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PERSPECTIVES TO THE STUDY OF
ENVIRONMENT MARXIAN & POLITICAL
ECOLOGY PERSPECTIVE
Unit Structure:
1.0: Objectives
1.1: Introduction
1.2: Origin of Political Ecology
1.3: Environmental Critique of Capitalism
1.4: Marx and the Capitalist Raubbau
1.5: Marxi st contribution to Ecology and Environment
1.6: Conclusion
1.7: Questions
1.0: OBJECTIVES:
 To understand the concept of Political ecology
 To evaluate the contribution of Marx to Political Ecology
 To analyse Marxist notion of metabolic rift and its signific ance in
recent times
1.1: INTRODUCTION:
Political ecology is a field within environmental studies focusing on power
relations as well as the coproduction of nature and society. Theoretical
inspirations are taken from different sources such as political eco nomy,
post-structuralism, and peasant studies. Contributions to this field tend to
question the status of powerful actors (e.g., governments, businesses,
conservation organizations) and what is taken for granted in leading
discourses. The place and role of “ecology” within political ecology
remains an on -going discussion. Some political ecology contributions
engage actively with natural science, while other parts of this literature
remain within more social science -based theoretical debates where
“ecology” refers to the environment more broadly. - (Benjaminsen and
Svarstad, 2019)
1.2: MEANING AND ORIGIN OF POLITICAL
ECOLOGY
Political ecology is a critical research field within anthropology and
related disciplines that examines how and why economic structures and
power relations drive environmental change in an increasingly
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2 (https://www.anthroencyclopedia.com/entry/political -ecology). Political
ecology emerged in the 1980s as an interdisciplinary field that analyzed
environmental problems using the concepts and methods of political
economy. A central premise of the field is that ecological change cannot
be understood without consideration of the political and economic
structures and institutions within which it is embedded. The nature –society
dialectic is the fundamental focus of analysis. Marxian political economy
provided the initial primary theoretical influence, while the development
of post -structural social theory and non -equilibrium ecology infused new
ideas and concepts in subsequen t years. A range of methodological
approaches characterize political ecology research, including multi -scalar
analysis, political -economic analysis, historical analysis, ethnography ,
discourse analysis, and ecological field studies. Political ecology’s
approach to nature –society relations has explicitly linked capitalist
development with ecological change across multiple temporal and spatial
scales. The field has been an important source of critical analyses of the
social and ecological effects of economic development and conservation
initiatives, focusing particularly on the material and discursive aspects of
property rights. Recent trends and future directions for research include an
expanding urban political ecology theme, critical responses to
environmental security theory, an engagement with the philosophies of
ethics, and a focus on environment and identity (Neumann. 2009).
The world today is prone to a global environmen tal crisis jeopardizing a
large number of species on the earth including humans and it goes without
mentioning that these forthcoming disasters are the consequents of the
prevailing capitalist economy. However the vulnerabilities that it creates
are largel y neglected by spreading a general perception towards projecting
“natural capitalism” and “climate capitalism” as rescuer of the
environment rather than enemy. The major reason for underestimating the
risks is none other than the relationship with “mode of productions”.
Nevertheless, the whole issue of global environmental and ecological
crises can be better understood from the Marks’ critique of capitalist
enterprise.
1.3: ENVIRONMENTAL CRITIQUE OF CAPITALISM
A common flaw of radical environmental critique s of capitalism is that
they bank on nonconcrete views of the classification based on nineteenth -
century conditions. Therefore, majority of the historical foundations of
environmental issues associated with 20th and 21st century cannot be
evaluated adequat ely. Even Marx’s critique of ecology is confined to the
historical period of his writings, viz, the viable stages of capitalism, and
was therefore incapable to apprehend the crucial features of environmental
devastations which were arising with domination of capitalism. It is
indeed significant to analyze the ecological critique provided by Marx
(and Engels) along with their later counterparts comprising of Thorstein
Veblen, Paul Baran, Paul Sweezy, and Allan Schnaiberg. munotes.in

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3 1.4: MARX AND THE CAPITALIST RAUBBAU
It is rarely documented that Marx’s very first political economic essay —
“Debates on the Law on Theft of Wood,” written in 1842 during his
editorship of Rheinische Zeitung —was focused on ecological issues. A
large number of peasants were imprisoned for a simp le act of gathering
dead wood from the forest. Though the peasants were availing their
traditional right, they were prohibited due to wide spread prevalence of
private property. While observing this issue Marx remarked that how the
traditional rights o f peasants on land was disregarded in order to protect
the owning rights of property holders. Disadvantaged peasants were
perceived as the “enemy of wood” because of their traditional rights to
gather wood primarily as fuel for cooking and warming their ho mes
contravened the proprietorship rights of private property owners (Marx
and Engels, 1975 ; Franz Mehring, 1979).
Soon after this Marx initiated his systematic research into political
economy. It should be than comprehend well that as early as his Economi c
and Philosophical Manuscriptsof 1844 he was already concentrating on
the issue of primitive gathering, i.e., the progress of capitalist development
led to withdrawal of the peasantry by alienating them from the land. He
mentioned the “Capital” to be the preco ndition for capitalist’s mode of
production and it enduring base as the root for the advent of contemporary
proletariat.3 Capitalism originated as a system of infringement on nature
and community wealth.
Marx has propagated the critique of political economy through
differentiating between use value and exchange value. In his opening
pages of “Capital” he has mentioned about both and makes a reference t o
exch ange value dominating the use value in later stages. Use value was in
general connected with the necessities of production and with the basic
human relation to nature, i.e., fundamental human needs. Exchange value,
on the other hand, was concerned wi th the quest of increasing the profit.
This resulted in incongruity between capitalist production and natural
production.
Marx explained this paradox as what was later known as Lauderdale
Paradox (named after James Maitland, the eighth Earl of Lauderdale
1759–1839). Lauderdale in “ An Inquiry into the Nature of Public Wealth
and into the Means and Causes of its Increase” (1804) described public
wealth as comprising of use value which existed in plenty with nature like
air, water etc. whereas the wealth of th e capi talists was the direct result of
exchange values which necessitated inadequacy. Thus, the material
possessions of the rich and the capitalists are a direct outcome of
destruction of public wealth and assets. Therefore, monopolization and
leveraging c harges on water which once was generously available for fee
is the measure to increase the asset of the rich at the cost of public wealth.
In the spice island Dutch colonists were known to burn all the “spiceries”
which were produced further than their exp ectatio ns during what they
called as fertile period. They would pay the inhabitants to accumulate the munotes.in

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4 young buds and green leaves of nutmeg trees to dispose of in Europe with
such a profit as they think sufficient.
The planters in Virginia by lawfulrepresentation burned a certain portion
of their yields to maintain the price. Thus, it is clear that the personal
interest lead person to take advantage of the situation an d that nothing but
the impossibility of genera l combination protects the public wealth against
the acquisitivenessof private greed (Maitland; 1819). Marx was interested
in learning the paradox between what Lauderdale described as use value
and exchanged valu e in capitalist system. The capitalist mode of
development relies on the concept of waste and destroying the natural
resources (Marx; 1964). Through the process of distribution and
competition the public wealth is lost at the personal gains of the private
riches in the society (Marx, Capital , vol. 3 , 180).
The capitalists needed to magnify and expand to maintain their share of
wealth for its survival. Thus, it was mandatory for capitalist to continue
accumulation of wealth through relentless revolutionization of product
through displacing and alienat ing the labour and encouraging revenues
and profits for increasing their share of profit.
Marx relying on the work of German chemist Justus von Liebig, argued
that transportation of food to new industrial and urban centers with huge
population robs all the nutrients from the soil. Liebig termed this as
“Raubbau ” or the robbery system.
Marx believed in Raubbau causing “an irreparable rift” within capitalist
society in breakdown amongst human being and the soil — “a met abolism
prescribed by the natural laws of life itself” —requiring its “systematic
restoration as a regulative law of social production.”
However, in case of industrialization the real face of capitalism is exposed
which primarily relies on exploitation of w orkers and the natural nutrients
of the soil.
In the industrialization of agriculture, he suggested, the true nature of
“capitalist production” was revealed, which “only develops…by
instantaneously undermining the original sources of all wealth —the soil
and the worker.”
1.5: MARXIST CONTRIBUTION TO ECOLOGY AND
ENVIRONMENT
The most significant contribution of Marx to ecology and environment can
be perceived through Marxist theory of “Metaboloic Rift”. It is a term
used by Marx to describe the changing relati ons between human and
nature on account of capitalism. (https://mronline.org/2020/04/02/what -is-
the-metabolic -rift/) In his book Capitalism in the Web of Life: Ecology
and the Accu mulation of Capital uses Marxian (and ot her) he offered a
broad depiction on role of capitalism in organizes nature (2). 9V) munotes.in

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https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/ S0016718518303208
Moore shaped his theory of ecological transformation draw ing from the
Marx’s concept of Metabolic Rift. Foster, J. B. 2000. Marx’s Ecology:
Materialism and Nature . New York: Monthly Review Press (Moore,
2015).
The metabolic rift involves the cycling of nutrients. In a traditio nal society
the agricultural products were used locally and the surplus and the left-
over waste was reprocessed into the soil. The population was considered
to be a part of a larger structure. Marx extended his conce pt of metabolic
rift to incorporate the relations amongst human beings.

https://inhabitingtheanthropocene.com/2018/02/28/environmental -crises -
and-the-metabolic -rift-in-world -historical -perspective/ munotes.in

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According to Marx the metabolic rift occurs when consum ption of a
product takes place at a remo te distance from the place of production, and
the surplus, the left overs and the waste is not recycled into the soil there
by affecting the fertility of the soil in the long run. Marx has cities
specifically in mind here. In the words of Marx:
Capitalist production, by collecting the population in great centres, and
causing an ever -increasing preponderance of town population, on the one
hand concentrates the historical motive power of society; on the other
hand, it d isturbs the circulation of matter betwee n man and the soil, i.e.,
prevents the return to the soil of its elements consumed by man in the form
of food and clothing; it therefore violates the conditions necessary to
lasting fertility of the soil. (Marx, 1976 ).
As a consequence, the products produc ed in the rural and agricultural
areas are transported to urban centers and the waste is dumped into the sea
which is the prime reason for degradation of the soil.

https://inhabitingtheanthropocene.com/2018/02/28/en vironmental -crises -
and-the-metabolic -rift-in-world -historical -perspective/
Marx’s critique of ecology can only be understood in the context of
critique of capitalism. His concept of labour and production itself reflected
the metabolic relationship between human beings and nature. Thus his
ecolo gical critique propagates a sealed metabolic cycle amongst human
beings and nature rather an open crack under capitalism. This helped him
to employ his concept in comprehending economy and society (Marx and
Engels, 19 75). munotes.in

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https://www.researchgate.net/pub lication/255574423_The_Scope_and_Me
thod_of_Political_Economy_2002/figures?lo=1
Marx’s critique of ecology went beyond discussions. His examination of
environment along with Engels provided an account on the important
subjects like: deforestation, desertif ication, climatic changes reckless
exploitation of fossil fuels and natural resources. (Bellamy, 2000)
It is vital to understand change in the consumption patterns and
consequently alteration in the use value of the p roduct under capitalism.
Marx, Engel an d their followers did believe that the beneficial use of a
product under capitalist enterprise is pushed at the back will sole
intentions of extracting more and more profits. Inherent in this opinion
was the concept t hat use values could be subordinated to exchange values
and the structure of consumption to the forces of production. However,
Marx hasn’t provided any accounts for change in process of production
and consumption resulting in technological changes.
1.6 CONC LUSION
Thus, the Marx’s classical ecol ogical critique of capitalism clearly outlines
the fact that we are constantly involve into a process of extracting and
extinguishing more and more natural and public wealth day in and day
out. Never the less it is bein g done to chase the rich and the elit es who
play a significant role in shifting the focus from consumption needs to
accumulation of surplus leading to harsh and harmful effects.
The 19thC Marxist metabolic rift in context of human beings and the
nature is resulting in ecological rifts and br eaking the boundaries between
human beings and earth. It is important to note that recently the “structure
of production” rather the “scale” is accountable for the contemporary
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8 It is the moment ous to battle the out -and-out negativ ity of the capitalist
system of production and altering it all together to attain the concept of
equality and ecological sustainability anticipated by Marx.
1.7 QUESTIONS
 Examine in detail the political ecological persp ective in understanding
the environme nt.
 Critically evaluate the Marxist contribution to political ecological
perspective.
 Illustrate on Marxist notion of Raubbau and metabolic rift with
relevant examples.
References:
 Bellamy J. F., Marx’s Ecology (New Yor k: Monthly Review Press,
2000), 165 –66, 169. Engels and Marx addressed the issue of local
climate change primarily in relation to changes in temperature and
precipitation resulting from deforestation. See Engels’ notes on Carl
Fraas in Karl Marx and Freder ick Engels, MEGA IV, 31 (Amsterdam:
AkadamieVerlag, 1999), 512 –15; Paul Hampton, “Classical Marxism
and Climate Impacts,” Workers’ Liberty, August 5, 2010,
http://workersliberty.org ; Clarence J. Glacken, “Changi ng Ideas of the
Habitable World,” in Carl O. Sauer, Marston Bates, and William L.
Thomas, Jr., eds., Man’s Role in the Changing Face of the Earth
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1956), 77 –81.

 Benjaminsen T.A and, Svarstad H., in Encyclopedia of Ecology
(Second Edition) , 2019)

 Neumann R.P., in International Encyclopedia of Human Geography ,
2009)
 Franz Mehring, Karl Marx (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press,
1979), 41 –42.
 Foster J. B. (2011), Ecology Economic Theory Marxist
Ecology Political Economy
https://monthlyreview.org/2011/09/01/the -ecology -of-marxian -
political -economy/
 James Maitland, Ea rl of Lauderdale, An Inquiry into the Nature and
Origin of Public Wealth and into the Means and Causes of its Increase
(Edinburgh: Archibald Constable and Co., 1819), 37 –59; Lauderdale’s
Notes on Adam Smith , ed. Chuhei Sugiyama (New York: Routledge,
1996), 140–41.

 Lauderdale in “ An Inquiry i nto the Nature of Public Wealth and into
the Means and Causes of its Increase” (1804) munotes.in

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9  Marx Karl, The Poverty of Philosophy (New York: International
Publishers, 1964), 35 –36.

 Marx, Capital , vol. 3, 180.

 Karl Marx and F rederick Engels, Selected Works in On e Volume
(New York: International Publishers, 1968), 90; Karl Marx,
Grundrisse (London: Penguin, 1973), 408; Allan Schnaiberg, The
Environment: From Surplus to Scarcity (New York: Oxford University
Press, 1980), 220 –34.

 Marx and Engels, Collected Works , vol. 25, 463.

 Karl Marx, Early Writings (London: Penguin, 1974), 309 –22; Karl
Marx, Capital , vol. 3 (London: Penguin, 1981), 754.

 Marx and Engels, Collected Works (New York: International
Publishers, 1975), vol. 1, 224 –63;

 Karl Marx, Capital, vol. 1 (Lon don: Penguin, 1976), 283, 290, 348,
636–39, 860; Marx, Capital , vol. 3, 911, 949, 959. On Marx and
thermodynamics see Paul Burkett and John Bellamy Foster,
“Metabolism, Energy, and Entropy in Marx’s Critique of Politica l
Economy,” Theory and Society , 35, n o. 1 (February 2006), 109 –56.
 Moore, J. W. 2015. Capitalism in the Web of Life: Ecology and the
Accumulation of Capital . London: Verso.
 https://www.freethesaurus.com/spiceries .

 https://mronline.org/2020/04/02/what -is-the-metabolic -rift/

 https://inhabitingtheanthropocene.com/2018/02/28/environmental -
crises -and-the-metabolic -rift-in-world -historical -perspective/

 https://www.ant hroencyclopedia.com/entry/political -ecology


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10 2
GENDER PERSPECTIVE & GANDHIAN
PERSPECTIVE
Unit Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Theories on Gender and Development
2.3 Women and Development Ester Boserup
2.4 Women and Development Maitreyi Krishna Raj
2.5 Women's Relation to Development
2.6 Gandhian Perspective on Development
2.7 Summary
2.8 Questions
2.9 References
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 To introduce the readers to the various perspectives on development
 To help the readers to understand the relationship between the nature
and development
 To help the readers explore the impact of development on Nature and
Women
 To help the readers analyse the impact of development in
contemporary era
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The debate and discussion regarding Women and Development has gained
momentum during the last few decades. This theme has assumed
importance because two major areas of research are concerned: the status
of women and economic development. Recentl y, development has been
viewed as a cure for the problems of less developed countries. It has been
advocated that once a modern infrastructure is created, the economy will
develop bringing about a solution for all ills and ameliorating the lives of
people. In spite of this vie w, it appears that in most developing countries
and among all classes, development has b rought little relief to the
conditions of women, especially in relation to that of men. The concern munotes.in

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11 about women in relation to development has led to several research
projects being undertaken, seminars and conferences being organized at
national and inter national levels. All these have pointed towards a need for
a multidimensional definition of development. This must include political,
social and human aspects along with economic aspects of development. It
is also seen that development has widened the gap between the incomes of
men and women and has had a negative e ffect on the lives of women. This
is largely due to a lack by development planners in recognizing women's
dual roles and the continuing useof old stereotypes as a base for
development plans. The concept of women and work also needs to be
understood more comprehensivel y, especially the changing patterns of
women's participation in the labour force as development takes place. In
this chapte r, we will look at some theories on Women and Development,
the pioneering views of Ester Boserup and Maitreyi Krishna Raj on the
subject, Women's relation to development and development indicators and
women. Theories: Women and Development: Women secondary status in
modern society and their subordination to men hav e been traced to the
beginning of history and culture. Today, as societies are following the path
of development, it is seen that the position of women has not improved
obviously and significantl y. The benefits of development have gone
mostly to the male p opulation in society whereas it seems that women
have been adversely a ffected by it.
2.2 THEORIES ON GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
The role of women in development and the impact of development on
women are undergoing serious consideration. While this points to t he need
for new theories, methodologies and research, it is necessary to understand
and analyse earlier intellectual traditions and perspectives. We shall
therefore briefly outline some theories regarding development and its
relationship with women. Some o f these theories are:
(i) Cultural dualism used by Simone de Beauvoir to look at the position
of women?
(ii) Social evolutionary theory which gave rise to both modernization
theory and the Marxist analysis of stages in the development of
capitalism;
(iii) Develop mentalism, which identified obstacles to women's
participation in national development; and
(iv) Dependency theory which examined the nature of development and
underdevelopment.
(I) Cultural Dualism The theory of cultural Dualism may be attributed to
Simone de Beauvoir who uses it to explain women's secondary status in
societ y. According to he r, the origin of women's subordinate status lies
partly in her relationship to nature and partly in nature's relationship to
culture. Human societies have a universa l opposition between nature and
culture. Human beings, by their very constitution, make great munotes.in

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12 efforts at overcoming the limits of nature through culture. In the process of
attempting to control nature man is more free than woman who is naturally
restricted in this by her tasks of reproduction and sustaining life. At the
same time, man cannot live without woman, just as he cannot do away
with nature. As a result, man regards woman with contradictory and
opposed feelings. He reverses her and also degrades he r. He wishes to
control her but also refrains from completely quashing her creativit y. In
some cultures, such as the Hindu culture, this ambivalence is all prevalent.
In some others, women do play a dominant role in regulating nature and
sexual behaviou r. In evaluating such dualistic theor y, it must be accepted
that there are some universals in the social and cultural position of women
butting across almost all known societies. Howeve r, such atheory does not
throw much light on the question of women and soci ety, as it pays little
attention to di fferences of fundamental patterns of human existence nor is
it concerned with change.
(II) Social Evolutionary Theory : The Social Evolutionary theory has
viewed societies as undergoing progressive change as a result of changes
in population balance and in increasing division of labour and
differentiation. The question of changing status of women and their roles
has also been perceived from the Point of social evolutionary theor y.
According to this theor y, societies range from simple, where some persons
perform several tasks, to complex societies where there is higher level of
technolog y, formal institutions and greater occupational specialization. By
characterizing societies on the basis of division of labou r, social
evolutionary theory has tried to explain inequality both among and within
societies. As specialization increases, each labouring group becomes more
specialized and productivity also increases. Thus, societies moving toward
specialization have a higher level of productivit y. And, simple societies
with less specialization remain less productive and therefore poore r.
Within complex societies those groups performing less specialized tasks
are also less productive and 'therefore disadvantaged. This is how
inequality is explained by the social evolutionary theor y. Extending this
argument and applying it to the sexes shows that since women are
normally found to be relegated to backward sectors of the econom y, they
suffer inequalit y. The same argument has been used to e xplain the e ffect of
social di fferentiation on political participation. With increasing
differentiation between domestic tasks and those of politics and
governance, woman was relegated to domestic chores and kept out of
participation in public decision mak ing. The subordination of women
increased as society became more complex with the growth of a
specialized state, professional armies and bureaucracies.
(III) Developmentalism : The developmental approach has perceived that
modernization has a ffected men and women di fferently and seeks to locate
the causes preventing women from participating in the development
process. The developmental perspective basically views social change
differently from the modernization theorists. This di fference can be found
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13 (i) Society is not seen as a single unit so that changes in one area will
generate changes in other areas. Therefore, technologies introduced to
raise productivity as part of development planning does not benefit women
as it does men.
(ii) There are contradictions in the process of social change thus women's
exploitation may increase if only employment is increased and not wages
and working conditions. (iii) Conscious policies are necessary to move
society in a particular direction. In this, external forces and national
leaders play a positive role. The failure to implement a development
programme has led to -developmentalists taking a modified approach to the
problem of women in development. They feel that it is important to look at
women as r ational decision makers. They point out that by concentrating
on increasing the value ofthe GN P, the full production of a society is
undervalued and the question of distribution is ignored. The contribution
of women in hidden sectors is not taken into acco unt. This involves
neglect in non -market work done in households, subsistence agriculture
and the informal labour market, all of which is done more often in women
than men. It has also led to policies which impede its productivit y. Women
suffer an increasi ng narrowing of social roles and capacity to generate
income as little attention is paid to upgrading non market work. Ester
Boserup and others have proposed expanding the GNP to include women's
work as a strategy to include assessment of their costs in th e formation of
development goals.
(IV) Dependency Theory : Dependency theory developed as a result of
the dissatisfaction of the developmentalists's explanation of poverty and
backwardness in Third world countries. Their investigation pointed to
constraints on development in these countries caused by international
forces. Even after formal colonization declined, former colonial powers
controlled Third World Economies in a new garb of neocolonialism, The
backwardness of these countries was perpetuated through economic
dependence on industrialized nations. As regards women, the dependency
theory disagreed with conservative Marxists. While the latter argued that
power relations between men and women cannot be understood except in
the context of the mode of produ ction, dependency theory points out that
how the mode of production a ffects Third World women is part of an
international system based on dependenc y. The classic Marxist
explanation that women's subordination is due to women's relegation to
the domestic ec onomy and denial in the opportunity to participate in
production of goods for exchange in the large society has been belied by
different case studies. Dependency theory explains that if industrial
capitalism places women on the edge of the econom y. Third w orld
capitalism makes their position even more di fficult. Capitalism in
dependent nations finds women holding a disproportionate number of jobs
in sectors such as agriculture, domestic servants, street vendors and
prostitutes and the like, in short, the in formal labour market. The
significance feature of the dependency theory regarding women is that it
does not distinguish between socially productive and domestic work, All
women's work is taken as one and considered uniforml y. It does however munotes.in

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14 (ink the role and status of women to the economic position of the whole
society which is ultimately determined by the international system.
Check Your Progress
1. Briefly explain theories on women and development
2.3 Women and Development Ester Boserup: The study of women and
Development owes a great deal to Ester Boserup whose contribution in
this area has been very significant. Through her pioneering work ' Women
and Development' she first drew attention to how the process of
development and related social change was a ffecting the lives of women.
She states that status of women and economic development are two
significant areas in which research is needed and is rightfully being
conducted especially in the Third World. Studies on women in these
countries has shown that the problems of women in the labour force are
peculia r. Women are over burdened with work while their e fforts are
partly wasted because they have less training and even more primitive
equipment than the male labour force in their communities. This brings
about a n eed for more research to improve the working conditions of
women in the Third World, especially women in domestic work and in
rural areas and to provide them with better access to the labour market.
Boserup states that there has been objection to studi es on women and
development as they largely stress on the Problems of labour market and
productivity which is not seen as a major problem confronting women.
Studies show that women in developing countries are actively involved in
agriculture, crafts, trade or construction and support themselves and their
families by such work. In spite of being wholly engaged in labour
activities, their social status continues to remain low. Therefore , the study
of women's status especially in relation to male family member s is the
main issue and should take priority over labour market studies. Howeve r,
in Third World countries, the subordinate position of women derives from
legal or customary rules which women are unable to change. As a result,
economic self -support exists along with interior status. In some countries
important changes have taken place in the legal status of women by giving
women the right to divorce, guardianship of her children in the case of
divorce or widowhood. But these have not brought about a corresp onding
change in the real family status of women. Economic change is also
occurring in most developing countries. This change however is making it
more di fficult for women to support themselves. Women's work is mostly
in the informal sector or in the house hold. If women do not have
opportunities to earn money their dependence on men will increase and
their social family status will -, decrease in spite of their legal dependence.
Studies on women and development must be integrated with studies of the
develop mental process itself. In this process, some groups get a large
share of development benefits while others may become victims of
development because their products, activities or skills may be replaced by
newe r, more productive or e fficient activities. Bot h men and women may
become victims of development but it is mostly women who su ffer from
the adverse impact of development. This happens because women find it
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15 (i) They are less mob ile than man due to family obligations;
(ii) traditionally their choice of occupations is more narrowly limited;
(iii) they usually have less education and training; and(iv) They face
sexual discrimination in recruitment.
Also, in developing countries, a much larger percentage of the female
labour force is involved in traditional occupations which are gradually
replaced by newer enterprises in economic development. This generally
points to large numbers of wom en in Third World countries being
adversely a ffected by development. The speed of modernization and
economic growth in the di fferent Third World countries is at great
variance. The occupational opportunities available to women are related to
the di fference s in natural resources, the stock of human and physical
capital, foreign relations, and government policies. In countries where
economic growth is rapid, attitudes toward women's work outside the
home are also changing swiftly and women are joining the lab our market,
Conversel y, in countries where economic growth is slow and population
growth is rapid, women from economically weaker sections are forced
into already crowded occupations such as market trade and domestic
service, to help support their large fa milies. Therefore, in order to help
women, improve their status in developing countries, the patterns of
development to be applied must take into account the economic
conditions, institutional patterns and attitudes to women's work in that
specific countr y. It would make little sense to merely apply the
development models, either ' Western 'or' alternative' to the developing
countr y.
Check Your Progress
2. Summarise Ester Boserup ’s view on Development
2.4 WOMEN AND DEVELOPMENT MAITREYI
KRISHNA RAJ
Yet another perspective on women and Development has been put forward
by Maitreyi Krishna Raj. According to he r, the process of
underdevelopment and development has had much significance for
women. The impact of development on women's status in society can be
understo od only if one accepts the fact that the oppression of women is
completely linked to the exploitative world system of which development
is a part. She asserts that real development means ending the exploitative
system and reducing the vast gulf between the rich and poor nations. The
adverse e ffect that development has had on women can only be altered if
the nature of development itself is changed. The world Conference of the
U. N. Decade for women held at Copenhagen in 1980 has defined
development as follow s, "Development is here interpreted to mean total
development in the political, economic, social cultural and other
dimensions of human life as also the development of economic and other
material resources and also the physical, moral, intellectual and cu ltural
growth of the human person. The improvementof the status of women
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16 Women's development should not only be viewed as an issue in social
development but should be seen as an essential component in every
dimension of development."
Development and Women's Dependency: Maitreyi Krishna Raj states
that the process of development has in fact led to underdevelopment and
greater dependency of women. This is especially so in the case of
developi ng countries such as India. In pre-colonial and pre -industrial and
pre-capitalist India there was advanced technology and adequate resource
management to provide people with a simple way of life. There was also a
great deal of technology transfer from East to West which has been
completely reversed toda y. Today, India has a small modern and developed
sector of the economy which is the organized sector while the larger sector
remains scattered in small units of production called the unorganized
secto r. Women , due to their subordinate status and special social
responsibilities are mostly drawn into the unorganized secto r.
Developmental processes have also destroyed the earlier balance with
nature, loading to environmental degradation creating special problems for
women. Due to pressures of foreign trade, women are used as cheap
labour in export -oriented industries, Krishna Raj further reiterates that the
political economy of women has been subjected to the continuing ideology
of patriarch y. This ideology perpet uates the unequal, discriminatory and
oppressive relations between the sexes. These relations derive their
strength from a material base through production whereby the woman's
role in labour and family leaves her in a state of dependence, The
discriminatio n against women and their subordination is further
encouraged in India through socialization, customs and practices. The
model used for development has not tried to change these structures and
provide a base for involving women in developmental participati on. The
continuing structures of male dominance has prevented women from
receiving any benefit of development. Moreove r, commercialization
imposed on traditional values has brought tragic consequences for women.
Increasing violence against women and genera l devaluation of women
through various forms of exploitations are the expressions of these new
disorders. The older anti -social practices against women such as sati, child
marriage or female infanticide have been replaced by new ones such as
bride burning for non -fulfillment of dowry and female feticides.
Discrimination against women has been persistent despite and even
because of development. This a ffects women, of all classes, but more so
poor women who have little access to social resources essential for
effective human existence; education, health and employment. They are
also denied access to power and authority and thus deprived of the
opportunity to speak for themselves. Changes brought about by
development have increased the contradictions for women though their
forms vary in di fferent classes and cultures. Strategies for improvement in
the position of women adopted until now have had little impact because
they do not attempt to change the conditions that causesubordination of
women but simply aim at alleviating some of the glaring negative
expressions. The alleviation too have not been e ffective as is shown by the munotes.in

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17 increasing marginalization and pauperization of women in the country and
the increasing violence against women.
Check Your Progress
3. Explain Maitrey Krishna Raj ’s view on Development
2.5 WOMEN'S RELATION TO DEVELOPMENT:
Development is today accepted as meaning the creation of conditions by
which the potential of all human beings can be fulfilled. This of course
includes women. Howeve r, It seem s that development has not only missed
women but has also hurt and exploited them in the process, Women have
yet to become partners in the development process. Development literature
from developing countries in Asia Africa and South America point to two
trends,
(i) that disparities exist in opportunities for survival and growth between
men and women, (ii) that development is bringing about new forms of
oppression and subordination of women, the status of women still remains
secondar y. She is essentially a dependent being su ffering exclusion from
decision making and devaluation of her personalit y. The emancipation of
women has been hindered by patriarchy and make domination. This is
seen in society's refusal to recognize women's contribution and
independent identit y. Women support a large part of the world economy
by their services in the home and the communit y. Women have always
worked and been part of the economy though much of their work is not
included in the definition of work. Women's work, is plagued b y low
status, low pay and low skills. For reasons of bias and prejudice in
statistical and conceptual analysis, much of the work performed by women
has been o fficially described as non -economic activit y. A glaring
discrepancy is seen in the fact that thoug h women are the main growers,
providers and distributors of food, it is the men who always receive more
food than women, Women, by are excluded from ownership of land and
also from access to technological developments. Development has yet to
draw women equ ally into its process. Development Indicators and
Women: Women di fferentially a ffect the process of socio -economic
growth and are di fferentially a ffected by the changes brought about by this
development. Conventional measures and indicators have failed to
adequately capture both women's contribution to development as well as
the impact that development has on women. Therefore, it is necessary to
have gender sensitive development indicators. In recent years the HDI
(Human Development Index) has become a deve lopment indicator of
choice. The HDI has threecomponents, namel y, adult literac y, life
expectancy and purchasing power parit y. Of the three, the first two are
non-economic indicators. The use of the HDI in ranking countries has
shown the huge gap that exis ts between men and women, everywhere,
particularly in education. The inequality of access at all levels of education
(primar y, secondar y, 58 university) is only one discriminatory factor
against women. As early as 1980, there was a demand that women's work
should be counted and included in GNP (Gross National Product). This munotes.in

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18 was raised at the international level in Copenhagen during the mid -term
evaluation of the LIN Decade for Women. During the last twenty years,
several attempts have been made to include w omen's work in the
calculation of the GNP of various countries. Howeve r, the prerequisites of
these calculations were focused "on non-economic activity" which
includes seventy five percent of women's work not recognized in o fficial
statistics. The World Ba nk's World Development Report of 1991 defined
economic development as "a sustainable increase in living standards that
encompass material consumption, education, health and environment."
The report also published nine indicators, including the GNP in which
there was an attempt to desegregate data by sex. All other development
indicators, namel y, education, labou r, force participation, access to health,
number of seats in parliament, had data desegregated by sex over a period
of twenty years for a large numb er of countries. By using these indicators
women were included for the first time in the 'parameters of development.'
2.6 GANDHIAN PERSPECTIVE
M.K Gandhi has showned his concern for the environment even before the
the international conferences like the Sto ckholm Conference of 1972 or
the Rio Earth Summit of 1992. His words, “The Earth has enough
resources for our need but not for our greed .” are highly relevant today
where we have been facing scarcities for almost all our basic needs just
because we have en ded wasting a lot more rather than conserving them for
future. In the words of Pravin Sheth, he was the “ World’s early
environmentalist in vision and practice” (Pravin Sheth, The Eco -Gandhi
and Ecological movements
(http://ww w.mkgandhi.org/ environment/environment.htm). His idea of
Hind Swaraj, was a signal against the erroneous model of development
that would lead to consumption of resources, something the world is
highly concerned about toda y.
With th e Industrial Revolution, everything bec ame mechanized and
human life became highly materialistic. One cannot deny the fact that it
has led to a better standard of living by material pleasure, but at the same
time, it has caused a massive loss to nature. 'A ll nations' rash and
boundless pursuit of industrialisation is now posing significant issues for
the very existence of not only man, but all living things' on the planet.
Mankind has given rise to environmental problems like deforestation,
pollution, globa l warming, depletion of ozone layer and natural resources
by activities like generation of hazardouswaste, E -waste, rapid and over
utilisation of resources, harming each and every species on the earth.
Gandhi in what he called it as a prophetic tone, state d that it has become
inevitable to stop causing further damage and mutilation of the planet and
to reduce the over -consumption so the pressure on the environmental
resources can be reduced at the global level.
According to Gandhi, development did not mean increased consumerism
and materialism, but for him, the term development coincided with self
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19 Materialism was a hurdle for self realization as it only increased greed.
Gandhi was heavily impacted by Adolph Just's book "Return t o Nature,"
which solidified his belief that if a human wish to live a happy and
fulfilled life, he must share it with all living beings, including birds,
animals, plants, and the environment in general. What humans receive
from nature must be repaid to he r. He despised any forms of violence
directed towards animals or any other life forms. Gandhi's understanding
of the interconnectedness of all life was articulated in this wa y. "I do
believe that all God's creatures have the right to live as much as we have ,"
he wrote in Harijan in 1937.
He referred to “advaita” which means no -duality and for him, unity of
humans with all the life forms was essential. He believed that violence or
himsa against any living thing is viol ence against self and this is the
biggest hurdle for self realisation.
Gandhi was unquestionably a visionary who foresaw the problems of
modernity and industrialisation. He was an early critic of modern
industrial civilisation's dehumanising aspect. The re -discovering of
Gandhi's warning of "indu strialise or perish" must be considered in the
perspective of new value orientation and the fight for human existence
endangered by environmental and ecological crises. For him, the modern
civilisation
and industria lisation created chaos in the societ y. He wrote in Young India
(20-12-1928, p.422), ‘God forbid that India should ever take to
industrialism after the manner of the West. The economic imperialism of a
single tiny Kingdom (England) is today keeping the worl d in chains. If an
entire nation of 300 million (India ’s population in 1928) took to similar
economic exploitation, it would strip the world like locusts . He goes on to
say that "to create India like England and America is to exploit other races
and regi ons on the planet." So fa r, it appears that the western nations have
partitioned all known races outside of Europe for exploitation, and that
there is no new world to uncover; what will become of India's attempt to
imitate the west?'
Gandhi was a staunch b eliever that India's villages are where it lives. To
him, destroying its village's culture and heritage through technologies,
equipment, and industrialization is a mistake. He cautioned young people
to never be seduced by modern modern civilisation glamor since "its flaws
are well acknowledged, but none of them are irreversible." As India is the
inheritor of rural civilisation, Gandhi called for village life as the aim. He
condemned the lifestyle where livelihoods and simplicity are uprooted and
machinery ta kes ove r. He favoured use of Charkha, a si mple machine
which requireshumans to operate, it did not take away the livelihood and
did not render people jobless. On the other hand, he opposed the huge
machinery which replaced humans with machines, leading to less
requirement of labour, rendering peop le jobless. According to Gandhi,
Urbanisation is exploitation of resources, causing death of villages and
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20 In his work Hind Swaraj, adopting this contemporary civilization and way
of life makes one's sp irituality and morality irrelevant. He was c oncerned
that "neither morals nor religion are taken into account by modern
culture." In the guise of moralit y, immorality is frequently taught.
Civilisation strives to improve bodily comforts and fails terribly in this
endeavour ‘. As he saw it, civilisat ion is the manner of behaviour that
points man in the direction of duty; to observe morals in order to gain
mastery over our minds and passions.
Gandhi was opposed to the idea of industrialised towns, where mater ial
luxuries and significant use of machines are prevalent. He was adamant
about developing the community and instilling in the residents the value of
health, hygiene, sanitation, and education in order to make a good
difference in their lives. His plan fo r development includes eradicating
poverty i n communities through promoting village self -sufficienc y, small -
scale industr y, handicrafts, and the exploitation of local resources. His
model on development, depends on using renewable sources of energy
which are natural, causing no pollution and harm to nature. He urged to
reduce waste generation, which is done by industrialisation. According to
Gandhi, Industrialisation will not create jobs for millions, but will
continue to create pollution and cause damage to the entire ecosystem.
Gandhi advocated for the development of thousands of cottage and village
businesses to provide an outlet for the people's creative abilities and
resourcefulness. This would aid in resolving unemployment issues while
also providing work for the unemployed and increasing the na tion's
wealth. The growth of the village would also halt the enormous migration
of villagers to cities in search of work, reducing the strain on urban
resources. We can witness how the mass migration from rural to urban
areas has not only contributed to th e pollution, but also has caused a
struggle for survival, where thousands stay on roads or unhygienic slums,
there is struggle for basic resources.
According to Gandhi, Nature is not for exploitation, but rather it is a
source of inspiration. Unrestrained development has extracted natural
capital —wate r, land, forests, and so on —inefficientl y, resulting in a series
of environmental crises such as ozone layer depletion, pollution, floods,
droughts and so on. As a result, man has embarked on a global
environme ntal devastation operation that has attained catastrophic
dimensions. Man has chosen violent ways to take abundantly from nature,
to express it in Gandhian ideology and philosoph y. Gandhi made a
passionate plea to males to stop exploiting women and inflict ing violence
on them. All living things, including nature and natural resources, are
affected. Gandhi was opposed to tampering with nature and the ecological
system that ensures everyone's health and reproduction. In the “rat -race” ,
humans have exploited n ature to the extent that there is always a fear of
survival.

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21 Check Your Progress
4. How did Gandhi view Industrialisation and Urbanisation?
2.7 SUMMARY
Both the Gender Perspectives and Gandhian Perspectives on d evelopment
focus on how the process of develop ment has led to the oppression and
exploitation of nature. Women, being close to nature, are a ffected
significantly due to its exploitation. Only if development helps and
contributes to the wellbeing of all the genders, it canbe seen as beneficial.
Urbanis ation and Modernisation has killed village life, led to mass
migration, making the urban areas congested and leading to pollution, thus
harming nature. Gandhi opposes Industrialisation where machines rule
over mankind, rendering millions jobless and create a struggle for survival
by harming nature. This is highly relevant in today's world where we have
forgotten the importance of nature and by ourselves have contributed to
the disasters that are threatening the entire ecosystem.
2.8 QUESTIONS
1. Elaborate o n the theories of Gender and Development.
2. Explain the views of Maitreyi Krishna Raj / Ester Boserup on
development
3. Elaborate on the Gandhian philosophy on Development. Do you agree
with his philosophy and how it relates to our modern world?
2.9 REFER ENCES
● Boserup, Ester: Women & Development
● Krishnaraj, Maitreyi : Women & Development
● Women and Development. Indicators of their changing role (UNESCO
1981)
● Women in Development ( World Bank Pub. 1990)
● Women in Development ( World Bank 198 9
● Commission on Status of Women (UN 2000)
● Singh, Ramjee., the Gandhian Vision, Manak Publications Pvt. Ltd.,
New Delhi, 1998. Sheth, Pravin., Theory and Praxis of
Environmentalism: Green plus Gandhi, Gu jarat Vidyapeeth,
Ahmedabad, 1994.
● Ramjee Singh, S. Jeyapragasam and Dashrath Singh.,(ed), Aspects of
Gandhian Thought, Indian Society of Gandhian studies, 1994 munotes.in

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22 ● Gandhi , M. K., Hind Swaraj, Navajivan Publishing House, Ahmedabad,
1938.
 Gandhi, M. K., Nature Cure, Navajivan Publishing House,
Ahmeda bad, 1954.
● Gandhi, Ecology and Environment, Gandhi Centre, Visakhapatnam,
2004.
 Weber, Thomas., Gandhi and Deep Ecolog y, Journal of Peace
Research, Vol. 36, No3, May 1999.
● Website Sources
● Pravin S heth, The Eco -Gandhi and Ecological movements
(http://ww w.mkgandhi.org/ environment/environment.htm)


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23 3
RECENT TRENDS – RISK SOCIETY
PERSPECTIVE OTHERS
Unit Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Meaning of Risk
3.3 Understanding Risk Society
3.4 Reflexive Modernization
3.5 Mary Douglas View point
3.6 Risk and Culture
3.7 Global Warming and associated Risk
3.8 Criticism
3.9 Summary
3.10 Questions
3.11 References
3.0 OBJECTIVES
1. To understand Risk society
2. To learn about Risk society multiple applications in different fields
specifically Environment.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter we will learn about the meaning of Risk society and its
vario us dimensions. The topic is very important because it is
contemporary, relevant and it can very much applied in our day to day
lives and society at large. This topic would be useful for environmental
studies, to understand the theories at large, to underst and the impact of
technology on globe at large and individuals too. Environment has been
one of the most neglected area, in this chapter we will also look into how
Environment is at Risk.
There are various kinds of risks in a society like natural risks,
technological risks, real and socially constructed risks, invisible, visible
and virtual risks, actual and perceived risks, borderless risks etci. In fact,
we have entered into an age where risk is innumerable – there exists
uncertainty in terms of ecolog ical balance, financial, threats from terrorists
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24 Every day in our lives we take certain risk in terms of career choices,
relationship choices, little decisions while buying new food or even major
decisions like moving to another city for tourism or for permanent
settlement. Though every one may not be taking the same risk but some
degree of risk every individual take in their lives. In terms of females they
get married and go to a new household specially if it’s an arranged
marriage then it’s a risk too as she may or may not be knowing anyone in
the new family. We take risk of trusting over friendships, businesses, jobs
etc. Politicans also take big decisions and which can put a country at risk
at large. With Information Technology the risk has wide ned to a large
extent. Starting from the simple society of hunting and gathering to that of
Information Technology era, digitalization the amount of risk human
beings is taking at present has widened and grown ten-fold. Some
countries have reached at time s, where we are even trying to find another
alternative for settlement than earth like Mars. This chapter is more of
theoretical in nature, but the theory of Risk Society is very useful and one
can apply it in one’s daily observations of life too.
3.2 MEA NING OF RISK
Risk is a generic concept that denotes fear or the threat of something bad
happening. According to James Neill, "risk" generally relates to the
possibility of losing a "valuable resource." M meaning of risk, may
also refer to a chance or poss ibility ("risk of exposure"), a result or impact
("the risk of smoking"), or a dangerous condition ("a hazardous waste
facility generates a risk"). On the basis of involuntary or voluntary events,
linguistic interpretations of the term "risk" have evolved. For example,
"danger" is frequently used to represent an unintentional incident, but
"peril" might be used to indicate an intentional one. Despite its broad
usage, no single definition on risk and it can claim to be universal, and
there is little chance o f a common understanding arising without some
deliberate effort to reach an agreement.
3.3 UNDERSTANDING RISK SOCIETY
One of the most ambitious, broad, and contested social theories of risk is
the risk society, established by two sociologists Ulrich Bec k and Anthony
Giddens. This theory of risk society has been referred in two books by
Ulrich Beck that is – Risk Society – Towards a new modernity (1992) and
World Risk Society (1999). While Giddens writes about Risk society in
the book – The Consequences of Mod ernity, Modernity and self identity –
Self and society in the late modern age (1991).
A risk society is one in which we are increasingly living on the edge of a
high technological frontier that no one fully comprehends and which
produces a wide rang e of p ossible futures. Risk society has its roots in two
key shifts that are still impacting our lives today. The first transition is the
end of nature, while the second can be characterised as the end of
tradition. The end of nature does not imply that t he natu ral environment
would vanish. It implies that few, if any, components of the physical
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25 Nature's end is a recent phenomenon. Of course, it's impossible to pinpoint
the exact date, but we can approximate w hen the end of the world will
occurre. It occurred as people's anxiety about nature shifted to a different
set of concerns. People have worried about what nature could do to
humanity for hundreds of years — earthquakes, floods, epidemics, poor
crops, and s o on. W e stopped caring so much about what nature could do
to us and started worrying more about what we have done to nature at
some point in the last fifty years or so. In a risk society, the transition is a
crucial point of entrance.
We no longer live ou r lives according to fate; a phenomenon Ulrich Beck
refers to as individualisation. A civilization based on nature and tradition
is fundamentally different from earlier forms of industrial society, which
served as the foundation for the creation of core in tellect ual traditions.
A risk society is not inherently more un safe or harmful than other social
structures. It is useful to trace the origins of the term 'risk' in this context.
Life in the Middle Ages was dangerous, but there was no concept of risk,
and no con cept of risk appears to exist in any traditional society todayiii.
Risk society is a grand theory of society, concerned with the transition
from contemporary industrial civilization to a new period marked by
technological dangers. Ulrich Beck's phras e of ri sk society is seen as
developing from that of World War II. Beck is especially concerned with
new forms of risk that have emerged —or may emerge in the future —as a
result of human behavior.
According to Beck, ‘the nature of the dangers we face now, has cha nged —
they have been 'de -bounded' in terms of spatial, temporal, and social
elements. Risks are no longer bound by regional or even national borders,
but are frequently global in scope; risks may also have long latency
periods, implying that the act ual caus e of particular threats may lie in the
distant past or, as in the case of nuclear material, may remain with us for
thousands of years; and, as a result of these spatial and temporal
uncontrolled, assigning responsibility in a legally relevant manne r has
become difficult.iv As pollution, contamination, and other by -products of
manufacturing are caused by civilization, rather than "natural" risks that
have historically been examined by hazards specialists.
Risk to one's health from the environment is regarde d as a social construct.
The social structures/systems through which choices are made have grown
increasingly significant as we become more conscious of science's
limitations. As a result, our foundational sense of safety in the world has
been bro ken, rai sing questions about society's long -term ability to protect
us (e.g., the welfare state, individual insurance).v
Beck's applications of the concepts in Risk Society (1992) in the
disciplines of work and political economy have affected scholarly deb ates
on unstable labour and globalisation. In the Brave New World of Work,
Beck outlines the ramifications of a transition away from class -based
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26 (2000a). He locates the historical class -based st ruggle between production
factors inside the bounds of nation -states, noting that multinational
corporations are increasingly operating without the constraints of
organised labour, or becoming 'deinstitutionalized... '
The Brave New World of Work (200 0a) fu ndamental's premise is that the
emergence of dangerous work is due to a global risk society, in which
labour is being replaced by conditional and flexible working biographies
built by individuals in constant stages of transition and self -reinvention.
Beck suggests that a "global citizen" civic society be developed to
organise labour and human actions around transnational vested interests
rather than nationalityvi.
Check your Progress
1. What is your view on Risk society?
2. Explain – Risk and Culture in few lines
Let us now look into Risk from different view points
3.4 REFLEXIVE MODERNIZATION
Beck claims that modernity takes place through unplanned and unforeseen
phase that is pushing it to confront its own model's foundations and
boundaries. In his words, mode rnization has become "reflexive." Beck's
concept of reflexive modernization (Beck, Giddens, and Lash 1994)
proposes a "radicalization" of modernity in which individualization,
globalisation, gender revolution, underemployment, and global risks
undermi ne th e foundations of classical industrial modernity and render old
concepts obsolete. Modernity's internal dynamic pits it against the hitherto
unknown threat of global self -destruction as a result of the threats posed
by specific technologies.
As a resul t, Be ck portrays the risk society as entwined with reflexive
modernity. In the same way that "simple modernity" created commodities
and services that posed distribution issues, reflexive modernity is creating
dangers that must be dispersed fairly.
The Refl exive Modernization has to be viewed from two stages namely –
1. Reflex stage – In this stage, it is seen that risks are viewed as created
by modernization.

2. Reflection stage - In this stage, risk is seen as growing and there also
exists critical reflection.
In other words, people are viewed as dealing with constantly insecurity
and Uncertainty in their lives. Risk also becomes political and modern.
3.5 MARY DOUGLAS VIEWPOINT
Mary Douglas, an anthropologist, and numerous of her colleagues have
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27 cultural interpretations of natural qualities reveal as much about the
reflected character of society as they do about the underlying elements of
nature itself, building on Durkheim's famous idea that r eligious
cosmologies mirror social structures. Cultures that are carefree,
independent, and dynamic tend to see nature as robust and capable of
taking care of itself, whereas cultures that are unstable or concerned about
defending their borders tend to see natu re as fragile and in need of
protection.
Douglas even discussed a method for assessing risk in mature industrial
cultures. According to her risk worries in a community, is related to the
society's cultural 'insecurities' (Douglas and Wildavsky 1982). Dougl as'
"culture theory" has been difficult to verify and it presents a number of
theoretical issues, including the unit of cultural analysis and the origins of
cultural change. Her method, on the other hand, serves to highlight the
extent to which a cu lture's risk awareness may be ascribed to the form
more general cultural worries.
Human manipulations in nature do not cause all current hazards. Though
medical and environmental dangers have become more prominent since
the mid -1970s, the networked and in dustrial ised world has also been
marked by concerns about crime, immigration, internet security, financial
markets, and global social dislocation. Risk apprehensions can thus be
attributed not just to nature and the human body, but also to contemporary
civilizatio ns' self -perceptionvii.
3.6 RISK AND CULTURE
In its broadest version, Beck's theory states that the most modern are
hazardous ( specially ‘ late' or 'high' modern societies (Giddens 1991))
They are also reflexive in the sense that they are self -inflic ted. Risks in the
early modern period are external to social actors' and self -conscious
control. As though under the power of external, natural forces, diseases
spread, terrible weather ruined harvests, and flames consumed cities. Even
if human activities increased some of these hazards, the current
assumption was that they were uncontrolled. Risks such as the possibility
of catastrophic nuclear reactor accidents, on the other hand, are clearly the
result of human activity in high -modernity. (Beck 1986).
In this per spective, Victorian and early -twentieth -century optimism about
the gradual reduction of risk marks, ironically, the shift from seemingly
external to socially -induced danger. Because modern dangers are typically
the result of science and technolog y ventures (nuclear power, ozone -
depleting chemicals in the earth's atmosphere), scientific and technological
developments are caught up in this reflexive pattern. Science and
technology are involved in the cause, diagnosis, and, with luck, eventual
rectif ication of the problem.

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28 3.7 GLOBAL WARMING AND ASSOCIATED RISK
Beck is particularly concerned about environmental and health hazards,
particularly those posed by genetic technologies. According to Beck,
modern society functions as a "laboratory" in whic h no one i s held
responsible for the negative consequences of technological advancement.
He gives the examples of Chernobyl reactor explosion which harmed the
people and environment. Let us now look into how global warming is
risky in todays time.
The glo bal warmin g today, is a problem for not one country but it is a
problem which whole world is going to face. The worldwide yearly
temperature has risen by a little more than 1 degree Celsius, or roughly 2
degrees Fahrenheit, during the Industrial Revolutio n. It incre ased by 0.07
degrees Celsius (0.13 degrees Fahrenheit) per ten years between 1880 and
1980, when good recordkeeping began. Since 1981, however, the pace of
growth has more than doubled: the global annual temperature has risen by
0.18 degrees Cel sius (0.32 degrees Fahrenheit) every decade for the
previous 40 years.
What's the end result? The world has never been hotter. After 1880, nine
of the ten hottest years have happened since 2005, with the five warmest
years on record all occurring since 201 5. Climate change doubters say that
rising global temperatures have come to a "halt" or "slowdown," however
several studies, including one published in the journal Environmental
Research Letters in 2018, have refuted this assertion. People all across the
world are al ready suffering as a result of global warming's effects.
Climate scientists have now noted that we must control global warming to
1.5 degrees Celsius by 2040 if we are to prevent a future in which the
worst, most devastating effects of climate c hange: seve re droughts,
wildfires, floods, tropical storms, and other disasters which we collectively
refer to as climate change, will be part of everyday life around the world.
These impacts affect everyone in some way, but they are felt most
intensely by the poor, economically marginalised, and people of colour,
for whom climate change is frequently a primary cause of poverty,
relocation, hunger, and social unrest.viiiix
Risk in terms of Health
3.8 CRITICISM
Many social scientists have praised Beck's overall analytical assertion, and
the phrase "risk society" has now become common word. The specifics of
his analysis, on the other hand, have not been welcomed with the same
enthusiasm. For starters, it's uncertain how'modern' many current threats
are. The low -tech industry of making cattle feed from animal protein,
notably in the context of energy -saving, low -temperature process
advances, is considered to have caused the outbreak of'mad -cow disease,'
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perspective Others
29 Beck 's favourite examples —such as the dangers of Chernobyl nuclear
fallout —have a primitively 'democratic' feel to them.
On the surface, the consequences might affect both the rich and the poor.
In that sense, the 'risk society' is an issue that aff ects everyo ne (Beck
1986). However, as the environmental justice movement has
demonstrated, environmental 'bads' are still being allocated unequally
along racial, gender, and class lines, notably in the United States (Bullard
1994). It's possible that the dangers of the risk society aren't distributed as
evenly as Beck claims. Finally, Beck says little about the causes
underlying cultural disparities in the importance of various types of risk,
despite the fact that it is obvious that risk framing and policy responses
vary substantially even within socially and economically equivalent places
like Europe and North America. (Jasanoff 1986).
3.9 SUMMARY
by two sociologists Ulrich Beck and Anthony Giddens. This theory of risk
society has been referred in two boo ks by Ulric h Beck that is – Risk
Society – Towards a new modernity (1992) and World Risk Society
(1999). While Giddens writes about Risk society in the book – The
Consequences of Modernity, Modernity and self identity – Self and
society in the late modern age (1991).
A risk society is one in which we are increasingly living on the edge of a
high technological frontier that no one fully comprehends and which
produces a wide range of possible future. by two sociologists Ulrich Beck
and Anthony Giddens. This theory of r isk society has been referred in two
books by Ulrich Beck that is – Risk Society – Towards a new modernity
(1992) and World Risk Society (1999). While Giddens writes about Risk
society in the book – The Consequences of Modernity, Modernity and self
identi ty – Self and society in the late modern age (1991). A risk society is
one in which we are increasingly living on the edge of a high
technological frontier that no one fully comprehends and which produces a
wide range of possible future. Beck's conceptuali zation has sparked new
study on the social and environmental ramifications of science and
technology, as well as helped in growing use of risk analysis in debates of
public policy using science and technology that raise ethical concernsx.
3.10 QUESTIONS
1. Discuss Mary Douglas on Risk
2. Explain Risk Society
3. Discuss Environmental Risk with reference to Global Warming


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30 3.11 REFERENCES

i Ekberg, M.E. (2007). The Parameters of the Risk Society. Current
Sociology, 55 , 343 - 366.
ii https://slideplayer.com/slide/2752141/
iii Giddens, A. (1999). Risk and responsibility. Mod. L. Rev. , 62, 1.
iv risk society. Oxford Reference. Retrieved 16 Apr. 2022, from
https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100
422576.
v Jamie Baxter, Health and Environmental Risk, Editor(s): Audrey
Kobayashi,
International Encyclopedia of Human Geography (Second Edition),
Elsevier,2020,Pages 303 -307,
ISBN 9780081022962, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978 -0-08-102295 -
5.10440 -8.
(https://w ww.sciencedi rect.com/science/article/pii/ B9780081022955104408)
vi Adam J. Pritchard,Beck, Ulrich (1944 –2015), Editor(s): James D.
Wright,
International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences (Second
Edition), Elsevier,2015, Pages 396 -400, ISBN 978 0080970875,
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978 -0-08-097086 -8.61154 -6.
vii S. Yearley, Risk, Sociology and Politics of, Editor(s): Neil J. Smelser,
Paul B. Baltes, International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral
Sciences,Pergamon,2001,Pages 13360 -13364,ISBN 9 780080430768 ,
https://doi.org/10.1016/B0 -08-043076 -7/03202 -2.
https://people.eou.edu/socenv/readings/week -8-2/risk -
society/#:~:text=Some%20examples%20include%20pollution%2C%20tox
ins,they%20are%20not%20distributed%20randomly .
https://www.greenbiz.com/article/social -roots-risk-how-vulnerable -are-we
viii https://www.climate.gov/news -features/understanding -climate/climate -
change -global -temperature munotes.in

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perspective Others
31 viii S. Yearley, Risk, Sociology and Politics of, Editor(s): Neil J. Smelser,
Paul B. Baltes, International Encyclopedia of the Socia l & Behavioral
Sciences, Pergamon,2001, Pages 13360 -13364, ISBN 9780080430768,
https://doi.org/10.1016/B0 -08-043076 -7/03202 -2.
ix https://www.climate.gov/news -features/understanding -climate/climate -
change-global -temperature
x https://www.encyclopedia.com/sc ience/encyclopedias -almanacs -
transcripts -and-maps/risk -society


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32 4
GOLDEN AGE APPROACH - PRE
COLONIAL PERIOD
Unit Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Golden Age Approach
4.3 Pre colonial period
4.4 Questions
4.5 Reference
4.0 OBJECTIVES
1. To understand the Golden Age
2. To learn about Pre colonial environmenta l conditions
3. To learn about the prominent environmental movement of Pre
colonial India – Bishnois movement.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter we are going to study about the topic Pre-Colonial - Golden
era in terms of Environment. Every decision we make ab out what to buy,
wear, and consume has a direct and strong influence on climate change,
child malnutrition, and the health and balance of Mother Earth's water, air,
and landi. This chapter is very important to understand the present and
future. This chapte r would be useful if you are planning to pursue career
with environmental sciences as specialization, work with Non-
Governmental Organizations, which work on these areas. If you are
planning to work with fieldwork in rural areas, understanding about the
historical events in Environment would be helpful. The discipline of
Environment is going to be more in demand, with rising global warming,
hence studying these topics which are contemporary is very important.
There are several organizations like Center for Enviornmental Studies
where one can specialize and work if interested in future. There are Hindi
songs like Where the golden bird resides that is the nation of mine India.
Jahan dal dal par sonne ki chidiya karthi hai basera, woh bharat desh hai
mera, who bharat desh hai mera. This song explains the beauty of India
and its greatness. Like this song, India had golden years prior to
Colonization especially in terms of natural resources and environment.

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33 4.2 GOLDEN AGE APPROACH
The Golden Age of India said to be with the Gupta Empire's prosperity,
which was distinguished by numerous innovati ons and discoveries in
science, technology, engineering, art, dialectic, literature, logic,
mathematics, astronomy, religion, and philosophy.
His court comprised the Nava rtna, or the Nine Jewels, a group of nine
academics who created improvements in various academic subjects,
Chandragupta II, encouraged the confluence of science, art, philosophy,
and religionii.
4.3 PRE -COLONIAL PERIOD
South East Asia – Pre colonial
Human contact with the Southeast Asian rainforest was predominantly one
of dependency until around fifteen centuries ago. Trees were cut for food
and aromatic woods, as well as to burn in dryer zones as part of a shifting
agricultural process, but population pr essures were low enough to allow
for regular regrowth. Before the modern era of plantation agriculture and
mechanised logging, two major changes had already profoundly
influenced the environment: (1) the development of permanently irrigated
rice fields in upland valleys, gradually creating substantial areas of
permanent agricultural land and allowing for greater concentrations of
population, both agricultural and urban; and (2) the rapid growth of
commercial agriculture beginning in the fifteenth century.iii
Pre colonial India
The Pre colonial India is a vast topic. There were several groups
(kingdoms) which existed in the pre colonial era like 16 mahajanapadas.
However, the impact of the Britishers was massive. In terms of India, the
pre colonial era, is gen erally can be seen as the period from before the
beginning of the British rule, i.e. 1757. Hence, we will focus on this
section itself.
Nature in India
Indian traditions has very close relationship with that of forest, trees,
plants. Nature worship is sti ll practiced all over the country in different
forms among different religious groups. People consider several trees as
sacred even today like Neem, Tulsi (Basil plants) etc. During any ritual it
is plants or trees are included let it be as mango leaves, b anana stem and
leafs or as paddy. Even in mythological stories like Ramayan, there is
reference of forest being lifted, residing in forest for years. Forest produce
like honey, medicines still carry lot of importance even today. Given these
details let us look into the geography of India and its details.
The location and extent of India's landforms have had a significant impact
on her previous history. The study of physical elements in connection to
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34 land-use, modes of transportation, population sharing, and so on are
directly related to history. The following four major physiographic
divisions may be found in India:
The Himalayas in the north and the Eastern Highlands in the east form a
high mountain barrier; the Ganga -Yamuna Doab; the Plains of Northern
India, also known as the Ganga -Yamuna Doab; the Plains of Peninsular
India, south of the North Indian plains, also known as the Indian Plateau;
and the Coastal Lowlands fringing the Plat eau of Peninsular Indiaiv.
Characteristics of Pre colonial India
1. Agriculture
Subsistence farmers grouped in tiny local groups carried out agriculture
activities in India. Villlage was essentially self -sufficient economically,
with its only commercial dea lings with the outside world being the
payment of land income (usually in kind) and the purchase of a few
necessities from the surrounding town. The farmer grew only the food he
required for his personal consumption and shared the rest with the local
craftsman, who provided him with modest manufacturing for his own use.
Communication was limited to basic methods.
As a result, agricultural produce commerce was restricted. The farmer
generally grew enough food to support himself and the village's non -
agricult ural residents. Due to favourable meteorological circumstances, if
his crop yielded more than the consumption demands, he saved the
remainder for use in lean years. Food grain storage was a popular
technique among pre -colonial agriculturists, and it was th e only way to
avoid famines in these conditions. Throughout the Middle Ages, this
agricultural system persisted. Eventually, towards the end of the 18th
century, village communities began to disintegrate under the influence of
new forces that gave the Indi an rural economy vitality.
This was mostly due to two things. The emergence of a thriving
agricultural export trade in India. Both of these developments were
brought about through interaction with the West through the foundation of
British administration.
2. Trade - Despite the fact that Indian communities were mostly self -
sufficient and communication was poor, India enjoyed substantial
trade inside the nation as well as with other Asian and European
countries. Imports and exports were maintained in balance. P earls,
wool, dates, dried fruits, and rosewater from the Persian Gulf; coffee,
gold, medicines, and honey from Arabia; tea, sugar, and silk from
China; gold, musk, and woollen cloth from Europe; metals like copper,
iron, and lead; and paper from Europe wer e among the things
transported into India. Cotton textiles were the principal exports from
India. Apart from cotton textiles, India also supplied raw silk, indigo,
opium, rice, wheat, sugar, pepper, and other spices, as well as valuable
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35 In pre-colonial periods, the main characteristics of Indian commerce were
I a favourable trade balance and (ii) a foreign trade that was most
appropriate for India's degree of manufacturing. A favourable trade
balance resulted in a surplus of exports over i mports, implying that India
exported more than it needed to import. Because India's economy was
mostly self -sufficient in handicrafts and agricultural items, it did not
require large -scale international imports and maintained a healthy Wade.
Second, India' s overseas trade met the country's needs well. In other
words, India benefited from the commodity pattern, which is critical to
every country's global commerce. India specialised in exporting some
commodities and importing others. The commodity pattern of India's
international commerce changed dramatically from pre -colonial to
colonial periods.
Despite the fact that India's export surplus remained, the country's
international trade pattern shifted. For example, India was turned from a
cotton textile exporte r to a cotton textile importer, destroying India's rich
traditional handicrafts.
3. Handicraft Industries
Industries of Handicraft As previously said, India was a manufacturing
powerhouse. Indian artists were well -known around the world for their
abilitie s. In truth, India's favourable international trade was due to its
superior domestic output. India produced cotton and silk textiles, sugar,
jute, dyestuffs, mineral and metallic items such as weapons, metalwares,
and oil on a massive scale. Dacca and Mmhi dabad in Bengal, Patna in
Bihar, Surat and Ahmedabad in Gujarat, Jaunpur, Varanasi, Lucknow, and
Agra in Uttar Pradesh, Multan and Lahore in Punjab, Masulipatnam and
Visakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh, Bangalore in Kerala, and Coimbatore
and Madurai in Madras were thriving textile centres. Kashmir was known
for its woollen mills. Shipbuilding was a major industry in Maharashtra,
Andhra Pradesh, and Bengal. Many European businesses purchased
India's ships towards the end of the 18th century. Without a doubt, on e of
the most important centres of global trade and industryv.
The intricacies of relationships between many components of the
environment have not been explored in pre -colonial Indian historical
narratives. The availability of water for irrigation is a c rucial factor for
every agrarian civilization, particularly in dry and semi -arid locations with
irregular annual rainfall distribution and low water tables, salty water is
frequently used even for drinkable reasons.
Check Your Progress
1. Discuss South East A sia in terms of Environment .
2. List out three Characteristics of Pre colonial India .

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36 Environmental conditions in the Pre colonial India
In pre -colonial India, the cultivated land produced a wide variety of crop
while the noncultivated particularly, fo rest area produced a wide variety of
crop. A wide range of plant and animal product with the purpose of
meeting the sustenance needs of the people in the area This happened
during the colonial period. The term, period has to be replaced with
cultivated ter ritories devoted to the development of a select few Cotton,
jute, indigo, and tea are examples of such crops uncultivated areas with a
few options Teak, for example, is a kind of wood (Tectona grandis),
largely for export to the United Kingdom. (Gadgil, 1 991)vi.
To understand the precolonial environmental conditions, we have to look
into different associated factors like role of state, industrialization,
infrastructure etc. Let us look into details of it -
Role of State
Different water management systems produced and maintained by
local/individual efforts as well as those designed and managed on a bigger
scale by the state for irrigation and drinkable reasons. The pre -colonial
rulers in Rajasthan were said to have to assure the continuation of
habitation by granting concessions and support in order to safeguard their
income source. In a society whose political and social orders were
intertwined into a single complicated web; it was a challenging act of
balance. The state was provided with an all -pervasive administrative
machinery via the same complicated web.
Its casts doubt on the mainstream assumption s centered on the state's
relative indifference to agricultural output and the resulting impunity
enjoyed by local socio -political power brokers and even g rowers.vii Many
states had sovereign kingdoms who looked after their own land.
Industrialization
Due to lack of industrialization in the country, many of the issues which
we face today as a result of industrialization didn’t exist. For eg - Air
pollution, W ater pollution, Drainage issues, massive population located in
one area - cities hence over use of the land available. Industrialization
effect in today’s time can be seen from the case of New Delhi, where the
quality of air has changed over years. Consumer ism was less and hence
the demand, supply, wastage created was less – as a result, toxic products
like plastic was not used. Hence, water bottles, toothpaste, milk packets,
comb, polyster clothes, chappals all the things which has plastic and used
in every day lives consumption was not in such massive scale. Due to lack
of mechanization production was many a times hand made and it was slow
in nature. This in turn did not create the use and throw culture unlike
today.
The infrastructure facilities were very poor and hence as a result,
deforestation was not as rampant as in the present times. There were no
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Colonial period
37 As a result, people were neither displaced on the name of infrastructure
nor the environment was harmed as visible today. With no car, vehicle the
energy crisis did not exist and petroleum products were not consumed at
heavy quantity like today and this helped in the preservation of
environment.
The Britishers brought about Indust rialization, Railways, transportation
for their own benefits to export the products of India, Mining, Steel,
Minerals extracts, Coals was made massively. These things were not so
popular back then hence, the nature and resources, were lying as it is was
hence, there existed balance in the nature. The species dependent of nature
did not get effected neither that of human beings.
Natural Disasters
There were periodic natural disasters like flooding - it harmed people,
settlements. However, from environmental view point it brought about
fertile soil at surface. Resulting in developing nutrition among crops.
Science –
Genetically modified products were not available back in those days as
research in terms of modifying crops, food was not evolved back then, this
protected both the environment and that of the people.
Urbanization did not grow such rapidly as majority of population was
living in villages. There was barter system practiced whereby people
exchange goods and services many a times. Leaving the famil y was
looked down upon, it was seen as unhealthy as joint family was the norm
of the societies.
Lack of enough transportation like Railways, buses made the travel time
also difficult. Very few people owned personal vehicles. Hence, the same
belief exists even today whereby an individual having a car is seen as rich.
The transportation mode was very elementary like travelling through
bullock carts, walking, using boats to commute etc. Being natural
methods, the population was far limited through that of tr ansportation. As
a result, the amount of carbon dioxide released in the atmosphere was
limited.
Death due to diseases
During natural calamities like earthquake, floods, lack of medical
facilities, transportation the number of deaths i.e. mortality was hi gh.
People could not live such a long-life span as they continue to live in
today’s time as a result parents even produced few more childrens so that
one would survive. There were problems like lack of food, diseases,
famines, tribal wars which reduced the population naturally. Hence, the
pressure on the environment, use of resources was very much limited.

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38 The Tribes
The tribes had greater control over the land. They lived in isolation away
from villagers. As a result, of this the nature was preserved. There was
also greater amount of belief patterns and respect with nature. Even today,
one can witness there are several rice varieties, plants information,
medicial plants details its known by tribes. As tribes were directly
dependent on that nature hence, they preserved it more than the urban city
dweller of today’s time. The conditions of people at times was affected by
war however, the environment remain unaffected many a times.
Check your Progress
1.Discuss the Golden Age
2. Discuss the role of tribes in preserving environment.
Case Study of Bishnois movement –
The Bishnois are regarded to be among India's first environmentalists.
They were born to be naturalists. For centuries, they have combined eco -
conservation with their faith, making it one of the most environmentally
conscious orders in the world today. Due to “ their respect for nature and
all forms of life, they are truly a 'BISHNOI.'
Saint Guru Jambheshwar is said to have founded Bishnoism in the Thar
Desert , Rajasthan, India, in 1485 AD. Even before the rest of the civilized
world was aware of the enviro nmental difficulties, the Bishnois were
aware of man's connection to nature and the importance of maintaining its
delicate balance. It's remarkable to think that Bishnoi visionaries were
thinki ng about these issues half a century ago. No other religious
institution has put such a strong emphasis on environmental preservation,
protection, and care as the Catholic Church. Tree huggers and tree -
hugging have their beginnings in Bishnoi history, whic h few people are
aware of.
The famous 'Chipko Movement' was tri ggered by a true story of a brave
lady named Amrita Devi Bishnoi who refused to let the kingsmen cut
down the trees. Her hair had been chopped off and her head had been
slashed off. After witn essing their mother lay down her life for them, her
daughters clu ng to the woods. Their heads had been amputated as well.
The adjacent village residents, upset by the happenings, clung to the trees
as the massacre continued. More than 300 people were kille d because they
refused to kneel down and tried to defend the tree s. When the monarch
realised what he had done, he felt disgraced. He apologised to the Bishnoi
community, put a halt to tree chopping and wild animal hunting in Bishnoi
regions, and threatene d individuals who disobeyed his directives. Sunder
Lal Bahuguna's "Chip ko Andoloan" was inspired by this sacrifice, as was
the Government of India's "Amrita Devi Bishnoi Smrithi Paryavaran
Award" for contributions to environmental protection. viii
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Colonial period
39 The Bishn ois were among the first to unite around environmental
preservation, wildlife protection, and green l iving. The Bishnois and
Bishnoism are particularly relevant to our changing society since their
values are based on 29 religiou ’s precepts. Bishnois respec t all life things
and do not chop down green trees. The Bishnoi communities are
constructed using loc ally c ollected materials and environmentally
sustainable methods. They don't cut down trees. Only dead wood is
collected by them. Even a carpenter waits fo r the tree to fall calmly. Deers,
Black Bucks, Peacocks, Blue Bulls, and Chinkaras are just a few of the
species that wander the towns. Many creatures have lasted thus long
because to the Bishnois and their devotion to environmental conservation.
Nowhere e lse could one find such a harmonious blend of vegetation and
animals. To overcome the severe drought and wat er shortage, the Bishnois
built water storage tanks that can catch and store rain water even before
the Rain Harvesting idea became popular. This wa ter is beneficial to both
people and animals. The cremation of the deceased is frowned upon by the
Bishnois. They bury the deceased to prevent wasting fuel.
Though they are a religious sect, the Bishnois do not believe in
superfluous ceremonies, idol worsh ip, caste systems, or other such things,
and instead place a strong focus on compassion, love, and pe ace,
solidifying their love for Mother Nature. Cow dung cakes are used as
cooking fuel to reduce the need of green forests."Amar Rakhave That" is
one of th eir main beliefs, which means "to offer sanctuary for abandoned
animals so that they can be rehabilit ated."
Check Your Progress
1. What is your understanding of Genetically modified food .
2. Name the Women who is associated with the Bishnoi movement who
laid down her life.
4.4 QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the case study of Bishnois as a environmental movement
2. Discu ss the characteristics of pre colonial India
4.5 REFERENCE

i Prasad, K. EVIDENCES OF PRE -HISTORIC JHARKHAND.
Jamshedpur Re search Review , 1500 , 600BC.
ii https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny -hccc-worldcivilization/ chapter/
the-golden -age-of-india/
iii Reid, A. (1995). Humans and forests in pre -colonial Southeast Asia.
Environment and History , 1(1), 93 -110. munotes.in

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40 ivhttp://www.eiilmu niversity.co.in/ downloads/HISTORY_OF_ECOLOGY
_AND_ENVIRONMENT_INDIA.pdf
v https://egyankosh.ac.in/bits tream/123456789/22972/1/Unit -5.pdf Ghosal, S. (2011). Pre -colonial and colonial forest culture in the Presidency of Bengal. Human Geographies --Journal of S tudies & Resea rch in Human Geography , 5(1).

vi Kumar M. Situating the Environment: Settlement, Ir rigation and
Agriculture in Pre -colonial Rajasthan. Studies in History. 2008;24(2):211 -
233. doi:10.1177/025764300902400204
vi https://ecologise.in/2017/0 5/28/the -bishnois -indias -original -
environmentalists -who-inspired -the-chipko -movement/





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41 5
REGIONAL DIVERSITIES : COLONIAL
PERIOD
Unit Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Nation Building
5.3 Independence struggle
5.4 Caste
5.5 Tribes
5.6 Religion
5.7 Region and Religion
5.8 Language
5.9 Food
5.10 Region and Identity
5.11 Genetic Variation in India
5.12 Conflict/Hypothesis
5.13 Summary
5.14 Questions
5.15 References
5.0 OBJECTIVES
1. To understand the regional diversities of India.
2. To understand the impact of regional diversities upon culture of
India.

5.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter we are going to look into the r egional diversities wit hin
India. India has witnessed several rulers, migration from different
countries. Diversity is one of the uniqueness of India. It is said that in
every five kilometers one would hear, taste different sound, food, customs
many a times. In a cosmopolitan ci ty like Mumbai there are people from
different locations of India and even abroad. This chapter will be helpful
for adding to the existing knowledge base of our country, to get some
unknown information, to develop perspective on India. Region meaning a
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42 which a country is dividedi:Let us look into the regional diversity in terms
of different aspects of our society.
5.2 NATION BUILDING
Geography is regarded to be a process of soci al construction, and how the
lands and oceans, mountains and rivers, take political significance is
largely determined by how geography is viewed and produced over
timeii.In today’s time geo politics is one of the most widely researched
discussed topics. Na tion is set by a boundary. However, building it takes
time.
Nation building is a lengthy process and it undergoes through several
wars, migration, presence of variety of leaders and their influence, events
through which a nation gets constructed. Nation a s Bendict Anderson said,
is a imagined community built and existing for the people. It has a defined
territory recognized by other countries.
Existing literature reveals that from 2600 to 2000 BCE, India had a highly
developed urbanised society known as the Indus civilisation which existed
in the northern section of the subcontinent, according to archaeol ogical
evidence. India became was practically self -contained political and
cultur al landscape during that timeiii.
According to S.M. Michael, cultural in puts and influences of India, came
from ancient Indian tribes, the urbanised Indus valley, and several other
groups like - Aryans, Greeks, Scythians, Parthians, Shakas, and Huns -
who arrived before the seventh century. Between the seventh and twelfth
centu ries, many groups including as Arabs, Persians, Turks, Afghans, and
Mongols also entered, adding to the country's cultural influencesiv.
India is also surrounded by different borders. There are s ix nations border
which surrounds India's border, and it also near one-third of its coastline.
Like Pakistan borders on the northwest, Nepal, China, and Bhutan, and
Myanmar on the east (Burma). Bangladesh is bordered on the east by
India on the north, east, and W est. Sri Lanka is a small island country
which exists 40 miles (65 kilometres) off the southeast coast of India,
separated by the Palk Strait and the Gulf of Mannar.
There also exists Arabian Sea to the W est and the Bay of Bengal to the
east which encircle much of India's territory. There is also Cape Comorin ,
the southernmost point of the Indian landmass, representing the dividing
line between those two bodies of water. India also has Lakshadweep, the
Arabian Sea, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, between the Bay of
Bengal and the Andaman Sea, are India's only union territory made up
completely of islands.
5.3 INDEPENDENCE STRUGGLE
The British established direct administration in the Indian subcontinent
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43 of the region. When British a uthority ended in 1947, the subcontinent was
divided into two countries namely, India and Pakistan (iii).
The anti -colonial struggle and modern India's artistic renaissance were
both reflections of the people's yearning for a national identity. People
were intimately immersed in the social issues of the day. Anti-colonial
resistance took the shape of a cultural movement, which blossomed into an
anti-colonial mobilization in the sphere of consciousnessv.Independence
movement was a movement in which large scale participation of females
also existed.
5.4 CASTE
Caste system is an unjust practice. Yet it is followed rigorously in several
parts of India and families too. There are issues like honour killing which
can be seen as outcome of discrimination due to ca ste system. Caste is also
an ascribed status. In the village context, there is not just caste but sub
castes too which we have to try to understand. The complexity of the
problem is that there exist few villages even today where all the residents
belong t o one caste. The Britishers role was very clear whereby they did
not interfere or try to disturb the existing caste structure.
5.5 TRIBES
The tribal population are said to be the original inhabitants of the world.
Even today, it is only the tribes who have the traditional knowledge of
different flora and fauna in the forests. They also have unique cultural
practices which is of the period of earliest human kind.
The Britishers had their own role to play in worsening the conditions of
tribals. The tribes in the colonial period were labeled as Criminal Tribes
through 1871 Act.This resulted in creating stereotypes, stigma etc. Though
these tribals helped in the independence movement and they help in the
preservation of the nature, culture, they are the ones wh o suffered the
most. Today the Tribal identity articulation has been a process led from
within the tribal community, it is also lead by a growing middle class. I n
recent times , the tribal ways of life faces challenges by other dominating
groups like indust rialists, real estates, politicians and demands imposed by
development. This articulation has taken the shape of demands for
political autonomy, as well as attempts to assure the preservation and
development of tribal language, customs, and culturevi. Triba l culture is
unique and it gives highimportance to nature and even females. For
example – Kaziranga (Assam) is a wild life sanctuary and the place is
named after a female. It believed that a female had brought few baby
rhinoceros with her and hence the pla ce flourished and hence as a tribute
to her, the village is named after her. There exists also exists a statue on
her name in the village. The seven sisters of our country (North East) also
have several tribes residing in them. Some of the tribes still hav e practices
of matriarchy where females are valued highly.
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44 5.6 RELIGION
Religion is a important institution in India which impacts every day lives
and decisions of individuals. The impact of religion can be seen from the
number of followers, cults, spir itual gurus developing everyday. In India
different religion/ belief system, exists and it has a huge important role to
play. According to the Census of India, 20 11 the religion data of the
country can be described as belowvii. All Religion 100.00
% 121 Cror es (Population
Practicing it) Hindu 79.80 % 96.62 Crores Muslim 14.23 % 17.22 Crores Christian 2.30 % 2.78 Crores Sikh 1.72 % 2.08 Crores Buddhist 0.70 % 84.43 Lakhs Jain 0.37 % 44.52 Lakhs Other
Religion 0.66 % 79.38 Lakhs Not Stated 0.24 % 28.67 La khs

Check your Progress
1. According to you, how can we eradicate the caste system or take some
steps towards reducing the discrimination associated with it.
2. The Criminal Tribes Act was laid on whi ch year and what was its
impact?
5.7 REGION AND R ELIGION
Religion/ Belief system can be also viewed from that of region specific, let
us try to understand this from that of village setting. In several villages of
India, there exists village gods and goddess which is located at the
entrance of the villag e. They a re viewed as the Guardians of the villages –
the structure could be a heap of sand, or it could be a mound, or even a munotes.in

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45 large erected stone or a statue with a weapon too. At times, the deity is
also believed to be residing on a tree – it could be ba nyan tree , palm tree,
neem tree etc. The belief is that the guardian gods protect the locality and
region. There are terms like ‘Sthalapurana’ – Sthala – meaning –puranas –
old /sacred writings which contains stories/ myths about the origin of the
gods and goddess. These stories is often verbal in form, narrated from one
generation to another. The point to note here is that such belief system is
identified with a location and are part of the folk culture, and every village
would have one such folk gods and g oddess.
There are several missionaries who came prior to colonialization and
during Colonization who have documented about these folk forms in
several texts. One such is Village Gods in India, written by Henry
Whitehead published in the early 1920s. In Mah arashtr a, we have several
such deities like Khandoba, Ekvira, JivDani goddess, Mari Ai to name a
few. The beauty of the folk cultural practices is that within India, the name
of the goddess, attire, also changes depending on location. For example –
Maari A i – Ai means mother in Marathi, the same goddess is called as
MaariAmma – Amma – here means mother in Tamil. There is also notion
of protection of one’s religion - idea of being a guardian (people) to the
guardian (god). Again, believed to be in different vi llages , specially
located at the entrance of village.
The goal of Religion/ Belief system is to provide a sense of community as
Durkheim said, it’s not religion or cults we are worshipping but what is
being worshipped is the society at large. With time, re ligion is used as a
tool to gain power by some groups. Several groups are using it for their
own purpose to divide and rule – what Britishers did to get into power.
The purpose of religion was to provide some sense of security, help
individual develop qual ities of helping others, developing fellowship,
qualities like being good, patience, honest, kind etc. However, these
factors are being sidelined with time. The essence of India unity is
diversity should be practiced. The emphasis should be on development,
globa l warming, education, creation of jobs, reducing employment at
macro level and at individual level – upgrading one’s skill sets – learning
– reading – making use of the gig economy, internet boom for productive
purpose.
5.7 LANGUAGE
The uniqueness ab out I ndia is that we have a rich culture, this can be
viewed from the large number of languages we have. There are 121
languages and 270 mother tongues in total. Part A contains the 22
languages listed in the Constitution of India's Eighth Schedule, whereas
Part B contains languages not included in the Eighth Schedule (numbering
99)viii. In our country, large section of people are multi lingual, bi lingual.
One of the direct impacts of colonization has been upon the language –
English is widely written, spoken i n India. It has both positive and
negative effects too. There exists the in visible domination of English,
which can be seen from how English sidelines the local Indian languages
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46 medium . The positive side includes as English is taught in schools ,
colleges and even separate courses being offered with specialized a wide
variety of jobs accessibility exists. You ngsters have benefitted from
English language learning in India and today Indians are able to travel a
wide range of countries and even work in other countries. With remote
jobs – they are even a ble to stay in India and work for other country.
5.8 FOOD
Indian food has a great deal of ge ographical variation. Two or three meals
are usually consumed, depending on income. Almost all meals consist
mostly of regional staple like rice is eaten in much of the East and S outh
India , flat wheat bread (chapati) / Roti in the north and northwest, and
pearl millet bread (bajra) in Maharashtra. This is frequently accompanied
by a puree of a bean (called dal), a few vegetables, and a tiny dish of
yoghurt for those who can afford it. Chilies and other spices give this basic
dish a kick. There are also veg/ non -vegetarian foods some of which is
gained popul arity all over the world through globalization like Butter
Chicken, Paneer Tika masala, Chicken 65 through Indian restaurants. The
uniqueness about Indian food is that several spices which have medicinal
properties are being included in it. For example – Let us take the example
of Rasam from South India – the pepper, jeera, garlic all have healing
properties to cure Cold. There are states which use Banana leaves instead
of plates. The Banana leaves has several curing properties, according to
Ayurveda. Polyphe nols, commonly known as epigallocatechingallate or
EGCG, are the chemicals th at coat banana leaves which is also p resent in
green tea. There are also natural antioxidants that are found in these
leaves. Eating in banana leaf helps reduces free radicals and h elps to avoid
sickness. Eating on banana leaves, or having hot food cooked on them
helps to consume the nutrients they contain. The leaf also has
Antibacte rial qualities which eliminate microorganisms in the food, and
even lowers the risk of being unwell. Even the Maharastrian Thali consists
of a balanced diet of both chapatti, rice, salad, curd etc. Coconut is also
widely used in the food, which has several healing properties like curing
thyroid.
There are several food storing traditional patterns in Indi a like making
pickle, making jams/ moramba like that of Avla (goosebeery), mango,
pineapples etc. There also practice of dugging a hole and keeping root
vegetables in places like Ladakh to use it for long time. Even drying the
left-over rice and making fri es out it, or even pappad etc. A proper Indian
Thali has the different flavors like sour, sweet, spicy, salty and other
flavours which a body requires. In addition, there are several items which
is consumed even after food like butter milk (thaak), baddisa unf etc.
which helps in better digestion. The Indian culture is so rich that food is
not just consumed but it is also offered to Gods and Goddess as offering
(neivaidy) and methods like water is sprinkled across it while offering –
reminding water as a sym bol of life.
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47 5.9 REGION AND IDENTITY
Region and community and identity is often linked together. For example -
If an individual is staying in Maharashtra the person would be called as
Maharashtrian, if from Gujarat then Gujurati. However, if the individu al is
from Kerala but residing in Maharashtra here the locational, identity
would change. Further, if the individual moves another country, he/she
would be called as Indian and further Asian. So, the identity associated
with the region, language, location can be said as fluid in nature. However,
there exists several groups who try to take benefit of this and create issues
too. Hence, we can say that there is shifting boundaries both in the
physical space as well as a mental construct in the society.ix
5.10 G ENET IC VARIATION IN INDIA
There exist different groups, races in India. Some studies point out that
there are nearly 4500 anthropologically well -defined communities, and it
is regarded as a treasure by geneticists and evolutionary biologists (castes,
tribes and religious groups). Endogamy, language, culture, physical
characteristics, geographic and climatic location, and genetic architecture
are all unique to each community. These circumstances lead to India -
specific genetic variants . As a result, decipher ing Indian population
origins and affinities, as well as health and illness situations, necessitates
comprehensive and advanced genetic study. The genomes of Indian
residents provide evidence of ancient human dispersals and settlements,
which has been wide ly studied in both conventional and genomic
analysis.x
5.11 CONFLICT/HYPOTHESIS
The Indian history of diversity demonstrates that the "conflict hypothesis /
theory ," which asserts that physical closeness between distinct groups
causes friction and disconte nt, fails to account for the many way’s
diversity displays itself. On the contrary, it illustrates the "contact theory,"
which states that spending more time with individuals from different
backgrounds leads to increased understanding and harmony among
groups, and that rising variety is not only unavoidable but also beneficial
and usefulxi.This has been seen with the Indian culture.
Check your Progress
1. According to you, how can be improve the harmony among different
religious groups in India.
2. How many la nguages are there in India according to Census 2011? munotes.in

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48

The above image shows the different sweets available in different parts of
India. Every sweet has its own history, culture associated with itxii.

Street foodxiii munotes.in

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49

Summer Drinkxiv
5.12 SUMMARY
We began th is chapter by trying to understand the nation building process,
where we looked how historically India had visitors , migrants from
different parts of world, and that is what makes India, distinct. The
uniqueness about India stands its diversity. We looked about language,
food, religion, region, tribes of the country. According to Joshi, further
improvement in India, could take place if there is collaboration betwee n
science and culture and unity in diversity is nourished and celebrated.
5.13 QUESTIONS
1. Discuss regional diversity in India with reference to Tribes and
Language
2. Explain Nation Building and link between region and religion in India.
3. Write a note on the food diversity in India.
5.14 REFERENCE

ihttps://dictionary.ca mbridge.org/dictionary/english/region

iiChaturvedi, S. (2003). “Indian” geopolitics: Unity in diversity or
diversity of unity? Ekistics , 70(422/423), 327 –339.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/43623374

iii Schwartzberg, J. E. ,Subrahmanyam, . Sanjay ,Champakalaks hmi, . R.
,Srivastava, . A.L. ,Wolpert, . Stanley A. ,Alam, . Muzaffar ,Thapar, .
Romila , Spear, . T.G. Percival , Allchin, . Frank Raymond , Calkins, . munotes.in

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50 Philip B. and Dikshit, . K.R. (2022, April 20). India. Encyclopedia
Britannica. https://www.britannica .com/place/India

ivMichael, S. M. (2007). Dalits in modern India: Vision and v alues . SAGE
Publications India.

Michael, S.M. (2007). Conversion, Social Mobility and Empowerment:
View from Below. Occassional Paper Series 4. Mumbai: University of
Mumbai Pres s.

vJoshi, P. C. (1983). Culture and Cultural Planning in India. Economic and
Political Weekly , 18(51), 2169 –2174. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4372795

viVirginiusXaxa. (2005). Politics of Language, Religion and Identity:
Tribes in India. Economic and Polit ical Weekly , 40(13), 1363 –1370.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4416402
vii https://www.census2011.co.in/religion.php

viiiSengupta, P., & Kumar, T. R. (2008).Linguistic Diversity and Disparate
Regional Growth. Economic and Political Weekly , 43(33), 8 –10.
http://www .jstor.org/stable/40 277846

ixSanghamitraMisra.Review of Interrogating the “Region,” by
RajendraVora and Anne Feldhaus. Economic and Political Weekly 41, no.
25 (2006): 2542 –44. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4418376.

xSarabjit S. Mastana , Jasvinder S. Bhatti , Puneetpal Singh , Adam
Wiles , Jonathan Holland . (2017) Genetic variation of MHC Class I
polymorphic Alu insertions (POALINs) in three sub -populations of the
East Midlands, UK . Annals of Human Biol ogy 44:6, pages 562 -567.

xiKAUL, V. K. (2015). India’s Diver sity: From Conflict To Innovation.
World Affairs: The Journal of International Issues , 19(4), 10 –43.
https://www.jstor.org/stable/48505245

xiihttps://www.thebetterindia.com/281110/mithai -map-of-india -10-lesser -
known -indian -sweets -you-must -try-at-least-once/

xiii https://www.thebetterindia.com/248955/street -food-map-india -food-is-
love/
xiv https://www.thebetterindia.com/278433/traditional -summer -drinks -of-
india -how-to-make -refreshing -recipes/


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51 6
NEHRUVIAN MODERNITY
Unit Structure
6.0 OBJECTIVES
 To understand the contribution of Nehru towards nation building
 To delineate key elements of Nehru’s vision of a modern Indian State
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The idea of Nehruvian modernity needs to be understood from the
political and h istorical context. Nehru was given the responsibility of the
newly formed independent nation that was trying to reconcile with the
trauma of partition. The nation was also striving for a unitary principle
that encouraged coexistence of multiple faiths. I ts aim was to generate the
infrastructure needed for removing poverty and illiteracy. All these
challenges led the first Prime Minister of the country to pursue his project
of modernity. Nehru provided leadership on matters to which the rest of
the world had not yet given a serious thought. His exposure to western
education and livelihood exposed him to the ideas of modernity.
The early years of India’s independence have often been associated with
Nehru and his vision for a modern India. It was under his leadership that
within the first one and a half decade after independence. India had built
most of the institutions. These institutions were critical to democracy such
as the Indian Constitution, a functioning parliamentary democracy and an
independent ju diciary that helped shaped India into a modern state. Nehru
also left a lasting impact on India’s economy by introducing the process of
planned economic development. The first two or three five -year plans
promised optimism related to Indian policy measur es. These plans tried to 6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 Understanding the concept of Nation
6.1.2 Nehruvian Worldview
6.1.3 Nehru’s commitment to ecological sustainability
6.1.4 Nehruvian Socialism
6.2 Conclusion
6.3 Summary
6.4 Questions
6.5 References
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52 work around the challenges imposed by a tradition bound society and
economy without any radical changes in the existing structure.
6.1.1 Understanding the concept of Nation
How is it that a country so diverse in terms of its la nguages, religions, and
castes and deeply traditional in its ethics, mores and values survive into
modernity, despite a non -traditional institution of formal democratic
representation and statehood? Scholars like Sunil Khilnani attempt to
answer this ques tion thus: The idea of India is apparently the idea of a
nation which is at once diverse and modern in these ways in the face of
several challenges of the past, present and the future.
There is a certain ambiguity in the understanding of the term ‘nation’ ,
whether it is a site and a basis for a movement or a claim to gain control of
that site. Qua site, the definition of a nation is not only on the basis of
territory (boundaries are inarguably important), but also on the basis of
principles and institutio ns of a State. Qua basis for a movement, a national
is defined upon a people with a common history and shared natural and
social attribute. This definition is debatable, and rarely agreeable between
political theorists and people themselves.
The problem w ith India is unique, because it was a site initially as a result
of the imposition of a colonial state by the British over a region with
intense historical and geographical disparity, scattered centres of power
associated with structures of caste, local ru le and then by the efforts of
native populations which were successful in overthrowing the British
colonial power. The native populations lack the shared unifying attributes
which define a nation.
6.1.2 Nehruvian Worldview
It is important to understan d Nehru’s worldview. Nehru was in many
ways modern and was influenced by the major transformations that post -
Enlightenment Europe was passing through. Nehru’s modernity was
indigenous and rooted in the Indian ethos, thus it was distinct from the
European idea of modernity. While his modern ideas were not absolutely
novel, they were incorporated in the framework of an independent nation
solely on the basis of his patience and persistence.
Nehru acknowledged that India was ancient, but at the same time a ligned
it to the modern world and the future he envisioned for all of mankind. In
order to achieve this, he used the State as a medium to modernize the
country. Nehru based his strategy on two things – heavy industry and
higher education. He recognized t hat India has limited resources, but
would give priority to the above two sectors.
Nehru recognized the importance of scientific and technical expertise and
funded the creation of various institutes of excellence in the field of basic
and fundamental rese arch. This saw the setting up of IITs, Universities
and also increased the technical manpower in absolute terms. It was Nehru
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53 nation. He began building institutions, including insti tutions which are
today referred to as the “Navratnas”, such as, Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd
(1964), Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (1956), Steel Authority of India
(1954), Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd (1964), Indian Oil Corporation (1959),
ISRO (1962), Dep artment of Atomic Energy (1954). Besides these, Nehru
also established the Indian Institutes of Technology (1951), Indian
Institutes of Management (1961), the National Institute of Design (1961),
and the Sahitya Akademi (1954).
Eminent scholar Avijit Path ak discusses Nehruvian modernity as is
reflected in the 21st century. How does one understand the project of
modernity Nehru visualized for redefining the identity and aspirations of a
new India? This question needs to be understood in the context of two
aspects. Firstly, does the discourse of Nehruvian modernity look old
fashioned or irrelevant, especially in the context of market -driven
technocratic rationality coupled with militant cultural nationalism?
Secondly, how can one revisit Nehruvian ideas i n the context of the larger
socio -philosophical debates which are enriched by critical theorists and
environmentalists, especially when there is clear evidence of discontent
relating to modernity which is reflected in several incidences of ecological
disas ters and all forms of cultural/psychic violence around us.
Prior to independence, Nehru wrote a series of works in which his
alignment to India as a civilizational entity was very clear. He traced the
origins of the modern nation to the Indus Valley Civi lization. He
recognized its long and curved history, it social and cultural matrix, its
epics, religious traditions and spiritual debates, its darkness and
prejudices, and its possibilities and contradictions. Nehru evolved his
philosophy of modernity by attempting to understand the core values of
the old civilization by recognizing the ‘dead weight of the past’. Nehru
was impressed by the technological and scientific developments in the
West and also by the practices and philosophies of socio -political
liberation. Thus, it would be apt to say that Nehru formulated the
blueprint of the project of modernity for India on the basis of historical
and cultural sensitivity and even metaphysical influences.
Sociologist Avijit Pathak delineates the three centra l pillars of the
modernity project which are as follows:
1. It gave emphasis to ‘scientific temper’ as a way of thinking, seeing,
acting and associating with society. Nehru recognized that India with its
traditional, hierarchical structure and mindset had to bear the burden of
priestcraft, fatalism, fear and superstitions which posed as obstacles to
development. He believed that the only way to overcome these challenges
was to engage with science with its emphasis on logic and reason,
empiricism, objectivity a nd argumentative culture and usher a new era.
2. He cherished the idea of ‘progress’ which he understood as a state of
material prosperity through massive industrialization and scientific
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54 wonder and generated an urge to sharpen critical consciousness and the
faculty of reason and logic.
3. His vision for the modern state was driven by some form of
secular/welfarism ethos. He wanted the modern state to play an active
role in modernizin g the society and create a new intellectual force which
would play the role of ‘legislators’ of modernity. To achieve this goal, he
established new centres of learning and research. This would help
consolidate the foundations of Indian nationalism based on the idea of
cultural pluralism, a broad pan -Indian consciousness, and some form of
federal structure which would ensure balance between the Centre and the
States.
6.1.3 Nehru’s commitment to Ecological Sustainability
Major works on environment al issues and sustainable development will
have references from the Brundtland Commission Report of 1987, the
Limits to Growth Report of the Club of Role of 1972 or some other UN
document of the 1980s. Our bias towards western scholarship is reflected
in the belief that the best definitions and concepts related to understanding
environment and sustainable development flow from the West. Here, it is
interesting to note Nehru’s thought and reflections on the environment,
despite the fact that he pursued th e goal of nation -building by constructing
several big industrial and river valley projects and dams which he referred
to as ‘Temples of Modern India’. Nehru is often criticized for this
standpoint. But it is often overlooked that he changed his approach
towards gigantism in the later years. Environment expert Chandra
Bhushan has observed that unlike Nehru, today’s leaders lacked the
capacity to change their opinion on environmental issues in the face of
new evidences. In 1952 the issue of environmental degradation and the
necessity to protect nature was raised by Nehru. In his letters to the Chief
Ministers he devoted one page outlining the subtle balance of nature and
raising questions regarding the adverse effects of numerous river valley
and industr ial projects on the environment. He also emphasized on
environment assessment of projects and took a stand in favour of
sustainability as early as the 1950s.
6.1.4 Nehru on Socialism
One of the ideas associated with Nehruvian thought is Socialism .
However, he refused to shape the socialism on patterns of Soviet Union
and he felt that democracy should be imbibed in socialism and consensus
among groups should prevail. The public sector became the focus of
planning during the Nehruvian era. The de mocratic approach of Nehru
was seen in the workings of the Planning Commission which despite
having unlimited power functioned with responsibility and consensus.
Labour intensive industries like small scale industries were promoted;
self-reliance was emph asized by adopting the import substitution policy,
community development programmes. He was persistent for the peasants
of India and was aware of how the zamindari system exploited the
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55 lead them towards self -sustenance. Agriculture cooperatives were created
for addressing the problem of the farmers and the unemployed. Post -
independence, the ‘license -permit -quota Raj’ was introduced as policy
measures to promote socialism and simultan eously at sustaining the
nation. The permit Raj had its own limitations and consequences. This
strategy failed in the long term but it also created a host of beneficiaries
amongst politicians, bureaucrats and business leaders who opposed the
dismantling o f this apparatus. Nehruvian socialism was the need of the
hour to keep united as a community and imbibe the ideals of democracy
and a feeling of nationhood and a feeling of a Republic.
6.2 CONCLUSION
Nehru was influenced by the promise that the grand E nlightenment project
of modernity held. Nehru showed modernity and enlightenment as
constructs that can wane and wear out and blossom in emphasizing
humanity. Scholar Welles Hangen in his book “After Nehru, who?”
determines the impact of Nehru’s effectiv e leadership and worldwide
influence. Nehru is considered as the manifesto of modernity and
modern ideas in India, the implementation and imbibing it in the system.
However, events in today’s world indicate that it would be difficult to
sustain this op timistic view. We live in a ‘risk society’ which is
threatened by war and climatic change. The growth of a media -induced
hyper real culture of consumerism comes with its own mechanism of
social control. Further, the surveillance based society could pose a danger
to the spirit of freedom and trust. All the above have posed serious
challenges to the project of modernity.
6.3 SUMMARY
The idea of Nehruvian modernity needs to be understood from the
political and historical context.
The definition o f a nation is not only on the basis of territory, but also on
the basis of principles and institutions of a State.
Nehru’s modernity was indigenous and rooted in the Indian ethos, thus it
was distinct from the European idea of modernity.
Nehru recognized the importance of scientific and technical expertise and
funded the creation of various institutes of excellence in the field of basic
and fundamental research.
Nehru’s thought and reflections on the environment, despite the fact that
he pursued the goa l of nation -building by constructing several big
industrial and river valley projects and dams which he referred to as
‘Temples of Modern India’. However, he changed his approach towards
gigantism in the later years.
The democratic approach of Nehru was s een in the workings of the
Planning Commission which despite having unlimited power functioned
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56 6.4 QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the key elements of Nehruvian approach to nation building.
2. Examine the economic and political con text of Nehruvian modernity. 6.5 REFERENCES
Avijit Pathak (2019): ‘Nehruvian Modernity and our Times’
https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/arch ive/comment/nehruvian -
modernity -and-our-times -860413#top
Sunil Khilnani (1998): ‘Nehruvian Modernity and its Contradictions’,
Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 33, No. 32 pp 2168 -2172

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57 7
FORESTSCAPES
Unit Structure
7.0 OBJECTIVES
 To understand how forestscapes are social -ecological systems
 To examine the debates and contentions around conservation
practices
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Most of the environmental threats to forests today call for management
strategies that w ork on large spatial and temporal scales. The
environmental problems such as wildfires, invasive species, plant diseases,
pollution, etc. do not obey administrative, geographical or political
boundaries. Rather their behavior is a function of ecological p atterns and
processes across large areas. Land management practices have long
lasting impacts that often go unnoticed for a long time. Therefore, the
forest management literature has now begun to consider the broader
context of decisions, and gain insigh t into how the present and future
decisions in one location may have repercussions to other regions or
locations. We need to consider the emerging paradigms of forest
management and the varied ways social and ecological conditions and
processes (systems) interact with each other to shape landscapes across
space and time. In this context, there is a need to understand that
forestscapes are social -ecological systems and how the methods of
conservation of natural resources are fraught with challenges.

7.1 Introduction
7.2 Concept of diversity -biodiversity
7.3 Forestscapes – Conservation and contestation – Indian Context
7.4 Forest Rights Act
7.5 Forest Transitions
7.6 Conclusion
7.7 Summary
7.8 Questions
7.9 Refere nces
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58 7.2 CONCEPT OF DIVERSITY -BIODIVERSITY
Raymond William’s famous work “Keywords: A vocabulary of culture
and society” (1976) provides an insight into the complexity of meanings
of the term ‘diversity’. The concept of ‘diversity’ has immense
consequences in both environmental and linguistic discourses. Critics of
contemporary environmentalism have identified some of the
contradictions inherent in the concept of biodiversity. In the forefront is
development scholar, Arturo Escobar who argues that contemporary
environmental campaigns do not challenge the basic premises of modern
industrial society. Rather their interest in conserving biological diversity
represents ever increasing capitalist interests in the Third World.
7.3 FORESTSCAPES – CONSERVATION AND
CONTE STATION - INDIAN CONTEXT
The term ‘conservation’ as we know of it today encompasses special
expertise, and skills related to the protection of forests. Such a term did
not exist in the past, where simple societies followed a traditional way of
life and in very rudimentary ways conserved their surrounding forests and
natural resources. Today the same task has been undertaken by the
departments of Environment and Forestry established by world class
universities, and research institutions. These institutes t rain scientific
conservationists and environmental experts who generally employ pure
sciences and are armed with the latest management techniques. There is a
clear conflict of interest between the two groups, each of which claim to
be the true conservator s.
Meaning of Conservation : The term conservation has several meanings;
sometimes it may refer “to keep from damage or loss and planned
management in conserving”, while at other times it is referred to as “the
profession devoted to the preservation of c ultural property for the future”.
Whatever its meaning, conservation is a social process that is closely
linked to social and political institutions that influences resource
management. Its main purpose is to maintain or reveal an object’s true
nature of integrity. Many objects in nature have symbolic meanings. But
it should be noted that an object’s ability to convey meanings is a requisite
for it to be considered as a conservation object. Here power plays an
important role in deciding which object ha s a symbolic ability. Thus, the
more powerful symbols are likely to be given preference and become a
conservation object, while other objects will be selectively forgotten.
Conservation practices have become a scientific zone, in which scientific
talk i s considered important and therefore isolated from other social
‘language games. It is argued that only a group of trained experts have the
skills to interpret the language of conservation objects. The criticisms
against scientific conservation are not d irected towards the idea of science,
rather it is against the idea that only hard science, with its statistics and
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59 The notion of conservation requires ‘spatial’ and ‘geographical’ location
to practice the art of conservation. The present -day idea of conservation
of forestry dates back to the 19th century colonial debates on conservation
of forest resources. This was done to sustain the supply the demands of
the colonial government for its expansion a ctivities and wars with rival
colonial powers. The colonial administration passed forest laws in India
to protect valuable resources for the empire. According to scholars such
as Agrawal (1997), the West colonized other regions because of its
superior kn owledge and was able to exercise greater power on its colonies.
In the same line, the imperative of conservation was also taken by the
West because of its superior knowledge.
The conservation theorists (like development theorists) argue that forest
resou rces are considered the “patrimony of mankind” and are located in
the tropical countries of the third world and can only be protected by the
knowledge, expertise and skill of the first world. They do not recognize
the fact that the local communities of tr opical countries have managed
their resources since ancient times in accordance with traditional practices,
local rules and customs. So, there are two broad groups which are
considered to have scholarship devoted to the study of conservation: one
champion s the cause of local indigenous communities and their role in
forest conservation, while the other group emphasizes on the validity of
scientific forestry. The second group argues that conservation by
indigenous communities is a myth.
Indigenous versus S cientific Debate: The above debate on indigenous
versus scientific conservation has become politically charged. In the last
three decades or so, the idea that indigenous communities are best
conservators of forest resources gained popularity as indigenous groups
have a spiritual respect for and have a practical understanding of the
natural world. The evidence in support of indigenous conservationists
included: cultural basis of conservation ethics, animistic belief systems,
high levels of biodiversity and the possession of local environmental
knowledge, communal ownership and management of land and forest
resources. They have been often referred to as ‘guardians of the earth’ and
‘creators of biodiversity’.
However, there are scholars such as Holt (2005) who a rgue that the
indigenous conservationists have often been labeled ‘primitive polluters’
and that there is little evidence to show that indigenous societies have been
conservationists. On the contrary, whenever people have an opportunity
to exploit na tural resources, they have done so, putting short term gain as a
priority to long term goals. Traditional environmental practices are
inherently damaging to the environment and it is because of this, parks
and protected areas had to be demarcated in order to pr otect biodiversity.
Freedom in the commons may result in destruction of biodiversity.
Elsewhere, there are examples to prove that the forests under local
community management have seen deforestation and loss of biodiversity.
Scientific forestry in India: Scientific forestry involves systematic
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60 restricted local community access to local forests. The underlying aim
was based on a long -term commercial timber production, which aimed at
converting the rich and diverse biodiversity of India into a monoculture of
timber forests for the British Empire. European and Romantic ideas were
considered as scientific, modern, and rational and ecologically - minded,
whereas local and indigenous kn owledg e was labeled unscientific,
backward, irrational and anti -ecological. The British put forth the notion
of guardians and stewards of forests. This was no different form the
notion of ‘White Man’s burden’ or the ‘Civilizing Mission’ which was
guided by the imperial agendas of colonization.
Check Your Progress
1. What are Forest Scapes ?
7.4 FOREST RIGHTS ACT
An insight into the background of the FRA is essential to understand its
dynamics right from colonial times. Struggle over the control of natural
resources and private ownership were not a ne w idea in India. But
western legal frameworks and principles on how the distribution of rights
to the land in India would take place was a new feature. The colonial
government rejected the idea that nomadic and indigenous people should
be given the right to roa m freely over more land than was necessary for
their survival. Therefore, pressure was built to settle them down, take up
cultivation, provide wage labour and pay taxes. The forest laws
formulated and enacted during colonial rule were created on t he bas is of
the interaction between experiences of the forest officials, local realities
and colonial needs. Scholars observe that these laws were selectively
developed and strategically implemented to achieve certain desired goals.
While it is true that the m anagement of natural resources did help the
British Empire, nevertheless, control was contested and negotiated with at
different levels in many subtle ways.
The first attempt to assert state monopoly over natural resources was done
through the Fores t Act (1865), Indian Forest Act (1878), The Forest Act
(1927). All these Acts in one way or the other made it very clear that the
colonial state had the sovereign right over all forest and uncultivated land.
The local people could use the resources but t hat di d not signify
possession of legal rights. In fact, these were privileges that the state could
withdraw at will at any time. The rhetoric of conservation was supported
by the production of a powerful colonial discourse. This provided the
colonial ad ministr ation a legitimate right to intervene in local affairs and
extended their rights over people and places that were remote and lightly
administered and brought them under direct control of British rule. Thus,
the rhetoric of conservation became a too l for th e ‘governmentalization’ of
the colonial power in terms of everyday practices of forest dwellers. Post -
independence period the same laws were continu ed with additional
amendments. The National Forest Policy (1952), The Forest
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61 after independence also, the tribals were considered as encroachers in their
own traditional lands.
Forest Rights Act : The Scheduled Tribes and other Traditional Forest
Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, als o known as the Forest
Rights Act (FRA) (2006) was enacted by the Indian Parliament during the
first United Progressive Alliance (UPA) government. It was a landmark
legislation to correct the provisions that were reflected poorly in the
previous l aws. FR A encompassed collective aspects of the enjoyment of
culture and protection of lands, territories and resources of tribals within
this cultural matrix, right against forced eviction and the right to free, prior
and informed consent of the tribals b efore in terfering with their way of life
and cultural practices. The Act recognized the ‘right to land’ and as an
extension, the ‘right to culture’ as an important human right, keeping in
mind the significance of land as a sustainer of culture especially to the
forest dwellers.
The FRA was a legislation that was long overdue, and demanded by
various groups such as, tribal organizations, social activists and scholars to
ensure justice to the tribals and other forest dwellers who had faced
centuries of inju stice. With a view to correct these historical injustices,
the government undertook the legislation that sought to bring
empowerment to the tribal people.
Under the Act, tribals were assured of individual rights as well as
community rights. Besides Mino r Forest Produce (MFP), community
rights include rights to pasture, water bodies and diversion of up to one-
hectare forestland for community infrastructure like schools. However, all
is not rosy, as the forest department’s attempt to dilute the provisions of
the F RA has triggered protests. The government has imposed several
conditions which are against the letter and spirit of the Act.
A study on the implementation of FRA in Chhattisgarh and Madhya
Pradesh by non -profit Samarthan in Bhopal has gone beyond the Cent re’s
status report. The report reveals that no community claims were approved
in districts that have dense forests with a high concentration of tribals.
While forest officials claim there is no demand for rights over MFP,
community leaders say the officia ls hid the fact that FRA included
community rights over MFP. Most lower level forest officials who work
at the grassroots levels are supposed to help process forest rights claims
are not aware of the provisions of the Act. N.C. Saxena (member,
National A dvisory Council) who reviewed FRA implementations
observed that the provision or lack of it in the FRA are such that we are
losing the opportunities to economically empower tribal communities.
7.5 FOREST TRANSITIONS
In response to the two problems of glob al climate change and worldwide
habitat loss, scientists during the late 20th century have tried to create a
science of sustainability leading to transition to a sustainable society.
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62 stocks of forests change in predictable ways as societies undergo
economic development, industrialization and urbanization.
Forest transitions can be seen when forest recoveries take and place and
the forest cover is regained. Forest transitions can occ ur in overlapping
circumstances. In some places economic development has led to the
creation of enough non -farm jobs as a result farmer have pulled off the
land. As a result, there is spontaneous regeneration of forests. In some
other places sca rcity of forests has prompted governments and
communities to plant trees and adopt afforestation methods.
There a number of factors responsible for forest transitions: Forest
transitions begin during a period of deforestation. Initially there is declin e
in the forest cover due to logging and other activities. Once the land is
cleared it is converted into fields for agricultural production to cater to the
increasing demands of cities. Eventually agricultural expansion ends.
There could be two lines of argumen ts as to why this happens. First the
farm workers leave the land for better paying non -farm jobs. Due to the
shortage of farm hands, agricultural enterprises become unprofitable. So,
the more remote and less productive fields and pastures are aban doned by
the farmers. These lands then revert to forests. The loss of farm labourers
stems from urbanization and economic development, a situation which is
referred to as ‘the great transformation’. Sometimes politicians reinforce
this trend in forest c over when they agree to purchase the abandoned lands
and create parks and forest reserves.
The second line of argument states that the loss of forests during
agricultural expansion triggers a counter tendency. In places with high or
growing populations, and littl e ability to import forest products, the prices
of forest produce increases. This induces landowners to plant trees instead
of crops or pasture grasses. Scholars observe that this price -related
dynamic is the reason for the increase in forest co ver in In dia in recent
times. This sequence of events is called ‘forest scarcity path’ to the forest
transition. Politicians use this path when they create programs to reforest
marginal lands in response to floods and rising prices for forest products.
In this c ontext, it would be pertinent to understand the sometimes -
ambiguous term ‘ forests . According to the FAO (Food and Agricultural
Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 2001), an area can be
considered as ‘forests’ when the canopy provided by tre es cover s at least
10% of an area, so both young and old trees could count as forests. Forests
transitions necessarily concern long -term changes in the extent of forests,
not the short -term, cyclical changes in forest cover that occurs in case of
shifting cultivat ion, wherein cultivators clear land and then abandon it
several years later.
Four concepts related to forest transitions need clarifications here.
‘Deforestation’ takes place when people clear land of trees and there is no
possibility of regrowth . ‘Fore station’ refers to a general process in which
forest cover increases. ‘Afforestation’ takes place when forest cover
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63 ‘Reforestation’ occurs when forests naturally regenerate on prev iously
forested lands.
There is no single way in which forest transitions occur. The process of
forest transitions occurs at varied scales; covering a sub -region or an entire
country, or several countries within a large geographical region. A forest
transition m ay reduce the local environment of a population, however, the
total impact of the population on forest lands may increase if they begin to
import substantial amounts of wood products and agricultural
commodities from far away regions. Those region s that ex port agricultural
products may also in all probability experience a forest transition as these
regions produce food for consumption in nearby urban centres. Point in
case is South America, which was involved in international trade in cotton
on a large sca le during the19th century. This resulted in widespread
reversion to forest during the 20th century.
An analysis of forest transitions has important policy implications. It
cannot be denied that forest transitions have an immense potential for
slowing soi l erosion, improving water quality, and slowing climate change
through carbon sequestration (appropriation). So, governments can speed
up the transitions and later ensure that the transitions continue.
It should be noted that while these transit ions do no t make a substantial
positive impact on biodiversity. Nevertheless, they do provide an impetus
to carbon and soil conservation, a fact reflected in the Kyoto Protocol. So,
the governments should place a high priority in promoting them. Since
there are eco nomic incentives for carbon sequestration as mentioned in the
Kyoto Protocol, the Kyoto instrument has the potential to provide a
political -economic impetus for forestation in all countries.
7.6 CONCLUSION
Land management systems which encompas s versions of conservation are
significant because these help in understanding broader contexts of
decisions. Post -independent forest policies are a continuation of colonial
forest policies. These have reinforced the state’s claim over forest
resources by alienating and labeling forest dwellers and their practices as a
threat to the forest. The politics of forest conservation is closely linked the
politics of the region. This is true especially in the context of the North -
South dynamics. There is a deba te around t he term ‘conservation’, which
is heavily loaded term. The term is associated with symbolic and political
meaning. Forest laws rather than benefitting the tribals and forest dwellers,
have legitimized the government’s control over their natural resources.
So, by regulating the forest, the state has been able to control the lives of
the subjects dependent on the forest resources for their survival.
7.7 SUMMARY
The forest management literature has now begun to consider the broader
context of dec isions, and gain insight into how the present and future munotes.in

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64 decisions in one location may have repercussions to other regions or
locations.
The term ‘conservation’ as we know of it today encompasses special
expertise, and skills related to the protection of forests.
The above debate on indigenous versus scientific conservation has become
politically charged.
Scientific forestry involves systematic planning, cultivation and
sustainable exploitation of woodland, with restricted local community
access to lo cal forests.
The FRA recognized the ‘right to land’ and as an extension, the ‘right to
culture’ as an important human right, keeping in mind the significance of
land as a sustainer of culture especially to the forest dwellers.
An analysis of forest transi tions has im portant policy implications.
7.8 QUESTIONS
 Discuss the meaning of the term conservation.
 Examine the issues related to conservation practices with reference
to resourse use in India.
 Evaluate how the understanding of land transitions can help i n forest
restoration.
7.9 REFERENCES
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228492170_Conservatio n_and_
Contestation_In_the_Crossfire_over_'Diversity'/link/55d616f108ae9d6594
8bc742/download
Ansari, M (2009): Politics of Conservation (M.Phil Dissertatio n)
https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/bitstream/handle/10919/71532/484_1.pdf?se
quence=1
Alexandra Paige Fischer (2018) Forests landscapes as social -ecological
systems and implications for management, In Landscape and Urban
Planning, Vol 177, pp 138 -147.
https:/ /www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169204618302755
Rudel, Thomas, et.al. (2005): Forest Transitions: towards a global
understanding of land use change In Global Environm ental Change (15),
23-31

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65 8
LANDSCAPES
Unit Structure
8.0 OBJECTIVES
 To examine the alternative perspectives on the human -environment
relationships
 To gain insights into the socio -cultural meaning of environment
8.1 INTRODUCTION
There exist numerous elements in nature such as the flora and fauna.
However , each physical element is more than just an element; since it
carries multiple symbolic meanings that emanate from the values by which
people define themselves. The builder, the farmer, the hunter - with their
interactions with nature - are definitions o f who people are. The natural
environment in its physical form is transformed symbolically to reflect
these self -definitions. These symbolic meaning and definitions are socio -
cultural phenomenon, as they emerge in the context of a social reality.
These are not just physical phenomenon, but they transform any natural
place into a symbolic landscape. In this section we attempt to understand
the meaning of Common Property Resource, how a group creates
definition of and relationship with nature and the envi ronment and its
impact in terms of land use patterns and land management.
The extension of agricultural areas, suburban sprawl and other forms of
land use represent the most dramatic human -induced transformations of
the global landscape during the past hal f century. The landscape 8.1 Introduction
8.2 Common property resources
8.3 Landscapes
8.4 Interpretivists understanding of Landscape
8.5 Implications of Landscapes
8.6 Landscape Management
8.7 Conclusion
8.8 Summary
8.9 Questions
8.10 Referenc es
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66 transformations have raised some important questions. Against the
backdrop of global warming, threat to wildlife and indigenous groups and
the destructive effects of these landscape transformations, there is a
growing network of social and natural scientists. They have identified a
range of factors that have shape land use changes.
8.2 COMMON PROPERTY RESOURCE (CPR)
Common property resources include all such resources that are meant for
the common use of the villagers. Tradition ally, the rural Common
Property Resources include community land, community pastures and
grazing grounds, community forest, wildlife, protected and unprotected
forests, wasteland, common dumping and threshing ground, watershed
drainages, village ponds and tanks, rivers and rivulets and their banks and
beds which are regulated by social conventions and legally enforceable
rule. In pre -British India, a very large part of the country’s natural
resources were freely available to the rural population. These re sources
were largely under the control of local communities. Gradually the State
took control of these resources. It resulted in the decay of community
management system, and by extension CPRs available to the villagers
declined substantially over the ye ars. Over a period of time villagers have
a legal right of access only to limited or some specific categories of land
and water resources. Nevertheless, CPRs play a central role in the life and
economy of the rural population.
Another related concept is that of the Common Land Resources (CLR)
which is a sub -category of Common Property Resource. The term CLR is
used to refer to property that is owned and defended by a community of
resource users. It also refers to property owned by no one. Even if the
government owns the property people have ‘common access’ to it. The
CLR in a village includes the land administered by the village panchayat
or community. Apart from this there are certain demarcated areas in every
village for various purposes and are acc essible to all the villagers. They
include areas for processing of agricultural produce, storing of grains,
firewood, for recreational or religious purposes, for village fair, marriages,
weekly markets, etc.
8.3 LANDSCAPES
Land is not just a physical en tity, but carries deep meaning and
significance to those who inhabit it. As members of a society, humans
tend to attribute meanings to objects and action. “Landscapes” are the
symbolic environments created by human act of conferring meaning to
nature and environment. Human give the environment definition and form
from a particular perspective based on their values and beliefs. Thus,
every landscape is a symbolic environment. These landscapes are
reflections of who we are and the culture in which we are grounded.
Human transform physical environment into landscapes through cultural
symbols.
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67 Landscapes as definitions of ourselves
Our understanding of nature and human relationships is through the
cultural expressions of -who ‘we’ were, who ‘we’ are, and w ho ‘we’ hope
to be - at this point in place and space. Landscapes reflect the cultural
identities, which are about ‘us’, rather than the natural environment.
When we try to identify and understand the potential human consequences
of changes in the natural environment, it is important that we understand
these consequences from the many cultural definitions that create
landscapes.
Cultural groups transform the natural environment into landscapes. They
do so by using different symbols that give different m eanings to the same
physical object or condition. These symbols and meanings are socio -
cultural phenomena. They are social constructions and result from
continuous negotiations in the cultural context. According to Mead, the
world in which humans live i s meaningless. Meanings are not inherent in
the nature of things. It is humans that attribute symbols and meanings to
things that comprise landscapes. These meanings are reflections of what
people in cultural groups define to be proper or improper among
themselves and between themselves and the physical environment.
Sometimes we go through a process of negotiating and renegotiating new
symbols and meanings. This happens when events or technological
innovations challenge the meanings of these landscapes . Several
examples from around the world show how landscapes are reflections of
socio -cultural symbols and meanings that define what it means to be a
human being in a particular culture, time, space and place. The first case
in point is Narmada Valley pr oject, which envisages building of hundreds
of on the banks of the Narmada. The Narmada is the holiest of holy rivers
for the followers of the Hindu religion. Over centuries, thousands have
undertaken a healing pilgrimage and walked along the 1,600 miles along
the Narmada river banks. The World Bank, which financed the project,
typically focused on cost -benefits analysis, solely from the economic
perspective. What was not discussed was the ways in which the ambitious
project impacts the human -environmen t relationship along the Narmada
River – a frame that focuses on the landscape that reflects Hindu people’s
definition of themselves. Also, it is pertinent to consider how the healing
powers of the Narmada River would be affected through the damming
proce ss.
8.4 INTERPRETEVISTS UNDERSTANDING OF
LANDSCAPE
Man’s relationships with the natural environment could be understood
through the subjective symbols and meanings through which a group of
people socially constructs the landscape. Varied conceptions of nature are
created from different social and cultural contexts and nature becomes
indistinguishable from that context. The concept of landscapes helps us to
understand conflict within communities or differences between ethnic
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68 A sociocultural group constructs a landscape from nature and the
environment through symbols that have cultural meanings, and then reifies
it. In the context the concept of ‘reification’ has a specific connotatio n.
Berger and Luckmann (1967) suggested that “reification means that man
is capable to forgetting his own authorship of the human world. Human
beings no longer are understood as world -producing, but in turn are
produ cts of the ‘nature of things’ . Here, t he landscapes, which are
symbolic social constructions, become part of the world taken for granted.
Humans are constantly engaged in one activity: they seize natural
phenomena, convert them into cultural objects and reinterpret them with
cultural ideas. So, the natural world is presented like a kaleidoscope,
which gives different impressions which are organized in our minds.
The reified symbols and meanings, which are shared, mostly taken -for-
granted, emerge through the process of negotiation. These v ery meanings
define social and natural phenomena and the situations in which they are
located. Over a period of time cultural groups continue to reconstruct and
redefine their past, present and future realities. This is done through
ongoing social intera ctions, which involves process of negotiations over
the meaning, symbols, and definitions of the situations.
In the context of above, it is necessary to understand how a landscape can
sustain a particular meaning especially in the face of technological,
economic and social changes. Scholars observe that there exist shared
convictions of what is proper form of system of values. An individual has
a structure of beliefs that are comprehensive, and so taken for granted, that
the individual is not consciously aware of it, but at the same time is
indistinguishable from the person’s self -definition. It is here, within the
structures of beliefs that most important symbols are embedded and
maintained.
Check Your Progress
1. What do you mean by land scapes?
8.5 IMPLICATIONS OF LANDSCAPES
There is sociological explanat ion into why different groups clash over the
meaning of change in the natural environment and how the potential
consequences of this change are defined. For the scientists, a small
modification to the environemt may not be a big deal, but it may be
define d as a threat to the fundamental meaning of a group’s lifeworld, a
fact which explains why tribals and the indigenous people resist such
change. The framework of landscapes is important as it provides a
medium to interpret sociocultural consequences of te chnological and
environmental changes from diverse perspectives of all participants.
Applied Implications
The sociological framework of landscapes emphasizes that the
environment has multiple meanings. These meanings are symbolic
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69 environment can pose a challenge to these cultural expressions and
therefore will require a renegotiation of the meaning on the part of people
as themselves and in terms of their relationship with the environment.
Scholars argue that international development agencies could benefit from
the understanding of a cultural group’s landscape. A point in case is
Bali’s agricultural system which was maintained by a network of temples
and priests. The priests determined whe ther the water goddess approved
the plans by individual villages to tap a new spring or divert water from a
canal. Temple priest were in control and allocated water resources to
hundreds of farming villages. They also set up schedules for planting and
harvesting, and allowing the land to lie fallow for a common period.
Unintentionally, their religious practices were sustainable – they led to soil
conservation and minimized crop losses due to pest attacks. Scholars
observe that the Bali study demonstrate s that local wisdom is important,
but it often considered substandard and therefore overlooked by
development agencies as they try to fix what is not broken.
Political Implications
As the natural environment becomes a central feature of national and
international debate, the question about whose landscape is protected, or
altered, or exploited becomes important. All events in the political realm
depend on and also reflective of power relationships. In the political arena
of environmental issues, self -interests are expressed through a group’s
definition of itself as reflected in its landscape. Not all landscapes are
associated with power. Those landscapes that represent the group with the
highest degree of power will be deemed as important. Only those
particular landscapes then come to dominate and by extension influence
social actions and the allocation of social resources.
There are a variety of factors which influence the processes of creating,
sustaining, negotiating, and imposing symbolic landsca pes. Three
important and underlying factors are: 1) the ability to define what can be
defined as ‘information, in this case, the ability to construct knowledge, 2)
the control of this socially -constructed information, and 3) the symbolic
mobilization of s upport. All these factors are also interconnected with the
larger process of impression management.
A variety of cultural media are involved in the process of impression
management of landscapes. Laws, customs, myths, legends, novels,
poems, stories, h istories, biography, art, photography, music, and movies
are some of the media through which landscapes are created, recreated and
redefined. Another issue is that of differential access to the media. To
what degree landscapes are maintained or changed w ill determine which
one landscape – one set of cultural self -definitions - is likely to prevail over
others.
There is a major shift in the power relationships that enable certain
landscapes to dominate political decision -making, and this is even more
obvio us in the postmodern world. Today due to the explosion of mass
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70 experiential knowledge. Cultural groups that at one time had zero or
limited access to media have acquired new res ources and are mobilizing
support for those landscapes, especially at the global level. The
interesting fact is the global struggle over landscapes is displacing the
development interests’ landscape by the landscape of the indigenous
people.
8.6 LANDSCAP E MANAGEMENT
Landscapes have been transformed by humans at an unprecedented rate
especially during the 20th century. This has changed the land use patterns,
created sprawls in urban areas and disturbed farming activities. A
systematic approach emphasize s the role of strategic actions by the State
and other interested parties in transforming landscapes.
New disciplines have come up which attempt to understand the complex
relations between human and nature and provide a useful framework for
sustainabilit y. One such discipline is landscape ecology, which takes on an
interdisciplinary, multiple purpose and multiple scales approach. It core
vision is consistent with the Sustainable Development Goals identified by
the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Developme nt. This approach
attempts to general sustainable landscape solutions by integrating
ecological and social mechanisms into system thinking.
A sustainable landscape is a normative concept. It recognizes that
landscape functions are the foundations for so lutions to problems of
human well -being. This may carry different meanings to different
stakeholders. The identification of problems and their solutions is directly
interrelated to the belief systems, values and preferences of people who
inhabit a landsc ape. Therefore, even in the presence of scientific solution,
dialogue with the stakeholders is necessary. There should be an interface
between scientific knowledge and human experiences in the context of
local landscapes.
The concept of sustainability i s a recent addition to the understanding of
landscapes. Scientists, development agencies should create a modeling
approach which facilitates building a vision about a future landscape.
Scientists could being in the concept of natural capital and determin e the
level of natural capital that is critical for maintaining the capacity of the
landscapes to provide long -term landscape benefits to future generations.
This can be established through dialogue with the local community.
Another related issue is that of landscape governance. There is extensive
literature to suggest that creating sustainable landscapes is more successful
when local communities feel a sense of ownership in their future
environment. Therefore the focus should be on collaborative and
participatory approaches in landscape governance. It allows a better use
of local knowledge, more effective social learning and more responsibility
during implementation of strategy.
Any discussion on land management needs to be based on an assessment
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71 over land is the most common form of litigation not only in India, but in
many countries, impeding social and economic development.
Administrative hassles, costs and time required to reg ister, and
conforming to official norms can become a source of corruption. Thought
needs to be given to effective land use planning taking into context the
shared meanings that people have about their land. With the advent of
neoliberalism, land acquires the status of a commodity whereby its social
and cultural value is reduced. The commodification of land thus, has
increased social and economic inequality and set a stage for political
instability. All over the world the competition for land has intensi fied. It
has now come to dominate public discourse and media attention globally,
and this is where the responsibility of the society becomes even more
relevant.
8.7 CONCLUSION
Some scholars argue that the sociological framework of landscapes is
anthropoc entric. The framework of landscapes reiterates that what is
significant is the meaning of environmental change for the cultural groups
which have incorporated that aspect of the physical environment into
definition of themselves. In other words, biophysi cal, or socio -cultural
changes in the environment are meaningful, only if the cultural groups
acknowledge them through a redefinition of themselves. It is important to
factor in political dynamics of the place and how it shapes the definition of
the situat ion and the social actions that result from these often varied and
divergent landscapes. Also important is to understand how power
relationships operate especially in the ever increasing global struggle for
control over landscapes and environmental change .
8.8 SUMMARY
“Landscapes” are the symbolic environments created by human act of
conferring meaning to nature and environment.
Our understanding of nature and human relationships is through the
cultural expressions of -who ‘we’ were, who ‘we’ are, and w ho ‘we’ hope
to be - at this point in place and space.
Varied conceptions of nature are created from different social and cultural
contexts and nature becomes indistinguishable from that context.
The sociological framework of landscapes emphasizes that the
environment has multiple meanings and studies the applied and political
implications of landscapes.
New disciplines have come up which attempt to understand the complex
relations between human and nature and provide a useful framework for
sustainabilit y.
It is important to factor in political dynamics of the place and how it
shapes the definition of the situation and the social actions that result from
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72
8.9 QUESTIONS
1. Examine the interpretevists’ understanding of the human -nature
relationships.
2. Discuss the applied and political implication of landscapes.
3. Evaluate the significance of the understanding of human -nature
relationship with specific relation to sustainable development.
8.10 REFERENCES
Grieder, T. and Ga rkovich, L. (1994): Landscapes: The Social
Construction of Nature and the Environment, Rural Sociology 59 (1), pp.
1-24
Rudel, T. (2009): ‘How do people transform landscapes? A sociological
perspective on suburban sprawl and tropical deforestation’ i n American
Journal of Sociology, Vol. 115, No. 1, pp 129 -54
Opdam, P. et.al. (2018): How can landscape ecology contribute to
sustainability science?, In Landscape Ecol, 33: 1 -7



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73 9
URBAN SPACES: URBAN SYSTEMS AND
POLLUTION; URBAN COMMONS.
Unit Structure
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Understanding Urban Space
9.3 Ancient cities and Usage of Space
9.4 Government role on improving urban spaces
9.5 Technology and Urban Space
9.6 Case Studies of Changing Urban Spaces
9.6.1 Signal Schools
9.6.2 Pandemic and offices
9.6.3 Co living and Coworking spaces
9.6.4 Capsule Hotel
9.6.5 Gender and Spaces
9.7 Urban system
9.8 Urban Pollution
9.8.1 Sustainable methods – Case study of Gujarat
9.8.2 NASA, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
Report
9.10 Urban Common
9.10.1 General Overview on urban common
9.11 Summary
9.12 Questions
9.13 References


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74 9.0 OBJECTIVES
 To learn about Urban spaces
 To learn about Urban systems and pollution and the future threats
related to pollution
 To understand the concept of Urban commons
 To make aware of the contemporary transformations, changes within
cities and its impact on human being both at individual level and at
larger sc ale.
9.1 INTRODUCTION
The Urban cities have always attracted lot of capital in terms of
investment by Government, Corporates houses, foreign direct investments
and even International Agencies like World Bank, International Monetary
Fund etc. Cities irres pective of any country have most updated facilities
available facilities in a country like Better Healthcare services,
International Schools, Premier Hotels, Race Courses, Faster
transportation, Theatre’s etc compared to that of the villages. The major
institutions like banks head quarters, Police etc. are also located in cities.
To experience the city life, lakhs of tourists also visit every year. In
addition, thousands of migrants also come t the city everyday and try to
build a city. All the above detail s reveal the importance of city. Hence, it
is important to learn about cities and its changing spaces, systems,
problems like pollution. As this would determine and influence the
emerging development in the Tier I, Tier II functioning.
As students learni ng this chapter, would be very much beneficial as
through this chapter one would become more aware of the concepts, issues
related to urban spaces. It would help to gain different perspectives and
angles and thereby assist in constructing one’s own opinion .
In this chapter we will look into three main topics. Firstly, Urban space,
secondly urban systems and pollution and thirdly urban commons.
9.2 UNDERSTANDING URBAN SPACES
Public spaces help in developing human contact and helps in physical and
social well being of individuals especially senior citizens. Communities
develop through spaces as it brings people togetheri. As spaces bring
people together, gives a platform to build connections. There are several
studies which reveal that open spaces like gard en create a positive impact
on the communities. Every city has certain open spaces which is famous
among people and they connect historically and emotionally. Like in
Dombivli – Phadke Road, Pune – FC Road. These are places individuals,
groups and spend th eir time for relaxing, talking, playing, eating, shopping
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75 Azad Maidan, very important during social movements like Azad Maidan,
Jallianwala Bagh, Jantar mantar
9.3 ANCIENTS CITIES A ND USAGE OF SPACE
The ancient civilizations like Mohenjo Daro Harrappa which is more than
4000 years old was ahead of its time in terms of its infrastructure. They
had invented sewage systems which predates the Rome civilization. There
are several studie s which are also point out that due to climate change and
the floods, droughts in the Indus valley there was mass migrationii and
people moved to small villages.iii iv
9.4 GOVERNMENT ROLE ON IMPROVING URBAN
SPACES
The recent budget 2022 also revealed the gro wth of expenditure in terms
of developing the infrastructure. The allocated amount will further
increase in upcoming years to come as we still have enough scope for
improving our infrastructure. Especially beyond the Metropolitan cities.
However, let us loo k into some details of the recent budget details on
infrastructure development.
The budget has laid a strong emphasis on essential development engines,
with Prime Minister Gati Shakti promising to link infrastructure like as
roads, ports, trains, and logi stics, among other things. KAWACH, an
indigenously produced technological tool can helps avoid rail accidents,
would be applied to a total of 2,000 kilometres of rail network. Over the
following three years, 400 new -generation high -speed Vande Bharat train s
will be produced. The national highway network is also estimated to by
25,000 kilometres in 2022 -23v. Reforms like these will boost the mobility
of products and services and establish the groundwork for economic
growth in the coming years.
Check Your Pr ogress
1. Explain ancient city and the usage of spaces.
2. Discuss Urban space with reference to positive and negative effects of
smart city.
9.5 TECHNOLOGY AND SPACE
 Urban spaces, Smart city and monitoring
With the increasing number of smart cities the re is also heavy usage of
surveillance systems like camera, drones, and similar devices in the Urban
spaces. This has both positive and negative effects. Positive effects include
these surveillance systems would help in reducing crime, the data
generated c ould be further used to understand patterns, behaviors or even
to spread message or even to take quick actions during crisis like situation.
For example, during pandemic robots were used to pass on fruits, foods to
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76 patients where humans could be avoided. Some of the negative uses of
electronic devices like Drones too exist – like anyone could monitor
anothers home using a drone and there could be theft, or similar crime
could take place. Drones have also been used during war, or to attack
another country. The negative effects also include that the government
would have greater control over people lives, movement, and actions.
Newer challenges would also emerge like those who are not dig itally
aware they could be victim any time or even would find it difficult to cope
with the changes and may even feel alienatedvi. Especially senior citizens
who lived in a different setup when they grew up and with rapid
digitalization they would be left a lone. There are other fears like large
corporations could use people’s data and manipulate them according to
their own needs.
There are people like Elon Musk trying to find space other than earth to
live upon for human beings like Mars. There is Non -fungible token
through which digital artwork, collectibles could be sold in the internet
instead of using physical space. Even the emerging metaverse where
people would be able to meet on a digital location.
9.6 CASE STUDIES OF CHANGING URBAN SPACES
9.6.1 Sig nal Schools
Signal schools are those schools which operate beneath the highways of
cities like one such exists in Thane near teen hath naka bridge. Generally,
the space beneath bridge is left empty, some migrants also use it as
temporary shelter or chi ldrens use to play cricket on these spaces . Some
old vehicles would also be lying in such spaces. However, a creative use
of this space is done by constructing schools. In these schools generally
the childrens who work and stay at traffic signals attend. Su ch kind of
initiative helps both the use of space, proximity to the residence for the
children's who work on signalsvii.
This concept is even been tried in Ahmedabad . Here buses will be placed
at signals and these buses would operate as mobile schools. Th is has been
planned through the Ahmedabad Municipal Transport Services (AMTS)
which will have around 15 -20 children and two teachers per bus. A budget
of 887 Crore has been allocated for this purpose. viii
9.6.2 Pandemic and Offices
Pandemic brought about lot of changes in the nature in which
organizations operated. Physical meetings got converted into online
meetings. Compaines are also completely going online. Employees are
given remote work and several freelancers are also hired. Digitizing the
business has led to saving costs in terms of canteen, transportation
expenses, infrastructure expenses etc. In metropolitian cities where space
is very expensive this problem is solved by having online presence and
meeting once or quarterly by hiring workspaces/ resor ts/ meeting halls for
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77 visible of late with ecommerce businesses and even with Information
technology based industries.
9.6.3 Coliving and Coworking spaces
Coliving spaces are were indiv iduals are sharing same space, it could be a
room or that of room with bunk beds. This is done in order to reduce the
cost. There is also coworking spaces available where instead of having
individual offices, people work in shared spaces.
9.6.4 Capsule Ho tels
Capsule hotels are inspired by that of the Japan. These are tiny pod like
rooms which have air conditioning, basic services. Recently in Mumbai
Central Railway station one such hotel was launched.
9.6.5 Gender and Spaces
 The Gender Park
Gender Park was built in the year 2013 by the Department of Women and
Child Development, Kerala. The park is set up in Kozhikode (Calicut),
Kerala. The campus is around 24 acres and through this park research on
gender issues, advocacy, training, economic and social initiative is
conducted. The goal of the park is to bring about gender equality, fulfill
the sustainable development goals and even to have a dedicated space to
work for this purpose. The United Nations and the Gender Park has
entered into an equal partner ship for developing the Park as a South Asian
hub for creating gender equalityix.
 Koodo Nest
Koodo literally means nest in Malayalam. Koodo is an initiative by the
Kerala Government in which shelters are built on the main building of the
bus stand of Triva ndrum. This shelter home is also located in ten minutes
walking distance from that of the railway station. Here women can stay
night for free. The room has bunk beds with Air Conditioner and basic
sanitation facility. It is very helpful for women who are t ravelling to the
city for multiple purposes like applying admission, appearing interview for
treatment into the city etc and want to just spend a night in the city. This
kind of facility is also helpful for those women who are thrown out of their
home in t he middle of night and have no place to go. It is also very helpful
for women who are beggars, sellers at traffic signals etc. who sleep at
roadside and live in fear and could be victim anytime. There is also
another option of accommodation with the same Kood where females can
spend night for 150 rs. For 24 hours and again repeatly stay in for few
more days. This kind of initiative is very sustainable and healthy specially
in urban cities where women travel, commute, get late to reach at home at
night etc.

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78 Check Your Progress
1. Discuss the concept of Signal School.
2. Discuss the Koodo (Nest) from Kerala.
9.7 URBAN SYSTEM
An urban system is a collection of cities that are linked together through
economic fluctuations, information dispersion and exchange , through the
movement of goods, capital, and people (Pred,1977). Cities under such a
system do not flourish, stagnate, or fall in isolation; rather, they adapt as
a reaction to the development or decline of other cities. While cities can
be viewed as node s in a network, the study of urban systems focuses on
interurban linkages rather than geographical growth or internal structure.
With the world's increasing urbanisation movement, the economics
indicates that cities will become increasingly important as ba sic units of
national and international trade. It can also be noted that as the
population of the economy grows, the urban system also self -organizes
into a highly regular hierarchical framework .x
Changes in interurban interdependence, on the other hand, might result
in the dispersion of economic activity throughout a vast territory. The
improvement of transportation and information networks has created
interest among various urban system researchers and they are trying to
look and study into the functioni ng and growth of citiesxi.
9.8 URBAN POLLUTION
The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that air pollution causes
around seven million premature deaths worldwide each year, putting it on
par with smoking and bad diets. Cities like Delhi are examples o f how
worse pollution could be dangerous. Even schools and colleges are
periodically shut down during heavy pollution release. Vehicles are
allowed to operate on alternate days to reduce the pollution. There are
reports where it is said that the indoor air quality is worse than that of the
outdoorxii. Urban Pollution is also leading to reverse migration whereby
people are going back to their own villages; this is especially with the case
of retired senior citizens. Even White -collar professionals who can st ay at
home and work have started to move back to their own villages. This trend
has even increased during the pandemic period.
9.8.1 NASA, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
Report
The intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) a leadi ng
international body which studies climate change reported recently that
Heat, humidity, sea rise will make India uninhabitable if emissions are not
cut. Mumbai has a serious risk of being flooded with rising sea level. On
the other hand, Ahmedabad is seen as facing serious cases of urban heat
island. Other cities like Chennai, Patna, Lucknow, Bhubaneshwar would
have rise in heat and humidity. National Aeronautics and Space munotes.in

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79 Administration (NASA) has said that several coastal cities would be
submerging under water by 3 feet. They have also pointed out that due to
global warming, with the rise in the temperature, nearly 12 Indian cities
would go under water like Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata.
9.8.2 Sustainable methods – Case study of Gujarat
Let us now look into a case study of a Lake in Gujarat which is using a
innovative method to keep the lake clean. The staff follow a simple
method through which any kind of trash is saved from getting into the
water which could be through away by the visitors. Before entering the
lake everyone has to pass through a gate and take a ticket as entrance fee
which is 10 rupees. After this the bags would be checked by the
Watchmen or watch women. The plastic bottle has to be kept at the gate
itself. A deposit of 10 rupees has to be paid for the bottle as deposit and
one gets a slip. While exiting the lake one can exit from any gate and by
showing the slip the 10 rupees one gave as deposit gets it back. The
individual coming from the same gate can pick up the same bottle too.
Through such a practice no one throws anything into the the lake and the
cleanliness remains maintained.
9.9 URBAN COMMON
Meaning of Urban Common
The concept of "urban commons" has evolved as a result of growing
urbanisation and a substantial proportion of the people residing in cities. It
can be viewed as a solution to contemporary urban concerns such as urban
housing and inequality, among others. The urban commons concept was
founded on the idea that public spaces, urban land, and infrastructure
should be open to and usable by urban populations, in order to create and
sustain a range of commodities and services. This might be crucial very
crucial for the survival of any population, particularly the most vulnerable.
The fundamental values upon which this movemen t is founded are those
of sharing, collaboration, civic participation, inclusion, equity, and social
justice, among others. Civic partnerships in this context also talks about
the people from local communities, government, business, academics, and
local no nprofit groups that work together to manage the urban commons.
9.9.1 General Overview on Urban Common
The urban commons is a relatively new concept that has emerged in the
last decade, but it has its roots in a long historical and intellectual lineage
that stretches from the social movement in England to the classic essay
Hardin 1968 to the Nobel Prize -winning work Ostrom 1990, which
includes many examples of community -governed common pool resources.
Several publications examine generally shared urban resou rces. Lee and
Webster (2006) examines urban areas as vulnerable to the tragedy of
overconsumption, with enclosure as the likely outcome, particularly in the
context of modern urban and economic growth. Fennell (2015) considers
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80 to collective action. On the other hand, Ostrom’s work tries to recognise
the ways in which communities and local residents may collaboratively
manage shared urban resources.
Foster (2011) analyses urban communi ty gardens, park conservancies,
neighbourhood watch organisations, and business improvement districts as
Ostrom -like commons in the urban environment. Based on a pluralist
analysis of how the commons has been defined by diverse scholars and
intellectual tr aditions, Foster and Iaione (2016) propose that the entire city
is a common . Foster and Iaione 2019 elaborate on how shared urban
resources and community activity in cities may generate common goods
that differ from the development and features of traditi onal common pool
natural resources. Many experts believe that neither Hardin's nor Ostrom's
conceptions of the commons are especially useful for understanding how
urban commons form.
According to Huron (2015), the distinctive element of urban commons is
that they are produced in a saturated, disputed environment by strangers
coming together in the setting of a capitalist market. Stavrides (2016)
studies the city as a strongly regulated state site, a site of capital creation
and excess, and a site of resourc e competition. Dellenbaugh et al. 2015 in
a collection of articles examines the different ways that urban commons
contain both material and immaterial resources, ranging from housing,
urban infrastructure, and public spaces to culture, labour, and public
services, via a range of case studies.
Finally, various contributors reveal in Borch and Kornberger 2016 that the
concept of the urban commons involves a variety of critical and
interdisciplinary perspectives rather than just answers or questions about
urban governance in which subcultures, and poverty exists among other
aspects of contemporary urban living.xiii.
Let us look this from a local example –
In several parts of Mumbai, Thane areas there are Free gym equipments
being put up. One can witness children s using it as play instruments.
Senior Citizens, Women also use these instruments. People now have a
reason to exercise as these instruments are nearby their own homes, lanes.
It also creates a kind of peer pressure, when others are using it. When
others a re exercising. At times, one can even view womens wearing rain
coat in heavy rains of early morning exercising.
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The above image is captured near Teen hath Naka, Thane on such free
equipments example of urban common.
Check Your Progress
1. Explain the sustainable method of lake at Gujarat.
2. Discuss the history of Urban common
9.10 SUMMARY
Urban spaces play integral part in maintaining the health of the city
dwellers. Especially open spaces like gardens, playgrounds create an
impact on the health of i ndividuals of that locality. Even in historical
traditions like ancient civilization - Mohenjo Daro also had proper
sanitation facilities. With the increase of the population in cities managing
urban spaces are going to be a big challenge. Urban space is a lso being
blended with smart city concepts in recent times. Innovate methods are
used to manage free spaces like Signal Schools. The second topic in this
chapter is that of Urban system where it is seen as a collection of cities
that are linked together. T hese cities can be viewed as nodes in a network.
This chapter also discusses about Urban pollution and its associated
impact on city dwellers. Discussion on the reports which is given by
NASA has also been discussed where it is said that nearly 12 cities w ould
be submerging before 2050. The last section of the chapter deals with
urban common description. Foster and Iaione (2016) propose that the
entire city is a common . Foster and Iaione 2019 elaborate on how shared
urban resources and community activity i n cities may generate common
goods that differ from the development and features of traditional common munotes.in

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82 pool natural resources.Thus, through this chapter multiple areas from the
field of Urban sociology has been covered which are contemporary and
useful in unde rstanding urban City and it's multiple issues.
9.11 QUESTIONS
1. Discuss Urban Pollution and future threats due to climate change.
2. Explain Urban Common
3. Explain two case studies of changing urban spaces
4. Explain in brief government measures related to urb an spaces
9.12 REFERENCE

i https://www.nar.realtor/blogs/spaces -to-places/what -makes -a-great -
public -space
ii https://www.indiatoday.in/education -today/gk -current -affairs/story/new -
details -revealed -about -indus -valley -civilizat ion-why-did-the-people -
disappear -1389828 -2018 -11-16
iii https://www.whoi.edu/press -room/news -release/climate -change -likely -
caused -migration --demise -of-ancient -indus -valley -civilization/
iv Singh, P. K., Dey, P., Jain, S. K., & Mujumdar, P. P. (2020). Hydrolog y
and water resources management in ancient India. Hydrology and Earth
System Sciences , 24(10), 4691 -4707.
v https://www.wionews.com/business -economy/indias -railway -budget -
400-new-gen-vande -bharat -trains -2000km -of-network -will-be-brought -
under -kawach -tech-4494 74
vi For further reference read Kwok Tai Chui, Pandian Vasant, Ryan Wen
Liu,
Chapter 7 - Smart city is a safe city: information and communication
technology –enhanced urban space monitoring and surveillance systems:
the promise and limitations,Editor(s) : An na Visvizi, Miltiadis D.
Lytras,Smart Cities: Issues and Challenges,Elsevier,2019,Pages 111 -124.
vii http://signalshala.in/
viii https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/ahmedabad/ahmedabad -
municipal -board -buses -signal -schools -munotes.in

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83 7712461/#:~:text=To%20work%20t owar ds%20the%20motto,traffic%20si
gnals%20across%20the%20city.
ix https://genderpark.gov.in/
x Masahisa Fujita, Paul Krugman, Tomoya Mori,
On the evolution of hierarchical urban systems1The first version of the
paper was presented at the 41st North American Meet ings of Regional
Science International, Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada, 17 –20 November,
1994.1,European Economic Review, Volume 43, Issue 2,1999, Pages 209 -
251 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0014 -2921(98)00066 -X.
(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/articl e/pii/S001429219800066X )
xi Murayama Y. (2000) Study of Urban Systems: Outcomes and Issues.
In: Japanese Urban System. The GeoJournal Library, vol 56. Springer,
Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978 -94-017-2006 -9_2
xii https://www.bbc.com/news/world -asia-india-59566158


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GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES &
MOVEMENTS
GLOBAL ISSUES & LOCAL IMPACTS:
MNCS/SEZS & RESISTANCE MOVEMENT

Unit Structure:
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Global Issues and Local Impacts
10.3 Multinational Corporations:(MNCs)
10.4 Special Economic Zones(SEZs)
10.5 Resistance Movements
10.6 Gorai Amusement Park
10.7 Conclusion
10.0 OBJECTIVES:
 To discuss global environmental issues.
 To understand the problems and impact of climate change.
 To acknowledge the roles of MNCs and SEZs.
 Understanding the resistance movements.
10.1 INTRODUCTION:
The environmental crises faced by developing nations are the result of
poverty. For example, Third World countries often lack the resources and
sanitation facilities to provide the public with clean water. Tropical
deforestation, caused by the slash -and-burn techniques of poor farmers, is
another dilemma.
If the environment truly is a worldwide issue, then the solutions may also
be universal. However, international agreement on environmental issues is
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85 social and economic development. Developed nations rely significantly on
government regulations to protect and restore the environment; In the last
decade, environmental degradation has seen extraordinary global trends.
These trends or patterns include unsustainable consumption of resources,
prevalent poverty, and uncontrolled growth of population, rapid
industrialization, urbanization, globalization, and deforestation. The health
and lives of the population living on this planet are heavily compromised
for the sake of socio -economic development. Global environmental issues
need planned actions and concrete responses not only by international
communities but individually. These issues are not b ound within borders,
they touch every nation and adversely affect the lives of all animals and
plants. These global environmental issues have long -term adverse effects
on ecosystems, people, and societies and are always difficult to reverse
over a short du ration of time.
Human impact and management of the natural environment and concerns
for maintaining biodiversity are emphasized throughout. The
rapidlygrowing population and economic development are leading
toseveral environmental issues in India because o f the uncontrolled growth
of urbanization and industrialization, expansion and massive
intensification of agriculture, and the destruction of forests. Major
environmental issues are forest and agricultural degradation of land,
resource depletion (water, mi neral, forest, sand, rocks etc.), environmental
degradation, public health, loss of biodiversity, loss of resilience in
ecosystems, livelihood security for the poor.
10.2 GLOBAL ISSUES AND LOCAL IMPACTS:
Globalization is the connection of different parts o f the world.
Globalization has been shown to increase the standard of living in
developing countries, but some analysts warn that globalization can have a
negative effect on local or emerging economies and individual workers.
Globalization has also led to an increase in the transportation of raw
materials and food from one place to another. Earlier, people used to
consume locally -grown food, but with globalization, people consume
products that have been developed in foreign countries. The amount of
fuel tha t is consumed in transporting these products has led to an increase
in the pollution levels in the environment. It has also led to several other
environmental concerns such as noise pollution and landscape intrusion.
Transportation has also put a strain on non-renewable sources of energy,
such as gasoline. The gasses that are emitted from the aircraft have led to
the depletion of the ozone layer apart from increasing the greenhouse
effect. The industrial waste that is generated as a result of production has
been laden on ships and dumped in oceans. This has killed many
underwater organisms and has deposited many harmful chemicals in the
ocean.
Due to globalization and industrialization, various chemicals have been
thrown into the soil which has resulted int o the growth of many noxious
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86 interfering withtheir genetic makeup. It has put pressure on the available
land resources. In various parts of the world, mountains are being cut
down t o make way for a passing tunnel or a highway. Vast barren lands
have been encroached upon to pave way for new buildings. While humans
may remain as the gofer with these innovations, these can have long -term
effects on the environment. Various studies over the years have found that
plastic is one of the major toxic pollutants, as it is a non -biodegradable
product. However, plastic is of immense use when it comes to packaging
and preserving goods that are to be exported. This has led to increased use
of plast ic, causing widespread environmental pollution.
It has made so many changes in our lives that reversing it is not possible at
all. The solution lies in developing effective mechanisms that can check
the extent to which it can impact the environment. Resear chers are of the
view that the answer to this problem lies in the problem itself, that is,
globalization itself can lend support to building a better structure that is
economically feasible and environment -friendly.
10.3: MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS :(MNCS ):
A multinational corporation (MNC) has facilities and other assets in at
least one country other than its home country. A multinational company
generally has offices and/or factories in different countries and a
centralized head office where they coordin ate global management. Some
of these companies, also known as international, stateless, or transnational
corporate organizations, may have budgets that exceed those of some
small countries.
Many multinational enterprises are based in developed nations.
Multinational advocates say they create high -paying jobs and
technologically advanced goods in countries that otherwise would not
have access to such opportunities or goods. There are sub tle differences
between the different kinds of multinational corporatio ns. For instance, a
transnational —which is one type of multinational —may have its home in
at least two nations and spread out its operations in many countries for a
high level of local response.
In the process of globalization, MNCs play a significant role . Also, after
being miles away, they interact with the local and small producers
directly, thereby combining the markets. Their job leads to investments
and goods being traded that cont ribute to interconnections between
different nations.
Loss of national sovereignty, as the host nation, cannot control what an
MNC does in other nations, which may be inimical to its interest.
The political interests of MNCs may mirror the political intere sts of their
respective home nations, and this may be detrimental to th e host nation.
For instance, an American MNC may serve the interest of America, while
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87 The host nation may lose control over its economy. Negative impact on
the host’s balance of payments because of heavy imports of spares and
components . The exploitation of the hosts’ replenishable natural resources
leads to the dwindling of these. The exploitation of the labor of the host
when the country needs it Prior to 1991, multin ational companies did not
play many roles in the Indian economy. In th e pre -reform period, the
Indian economy was dominated by public enterprises. To prevent the
concentration of economic power the Industrial Policy 1956 did not allow
the private firms to grow in size beyond a point.
By definition, multinational companies a re quite big and operate in several
countries. While multinational companies played a significant role in the
promotion of growth and trade in South - East Asian countries they did not
playmany rolese in the Indian economy wherthe e import -substitution
deve lopment strategy was followed. Since 1991 with the adoption of
industrial policy of liberalization and privatization, the role of private
foreign capital hasrecognizedgnised as important for rapid growth of the
Indian economy. Since the source of the bulk of foreign capital and
investment are multinational corporations, they have been allowed to
operate in the Indian economy subject to some regulations.
Some of the issues due to MNCs;
1. Potential Abuse of Workers
Multinational companies often invest in develo ping countries where they
can take advantage of cheaper labor. Somemultinational corporations
prefer to put up branches in these parts of the world where there are no
stringent policies on labor and where people need jobs because these
multinationals can d emand for cheaper labor and lesser healthcare
benefits.
2. Threat to Local Businesses
Another disadvantage of multinationals in other countries is their ability to
dominate the market. Thes e giant corporations can dominate the industries
they are in because t hey have better products and they can afford to even
offer them at lower prices since they have the financial resources to buy in
bulk. This can eat up all the other small businesses off ering the same
goods and services. Chances are, local businesses will suffer and worse,
close down.
3. Loss of Jobs
With more companies transferring offices and centering operations in
other countries, jobs for the people living in developed countries are
threatened. Take the case of multinationals that create offices in
develo ping countries for their technical operations and manufacturing. The
jobs given to the locals of the host country should be the jobs enjoyed by
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88 Multinational corporations have both advantages and disadvantages s ince
it creates jobs but can also end up in the exploitation of workers, among
other things.
10.4 SPECIAL ECONOMIC ZONES(SEZS):
A special economic zone (SEZs) is an area in which the bu siness and trade
laws are different from the rest of the country. SEZs are located within a
country's national borders, and their aims include increasing trade balance,
employment, increased investment, job creation, and effective
administration.
SEZs can help attract investment, create jobs, and boost exports – both
directl y and indirectly, where they succeed in building linkages with the
broader economy. Zones can also support global value chain (GVC)
participation, industrial upgrading, and diversificati on. Zones are a key
investment promotion tool.
The purpose behind thei r establishment is to provide an internationally
competitive environment to increase exports, by making available goods
and services free of tax and duties supported by convergent infras tructure.
Any individual, co -operative society, company, or partnershi p firm can
file an application for setting up of Special Economic Zone
Special Economic Zones (SEZ) in India is a specially delimited enclave .
Most importantly, the economic laws in thi s geographical area are
different from the prevailing laws in other par ts of India. An SEZ is
deemed as a foreign territory for matters that relate to the trade tariffs,
duties, and operations.
Moreover, the SEZ Act of 2005 governs all the regulatory and l egal
aspects related to the development of SEZs and also regarding oper ations
of units under SEZs.
Asia's first EPZ (Export Processing Zones) was established in 1965 at
Kandla, Gujarat.Tamil Nadu has the highest number of operational SEZs
(40), followed by Karnataka (31) and Maharashtra (30).
1. Workers Condition:
There have bee n several reports on potential violation and exploitation of
labour rights in the SEZs , the workers are met with poor working
conditions, mandatory overtime, and other pressure tactics to meet the
deadlines. Compared to outside the zones, SEZs do provide w orkers with
higher wages, which comes at the cost of extended hours of work and
intensive labour.
The issue is further aggravated by the relaxation of the labour laws within
SEZ in mult iple countries, India being no exception. On close inspections,
the Spe cial Economic Zone Act 2005 has not established if the nation's
labour laws work the same in the SEZs . Under subsection 3 of sec12 of
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89 or jurisdiction, contrary to it the Development C ommissioner holds the
administrative power who has also been handed the labour commission's
administrative power. The government pertained to this decision under the
pretext of encourag ing foreign direct investment. The Labour
commissioner looks to determi ne labour market outcomes with respect to
both working conditions and decision -making whereas the Development
Commissioner whose responsibility is to make sure the units’ productions
are not hindered and that the SEZ provides profit. This explains why
labour rights would not be the subject of interest and concern.
For jurisdiction, a special Court has been appointedfor SEZs and under
Section 23 of SEZ, the state government needs to deleg ate one or more
courts for all SEZ affairs. Trade unions have also been restricted in
the SEZs , the state governments are increasingly making amendments to
the labour laws restricting trade union activities, and workers are also
restricted from performing any form of Strike.The absence of trade unions
causes the hire and fire of the workers. Women are also subject to
exploitation due to a lack of bargaining power.
2. Land Grabbing:
There has been a constant struggle between EEZs and Farmers, which has
only in tensified due to the SEZ Act of 2015 passed under the pretext of
econom ic prosperity. Within 6 years, there are 378 SEZs notified, of
which 265 are operational (Ministry of Commerce & Industries). These
endeavours require hectares of land, in perspective, the area required for
the 150 formally approved SEZs requires 26,800 he ctares of land. Leading
to acquiring fertile land under cultivation. This has caused conflict against
farmers, at instances land has been forcibly acquired or compensations
have not bee n allocated properly, this has led to protests in many parts of
the nat ion.
10.5: RESISTANCE MOMENT:
The period of globalisation has reached a new level of development, with
governments pushing for 'inclusive growth' and 'capacity building' as a
result of continuous technological improvement. However, behind such
lauded devel opment successes lies the death of millions of marginal
farmers and labours whose soil and resources are used for the sake of
achieving the national goal, creating a paradoxical situati on known as the
"crisis of success." In spite of claims of sustainable and inclusive growth
for marginal farmers and workers, recent development efforts have
exacerbated the problem of involuntary displacement, loss of land and
livelihood, unemployment, an d human rights violations, putting the
creation of an egalitarian socie ty at risk.
The government opened the floodgates to Multi -National Corporations
(MNCs) and big industries by introducing SEZs in 2005 under the guise of
rural development, industrializa tion, augmentation of foreign currency
reserves, and employment generat ion, exacerbating the problem of
development -induced displacement and making the situation worse for
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90 accountability by r emaining unconcerned about the condition of farmers.
Despite numerous r evisions and amendments, India's land acquisition and
resettlement and rehabilitation Acts serve as catalysts for strengthening
authoritarian elites against the weaker majority represen ting the
bourgeoisie.
The crisis has developed a battleground on India' s streets, with farmers,
laborers, and marginal communities supported by civil society, human
rights activists, NGOs, and environmentalists on one side and the
government, MNCs, industr ialists, and planners on the other, disrupting
the peace.
Delhi Mumbai Industrial Corridor (DMIC), Jaitapur Nuclear Power,
Raigad and Gorai, Water Rights (Sangli) are all examples of Resistance
Movments.
10.6: GORAI AMUSEMENT PARK:
On the outskirts of Mumb ai, the island of Gorai supports livelihoods for
thousands of fishing w orkers who have been disrupted by the arrival of
India’s largest amusement park Esselworld which stretches onto 65 acres
of land.
On 8 July 2000 thousands of fishermen and women took o n protest by
blocking the ferries and staging a peaceful dharna, they d emanded the
demolition of the artificial jetty constructed by Esselworld, the jetty
blocked their fishing roots they also demanded that the ferries used for
visitor transport need to be withdrawn, they urged that the smaller ferries
be used as it posted le ss environmental threat and is more people -friendly.
The peaceful protest turned into a gory sight as the Esselworld agents with
their henchmen attacked the fishermen, in contrary to ta king action, the
political party with Esselworld filed a complaint agai nst the fishermen
leading to arresting of 500 and a case against 5, the particular incident
was not the first of its kind the fish workers r often subject of violence by
the park.
Ever since the establishment of the largest amusement park the livelihood
of the locals and the ecological balance, the sustainable usage of the
natural resources has been under question. The fertile land and the sea of
Gorai were a source of livelihood for th e fishers and farmers which did not
only act as a source of sustenance but their very culture and identity. There
was an underline right the fish workers enjoyed which was unwritten and
these rights were stepped on by the modern state agencies advocation
intensive development of tourism and amusement. The underline principle
is that any land/area without an individual ‘patta’ (individually owned) is
terra mullius (Nobodies land) and hence open for acquisition by any part
and also as the Indian law does not recognize socially -established
community rights that are basic for thei r livelihood, there skills and
knowledge compared to the modern technical skill are imperative for the
nation’s development. Thus, local people’s culture, livelihood, and
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91 The plan of opening an amusement park was put forth by the Pan India
Parayatan (Esselworld), which caught the eyes of Maharashtra’s revenue
minister Narayan Rane. Consequently, violating the Coasta l Zone
Regulation, he gifted the company 700 acres of common property o f the
fish workers to the company. The social activist of Gorai points out that
the land acquired is three times more than what is claimed officially. With
those 700 acres of mangrove, the land was destroyed in the village, these
were the traditionally use d fishing grounds, it was lifesaving and an asset
of the community. The building of artificial jetty and running of ferries
blocked the fish worker’s access to the sea destroying their boats and nets
along with ruining the rich fishing ground of the creek.
With forceful land grabbing the park also instead of building an alternative
waste disposal system directed the chemical effluents and waste directly
into the sea. Which leads to poll ution of the sea and adversely affects the
ecosystem. These externaliti es would not pose a threat in the initial days
as they would be managed by the natural Physico -chemical processes in
the coastal water. However, with the passing days, this would push t he
ecological balance to its edge becoming a subject of concern.
There has been a sharp decline in the natural resources of the area credited
to the building of the amusement park, for comparison Susheela Cardoz,
an activist working with fish workers point s out that from January -April
the catch amount equals null, forcing the fishermen to apply for welfare
scheme which provides the workers with nominal relief although the
scheme is not applicable for women.
Gorai village had only 1 sweet well, enough to fu lfill the needs of the
villagers but today water is a scarce resource i n the village. Esselworld
requires approximately 200 tanks of water per day (one tank carries
10.000 lit), for this, the park has planted bore wells of 500 horsepower,
leading the groun dwater level to lower and also making the groundwater
salty making it u nfit to consume. The municipality adhering to the issue
agreed on providing 12 water tanks to the villagers but in reality, very
little water ever reaches the village, on closer look th e water is bought by
the builders at a higher price. So, as the elites enjoy the amusement
Esselworld has to offer a community of locals pass their day in scarcity.
Availability of electricity is another major concern, where Esselworld is
well lit throughou t the year the villagers around still dwell in dark. Esselworld far from providing amusement, in reality, is the cause of the
destruction of the ecology and livelihood. They block the sea grounds, and
exploited the resources and people, disturbing the very e ssence of balance
coexistence between the locals and nature. The Maharashtra government
far from supporting the locals has been aiding Esselworld, to suppress the
voice of the fish worke rs they have adopted means from direct police
repression to rewriting of the region’s history through falsehood.
On filing a case of coastal zone regulation, the State government
desperately tried to help Esselworld by recreating the course of history.
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92 April 7, 2000, addressed to the Tata Electrical Company, claims that there
is a damn in the area and urges them to build their tower within the damn
for transmission of electricity w ithout destroying the damn. However, the
locals claim this to be anoth er attempt of Esselworld to meddle and change
history by reconstructing the geology of the land. This was not the first
attempt by the authority and the park, including false claims by t he
Maritime Board, backed by the Maharashtra population control board
headed by then Mumbai Suburban Collector. Claims on similar non -
existing bunds were made on April 2, 1990, based on an outdated court
order. People’s revolt against a furtive building of damn was crushed by
the help of local police.
Maharashtra state gover nment frenzies to grip on supporting Esselworld
comes with no astonishment. Ruling parties in India have gone to lengths
to latch on to economic profits and they have never hesitated to gift public
land for profit and commercialization has all the more hel ped developers
to leach on community lands and threaten the livelihood of the people.
10.7: CONCLUSION:
Globalization has indeed provided with great opportunities but it is also
very crucial to examine the coast of these advancement, on closer
inspe ction it is evident that the marketed ideas of globalization have its
own downfalls. The ill effect has been evident in the increasing
environmental concerns, protest and petitions. Unde r the label of
Economic Prosperity weak majority are been exploited an d marginalized,
which is subject of no concernto the governing authorities. It is evident
that today the benefits of the development are reaped not by the once
displacedby it.
Today as globalization and development projects are labelled as problem -
solving , what is seen is the ideas have only led to major social and
environmental issues. What we need is an inclusive and sustainable
growth which leads humanity with minimum downfalls.
REFER ENCE:
 JACSES (August 1, 2013): Problems related to the Environmental and
Social Guidelines of Japan Bank for International Cooperation (JBIC)
in Delhi Mumbai Industrial Corridor (DMIC) Version 1.
 Sills, David L. (1968): International Encyclopaedia of the Social
Sciences, The Macmillan Company and the free press, United Stat es of
America, Vol. 14.
 Swain, Ashok (September, 1997): ‘Democratic Consolidation?
Environmental Movements in India’, Asian Survey, Vol. 37, No. 9, pp.
818-832.
 Tong, Yanki (Jan., 2005 ): ‘Environmental Movements in Transitional
Societies: A Comparative S tudy of Taiwan and China’, Comparative
Politics, Vol. 37, No. 2, pp. 167 -188. munotes.in

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93  Vig, Norman J. and Regina S. Axelrod (2006): The Global
Environment, Institutions, Law, and Policy, Earthsc an Publication
Ltd., London, pp. 27 -71.
 Economic & political weekly (F ebruary, 2011), People vs Nuclear
power in Jaitapur, Maharashtra.
 Economic & political weekly (March, 2012), Delhi -Mumbai Corridor:
A disaster in the making?
 Economic & political weekly (September, 2000), Amusement Park
Versus People’s Livelihood.
 Economic & political weekly (January, 2007), Land Grab in Raigad.

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SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT,
CLIMATE CHANGE AND
ANTHROPOCENE DEBATE
Unit Structure
11.0 Objectives
11.1 Concept of Development
11.2 Sustainable Development
11.3 Objectives of Sustainable Development
11.4 Climate change
11.5 Climate change and Sustainable Development
11.6 Climate change and Sustainable Development Goals
11.7 Anthropocene
11.8 Summary
11.9 Questions
11.10 References
11.0 Objectives
 To understand the concepts - Development, Sustainable Development,
Climate change and Anthropocene
 To identify and critically assess the relationship between climate
change and sustainable development
 To reflect on Anthropocene Debate.
11.1 CONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENT:
The term development has multiple meaning, interpretation and theories.
Reyes (2001) defined it as a s ocial condition, where the nation attempts to
satisfy the needs of its population by rational and sustainable use of
natural resources and systems. For Todardo and Smith (2006)
development is a multidimensional concept that stress on changes in social
structures, attitudes, institutions and economic growth to reduce inequality
and eradicate absolute poverty. The main objectives of development thus
is a) To increase accessibility and distribution of goods and services
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95 b) To ameliora te the standard of living of people including health,
education, material well -being and self -esteem.
c) To increase people’s freedom to choose through expanding their
choices and freeing them from dependence on others, poverty and misery.
For Coetzee (20 01) t he goal of development therefo re is well -being that is
to be attained through security, livelihood and sustainability . Burkey
(1993) defines development as a process through which an individual
developsself -respect, gains self -confidence and become se lf-reliant,
acquiescent, and tolerant by becoming aware of his or her potential and
limitation. It occurs when an individual works with others, updates oneself
and actively participate in socio -economic and political development of
the communities. Develop ment is not only to realize human potential and
empower them but also to expand human potential and institutional
capacity to enhance proper utilization of resources towards sustainable
living. Rawls view development as distributive justice. It means provi ding
basic needs to all by the government and access to and expansion of goods
and services to all social classes and equal sharing of burden of
development among all. Henderson (2011) states that in Rawls view, the
aim of economic development should be to establish and maintain the just
institution so that society can function as a fair system and cooperate over
time from one generation to another.
Check Your Progress:
1. What is development?
2. What are objectives of development?
11.2 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT:
The development thought after World War II began to change as number
of colonies started gaining independence. According to Arndt (1987) there
began agreement in the West that international effort is required to aid
development of less developed countries. It was also during this period
when the concept of economic development evolves outside the ambit of
Marxist discourse. Consequently, 1950s onward economic development
was associated with economic growth and became a significant goal of
Western economic pol icy particularly for Poor countries.
From late 1960s onwards there was rise of modern environmental
movement with renowned work such as Silent Spring, A Blueprint for
Survival and others led to spread of awareness about environmental issues.
This ushered t he phase of questioning the economic growth. Seers’ work
‘The Meaning of Development’ (1969) stressed that economic growth
fails to achieve social development. He argued that development
indicators such as unemployment, poverty, inequality give true pictur e of
development.
Purvis et al (2019) contend that i t was also the period where the leading
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96 that modern growth linked economy ensue unsustainability and contended
that capitalist indu ced economic growth of the West is in conflict with
ecological and social sus tainability .
The first global summit to discuss human impacts on the environment was
organize by UN in Stockholm. It was an attempt to conciliate economic
development with environ mental integrity. Our Common Future, 1987
published by World Commission on Environment and Development dealt
with sustainable development and later in Earth summit -Rio-de-Janerio,
1992 around 170 countries were signatories of very significant documents
on sustainable development agreeing to preserve the environment. The
summit resulted in establishment of the UN Commission on sustainable
development beside conventio n on biodiversity, principles onmanagement
of forest , framework convention on climate change, and Agenda 21.
Agenda 21 was a bold step towards devising new strategies to invest in
future to attain sustainable development for which it recommended new
approach to education, new techniques of preserving natural resources,
new process and system of pa rticipating in sustainable economy.
In tune with the Brutland Commission report,1987 , the third assessment
report defines sustainable development as “development that meets the
needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs”. The two important features of the
sustainable development includes:
 needs of the poor which should be addressed
 constraint inflicted by the state of technology and social organization
on the environment’s potential to meet present an d future needs
The World Commission on Environment and Development believe
sustainable development to be a dynamic concept and the prerequisites of
sustainable development are as follows:
 The political system for efficacious participation of citizens in
decision making
 The economic system that produce surpluses and technology for
establishing a self -reliant and sustained society
 The social system that reduces tensions and bring out solution for
unbalanced development
 The production system that brings about harmony between ecology
and development
 The technological system that is on never ending pursuit of finding
new solutions for sustainable development
 The international system that leads to sustainable businesses and
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97  The administrative syste m that is pliable, adaptive and possess self -
correcting mechanism
Thus, Brutland commission played a significant role in bringing
sustainable development in to international policy discourse. It stressed
that environmental problem was due to extreme povert y of the Southern
countries and the unsustainable way of consumptions and production of
the Northern countries. However, there is no universally accepted
definition of sustainable development but all the definitions cover one or
more elements such asclassi fy what to develop, recognize what to sustain,
know the linkages between what is to be sustained and developed and
envisage these linkages from future perspective. Sustainable development
aims at long - term stability of the economy and environment that ne ed to
be achieve by coalescing economic, environmental and social issues in all
the facets of decision -making process.
11.3 OBJECTIVES OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT :
Duran et al, 2015 presents following objectives of sustain able
development:
 Economic System s hould aim at maximum production of goods and
services in the technosphere, increasingly efficient utilization of
mineral resources, energy and information flows, adapting
technologies etc.
 Social System should aim at just allocation of goods and services a t
local, national and global level. It should provide proper training to all
the stakeholders in social and economic process, restructuring
political, institutional and management systems to encourage
flexibility and self -monitoring of social and economic system.
Evolving interconnected economic, social and environmental system
and preserve and protect cultural diversity to enhance adaptation of
chance.
 Ecological system should intend to maintain biodiversity. Economic
development should not be at the cost of environment. A balance
should be maintained between economic development and
environment preservation for every one’s wellbeing and sustainable
livelihood.
Check Your Progress:
1. Why do we need sustainable development?
2. What are aims of sustainable developme nt?
11.4 CLIMATE CHANGE:
Resnik (2016) states that c limate change is not new phenomenon; it has
been occurring from past four billion years and will continue to happen.
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98 process of e volution, changes in solar radiation and others were
responsible for climate change but in the last couple of centuries, human
activities like industrialization, deforestation, agriculture, developmental
projects and transportation have started affecting t he climate, thereby
accelerating the process of climate change .
The leaders and the decision makers across the globe are grappling to find
befitting solution to deal with traditional development related problems
such as poverty, malnutrition, unemploymen t, and health but concurrently
are also facing the new threats in the form of climate change, global
warming, and environment degradation. Mishra et al (2020) suggests that
impacts of these threats is visible in the form of floods, droughts,
cyclones, and rising sea levels. It is now an established fact that climate
change and global warming would severely disrupts economies if
concerted actions ar e not taken . To tackle these issues, they are looking
towards sustainable development or development, which las t and low
emission path.
The UN organized an Earth Summit in the year 1992 where the UN
Framework Convention on Climate change was adopted and the nations
agreed upon to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere
so that preventive measures be taken to deal with interference of human
activity with climate system. Since 1994, UN has been organizing “COPs’
to bring together almost all the countries for global climate summits. This
year too COP26, held and many promising announcements made. Lea ders
from around 120 countries pledged to halt and reverse deforestation by
2030, which also happens to be the year of Sustainable Development
Goals to eradicate poverty and secure planets future.
Outcome of United Nations Convention on Climate Change, Gl asgow
 Promising commitment to provide funds to aid developing countries to
deal with climate change
 Adopting global methane pledge
 Resolving of the pending issues and strengthening the implementation
of Paris Rulebook
 But the efforts to reach 1.5 degrees Celsius target still pending
 Announcement of setting long term zero goals by many countries,
India pledge net zero emission by 2070.
11.5 CLIMATE CHANGE AND SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT:
Climate change and development are intertwine; it influences the
important natural and human living conditions and thereby affects social
and economic development. Climate change pose severe challenge to
development as it influences population growth, poverty and accelerate
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99 force to lead a life full of misery and poverty due to their dependence on
natural resources and restricted capacity to adapt to the changes occurring
due to climate change. Climate change adversely affect agricultural
production, health , biodiversity etc. It also restricts their opportunities for
sustai nable development. For example, F.E. Bureau (2021) reports that
Indian economy is severely expose to the damage caused due to climate
change. It will adversely affect five sectors of the Indian economy that
constitute 80 percent of the GDP -manufacturing sector, service sector,
transport sector, travel and tourism, retail and construction sector. Even
agricultural sector will not be spare which contributes 16 percent of the
GDP. It is believ ed that India will suffer loss of around thirty five trillion
dollars in the next half of the century .
 Climate Change and Millennium Development Goals:
Goal 1: Eradicate extreme hunger and poverty:
Due to climate change there is increase in weather -associa ted disasters that
threatens the livelihood of people. It leads to regional food insecurity and
thereby increases the vulnerability of marginalized. It will also aggravate
the water scarcity issue.
Goal 2: Achieve Universal Primary Education:
Climate cha nge will result it loss of livelihood so more children will be
pushed to work as child labor. Displacement and migration of people will
increase that will increase drop -out rate and low enrolment of children.
Goal 3: Promote Gender Equality:
Women constitu te two third of the world’s poor and therefore are worst
affected by climate change. They are more dependent on local resources
for their livelihood. Due to their social, economic and political
disadvantage position, they have restricted coping capacity. T herefore, it is
essential to respond to climate change by adopting gender sensitive
strategies.
Goal 4: Reduce Child Mortality, Goal 5: Better maternal health, and
Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, Malaria and other diseases:
Undernutrition is one of the major caus e of death among children below 5
years of age. Therefore, efforts to improve food security and nutrition will
be a challenge due to climate change.
Climate change influences human lives in multiple ways. It not only
threatens food supply, shelter, water b ut also health. According to WHO,
period between 2030 to 2050 will experience additional deaths of around
250,000 people due to climate change related problems such as malaria,
diarrhea and heat waves. Pregnant women and children would be more
vulnerable t o climate change induced diseases such as malaria, diarrhea,
dengue etc. Countries with poor health infrastructure will suffer the most.
Therefore, there is need for climate resilient health infrastructure and
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100 Goal 7: Ensure Environment Sustainabil ity:
Climate change will bring out fundamental change in ecosystem and result
in increased soil erosion, salinization, loss of biodiversity, desertification,
drought, flood, cyclone, landslides, loss of coral reef, increase in
incidences like wild fire, in sect outbreaks, challenge biodiversity of wet
lands, extreme weather conditions such as heat waves and rising sea
levels. It will pose a serious challenge to environment sustainability.
Goal 8: Develop a global partnership for development:
To tackle climat e-induced changes concerted global efforts areneeded.
Beside investment in mitigation and adaptation, international cooperation
and coordination among the countries of the world will be required to
achieve environment sustainability.
11.6 CLIMATE CHANGE AN D SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT GOALS:
SDG 13: Climate Action
The SDGs also called as Global Goals, 2015 aimed at ending poverty,
protecting planet and ensuring that by 2030 people enjoy prosperity and
peace globally. The seventeen SDGs are integrated in such a way that
action in one will affect the others. The SDGs stress on balanced
development that brings social, economic and environment sustainability.
Target of SDG -13:
 To reinforce resilience and adaptive capacity against climate change
 To integrate climate change measures in policies, strategies and
planning locally, nationally and globally
 To improve environmental education, raise awareness and capacity at
human and institutional level regarding adaptation, mitigation and
warning
 To address the need of the developing countries by mobilizing fund to
take action regarding mitigation, implementation and
operationalization of Green Climate Fund etc.
 To device and promote strategies for building capacity for effective
planning and management of climate change in developing and small
island countries particularly targeting women, marginalized and the
youth.
Check your progress:
1. What is climate change?
2. Explain the outcome of recent UN convention on Climate Change. munotes.in

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101 11.7 ANTHROPOCENE:
The term ‘Anthropocene was used b y Crutzen and Stoermer in their paper
‘The Anthropocene’, 2000 in the Global Change New sletter. They contend
that human activities especially emission of green house gas has altered
the planet in the last few hundred years, and we have entered into a new
geological age, ‘The Anthropocene’. Another important piece of work
presented by Crutzen in 2002 was ‘Geology of Mankind’ in Nature. Since
then geologists, social scientists, historians, archaeologists, ecologists,
philosophers and climate scientists are us ing the concept in diversified
way. The nucleus of the concept ‘Anthropocene’ is thus that human
activity dominates the climate and environment and change Earths natural
cycles and systems to such an extent that it is irreversible. The concept
Anthropocen e includes soil erosion, sediment transportation due to
urbanization and agricultural activity, environmental changes such as
global warming, increase in sea level, ocean acidification, changes in
biosphere, increasing number of domestic animals, prolifera tion and
dispersion of new minerals, rocks such as fly ash and plastic and number
of techno fossils.
Jan Zalasiewicz, British geologists along with his colleagues in 2008
proposed to adopt ‘Anthropocene Epoch’ as a formal geological interval.
Voosen ( 2016 ) and Zalasiewicz et al (2017) states that in 2016, scholars
from the Anthropocene Working group within the International
Commission on Stratigraphy recommended that the world should
officially recognize the Anthropocene as a new geological epoch . The
term Anthropocene gained wider acceptance in 2011 with the publication
of thematic issue of Philosophical Transaction of the Royal Society.
Anthropocene Debate :
The term Anthropocene indicate beginning of new geological era marked
by human dominance. There are evidences, which suggest that human
activities has altered earth system processes such as atmosphere,
biosphere, hydrological and geological process that reversing it is
impossible. Therefore, to protect earth humans need to alter and steer
away from clim acteric point in the ecosystems. This geological postulate
led to scientific and interdisciplinary Anthropocene Debate.The debate
also continues over when to mark the beginning of Anthropocene Epoch.
Malhi (2017) stress that the concept originated in natur al science but now
has surpassed across the disciplines including social sciences and
humanities and broader cultural and political discourse on how to live and
respond to the expostulations of a human dominated planet.
The key points in the Anthropocene Debate are:
 Has the Holocene era ended and humanity has entered into a new
geological eraand if it has entered the new era then when did it begin.
According to geologists, the Earth history can be divided into eons and
eons into epoch, ages and era. The ge ologists use the term golden spike to
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102 marker. The IUGS still claim that we are in a Holocene era that began
11,700 years ago after the ice age. Therefore, if we say that we are in
Anth ropocene age then geologist should define the geological boundary
between the Holocene and Anthropocene.
 Numerous parallel debates on Anthropocene are social, institutional
and political in nature. For example, Barry and Maslin (2016) contend that
politics involvedat the institutional level gives authority only to IUGS
member and exclude other parties to have voice. Beside each group of
scientist will define Anthropocene differently which would further fuel
politics within the scientist fraternity. Other cr itical issues such as global
inequalities and injustice, social power and unequal exchange of goods
and services are ignored and human dominance is over emphasized.
 Vansintjan (2015) states that the view whether there is Good
Anthropocene or the Bad Anthr opoc ene differs. Mark Lynas in The God
Species contend that as we are entering in to an era where human control
and dominate the environment, therefore it is our responsibility to control
it further and use device like genetic engineering and other modern
technology to use ecosystem efficiently. The Eco modernists believe that
the present situation gives opportunities for prosperous future. However,
the critics argue that the more ugly future awaits human kind. It will be
challenging for the humans as they accelerate the sixth extinction event on
the planet.
 The Anthropocene debate raises questions about knowledge
production, Anthropocene and inclusivity. The Anthropocene debate has
led to tension not only between natural and earth science but also in social
sciences and humanities. There is debate over who produces
Anthropocene knowledge, how the knowledge are produced, and which
method is used to produce Anthropocene knowledge, and what measures
are used to authorized and circulate the knowledge created. Th ere is lack
of inclusivity in the concept as it lack ethnic, gender and interdisciplinary
perspective in knowledge productions.
 While some argue to use alternative terms such as Capitalocene,
Anglocene, Technocene or Necroceneinstead of Anthropocene.
On th e po sitive side, the Anthropocene debate has brought out the
limitations and multiplicity of viewpoints of various scholars and
disciplines. Based on this differences an attempt can be made of
developing transdisciplinary approach to sustainable Anthropoce ne
science, which would be more inclusive and would help to build more
sustainable relationship with the Planet Earth.
11.8 SUMMARY :
There is twofold relationship between sustainable development and
climate change. Climate change affects core natural resou rces and living
conditions of humankind and their sustenance along with social and
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103 ecosystem, leads to climate change, susceptibility and sensitivity.
Therefore, there is a need of policies that address both the issues -climate
change and sustainable development.
Since mid, 20th century number of studies have documented the issue of
environmental crisis due to human induce activities called as
Anthropocene. This has led to a debate in natural and social sciences as
scholars from different discipline present parallel narratives of causes of
ecological crisis, challenges due to climate change and threat to planet
Earth. Their views are differing and perplexing. Therefore, the natural
scientists, soci al scientists, the activists, policy makers, politicians and
others should make collective efforts to understand Anthropocene that
does not mean that there has to be consensus. Nevertheless, it should
encourage communication across the disciplines and reco gnize the fact
that no one discipline is in a position to comprehend the Anthropocene
Era.
11.9 QUESTIONS
1. How does climate change influence sustainable development?
2. Write a note on climate change and sustainable development goals.
3. Critically exami ne A nthropocene debate.
11.10 REFERENCES:
1. Arndt, H.W, 1987, Economic Development: the history of an idea,
University of Chicago Press, Chicago
2. Barry and Maslin, 2016, The politics of the Anthropocene: a dialogue,
Geo: Geography and Environment, 3(2).
3. Braje and L auer, 2020, Meaninful Anthropocene?: Golden Spikes,
Transitions, Boundary Objects and Anthropogenic Seascapes,
Sustainability, Vol:12
4. Burkey, S, 1993, People First: A Guide to Self -Reliant Participatory
Rural Development, London, Zed Books
5. Cocia M, 2019, T heories of Development, Global Encyclopedia of
Public Administration, Public Policy and Governance, Springer Nature
Switzerland AG
6. Coetzee, J.K, 2001, A Micro Foundation for Development Thinking in
Development Theory, Policy and Practice, Edited by Coetzee , J.K,
Graaff, J, Hendricks, F and Wood, G, Oxford University Press
7. Crutzen, P.J and Stoermer, E.F, 2000, The Anthropocene, Global
Change Newletter, Vol:41
8. Crutzen, P.J, 2002, Geology of Mankind, Nature, Vol:415 munotes.in

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104 9. Duran D. C, Gogan L.M, Artene A and Duran V, 2015, The Objectives
of Sustainable Development -Ways to Achieve Welfare, Procedia
Economics and Finance, Vol:26
10. Global Humanitarian Forum Report, 2009, Human Impact Report
Climate change - The Anatomy of a Silent Crisis
11. Henderson, Gail Elizabeth, Rawls & S ustainable Development (2011).
McGill International Journal of Sustainable Development Law &
Policy, Vol. 7
12. IPCC, 2001, IPCC Third Assessment report, Synthesis Report,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
13. Malhi, Y, 2017, The Concept of the Anthropocene, A nnua l Review,
Annu.Rev.Environ.Resour, Vol:42
14. Masood and Tollefson, 2021, COP26 Hasn’t Solved The Problem:
Scientists React To UN Climate Deal, Nature, Vol:599
15. Meadows D.H, Meadows D.L, Randers J, and Behrens W, 1972, The
Limits to Growth, Universe Books, New York.
16. Mensah, J, 2019, Sustainable development: Meaning, history,
principles, pillars and implications for human action: Literature
review, Cognent Social Science, Vol.5
17. Mishra S.K, Sahany S, Joshi S, Dash S.K, Sharma A, 2020, Impact of
Climate Change on Indian Economy, Yes Bank and IIT, Delhi
18. Obsergassel, W, Mersmann, F, Helmreich, H, 2017, Two for One:
Integrating the Sustainable Development Agenda with International
Climate Policy, GAIA, Vol:26
19. Purvis B, Mao Y and Robinson D, 2019, Three Pillars of
Sustainability: in search of conceptual origins, Sustainability Science,
Vol:14
20. Reyes, E.G. (2001) Four Main Theories of Development:
Modernisation, Dependency, World -System and Globalization.
University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh.
21. Seers, D, 1969, The meanin g of development, Institute of
Development Studies.
22. Todardo, M.P and Smith, S.C, 2006, Economic Development, 9th
Edition, Harlow Pearson Addison Wesley
23. Voosen P, 2016, Anthropocene Pinned to Postwar Period, Science,
Vol:353
24. Zalasiewicz J.C.N, Waters C.P, S umme rhayes A.P, Wolfe A.D,
Barnosky A, Cearreta P, Crutzen et al, 2017, The Working Group on munotes.in

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105 the Anthropocene: Summary of Evidence and Interim
Recommendations, Anthropocene, Vol:19
25. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/314922305_Climate_Change
_Causes_Co nsequences_Policy_and_Ethics
26. https://www.earthisland.org/journal/index.php/magazine/entry/anthrop
ocene/
27. https://undisciplinedenvironments.org/2015/07/07/the -anthropocene -
debate -why-is-such-a-useful -concept -starting -to-fall-apart/
28. https://www.e -education.ps u.edu/emsc302/sites/www.e -
education.psu.edu.emsc302/files/Sustainable%20Development_from%
20Brundtland%20to%20Ri o%202012%20%281%29.pdf
29. https://www.preventionweb.net/files/9668_humanimpactreport1.pdf
30. https://www.financialexpress.com/economy/climate -change -india-
may-see-loss-of-6-trillion -by-2050 -top-5-sectors -to-be-most -hit-
account -for-over-80-of-gdp/2323918/
31. https://www.un.org/en/conferences/environment/rio1992


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106 12
INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS
Unit Structure
12.0 OBJECTIVES
 To understand intellectual property rights in the context of
environment
 To gain insights into the traditional knowledge domains and their
contestations
12.1 INTRODUCTION
It is a well -recognized fact that the conventional forms o f social and
economic development are proving to be inadequate in developing
countries. Worldwide there is recognition that the most important assets
for a community, company or a country are not so much the physical
capital but its intellectual capital. The only wealth that people in the
developing countries have is their traditional knowledge systems which
are rarely harnessed or built upon. It is necessary to understand the
evolution of knowledge, innovation and practices over several ages.
These com plex knowledge systems have evolved within socio -cultural and
institutional contexts. Post globalization these knowledge systems which
have been accumulated by the innovative spirit of our ancestors are facing
threat of invisibility and extinction. In th is section, we will seek to
identify the contested domains of individual, community and public
domain knowledge systems.

12.1 Introduction
12.2 Intellectual Property Rights
12.3 Contested Knowledge Domains
12.4 Protecting Intellectual Property Rights
12.5 Way forward
12.6 Conclusion
12.7 Summary
12.8 Questions
12.9 References
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107 12.2 INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS (IPR)
Conservation of the environment which includes biodiversity as well as
the knowledge systems requires cultural, institutional and technological
innovations apart from a deep -rooted ethical value set. A conservation
ethic cannot be reinforced solely through material incentives. What is
required is that communities create and maintain the space an d decide
what to conserve, for how long, at what cost, and for whom. The
challenges of consumerism which puts pressure on the natural resources
cannot be counteracted only through cultural and spiritual values. The
material needs for survival can put und ue pressure on the limited
resources. This needs to be resolved through putting up a portfolio of
incentives for conservation and for use of environmentally friendly
technologies and institutional arrangements.
There is a close relationship between tech nology, institutions and culture,
with each dimension playing an important role. In order to understand this
relationship, there is a need to understand the role of various incentives,
including the ones offered by the Intellectual Property Rights regimes .
The technology provides the means to change the production function or
the ratio of inputs to outputs. The institutions provide the rules, norms and
values under which, (a) the choice of inputs to be transformed may be
decided, (b) the means for transf ormation, (c) the scale of exploitation and
the various other ways that social existence is achieved. Simply put,
technology provides the building blocks of resource transformation,
institutions provide the norms and rules by which this transformation is
achieved through collective choice, and culture defines the range of
choices that are or are not sanctioned by the community.
The incentives for technological change and innovation must be built on
the lines of sustainable consumption, a communitarian sp irit, a concern for
the future generations and adopting of solutions which will be best suited
in the specific cultural and historical context. Use of a specific mesh size
of the net to catch fish, use of dynamite in fishing, use of trawlers which
travel into deep seas, and invasive methods of fishing; all of these are
counterproductive. Therefore, any use of resource should be done in
consultation with the collective rules evolved by the community. It cannot
be denied that innovations are necessary for improving technical
efficiency of any task, as it reduces hard labour, and is more lucrative.
But technological changes on its own cannot ensure positive
environmental outcomes especially in the absence of sustainable
institutions and compassionate cultur e.
Intellectual property rights regimes have always been a domestic concern.
However, the forces of globalization have catapulted it into the world
trade agenda. The IPR regimes are driven essentially by the rich
developed nations whose companies hold ma jority of the world’s patents.
Property rights generally exclude others from the commercial use of
protected knowledge for a given period of time. The right does not allow
for the use of that knowledge. Such a right will be determined by other
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108 pollution, etc. Defining a boundary relating to knowledge and resource
use is not new, but problems may arise when the IPR instruments impinge
on creativity, knowledge and innovation produc ed by individuals and
small communities.
Conventional Intellectual property law emerged out of model of
innovation over a particular time in history. Therefore, it does not fit well
into many systems as it is difficult to trace the origins of traditiona l
knowledge. The World Trade Organization’s (WTO) Trade -Related
Intellectual Property Rights Agreement (TRIPS) ideally should serve the
interests of both, rich as well as poor countries. But it is severely lacking
when it comes to extending promised bene fits to the developing countries.
The developing countries have two major concerns: 1) access to medicines
(public health), 2) protection of resources (environment) and traditional
knowledge.
Throughout history, natural capital has acted as the engine for economic
progress. Natural capital can be guided by social capital, some of which is
also ethical capital. Social capital in the context of IPR can be understood
as community based institutional arrangements which help in the
conservation and reproducti on of natural capital. The essential feature of
such capital is trust and reciprocity. Ethical capital can be understood as
investments and institutional arrangements that may be governed by
ethical norms. These norms comprise of accountability, transp arency,
reciprocity and fair play in terms of both humans and non -human beings.
The intersection of social and ethical capital is possible only when
common property institutions follow ethical values. Intellectual capital is
understood as knowledge about natural capital as well as other kinds of
technological and social interactions. Intellectual capital comprises of
literature, databases, folklore and other form of forms and informal
sources of knowledge and wisdom. Part of intellectual capital constitu tes
intellectual property from which the knowledge producers can exclude
others from commercial exploitation for a given period of time.
12.3 CONTESTED KNOWLEDGE DOMAINS
Many knowledge systems in developing countries are based upon
conservation of enviro nment and biodiversity resources. A community
creates its own conservation ethic and sustains it not only with material
incentives but also spiritual, cultural, institutional and technological
innovation. In the context of contested knowledge domains, it is
necessary to understand the concept of valorization.
Valorization:
One of the major objections to providing incentives for conservation is
that valorizing a resource may increase the possibility of over -exploitation
of that resource. Several tradition al conservationists are cautious of any
scheme which will add value to local resource. By value addition
(valorization), local communities will find it lucrative and attractive to
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109 Conservationists believe that valorization can go hand in hand with better
norms of conservation as communities will appreciate the long-term
benefits of such exercise. However, they refuse to recognize the
possibility that communities, with the help of l ocal knowledge as well as
public -spirited scientists, may develop efficient and sustainable
technologies which require lesser dependence on raw resources.
One of the contentions relating to valorization is that it creates a
paradoxical situation, that whi le the values of the intellectuals are not
supposed to be polluted or distorted by higher incomes, the institutional
fabric of poor people is supposed to be so weak that it will be corrupted by
higher incomes. Thus, at the moral level, one of the effects of avoiding
valorization of resources is to keep people poor so that biodiversity can be
protected and conserved.
Sometimes, resource exploitation can be a result of the failure of
institutional guidelines and framework. The example of ‘Taxol’ is a case
in point. Taxol was identified by the US National Cancer Institute to be
an important means to developing anti -cancer treatment. As a result, the
national corporation in India began excessive harvesting and extraction of
the bark of this tree. Later, on e of the major Ayurvedic companies that
exported this bark and its extract to the USA started extracting the relevant
compound from leaves when almost all the old trees had been harvesting
in the Shivalic foot hills in north India. This is an example of v alorization
leading to unsustainable and excessive use of resource. This example
reflects not so much a problem of technology, or valorization of the
resources, but the failure of institutions. Therefore, it can be concluded
that it is not just the incen tive but also the institutional context in which
the incentive is provided that makes a lot of difference as far as
environmental impact is concerned.
Overlapping domains of knowledge:
Emergent knowledge could be a result of individual or group -community
effor t. Some of this knowledge may spread only locally, characterizing it
as community knowledge. While other forms of knowledge may spread
across communities, regions and countries, and become public domain
knowledge. Within community knowledge, certai n asp ects are may be
restricted in terms of scope and accessibility, while other aspects may be
available in the public domain. Sometimes individuals may share the
knowledge within their own community as well to those outside their
community, making it pu blic domain knowledge. On the other hand,
some knowledge may be produced by individuals who keep it confidential
and restricted in term of access. Individuals may build their expertise by
observation, experimentation and innovation based from traditional
know ledge source. In this case individuals owe some acknowledgement
to their communities for the opportunity to make individual innovations.
The communities hold the right to decide the conditions under which
individuals may or may not be able to share their expertise or other
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110 community. The case in point is Australia, where a piece of art that was
designed by a person from the native Australian community was printed
on a currency note b y t he Reserve Bank. The community objected to
such usage because it argued that the individual did not have the right to
assign the individually designed art work to outsiders without the
permission of the community. They further argued that the art w ork h ad a
symbolic meaning and was conceived after ritual and taboos sanctified by
the community and therefore was sacred to them.
Every society has different traditions and mechanisms to protect their
intellectual property rights. In the Patan region o f nor th Gujarat, there is
an old tradition of textile production popularly known as ‘patan silk’. This
region has only three families who are involved in this tradition involving
use of natural vegetable dyes. The families fiercely guard their trade
secrets to such as extent that this information is kept away from their
daughters, as they believe that the daughters will compromise their secrets
as they will go into another family after marriage. Only daughters -in-law
are introduced to this tradition. A nothe r example is that of a community
in northern Bengal which had a tradition of making an offering of a
famous variety of mangoes to the King. The community often punctured
the seed of these mangoes with a thin needle so that nobody could grow
these man goes without their permission. Within several communities
there are taboos that imply that once a remedy is revealed to another
person, it loses its value. All these examples show that the concept of
drawing a boundary around the use of knowledge and res ource s, including
biological resources is not a new one.
Sometimes overlap of the varied domains of knowledge could trigger
conflicts and contestations when producers and users of knowledge have
unequal access. The contested domains of knowledge are analy zed o n the
basis of certain characteristics such as novelty and non -obviousness and
later compared to the formal scientific knowledge. It should be noted that
the differentiated domains of knowledge interact with varying domains
that govern the natural re sourc e regimes in a given area. Thus, knowledge
about the use of a particular herb or a tree found in a private garden may
exist among the members of a community, and in some cases, may be
shared widely to such an extent that it reaches the public domain.
Simi larly, knowledge about a plant found in a public forest may be known
only to an individual healer.
Present IP mechanisms are of limited help in this regard. Certain revisions
in the IP mechanisms will be able to provide the incentives and not
disin centiv es for individuals and communities to share their knowledge in
the public domain. Therefore, one of the challenges before policy makers
is to identify a portfolio of incentives (both monetary and non -monetary)
which will encourage individuals and gr oups t o conserve biodiversity and
associated knowledge systems.

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111 12.4 PROTECTING INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY
RIGHTS
Scholars have observed that the present IP instruments are of limited help
in regard to protecting traditional knowledge systems for the benefit of
local communities. But they argue that with sufficient modifications,
these instruments may help to provide incentives and not disincentives for
individuals and communities to share their valuable knowledge in the
public domain. One of the challenges befor e policy makers is to chalk out
a portfolio of initiatives which will provide monetary as well as non -
monetary benefits to individuals and groups that are working towards
conservation of diversity and associated knowledge systems.
There are several ways i n which ecological ethics works, and one of them
is the Honey Bee Network. The Network’s first encounter with this
phenomenon was when they were making a film on grassroots innovation
and outstanding traditional knowledge with the help of Indian Spa ce
Research Organization. The Honey Bee Network has documented more
than twenty -three thousand innovations. These innovations are either of
contemporary origin or based on traditional knowledge primarily from
India and also other parts of the world. The se inn ovations are very basic.
However, the diffusion of these innovations is extremely slow despite the
Honey Bee newsletter being published in eight different languages for
over a decade. This has resulted in the younger generation assuming that
all te chnolo gical solutions to their problems come from outside especially
from the west rather than from within. The problem is aggravated because
of a defeatist mentality and pervasive cynicism. There is a serious dearth
of specific instruments that protect i ntelle ctual property. The legal
frameworks which are designed to help small innovators may also inhibit
the articulation of sharing of knowledge. That is, innovators may prefer to
keep their knowledge secret.
There is an urgent need to protect IPRs of p oor co mmunities. This need
was expressed by the Honey Bee Network much before the TRIPS
agreement and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) were
established. It was accepted that the only resource in which the poor
people are rich, in their tradit ional knowledge systems. Making this
knowledge a public domain resource would deprive the economically
poor, knowledge rich communities of their major strength. The
philosophy that drives the organization is based on the seven Es:
Efficiency (wherein th e role of technology and IP instruments in extending
incentive for innovation needs to be highlighted), Equity, Excellence,
Environment, Ethics, Education and Empathy.
It is worth mentioning that IP instruments are only one of the many
possible incentive s for dealing with material and individual rewards.
These on their own are necessary but not sufficient for generating
environmentally friendly outcomes. Most IP instruments focus on
Efficiency, where the role of technology and IP instruments in providing
incen tive for innovation can be emphasized. The other Es are given
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112 converged and synergized. Intellectual property instruments play an
important but potentially limited role.
12.5 WAY FORWA RD
There is a fear among traditional conservationists that an over -emphasis
on economic development will lead to destruction of the environment.
But, they also recognized that the motto of conservation should go hand in
hand with addressing issues r elatin g to poverty and welfare of
communities. There should be mechanisms at the national level which will
help correct the current distortions in incentive structures for local
communities. Or else, it is feared that there will be a steady erosion of
knowledge resources which will be difficult to control.
There is a need to created new models for protecting intellectual capital.
These models should be in tune with the cultural, spiritual and ethical
traditions of developing countries, especially to the norms relating to
conservation of the environment and biodiversity resources which form
the basis of their knowledge systems. While global patent regimes should
not be opposed, it could be used as one of the potential ways of rewarding
innovation. The mo del sh ould be modified to cater to the traditions and
needs of developing nations. The global patent regime should also work
towards an approach to generate material and non -material incentives for
individual and communities for conservation.
12.6 CONCLUS ION
It is now recognized that the problems of developing countries will not be
solved within the confines of laboratories of European or western nations.
The innovators will have to work alone and through the mediation of
European networks laboratories an d incu bation centres. It is pointless to
put undue emphasis on just technology transfer rather than local green
technology development. The future lies in harnessing of thousands of
examples of innovations, practices, and knowledge systems of local
commu nities . The entrepreneurial spirit of local communities should be
augmented by public and private sector research and development to work
towards self -reliance.
12.7 SUMMARY
Worldwide there is recognition that the most important assets for a
community, compan y or a country are not so much the physical capital but
its intellectual capital.
There is a close relationship between technology, institutions and culture,
with each dimension playing an important role.
Conventional Intellectual property law emerge d out of model of
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113 One of the major objections to providing incentives for conservation is
that valorizing a resource may increase the possibility of over -exploitation
of that resource.
The communities hold th e righ t to decide the conditions under which
individuals may or may not be able to share their expertise or other
knowledge with outsiders or even with other members within their own
community.
Sometimes overlap of the varied domains of knowledge could tri gger
conflicts and contestations when producers and users of knowledge have
unequal access.
It is worth mentioning that IP instruments are only one of the many
possible incentives for dealing with material and individual rewards.
There is a need to creat ed new models for protecting intellectual capital.
These models should be in tune with the cultural, spiritual and ethical
traditions of developing countries.
12.8 QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the mechanisms of protections of intellectual property
rights.
2. Discuss the pro blem of valorization in the context of contested
knowledge domains.
12.9 REFERENCES
Gupta, Anil (2003): Intellectual Property Rights and the Environment –
the Role of Intellectual Property Rights in Preserving the spirit of
Innovation, Experimentation an d the Conservation Ethic at the Grassroots
Level, UNEP, United Nations Publication
Peter Drahos and Susy Frankel: ‘Indigenous Peoples’ Innovation and
Intellectual Property: The issues in ‘Indigenous Peoples’ Innovation, ANU
Press available at:
http://www.j stor.com/stable/j.ctt24hfgx.7

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