researchers do research on themselves in companionship with other people, and those others are doing the same. Researchers carry out research on other people. Researchers enquire into their own lives. Researchers enquire into other people’s lives. Researchers speak with other people as colleagues. Researchers speak about other people as data. {Source : McNiff, J., & Whitehead, J. (2002). Action research: Principles
and practice (Second Edition). London, New York: Routledge, Falmer,
Taylor & Francis Group.}
Thus, as mentioned above, the i dea of self -reflection is central to the
action research. There is no distinction made between the researcher and
the practitioner. Practitioners are potential researchers, and researchers are
practitioners.
How to do Action Research?
Planning and underta king action research means asking questions about
what and why we are doing it, and how we can evaluate our practice in
terms of the values we hold. Action research is practical, for which
McNiff (in McNiff & Whitehead, 2002) offers some practical advice
about Dos and Don’ts to be followed in action research. They are as
follows:
Stay small and stay focused :
There can be a big difference between the scope of our work and the scope
of our action research project. Therefore, we should not try to research
everything at once. We need to focus on one issue and get inside into it to
understand it by putting other issues on hold. This helps us understand the
nature and process of our own learning.
Identify a clear research question :
While conducting action resear ch, we need to be reasonably clear about
what we are researching. Action research asks questions of the kind “ How
do I…..? ”, which emphasizes that we are at the centre of our research.
Examples of such questions are “How do I improve the quality of my
relationship with my colleague?”, “How do I manage my time more
efficiently?”

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19 Be realistic about what you can do and be aware that wider change
begins with you :
While conducting action research we should be aware that we cannot
change the world immediately . We can make changes only on our part and
influence others to make changes on their part.
Plan carefully :
It refers to having a broad outline of where we hope the research will lead.
It does not refer to setting specific objectives. It is because someti mes we
may need to shift our focus and change the research questions, as often the
research may develop in unexpected ways.
Set a realistic timescale :
As action researchers, we should aim to set time limits that are realistic
enough to cope with unpredic tability. Setting the two time limits is useful.
The first time limit should be ideal that we might potentially achieve,
while the second one should be more generous which we must achieve.
This will reflect that we are managing our research project appropr iately
and efficiently.
Involve others :
It is important to involve others in our action research in different roles,
such as research participants, observers, validators, and potential
researchers. There are two reasons for this. The first reason is that we are
always in companionship with others as social beings. The second reason
is that action research is always research with someone, not research on
someone (Rowan & Reason, 1981).
Ensure good ethical practice :
Widely accepted aspects of doing ethicall y informed research include
aspects like negotiating access with authorities, participants,
parents/guardians, and supervisors; promising confidentiality of
information, identity, and data; ensuring participants’ rights to withdraw
from the research, keepi ng others informed, maintaining our own
intellectual property rights as researchers, and keeping good faith (See
Robson, 1993; McNiff et al., 1996).
Concentrate on learning, not on the outcomes of action :
As action researchers, we should aim to show the p rocess of learning that
informed the activities, why we did what we did, and what we hoped to
achieve. We should not focus on activity only and produce a report that
offers descriptions of the activity, that is what we did and how we did it.
Instead, we sh ould think about – how we understand what we are doing in
our practice, how we can develop it in new and better ways, actions we
took to implement our ideas and to test their effectiveness by gathering,
presenting and interpreting data, and how those actio ns influenced and
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20 Focus on yourself in company with others in research :
Action research should be carried out more like a self -study, where we
should observe ourselves as researchers. We should speak on our own
behalf and e ncourage others to do the same rather than observing what
others are doing and speaking on their behalf.
Beware of happy endings :
As action researchers, we should start from where we are with a sense that
something needs to be done, even if that someone i s thinking carefully
about where they are. We need to be aware that we are changing our own
present realities in the creative process, so that our vision of where we
want to be is also changing. Thus, we create the future as we change the
present.
Be awar e of political issues :
Action research is always political, since it aims to influence people to
change their situations. As action researchers, we undertake self -study to
see how we can recreate ourselves in order to help others to recreate
themselves. W e also make our own decisions about who we are, who we
want to be, and what we intend to do.
Data Gathering and Drawing Conclusions from Data in Action
Research :
According to McNiff (in McNiff & Whitehead, 2002 ), action research is a
form of practice that involves data gathering, reflection on the action as it
is presented through the data, generating evidence from the data, and
making claims to knowledge based on conclusions drawn from validated
evidence.
In action research, data refers to information, an d we systematically
monitor what we are doing in order to gather information about it. We
then organize the obtained data in a variety of suitable ways, reflect on it,
draw conclusions from it, and present those conclusions with the data for
the critical a nalysis of others. Thus, we aim to make an original claim as
action researchers that we know something that was not known before.
Action research follows an action -reflection cycle as an organizing
framework for making sense of the data. This cycle involv es the following
steps. Let us understand these steps one by one.
Identifying a concern : It refers to what is our concern, which issue we are
attending to, and whether we can gather information about it.
Initial stage of action research :
At the initial st age of action research, we need to make decisions about
what we can and cannot do in the given situation in which we are working.
This stage involves strategic planning and recognition of the social
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21 particular situation (Kemmis & McTaggart, 1988). So before beginning
the action research, researchers need to ask themselves two questions.
First, “What is to be done? ” (initial question), and second, “ What can be
done? ” (i.e., “How can i t be done?” or “What can be done in order to do
what has to be done?” - strategic question). Here, the initial question will
help us to begin the action research, while the strategic question will help
us to recognize our limitations as well as potentialit ies.
Appropriateness and inappropriateness of action research :
Action research approaches are appropriate for issues that are related to
values and how these values can be realized in practice. On the other hand,
they are not appropriate for issues which aim to show the relationship
between variables. The following examples will make clear what are some
issues for which action research approaches are appropriate and issues for
which they are inappropriate. Let us have a look - Examples of issues for which action research approaches are appropriate - I would like to improve the quality of relationships in my workplace. What can I do? - I would like to introduce ICT into my classrooms. How can I show the link between ICT and the quality of learning? - Why the low beginning for the annual party? - How can I arrange for the freer dissemination of ideas among the staff? Examples of issues for which action research approaches are inappropriate - What is the link between children’s socio-economic status and their enjoyment of literature? - What do people think about the president? - How does management style relate to productivity? - How many customers visit the store on Saturday morning? Thus, the above examples clearly indicate that as the name suggests,
action research is appropriate for the issues wherein as researchers, we
think of our active role in terms of what we can do /what action or step we
can take, how we can do it to bring about necessary or significant changes
in the present situation in order to make the situation better, and why we
want to do it.
In other words, it is not appropriate for the issues wherein we as
researchers are passively looking for some kind of relationship that may
exist between two variables or sort of prevalence of some exis ting things
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22 on or emphasize any relationship or links or research questions like “How
many..?”, “What do others think/do/interested in?”, etc.
1) Imagining a solution : This step refer s to what solutions we can
imagine, how we are going to gather the data, and which techniques we
can use.
Techniques for gathering data :
Data collection techniques are categorized into three broad categories,
namely, paper and pen techniques, live techniq ues and ostensive
techniques. A brief description of the sub -techniques included in each of
these categories has been presented below:
i) Paper and Pen Techniques: They include field notes, diaries and
logs, reports, and questionnaires Field notes: - They are the notes of the situation ‘in the field’ (e.g., workplace, bus queue, classroom, home, etc.) as important instances of critical incidents. - Significant aspects of the action are documented using this technique. - For example - Two colleagues had a difference of opinion today. I set up a mediating strategy to avoid further confrontation. Both colleagues left the meeting still upset. But at least they prepared for not making a wider issue of it. Diaries and logs: - In this technique, we aim to keep our own diary and encourage other research participants for the same. - The diary is divided into two columns, namely, “What I did” and “What I learned” - The “What I did” column indicates the action taken by us, while the “What I learned” column indicates the reflection on that action. - We should reassure invited participants that their diaries are kept confidential and that they need not make their diaries available to us. - In this diary, we can document how our perceptions changed over time, which will indicate how we used new learning to help make better sense of a situation. Reports: - Reports can be in the form of accounts, letters, munotes.in

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23 memos, etc. - For example, we can ask people to write a letter to us describing how they saw the situation and how they felt about it. - Archives of such reports over time can help us to keep track of the actions of our own as well as of other people, and see how issues and opinions changed over time. Questionnaires: - They should be used only if it is a must. - Though they are helpful, they are difficult to construct. - They are also likely to be misused. - They can be used to get an idea of trends. Open-ended questions often provide richer data than closed questions. - Using more qualitative forms is often necessary to see whether values are being lived in practice. - Data analysis is more labour and time-demanding. ii) Live Techniques: They include sociometric methods, and interviews
and discussions. Sociometric methods: - They are much used in sociological analysis, where social relationships are captured using diagrams to show interactions. - They might provide initial information and perhaps motivate us to investigate the situation further. Interviews and discussions: - They are valuable sources of data and capture the lived response of people to the situation. - Like questionnaires, they are also time and labour-demanding. - In order to show general conclusions, we may need to do some analysis of the discussion to indicate trends, as well as draw up a report. - Tape-recording and transcribing the conversations probably would be the best in this technique. - Like questionnaires, adopting an open-ended approach is the best in interviews. munotes.in

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24 - It is important to refine our interviewing and counselling skills for using this technique. - Also, it is important to conduct interviews with care and consideration for the interview. iii) Ostensive Techniques: They include stills presentations, audiotaped
interviews, and videotape. Stills presentations: - They include the use of slide/tape presentations and
software packages like PowerPoint.
- Though they can be attractive, they can be limiting
in what they portray.
- Photographs and commentaries can be very useful in
this technique to show changes in actions, but not
changes in attitudes (see Schratz, 1998; Schratz &
Steiner - Löffler, 1998). Audiotaped interviews: - The drawback of this technique is that it requires a lot of effort and time. - We need to put a huge effort to get what we are looking for. - Audiotapes must be transcribed in whole or part, and transcribing is a very lengthy process, which is time-consuming. - Also, while submitting the report, we should also aim to present the tape itself (probably in an archive or appendix), even if we submit the transcript, in whole or part. Videotape: - This is the most powerful medium to show the reality of situations. - It includes the use of other technology, such as digital cameras, multimedia presentations, hypertext, etc. - While using this method, it is very important to seek permission from participants before tape-recording their responses, especially with children. - We should remember that seeking permission from the participants is an important issue of freedom of information and potential litigation. munotes.in

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25 2) Implementing the solution :
This refers to how we can implement the solution, how we monitor the
action, and how we observe and describe what is happening. Here,
monitoring the action means monitoring the practice of ourselves and
others as our own practice impacts them. In action research, we research
ourselves, not others, but we also research how we influence others. Monitoring our own action - This involves keeping records of our own thoughts
as they relate to our original int entions and
purposes.
- Monitoring action is part of evaluating whether we
are achieving what we set out to do and whether we
need to act in different ways to achieve it.
- This can be done by – keeping a research diary,
systematically writing up our ac tivities and
reflections, noting shifts in emphasis (if any),
generating data by inviting others to monitor our
actions, or inviting a colleague to observe us and
offer feedback. Monitoring other people’s action - We can monitor other people’s actions and thoughts, who become participants in our research, with their permission, especially in the case of vulnerable participants, like children. - For this purpose, we can invite them to keep research diaries themselves and request them to make those diaries available to us. - We also need to check that all explanations are reasonably in agreement when we monitor others or invite others to monitor themselves. - For example, if we are investigating how we could improve the quality of learning of students, we can monitor the students’ learning to see whether we are making the impact we wish. Sorting the data: - Starting to sort the obtained data as soon as possible for us is also important. - This helps us to make sense of the project in an ongoing way. - Here, we need to decide first on the initial categories and sort the data into those categories. - We may also want to devise new categories as we progress in our research. munotes.in

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26 3) Observe the influence and evaluate the outcomes :
This refers to how we will e valuate the solution, how we will make sense
of the data in terms of success criteria, and what our claim to knowledge
will look like. We should aim to involve others as critical friends and
validators throughout our research project. We should also aim to
assemble a validation group at critical points throughout our research to
scrutinize our data, listen to our findings, and agree (or not) that we have a
right to make our claim to knowledge.
This validation group also makes suggestions to us about how we might
refine our work or make it more rigorous. Thus, in action research, we
evaluate the outcome with the hope of showing our influence on other
people’s lives. We need to show the line of influence between what we
believe in and whether those values inf luence good in other people’s lives.
4) Modify actions and ideas in the light of evaluation, and plan for the
next step :
This final step refers to how we will modify our actions and ideas in the
light of evaluation, and how we will practice in order to influ ence others
and our situations. At this stage of the action -reflection cycle, we perform
an action at a wider level of social perspective.
Our wider commitment is towards creating good social order when we
initially aim to improve our understanding in ord er to improve a local
situation. Thus, here we need to encourage others to see the potential value
of studying their own practice to help one another. This way, all are
committed to improving their practice for mutual benefit. In other words,
we plan for t he next step for good social order by evaluating the outcomes
of the research conducted to improve a local situation.
Validation of Action Research :
Research is a means through which we can claim that we now know more
than what we did since we have underta ken research. Since it is aimed to
advance knowledge, it also requires to undergo a validation process. This
validation process requires people to agree to what we say as believable.
Often, research that demonstrates causal relationships is regarded as goo d
scientific research. On the other hand, research rooted in personal knowing
is regarded as unscientific. Hence, practitioners need to provide supporting
evidence for their claim that they have improved their practice.
Action research can be considered a disciplined enquiry, where
practitioners systematically investigate how to improve practice and
produce evidence for the critical examination of others to show how the
practice can be judged to have improved. In this validation process,
practitioners expl ain what they hoped to achieve and how they feel about
what and how they have achieved it by pointing to critical instances from
the data that can be regarded as evidence. They further explain how they
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27 is an ongoing dialectical engagement with inherently unpredictable
problems.
There are three categories of validation of knowledge obtained through
action research: i)Self-validation - Validation of knowledge is done by self.
- We interrogate the assumptions underlying our own
thinking.
- We also check that we are speaking out of the values
of respect for others and the need to see each point of
view as worthy.
- We respect the right to hold opinions – of ourselves
as well as oth ers. ii)Colleagues’ validation - Validation of knowledge can be done by colleagues, who can be critical friends and/or a validation group. - Critical friends need to be supportive, but not to the extent that they do not point out real or potential flaws. - A commitment of the validation group is to meet us regularly, for example, every six weeks, and offer us feedback on our research. - We may ask the members of the validation group to consider questions, such as – i) Is the report a valid description of an educational process? ii) Does the evidence support the claims that we are making? iii) Can the members see instances where we are living out our stated values? - Apart from this, we can invite suggestions from the validation group members regarding how our research might be modified and strengthened. iii)Academic validation - Validation of knowledge is done by the academy as it is the highest authority in legitimate knowledge. - Also, criteria and standards of judgement used by the academy tend to have technical rationality. - Therefore our research work should have academic rigour and it should demonstrate internal methodological consistency to avoid our work from munotes.in

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28 being rejected on technical grounds. According to Habermas (1979), the following are the criteria which are
required to judge the legitimacy of knowledge claims:
 A statement is true;
 the speech act is comprehensible;
 the speaker is authentic; and
 the situation is appropriate for the things to be said.
Also, we need to agree on the fol lowing points, when we invite people to
judge the validity of our claims of knowledge:
 What we say about our practice is true;
 we use words and expressions that we all understand;
 we are sincere and avoid any deception; and
 the situation is right for us to discuss this issue.
There are two sets of dilemmas related to judging action research reports,
which are interlinked. They are as follows:
 The first dilemma is related to whether action research reports should
be judged in terms of traditional research;
 The second dilemma is related to the kinds of criteria set to judge
action research reports.
Action research reports are judged by criteria set by the audience who are
scrutinizing them. For example, work in the business context will be
judged in terms of a marketplace philosophy, while work judged by a
traditional academic audience will be judged in terms of normative
academic standards.
This research practice has been usually traditionally judged in terms of
accepted theoretical concepts, such as replica bility and generalizability, or
the inclusion of a literature review in a report. However, nowadays action
research is recognized as a legitimate research methodology in its own
right. Therefore, previous criteria, such as replicability and
generalizabilit y are no longer seen as appropriate for action research. Also,
new criteria about how action research reports are being established.
Richard Winters (1989, p. 43) has suggested new kinds of criteria for
assessing action research reports. According to him, research reports
should demonstrate the following six principles:
 It should offer a reflective critique in which the author shows that they
have reflected on their work and generated new research questions. munotes.in

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29  It should offer a dialectical critique that subj ects all given phenomena
to critique, recognizing their inherent tendency to change.
 It should be a collaborative resource in which people act and learn as
participants.
 It should accept risk as an inevitable aspect of creative practice.
 It should demonstr ate a plural that accommodates a multiplicity of
viewpoints.
 It should show the transformation and harmonious relationship
between theory and practice.
Action research reports also can be judged in terms of whether the
researchers show that they offer any explanations rather than only
observations and descriptions of practice by living out their declared
values (Whitehead, 2000).
Success criteria for action research are important from a methodological
perspective for the following reasons:
 These criteria es tablish a record of how one proposes to carry out a
project.
 They are a standard by which the success of a project can be
evaluated.
 They become a syllabus for action, because they help one visualize in
advance what is needed in order to achieve the aims o f the project.
 They make the project public. They provide a kind of mission
statement for the parties involved which imposes discipline on the
project. There is a sense of shared responsibility for the success of the
project.
Benefits of Action Research :
Based on the opinions of Muimhneacháin (in McNiff & Whitehead, 2002)
about his own experiences, action research has significant implications for
us as researchers, personally as well as professionally. These implications
are as follows which can be consider ed benefits:
 Action research moves us to respect the opinions of others.
 It drives us to promote a learning environment and negotiate a
learning agenda which is not set, but is capable of being responsive
and democratic.
 It makes us integrate all learning experiences in a meaningful way.
 It makes us increasingly aware of the dialogical and unpredictable
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30  It provides us insight into how we had to adapt our practice according
to the wider social and politic al situation.
 It helps us understand that change and integrating theory and practice
involve complex and contradictory processes.
 Traditional ways of doing research offer us a finished picture to stand
back and admire, while action research practice offer s us a picture of
our present action as a developmental and vibrant one with an
evolving representation of our life story in each stroke.
 An experience of action research offers us the confidence and
reassurance to continue our life work as a progress of b ecoming
someone.
According to McDermott (in McNiff & Whitehead, 2002), an attitude to
the enquiry that is reflective, reflexive and sceptical puts many taken -for-
granted assumptions about research under pressure and results in a form of
research that is cr eative and directed towards human flourishing.
Since you have undertaken the master’s course in Social Psychology,
considering the overall characteristics of action research, one of the apt,
influential and revolutionary examples of action research that c an be
thought of in the field of education is the work of Mahatma Jotirao Phule
and Savitribai Phule, which led to a massive social change. Despite
several challenges, Jotirao Phule constantly asked himself questions like,
“What can I do to improve the sit uation of socio -economically
marginalized people?”, “What can I do and cannot do to improve their
situation?”, “How can I improve their situation?”, “Why is it required to
improve their situation?” So his thoughts regarding this situation were
continuously evolving in nature. These and several other questions led him
to unite with other people who shared the same thoughts, opinions and
ideologies and became research participants. Thus, these people thought of
their active role in doing something for societa l benefit, rather than merely
passively finding out the relationship between the things which might be
already existing. They kept evaluating their own practice, its outcomes
along with their actions and the influence of their work on the education of
marg inalized people. This also led to yet another important outcome in
terms of the education of girls and women. Thus, as practitioners in the
field of education, they constantly evaluated their own practice and kept
validating their practice against several existing criteria and their action
research led to a huge impact on the education of the poor marginalized
people, girls and women, and the overall national social scenario. Though
they might have used lesser techniques as mentioned before, with
available resources, their work had a powerful impact during that period
and still continued further on a massive scale. Thus, their work had a great
contribution in the area of education, which benefited society also. Not
only this, but we will find ample of such g reat examples of action research
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31 Summing up the action research, the potential for personal practice lies in
the overall research question for our life work – “How do I contribute to
the development of a good s ocial order through education?” Also, as we
have seen right from the beginning, definitions of action research
emphasize that it is meant to bring social change and this social change
begins in individuals’ minds. Accordingly, the first place to start this
social change is our own life as researchers.
2.1.2 Action Plan and Research Proposal :
Before understanding what is the action plan and research proposal, and
why they are required, first, we need to have a brief look at the
background, which will make th e further things clear.
We all learned about action research and its importance in the previous
section. We are also aware that research is the scientific way to reach the
solution to existing problems in the present environment and society as a
whole. Re search paves the way for development and advancement. Hence,
research has become a very important aspect of human life. Many
countries promote research and invest their resources in it to promote
innovations for advancing and promoting their growth. They a lso
encourage many of their institutions affiliated with different fields to
involve actively in the research.
In line with this, many institutions also came up with the objective to
promote and govern research activities by motivating them through
fundin g, considering the need for more research work and the huge
expenditure involved in the big ambitious projects. Examples of such
research -promoting and funding institutions are the Indian Council of
Social Science Research (ICSSR) and the University Grant Commission
(UGC) in India, and Babasaheb Ambedkar Research and Training Institute
(BARTI) in Pune, Maharashtra. Many academic institutions have their
internal research governing body, such as the Research Review Committee
(RRC) run by the Research Administ ration and Promotion Cell at the
University of Mumbai. Such university -level institutes promote doctoral
and post -doctoral research studies in the various disciplinary departments
of the university and manage the administration of such research -related
activities.
What is the action plan and the proposal?
The action plan of any research study, as it suggests, is a rough plot of the
actions planned right from the beginning till the end of the research project
to be undertaken. It mainly emphasizes the metho dology part of the
research. In other words, the action plan describes how the undertaken
research will be carried out and what required steps will be included in it.
It is a part of the research proposal that we need to submit for getting our
research stu dy/project approved to be carried out.
On the other hand, a research proposal or proposal is putting forward an
idea about a research study that one is interested in carrying out along with
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32 from research governing bodies. For this purpose, researchers need to
highlight the importance of the study in the present era and why the
particular area and/or topic has been chosen. Thus, a research proposal is a
miniature of what has been planned in the research to be undertaken with
all the required details, excluding results, findings and conclusion of the
study that are yet to be derived.
Let us understand the background of why such action plans and research
proposals are required to be submitt ed.
Why is the action plan and the proposal required?
Many independent researchers and research -focused institutions are
interested in undertaking aspiring research projects to make a significant
contribution to their respective fields. This makes them gai n recognition
through their research and contribution to social welfare. However,
undertaking big research projects is not an easy task. It requires a lot of
constant sincere effort and may involve huge human and other resources
for managing different task s involved in it. It also requires a big budget to
manage the expenditure, especially when international -level projects are
undertaken.
A big expenditure required for such aspiring research projects may be
beyond the capability of institutions at times. H ence, institutions
undertaking such projects may require financial aid through funding from
research funding institutions. Another benefit of seeking help from such
institutions is that the research project also gets recognized when it gets
approved by suc h reputed institutions. Thus, it serves as a dual motivation
for researchers. Therefore, considering both the benefits, researchers often
involve in aspiring projects and strive to get their projects approved by
such funding institutions.
These funding in stitutions, as mentioned before, for example, ICSSR,
BARTI, etc. often support individual doctorate research from various
academic institutions also, through several fellowships announced for
doctoral/ post -doctoral research studies. Thus, hundreds of doct oral and
post-doctoral researchers also apply to seek these fellowships, so that their
research studies also get recognized as approved by these institutions and
their research study also will get funded through such fellowships to
manage the expenditure i nvolved in completing research activities, if
approved.
However, it is again not an easy task to get our research project approved
by such research funding agencies/institutions. There is a lot of
competition between a large number of research projects ev ery year, short -
term as well as long -term, striving to seek approval, because such funding
institutions can offer funding only to a limited number of promising
projects by investing a good amount of money with them, rather than
spending big amount in a lar ge number of studies. For this reason, the
research funding institutions may consider the following criteria to
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33  Whether the aspiring research project is really aspiring? Is there
something novel in t he research content?
 Does it have the potential to contribute to the related field and overall
societal benefit and welfare?
 Do the researchers have a good amount of knowledge about their
research area and research methodology in general?
 Do they have a va lid rationale for conducting that particular research
project?
 Is it worth funding the research project?
Apart from these criteria, there may be some other criteria that institutions
may consider. Considering these all things, researchers need to submit
their research proposal with their action plans and estimated budget
required for their research project/study. The details about the project
included in the proposal should be very clear, especially the rationale and
significance of the study, and methodolo gy that will be used.
Section 2.2 will help you understand the way you should submit your
action plan with a detailed research proposal.
2.2 EXERCISE TO PERFORM: FORMULATING THE ACTION PLAN WITH DETAILED PROPOSAL In the third year of the BA course, you mi ght have undertaken research
projects as a part of the syllabus. If you have not dealt with it before for
some reason, no need to worry! You can still find information here on the
structure of the research from the introduction to the references.
With mor e or less difference (excluding some major sections for which
proposed research needs to take place), the same format or structure you
will have to follow for submitting the detailed proposal of the action plan
of your action research. We are providing her e with the structure that you
can follow.
In the previous section, we have seen the major difference between action
research and traditional research. Considering those differences and the
characteristics of action research, you might have gained clarity t hat action
research can be more conducted at the personal level focusing on our own
learning process, where we try to study our own practice -related issues in
the company with those people who are in the same field as ours. Hence, it
is comparatively easy to conduct than traditional research with lesser
expenditure. In this case, preparing and submitting a research proposal
with an action plan may not be practically required or possible.
However, considering the content of your syllabus, we have presented the
following example in a format/structure for the research proposal,
combining the characteristics and content of both types of research, so that
preparing the action plan with a research proposal sounds more logical. munotes.in

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34 This will help you to learn how to p repare a research proposal with an
action plan when submitting it for approval and get our research funded by
the funding institutions/agencies.
Some institutions also may provide their own prescribed format for
researchers while inviting their applicatio ns for fellowships or funding.
This helps researchers to understand what information is expected by the
institutions and to prepare their research proposal accordingly. However,
here is a general format/structure (Table 2.2) provided to you which can
be co nsidered if no such prescribed format is provided by the funding
institutions. It provides only general guidelines regarding the structure
with a hypothetical example. Accordingly, you may prepare your research
proposal more effectively. In other words, fo llowing it from word to word
should not be considered and it is not expected. What is expected at this
academic stage and onwards is referring to some research articles as a self -
study mode for more clarity about the way your research should be
documented. The different sections of the research proposal (after the
content page) can be continued till the end or different sections can be
presented on different pages, as guided in the following example or as the
prescribed format which you might have been inst ructed to follow by the
institution where you are conducting a research study and submitting it.
Table 2.2 Format/Structure for Research Proposal  Research Title (For example, Effectiveness of Audiovisual Teaching Methods over Traditional Teaching Methods in Public/Private Schools – First page)  Author (Researcher’s name/s with other required details like institutional affiliation- First page)  Content (with page numbers – Next page; Example provided in Table 2.3)  Introduction (Starting from next page – about 4-5 pages or as required) There is no such page/word limit when you actually document some research for your final dissertation or Ph.D. thesis or even at the non-academic/professional level. But since as of now you are just submitting an action plan for your research study, 4 to 5 pages will be enough, not going into depth. The introduction part will include the overall description of the problem/variable that you have chosen to study. Thus, it will mainly include: - A definition and description of the variable/s under study – in brief, or as required; - Its nature (along with any associated problems, if any); - Its prevalence – in the country where you will be conducting munotes.in

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35 research and globally (in short – previous research references can be cited); - Categories of the problem/variable (if any – previous research studies can be cited); - Different models developed related to the problem/variable, e.g., biological model, psycho-social model, etc. (if any – previous research studies can be cited) - Solutions to the problem/various findings related to the variable (how the problem can be dealt with at different levels, e.g., psychological, biological, etc. – previous research studies can be cited) - Any other points can be covered in the introduction which can make your proposal more effective.  Rationale of the study: Specify the reason/s behind why the particular problem has been chosen to study (this should be well explained, so that there are increased chances of getting your research proposal approved).  Significance of the study: Specify why the particular problem is so significant to study (this should be well explained, so that there are increased chances of getting your research proposal approved).  Problem (Continuing from the next page till References): The problem of the present research is to study the effectiveness of audiovisual teaching methods over traditional teaching methods in public/private schools.  Aim : The present research aimed to study the difference between the effectiveness of audiovisual teaching methods and traditional teaching methods.  Objectives: - To examine the difference between the effectiveness of audiovisual teaching methods and traditional teaching methods. - (Some other objectives can be formed, if required, based on what you aim to study) However, only major objectives can be specified in the research proposal, in case there are sub-objectives also. munotes.in

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36  Hypotheses/ Research Questions (Only either of them should be: stated. This particular example shows the hypotheses) - There will be a significant difference between the effectiveness of audiovisual teaching methods and traditional teaching methods. - Audiovisual teaching methods will be more effective than the traditional teaching methods in __________ (private/public/both) schools. (Such hypotheses can be stated differently based on the settings in which you are studying the problem – for example, the second hypothesis can be stated separately according to the type of method and type of school) - (Some other hypotheses can be formed, if required, based on the aim and objectives of your study) However, like objectives, only major hypotheses can be specified in the proposal in order to avoid unnecessary length. An example of the research question could be – How do I find out which teaching method is effective for private/public schools? (in terms of Action research) Or Which teaching method will be more effective for private/public schools? (in terms of Traditional research)  Literature Review/ Review of Literature: Previous research studies and their findings related to the variables (e.g., Type of teaching methods) that will be studied by you (about 1 or 2 pages or as required including the variables that will be studied, not going much in-depth).  Methodology: - Design A _____________ (factorial design/ t-test) was used. - Sample and sample size 200 teachers of 5th to 10th Standard from 5 private and 5 public schools in Mumbai city (Specify the population that will be studied along with their age range/group e.g., between ____ and ______ years, if required; number of participants _______ from _________ city, _____ state, ________ country, if applicable). Note: The above example is hypothetical. Choose and state your munotes.in

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Action Research
37 research sample and sample size carefully. - Sampling technique A ____________ sampling method will be used for data collection (e.g., a snowball sampling method was used). - Operational Definitions of Variables (Define independent/predictor variable, and dependent/criterion variable as they will be used. Also, specify control variables used if any, such as age, religion, etc.) Independent Variable/s (One below the other, if more than one): Type of Teaching Methods: Two types of teaching methods will be studied – i) Audiovisual method – Define the way it will be studied (specify its levels in terms of categories, if any). ii) Traditional method – Define the way it will be studied (specify its levels in terms of categories, if any). Dependent Variable/s (One below the other, if more than one): Effectiveness of teaching method - Define the way it will be studied (specify its levels in terms of categories, if any). Control Variables (if any, One below the other, if more than one): i) Age groups: _________ (specify, if any), ii) Gender _______ (specify, if any), - Tools To be Used (Meniton all tools that will be used for measuring specific variables one below the other along with their authors, brief description and their psychometric properties, that is reliability, validity, etc.) 1) Tool 1___Name of the tool___ (author, year): Mention the author, what the tool measures, the type and nature of the tool, a method to respond tool, what is its reliability – factor and sub-factor-wise, and its validity. 2) Mention the remaining tools that have been chosen to be used, in a similar way. Tools can be self-constructed also for which psychometric properties should have been computed through a pilot study/ies. - Statistical Analysis of Data (Mention in brief): 1) Descriptive statistics – Total, mean, standard deviation 2) Inferential statistics – t-test (any other statistics, if applicable) munotes.in

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38 List down the statistical techniques used for data analysis  Analysis of Data (Write in detail): Mention the statistical techniques analysis that will be used, what they will compute and the reason behind using each technique.  Results: Here possible findings can be specified in brief (for example, expected directions of correlations between a few variables can be specified).  Specify under the headings of Discussion and Conclusion that they will be specified based on the actual research findings.  References: References of the research studies that are used in the introduction, literature review and any other section, such as methodology. To be written in the latest/running APA (American Psychological Association) style format edition or any other style format (MLA, Chicago, etc.) preferred by the institution you are undertaking the course.  Budget Required for the Present Research (Can be specified on the fresh page) The expected required budget should be expressed in a table form specifying the particulars of items and the amount required (Approximately – in Rupees/ currency of the respective country where research will take place).  An example of the Proposed Budget has been provided below in Table 2.4: Table 2.3 Example of Content Page Sr. No. Page No. 1 Introduction 3 – 7 2 Rationale of the study …. 3 Significance of the study …. … ……. ….. …. ……. ….. 13 References ….. 14 Expected required budget …… munotes.in

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39 Table 2.4 A Hypothetical Example of Budget Required for the Present
Research Sr. No. Particulars of Items Amount Required/ Approximate Expenditure (in Rupees) 1 Psychological tools purchasing 50,000/- 2 Appointment of research assistants/field investigators (for data collection purposes) 2,00,000/- 3 Travelling (for data collection purposes) 75,000/- 4 Stationery 25,000/- 5 Statistical analysis software/ services 1,00,000/- 6 Printing/Xerox 30,000/- 7 Contingency 20,000/- 8 Miscellaneous 10,000/- Total (Approximate amount) 5,00,000/- Important Notes: 1) Do not select a complicated topic for research at this academic level, but make sure that the topic is not very easy and too common. 2) Table 2.4 serves just as an example of what items can be covered in the expected budget. It may not match the needs of the proposal provided in the example (Table 2.2). 3) One should include only those items in the budget, which will be required to carry out the research project. So, budget forming should be done carefully. 4) Quote the expenditure only for those tools that are required for your research study and need to be purchased if they are not readily available. 5) Similarly, follow in the case of statistical analysis software/ services if not available with you or in your institution. 6) This is a regular format of proposing the budget, which is used universally. If it is an in-house research project that will be funded by the institution itself, you may also provide the expected range of munotes.in

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40 expenditure for each item if the institution allows, for example, Printing – 20,000/- to 30,000/- 7) Mostly, the proposed budget should include the major items of expenditure, in case the individual researchers or the research undertaking institutions can manage minor expenditures. 2.3 SUMMARY In the first half of this unit, we learned about action research in as much
detail as possible. Action research is recognized today as a valid form of
enquiry with its own methodologies and epistemologies, and its own
criteria and standards of judgement. action research is often referred to as
practitioner rese arch, or practitioner -led or practitioner -based research,
since it is done by practitioners working in any context. It can also be
called a kind of self -reflective practice, because it involves one to think
carefully about what he or she is doing. Action r esearch is always related
to learning, which is related to education and growth. Hence, action
research is also considered to be a form of educational research. The term
action research always implies a process of people interacting with one
another. Actio n research is said to be an enquiry by the self into the self,
undertaken in companionship with others, who are acting as research
participants and critical learning partners. It takes place within the real -life
experience of real -life people.
We saw the m ajor difference between action research and traditional
research. We learned about Dos and Don’ts to be followed while carrying
out action research. We learned about data gathering and concluding data
in action research along with all the various steps and techniques required
for it. We then discussed the validation process of the action research,
which includes self -validation, colleagues’ validation, and academic
validation. We also discussed the various benefits of action research. We
then moved toward t he action plan and research proposal. In this section,
we saw what is the action plan and research proposal, why they are
required,
In the second half of the unit, we performed an exercise in which you were
provided with the structure/format along with s ome guidelines for
preparing the action plan with the research proposal for your research
topic.
2.4 QUESTIONS 1. What is action research and how to do it? Explain in detail.
2. What are the Dos and Don’ts explained by McNiff to be followed
while conducti ng action research?
3. Explain the action -reflection cycle along with its various steps
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41 4. Write a detailed note on the validation of action research.
5. Write a detailed note on the action plan and research proposal.
6. Write short notes:
a) Dos and Don’ts in Action Research
b) Identifying a concern as a first stage of the action -reflection cycle
c) Imagining the solution as a second stage of the action -reflection cycle
d) Three categories of validation of knowledge
e) Benefit s/implications of action research
f) Requirement of action plan and research
2.5 REFERENCES  McNiff, J., & Whitehead, J. (2002). Action research: Principles and
practice (Second Edition). London, New York: Routledge, Falmer,
Taylor & Francis Group.
2.6 APP ENDIX: POSSIBLE TOPICS FOR RESEARCH Students, here the list of possible topics for action research has been
provided for your ease. They are related to some social problems currently
existing in our society. You can choose any one of these topics or you ar e
free to choose any topic other than this of your choice.
 Job loss among youth
 Skill development among youth
 Life skill development among disabled people
 Financial management among aged people
 Improving self -esteem in women in the context of domestic vio lence
 Immediate concerns of teenagers’ parents
 Immediate concerns of LGBTQ+
 Concerns of earning and non -earning women
 Challenges faced by the night -school students
 Challenges faced by the students learning through the distant mode
 Problems of drop -out stud ents
 Consequences of exposure to technology among children below 5
years Note: The same list can be referred to in the context of Unit 4 while dealing with the social experiment, if required.
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42 3
PSYCHOLOGICAL ISSUES IN
CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR – I
Unit Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Implicit Consumer Cognition
3.2.1 Implicit Measures
3.2.2 Implicit Process
3.3 The Nature and Role of Affect in Consumer Behaviour
3.3.1 Physiological and cognitive antecedents of emotion
3.3.2 Memory for the Affective Experiences
3.3.3 The Role of the Affect in Consumer Judgement And Decision -
making
3.4 Summary
3.5 Questions
3.6 References
3.0 OBJECTIVES  To understand implicit c onsumer cognition.
 To know the subliminal presentation of stimuli and more overt
priming effects.
 To study the nature and role of affect in consumer behaviour.
 To know the structure and assessment of affect.
 To understand the role of affect in consumer ju dgement and decision -
making.
3.1 INTRODUCTION The advertising proved its universality in the daily life of consumers in
1957. Also, the advertisers were scheming to deprive consumers of their
free will by advertising to the subconscious. James M. Vicary an d Francis
Thayer had announced that they presented messages such as “Eat
popcorn” and “Drink Coca -Cola” for a duration of 1/3000th of a second,
well below the threshold for conscious perception, during movie
screenings. According to Vicary and Thayer, this subliminal persuasion
technique increased popcorn sales by 57.5% and cola sales by 18.1%.
Some unseen stimuli allegedly influenced consumers to buy more snacks
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43 The implications were so overwhelming that politicians also could use
sublimina l advertising to get elected; anyone who had enough money to
subliminally advertise on television could make an unsuspecting public do
their request. Even a suspecting public might be susceptible to subliminal
advertising, since there would be no way to kn ow whether advertisements
were being played.
No advertising - or consumer -related claim has captured the public
imagination quite like the notion that consumers can be persuaded outside
of their conscious awareness to buy. Vance Packard’s (1957) best -seller
“The Hidden Persuaders”, described immoral tricks used by marketing and
advertising professionals designed to appeal to consumers’ unconscious
needs and desires. Published only two years later, Haber’s (1959) survey
of 324 San Franciscans revealed that 4 1% were aware of subliminal
advertising, and 50% believed it to be unethical. Still, two -thirds of them
were willing to watch a television program even if they knew that
subliminal advertising was used in the commercials.
Surveys conducted more recently ( Rogers & Smith, 1993; Synodinos,
1988; Zanot, Pincus, & Lamp, 1983) reveal that the public has
substantially greater familiarity with subliminal advertising today.
Between 74% and 82% of respondents (depending on the survey) claimed
to have heard of sublim inal advertising. Of those respondents who have
heard of subliminal advertising, more than 99% believe that subliminal
advertising is actually used and 44 to 48% of respondents believe that they
may be susceptible to subliminal advertising.
The threat of subliminal advertising has not decreased. Instead, in the past
50 years the general public has become more aware and more suspicious
of subliminal advertising. As described in greater depth later in this unit,
public concern over the power of subliminal ad vertising is likely quite
unfounded. Subliminal advertising, at best, is a very weak force. However,
there is evidence that subliminally presented stimuli can influence affect,
behaviour, and cognition. And subliminal stimulation is not the only way
in whi ch we can be influenced without awareness. Consumer -related
affect, behaviour, and cognition can be and often are driven by forces that
are entirely outside of conscious awareness.
3.2 IMPLICIT CONSUMER COGNITION The application of prior knowledge to a t ask without conscious recall or
awareness of the prior knowledge is a sign of implicit cognition (e.g.,
Greenwald & Banaji, 1995; Khilstrom, 1990, 1999; Roediger, 1990;
Schacter, 1987). A well -known illustration of implicit cognition can be
observed in mem ory research. Compared to non -amnesiac control
subjects, amnesiacs perform significantly less well on recall and
recognition tasks when given a list of words to memorize.
Introspective access to memory does not appear to be present in
amnesiacs. On the oth er hand, when given the same list of terms and then
required to fill in a string of word stems or fragments (e.g., c_k_ or pep_, munotes.in

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44 the amnesiacs generate previously observed words almost at the same pace
as the non -amnesiac. Essentially, the impact of past e vents on subsequent
performance is almost the same for those with amnesia as for those
without it; their implicit memory is equally as strong as that of control
subjects without impairment (Warrington & Weiskrantz, 1970).
The unrecognized or misinterpreted influence of prior experiences on
consumer -related judgment and behaviour is known as implicit consumer
cognition. Different aspects of consumer cognition may be implicit. They
are:
 consumers may not be aware of a biased stimulus (such as that seen in
subliminal advertising);
 they may not be aware of the cognitive processes that mediate the
relationship between a stimulus and an outcome; or
 they may not be aware of the outcome itself (Chartrand, 2005).
To what degree, however, are we uninformed of the influences and
processes influencing consumer behaviour?
Decades of research have shown that explicit cognition has a consistent
impact on consumer behaviour. Different models of human cognition have
depicted people as –
 naive scientists (engaging in care ful, semi -scientific attempts to
understand the world around them),
 cognitive misers (having a limited cognitive capacity and generally
unwilling to expend full cognitive effort), and
 motivated tacticians (having multiple processing strategies and
employ ing them according to motivation and ability) (Fiske & Taylor,
1991).
Despite their differences, all of these models agree on the importance of
explicit cognition. People process information deliberately and
deliberately, and this often leads to correct d ecisions.
People who are both motivated and capable of carefully processing
persuasive information, for example, tend to accept high -quality
arguments and reject low -quality arguments in studies of attitude change
(e.g., Petty & Cacioppo, 1986). Of course, extensive cognitive elaboration
is not required for persuasion. People can be persuaded by lightly
processing peripheral cues (for example, an attractive model may elicit
positive feelings toward a brand) or by invoking heuristics (for example, a
highly c redible source would only endorse a good product).
But, given our limited cognitive resources and the volume of stimuli we
encounter on a daily basis, it is clearly impossible to devote even a small
portion of our cognitive resources to all of the stimuli we encounter. We
cannot always process information thoughtfully and methodically (Bargh, munotes.in

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45 1997; Kahneman & Triesman, 1984; Posner & Snyder, 1975; Schneider &
Shiffrin, 1977). When we devote less attention or fewer cognitive
resources to decisions, our perfo rmance can improve (e.g., Ambady,
Hallahan, & Conner, 1999; Ambady & Rosenthal, 1992, 1993;
Dijksterhuis, 2004). Indeed, our frequent inability to explain our own
behaviour correctly (Nisbett & Wilson, 1977) speaks directly to the notion
that we lack consc ious awareness of many basic cognitive processes.
We should be able to explain how and why we do things if we are
consciously aware of how and why we do them. In fact, we are so bad at
explaining our own behaviour that attempting to do so frequently muddie s
the behaviour we are attempting to explain (Wilson & Kraft, 1993; Wilson
& Schooler, 1991; Schooler, 2002; Schooler, Ohlsson, & Brooks, 1993). A
non-stuttering research participant was induced to stutter via negative
reinforcement in a remarkably compell ing (if somewhat inhumane)
example of our inability to make accurate attributions about our behaviour
(Goldiamond, 1965). He received an electric shock while reading aloud,
and the shock was only stopped when the participant stuttered. His
stuttering rate was so high at the end of the session that he received no
shocks at all. He returned to the lab two days later and stuttered so much
that he was only shocked twice. When questioned about his stuttering, he
blamed it on his anxiety. When asked directly whet her the electric shock
had any effect on his stuttering, he claimed that the shock had nothing to
do with it. Outside of conscious awareness, cognition can occur (in this
case, an awareness of the stuttering -shock contingency), and this cognition
can have significant implications for our behaviour, including consumer
behaviour.
A recent explosion of research on implicit cognition continues to reveal
how mental processes that occur outside of conscious awareness can have
a significant impact on judgment a nd behaviour. This unit is divided into
two sections that review research and theory on implicit cognition as it
relates to consumer behaviour. The first section discusses implicit
measures of attitudes (other than the Implicit Association Test) affect,
memory, and personality. The second section focuses on implicit
processes and effects, such as subliminal persuasion and priming,
consumer decision -making, and verbal overshadowing.
3.2.1 Implicit Measures:
Implicit measures assess respondents' stored info rmation as well, but they
do not require the respondent to intentionally retrieve the information.
Instead, information about the respondent is derived from responses to
tasks or questions that appear to have nothing to do with the respondents'
psychologic al state (attitude, trait, and so on). The Thematic Apperception
Test (TAT; Morgan & Murray, 1935) is a classic example of an implicit
measure. The TAT is a projective test in which participants are shown a
series of ambiguous images and asked to write a b rief story about each
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46 Trained coders then rate the story using predefined criteria, assigning the
respondent a score on the dimension of interest (e.g., Need for Affiliation -
Winter et al., 1998; attitudes toward union labour - Proshansky, 1948).
Projective implicit measures are less favoured techniques due to concerns
about their validity and reliability (Lemon, 1973; see Lundy, 1985; Winter
& Stewart, 1977). Contemporary implicit measures rely more on the speed
with which respondents can perform cer tain tasks, such as word
categorization, or make word -non-word judgments (e.g., Dovidio,
Kawakami, Johnson, Johnson, & Howard, 1997; Fazio, Jackson, Dunton,
& Williams, 1995; Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998). Two such
measures are:
 The Implicit Associ ation Test (see Perkins, na) and
 The evaluative priming paradigm (Fazio et al., 1995; Wittenbrink, in
press).
Although both the response time -based measures and projective type
measures can be implicit, they appear to require fundamentally different
types of information processing.
Explicit measures are those which require the respondent to intentionally
retrieve some stored information about himself or herself. Explicit attitude
measures, such as Likert, Thurstone, or semantic differential measures,
require respondents to retrieve previously stored evaluative information
about a specific attitude object. Explicit measures of personality require
respondents to indicate how well different trait words or behaviours
describe them.
According to conventional w isdom, explicit measures are best used when
respondents are willing and able to report on their psychological states.
They are thought to work fine when used to assess attitudes or personality
traits that respondents are consciously aware of and are not ta inted by
social desirability concerns. On the other hand, they are thought to be of
very limited utility when the object under consideration is socially
undesirable (e.g., prejudice – Crosby, Bromley, & Saxe, 1980; attitudes
toward cheating – Corey, 1937). However, when people are unwilling or
unable to report their true attitudes, conventional wisdom would advocate
the use of implicit, or indirect, measures.
Baby matches a sound, indicating that they understand that “ah” comes
from wide open lips and mou th corners pulled back (Kuhl & Meltzoff,
1982). This stage marks the start of the development of babies' receptive
language, or their ability to understand what is said to or about them.
Babies grow in their ability to do what you and I find difficult when
listening to an unfamiliar language at seven months and beyond segment
spoken sounds into individual words. Furthermore, their proficiency with
this task, as measured by their listening patterns, predicts their language
abilities between the ages of 2 and 5 (Newman et al., 2006).
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47 3.2.2 Implicit Processes: Doing Without Understanding:
The focus of this section is on the applications of implicit cognition to
consumer psychology. According to Chartrand's Model of Automatic
Processes (2005, p. 203), factors that individuals, as consumers, can be
unaware of –
(a) Environmental stimuli that may influence their behaviour,
(b) Automatic processes themselves that mediate behaviour, or
(c) The outcome of that automatic process, which includes "behaviour,
motivation, judgments, decisions, and emotions".
Let us begin with a review of research on environmental influences that
people are unaware of (for example, subliminal influences). After
discussing automatic processes, we will also look at a few notes on
outcome awareness. The intent is not to list all studies involving implicit
processes and/or effects, but rather to provide an overview of the
theoretical and empirical work being done in the various research areas.
Awareness of Environmental Stimuli: Sublimi nal Presentation of
Stimuli, and More Overt Priming Effects:
Despite a little scientific doubt about the existence of unconscious mental
activity, there are serious questions about subliminal perception and the
types of effects it can have. There are a var iety of problems with research
involving the presentation of subliminal stimuli, but it is perhaps best to
start with definitional issues and different usages of the term.
Subliminal stimuli (visual, auditory, or tactile) are those which are
presented in s uch a way that they elicit no sensation in the respondent.
Pratkanis and Greenwald (1988) classified subliminal stimuli into four
categories –
 subthreshold stimuli or stimuli presented at energy levels too low to
be detectable;
 masked stimuli or stimuli presented very quickly and immediately
followed by another meaningless stimulus intended to interfere with
perception;
 unattended stimuli , in which attention is drawn away from the
critical stimulus; and
 figurally transformed stimuli , which include items that are blurred,
decomposed, or otherwise distorted Because they evoke the limen, the
first two categories fit a psychological definition of subliminal.
The threshold, also known as the limen, is the point at which a stimulus
elicits a sensation. The mo st appropriate way to identify subliminal
perception is to simply ask participants if they noticed the presentation of
a stimulus (Cheesman & Merikle, 1986; Fowler, 1986; Greenwald, 1992;
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48 Kihlstrom (1999) proposed a distin ction between explicit and implicit
perception, similar to the distinction between implicit and explicit
memory. The conscious awareness of some element in the environment, as
well as the ability to report on that element, is referred to as explicit
percep tion. Implicit perception is the perception that occurs without
awareness and may include subliminal perceptions of stimuli.
A critical aspect of implicit perception is the inability to consciously
report the presence of the stimuli. Subliminal means that respondents
claim to be unable to see the stimulus. As Kihlstrom (1999) points out,
this conceptualization also avoids another issue with defining subliminal
perception, namely the limen. Of course, with this approach, one must still
worry about responden ts being truthful, but incentives can be used to
increase respondents' motivation to be truthful.
Pratkanis and Aronson (1992) conducted a remarkably thorough review of
over 150 mass media articles and over 200 academic papers and found no
clear evidence i n support of subliminal persuasion. Pratkanis (1992) cited
the shortcomings of subliminal "the failure to control for subject
expectancy and experimenter bias effects, selective reporting of positive
over negative findings, lack of appropriate control trea tments, internally
inconsistent results, unreliable dependent measures, presentation of stimuli
in a matter that is not truly subliminal, and multiple experimental
confounds specific to each study". Other reviews of subliminal advertising
have been more ch aritable, but still pessimistic about the long -term value
of subliminal advertising.
According to Theus (1994), there is little evidence for the effects of
subliminal advertising on brand choice behaviour, but other applications
may be more fruitful. She r ecommends more research on the use of visual
imagery as stimuli, recipient characteristics (for example, using messages
that are relevant to the audience's needs, hopes, and desires), and the
repetition of subliminal stimuli.
Despite the lack of evidence in favour of subliminal persuasion, there is a
substantial amount of evidence demonstrating that subliminal presentation
of stimuli can have an effect on the affects, cognition, and behaviour.
Following the subliminal presentation of a semantically related prime,
word -nonword judgments can be accelerated (e.g., priming bread
facilitates recognition of butter; Balota, 1983; Fowler, Wolford, Slade, &
Tassinary, 1981; Marcel, 1983).
The subliminal priming of trait words can also influence social judgments.
Participants in a "vigilance task" in which words were presented
subliminally were given to Bargh and Pietromonaco (1982). The concept
of hostility was associated with zero, 20%, or 80% of the words.
Following the vigilance task, participants read an ambiguou s paragraph
about a fictional character. Donald, a fictional character, was rated on a
variety of dimensions. The higher the percentage of hostile words they had
been exposed to, the lower their opinion of Donald was (see also Chen & munotes.in

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49 Bargh, 1997; Erdley & D'Agostino, 1988). Finally, we know that
subliminal stimuli can influence attitudes.
Other lines of research have demonstrated consistent effects of subliminal
priming on self -judgment and behaviour. For example, subliminal
presentation of threatening stim uli has been shown to increase self -
reported anxiety (Robles, Smith, Carver, & Wellens, 1987). Several
studies have subliminally activated stereotypes and demonstrated
behavioural assimilation to those stereotypes. Elderly participants
subliminally exposed to words reflecting positive aspects of the elderly
stereotype (e.g., wise) have been shown to walk faster (Hausdorff, Levy,
& Wei, 1999) and have improved memory (Levy, 1996); however, elderly
participants exposed to negative aspects of the elderly stere otype (e.g.,
senile) have shown worsened memory (Levy, 1996).
In simple language, subliminal persuasion is unlikely, and the effects of
subliminal advertising are far from those suggested by Vicary.
Subliminally presented stimuli can influence semantic, ev aluative, and
social judgments, as well as attitudes, behaviour, and the processing of
seemingly unrelated information. In summary, the evidence to date
suggests that subliminal stimuli can be used to evoke abstract concepts
and affects, and that they can influence related judgments and behaviours
where the primed concepts are reasonably available (e.g., increasing
hostility in an already frustrating situation, walking more slowly when
asked to walk down a hall, drinking more of a beverage when thirsty).
However, subliminal stimuli cannot be used to directly persuade or dictate
behaviour (for example, causing hostile outbursts without provocation,
getting up and walking down the corridor, or going to the soda machine
and purchasing a beverage). It is possibl e to increase accessibility through
subliminal priming, and this can affect behaviour to the extent that the
newly accessible primes are applicable to the current situation.
Awareness of Automatic Processes: Aware of the Stimulus, but
Unaware of the Cognit ive Processes:
Actual purchasing behaviour is one area where surprisingly little research
has been conducted. While much of our purchasing is done on purpose,
intentionally, and deliberatively, there may be innumerable forces acting
outside of our conscio us awareness that influence what, when, and how
we buy (Simonson, 2005). Morwitz, Fitzsimons, and others have done
extensive research on the mere -measurement effect (Fitzsimons &
Morwitz, 1996; Fitzsimons & Shiv, 2001; Fitzsimons & Williams, 2000;
Morwitz & Fitzsimons, 2004; Morwitz, Johnson, & Schmittlein, 1993;
Williams, Fitzsimons, & Block, 2004). These researchers have
demonstrated in a series of studies that simply asking consumers about
their purchase intentions can increase the likelihood of purchase .
Asking broad, category -level questions (for example, "How likely are you
to buy an automobile?") increases the likelihood of purchase in that
product category. When you ask category -level questions to regular users
of a brand, you increase the likelihood of specific brand repurchase, and munotes.in

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50 when you ask category -level questions to non -users, you increase the
likelihood of category leader purchase.
Because asking intentional questions increases the accessibility of
attitudes toward specific members of the pr oduct category, the mere
measurement effect appears to emerge. Furthermore, the effect appears to
fade when respondents recognize the intention questions as attempts at
persuasion. Participants in these studies are clearly aware of the
environmental stimul us (a direct question about purchase intentions), but
they are not aware of the automatic processes elicited by the question
(increased attitude accessibility).
Awareness of Outcomes: Acting without Knowing:
Although there is a great deal of psychological research on behaviour
without awareness, the work on consumer behaviour without awareness is
limited, to say the least. The scientific study of behaviour without
awareness is a tricky business largely because conceptual and operational
definitions of beha viour without awareness are many and varied (see
Adams, 1957; Frensch & Rünger, 2003).
People may be unaware of the behaviour, itself (e.g., people may not
realize they are tapping their foot). People may be unaware of some
behaviour’s relation to a conti ngent event (e.g., greater likelihood of
buying as a function of having been asked a question about a product
category). They may be unaware of physiological responses to stimuli
(e.g., pupillary response, GSR). They may be unaware of goal activation,
learning, and so forth.
It is clear enough that people cannot be aware of differential behaviour as
a function of subliminally presented stimuli and it is generally assumed
that people are unaware of subtle changes in their behaviour as a result of
priming ma nipulations. As noted above, when people become aware of
these contingencies they tend to react against the primes.
3.3 THE NATURE AND ROLE OF AFFECT IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR What exactly does "affect" mean? The term "affect" is still used to refer to
what is essentially the evaluative aspect of attitudes. This stems from the
traditional three -part depiction of attitudes:
 cognitive, affective, and conative (see Eagly & Chaiken, 1993);
 a failure to distinguish adequately between evaluative measures (e.g.,
favourable/unfavourable); and
 antecedent or subsequent processes, which may be feeling -based.
We reserve the term "affect" to describe an internal feeling state, in
accordance with recent scholarly discussions. An object, person, or
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51 judgment rather than an internal feeling state. Russell and Carroll (1999a)
put it this way:
“By affect, we have in mind genuine subjective feelings and moods (as
when someone says, ‘I’m feeling sad’), rather t han thoughts about specific
objects or events (as when someone calmly says, ‘The crusades were a sad
unit in human history’)”.
Most consumer research studies on affects deal with moods (e.g., Barone,
Miniard, & Romeo, 2000; Cohen & Andrade, 2004; Gorn, Gol dberg, &
Basu, 1993; Pham, 1998), although there has been growing interest in the
study of specific emotions (e.g., Lerner, Small, & Loewenstein, 2004;
Raghunathan & Pham, 1999; Raghunathan, Pham, & Corfman, 2006).
Moods are frequently regarded as low -intensity and variable affective
states that lack source identification. The individual, whether prompted by
physiological or hormonal/chemical activity (such as changes in serotonin
and dopamine levels) or by external stimuli (music, weather, exposure to
happ y versus sad information), experiences a vague sense of feeling good
or bad without necessarily knowing why. We are aware of feeling good or
bad, optimistic or pessimistic, up or down, relaxed or restless, alert or
drowsy on some days or after certain expe riences.
Mood states also track our bodily energy levels (e.g., blood glucose
levels), our daily circadian rhythm, and our overall health or illness,
guiding both relatively automatic self -regulation responses and more
conscious decisions, as we will discu ss later. Emotions, on the other hand,
are much more differentiated and thus provide more information about
attitudes and behaviours. Anger, for example, will frequently result in
target and context -specific responses rather than more general displays of
dissatisfaction (Bushman & Baumeister, 1998). It should be noted,
however, that specific emotions can produce mood -like effects (e.g., being
angry or sad can affect a pattern of behaviour) without the person being
aware that the emotional response (to an id entified target) has been
transferred to unrelated behaviours.
Recent studies show that the degree of transfer is determined by two
factors:
(1) The salience of the source of the emotional state —transfer is more
likely when the actual source of the affec ts is not salient; and
(2) The domain similarity between the actual source of the affects and the
objectively unrelated behaviour (Raghunathan, Pham, & Corfman,
2006).
Moods have been shown to be easily manipulated by exposure to
emotionally charged sti muli such as music, videos, and pictures, or by
recalling emotionally involving experiences (e.g., Cohen & Andrade,
2004).
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52 3.3.1 Physiological and Cognitive Antecedents of Emotion:
The influential James -Lange theory (James, 1884) proposed that
emotional s timuli elicited bodily responses, such as changes in heart rate,
blood pressure, and skin conductance, and that these bodily responses
were translated fairly directly into conscious differences in emotional
experience (e.g., fear versus anger). While there was some success in
relating "energetic" physiological responses to higher arousal negative
affect (when compared to lower arousal states like sadness and guilt),
there was no consistent translation of bodily responses into differentiating
positive affect . More broadly, such physiological measures do not appear
to reflect important differences in emotional valence (Bradley, Cuthbert,
& Lang, 1993; Schimmack & Crites, 2005).
A more fundamental challenge to the original theory was to call the central
role of bodily response to subsequent emotional experience into question.
Schachter and Singer (1962) made significant inroads by demonstrating
(via epinephrine or placebo injections) that peripheral arousal only
distinguished between emotional and cognitive re sponses. In their two -
factor theory, cognitive processes were crucial in interpreting the arousal
that was being felt. Other research conducted around the same time
provides a significant challenge to the bodily arousal component of this
theory.
Lazarus an d Alfert (1964) invited participants to watch a film depicting a
tribal ritual that appeared to involve genital mutilation. However, half of
those watching were misled into believing that the experience was not
painful and that adolescents looked forward t o this initiation into
manhood, despite the fact that significant cognitive control over arousal
was observed. Recent memory research, for example, shows the
importance of such emotional experience in memory consolidation, which
is consistent with the evol utionary underpinnings of classical conditioning
(Cahill & McGaugh, 1998). More broadly, emotional responses were
shown to be far more susceptible to cognitive control and experience
appraisals than previously thought.
3.3.2 Memory of Affective Experiences :
There is substantial evidence that the arousal intensity of an affective
experience increases people's immediate and long -term memory of this
experience (Bradley, Greenwald, Petry, & Lang, 1992; Kroeber -Riel,
1979; Thorson & Friestad, 1989), particularly for the central elements of
this experience (Christianson, Loft us, Hoff man, & Loft us, 1991). This
appears to be the case even when the source of arousal is unrelated to the
material to be learned and occurs after the learning has occurred,
suggesting t hat the phenomenon may be due, in part, to a better
consolidation of memory traces under high emotional arousal (Nielson,
Yee, & Erickson, 2005). Emotional intensity, however, is not a guarantee
of memory accuracy.
Biases resulting from changes in cogniti ve appraisals of the events or
revised standards of judgment (e.g., looking back, a person may have a munotes.in

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53 different perspective on the emotion -eliciting event) as well as a desire to
see things differently (e.g., when anticipating a recurring experience such
as childbirth) may intrude on people's memory (Levine, 1997; Levine,
Prohaska, Burgess, Rice, & Laulhere, 2001). Retrospective evaluations of
affective experiences appear to be more influenced by the intensity at both
the peak and the end of the experience, with duration playing a less
significant role (Ariely & Loewenstein, 2000; Fredrickson & Kahneman,
1993; Kahneman, Fredrickson, Schreiber, & Redelmeier, 1993;
Kahneman, Fredrickson, Schreiber, & Redelmeier, 1993).
3.3.3 The Role of Affects in Consumer Jud gment and Decision -
Making:
In consumer judgment and decision -making, it is useful to distinguish
three types of affect:
Integral Affect:
Integral affect refers to genuine affective responses that are directly related
to the object of judgment or decision . Momentary feelings experienced
through direct exposure to the object itself (such as the pleasant feeling of
tasting a fine wine) and those experienced in response to some
representation of the object —a representation that may be externally
provided (e.g ., a TV commercial for a product) or internally generated
(e.g., thinking about a product). Affective responses are important to the
extent that they are elicited by object features, whether these features are
real, perceived, or only imagined.
Incidental Affect:
Incidental affect refers to affective experiences that have no obvious
connection to the object under consideration. The majority of the literature
on mood effects on consumer behaviour (e.g., Gardner, 1985; Kahn &
Isen, 1993; Lee & Sternthal, 19 99) is concerned with incidental affect,
which means that the source of the mood is usually unrelated to the
judgment or decision being made. Incidental affect may result from a
person's emotional dispositions (such as chronic anxiety or depression)
and te mperament (such as general optimism or pessimism), as well as any
contextual stimuli associated with integral affect (such as background
music, pleasant scent, and so on).
Task -Related Affect:
Task -related affect is in the middle of integral and incident al affect. It
refers to affective responses elicited by the task or process of making
judgments and decisions as opposed to direct, integral responses to target
object features or purely incidental feelings. The emotional stress of
having to choose between two very appealing offers, for example, would
be considered task -induced because the process of having to choose
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54 Indeed, even when the options are associated with pleasant integral affect,
such as a choice between two vacation destinations, decisions can cause
unpleasant task -related affect. In the preceding example, the emotional
stress would not be incidental because, by definition, it would not have
occurred if a judgment or decision had not been required. In relation to
consumer judgment and decision -making, each type of affect will be
discussed separately.
Consumer research as a field has greatly matured in its understanding of
the important role of affect in consumer behaviour over the last 15 years.
The field has shifted away from its initial emphasis on mood states as "just
another" source of contextual influence on consumer behaviour and ad -
induced feelings as "just another" predictor of brand attitudes. The field
has progressed towa rd a more in -depth examination of the critical role that
affect —in its various forms: integral, incidental, and task -related —plays
in consumers' experiences, decisions, motives, and actions. Nonetheless,
while our understanding of the role of affect in con sumer behaviour is
expanding rapidly, the subject is still in its infancy. As this review
demonstrated, many important questions remained unanswered.
For example, one important area for future research would be to determine
the extent to which emotional e xperiences have long -term effects on
consumer judgment, decision -making, and behaviour —influences that
persist even after the feeling state has passed. Some preliminary evidence
suggests that certain cascading mechanisms play a role in such long -term
effec ts (Andrade & Ariely, 2007). Feelings appear to be interpreted
differently depending on the questions that people ask themselves when
inspecting their feelings (Pham, 2004). These questions appear to serve as
lenses through which feelings are read and comp rehended. Another
important area of research would be to better understand the types of
questions that feelings are supposed to answer.
3.3 SUMMARY In the past 15 years, consumer research as a field has greatly matured in its
understanding of the importan t role of affect in consumer behaviour. The
field has moved away from its original emphasis on mood states as “just
another” source of contextual influence on consumer behaviour and ad -
induced feelings as “just another” determinant of brand attitudes.
The field has moved toward a richer analysis of the very central role that
affect —in its different forms – integral, incidental, and task -related —plays
in consumers’ experiences, decisions, motives, and actions. Yet, while our
understanding of the role of aff ect in consumer behaviour may be growing
rapidly, the subject is barely in its adolescence.
As illustrated by this review, so many important questions remained to be
answered. For example, an important avenue for future research would be
to analyze to wha t extent emotional experiences have lasting influences on
consumer judgment, decision, and behaviour — influences that persevere
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55 certain cascading mechanisms contribute to such lasti ng influences
(Andrade & Ariely, 2007).
It has also been noted that feelings seem to be interpreted differently
depending on the questions that people are asking themselves when
inspecting their feelings (Pham, 2004). These questions seem to function
as lenses through which feelings are read and understood. Another
important research avenue would be to better understand the types of
questions that feelings are meant to answer.
3.4 QUESTIONS Write short notes on:
a) Implicit measures
b) Memory for affective exp eriences
c) The role of affect in consumer judgement and decision -making
d) Subliminal presentation of stimuli, and more overt priming effects
3.5 REFERENCES  Adams, J. K. (1957). Laboratory studies of behaviour without
awareness. Psychological Bulletin , 54, 383 –405.
 Aizen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1977). Attitude -behaviour relations: A
theoretical analysis and review of empirical research. Psychological
Bulletin , 84, 888 –918.
 Bornstein, R. F. (1992). Subliminal mere exposure effects. In R. F.
Bornstein & T. S. Pittma n (Eds.), Perception without awareness (pp.
191–210). New York: Guilford.
 Bless, H., Schwarz, N., Clore, G. L., Golisano, V., & Rabe, C. (1996).
Mood and the use of scripts: Does a happy mood really lead to
mindlessness? Journal of Personality and Social P sychology, 71 (4),
665–679.

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56 4
SOCIAL EXPERIMENT
Unit Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Social Experiment
4.2.1 Types of Social Experiments
4.2.2 Advantages of Social Experiments
4.3 Exercise to Perform: Conducting a Social Experiment and Writing a
Report
4.3.1 Steps to Consider: Identifying A Social Problem To Submitting
A Report on an Experiment
4.4 Summary
4.5 Questions
4.6 References
4.0 OBJECTIVES  To understand what is a social experiment and the dominant theories
in social experiments.
 To learn about the v alidity of the social experiment and various
threats in it.
 To know the different types and advantages of social experiments. 4.1 INTRODUCTION Students, as you are aware, as a part of your current academic course, you
are supposed to conduct one field exp eriment surrounding a particular
social problem. As a part of this activity
 First, each one of you from your class will identify some social
problems and choose any of them as final.
 Then, all students will prepare and make presentations on their
respecti ve single and final topics in the presence of your course
teachers. Presentations can be made individually or in groups. The
course teachers may decide this based on the number of students in
your class or other technical factors.
 Accordingly, once all pre sentations are done, one single experiment
will be selected as the entire group’s activity. Thus, all students will
have to work on that group assignment and conduct the field
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57  Once the field experiment is completed, all students w ill have to
submit a brief report of this assignment containing their analysis from
the social -psychological perspective. All students will be required to
include their initial individual experiments that they had presented in
the class.
In this process, y ou will be guided by your course teachers for all that you
need to do. At present, in this unit, we are going to learn some basics
about the social experiment. In simple words, we will learn about the
concept of social experiment and its related aspects th at you should be
aware of before conducting the experiments. So, let us start.
4.2 SOCIAL EXPERIMENT Over the years, social psychologists have been exploring many questions
by conducting experiments, because social experiments often help in
seeking to ans wer questions about how people behave in groups or how
the presence of others impacts individual behaviour. Social experiments
also explain how thoughts, feelings, and behaviours are influenced by the
presence of others (Blackstad, 2008). Also, the experim ental method is
considered the best for establishing that a certain program or intervention
has actually caused a given result or set of results.
For this purpose, social experimentation compares people – who receive a
certain program (experimental treatme nt) with similar people – who do not
or who receive some other treatment (Archibald & Newhouse; 1980).
Thus, psychological inquiry into social phenomena has become virtually
the same as controlled experimentation.
Social experiments take place outside of l aboratories. Therefore, as
compared to laboratory experiments, they tend to have less physical
isolation of materials, less procedural standardization, and longer -lasting
treatments. They are usually designed to test an intervention or treatment
that is us ually better characterized as a global package of many
components.
Field researchers in social psychology usually aim to learn how to modify
behaviour that has proven to be stubborn in the past, such as poor school
performance, drug abuse, unemployment, or unhealthy lifestyles. They are
less interested in testing a theoretical proposition about unidimensional
causes and effects. Therefore, social experiments are less characterized as
a likely unidimensional theory -derived causal construct.
Social experimen ts can be characterized both structurally and functionally
(Cook, 1991a – as cited in Cook & Shadish, 1994). There are several
famous social experiments. Some of them are the Asch Conformity
Experiment, the Bobo Doll Experiment, the Stanford Prison Experim ent,
the Milgram Experiment, the Halo Effect, Cognitive Dissonance, Robber’s
Cave Experiment, the False Consensus Effect, Social Identity Theory,
Negotiation – two psychological strategies that matter most, Bystander munotes.in

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58 Effect and the Diffusion of Responsibil ity (Blakstad, 2018; Cherry, 2023;
Dean, 2023).
Archibald and Newhouse (1980) published a report “Social
experimentation: Some whys and hows” prepared under a grant from the
US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. This report is one of
the produc ts of Rand’s Health Insurance Study, which was sponsored by
the US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare itself. This report
uses Rand’s experience to draw lessons about the technology of social
experimentation for researchers who are willing to eng age in social
experiments. The report intends to guide those people who will make
decisions on implementing social experiments, and who will either
monitor the progress of or actually conduct social experiments.
For this purpose, this report is divided int o three parts by the authors. Let
us focus on and discuss them briefly to understand the technical aspects of
social experimentation. These three parts are as follows:
When to conduct and not to conduct a social experiment?
Experiments can be conducted to avoid the difficult problems that are
encountered with other methods. These problems are listed below –
 Other methods typically compare groups that are or may be different
and attempt to adjust for differences;
 In such cases, the adjustment may not be fu lly satisfactory;
 Such methods may leave the cause -and-effect relationship ambiguous.
 Already existing data, which other methods often have to work with,
may be difficult to analyze, and may not be dependable for the
proposed program or treatment; or such data can be used only by
making unverifiable assumptions.
 In such situations, inferences about program effects may be
questionable.
However, it is usually more expensive and time -consuming to collect and
analyze experimental data than using the existing d ata. Therefore, the
researchers are ideally suggested to conduct the experiment when –
 They are sure that existing data will not be sufficient for the purpose;
and
 They are sure that the problem to be studied is important enough to
justify the expendit ure of resources.
In contrast, researchers are suggested not to conduct social experiments in
the following conditions –
 Adequacy of existing data;
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59  Inability to define or control a relevant treatment variable;
 Unresolvable ethical issues; and
 Important outcomes that are not measurable.
How to manage a social experiment?
Social experimentation has its unique aspects, because of which it has
gained considerable attention in the literature along with the
character istics of the person who will manage the experiment. The
researchers/experiment managers or experimenters should possess the
following desirable characteristics:
 They must possess all traditional managerial skills needed for
planning, operations, financial management, personnel management,
public relations, and communications.
 They should be organized into a research team or teams and an action
or operations team or teams (including a data processing group).
 As being responsible for analyzing the data, the research team must
have ultimate authority over the experiment. There should be early
and frequent interaction between such research teams, which is
necessary for the success of the experiment.
 The research teams must respect each other and understand the
restrictions imposed on each member of the team.
 As one of the crucial duties, the manager should preserve the integrity
of the treatments – a task for which it is essential to create information
systems that permit monitoring the field operations.
 They m ust possess planning and cost estimation skills, which are
important for avoiding deficiencies that can undermine the best -
designed experiments.
 They must be able to consider highly interrelated field operations
involved in most experiments and dependencie s among them to avoid
the possibility of poor -quality data.
 The data processing group from the research team should participate
in the early stages of experimental design to plan efficient and
effective operations for processing the data obtained in the
experiment.
Thus, experimenters or the whole research team should be skillful in
carrying out various tasks involved in social experimentation.
Some practical advice (“tips”) to experimenters :
Archibald and Newhouse (1980, p. 24) offer several tips to the pr ospective
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60  Create a pilot sample of people with whom to pretest the operational
feasibility of the experiment.
 Build into the design an ability to measure effects that are an artefact
of the experiment.
 Construct the ex periment to keep refusal and attrition at low levels,
especially refusal and attrition correlated with treatments.
 Do not strongly oversample a group whose membership is not well -
defined.
 Inform the participants in some detail about the treatment and the ir
obligations.
 Choose the number of sites and length of enrollment to minimize
variance, given a fixed project budget.
 Do not attempt too much, but do not be easily discouraged while
carrying out the process of experiment right from the beginning till
the end.
Apart from these tips, Section 4.2 also attempts to explain to you the steps
to be taken in the process of conducting an experiment and reporting it,
which you may find helpful. However, students who are interested in
conducting experiments in their respective fields, including Psychology,
are advised to go through this report by Archibald and Newhouse (1980)
and other such informative literature on social experiments to gain deep
knowledge about dealing with experiments.
Dominant Theories of Social Experimentation :
Theories of Causation :
Experimentation is predicated on the manipulability or activity theory of
causation (Collingwood, 1940; Mackie, 1974; Gasking, 1955; Whitbeck,
1977). The theory of causation tries to identify agents that are under
human control and can be manipulated to bring about desired changes.
This utilitarian conception of causation corresponds closely with common -
sense and evolutionary biological understandings of causation. It assumes
that this kind of cause -effect connection can be useful.
Experiments have the same purpose and they probe whether a force that is
suddenly introduced into an ongoing system influences particular
outcomes in a way that would not have occurred without the intervention.
Thus, the aim of experiments is to describe these causal consequences, and
not to explain how and why they occurred. Experiments can be made more
explanatory primarily in two ways:
 By selecting independent and dependent variables that explicitly
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61  By collecting measures of mediating processes that occurred after a
cause was manipulated and without which the effect would
presumably not have come about.
If any of these conditions are met, social experiments are superior. These
theories give priorit y to two important aspects –
 causal explanation rather than causal description; and
 Isolating why a causal connection comes about rather than inferring
that a cause and effect are related.
Individual experiments are designed to test the effects of one or a few
manipulable independent variables over a restricted range of treatment
variants, outcome realizations, populations of persons, types of settings,
and historical time periods.
Theories of Categorization :
Classic theories of categorization hypothesize that instances belong to a
class if they have all the fixed attributes of that class. However, this
approach was widely discredited (Rosch, 1978; Lakoff, 1987; Medin,
1989). Also, later there was a new recognition –
 that all categories have fuzzy rather than clearly demarcated
boundaries (Zimmerman et al., 1984);
 that some elements are more central or prototypical than others (Smith
& Medin, 1989); and
 that knowledge of common theoretical origins is sometimes more
useful for classifying instances than t he degree of initially observed
similarity (Medin, 1989).
The attributes used for classification evolve with advances somewhere
else in a scholarly field. Categorization is not just a logical process, but it
is also a complex psychological process or a se t of processes that is not yet
fully understood. Ideally, social experiments require researchers –
 to explain a cause or an effect construct, or
 to identify its more prototypical attributes, and then
 to construct an intervention or outcome that seems to be an exemplar
of that construct.
In experimental practice, it is almost impossible to sample treatment
variants, outcome measures, or historical times in a random fashion which
is required for sampling theory. Hence, in individual experiments,
generaliz ation depends on the purposive rather than random selection of
instances and samples to represent particular categories of treatment,
outcome, people, or settings.
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62 Validity of Social Experiments :
Social experiments have the following two types of validit y:
Internal validity :
Campbell, a social scientist, coined the term internal validity to refer to
inferences about whether the relationship between two operationalized
variables was causal in the particular contexts where the relationship had
been tested to date.
External validity :
Campbell also invented external validity to express the extent to which a
causal relationship can be generalized across different types of settings,
persons, times, and ways of operationalizing a cause and an effect.
However, Dunn (1982) criticized the validity typology of Campbell and
his colleagues, because neither internal nor external validity refers to the
importance of the research questions being addressed in the social
experiment.
Some scholars tried to extend Campbell’ s concept of internal validity even
further, as internal validity was not understood in the way Campbell
intended. Eventually, the critics understood that their views about
Campbell’s description of internal validity were very restricted. Similarly,
the ch anges also took place in Campbell’s original concept of external
validity. Cook and Campbell (1979) distinguished between generalizing to
theoretical cause and effect constructs and generalizing to populations of
persons and settings. They used construct v alidity to refer to generalizing
theoretical cause and effect constructs, and external validity was used to
refer to generalizing populations of persons and settings.
Campbell (1986) relabelled and replaced the internal validity with the new
term ‘local m olar causal validity’ and tried to reduce this ambiguity of the
concept of internal validity among scholars. On the other hand, Campbell
(1986) also relabelled external validity as ‘proximal similarity’ to clarify
his own different understanding of externa l validity and to emphasize a
theory of generalization based on using observable attributes to infer
whether a particular sample of units, treatments, observations, or settings
belonged in a particular class or category as that class or category is
usually understood within a local research community or in ordinary
English -language usage.
Threats in Social Experiments :
Cook and Campbell (1979) drew attention to four novel threats that are
observed in social experiments. These threats affect the treatment co ntrast
without necessarily influencing the major treatment purportedly under test.
They are as follows:
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63 1. Resentful demoralization :
It occurs when members of control groups or groups receiving less
desirable treatments learn that other groups are receivi ng more. If they
become resentful because of this focused comparison, their performance
might decrease and lead to a treatment -control difference.
2. Compensatory rivalry :
It can arise if the focused inequity that so many experimental contrasts
require lea ds members of the groups receiving less to respond by trying
harder to show that they do not observe their implicitly lower status. Such
kind of motivation obscures the true effects occurring in treatment groups
because performance in the control groups sh ould improve.
3. Compensatory equalization :
This occurs when administrators are not willing to tolerate focused
inequities and they use whatever optional resources they control to
equalize what each group receives. This also threatens to obscure the true
effects of the treatment.
4. Treatment diffusion :
This occurs when treatment providers or recipients learn what other
treatment groups are doing and impressed by the new practices, copy
them. This threat also obscures planned treatment contrasts.
Each of these threatens to bias treatment effect estimates when compared
to situations where the experimental units cannot communicate about the
different treatments.
Apart from this, considering some characteristics of social events leads to
significant failures of experiments (Gergen, 1978). These characteristics
are as follows –
 embeddedness of social events in broader cultural patterns;
 their position within extended sequences;
 their open competition within real -life settings;
 their reliance on psychological unions; and
 their complex determination.
Another set of problems that could invalidate an experiment includes the
following –
 insufficient observations;
 inability to define or control the treatment variable; and
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64 We have learned previously about these conditions, under which
conducting an experiment is not suggested. Thus, there are many possible
obstacles that may hinder or prohibit social experimentation.
4.2.1 Types of Social Experiments :
Social experiments are of two types and both of these types have the
sudden intervention, knowledge of intervention onset, posttest, and causal
counterfactual component that characterize all experiments. Let us have a
look at these two types of social experiments.
Randomize d experiments :
They have units that are assigned to treatments or conditions using
procedures that mimic a lottery. In other words, participants have equal
chances to get selected for different treatments or conditions involved in
the experiment. In rando mized experiments, the expected mean difference
between randomly created groups is zero, which reflects the strength of
this kind of experiment.
There are many fields in which randomized experiments have been
preferred over quasi -experiments, for example – labour economics,
community -based health promotion research, biostatistics, etc. The best
situation for random assignment is said to be when the demand for the
treatment under evaluation exceeds the supply.
A key concern while using random assignment in field settings is when the
respondents are assigned to treatments. Riecken and Boruch (1974)
identified the following three options for assigning the respondents to
treatments while using random assignment –
 Before respondents learn of the measurement bu rdens and treatment
alternatives;
 After they learn of the measurement demands, but before they learn of
the content of the treatments being contrasted; and
 After they know of the measurement demands and treatments and
agree to be in whatever treatment con dition the coin toss (or
equivalent thereof) determines for them.
Using random assignment in complex field settings is more difficult
because researchers often do not do the physical assignment process
themselves. They may design the process and write the protocols
determining assignment, whether as manuals or computer programs
implementing a complex stratification design. In this case, it becomes
difficult for two possibilities –
 when the implementers at the point of service delivery misunderstand
what the y are supposed to do – which is mostly a matter of improved
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65  at other times, professional judgement predominates over the planned
selection criteria and assignment occurs by presumptions about a
client’s need or merit instead of by lottery.
Thus, random assignment can be complicated, especially when social
programs are being tested. Also, treatment -correlated respondent attrition
is another particularly problematic situation that arises in social
experiments. This situation leads to a selectio n bias which is a problem
worsened in social experiments, because the treatments being compared
often differ in intrinsic desirability and attrition is generally higher, the
less desirable the intervention.
Social experimenters cannot take for granted that a perfect random
assignment plan will be perfectly implemented. Social experiments have
to be monitored closely for the following two purposes:
 to check on the quality of implementation of the research design,
including random assignment; and
 to check o n the quality of the implementation of the intervention
program itself.
When social experiments occur in complex field contexts, they rarely
permit experimental isolation. This allows treatments to scatter in response
to many types of forces that are quite different from each other. Treatment
diffusion is not rare in social experiments. Therefore, experimenters have
to look for opportunities to study groups that cannot communicate with
each other.
Quasi -experiments :
They involve treatments that are assign ed non -randomly, mostly because
the units under study – usually individuals, work groups, schools or
neighbourhoods – select themselves into treatments or they are assigned
by administrators based on analysis of who merits or needs the
opportunity being te sted.
In quasi -experiments, researchers attempt to eliminate validity threats by
design rather than by statistical adjustment. Campbell and Stanley (1963)
outlined the basic design features for this purpose and they were added to
the work carried out by Co ok and Campbell (1979). These basic design
features include pretests, pretest time series, non -equivalent control
groups, matching, etc.
In quasi -experiments, the local setting must be examined carefully to
determine which validity threats are possible an d to identify such threats
that might be operating. Thinking about quasi -experiments has evolved
along the following three lines:
1. Toward a better understanding of designs that make point -specific
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66 2. Toward predictions about the multiple implicati ons of a given causal
hypothesis; and
3. Toward improved analysis of data from quasi -experiments.
Let us briefly discuss the designs in quasi -experiments which emphasize
these three lines:
1. Designs emphasizing point -specific causal hypotheses :
Interrupted time series and regression discontinuity are two important
designs from this category of quasi -experiments.
In interrupted time series , the same outcome variable is examined over
many time points. An effective treatment should lead to changes in the
level, slope, or variance of the time series at the point where treatment
occurred if the cause -effect link is quick -acting or has a known causal
delay. Then the test is whether the obtained data show the change in the
series at the pre -specified point.
There ar e the following two validity -related problems that can occur –
 Statistical conclusion validity : This is a potential problem because
errors in a time series are likely to be auto -correlated by creating a
bias in ordinary least -squares estimates of the stan dard error and
hence a bias in statistical tests.
 Internal validity : This is a major problem, especially because of
history (e.g., some other outcome -causing event occurring at the same
time as the treatment) and instrumentation (e.g., a change in record -
keeping occurring with the treatment).
Possible threats are best eliminated by using additional time series. These
are especially important:
(a) Control group series not expected to show the hypothesized
discontinuity in level, slope, or variability of an ou tcome; and
(b) Additional treatment series to which the same treatment is applied at
different times, so the obtained data is expected to recreate the known
differences is when the treatment was made available.
Interrupted time series designs are infrequently used despite their strength
for causal hypothesis testing. Though with unpredicted causal lags time
series have an ambiguous relationship with the point of treatment
implementation, interrupted time series designs have a special status
among quasi -experim ental designs wherever possible.
The regression discontinuity design is named so because a regression
line is plotted to relate the assignment and outcome variables. If the
treatment is effective, a discontinuity in the regression line should occur at
the cutoff point. Mosteller (1990, p. 225) defines regression discontinuity
as a true experiment. Goldberger (1972a, b – as cited in Cook & Shadish,
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67 regression discontinuity provides an unbias ed estimate of treatment
effects, just like the randomized experiment.
Regression discontinuity design has a widespread endorsement and it is
frequently reinvented in different disciplines. This shows that it is useful
whenever it is worth or it is needed, which determines treatment
assignment. Studies of this kind are even rarer than interrupted time series
studies for two reasons:
 Partly because the assignment is not always done according to strict
public criteria. Along with the use of multiple criteria, some of which
are judgemental, professional judgement and cronyism also play some
role in the assignment.
 The rare number of studies with this design is also because the
analysis requires accurate modelling of the functional form of the
assignment -outcome relationship.
The researchers using these designs of quasi -experimentation usually have
less control over the treatment assignment implementation processes.
Therefore, problems that are found even with randomized experiments are
likely to have more seriou s practical consequences for regression -
discontinuity designs. However, this design can be used whenever there is
a special need or merit considering the particular services whose
effectiveness is to be evaluated. Though this design has flexibility and
perfect logic, many researchers are still sceptical about it.
1. Designs emphasizing multivariate -complex causal predictions :
Often, there are few possible alternatives resulting from the successful
prediction of a complex pattern of multivariate. The design el ements to be
combined for such prediction include –
 Non-equivalent dependent variables, only a subset of which is
theoretically responsive to treatment, though all the dependent
variables are responsive to the other possible alternative explanations
of an outcome change;
 Designs where treatment is introduced, removed, and reintroduced to
the same group;
 Non-equivalent group designs that have two or more pretest
measurement waves providing a pre -intervention estimate of
differences in rates of change betwe en non -equivalent groups;
 Non-equivalent group designs with multiple comparison groups, some
of which initially outperform the treatment group and some of which
underperform it (Holland, 1986);
 Cohort designs that use naturally occurring cycles in familie s or
educational institutions to construct control groups of siblings or next
year’s freshmen that are initially less different than controls
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68  Other designs that match units on demonstrably stable attributes to
reduce i nitial group non -equivalence without causing statistical
regression (Holland, 1986); and
 Designs that partition respondents or settings, even after the fact, to
create subgroups that differ in treatment exposure levels and so in
expected effect size.
Point-specific and multivariate -complex predictions lower the chance that
possible alternatives will make exactly the same prediction as the causal
hypothesis under test. However, these predictions cannot guarantee
lowered chances of this.
2. Statistical analysi s of data from the basic non -equivalent control
group design :
There is a growing advocacy of designs making point -specific or
multivariate complex predictions (Cook, 1991a – cited in Cook & Shadish,
1994). However, the most frequently employed quasi -experi ment still
involves only two (non -equivalent) groups and two measurement waves –
1) a pretest, and the other 2) a posttest – measured on the same instrument.
This design is superficially like the simplest randomized experiment and is
easy to implement. Tho ugh, they have great popularity, it is not easy to
justify causal inferences from this design.
Nearly all experiments are conducted with local samples and in places that
are convenient for the researchers and that involve only one or two
operationalizatio ns of treatment, though there may be more
operationalizations of an outcome. This is done for compelling logistical
reasons.
Overall, we can say that in the present era, field experiments have become
much more common than they were twenty years ago. Rando mized
experiments are favoured more than quasi -experiments.
4.2.2 Advantages of Social Experiment :
As we have studied what is a social experiment and many theoretical
practical/technical aspects of it, let us now look at what are its advantages.
Determina tion of causality:
Because the experimenter controls the program policy or treatment and
who receives it, one can be more confident that an association between the
program and outcome was not false.
Expanding the range of variation in existing data:
Existing data are often insufficient for evaluating a proposed program,
because they do not apply to the relevant range. In such cases, experiments
can help in expanding the range of variation in existing data.
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69 Improving analytical tractability:
Properly de signed experiments enable one to specify the data to be
collected in ways that make the experimental results relatively easy to
analyze.
Availability of data :
The analyst may not have the data necessary to make sound predictions of
a proposed program’s e ffects; new data therefore must be sought to enable
an empirical analysis before implementing a program. In such situations,
experiments can be more helpful, if planned carefully.
Implementation issues:
An experiment may be helpful sometimes in revealing unsuspected
implementation issues, when a new program is being considered to be
undertaken.
Thus, when a social experiment is designed and executed properly, it can
provide the strongest evidence and the analyst can infer most confidently
that a given inte rvention (program) actually caused a given result (Riecken
et al., 1974; Gilbert, Light, and Mosteller, 1975).
4.3 EXERCISE TO PERFORM: CONDUCTING A SOCIAL EXPERIMENT AND WRITING A REPORT 4.3.1 Steps to Consider: Identifying A Social Problem To Submitting
A Report On The Social Experiment :
In Section 4.1, you might have got clarity right in the beginning, that the
activity or exercise that you are going to perform based on this unit, can be
divided mainly into three parts:
1. Identifying a social problem and making a presentation based on
that in the classroom (whether individually or in a group);
2. Selecting a single topic as final for the entire group activity and
conducting a field experiment on that.
3. Submitting a brief report on the field experiment conducte d on a
selected social problem, including the one based on which
presentations were made.
We will see what steps you will have to follow for each of the parts. Let us
have a look at it step -by-step. In a way, this section will try to provide you
with some useful tips in case you are totally directionless or completely
unaware of how to proceed. In addition to this, refer to “How to do Action
Research?” from Section 2.1.1 of Unit 2, which will be also helpful in
revising your knowledge about conducting such research -related activities.

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70 1. Identifying a social problem and making a presentation:
Identify social problem :
At this stage, you can refer to the list consisting of a few handful topics of
social problems that you already might have prepared, based on your
observation of the surroundings, that you might have already decided to
work on.
Use observation and communication skills :
If you do not have any handy list as such, no need to worry. You can start
your search for social problems in your surroundi ngs. For this, you need to
be alert and use your observation and communication skills mindfully.
That is, observe the surroundings around you and try to find out whether
you perceive any problem, considering the present status of any particular
place, the group of people, any community, etc. as a vulnerable section of
society. Thus, you will be able to identify more than one social problem.
In case you observe some social situation among them that needs to be
attended to through research, you can explore it through your
communication skills. That is, you may build up a rapport with a few
members of them and communicate with them in a sensitive and
responsible manner in order to inquire and know about their actual
problems. If not more than one, you will succ eed in identifying at least
one social problem for sure.
Maintain moderate difficulty level :
Remember that this is your academic course. Therefore, whatever social
problem you identify and wish to work on, maintain its difficulty at a
moderate level – that is, it should not appear too easy and simple, as well
as it should not be too difficult or challenging to handle for you.
Try to make your experiment unique :
As we all are aware, several social problems already exist in our
surroundings. So there are ch ances that many of you come up with the
same problem in your respective lists. No problem with that. But, what
can make a difference in your topics is – your respective points of view for
looking at that same problem and the way you are going to study it. It
means that you can still make a common problem identified as different by
handling it in a unique way, that is studying different aspects of it.
Prepare a presentation with a well -defined experiment :
Once you identify social problem/s to work on – regardless of whether you
will be conducting a social experiment on it individually or in groups –
start preparation for your presentation. While preparing the presentation,
make sure that you have the identified social problem well -defined. That
is, you have clarity in your mind about what aspects of the social problems
you are going to study (actual problem of your field experiment), how
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71 There is no hard -and-fast rule for preparing a presentatio n, except using a
structure of research study in it – that is right from the introduction to
proper references (excluding research findings, discussion and conclusion
that you will arrive at later after conducting your experiment). You are
provided with a hypothetical example for reporting your completed field
experiment (Tables 4.2 and 4.3) in this section as you proceed further.
You can consider the same for making your presentation more well -
defined and organized.
Explore previous research studies :
To m ake your field experiment appear well -defined, you should also take
the help of previous research studies. That is, at this master’s level course,
you are expected to start your quest by going through many, at least
sufficient research papers, related to y our topic and interest, that are
published in online sources. Even your academic institutions might have
some sources like libraries where you can go physically and search for
research papers based on your topic.
Studying previous research papers on the i dentified social problems will
give you four benefits: (1) Some research papers will hint at the
unexplored areas of the social problem/s that you are interested in working
on. It will be of great help to make your experiment appear unique, (2) It
will giv e you more knowledge about that particular social problem that
you have identified for studying, (3) It will help you increase your further
interest in that chosen area, (4) It will also inculcate a habit to explore
more in that area, and (5) It will also give you the insight into how to
conduct and report social experiments.
2. Selecting a single topic and conducting a field experiment:
Selecting a single topic :
Once the presentations of all students are over, a single topic for
conducting a social/field experiment will be selected by your course
teacher/s or it may be selected by considering the opinions of all students
in the classroom.
A list of topics from Section 2.6 of Unit 2 can be referred to for selecting
the topic for the experiment or even you can think of some fresh topic
which you might have observed as a social problem.
Conducting a field experiment :
The more the experiment is well -defined, the easier it is to conduct on the
field as all directions will be self -explanatory. In case you encou nter any
difficulty while conducting an experiment or even before or after that, you
can discuss it with your course teachers and get clarity on it. The most
important thing here is following ethical considerations (such as
maintaining privacy, confidentia lity, etc.) while conducting a field
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72
While conducting the experiment, you need to consider the following
general steps as applicable to your topic for planning the experiment:
- Consider all possible requirements of the experiment, in terms of the
full-fledged plan of your experiment along with the budget required
for the same (Refer the Unit 2).
- What social problem would you study? What will be your target
population?
- Where can y ou find your target population? How would you approach
the target population of the experiment?
- What will be the appropriate sample size for your experiment?
- How would you collect data from the sample? Or what method would
you use to collect the data – randomized or quasi -experiment?
- Preparing the list of all ethical considerations in research that you
must follow and the possible ways to fulfil them.
- Preparing all required material to take care of those ethical
considerations, like protocols for seeking i nformed consent from the
participants.
- What and how much physical material and apparatus would you
require, such as stationery, stop -watches, computers/particular
software, etc.?
- What are the other possible expenditures included in the experiment,
such as travelling, internet usage, telecommunications, etc.?
- Can the experiment be conducted in your institute or can also be
conducted in other institutions or at social places?
- Make sure that your experiment is not too simple to challenge your
abilities or it i s not even too challenging to disappoint you.
- Whether you will be working individually on the experiment or you
are divided into groups for conducting the experiment, maintain
healthy competition between groups by thinking about your own
experiment in term s of what novel idea you can reflect in it.
- At the same time, be supportive, and learn to understand others’
limitations and the possible ways you can help them through their
situations. Working with others and for others will definitely enrich
your resear ch experiences and will help you progress as a researcher,
enabling you to explore opportunities for the same even from the
smallest activities.
These are some general guidelines that you can consider. However, you
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73 covered in these guidelines and you consider those aspects as important.
Also, add them to the above -mentioned existing list.
3. Submitting a brief report:
Follow the given format/structure :
Here, we will provide you with a st ructure/format with a hypothetical
example to submit the report on the experiment conducted, which you are
already familiar with in your third year of graduation in Psychology. You
can follow it with the required changes as per the topic of your social
experiment. Since you will be submitting a report on the experiment, it
will follow more or less the same format as for the action research and
empirical research (Refer to Table 2.2 from Unit 2). Though we are using
the same example here from Unit 2 for our convenience, you will observe
some changes in it as per the requirement of this present unit on social
experiments. This will also help you get an insight into how a single topic
can be handled in different ways.
Nature of language :
Use a language that ref lects sensitivity and objectivity to narrate your
observations and overall experiment in a given format/structure. Do not
describe your subjective experiences.
Follow ethical considerations :
While writing a report, do not disclose any sensitive information that
might have been shared by any participant unless it is required to support
any of your findings. However, this should be done without disclosing the
identity of the participant/s and maintaining their anonymity and privacy.
Table 4.1 Structure/format with a hypothetical example to submit the
report on the experiment  Research Title (For example, Effectiveness of Audiovisual Teaching Methods over Traditional Teaching Methods in Public/Private Schools – First page)  Author (Experimenter’s name/s with other required details like institutional affiliation- First page)  Content (with page numbers – Next page; Example provided in Table 4.2)  Introduction (Starting from next page – about 4-5 pages or as required) There is no such page/word limit when you actually document some research for your final dissertation or Ph.D. thesis or even at the non-academic/professional level. But since you are submitting a report on the experiment that you conducted at the master’s level, 4 to 5 pages should be enough, not going into depth. You may also take the opinion of your munotes.in

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74 course teachers on the expected length of the introduction and overall the length of the report. The introduction part will include the overall description of the problem/variable that you have chosen to study. Thus, it will mainly include: - A definition and description of the variable/s under study – in brief, or as required; - Its nature (along with any associated problems, if any); - Its prevalence – in the country where you will be conducting research and globally (in short – previous research references can be cited); - Categories of the problem/variable (if any – previous research studies can be cited); - Different models developed related to the problem/variable, e.g., biological model, psycho-social model, etc. (if any – previous research studies can be cited) - Solutions to the problem/various findings related to the variable (how the problem can be dealt with at different levels, e.g., psychological, biological, etc. – previous research studies can be cited) - Any other points can be covered in the introduction which can make your proposal more effective.  Rationale of the study Specify the reason/s behind why the particular social problem has been chosen to study (your presentation should explain this well, so that there are increased chances of getting your topic of experiment selected).  Significance of the study Specify why the particular social problem is so significant to study (your presentation should explain this well, so that there are increased chances of getting your topic of experiment selected).  Problem (Continuing from the next page till References) The problem of the present experiment is to study the effectiveness of audiovisual teaching methods over traditional teaching methods in public/private schools.  Aim The present experiment aimed to study the difference between the effectiveness of audiovisual teaching methods and traditional munotes.in

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75 teaching methods.  Objectives - To examine the difference between the effectiveness of audiovisual teaching methods and traditional teaching methods on students from public/private schools. - (Some other objectives can be formed, if required, based on what you aim to study) However, only major objectives can be specified in the presentation, in case there are possible sub-objectives.  Hypotheses/ Research Questions (State either hypotheses or research questions for your experiment. This particular example shows the hypotheses) - There will be a significant difference between the academic performance of students who are taught with audiovisual teaching methods and traditional teaching methods. - Audiovisual teaching methods will reflect greater academic performance of students than the traditional teaching methods in __________ (private/public/both) schools. (Such hypotheses can be stated differently based on the settings in which you are studying the problem – for example, the second hypothesis can be stated separately according to the type of method and type of school) - (Some other hypotheses can be formed, if required, based on the aim and objectives of your study) However, like objectives, only major hypotheses can be specified in the presentation in order to avoid unnecessary length. An example of the research question could be – Which teaching method will yield the better or greater academic performance of students in private/public schools? (in terms of Traditional/empirical research)  Literature Review/ Review of Literature: Previous research studies and their findings related to the variables (e.g., Type of teaching methods) that will be studied by you (about 1 or 2 pages or as required including the variables that will be studied, not going much in-depth).  Methodology: - Design munotes.in

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76 A quasi-experiment was carried out with an interrupted time series. That is, an experiment was conducted in students’ natural school settings with an interval gap of one week. - Sample and sample size 200 students of 5th Standard from 5 private and 5 public schools in Mumbai city (Specify the population that will be studied along with their age range/group e.g., between ____ and ______ years, if required; number of participants _______ from _________ city, _____ state, ________ country, if applicable). Note: The above example is hypothetical. Choose and state your experiment sample and sample size carefully. - Operational Definitions of Variables (Define independent variable, and dependent variable as they will be used. Also, specify control variables used if any, such as age, religion, etc.) Independent Variable/s (One below the other, if more than one): Type of Teaching Methods: Two types of teaching methods will be studied – i) Audiovisual method: Define the way it will be studied (specify its levels in terms of categories, if any). ii) Traditional method: Define the way it will be studied (specify its levels in terms of categories, if any). Dependent Variable/s (One below the other, if more than one): Effectiveness of teaching method - Define the way it will be studied (specify its levels in terms of categories, if any). Control Variables (if any, One below the other, if more than one): i) Age groups: _________ (specify, if any), ii) Gender _______ (specify, if any), - Apparatus and Material (Meniton all materials and equipment that were used for the experiment along with their specific purpose, if required, one below the other) 1) Chalks/white-board markers and dusters, 2) PowerPoint presentation prepared for the particular school topic, 3) Mention the remaining materials that were used, in a similar way. - Procedure with Instructions (Explain the whole procedure right from your visit to a school, rapport-building with students till the end of the experiment along with ethical considerations that you followed. Also, munotes.in

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77 write down the instructions given to the participants before, during
and after the experiment, step b y step. You need not repeat this
procedure for each school while writing a report, rather you will
mention it only once, since you would have repeated exactly the same
procedures for each school.)
- Statistical Analysis of Data (Mention in brief) :
1) Descripti ve statistics – Total, mean, standard deviation
2) Inferential statistics – t-test (any other statistics, if applicable)
List down the statistical techniques used for data analysis
 Analysis of Data (Write in detail since you will be writing this
after the co mpletion of the experiment):
Mention the statistical techniques analysis that you used, what they
computed and why those particular techniques were used.
 Results and Discussion :
Here all findings can be specified that you arrived at after the completion
of the experiment, based on each objective and hypothesis/research
question and the possible explanations for those results. You can also
specify some previous research findings which support the findings of
findings from your experiment (for example, whethe r the results of your
experiment were in the expected directions, if yes – why? or even if no –
why?).
 Conclusion : (specify the major findings of your experiment in short
considering its objectives and hypotheses; and what they mean
overall).
 References :
References of the previous research studies that are used in the
introduction, literature review and any other section, such as
methodology.
To be written in the latest/running APA (American Psychological
Association) style format edition or any other styl e format (MLA,
Chicago, etc.) preferred by the institution you are undertaking the course.
 Appendix (if applicable – in case, you want to add some important
information that you were not supposed to add as a part of the main
text of your report).

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78 Table 4.2 Example of Content Page Sr. No. Page No. 1 Introduction 3 – 7 2 Rationale of the study …. 3 Significance of the study …. … ……. ….. …. ……. ….. 13 References ….. Here, we conclude this unit with the hope that you all will enjoy this
experimental activity and have an enriched understanding and knowledge
about research and related activities, like experiments.
4.4 SUMMARY In this unit, we tried to understand the concept of social experiment and its
various aspects. Social experiments take place ou tside of laboratories.
They are usually designed to test an intervention or treatment and have
less physical isolation of materials, less procedural standardization, and
longer -lasting treatments. They are less characterized as a likely
unidimensional theo ry-derived causal construct. We learned about when to
conduct and not to conduct experiments and how to manage experiments.
We also looked at some practical advice for experimenters.
Theories of causation and theories of categorization are the dominant
theories in social experimentation. We have learned about them briefly
along with Campbell’s concepts of internal and external validity of social
experiments. Resentful demoralization, compensatory rivalry,
compensatory equalization, and treatment diffusion a re the four novel
threats identified by Cook and Campbell (1979) that are observed in social
experiments. After that, we learned about two types of social experiments,
called randomized experiments and quasi -experiments along with their
important details.
In Section 4.3, we focused on the various steps that you need to take right
from identifying a social problem and selecting the topic for conducting a
social experiment to reporting on the experiment that you have conducted.
4.5 QUESTIONS 1. Explain the co ncept of the social experiment and two dominant
theories in social experimentation.
2. Write a note on the validity of and threats in social experiments. munotes.in

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79 3. What are the two types of social experiments? Discuss in detail.
4. Write short notes:
a) Theories of Causatio n
b) Theories of Classification
c) Validity of social experiments
d) Threats in social experiments
e) Randomized experiments
f) Quasi -experiments
g) Advantages of social experiments
4.6 REFERENCES  Cook, T. D. & Shadish, W. R. (1994). Social experiments: Some
developments ov er the past fifteen years. Annual Reviews of
Psychology, 45 , 545 -580. Available at arjournals.annualreviews.org
 Blakstad, O. (October 2008). Social psychology experiments.
Retrieved Nov. 23, 2023 - from Explorable.com:
https://explorable.com/social -psychology -experiments
 Cherry, K. (November 2023). The most famous social psychology
experiments ever performed. Verywell mind. Retrieved from
https://www.verywellmind.com/famous -social -psychology -
experiments -2795667 .
 Dean, J. (January 2023). Social Psychology Experiments: 10 of the
most famous studies. PsyBlog. Retrieved from
https://www.spring.org.uk/2023/01/social -psychology -
experiments.php .
 Gergen, K. J. (1978). Experimentation in social psychology: A
reappraisal. European Journal of Social Psychology, 8 (4), 507 -527.
Doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2420080407
 Archibald, R. W., & Newhouse, J. P. (1980). Social experimentation:
Some whys and hows. Prepared under a grant from the US
Department of Health, Education, an d Welfare [Report no. R -2479 -
HEW]. Canada: Rand. Available at
https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/reports/2007/R2479.pdf

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80 5
FOCUSED GROUP DISCUSSION
Unit Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Focused Group Discussion
5.1.2 Focused Group Researchers and/or Moderators
5.1.3 Sampling for Focused Group Discussion
5.1.4 Recording Methods for Focused Group Discussion
5.2 Exercise to Perform
5.3 Summary
5.4 Questions
5.5 References
5.0 OBJECTIVES  To understand the concept of the focused group, its origin, and wide
appli cations.
 To understand the concept of focused group discussion.
 To know the uses, prohibited uses, advantages, disadvantages,
strengths, and limitations of the focused groups, common myths about
them and the challenges in using them.
 To know the role s of the researchers/ moderators, technical aspects of
sampling in focused group discussions, and the recording methods
widely used while conducting them.
5.1 INTRODUCTION Students, as a part of your course accomplishment, you need to conduct a
focused gr oup discussion and submit a report based on that. This focused
group discussion will be either based on the need -diagnostic or problem -
focused group study in any area of social relevance.
Let us now understand some basic information about the concept of t he
focused group discussion. Before that, we will need to understand what is
a focus or focused group. We will now maintain the terms ‘focused
group/s’ and ‘focused group discussion’ throughout the unit as mentioned
in your syllabus.
Focused Groups:
Like interviews, focused groups have become one of the important
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81 across a range of disciplines and research topics. Thus, they are
continually evolving. With some modification, they can be utili zed
effectively both in terms of – the components of topic guides, stimulus
materials, question content and style of moderators, - and the nature of
involvement of participants to address an almost endless list of essential
research topics.
Origin of Foc used Groups :
Generally, focused groups seem to have emerged in the 1940s. They were
first used by Paul Lazarsfeld, Robert Merton and colleagues at the Bureau
of Applied Social Research at Columbia University to test the reactions to
propaganda and radio bro adcasts during the Second World War. They
originally termed this method as ‘focused interviews’ (Merton & Kendall,
1946) and acknowledged that these group interviews can produce a
broader range of responses and elicit additional details (Merton, 1987).
The focused group methods became the foundation of broadcasting,
marketing, and public opinion research in the post -Second World War
period. However, they were largely neglected in mainstream academic and
evaluation research. They gained considerable popul arity also within
organizational research and development, particularly as practised by staff
at the Tavistock Institute of London during the 1940s.
Applications of Focused Groups in Various Fields :
There is a lot of evidence that reflects the usage of foc used groups in
various fields.
Community D evelopment and Health Services:
Community development and participatory approaches influenced the use
of focused groups in other contexts. Focused groups are also claimed to
have the capacity to empower people a nd provide more authentic data.
However, such claims need to be examined critically.
Focused groups with participatory methods have been employed by health
services researchers, particularly in relation to health needs assessment,
and they frequently invo lve participants in developing the research design,
and even data analysis (Cawston & Barbour, 2003).
The health services research has mastered the use of the focused group
technique most enthusiastically. In this area, a large body of focused group
resear ch is concerned with providing insights into the experience of people
with a range of chronic conditions.
Apart from this, some focused group work has explicitly given voice to
and provided insights into the experiences of marginalized groups, such
as-
 HIV-positive women (Marcenko & Samost, 1999; Morrow et al.,
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82  people with sickle cell disease (Thomas & Taylor, 2001);
 multiple sclerosis (Nicolson & Anderson, 2001);
 women with endometriosis (Cox et al., 2003); and
 patients with chronic bronchitis (Nicolson & Anderson, 2003).
Marketing/ Government and Health Sectors:
The focused group technique is largely and pervasively used by marketing
research companies, government departments, and the health sector. These
focused groups can be used to justify decisions that have already been
made. The researcher must be mindful of the potential of the focused
groups to be co -opted by powerful lobbies (Festervand, 1985).
For example, such focused groups can be conducted by the Government
authorities on young offenders to elicit the views of children and young
people in custody and the findings can be used to inform policy and
practice (Lyon et al., 2000).
Health Education Programmes:
Focused group work is also carried out to access perspectives in order to
plan appropriate and effective interventions. Focused groups are especially
well suited to -
 informing the development of health education programmes (Branco
& Kaskutas, 2001; Halloran & Grimes, 1995) and
 developing culturally sensitive int erventions (Wilcher et al., 2002;
Vincent et al., 2006).
Social Research:
The focused group technique is widely and actively adopted by social
scientists from a variety of disciplines with an overtly sociological focus.
Examples of this are research work s by Crossley (2002, 2003) and
O’Brien et al. (2005) -
 Crossley (2002, 2003) studied women’s views of and responses to
health promotion to explore how women constructed health and
health -related behaviours as moral phenomena.
 On the other hand, O’B rien et al. (2005) used focused groups to
explore the role of constructions of masculinity in explaining men’s
help-seeking behaviour in relation to medical care.
Linhorst (2002) also reflects on the potential of focused groups for
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83 Business Studies:
Foucsed groups have been used in the field of business studies in order to
provide insights into the succession strategies of small and medium -sized
business owners (Blackburn & Strokes, 2000).
Other Disciplinary Research:
There are yet some other disciplines that explored the possible use of
focused groups. They are:
 occupational therapy (Hollis et al., 2002),
 family and consumer science research (Garrison et al., 1999),
 community practice (Harvey -Jordan & Long, 20 02) and
 pediatric health research (Heary & Hennessy, 2002).
The use of focused groups has also been proven to provide insights into a
huge variety of research questions. It includes:
 Public perspectives on recycling (Hunter, 2001),
 Ministry to ne w members of an episcopal congregation (Scannell,
2003), and
 Under standing ethical investment decision -making (Lewis, 2001).
Also, the focused groups are used in the academic research area, though
surprisingly accompanied by increasing confusion. Thus, there is a huge
scope of applications of the focused groups, irrespective of the topic area
and discipline.
However, they are used in different ways in different disciplines. The way
they will differ in different disciplines is in terms of – the sort of research
questions posed, the content of topic guides, the questioning style of the
moderator, the approach to data analysis, the way in which findings are
presented and the use to which findings are put.
Uses of the focused groups:
 Focused groups have most frequently been used within the context of
quantitative studies for developing and refining research instruments.
 Some researchers have also used exploratory focused groups
alongside other qualitative methods. For example –
Lichtenstein (2005) used focused groups with women in order to
develop a definition of ‘domestic violence’, which was subsequently
used in one -to-one interviews.
 Studies carried out by O’Brien (1993), Amos et al. (1997), McLeod et
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84 the examples of focused groups used during the preliminary phase of
studies to develop items for inclusion in questionnaires.
 Focused groups have also been used to adapt surveys for other
populations (Fulle r et al., 1993) and to formulate contextually relevant
questions (Dumka et al., 1998).
 They have been employed to provide a basis for designing culturally
sensitive survey methodology (Hughes & DuMont, 2002), often for
minority ethnic groups (Murdaugh et al., 2002; Wilcher et al., 2002).
 They have been used by many researchers to inform the development
of survey instruments because they allow researchers to connect the
insights of participants as they pursue draft questionnaires.
 Despite the skepticis m, focused groups have also been used to address
topics considered ‘sensitive’ in a wide range of ‘difficult’ situations
with groups viewed as potentially vulnerable.
 Some examples of such focused groups are :
• research into sexual behaviour (Frith, 2 000);
• views of abortion and contraceptive habits of Swedish schoolgirls
along with sexual behaviour (Ekstrand et al., 2005),
• views of people with serious mental health problems (Koppelman
& Bourjolly, 2001; Lester et al., 2005), and
• topics, such a s end -of-life care for those who are terminally ill
(Raynes et al., 2000; Clayton et al., 2005).
 Côte -Arsenault and Morrison -Beedy (1999) suggested that
researchers can elicit participants’ narratives through focused group
discussions using smaller group s, although it is an ill -advised use of
focused groups in eliciting narratives.
 Morgan (1988) advocated the use of focused groups as the
respondents might find face -to-face interaction intimidating in one -to-
one interviews.
 According to Kitzinger (199 5), individuals in some cases may
otherwise be reluctant to talk about their experiences due to feeling
that they have little to contribute to a research project. In such
situations, focused groups can be used which may encourage the
participation of such persons.
 Some of the examples of uses of focused groups in exploratory
studies with ‘Why not...?’ – type questions are –
• illuminating immunization behaviour (Keane et al., 1996),
• providing a greater understanding of apparently illogical health -
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85 al., 2002) and lack of adherence to asthma management protocols
(George et al., 2003).
 On the other hand, Bloor et al. (2001) argued that focused groups can
be used as a method of choice only w hen one wants to study group
norms, group meanings and group processes.
 Focused groups have been frequently used in measuring the impact of
health promotion campaigns (Halloran & Grimes, 1995), since they
are well suited to uncovering the participants’ m isconceptions and
how they can arise.
 Focused groups can be successfully and helpfully used with some
other useful techniques in combination to conduct studies in certain
areas.
 They can be used with one -to-one interviews and their mixture is
most appr opriate in cross -cultural or cross -racial research and in
correctional institutions, where issues of power and disclosure are
enlarged (Pollack, 2003, p. 472).
 Several researchers (eg., Wolff et al., 1993) argued that focused
groups are useful complement ary methods and should not be seen as
mutually exclusive approaches.
 The focused group method can also be used with quantitative methods
(see Flick, 2007).
Prohibited use of focused groups:
Though focused groups are used widely and successfully as mentio ned
through various examples, there are certain situations wherein they should
not be used. Let us also understand such cases –
 It is sometimes argued that the focused groups are not suitable for
eliciting experiences with regard to sensitive topics, wh ich is a
questionable assumption.
 The use of the focused groups is ill -advised or prohibited sometimes
in accessing narratives, and often in accessing ‘attitudes’.
 Focused groups cannot be used as a method of first choice for
eliciting individuals’ na rratives, because many people may be
reluctant to share their experiences in a group setting.
 They are not an appropriate method if one wants to measure the
attitudes of the participants, as the attitudes are ‘performed’ as argued
by Puchta and Potter (2002).
Advantages of Focused Groups :
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86  They can also be integrated into multimethods design with other
qualitative methods and sometimes with quantitative methods.
 They are a strong alternative to using single interviews as the data
basis for qualitative analysis.
 They have been utilized in o rder to explore problematic areas of
professional practice.
 They allow an analysis of both – statements and reports about
experiences and events, and the interactional context in which these
statements and reports are produced.
 They can be a powerful p ublic relations tool.
 They can give a voice to marginalized groups, as well as can be used
with more privileged sectors of society (Barbour, 1995).
 They may be helpful in eliciting the narratives of the group
participants.
 They may encourage the part icipation of reluctant individuals, who
otherwise may not talk about their experiences in one -to-one
interviews.
 They also may allow the researchers to engage with reluctant
respondents to encourage and help them elaborate on their
perspectives and exper iences.
 They may also be helpful in accessing ‘hard to reach’ or marginalized
people and providing insights into their experience.
 They also can be used as a data collection tool and an intervention
simultaneously (Crabtree et al., 1993, p. 146).
 They offer insights into how people process and make sense of the
information with which they are provided.
 They are especially well suited to uncovering participants’
misconceptions and how they can arise.
 Focused groups also may have some advantages ove r observational
fieldwork which are more laborious and opportunistic.
 They provide concentrated and detailed information on an area of
group life which is only occasionally, briefly, and abundantly
available to the ethnographer over months and years of f ieldwork
(Bloor et al., 2001, p. 6).
 They also provide a valuable resource for documenting the complex
and varying processes through which group norms and meanings are
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87  Focused groups provide a n opportunity to generate data that are
agreeable to analysis within the symbolic interactionist approach,
which emphasizes the active construction of meaning.
[Symbolic interactionism is associated with early versions of the
qualitative approach, which e mphasized the active aspects of human
social life (Seale, 1999).]
 Focused groups allow the researchers to subtly set people off against
each other and explore participants’ differing opinions (Frey &
Fontana, 1993).
 They do not force all participant s to answer all questions and allow
them to decide what they want to share and what they wish to keep
private.
Disadvantages of Focused groups :
The focused group method is used with specific practical and
methodological demands of documenting and analyzing the data.
One may face the following practical issues related to:
 sampling,
 documentation and moderating in focus groups,
 ethics and misuse of focused groups as a method,
 making sense of focused group data, and
 assessing the quality of data and their analysis.
 The use of focused groups may involve additional costs, such as –
travel, room hire, refreshments and transcription, as pointed out by
some researchers (Morgan & Krueger, 1993; Jackson, 1998; Kitzinger
& Barbour, 1999; and MacLeod Clark et al., 1996).
 They also may cost further in terms of the researchers’ time spent
telephoning participants to ensure their participation, matching the
required characteristics for group composition and availability of
potential participants.
 The very presence of the researcher possibly can have an impact on
group membership. Thus, it is questionable – to what extent any
group that includes a researcher can be assumed to be entirely
naturally occurring.
Strengths of Fo cused Groups :
 Focused groups with women are thought to certainly provide an
excellent forum for discussing and questioning gendered aspects of
their experiences and can transform the ‘personal troubles’ of women
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88  They have earned a reputation, because of their perceived informality
and growing public acceptability, in terms of their capacity to engage
with those who may otherwise slip through the net of surveys or
studies that rely on recruiting those who are in cont act with services.
 Focused groups’ strength of accessing marginalized people has
frequently been utilized for developing culturally sensitive survey
instruments.
 They have been regularly used by researchers as a method of choice
to access groups viewe d as ‘hard to reach’, such as –
 members of ethnic minority groups (Chiu & Knight, 1999),
 urban youth (Rosenfeld et al., 1996), and
 migrants (Ruppenthal et al., 2005).
 Focused groups can encourage greater frankness (Krueger, 1994)
and allow parti cipants to talk about issues that are usually not raised,
especially if groups have been convened to reflect some attribute or
experience that sets them apart from others, thus providing ‘security
in numbers’ (Kitzinger & Barbour, 1999).
 The added poten tial of the focused groups particularly for the
practitioner -researchers is their use in overtly action -research -
oriented projects.
 They are capable of capturing responses to events as they unfold.
 They are also capable of exploring “Why not…?” – type questions.
Therefore, they have frequently been used to investigate non -take-up
of health care services or ‘non -compliance’.
 Focused groups are particularly well suited to studying decision -
making processes and the way in which people weigh up competin g
priorities or the ways in which they qualify their views to consider
situational and circumstantial factors.
 Focused groups have the potential for therapeutic use in providing
insights to participants as well as researchers. According to Crabtree
et al. (1993, p. 146), focused groups help people recognize
previously hidden parts of themselves in others and reconstruct their
own life narrative from others’ stories.
 On the other hand, based on the purpose of research, predispositions,
and researchers ’ expertise, researchers can use the focused group
method for therapeutic effect or to clarify similarities and
differences in experiences and accounts.
 Focused groups do extremely well at allowing us to study the
processes of attitude formation and the mechanisms involved in
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89  They have a unique capacity to provide an understanding of how
participants’ views are formed.
 According to David Morgan (1988, p. 25), focused groups are useful
when it comes to investigating w hat participants think, but they
excel at uncovering why participants think as they do.
 Focused groups often involve lengthy and in -depth consideration of
open -ended questions and stimulus materials, and therefore they are
capable of reflecting issues an d concerns salient to participants
rather than closely following the researcher’s agenda.
 With thoughtful sampling, focused groups can be a particularly
effective tool for interrogating the very relationship between agency
and structure.
 According to C allaghan (2005), focused groups provide an
opportunity for participants to manage their identities and make a
collective representation to the researcher simultaneously. Thus,
they provide valuable insights into the construction of meanings and
their impac t on action.
 Carefully selected focused groups can access knowledge which
represents the “habitus” of the wider community (Callaghan, 2005).
Coined by Bourdieu (1990), the term habitus refers to ‘dispositions’
or lenses through which individuals view the world, which are
‘socially constituted’ and ‘acquired’ (Bourdieu, 1990).
 Focused groups may be an attractive option for those who are
otherwise isolated or who crave the opportunity to talk to other
people in the same situation as themselves, especiall y when no
relevant support groups are available.
 They are helpful when starting with non -threatening questions and
progressing to the more sensitive ones.
Limitations of Focused Groups :
 Overall, there may be ethical issues involved in using participants’
time and energy to produce theorized accounts that are of little
practical relevance to them, and this may be the ultimate betrayal of
the respondents’ confidence (Barbour, 1999b).
 There are likely to be limits to what can be achieved even by the most
overtly participatory research. Therefore, researchers should be
mindful while balancing their own disciplinary interests and the
political interests of those they research.
 Inappropria te use of focused groups can result in poorly designed
research (Krueger, 1993) as well as can threaten to discredit the
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90  Focused groups are not the most reliable way of either selecting
participants or procuring information regarding thei r attitudes, when
researchers intend to make statistical generalizations.
 A close analysis of focused group discussion highlights
inconsistencies and contradictions if one views attitudes as fixed.
 Focused groups fail to provide reliable measures of p articipants’
views.
Focused groups are known as group interviews, focused group interviews,
and focused group discussions and these different terms are used
interchangeably. In a group interview, generally, the group participants are
asked the same questio ns or a list of questions in turn.
On the other hand, a focused group interview is known to be an interesting
hybrid term and suggests that the object of the exercise is to interview a
group, which is seen to have agreement on the same view.
However, the y cannot be used as a substitute for phenomenological or
ethnographic research (Kidd & Parshall, 2000).
Common myths/ misconceptions about focused groups:
 Focused groups allow researchers to carry out research more quickly
and more cheaply than other me thods.
 Focused groups provide a cheaper way to conduct research that is
equivalent to a survey.
There are many problems and frustrations encountered by focused group
researchers and perceived weaknesses of the method. However, it is
believed that they al l can turn into advantages of the method once the
focused groups are placed within their rightful context of qualitative
research.
Challenges for Focused Group Discussion :
 Researchers may face difficulties in summarizing a ‘group view’,
though many focuse d group discussions may arrive at a consensus.
 For example, it raises a challenge – with approaches designed to
develop consensus guidelines – for research that aims to understand
differences in emphasis and understanding of various groups.
 It is diff icult to handle focused group discussion, especially when
participants frequently change their minds about issues in the course
of discussion, particularly where focused groups address a topic to
which they had not previously paid great attention.
 Demons trating that participants are telling ‘the truth’ is frequently
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91 involves the additional fear of peer group disapproval (Smithson,
2000).
 Recruiting focused group participants is a difficult task, which
involves making a number of pragmatic and ethical decisions. In this
case, the help of gatekeepers (i.e., people who are in contact with
participants on a frequent basis, e.g., teachers, parents, guardians, etc.
in the case of students) can be sought as their role is particularly
important with regard to recruiting participants for focused group
studies.
 Handling ethical issues involved in recruiting focused group
participants, such as paying the participants a small amount, offering
them gif t tokens or providing them food, reimbursing their travel or
respite care expenses, etc. as an expression of gratitude for their
willing participation may become difficult, especially considering
religious, cultural aspects. Also, this is because many univ ersity
accounts departments will require the personal details of the recipients
for their internal procedures, when finances are involved.
5.1.1 Focused Group Discussion :
The term focus group discussion or the focused group discussion is more
commonly used relying on generating and analyzing the interaction
between participants, rather than asking the same question or a list of
questions to each group participant in turn.
In a focused group discussion, one ensures that the group participants have
enough in common with each other. This, in turn, ensures that though the
group participants have sufficiently varying experiences or perspectives in
the context of some debate or differences of opinion, discussion between
them is still appropriate. The nature of the focused group discussion is
such that stories are unlikely to open up sequentially, as they can do in a
one-to-one interview. This may lead to a confusing picture and frustrating
attempts to analyze data.
Thus, according to Barbour (2007), focused grou p discussion can be
defined as “any group discussion may be called a focus group as long as
the researcher is actively encouraging and attentive to the group
interaction” (Kitzinger & Barbour, 1999). According to him, this
definition is suitably broad to e ncompass considerably all usages of this
method. Côte -Arsenault and Morrison -Beedy (1999) suggested that it is
possible to elicit narrative through focused group discussions if the
researchers use smaller groups.
According to Wilkinson (1999), focused gro up discussions can provide
insight into the processes that otherwise remain hidden and are difficult to
enter. She further argues that during the focused group discussion,
typically collective sense is made, meanings are negotiated, and identities
are elab orated through the processes of social interaction between people
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92 5.1.2 Focused Group Researchers and/or Moderators :
The focused group researchers’ role in the focused group discussion right
from the beginning is related to:
 Explaining the purpose of the group to the group participants,
 Reassuring the participants regarding their anonymity, including
securing agreement from group participants or members that they will
respect confidentiality.
 Allowing some time to group participants for introduction as a normal
rule of courtesy in social encounters.
 Actively encouraging group interaction,
 Ensuring that participants talk amongst themselves rather than
interacting only with the researcher, or ‘moderator’,
 Preparing to develop a topic guide and select stimulus material that
will encourage interaction, as well as decisions made with regard to
group composition,
 Being attentive to group interaction, which refers to the process of
moderating discussions,
 Picking up t he differences in views or emphasis of participants and
exploring those differences.
 Paying attention to group interaction, to group dynamics and to the
activities in which groups are engaged
 Developing an explanatory framework,
 Interpreting health promotion messages,
 Weighing up competing priorities.
 Being flexible with regard to where they conduct focused groups in
order to maximize participation
 Considering the ordering of questions, which will more efficiently use
the time of the moderator as well as the transcriber.
 Exploring views or experiences by strategically placing items to add
humour, especially where many variables are involved (Murphy et al.,
1992).
 Tolerating silence during focused group discussion by avoiding the
temptation to rush into using prompts. This silent gap, in fact, could
be a sign that the participants are still thinking about the researcher’s
or moderator’s question and formulating their answers (Barbour et al.,
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93  Being prepared to change the sequence of questions in response to the
issues raised by the interviewee.
 Remaining alert to pick up on any potentially interesting comments
from participants.
The help of skilled moderators can be sought while conducting focused
group discussions who are as compe tent as researchers. Moderators should
possess the skills related to the following:
 Anticipating common problems and having strategies for dealing with
them,
 Facilitating the group, and not controlling it (Bloor et al., 2001),
 Becoming comfortable w ith using a semi -structured topic guide to
have control over the sequence and content of questioning, as other
group members may ask questions to others out of the intended
sequence and more sensitive ones than those that the researcher had
decided to use.
As with all other qualitative methods, the personality of the researchers or
moderators involved in focused groups has an impact on the form and
content of data elicited using the focused groups. Hence, data generated by
different researchers or moderato rs can be different in content and form.
Most health services and social sciences research involving focused group
discussions are likely to aim at developing a greater understanding of the
process rather than predicting an outcome in terms of the likely public
response to a new product or marketing campaign.
5.1.3 Sampling/ Forming the Groups for Focused Group Discussion :
A group is the main unit in focused group discussion. Hence, sampling is
crucial as it is important and enables us to compare using th e obtained data
through focused group discussion. The purpose of qualitative sampling is
to reflect the diversity within the group or population under study rather
than aspiring to recruit a representative sample (Kuzel, 1992; Mays &
Pope, 1995). However, the process of recruiting a sample to fit the desired
sampling can be time -consuming.
Below some important aspects are noted down which should be
considered while sampling and forming the groups for focused group
discussion. Though some aspects have been noted down in the context of
marketing research, they are almost equally applicable to research studies
through focused group discussions in many other fields.
Important aspects to be considered in sampling :  Consider any identified ‘outlier’ individuals (i.e., individuals at extremes or exceptional individuals) rather than considering a number of such outliers. munotes.in

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94  Incorporate such individuals into subgroups to get the most benefit out of them for the study rather than dismissing them as done in the sampling of quantitative research studies.  Do not exclude outliers from the sample as they can provide insights being exceptional cases and have the potential to throw into sharp focus some of the taken-for-granted assumptions or processes that are otherwise not taken into account.  Focused groups should be homogeneous in terms of background and not attitudes (Morgan, 1988).  Avoid mixing such people in the focused groups who are known to have violently differing perspectives on emotive issues. This will enable both – focused group facilitators and participants – to clarify their own and others’ perspectives and facilitate greater mutual understanding between them.  More than one focused group discussion can be conducted based on the comparisons researchers wish to make.  Some inter-group comparisons can be made by forming different groups based on different constellations of characteristics that individual participant possesses, such as age, gender, socioeconomic and educational background etc.  As indicated by many of the earlier focused group texts, the ideal size of a group is 10-12 people in marketing research.  The number of people in the groups will also depend on the skill of the moderator as well as the level and complexity of the desired discussion as suggested for the marketing research.  It is also suggested that a maximum of eight participants is generally quite challenging enough both in terms of moderating groups and analyzing transcripts.  In terms of a minimum number of participants, conducting a focused group discussion with three or four participants is also considered to be perfectly possible (Kitzinger & Barbour, 1999; Bloor et al., 2001) which may be preferable for some topics.  The size of the group, that is the number of group participants, also can be determined based on the size and layout of the room available for a group session.  It is consistently advised to recruit groups of strangers in marketing research, so that focused groups should appear as naturally occurring groups.  Use of the pre-existing groups in marketing research can be problematic as they are likely to skew the findings in favour of munotes.in

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95 subgroups within the population, and using such groups raises important ethical issues, particularly with regard to ensuring confidentiality.  The decision as to whether to incorporate or avoid pre-existing groupings depends on the scope of the research project in question.  It is stressed as an important need that the participants should be reminded that the group discussion is for a research study and to distinguish this from a decision-making forum or planning committee (Krueger, 1994). 5.1.4 Recording Methods for Focused Group Discussion :
The most common methods that are used in f ocused group discussions
involve note -taking, reports from moderators and memory -based analysis.
These approaches are appropriate for certain limited research applications
(Krueger, 1994). However, they are unsatisfactory for academic research
(Bloor et al ., 2001; Kidd & Parshall, 2000).
Here, we will discuss two widely used methods for conducting focused
group discussions:
1. Recording and transcribing :
A good quality recorder is essential to recording a session. Possibly, it is
best to position the record er and microphone on a table in the centre of the
group. However, wall -mounted microphones may be preferable for some
groups, such as elderly, disabled people (Barrett & Kirk, 2000) or children
(Kennedy et al., 2001).
Video recording of the focused group d iscussion is considered the most
accurate method to capture all important verbal and non -verbal
communication and to identify individual speakers. However, it has the
potential to increase participants’ discomfort or self -consciousness,
difficulty in anony mizing individuals, and logistical challenges with
regard to positioning cameras, the capacity to capture all participants on
film and limitations on the number of participants that can be
accommodated.
Occasionally, in some situations, researchers should be prepared to take
notes, when participants are not agreeable to you recording their
discussion.
2. Note -taking :
Like all qualitative research studies, it is advised that the researchers
should record their immediate observations about the focused group
discussions and note any salient features of group dynamics, and their own
impressions of the topics that most engaged participants. It should include
referring to any theoretical frameworks, or other research studies that may
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96 emergent explanations at a later date, reminding them of certain issues or
themes to which they were sensitized.
5.2 EXERCISE TO PERFORM: CONDUCTING A FOCUSED GROUP DISCUSSION In this section, we will see how the focused group discussion is conducted.
For this, you will need to follow the following steps – selecting the team,
selecting the participants, deciding on time and location, preparing for and
conducting focus group discussion, and submitting a report as a part of
your academic course.
As we have discussed earlier in detail about focused group discussion,
here are a few precautions that we should take as researchers while
conducting focused groups and writing a report on a discussion:  To make sure that the topic for conducting focused group discussion is not very difficult for you to handle considering your current academic level.  To make sure that the group size is not too large to handle.  To make sure that the ethical protocol is being followed. - Consent of the participants is obtained before starting the conduction of the focused group discussion. - Participants are made aware of their right to withdraw from the discussion. - They are offered the freedom to maintain their anonymity by not mentioning their names. - Participants are assured that their personal data/ information will not be shared or published anywhere without their permission following the ethical principles of privacy and confidentiality and that only group data will be shared. - Permission is obtained from the participants if you plan to tape-record/video-record the discussion for your further ease.  To encourage discussion among the group participants by asking a few leading questions.  To make sure that the discussion is in the right direction and that all participants are getting involved in the discussion.  To make sure that more information is being yielded from the participants.  To make sure that we are asking minimum questions that are relevant and have the potential to yield the maximum information munotes.in

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97 that we seek to obtain.  Report writing on focused group discussion should be written in the past tense keeping in mind that the activity has been already done.  Report writing on each focused group discussion should not exceed 4 to 5 pages. Instead of writing your stories on discussion, write the reports objectively, keeping all your biases and prejudices aside. Since this is a discussion, there is no such strict format to follow.
However, we will se e here one example in which we will see some
questions that will provide you insight into what kind of questions can be
asked. This example will also provide a structure/format to write a report
on the focus group discussion that you will be conducting or might have
conducted already.
This example of report -writing is hypothetical just to give you an idea
about how it can be written. Make sure that you are reporting each and
every single detail of the discussion to make it qualitative and informative.
Howev er, this should be done very carefully, especially when you are
about to share some sensitive information about any participant. In this
case, you should make sure that the anonymity of that participant has been
maintained if and only if that sensitive inf ormation is important to mention
in the report. Purpose of focus group discussion: To study financial management among earning and non-earning women Participants: Earning and non-earning women Age: 25 to 40 Number of participants: 10 Description of participants: Participants included homemakers, business persons/ entrepreneurs, and authorities from different institutions. Rationale for conducting focused group discussion: In Indian society, women often face difficulty in financial management (whether at the personal level or family level), especially those who are non-earning. This discussion was conducted to study the kind of difficulty faced by them. Report on focused group discussion: (Here, each question asked by the researcher will be mentioned. The responses of the participants will be noted down after each question reflecting their views and experiences about the issue that was being studied through group discussion. Here, we will see report writing based on a sample of two hypothetical questions. While opening up the discussion in writing you may need to start with some introduction based on how the discussion took place.) munotes.in

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98 As the topic mentions, the present focused group discussion was conducted to study the financial management of the earning and non-earning women in India, aged 25 to 40 – both at personal and family levels. In order to avoid complexity the number of participants was restricted up to 10. Participants included homemakers, business persons/ entrepreneurs, and authorities from different institutions, such as academic, private and public/government sectors as representatives of their categories. No education criteria were considered so that women with different educational levels would be able to participate and contribute to the results of the discussion. Before starting the conduction of the focused group discussion, each participant was asked to introduce themselves, wherein all participants were made comfortable. After a few minutes of rapport building, consent from all participants was obtained regarding their willing participation in the focused group discussion. However, they were also made aware of their right that they were free to leave the discussion at any point whenever they wanted. They were assured that no personal information shared by them would be shared or published outside. Rather it would be used for research purposes only and their anonymity would be respected. Besides, permission for an audio recording of the discussion was also sought from them to gain their trust and the maximum cooperation from them. After making sure that all precautions had been taken and that participants were ready for discussion, the discussion was started by asking the participants the following questions, one after another, considering the progress of the discussion and the relevance of the question to bring back the discussion on track as required. The seating arrangement of the participants was done in such a way that all 10 participants could face each other and communicate with each other as well as the researcher without any physical barrier. At the same time, it was also made sure that the same distance was maintained between them. After all preparation was done, the discussion was opened with the first question, “Do you face/ have you ever faced any problems while managing financial matters?” As expected, there was an affirmative answer from the participants. That is, all participants had faced some kind of issues frequently or at least once in their lifetime regarding financial management. This leading question led to the next question from the researcher, “What kind of problems they have faced or still face?” Following this question, participants started to share their past experiences regarding financial management. The responses of the participants reflected that not only non-earning women faced issues regarding financial management, but also earning women faced more or less the same issues. Especially, when husbands of non-earning women were earning less, they had difficulty managing the expenditure for running home affairs. This expenditure commonly included spending money on munotes.in

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99 grocery items, fees for children’s schooling, clothing for all family members, rent of the house, etc. which are recurring in nature. This led to difficulty in saving an amount on a regular basis of which participants could think hardly because no sufficient amount is left once the recurrent expenditure is done. Thus, this was a regular ‘headache’ for the participants – ‘how to save money for emergencies, sudden illnesses, etc.?’ This often led them to think about taking loans or borrowing money from people in their circle. But even asking someone for money was an embarrassing situation for them. These non-earning participants even regretted not being earning members to support their families financially, especially those who were non-educated or less educated. Even most of the participants were from the conservative family background due to which some of them were not allowed by their in-laws family to work outside. In the case of earning women, they were expected to spend their all money on their current, that is, the in-law’s family, rather than their parental family. So, those earning participants who couldn’t spend their money on their parental family’s needs often felt guilt feelings or had to manage to give some amount to their parents without letting the in-law’s family know about it. This was again a difficult situation for them. Again, investing some amount of money was not impossible for them, it was surely difficult to manage earning participants after managing the recurrent expenditure for the family. This was difficult for especially those participants, who were the only earning members of the family after their deceased husband or when their husbands were addicted badly. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (This way the questions asked to the participants continue further till the last question with the responses of the participants to the questions, along with some significant responses which may reflect the depth of the issue in the participants’ lives. As shown in the example, you should mention the response of the group, maintaining anonymity, privacy and confidentiality of the individual participant. Even if the significant response of the individual participant is mentioned in the report, you should not mention the name of the participant or any of his or her identity-related clues anywhere in the report.) General feedback by the participants (if any): Participants appreciated the topic and the way the discussion was handled by the researcher. They expressed the need for such discussions to be conducted so that people should be able to share their views and experiences. munotes.in

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100 Your observations about or overall remark on focused group discussion (if any): Participants were quite cooperative. Some participants were a bit apprehensive at the beginning of the discussion. However, they also started sharing their experiences very openly and freely when the discussion progressed further. The focused group has a very vast scope of applications in a variety of
fields. We have tried to cover almost all basic information about it which
will be helpful to you while writing your reports on focused group
discussions at this stage. We have looked at its usages, advantages,
disadvantages, strengths, limitations, etc. We h ave also covered some
points on Dos and Don’t’s which should be kept in mind while writing
reports. Beyond this, you will need to seek more knowledge about it
through extra readings to get expertise on how to use this focused group
technique more independe ntly to accomplish your set research goal as an
independent researcher.
5.3 SUMMARY Like interviews, focused groups have become one of the important
methods for qualitative research. Focused group methods emerged in the
1940s and became the foundation o f broadcasting, marketing, and public
opinion research in the post -Second World War period. They gained
considerable popularity also within organizational research and
development.
Focused groups have large applications in various fields like community
development, marketing, government and health sectors, health services,
health education programmes, social research, business studies, and other
disciplinary research. They are used in different ways in different
disciplines.
Subsequently, we have seen the uses, prohibited uses, advantages,
disadvantages, strengths and limitations of the focused groups. We have
also seen the challenges in using the focused group technique.
Sections 5.1.1 through 5.1.4 describe the focused group discussion
technique even fu rther, explaining its technical aspects, like the role of
researchers/moderators in it along with their personality and their overall
presence, sampling/ forming the groups for the focused group discussions,
and two recording methods widely used for focuse d group discussions.
Section 5.2 provides an exercise to conduct focused group discussions
along with some useful technical tips. It also provides the hypothetical
example in a format/ structure - the way you may report the focused group
discussions that y ou have conducted.
5.4 QUESTIONS 1. Describe the focused groups and their applications in various fields.
2. What are the uses and prohibited uses of the focused groups? munotes.in

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101 3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the focused groups?
4. What are the strengths and limitations of the focused groups?
5. What are the myths about focused groups and the challenges in using
focused groups?
6. Write short notes:
a) Focused group discussion
b) Focused group researchers/ moderators
c) Sampling/ forming the groups for the focused group discussions
d) Recording Methods for Focused Group Discussion
5.5 REFERENCES  Barbour, R. (2007). Doing focus groups. Los Angeles: Sage
Publications.
*****


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