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1UNDERSTANDINGCOMPARATIVEPOLITICSUnit Structure1.0Nature and Scope of Comparative Politics1.0.1 Introduction1.0.2 Definition, Meaning, Nature and Scope of Comparative Politics1.0.3 Distinction between Comparative Government and ComparativePolitics1.0.4 The main differences between ‘comparative politics’ and‘Comparative Government’1.1Old Institutionalism and New Institutionalism1.2Global Context of Comparative Politics1.3Conclusion1.4Unit End Question1.5Suggested ReadingsA. NATURE AND SCOPE OF COMPARATIVEPOLITICS1.0 INTRODUCTIONPoliticalscience has beenone of theoldestdisciplinesknown by this namein Western Europe since ancient Greek and Roman times.The etymologyof political science in Western Europe comes from the ancient Greekcity-stateofPolis.In other words, it developed as a discipline for public life inpolis. However, since it is an academic discipline with a long history, itsacademic character and method are extremely mixed, and its establishmentas an academic discipline in a strict sense belongs to a relatively recentone.This is why political science is said to be the oldest andnewestdiscipline.A subdivision of politicalsciencethat captures the politics of each countryin the process of interaction with various social, economic, cultural, andinternational conditions.Comparative Politics cameinto the limelightonlyafter thecolonies of theWestern European powersappeared ininternational politics as emerging independent nations.In other words, intheface of theemergenceof research areas that are different from theWestern categories, Western political scientists havehad to re-examinetheirownsense of valuesand thinking frameworks.As amunotes.in
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result,various conceptual frameworks such asadvancedandunderdevelopedWestern democracy and non-Western incompletedemocracy,which had been theobviouscriteriauntil then, came to beregarded as problems.In this way, comparative politics has seen rapiddevelopment, with political system theory and structural function theory asthe central analytical tools.1.0.2 Definition, Meaning, Nature and Scope of Comparative Politics:The term‘comparative politics’ is of recent origin and came into fashionin the fifties of the present century and is revealing of the expandinghorizon of political science. The political scientists made a bid to study thepolitical reality through a new techniques and approaches. The oldconcepts were also seen in new light. One of the main causes whichencouraged the development of new approach for the study of politics wasunhappiness with the traditional descriptive approach to the subject. Thescholars laid greater emphasis on informal political process rather thanpolitical institutions and state. They borrowed a number of ideas andconcepts from other social sciences and provided the political studies anew empirical orientation. Before we proceed further todraw a distinctionbetween comparative government and comparative politics, it shall bedesirable to define comparative politics.According to Freeman “Comparative politics is comparative analysis ofthe various forms of government and diverse politicalinstitutions.”Braibante says comparative politics is “identification and interpretation offactors in the whole social order which appears to affect whatever politicalfunctions and their institutions which have been identified and listed forcomparison”.According to M. G. Smith, ‘Comparative politics is thestudy of the forms of political organizations, their properties, correlations,variations and modes of change’. According to M. Curtis, ‘Comparativepolitics is concerned with significant regularities, similarities anddifferences in the working of political institutions and politicalbehavior.’According to Roy C. Macridis and Robert Ward, ‘Government is not thesole concern of students of comparative politics.’ Comparative politics, nodoubt, has tobe concerned with the government structure but at the sametime it has to take note of the following:•Society, historical heritage and geographic and resource endowed•Its social and economic organizations•Its ideologies and value systems•Its politicalstyle•Its parties, interests, and leadership structureAll these definitions provide a basis for the study of comparativegovernments in its contemporary term. It involves a comparative study ofthe institutional and mechanistic arrangements along withthe empiricaland scientific analysis of non-institutionalized and non-politicaldeterminants of political behavior.munotes.in
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GabrielAlmond, a prominent comparativepolitician, introducedpoliticalsystemtheorybased on structural functional analysisinto comparativepolitics and contributed greatly to the development of this field.In hisanalytical scheme, he assumes that basic political functions are carried outin any society, and compares them from the perspective of what kind ofstructure they are responsible for.Even in a primitive society, as in ademocracy, functions such as social integration and value distribution areperformed, but the functions are not differentiated or one structureperforms multiple functions. Or, the method of execution is notinstitutionalized.Therefore, we focus on both sides of function andstructure and make a substantive comparison.Comparativepoliticstodayaimsto analyze the essenceofpoliticalphenomenaby a method called comparison andto construct auniversal theory.For political science, which, like other social sciences,does not have a laboratory, comparisons are a valuable tool for identifyingthe factors of a phenomenon.Comparisons include both temporal (historical) and spatialcomparisons.Although the perspective of comparison has been around fora long time, comparative studies up to the first half of the 20th centuryprovided a descriptive understanding of the political systems of othercountries from an institutional perspective.In other words, theconventional research was to adopt a system that seems to be moredemocratic as a model, or to insist that it should be adopted, and it had astrong color of comparative political system theory.The world leading up to World War IIis formed with internationalrelations by countries, which has been limited to even the Westerncountries studies.However, since the emerging nations have appeared onthe international stage after the war, theemerging nations that havebecome a non-negligible presence in the international community haveinevitably become the subject of research.In particular, in the UnitedStates during the Cold War, analysis of emerging-market societies becamean important national policy issue in order to maintain and expand its owncamp.However, traditional institutional approaches have not been able todeal with societies that are completely different from Westernsocieties.Therefore, an analytical framework that is not bound by thesystem was needed, and the form of comparative politics was put in place,breaking away from the theory of comparative politics.Because ofthisdevelopmentprocess, comparativepolitics initially had the meaningof political modernization theory and development theory, but after that, atendency to respect the uniqueness of each society was born, and thedirection of comparative politics also changed. Currently, it is consideredas an opportunity for verification to refine political theory, and it isintegrated with political science itself rather than having a unique field ofcomparative politics.munotes.in
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1.0.3 Distinctionbetween Comparative Governmentand ComparativePolitics:Scholars have tended to use the terms ‘comparative government’ and‘comparative politics’ for each other withoutrealizingthe differencebetween the two. For example Prof. S. E. Finer does not consider the twoas different when he argues that “politics is neither the same thing asgovernment nor is it necessarily connected only with those great territorialassociations which have a governmentand which are known as ‘State’ forif we use government in the sense of ‘governance’ or the ‘activity ofgoverning’ we shall find that government exists at different levels. For thevastest area of human conduct and activity in society proceeds quiteunregulated by the public authorities. It forms a coherent set of patternsand regulates itself. The second chief mode bywhich society forms itsown patterns and regulates itself is the process of so-called ‘socialization’of the individual, with which is associated the concept of ‘social control’Most societies in the modern world, however, are equipped withgovernments.However, Edward Freeman is conscious of the fact that these two termsare not identical and tries to draw a distinction between them.1.0.4 Themaindifferencesbetween ‘Comparative Politics’and‘Comparative Government’areasfollows:1. Firstly, whilecomparative government is concerned with the study offormal political institutions like legislature, executive, judiciary andbureaucracy alone in comparative politicsthe other factors whichinfluence the working of the political institutions are taken into account.Inother words ‘comparative politics’ makes a study of the formal as well asinformal politicalinstitutions. This point has been summed up by a scholarthus: “The scope of comparativepolitics is wider than that of comparativegovernment despite search for making comparisonswhich is central to thestudy of both. The concern of a student of comparative politics does notend with the study of rulemaking, rule implementation and ruleadjudicating organs ofvarious political systems or even withthat study ofsome extra constitutional agencies (likepolitical and pressure groups)having their immediate connection, visible or invisible with thedepartments of state activity. In addition to all this, he goes ahead to dealwith...even thosesubjectshitherto considered as falling within the range ofEconomics, Sociology andAnthropology”2. Secondly, comparative government was chiefly confined to the study ofthe political institutionsof western democratic countries. On the otherhand comparativepolitics concentrates on thestudy of political institutionsof all the countries of the world. It has laid special emphasis onthe studyof political institutions of the states which have emerged in the twentiethcentury.munotes.in
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3. Thirdly, comparative government involves only descriptive study of thepolitical institutionsand makes only formal study of the politicalinstitutions provided by the constitution. On the other hand comparativepolitics concentrates on analytical study of the various politicalinstitutions. Investigation and experimentation constitute prominentfeatures of comparative politics.4. Finally, comparative government concerns itself only with the politicalactivities of the political institutions, while comparative politics also takesinto account the economic, cultural and social factors. In other words ittries to examine the political institutions through interdisciplinaryapproachConclusion:Comparative politics makes relationships and comparisons betweenmultiple regions and nations, butit is often the case thatcomparativepoliticians are somearea studiesat the same time.Comparative politics isfirst required to play arole as one of the cognitive frameworks that can beshared among area studies.Nevertheless, there are islands of theory thatare not systematized at this time.In comparative politics, we may try notonly the current comparison but also the past system and the past andpresent in the same country.B. OLD INSTITUTIONALISM AND NEWINSTITUTIONALISMAt the turn of the 19thand 20thcenturiesthe first version of institutionalismwas formed, based on a formal legal analysis and comparison of state-legal and political institutions of different countries (legislative systems,executive power, constitutions).Among the most significant researchersrelated to this galaxy, F. Polok, E. Freeman ("Comparative PoliticalScience", 1873), M. Kovalevsky ("Historical-Comparative Method inJurisprudence and Methods of Studying Law", 1880) should be named. ),W.Wilson("The State", 1889), D. Perges("Political Science andComparative Constitutional Law"), etc. Scientists focused mainly on thestudy of the state, its organs and institutions, through which it exercises itsfunctions.A significant contribution to the formation of institutionalism inthe field of economics was made by TA. Koelble.In 1918 W. Hamilton introduced the term "institutionalism", defining aninstitution as "a widespread way of thinking or acting, embodied in thehabits of groups and customs of the people" [Hamilton, 1932,p.84].Institutions are viewed at this time mainly as political institutions-formal provisions, laws or their derivative separation of powers, methodsof election.It is believed that institutions record established procedures,reflect a general agreement, an agreement that has developed insociety.Institutions at this time meant customs, corporations, trade unions,the state, etc. The true glory of the "old" institutionalism was made by thestudies of W. Wilson, J. Bruce, T. Cole, G. Carter, and K.munotes.in
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FriedrichClassical institutionalism contributed to a deeper analysis ofmanagement problems.1.1OLD INSTITUTIONALISM AND NEWINSTITUTIONALISMBy the middle of the 20thcentury.Scientists record the crisis state of themethodology of institutionalism, which was associated with a wholecomplex of reasons: insufficient capabilities of the empirical / descriptivemethod only in the study of institutions;limited possibilities of formallegal analysis to explain political realities, low predictive capabilitiesofinstitutional theory in explaining the formation and functioning ofdemocracy in a number of states, difficulties in comparing institutions indifferent regions, etc.In the 1960s.Research in the paradigm of classical institutionalismpractically disappears under the onslaught of supporters ofbehaviorism.The features of the behavioral approach to the analysis ofpolitics J. March and J. Olsen include the following:•Contextualize(politics is seen as a mirror image of the externalenvironment-economic conditions, geographic location, social-classstructure, etc.);•Reductionism (political phenomena are considered as general resultsof individual behavior);•Utilitarianism (political action-the resultant self-interest of politicalactors);•Functionalism (the optimal result of political action is to achieve abalance of political forces);•Instrumentalism (the process of making political decisions and theallocation of resources is seen as the central problem of politicallife).Behaviouralistshave treated political institutions as formalmechanisms that function only thanks to the people working in them,acting on the principle of "stimulus-response".However, the inconsistency of explaining political processes within theframework of the behavioralapproach again generates interest in the studyof institutions.Neo-institutionalismtook shape as an independent trend in the1980s.The article by J. March and J. Olsen "New Institutionalism:Organizational Forms in Political Life" in 1984 is considered aprogrammatic one for the formation of this methodology in politicalscience, although J. Rawls is usually called the pioneer of Neo-institutionalism.Political institutions are analyzed from the point of viewof the relationship between formal norms and informal “rules of thegame”, which ultimately form complex organizational relations, forms ofinteraction and the very cooperative activity of people who maintainmunotes.in
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stability and reproduce order in society.The formation of newmethodologies in political research does not happen overnight.There are several fundamental differences betweenthe “old” and “new”institutionalism.If institutionalists were inclined to analyze politicalprocesses by methods of other sciences about society, then neo-institutionalists are expanding their arsenal of tools, including turning togame theory.The new institutionalism relies on developmental theory andthe use of quantitative methods of analysis.Traditional institutionalismhas relied primarily on the inductive method;neo-institutionalists preferthe deductive path-from attempts to create a universaltheory to theanalysis of specific phenomena of political life.In addition,institutionalism mainly analyzes the actions of structures; for Neo-institutionalism, an independent individual is more significant as an objectof analysis, which, of his own free will and in accordance with hisinterests, is integrated into a particular structure, i.e.the attention ofresearchers is focused on real behavior.If the "old" institutionalismassigns a central place in the theory to the conflict of interests, then forneo-institutionalism it plays a peripheral role.Finally, Neo-institutionalismprovides incomparably greater opportunities for comparative analysis thanits predecessor (Weingast 1999).Neo-institutionalism pays special attention to socio-cultural symbols andvalues, stereotypes and regulations that influence the structuring of macropolitics.The classics of neo-institutionalism, American political scientistsD. March and J. Olsen in their work "Rediscovering institutions: theorganizational basis ofpolitics" (1989) analyze the problemsoforganizational hierarchies, norms and rules, procedures and regulationsthat shape the activities of political institutions [March, Olsen, 1989].D.North noted the need to analyze informal constraints (traditions,customs,and social conventions), formal rules (constitutions, laws, judicialprecedents, administrative acts) and enforcement mechanisms that ensurecompliance with the rules (courts, police, etc.)Two questions are considered fundamental for neo-institutionalism: how,as one of the factors, institutions influence the political behavior ofindividuals and political life;how political institutions arise andchange.D. Diermeier and K. Krebil proposed to distinguish between“theories of institutions” and “institutional theories”. The diverse streamsof Neo-institutionalism have led analysts to offer different versions oftheir classification.For example, P. Katzenstein speaks about two forms ofnew institutionalism-"thick" and "thin".The "thin" versionis focused ona rationalist analytical style, where institutions are seen as mechanismsthat contribute to solving the problem of coordination."Subtle"institutionalism is focused on the study of the foundations of individualpolitical choice and ineffectively describes the processes at the macrolevel.J. Blom-Hansen identifies two main areas of Neo-institutionalism-rational choice within the framework of the economic direction of politicalscience and sociological.P. Hall and R. Taylor consider it necessary todistinguish three options-historical, sociological and economicmunotes.in
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(institutionalism of rational choice) neo-institutionalism According to G.Peters, six variants of Neo-institutionalism should bedistinguished:sociological and economic (institutionalism of rationalchoice) neo-institutionalism. According to G. Peters, six variants of Neo-institutionalism should be distinguished:sociological and economic(institutionalism of rational choice) neo-institutionalism.According to G. Peters, six variants of Neo-institutionalism should bedistinguished:1)Normative institutionalism, emphasizing the importance of norms andvalues, and not just formal structures, rules or procedures (D. March,K. Olsen);2)Institutionalism of rational choice (J. Buchanan, E. Ostrom, M. Levy),exploring the significance of external structural constraints in relationto rational actors;3)Historical institutionalism, which considers institutional choice (goals,means, and evaluation criteria) as a long-term factor ofpolitical results(K. Thelen, D. Ashford, T. Longstredt);4)Empirical (structural) institutionalism (K. Weaver, B. Rockman),which is an updated scientific version of the “old” institutionalism(formalized analysis of forms of government, political systems,features of the administrative structure, etc.);5)Societal institutionalism, focusing the attention of researchers on therelationship between the state and society-models of interactionwithin the private and public sectors and between them (D.Marsh, R.Rhodson);6)Institutionalism in studies of foreign policy and international relations.In addition, the attention of neo-institutionalists is also the so-calledalternative approaches-rules and / or compulsion to rule, which allow,prescribeand prohibit the actions of members of institutions;at the sametime, institutions are interpreted as self-selected constraints and a means ofaggregating individual preferences.There is a peculiarity in the interpretation of institutions from thepoint ofview of the theory of rational choice-the presence of two levels ofanalysis, which make it possible not only to understand the effects of theinteraction of institutions, but also the course of development ofinstitutions and the reasons for the preservation of certain forms oforganizations:•Analysis of institutions as immutable and exogenous;•Analysis of the reasons for the emergence of a specific form ofinstitutions, which allows them to be considered as endogenousphenomena.munotes.in
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At the same time, institutions are understood as constraints on the actionsof actors involved in the interaction process.All actors act on the principleof maximizing their goals within the existing constraints (the so-calledself-reinforcement concept).The theory of rational choice makes itpossible, on the basis of a comparison of the functioning of institutionsand an assessment of the results of their activities, to make predictionsabout stability, efficiency and prospects for survival.In addition,thestrength of the theory of rational choice in Neo-institutionalism is theassessment of the transformation of the nature of interaction betweeninstitutions when external circumstances change.The works of modern representatives of Neo-institutionalism in politicalscience demonstrate the multidimensionality of institutional evolution dueto the influence of the dynamics of formal and informal institutions, aswell as the variety of trajectories of the political choice of actors under theinfluence ofthe institutional environment.There is a variety of ways ofinteraction between formal and informal institutions, ideas and beliefs,their influence on political choices, the peculiarities of the restrictions theyimpose on political evolution.For modern Neo-institutionalism, it is important to analyze theinstitutional dynamics and organizational structures, theinstitutionalization of new social movements on the periphery of theinstitutional system of society, and turning points of political events forthe emergence or destruction of the institutional structure and politicalorder.In the modern version of institutionalism, new directions aresignificant-"sociological institutionalism", "constructivistinstitutionalism", "network institutionalism", which arose under theinfluence of the expansion of the object of analysis: in addition totraditional institutions of state power and institutions of politicalparticipation, socio-cultural variables of institutional dynamics are takeninto account.Research strategies of modern Neo-institutionalism focus on the role ofsymbolic structures of political institutions (formal and informal) inmaintaining, constructing political cultures, identities, legitimizing anddelegitimizing the political order.The shift of the research focus of Neo-institutionalism to the study of theinfluence of "networks of meanings", "network trust", cognitive schemesand scripts of symbolic legitimization of institutional dynamics led to an"anthropological turn" in neoinstitutional analysis, manifested in the studyof the variability of the process of emergence and adaptation of newpolitical institutions under the influence of symbolic and organizationalstructures.The interest of Neo-institutionalism in the specifics of theformation of statehood due to the structural autonomy of politicalinstitutions in relation to others, the role of symbiotic foundations(violence and coercion) in the institutional evolution of politics, themunotes.in
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“background practices” of the construction of political institutions ismanifested.K. Hay pointed out that Neo-institutionalism as a whole and its individualdirections are not free from certain limitations and shortcomings.Neo-institutionalism emphasizes the description of the previous development ofinstitutions, in the logic of the structuralist approach it emphasizes thedependence of political actors on institutional circumstances, is more ableto explain the state of political stability than changes [InstitutionalPolitical Science, 2006].Conclusion:This chapter has argued that institutions matter in political life and it hastried to explain how and why this is so. Institutions can be defined as setsof rules, codes or tacit understandings which shape behaviour. Whethertheydeterminebehaviour is another matter. As we saw above, rationalchoice approaches to institutionalist explanation run perilously close tothis. For this reason it is best instead to carefully explore the interactionbetween institutions and the ‘situated subjects’ withinthem. The emphasisshould be onactorsas the primary unit of analysis and how they interpretand make choices within their institutional environment. It is theseinterpretive processes which have been the focus of the researchmentioned above on how ideas and discourse interact with institutionalsettings.C. GLOBAL CONTEXT OF COMPARATIVE POLITICS1.2GLOBAL CONTEXT OF COMPARATIVE POLITICSThe last few decades have seen wide reaching changes in the context andwith it the subject matter ofComparative Politics. This has enormousimplications for comparative research itself. Comparative Politics in the21st Century cannot be identical to that of the 20th century. Simply tocontinue as before would be to overlook the fundamental difficultiesinherent in so doing. This does not mean however that ComparativePolitics should be completely reinvented. Continuities will remain, andrightly so. However it does mean that given the context of significantempirical changes, research has to be rethoughtand deliberated upon. Thishas, as we shall see, a considerable effect upon research activity. Not onlyis the area of terminology affected, but methodological approaches andtheoretical formation equally so. Before we investigate these areasindividually,we shall briefly outline the significant empirical changeswhich are poised to reshape Comparative Politics.The word politics is often treated on the premise that it takes place withina single nation or society.The Greek word police, which was theetymology of English politics in the first place, refers to a city-state.Inmunotes.in
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other words, the traditional idea is that politics is first carried out in asociety or nation that is independent to some extent and the subject ofpolitical science research has followed this idea.However, in modern times, the scope of human activity has increasedbeyond one nation to engage with other nations at an accelerating rate.Notonly the geographical spread, but also the involvement with societies andnations belonging todifferent cultures and civilizations has increased.Inthat case, there is an increasing need to deepen the understanding of thepolitical systems and functions of different societies, or the relationshipsbetween nations.Of course, we sometimes discoversimilar politicalsystems and phenomena that look different.Research fields such as comparative politics and international affairs havedeveloped from this background.Comparative politics is a discipline thatcompares the state of politics among multiple nations and societies, andthen explores the essence of politics that transcends the relationshipbetween politics and the societies and history of each country and culturaldifferences.International affairs (international politics) mainly focuses onthe relationship between the state and foreign countries and the nature ofthe international community.In the past, diplomacy / security and politicaleconomy were the main focus, but in recent years, relationships as a socialgroup and cultural exchange have become important issues.In today'sincreasingly globalized world, it is becoming increasingly important tounderstand the politics of other countries and to know internationalaffairs.Learning comparative politics and international affairs should beagreat opportunity not only for those who advance into politics,administration, and diplomacy, but also for those who pursue any course.The subject of comparative politics as developed, in the GlobalContext, has these main characteristics:1.Analytical and Empirical Investigation:The analytical-cum-empirical method adopted by the writers belonging to the latest phase “hasdefinitely enlarged the field of our enquiry as it has cleared up the mist inwhich many helpful distinctions within theframework of political studieslay obscured.” Eckstein has referred to the late decades of the nineteenthcentury as a period in which Political Science influenced by a ‘primitivepositivism’ “affected a divorce between its normative and its descriptiveconcerns.” He further says that in the realm of ‘comparative government’,more and more writers “turned from a concern for the evaluation ofgovernmental forms to a pure description.2. Study of the Infrastructure:The study of comparative politics is notconfined to the formal structures of government as was the trend with thetraditional political scientists. Here a student is concerned ‘with inquiryinto matters of public concern, with the behaviour and acts that mayconcern a society as a totality or which may ultimately be resolved by theexercise of legitimate coercion.” Instead of remaining concerned with theformal structures of government alone, he “has to be concerned withmunotes.in
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crystallised patterns of behaviour, with ‘practices’ since these are parts ofthe living structures of government.” If instead of ‘government’ the term‘political system’ is used, naturally it becomes a part of the entire socialsystem and the ‘input-output’ process includes all those forces of the‘environment’ that have their effect on the decision-making process.3. Emphasis on the Study of Developing Societies:What has addedmore to the significance of the study of comparative politics is theemphasis of more writers on the ‘politics of the developing areas’. It hasoccurredas a result of the realisation that the subject of comparativepolitics must include all governments along with their infra-structures that“exist in the contemporary world and, where possible, references togovernments throughout time.” The study of comparative government isno longer a study of the selected European or American governments; it isas much a study of developed western governments as those of thedeveloping political systems of the poor and backward countries of theAfro-Asian and Latin American world.4. Focus on Inter-Disciplinary Approach:What has really enriched thefield of comparative politics and, at the same time, made it a ‘complexsubject’ is the focus on inter-disciplinary study. Writers have made moreand more use of tools thatthey have borrowed from the disciplines ofsociology, psychology, economics, anthropology and even from naturalsciences like biology. For instance, systems analysis with its twoderivatives in the form of structural functional and input-outputapproachesowes its origin to the discipline of biology that has beenborrowed by the leading American political scientists like David Eastonfrom sociologists like Robert Merton and Talcott Parsons. The result isthat comparative politics has come to have much thatmakes it look likepolitical sociology and political psychology. A study of new topics likepolitical development, political modernisation, political socialisation,political acculturation, political change, political leadership and the likeshows that now political science has become the “application ofsociological and psychological analysis to the study of the behaviour ofgovernment and other political structures.”5. Value-Free Political Theory:Finally, the subject of political sciencehas lost itsnormative aspect and assumed empirical dimensions in thesphere of comparative politics. The result is that value-free political theoryhas replaced value-laden political theory. The concern of the students ofcomparative politics is not with the things as they ought to be in their idealforms; it is with what they are. There is hardly any place for the rules ofhistory or ethics in the subject of comparative politics as the entire fieldhas been covered by the rules of sociology, psychology and economics.There is thus hardly any place for a man like Leo Strauss in the field ofcomparative politics who, while sticking to the traditions of Plato andAristotle, contends that political theory cannot eschew ‘values’ and thus avalue-free political science is impossible. It should, however, be madeclear that the use of the term ‘values’ by Easton (when he defines politicsmunotes.in
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as ‘the authoritative allocation of values’) or of ‘value system’ by Almond(when he identifies it with a system of ideas and beliefs) has anempirical,and not a normative, connotation. We may say that the term value is usedby the writers on comparative politics in the sense of a ‘price’ or ‘worth’that a thing gets after it is recognised by the policymakers.There is no value in a thing unless it is allocated by those who are inauthority. Political science, thus, becomesinter aliaa study of thedistribution by persons in authority of things which are valued, or theattribution by such persons of value to things, or the deciding by suchpersons of disputes relating to things which are valued.1.3 CONCLUSIONComparative politics is more about a method of political inquiry than asubject matter in politics. The comparative method seeks insight throughthe evaluation and analysis of two or more countries.There are two main strategies in the comparative method: most similarsystems design, in which the cases are similar but the outcome (ordependent variable) is different, and most different systems design, inwhich the cases are different but the outcome is the same. Both strategiescan yield valuable comparative insights.A key unit of comparison is the nation-state, which gives relativelycohesive cultural and political entities as the basis of comparison. Anation-state is the overlap of a definable cultural identity (a nation) with apolitical system thatreflects and affirms characteristics of that identity (astate).In comparing constitutions and political institutions across countries, it isimportant to analyze the factors that shape unique constitutional andinstitutional designs.1.4UNIT END QUESTION1.What is the nature and scope of comparative governments?2.Write a short note on the main differences between ‘ComparativePolitics’ and ‘Comparative Government’.3.What exactly is an institution? What is institutionalism?4.How does new institutionalismdiffer from old institutionalism?5.What is the role comparative politics in the Era of Globalisation?6.What are the main characteristics ofcomparative politicsin the GlobalContext?munotes.in
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1.5SUGGESTED READINGS•Aldrich John Why Parties? The Origin and Transformation of PartyPolitics in America, Chicago: University of Chicago Press (1995).•Chibber, Pradeep and Kollman, Ken (1998). “Party Aggregation andthe Number of Parties in India and the United States” AmericanPolitical Science Review 9 (2): 329 342.•Calvo, Ernesto and Maria Murillo‘Who Delivers? Partisan Clients inthe Argentine Electoral Market’, American Journal of PoliticalScience, Vol. 48, No. 4, (October 2004), pp. 742757.•Cox, Gary (1997), Making Votes Count: Strategic Coordination in theWorld’s Electoral Systems. New York: Cambridge University Press.•Hauss, C. (2014).Comparative politics: Domestic responses to globalchallenges. Cengage Learning.•Johari, J. C. (1982).Comparative politics Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd.•Kesselman, M. Krieger, J. &Joseph, W. A. (2018)Introduction tocomparative politics: political challenges and changing agendas,Cengage Learning.•Kitschelt, Herbert. (1992) “The Formation of Party Systems in EastCentral Europe” Politics and Society, 20, 750.•Kohli, A. & Singh, P. (Eds.), (2013).Routledge handbook of Indianpolitics, Routledge.•Lipset, Seymour Martin and Stein Rokkan 1967 “Cleavage Structures,Party Systems, and Voter Alignments: An Introduction,” in Lipset andRokkan eds., Party Systems and Voter Alignments, pp. 156.•Magaloni, Beatriz. (2006). Voting for Autocracy: Hegemonic PartySurvival and its Demise in Mexico. Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress.•Martin Shefter. (1981). “Parties and Patronage: England, Germany,and Italy.” Politics and Society, 7, 403451.•Thachil, Tariq. (2014). Elite Parties, Poor Voters: Social Services asElectoral Strategy in India. Cambridge University Press.munotes.in
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152DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN STATEUnit Structure2.0ObjectivesA.State in a comparative framework2.1Introduction2.2Nature and significance of Modern State.2.3Theories of State2.3.1 Organic and Mechanist theory2.3.2 Liberal theory2.3.3 Marxist theory2.3.4 Gender theory2.3.5 Pluralist theory2.4State and Nation2.5Postcolonial State2.6Conclusion2.7ReferencesA. STATE IN A COMPARATIVE FRAMEWORK2.0 OBJECTIVESThis unit aims to introduceyou to the process of development of themodern State and different theories of State. After studying this unit, youshould be able to:•Explain the meaning, nature and significance of the modern nation-state.•Understand and explicate different theories ofthe State.•Explicate meaning and relationship between State and Nation.•Understand post-colonialism as the development of State afterdecolonization in Asia and Africa.2.1 INTRODUCTIONGreek philosopher Aristotle (384–322 BC) known as the father of politicalscience stated that “Man is by nature a political animal”. People areorganized in different social organizations such as family and school,economic organizations such as cooperatives and companies and politicalmunotes.in
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16organizations such as political parties and the United Nations. A state is aform of political organization of humans. Humans were hunter-gatherersand were not located in a permanent territory in prehistoric times. Humanslived nomadic and semi-nomadic lives foraging most of the food fromplants and hunting. Initially living in simple groups foraging for food.Gradually, organized in tribes at this nomadic stage, under the powerfulleader of the group. With the gradual development of agriculture out ofhuman ingenuity, humans could settle now in one place in a definedterritory. As agricultural development continued humans could producesurplus food. Until surplus production of food the human mind and brainwere occupied by physical need and the basic task of gathering food. Nowhumans could focus on other aspects of life due to food security. Fertileland became invaluable due to the development of agriculture. Theconsciousness of territoriality garnered importance and gradually group ofpeople started to live in defined territory leaving behind nomadic lives.Due to food surplus, humans could organize themselves in families. Theneed for a physically strong Alpha, a leader, withered away for the tribebecause such leadershipbecame less important in a sedentary lifestylethan hunting. Trade, culture and art could flourish due to surplus foodproduction and permanent settlement. This calls for a complex anddifferent form of regulation and governance of people and economicactivities which need bureaucracy. The powerful person becomes king andearly states emerged in ancient civilizations. First advanced civilizationssuch as the Indus valley civilization in India along the rivers in China,Egypt and Iraq are State civilizations that developed trade, art andcomplex bureaucracy in ancient times. Different types of states withlimited democracy such as Greek city-states and janapadas and vastkingdoms such as the Roman Empire and Maurya Empire developed inEurope and India respectively to name examples among other states indifferent parts of the world. States based on the social hierarchy of feudalsystem and influence of Church governed Europe under monarchiesduring the fifteenth century. Peace of Westphalia bought an end to theEight years’ war between Spain and the Dutch and also to a phase ofeighty years’ war between the Dutch and Germans. This Europeansettlement in 1648 is considered the moment of the emergence of themodern State.The state carries different connotations in various theories and ideologies.Accordingly, it is defined in various ways. There is no one agreeddefinition of the state as the nature of the state also changed with time andspace. The definition given by German Sociologist Max Weber is widelyaccepted, it states that "State is a polity that maintains a monopoly on thelegitimate use of violence." State legitimately claims a monopoly overpeople in territory governed, coercion is a legitimate instrument of Statemakes it unique and differentiates from other forms of politicalorganizations.The state is a "politically organized society." The state may coincide withsociety when it takes the form of a nation. Relationships in State are in themunotes.in
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17form of command and obedience to laws whereas in a society dependenton customs, tradition and needs. It is civil society in Liberal theory thatworks to pursue rights of people from government and in Pluralism civilsociety counterbalances power to State however for Marxism it is part ofSuperstructure generating social values to dominate the proletariat.Society can extend beyond State boundaries. The state is always there inmodern society, almost seems omnipresent, however for most of theprehistoric times people lived in stateless societies and there are theoriesand thoughts like Marxism and Gandhism who predict and want toestablish a stateless society.2.2NATURE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF MODERNSTATEModern states comprised vast empires in Europe in modern times.Ottoman Empire, Austro-Hungarian empire constituted vast landmasses,greater than most of the nation-states present today. There are fourimportant constituents of modern States. Sovereignty, government,territory and people. "Sovereignty means the State is supreme in internalas well as external matters." It is supreme political authority to govern indefined territory controlled by it, within its delineated borders. People ofthe State are given the legal status of citizens. "Citizenship is a legal statusof an individual allows claim over rights and has obligations towards theState." "Government is the executive arm of the State which carries out itsfunctions in internal and external matters." We can empirically observeand measure components of the State but it is an imaginative entitycomprising empirically observable constituents. In day-to-day life words,government and state are used interchangeably. However, the governmentchanges every few years, and the State is a comparably permanentpolitical organization. Modern nation-states control large territories.People of different communities, religions, languages and ethnicitiesreside in them. These diverse groups live in these states amicably. In someplaces, the State uses coercion to control the population but for the mostpart, people are willingly obliged to State jurisdiction. Modern State hasmechanisms like vast Bureaucracy to collect and utilize revenue earnedthrough the sophisticated taxation system, police agencies to maintain lawand order and armies to defend from external threats.Modern State iscommonly referred to as a nation-state. "Nation is feeling of onenessamong the populace". Even though people have diverse backgrounds inlife they adore the objectives of their State and feel being part of it.If one contemplates what differentiates political science from other socialscience, one of the obvious answers would be the study of State. J.W.Gamer claimed that "political science begins and ends with the state." TheState is the central theme of study in traditional politicalscience. "TheState is an imaginative, formal concept helps us to think about the ultimateand moral ends of political organization." The real-world working ofsystems disallows us to do such a practice easily with government ormunotes.in
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18political parties.The State is notoriously referred to as a "Big Brother"who watches over all activities of individuals, and acquires specialsignificance,in today's information society wherein freedom ofindividuals could be violated by private and government entities forunethical ends using intrusive surveillance violating privacy. The stateperforms various functions in moderntimes;it is an active agent inshaping and reshaping society.Check Your Progress1)Write down notes on the meaning and significance of the modernnation-state?B. STATE AND NATION2.3THEORIES OF STATEVarious philosophers from different traditions have dwelt in the origin andfunctions of the State. Mechanistic theory depicts the formation of thestate through social contracttheory;social contract theory is conducive tothe liberal tradition. "Mechanistic theory delineates the development ofmachines and the discovery of physical laws." Philosophers in Europelooked at the State as a machine governed by certain laws to be discoveredthrough observation. Parts of the State could be changed and replaced asfor the machine for better performance. Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679),John Lock (1632-1704) and Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) areconsidered the main classical proponents of socialcontract theory. "TheSocial Contract is a contract between all individuals of society expressinga common will for the formation of State. State is a product of mutualagreement to serve social needs." Hobbes viewed human nature as selfishand cruel, everyone was at war against everyone in the state of nature andsince there was no law everyone was insecure. The State was formedthrough a social contract for the protection of everyone through controlexercised over everyone by the State. Hobbes creates anabsolute and all-powerful sovereign. Forlockhuman as rational, good, helpful, benevolentbeing. The State of nature is peaceful wherein individuals live withcooperation. However, there are some disturbing elements in society whoneed to be controlled.Men agree to pool their natural rights of life, libertyand property to form a State which would protect those natural rights andpunish offenders. Lockian state has limited sovereignty, the government isconceived as a trust running in accordance with the constitution and thepeople have right to revolution. Rousseau depicts human nature as simplemunotes.in
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19and innocent. People come together to form a social contract in a situationof scarcity to provide security. All individuals surrender their naturalliberty byexpression of General Will to form absolute, inalienable andindestructible sovereign. People don't need the right of resistance as Stateis formed by popular sovereignty expressed through a general will. Peoplehave two types of will, actual will and realwill. "Real will" is about morethan individual causes for the betterment of society since individual goodis constituent of social good. The combination of the real will of everyindividual in society is "General will" expressing formation of State forRousseau.2.3.1Organic and Mechanist theory:"Organic theory of state conceives State as a naturalinstitution;a livingorganism and people are organs of it." The state is compared with theliving body and humans with organs. This implies the existenceof peopledependent on the existence of the State as for organs to the body, anddifferent people are naturally fit for the performance of different functions.Ancient Greeks held that State came into existence for the sake of goodlife and State is necessary for the existence of a civilized being, Aristotleheld that "man is by nature a political animal and declared State is prior toman." The State is by nature prior to family and individual becauseindividuals can't suffice when isolated. For Aristotle "One who doesn'tneed society because he is self-sufficient is either a beast or a god." ForBurke "State is the product of historical growth, like living organisms andit can't sustain dissection." The state doesn't only help man to survive butto live agood life. It has a moral influence over man which enables him toenjoy life as a citizen and achieve excellence. Thus organic theory sees thestate as a natural institution. The organic theory is criticized, for it makes aman not only subordinate of State but submerges his personality into theState, it provides no rights against State and denies equality to citizens asorgans are supposed to perform different types of functions and somefunctions are superior to other functions.2.3.2 Liberal theory:Liberal theory of State supports democratic government in the politicalsphere. The famous definition of democratic government by AbrahamLincoln is "of the people, by the people, and for the people." There aretwo types of democratic governments, the Westminster system and thePresidential system as in the United Kingdom and the United States ofAmerica respectively. In the Westminster system, which India accepted,representatives are elected by people and they chose the Head of thegovernment while in thePresidential system the head of the government isdirectly elected through an election. Democracies work according to theconstitution. Some democracies like the USA follow a federal system andsome like India are quasi-federal."Classical Liberalism" developed in the eighteenth century as a newmiddle class and mercantile class emerged in Europe after the industrialrevolution. The origin of liberalism could be traced in a social contractmunotes.in
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20because it envisaged like physical laws, there are social laws thatneed tobe discovered through human ingenuity of observation and reason.Interference in physical law causes disturbance, State should not interferein Social laws for that would disturb the smooth functioning of society. Anindividual is a unit ofanalysis;he is endowed with reason to satisfy hisinterests. He should be allowed to function freely and acquire propertythrough his labor. The state should follow laissez fair policy (leave alone)towards individual will. It postulated State as a necessary evil, evilbecause it restricts the freedom of individuals through regulation andnecessary because without regulation, individual freedom can't exist.Among the chief exponents of classical liberalism Adam Smith (1723-1832) proposed that the State should not interfere in the economy. Themarket would be regulated by an "invisible hand, that is by the social lawsof nature." He advocated free markets 'laissez fair" policy devoid ofgovernment interference. Due to free markets, competition will increaseand competitive economic production will be advantageous for society.Humans have natural rights to liberty. Functions of the state would belimited to defense from external aggression, protection of individuals frominjustice and few public goods. Classical liberalism is also seen asnegative liberalism. It restricted activity of the State and promoted free-market society and power of individual reason, to satisfy self-interestwhich would, in turn, satisfy the interests of the whole society constitutedby theself-interest of every individual, achieved through labor used toacquire property in a free market economy based on laissez fair.Liberalism in its later phase widened the role of the State to provide publicgoods promoting the concept of the welfare state. Negative liberalismpromoting free-market society established capitalism in Europe. It led tothe rapid development of the economy, however, most of the workerslived poor lives in industrial cities. Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)proponent of negative liberalism proposed utility as a yardstick of Statepolicy. The state should strive to achieve the "greatest happiness of thegreatestnumber." This philosophy came to be known as "utilitarianism." Itwas conceived that this could be achieved through a market based onlaissez-faire. However, the market concentrated capital in the hands of fewpeople enjoying the pleasure and maximized struggles of workers whichperpetuated pain for maximum people.Proponent of positive liberalism J.S. Mill (1806-1873) continuouslysupported a democratic, representative and constitutional government inthe political sphere. In the economic sphere, he leaned towards socialjustice, shifting from laissez-faire to social justice, laying foundations ofthe "Welfare State". Welfare State is a concept in liberalism where theState ensures provision of public goods like health, education, food andshelter to everyone. Bentham identifying happiness with pleasure andunhappiness with pain. However, he stipulated that some pleasures arequalitatively superior and believed quality is more important than quantity.Expressing his view he wrote, "Itis better to be a human being dissatisfiedthan a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied".munotes.in
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21He diverted from the maximization of pleasure criterion of Bentham. Milladvocated liberty of thought and expression on grounds of human dignity.Dividingliberty of conduct Mill advocated complete liberty in "self-regardingaction" with the only exemption for state interference when thebehavior of an individual is injurious to himself, in the sphere of "othersregarding action" individual behavior could be regulated by state, thisshows a significant departure from laissez-faire individualism. He arguedthe right to property is not absolute and advocated restrictions oninheritance. No man has absolute right to land as its natural resource. Theright to property is not violated by taxation on rent as rental incomeincreased without additional effort. Based on the ideas of Mill, L. T.Hobhousedevelops a "theory of taxation" wherein the individual property isnot only a creation of his efforts but also because of space, intelligence,labor and security provided by society. The function of Taxation is tosecure wealth with a social origin for society and not a case of robbingPeter to pay Paul. T H Green distinguishes between "negativefreedoms"that is an absence of restraint for the satisfaction of individual desire and"positive freedom" that is the freedom to act according to the reason forself-realizationandself-perfection. "True liberty" is an act of goodwill inthe sphere of positive freedom for which rights are needed. State asguarantor of right of life, liberty and property for all liberal thinkers on thebasis of the social contract. For Green and Robert MacIver rights don'toriginate in the sphere of law but the moral sphere of positive liberty.Thepractice of the welfare state, the provision of public goods to safeguard therights of individuals, especially vulnerable individuals developed after thefailure of laissez-faire was starkly observed during the Great Depressionof 1929. John Keynes developed the General theory of economics aslaissez-faire failed due to lack of demand and production. General theoryadvocated state intervention in the economy to create demand and supply.The resurrection of classical liberalism in the twentieth century is coinedas libertarianism or neoliberalism. It advocates free trade, globalization,privatization,and deregulationunder influences global finance capital forthe objective of its free flowand austerity by state. Milton Friedman is achief Proponentof political freedom advocates the separation of economicpower from the State as a centralizing tendency of power leads to politicalrepression. The separation of power establishes balance and increasedcompetition. Neoliberalism advocates reduction in the welfare state.2.3.3 Marxist theory:Marxist theory on State postulates that the State is an "instrument ofexploitation for the dominant class." Karl Marx( 1818-1883) is the chiefproponent of Marxist theory. Society is formed of two "antagonisticclasses" bourgeoisie and proletariat. State along with religion and cultureforms part of the "Superstructure" "Proletariat"isthe laborers, workersand peasants farmers "base" Means of production are controlled by thecapitalist class forming superstructure. Capitalist State flourished on theappropriation of "Surplus Value" of labor. Surplus value is the differencebetween wages paid to workers and actual value of goods produced bymunotes.in
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22workers. Marxist theory of dialectical materialism between twoantagonisticclasses delineates the formation of the dictatorship of theproletariat to establish a classless and stateless society, where "everyonewould contribute according to their ability and everyone would getaccording to need." For the formation of the dictatorship of proletariatworkers of the world shall unite and do the revolution. For Marx, theCapitalist class exercised control over the proletariat through the control ofmeans of production. For him, the "history of mankind is the history ofclass struggle." Marx advocates a way of violent revolution to establishthe dictatorship of the proletariat. However, Marx's analysis was adequate.Stateless and Classless society never came into being where revolutionhappened such as the USSR. Revolution failed to materialize in westernindustrial states which actually had a large class of industrial workerswhere Marx predicted where it would happen. Democratic governmentswith capitalist economies are sustained in most of the countries of theworld. For Marx, the state should wither away one day under thedictatorship of the proletariat paving the way to a stateless and classlesssociety.Antonio Gramsci (1891–1937), another stalwart of Marxist theory,analyzed that the Capitalist State doesn't sustain by only usingforce but byestablishing hegemony through civil society. "Hegemony" is controlexercised by ruling classes using culture consisting of beliefs, tradition,perception and mores. "Civil society" consists of school, culture andreligion. Capitalist State produces and reproduces legitimacy throughhegemony.2.3.4 Gender theory:Feminist theory views the State as an instrument of regulating the publicsphere and as an instrument of power. To secure justice for women in thesphere of personal relationships, the family should also be regulated. Thestate should continue intervention in the public sphere for equal access towomen. Kate Millet, an American feminist gave the slogan that "personalis political" and defined politics as power structured relationships,arrangements whereby one group of persons is controlled by another.Socialist feminist critique of liberal State is that it positions itself in a waythat power structure in it is equally accessible to men and women;however, it ends increasing dependence of women over men, marketexploitation and unpaid labor at home. Liberal criticism of women'ssituation in socialist systems is that the State is associated with forcedemancipation by employing women in strenuous jobs. Women constitutedeprived sectionsof society in all parts of the world however in post-colonial states women's lives are less often touched by State regulation,leading to greater exploitation and violence. Eco-feminism sees due toexclusion of women from State power State loses nature-friendly characterleading to increased environmental degradation.2.3.5 Pluralist theory:State is a mechanism to serve the interests of various groupssimultaneously. Pluralist State should act as an "impartial arbitrator" tomunotes.in
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23avoid concentration ofpower with an influential group,State is not thecenter of power,and powerresides with different groups. The democraticsystem which allows freedom of association is able to evolve as a pluralistState. People would constitute in associations to pursueindividual andcommon interests, with time these associations will become powerful tocounterbalance the power of the State. "The set of these associations isCivil Society, regarded as the bulwark of democratic order." Authoritariansystem doesn't allow association, if strong association emerges in anauthoritarian State, distribution of power would lead to a collapse of theauthoritarian system. Leon Deguit contested sovereignty only with theState, Harold J Laski and MacIver made an appeal that various socialgroups should be treated as different centers of power. The state willcompete for the loyalty of these groups leading to better governance. Dahland Lindleblom described their model of working democracy as"polyarchy" where power is dispersed in different sections of society, theState acting as broker and ensuring no one dominates at the bottom. Onthe descriptive side, the pluralist State is a liberal democracy and on thenormative side it wants redistribution of resources to ensure social justiceso no one group dominates in society and because the group themselvesmay not function democratically.Check Your Progress Exercise 21)What is a liberal perspective on State? Compare the liberal view ofState with Marxist view.2)Explain.A)Pluralist theory of State.B)Gender view of State.3) Find out about the Gandhian and anarchist views of the State.2.4STATE AND NATIONA nation is feeling oneness among people. It is the emotion of belongingtogether as a community, as one people. This feeling could be based on acommon historical past of shared history, culture, geography, ethnicity orlanguage. Ancient and medieval empires constituted large swaths of lands.People of different ethnicities lived in them but they didn'thavea feelingof oneness among them, these Empire States constituted many nations.Modern countries also constitute people from many ethnicities. The Statein modern times has been successful to cultivate emotional oneness amongits populace to a large extent and the interchangeably used name for Stateis a nation-state. Even today most of the big countries are formed ofpeople considering themselvesasdifferent nations. Also, some nationsmunotes.in
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24extend across the boundaries of States such as Kurds. Here, the issues ofsub-nationalism and ultra-nationalism arise which fuel separatisttendencies, sometimes it leads to repression by State using violence,sometimes political solutions over the issues are found.Sri Lanka is an example of Sub nationalism in the Indian subcontinent.Tamil speaking people living in northern parts of Sri Lanka wanted theirown country as the majority Sinhalese population denied them their rights,their language and identity. This led to separatism and violence by LTTE(Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam). After years of violence problem stillpersists. In 1995 Quebec, a French speaking province of Canada, in 2017Catalonia in Spain and in2018 Ireland in the United Kingdom had areferendum for independence. All these three happened democratically inwestern nations. We can see that sub-national tendencies persisteverywhere. This is the reason the United States is called a "melting spot"and India is proud of its "Unity in Diversity" as these notions help diversegroups of people to be a nation, to be one people with tolerance towardsdifferences. Successful national identity is achieved through the promiseof larger uniting values such as fraternity, fraternity and justice rather thansocial schisms of language, race and geography.The disintegration of theState of the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) in 1991 led to theformation of many nation-states; this shows that new nationscan emergewhen strong states fail. Of these territories, Russia re-acquired (annexed)Crimea after a controversial referendum in 2014 shows that States may goto war to unite their nation. As we saw in Sri Lanka, the State is generallydominated by peopleof one ethnicity, language or religion. This leads tothe persecution of minorities. eg. Shia Muslims are persecuted by SunniMuslims in Pakistan, All other identities such as Uighur andTibetanareforcefully subverted to Han Chinese culture in China.Check Your Progress Exercise 3Differentiate between nation and State? Find out about the making ofIndia as a nation-state?C. POSTCOLONIAL STATE2.5POSTCOLONIAL STATEDecolonization of South America happened much earlier and whitecolonies such as the USA and Australia had independent or semi-independent States.munotes.in
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25Large swathes of the global south in Africa and Asia were decolonized bythe mid-twentieth century. Many States emerged in these countries after1900. These newly independent nations carved and formed out of coloniesare generally referred to as postcolonial States. These States hadexperienced colonial exploitation for centuries. Many of these Statesstarted with an interventionist agenda to build their nation through Statepolicy and support. However, they lacked economic power to scale uptheir agendas. These states many times adopted language, bureaucracy,army and institutions created by former colonizers because of this Englishand French are official languages of a large number of States of theerstwhile third world for this reason. The ability to govern, that isgovernmentality of these States was limited due to the lack of resourcesand colonial exploitation compared to the humongous task of nation-building at hand. Government in most of these states largely showedauthoritarian tendencies and dictatorship, military junta, authoritarianleaders took control of affairs in their hands. India is a silver lining andshining example of successful post-colonial democracy inthethird world.In most of the countries, authoritarian governments grabbed power. Chinais another strong State which had a communist revolution and is still underthe rule of the communist party. South Africa is another democracy in apost-colonial world where the apartheid of black people continued for along time and democratization was achieved through peaceful meansunder the leadership of Nelson Mandela. Ghana, Congo, Egypt and such alarge number of States formed who identify themselves as part ofthe East,Global South are interest of the study of post-colonialism. Neocolonialismthrough economic power was one of the challenges these nations faced,this economic imperialism came in form of aid and investment in the nameof development from erstwhile colonizers. Neo imperialism is aphenomenon wherein the economic resources of decolonized weregrabbed and controlled by Western capital.The Postcolonial State was influenced by anti-imperialism. It was also anembodiment of anti-colonial thought by the likes of Gandhi, Fanon andSaid, cultural and academic tradition. Newly independent states formedNon-Alignment Movement (NAM) to put forward their independentperspective in the international system. However, many of these Stateswere partially or totally part of the spheres of two superpowers, either ofUSSR or USA as they were dependent for finance, technology andsecurity. Today some of these erstwhile colonies have emerged as strongnation-states such as India and China and others are in turmoil suchasAfghanistan and Sudan. You are well aware of how India built itself into anation after it became independent at the stroke of the midnight hour on15th August 1947. Pakistan also gained independence with India fromEngland but it could not continue ona democratic path, the power wentinto the hands of army generals and it stands as a rogue nation supportingterrorism and has been dependent on one or other major power, firstly theUSA and now China. However, Bangladesh became independent in 1971and has gone ahead of India in several human development indicators andits growth rate is higher than India in 2021, in times after Covid.munotes.in
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26Check Your Progress Exercise 41.What is decolonization? What are the different ways in whichpostcolonial States developed?2.6CONCLUSIONHegel stated that State is a march of God on earth. However, State isfacing challenges from globalization, internationalism, ultra-nationalism,terrorism and internal issues such as separatism and developmentalchallenges.In liberal democratic States the role of Non-Governmentalorganizations(NGOs) and Civil Society (Interest groups, Pressure Groups,Social movements) have been significant. Although the government is oneof the arms of the State. Nation-State is classifiedbased on types ofgovernment it has such as Democratic State, Socialist State, CommunistState, Monarchy, Oligarchy, Dictatorship, Authoritarian, Multicultural orPluralist. The state is in existence for millennia and the development of themodern nation-state marks a significant moment as the human populationhas expanded manifold after the industrial revolution, like never before inhistory, as modern sovereign nation-states ruled the world.2.7REFERENCES•Edward Weisband, Courtney I P Thomas,Political Culture and theMaking of Modern Nation-States, 2015, Routledge•The Oxford Handbook of Transformations of the State, 2015•J C Johari, Comparative Politics, Sterling, 2011•O P Gauba, An Introduction to Political Theory, MacmillanPublishers, 2013•Carole Spary, Gender, Development, and the State in India, Routledge,2019•Zoya Hasan, Politics and the State in India, 2015, Sage•Andrew Heywood, Political Theory An introduction, PalgraveMacmillanmunotes.in
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3THE POLITYUnit Structure3.0Objectives3.1Introduction3.2What is aconstitution?3.2.1 Separation of power3.2.2 Federal and Unitary Structure of the government3.2.3 Indian Federalism3.3Constitutionalism3.3.0Classification of Constitutionalism3.3.1 Classical (neo-republican) tradition of constitutionalism3.3.2 Liberal Tradition of constitutionalism3.3.3 Political Constitutionalism3.3.4 Legal Constitutionalism3.4Democratic System3.4.1 Introduction3.4.2What is a Democratic System?3.4.3 History of Democratic System3.4.4 BritishDemocratic System3.4.5 The American Democratic system3.4.6 Theories of Democratic system3.4.7 Waves of Democracy3.4.8 Arab Spring3.4.9Digital Democratic system3.5Non-Democratic System3.5.1 Introduction3.5.2 What is a Non-Democratic System?3.5.3 Authoritarian system of Government3.5.4 Characteristics of Authoritarian Regime3.5.5 Totalitarian system3.5.6 Nazism3.5.7 Fascism3.5.8 The Geddes, Wright and Frantz(GWF) Autocratic RegimesDatasets3.5.9 The Cheibub, Jennifer Gandhi and James Raymond Vreeland(CGV) Autocratic Regimes Datasetsmunotes.in
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3.6Summary3.7Unit end Questions3.8References3.0 OBJECTIVES•To Study the polity and its constitutionalism•To Comparatively study the democratic and non-democratic system3.1 INTRODUCTIONThe concept of constitutional law was described by Aristotle as thearrangement of the offices in a state. An early reference to the constitutioncan be dated back to the Romans (450 BC) who codified their constitutionintwelvetablets,AsokaEdicts, etc.The modern constitutionaldevelopments were the result of the developments during the ‘Age ofRenaissance’. Enlightenment led to the emergence of ‘Individualism’ andthe ‘Democratic structure’ of the government, leading toConstitutionalism’.A Constitution is a document that defines the laws for any polity, but theeffectiveness of any constitution is checked by its practice in terms of‘Constitutionalism’. John Locke’s ‘Two Treatises of Government’ dealswith two basic theories. One is that the individuals have the right tocriticize the government as it is not the supreme government ‘Law’.Secondly, it defines the ‘Natural Rights’ namely Right to Life ‘, ‘Right toLiberty’ and ‘Right to Property. The French Revolution demandedLiberty, Equality and Fraternity. Russian Revolution resulted in the idea of‘Justice’. The Americans signed their constitution in 1787 after AmericanRevolution.A constitution must be forward-looking and must defend the rights ofindividuals balancing with law and order maintained in a state. In thischapter, we will learn about the Constitution, features of the IndianConstitution, the Doctrine of Separation of power, Federal and unitarystructure, etc. that leads to the formation of Political structure. Further, wewill learnabout the practice of Constitutionalism, its tradition, and itstypes.While the constitution defines the laws, constitutionalism is the actualenforcement of these laws. These together give birth to ‘ConstitutionalMorality.munotes.in
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A. CONSTITUTION ANDCONSTITUTIONALISM3.2 WHAT IS A CONSTITUTION?The constitution is a set of rules or laws of a country, generally drafted bythe constituent assembly. It is the supreme law of the country thatdetermines the rights of its citizens and the power as well aslimits on thepower of the government. Indian Constitution is the lengthiest writtenconstitution of the world containing 448 articles in 25 parts and 12schedules. It has been amended 104 times so far.A Constitution allows coordination and assurance as it imparts legalstructure to the society, and all are obliged to the same legal orderavoiding discrepancies. Moreover, it also describes the constitution of theGovernment and its decision-making power in the society. However, ifyou give enormous power to the government it will act arbitrarily. Henceit sets a limit on the powers of the government to ensure that the citizensenjoy their rights. A just society is formed when citizens perform theirduties and can enjoy their rights simultaneously.A constitution is specific to a particular country i.e. no two constitutionsare same, but they can be similar. For instance, the Indian Constitution isthe lengthiest detailed written constitution whereas the Americanconstitution contains only 7 articlesand 27 amendments till date. Someconstitutions also give prominence to the international agreements such asUnited Nation Declaration of Human Rights (1948), Internationalagreements in case of Article 253 of the Indian Constitution. Someconstitutions are codified (India, USA) while others are uncodified(Britain: common law). Some contain special provisions like preventivedetention (India), Japan renounces war, etc. Indian Constitution is thelongest written constitution whereas the shortest written constitution is ofMonaco.Constitution became an important criterion of comparing political entitiesas it is the benchmark of division of powers in a polity. Democraticconstitutions try to create a level playing field by incorporating principleslike‘Rule of Law’, Federal structure, Separation of power, Checks andbalances, Electoral processes, Constitutional posts, An IndependentJudiciary, Fundamental Rights etc. About half of the world adopted theconstitution between 1990 and 1995.Rights under Indian Constitution•Fundamental rights (Article 12 to 35)•Directive Principles of State Policy (Article 36 to 51)•The Union Government (Article 52 to 151)•The State Government (Article 152 to 237)•The Union Territories (Article 239 to 241)munotes.in
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•The Panchayats and the Municipalities (Article 243 to 243ZG)•Union-State Relations (Article 245 to 255)•Finance, Commerce, Trade etc. (Article 264 to 307)•Elections (Article 324 to 329)•Emergency Provisions (Article 352 to 360)3.2.1 Separation of powers:Montesquieuin his book “The Spirit of the Laws, 1948” emphasized upon'Trias Politica' (Separation of Powers). It refers to the balance betweenExecutive, Legislative and Judicial branches of the polity throughSeparation to prevent the concentration of power and provides for checksand balances. The legislature is responsible for enacting laws andappropriating the budget for the functioning of polity. The executive is thesupreme implementation authority, administrating public policies enactedby the legislative government. The judicial branch is responsible forinterpreting the constitution as well as upholding its Supremacy of law byacting in accordance with laws apart from interpreting them.However, anabsolute separation of power isneither practical noradvisable. Thesebranches act as water tank compartments loosely connected to each otherwhile maintaining accountability and transparency via checks andbalances.3.2.2 Federal and Unitary Structure of the government:Federal government is a government in which the powers are dividedbetween the National government and the Regional government, bothoperating in their respective jurisdiction independently. Usually in afederal model, Union or Central government is termedas ‘Federalgovernment’ whereas the state or regional government is referred to as‘Provincial government’. In India there are three tiers of government thatare National, State and Local Panchayats or Municipalities. Thoughfederalism accommodates two polities under a single structure, its actualworking is determined by the degree to which federalism is incorporatedin a country's constitution. It gives rise to cooperation and mutual respectfor good governance and common brotherhood. The features ofFederalism are Dual polity, Written Constitution, Division of powers,Supremacy of the Constitution, An Independent judiciary etc. Federalismhas scope for regional diversity thereby bringing intolerance and a feelingof common brotherhood preferably under ademocratic structure.In unitary government there is a single government vested with all thepowers. This type of government may result in Authoritarian rule in whichregional diversities are not recognized. It emphasizes uniformity foradministrative convenience. Some Unitary features are CentralGovernment’s Supremacy, Single constitution, Indestructible states, SingleCitizenship, Integrated Judiciary, All India Services, Integrated AuditMachinery, etc.munotes.in
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3.2.3 Indian Federalism:Indian federalism is based on Canadian model. It is not a result ofagreement between the states and States have no right to secede from theFederation like in the USA. It is an Indestructible Union of destructiblestates. KC Wheare described it as ‘Quasi federalism’. GranvilleAustincalled it ‘Cooperativefederalism’;Sir Ivor Jennings pointed towards a‘Strong Centralizing Policy’, etc. A unitary bias can be seen in terms ofdomination of the Center government in financial powers, grants, all Indiaservices, appointment of governors, emergency provisions, etc.3.3 CONSTITUTIONALISMYou must have read the Preamble of the Indian Constitution. It starts with“Wethe People"-What does that mean? It means that the IndianConstitution has derived its power from the people to constitute a polityand the extent of government authority. The Doctrinewhich statesthat thegovernment authority is determined by or underlegal mandate isconstitutionalism. Though there is a lack of consensus on one cleardefinition, it is in a way synonymous with Limited government aiming toprevent arbitrary use of power by the government. It is dated back to JohnLocke’s philosophy of legally Limited government."Constitutionalism is a set of rules or norms Creating, Structuring andDefining the limits of government or authority"-W WaluchowThe basis of constitutionalism is the principle of “Rule of Law” thatrequires every element ofa polity to be governed by law equally. Ourconstitution as described by Kenneth Culp Davis ("Discretionary Justice")exercises control on government’s power via-Confining, Structuring andChecking.Constitutionalism may grant legitimacy to undemocratic authority too. So,it is crucial that the constitution brings clarity as well as specificity to thesuperior law of the nation to prevent misuse. Its usage is not limited toentailing limits on the government as it can't be self-limiting. Moreover,the scope of authority may be defined under a constitution but theconstitution itself can be amended. Let's assume that A is an absolutesovereign who possesses unlimited power in his country X. He is notaccountable to anyone and in exercise of his powers canannounce aconstitution valid or invalid. In this case even if he is following thatconstitution, there will be no constitutionalism advocated here.Constitutions are meant to be long lasting and dynamic to impartcontinuity and stability of the law. A democratic political system ispossible when the Framework is clearly incorporated under the doctrine ofconstitutionalism.munotes.in
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3.3.0 Classification of Constitutionalism:The classification of the constitutions was first done by Aristotle based onthe study of158 constitutions of the ancient world. There are two maintraditions of Constitutionalism-3.3.1 Classical (neo-republican) tradition of constitutionalism:Constitutionalismestablishes political equality by means of balancingpower amongall the stakeholders of the polity. It ensureschecks upon oneanother and thus eliminating arbitrariness.•Structuring Democratic Processes•Electoral system•Type of polity: Presidential or Parliamentary, Unitary structure orFederal structure;Unicameralism or Bicameralism3.3.2 Liberal Tradition of constitutionalism:Liberal constitutionalism is inspired by the ideas of Western liberalthought. It imparts meaning to constitutionalism by taking individualneeds and rights against arbitrary government. It caters to the need ofchanging political developments with globalization and internationalism.•Theory of Limited government•Separation of powers•Judicial review:In India, the Supreme Court is the ‘Guardian of theConstitution’ and thus checksupon the legislationsunder the ambit ofthe law. Courts derive the power ofthe judicialreview under Article 13of the Indian Constitution to prevent arbitrariness. Moreover, the basicstructure cannot be amended by the Legislature despite possessingConstitutional Amendment powers.•Fundamental rights:These are some basic rights that must beprotected against the state and are incorporated under the IndianConstitution. They are so crucial for the development of the individualthat an individual can directly go to the High court (Article 226) orSupreme Court (Article 32) for their breach. Though there are somereasonable restrictions on these rights and are not guarded byamendment except the basic structure, these are Supreme rights givento an individual against the state.3.3.3 Political Constitutionalism:The Classification of political system as per the constitution dated back toAristotle’s inquiry into the best constitution in his book, “The Politics”. Hedistinguished between ‘Correct’ and‘Deviant’ constitutions via sixpossible constitutional forms. Kingship, Aristocracy and Polity emerged asthe correct form of constitutionalism whereas Tyranny, Oligarchy andDemocracy were categorized under the deviant form of constitution. Histheory was based on ‘Justice’ which is both ‘Universal’ as well as‘Particular’.munotes.in
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This type of constitutionalism checks the arbitrariness of Governmentwhen it abuses power by acting in its discretion. In politicalconstitutionalism, ‘Political Institutions’ and ‘Electoral processes’ bringconstitutionalism under a defined procedural mechanism. It defines thestructure of the democratic decision-making process; the type of politicaldemocracy (Presidential or Parliamentary); Form of government (Unitaryor Federal);checks and balances through separation of powers, etc.3.3.4 Legal Constitutionalism:This type of constitutionalism checks governments’ arbitration by meansof interference with individual rights. This can be done by imposing legalconstraints on thefunctioning of the government. In India the fundamentalrights are granted to citizens against the state intervention and areprotected by the judiciary under article 32 and 226. The primaryresponsibility of the Judiciary is to enforce these legal rightsto maintain abalance between the organs of the government.3.3.5 Summary:In this chapter, you have studied that ‘Constitution’ and‘Constitutionalism’ are interdependent. A great constitution would notguarantee constitutionalism and vice versa. They need to be rigorouslyfollowed simultaneously for a democratic political structure. While theconstitution defines the laws, constitutionalism is the actual enforcementof these laws. ‘Constitutional Morality’ is the result of such enforcement.Further, political, and legal constitutionalism is a way to checkgovernment’s exercise of powers arbitrarily and in discretion respectively.3.3.6 Exercises:1)Whythe ‘Constitution’ iscalled the basic or supreme law of anystate?2)What are the salient features ofIndian Federalism?3)What do you understand about the term ‘Constitutionalism’?4)How can you distinguish between political and legalconstitutionalism?5)What is the importance of constitutionalism in modern democracy?6)What do you understand about the concept of separation of power inmaintaining checks and balances?7)What are the benefits of the Federal system of government over theUnitary system?8)What is the relevance of liberal tradition in constitutionalism?9)Do all constitutions result in constitutionalism?munotes.in
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B.DEMOCRATIC SYSTEM3.4 DEMOCRATIC SYSTEM3.4.1 Introduction:Democracy is the key feature or a benchmark of the modern politicalinstitutions. However, the democratic process was first practiced in ancientGreece around the 6th century BC.The word democracy is thecombination of two Greek words-‘Demos’ meaning ‘people’ and‘Kratos’ meaning ‘power or rule’. Hence, democracy in literary termsmeans power of the people which can be defined as the rule of the people.‘Cleisthenes’ is creditedwith introducing reforms undermining thedomination of the aristocracy and organizing citizens into 10 groups in508 BC. Athenian democracy, unlike today, was a direct form ofdemocracy. It was based on the direct participation of citizens in thedeliberation leading to the decision making process. However, the conceptof citizenship was narrowly defined during this period as women, slaves,and foreigners were not a part of it, bringing down the actual participationto only 10 to 20% of the total population.Moreover, the age of Renaissance brought individuals into the center ofpolitics and they began demanding various rights on account of their birthas humans. In Britain the desire for democratic control began with theindustrial revolution of the middle 18th century. Revolutionary demandsrose in France followed by American Revolution. Thereafter RussianRevolution of 1917 replaced the traditional monarchy with worlds ‘FirstCommunist State’.3.4.2 What is a Democratic System?A democratic system constitutes political institutions which makes thegovernment directly responsible to the people. It is generally inclinedtowards freedom rights, individualism, tolerance, accountability,transparency, good governance etc. Electoral processes are the Bedrock ofDemocratic system constituting free and fair elections as a part of IndianConstitution. Moreover, pressure groups and interest groups also form apart of the system influencing the behavior of the citizens in politicalprocesses. A diverse and active civil society results in an informedcitizenry and enhances quality participation in the decision-makingprocess.Democracy is not a static element as described by Lijphart distinguishingbetween ‘majority’ and ‘pluralist’ democracy. The majoritarianism isbased on the Westminster model that you will learn in the Britishdemocratic system. The pluralistic democratic system is based on theAmerican model on separation of powers.Voting system is an integral element of establishing true democracy. Adifference of opinion can be found among the public that is explained bymunotes.in
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Arrows’ Impossibility theorem. There are two types of choices a citizencan opt for-majority choice and preferred choice. Impossibility theorem isa social choice paradox that represents limitations of the ranked votingsystems.3.4.3 History of Democratic System:Democracy first emerged in ancient Greece in 6thcentury BC which waswhat we know today as ‘Direct Form of Democracy’. There was a regularpublic meeting in which laws made by the lawgivers were discussed andcriticized by the public. However, the participation was limited, andwomen, slaves and foreigners were not allowed in this deliberativeprocess.The Roman Republic is also considered a democracy in which citizenshave the right to vote. In this type of democracy, the Supreme Power washeld by the elected representatives and the citizens and thus was abenchmark for modern democracy. Democracy is asystem of governmentin which they exercise the power directly or through their representativesto govern themselves. The natives in North America also developed ademocraticsociety from1450AD to1600 AD.The French Revolution which took place in 1789against Monarchy toestablish the democratic system but the women got their right to vote in1944. New Zealand was the first country that granted Universal suffrageright in 1893. The first parliamentary system in the Middle East wasestablished in Iran.There was a collapse of Monarchy in many nationsafter World War 1 which gave space to Democratic Republic to beestablished. It was after the Second World War that decolonizationhappened, and many third-world countries adopted a democratic system.However, the world was divided into two forces one is backed bydemocratic capitalism and another is backed by socialism.After the collapse of the Soviet Union, there was an expansion in thedemocratic system. However, several countries are not democratic in thereal sense and are termed as a flawed democracy in the sense that peopledo not actually enjoy the rights that they must have under a democracy.The majority rule which is the Bedrock of democracy often results in theTyranny of the majority. Let’s discuss some democratic systems tounderstand their relevance in the modern era.3.4.4 BritishDemocratic System:The British democratic system is popularly known as the WestminsterModel. The mediaeval period was an era of rule by the nobility and thefeudal lords. The Parliament of England passed the Magna Carta of 1215to impose restrictions on the power of the king resulting in the creation ofthe first English parliament in 1265. It was based on the separation ofpower between the legislative executive and judicial branches of thegovernment. This led to the formation of democracy in other parts ofEurope and hence citizens began to realize their rights and duties under amunotes.in
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constitution as mentioned in the previous chapter. The case ofproclamation in 1610 decided that the king by his proclamation orotherwise cannot change any part of a common-law or statute law ofthecustoms of the running and that the king had no active but that which thelaw of the land allows him. The ‘Petition of Rights’ was passed by theParliament of England in 1628AD centered uponthe illegality of taxeswithout parliamentary consent. The‘Bill of Rights’waspassedin 1689AD which curtailedsome of the powers of thethenMonarch. Theabolition of the Slavery Act was passed in 1833 and the Black African wasgiven the voting right for the very first time in Southern Africa in 1853.The United Kingdom granted the right to vote to women in 1918 and equalrights to men and women in 1928.There is a constitutional monarchy in the UK that has a Monarch but thereal power rests with the government and the parliament. The Queen is thehead of the state and must give Royal assent to any bill that is passed bythe parliament. She also has the power to approve appointments of thePrime Minister. The government is divided into three branches: executive,legislature and the judiciary. The Prime Minister and their cabinet formpart of the executive branch which leads the government and proposesnew legislation or laws. The legislature is made up of two houses ofparliament: the House of Commons and the House of Lords. The primaryfunction is to debate, accept or reject new legislation proposed by theexecutive. The house of commons comprises the members of parliamentwho are directly elected by the people. The house of Lords comprises themembers appointed for Life by the queen on the advice of the PrimeMinister. Their primary job is to scrutinize all the bills. The third branch ofthe government is the Judiciary which is comprised of the system of courtsthat implements the laws. The government is for the departure of dividedinto departments headed by a Minister.Indian constitution adopted British or ‘Westminster’ model ofParliamentary Government as it brings stability and accountability to thegovernance.3.4.5 The American Democratic system:The American democratic system is primarily based on the RomanRepublic rather than the Athenian direct democratic system. It is the resultof the ‘Age of Enlightenment’ to which came into a realization that somehuman rights are needed to be protected against the interest of the stateand for that purpose a democratically elected representative government isapt. The fifteenth amendment to the constitution prohibited voting rightsdiscrimination based on race, color, or previous slavery in 1870. Thewomengot their right to vote in 1920. Full US citizenship was granted toNative Americans earlier called American Indians in 1924. The AmericanRevolution resulted in a change of government that was inclined towardsindividual freedoms with checks on abuse of power. The new constitutionderived its power from the people with a clear distinction between threemunotes.in
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separate branches of the government to ensure accountability via checksand balances.Article 1 of the US Constitution defines the legislative branch constitutinga hundred senators and the House of Representatives. Together it is knownas the US Congress responsible for making laws, approving Federal judgesand justices, passing the budget as well as declaring war. Each state mustbe represented by two senators.Article 2 of the US constitution defines the executive branch headed bythe President and the Vice President responsible for enforcing the law thatthe Congress passes. The President works closely with the group ofAdvisors known as the cabinet who assist him in decision making. Theexecutive branch is also responsible for the appointment of governmentofficials.The third branch that is the judicial branch is defined under Article 3 ofthe US Constitution which comprises all the courts. Theprimaryresponsibility of this branch is to interpret laws and punish those whobreach the law. The Supreme Court is tasked with the responsibility ofsettling disputes between the states. Unlike Indian Supreme Court thesejudges are appointed for life. Further, an informed citizenry is a boon forthe democratic structure.3.4.6 Theories of Democratic System:A country’s democratic structure is determined by the approach it followsas a political structure. There are various theories or approaches todemocracy which outline the political behavior of actors in theinternational realm. They are:1.Liberal Theory of Democracy2.Elitist Theory of Democracy3.Pluralist Theory of Democracy4.Deliberative Theory of Democracy5.Participatory Theory of Democracy3.4.6.1Liberal Theory of Democracy:Liberal theory of democracy rests on the principles of ‘Government byConsent’. It believes that the rational consent of the people can beobtained by way of persuasion or political participation which favorselections, political process under the ambit of law, Constitutionalism,Public accountability, etc. It works on the bedrock of majority rulesimultaneously recognizing minority rights.Freedom of expressions ismaintained through political institutions.John Locke and ThomasJefferson are regarded as the torch bearer of liberal theory ofRepresentationwhich ensures equality of all people with equal capacity torule.munotes.in
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3.4.6.2Elitist Theory of Democracy:Originally developed as atheory of sociology to explain human behaviorin social settings, itfound itsway in democratic process of representation.It is premised on the idea of social division based on ‘Ruling’ and ‘Ruled’.Gaetano Mosca (The Ruling Class,1896)and RobertMichels (PoliticalParties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Tendencies of ModernDemocracy; 1911)propounded the division of Society.However, it wasVilfredo Pareto (The Mind and Society) who coined the term ‘Elite’ and‘Masses’ to representthesuperior and inferior groups in the society.KarlMannheim (Ideology and Utopia: An introduction to the Sociology ofKnowledge, 1929)argued that elites shape the democratic structure andentrustingthem with such powerdoes not necessarily point towardsundemocratic rule.However, a balanceis essential between the powers ofboth elite and masses to maintain the democratic structure which weachieve via ‘Circulation of Elites’.3.4.6.3Pluralist Theory of Democracy:A.F. Bentley (The Process of Government; 1908) and David Truman (TheGovernmental Process, 1951)pointed out that the great game is played bya variety of groupsandthese interactions between groups actuallydeterminethe true character of democracy.Pluralist democracy as a theoryrests on the notion that various divergent groups or community can cometogether to cooperate so as to impart democratic structure in which theyenjoy their rights.The government is the subject of public pressure and itsprimary functionis todraft policieswhichshouldreflect the highestcommon group’s notion of democracy.So,the society is pluralist anddifferentiated in characterwhere political affairs are managed by thesedifferentiated groupshaving different values, traditions, norms andmethods of influence.Robert Dahl (A Preface to Democratic Theory,1956) developed a model of the democraticprocess which he described as‘Polyarchy’.3.4.6.4DeliberativeTheory of Democracy:In general,a democratic rule must reflect upon the wishes and whims ofthe people’s wills as they are a part of equal societywhich rule outarbitrariness.Taking cue of this, deliberative democracy is based on theprocess of deliberative decision making in political processes.It perceivesdemocracy as a combination of consensus decision making and majorityrule.Decisions should be based onreasonable debate and discussionsamong people which legitimizes democratic political process.3.4.6.5ParticipatoryTheoryof Democracy:It gives the citizen the central role in decision-making through variousmeans of political participation.There are various means of politicalparticipation namelyvoting, public discussion, referendum, initiative,recall, public hearing,advisory council,protest, etc.Primary importance isgiven to citizen centric participation as it a tool to ensure goodgovernance, accountability, policy implementation, feedback mechanism,etc.munotes.in
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3.4.7WavesofDemocracy:The process by which a politicalregime embraces democratic structure istermed as ‘Democratization’.Samuel P Huntington (The Third Wave:Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century, 1991)identifiedthreewaves of democratization reflectingthe positive transition to democracy.In the First Wave (1826-1926), the transition was merely limited to thequestion of political equality, justice, expansion of suffrage rightsprimarily in the Western Europe andUnited State ofAmerica.This wasthe time when people realized that they had beenexploited by their rulersand ‘Renaissance Ideas’ began to sparkle their minds desiring Equalrights, freedom, justice and participation in political process, etc.Taking anote of this many countries adopteddemocracyas their political structure.However, with the advent of the First World Warand simultaneouscollapse of variousdemocraciesresulted in the First Reverse Wave (1922-1942).Theend of the Second World War led to a series of events including thedecolonization of countries marking theSecond Wave(1943-1962).Thesenewly independent countries showed their interest in democratic regimeaftermath a period of colonial rule.This waveis marked by the spread ofdemocratic structure as well as ideas in Latin America, Asia and Africa.Howeverthese political restructuring was followed by Second ReverseWave (1958-1975)with ‘Military Rule’ and collapse ofnewly establisheddemocracies inAfrica and Asia.These transitions to military rule werechallenged in 1974 by Portugal andmarked the beginning of the Third Wave of Democracy.It was aftertheDisintegration of USSRthat a multitude of countries adopted democraticoutlook.It was followed by a world-wide expansion of democraciesinSouthern Europe,Latin America(Columbia, Costa Rica, Venezuela etc.),Eastern Europe, Asia,Asia-Pacific (Philippines, South Korea and Taiwan)and Africa.Democracy formed the bedrock of politicalstructures in thisera. It is arguedthat it was followed by ‘Hybrid Regime’constitutingelements of Democracy as well as Authoritarianism.3.4.8 Arab Spring:The Middle East and North Africa (MENA) regionwas exposed to theautocratic rule following the end of ColdWar. Awave of Anti-government protests, uprisingsand armed rebellion spread across theregion asan answer to this undemocratic rule in the early 2010s.It began with the‘Jasmine Revolution in Tunisia’against non-democraticregime and resulting poor standard of livings.
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The overthrown of Ben Ali ignited the flame of protest towards ademocratic regime.The classic illustration was ‘Egypt’s January 25Revolution’which was directed against President Hosni Mubarak whowas in power since 30 years.It was a result of military coup led bydefense minister Abdel Fattah el-Sisiwho remained in power till 2013.In Yemen,the protest took roots in early 2011when President AliAbdullah Salehnearly lost support to sustain his government as a result ofpro democracy protests with the support of influential leaders and military.The transition to democracy was achieved with the help of anInternationally MediatedAgreementwith transferredpower toRabbuhMansur Hadi. The transition was followed bya warin 2014.Meanwhile in Libya,Muammar Qaddafi’s regimewas overthrowas aresult ofa violent civil unrest. An InternationalCoalition ledby NATOlaunched an airstrike campaignagainst Qaddafi’s regimeleading to refugecrisis.InSouthernSyriaprotesters called out the demand of ( ! $ "! ! "! " ! " ! ! " ! $! ! $ !# ! "! " $ 3.4.9DigitalDemocratic system:The emergence of Covid-19 (Global Pandemic) was marked by loss oflives, health, economy, mutual trust, etc. However, it led to a new form ofpolitical engagement system with the help of digital media. A lot ofinternational conferences and collaborationswere organized virtually viadigital media like G20 summit, NAM summit, India-Australia summit,SCO summit, BRICS summit, India-EU summit, etc. 2020 was the year ofvirtual summits or engagement amid pandemic. In India too, engagementbetween National, State and Regional level held via virtual medium andcitizens were also given the opportunity to witness some highlights toensure accountability. Further, citizens were given access to legalproceedings in courts via various platforms. Indeed an informed citizenryis crucial for the development of society and political system which is farmore accessible in the age of digital governance.3.4.10 Summary:The democratic system in modern times is a tool of establishingindividualism and public welfare through accountability and transparencyin governance. Earlier more than half of the world was authoritarian butmost of the nations adopted democracy as theirpolitical system till 2000.This transition to democracy was smooth in some countries whereas ittook revolutions to establish a democratic system in others. However,Democracy became an agent of change and was given a legal mandateunder various constitutions. Democracy, in general, is of the British orWestminster model or American model. Moreover, some statesmunotes.in
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established their own sense of democratic rule which is further inevolution due to this digitalized century.The three waves of democracy havecontributed in the transition of theworld towards democratic outlook. However, there are variousunderpinnings in the way of establishing a democratic structure. TheAftermath of the Arab Spring saw the rise of terrorism, ISIS expansionand now Taliban’soccupation of Afghanistan.The result is prolongedrefugee crisis, human rights violations, civil unrest, violence, etc.3.4.8 Exercises:1.What is the reason behind the transition from Monarchy todemocracy?2.What is a democratic system? What are thecharacteristics of ademocratic system?3.What do you understand by the Westminster model of Governance?What are the characteristics of this model?4.What are the salient features of the American Democratic system?5.Why Digital Democracy is regarded as the future of politicalengagement?6.What do youunderstand by the ‘Elitist theory of Democracy’?7.What is the importance of deliberations and participation in politicalprocesses?8.How first wave of democracy is different from the Second wave?9.What were the eventswhich resulted in the Third Wave ofDemocracy?10.Explain the importance of the Arab Spring.C. NON-DEMOCRATIC SYSTEMS3.5 NON-DEMOCRATIC SYSTEM3.5.1 Introduction:Non-democratic system is a government run by those who are not electedby the citizens or are not representative of the true will of the public. Theycan be Authoritarian system, Totalitarian system, Nazism, Fascism,Patrimonialism, Bureaucratic Authorization, etc. In historical sense,democracy was either not in existence or needed to be gained throughmass struggle. We discussed the transition to democracy in the previouschapter. However, democracy can be overthrown by violence or repressionmunotes.in
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by authoritarian forces giving rise to the non-democratic system. Further ifthe foundation of democracy i.e. the functioning of the politicalinstitutions is jeopardized then the democratic system can be thwarted.3.5.2 What is a Non-Democratic System?:Non-democratic system can be defined as those system which lacksaccountability and transparency in governance. Further, they do not giveprimacy to individual rights and run their governance based on somepropaganda, ideology, or personality cult. They usually do notwelcomeopposition and often suppress them devoicing citizens of their truerepresentation in politics. In this type of system justice is usually a mythand is politicized. Institutions which comply to the respective regime canfunction under such environment. They often limit pluralism and allinformation is censored to avoid criticism.Totalitarian governments often assume monopoly over masscommunication and armed weaponry. Some of the popular examples ofsuch rule are Mussolini in Italy, Hitler in Nazi Germany, Stalin in SovietUnion, Mao Zedong in People’s Republic of China, Castro in Cuba, PolPot in Cambodia, etc.3.5.3 Authoritarian system of Government:In an authoritarian government concentration of powers can be seen in thehands of a leader or a small group. It can be a result of the formation ofnation state, the political culture of the nation, state or economicmodernization, etc. Further authoritarian regime can be a personal regime,single party regime, military regime, or a bureaucratic regime. The mostcommon form of rule throughout history is authoritarianism. Authoritarianrule can be based on historical culture, Monarchy, theocracy, dictatorship,military rule etc. Authoritarian rulers want ‘Status Quo’ that keepsthemselves in power despite challenges like political mobilization by otherparties.Robert Kaplan in “The Coming Anarchy” pointed out-“Authoritarianismdoes not attempt to get ridof or to transform all other groups or classes inthe state, it simply reduces them to subservience”. Juan Linz definedauthoritarianism as having limited political pluralism realized withconstraints on legislature, political parties, and interest groups.In an authoritarian state where a single head forms a government is knownas ‘Autocracy’ whereas the government formed by a group of elites isknown as ‘Oligarchy’. They hold their office if they remain in power andoften threaten to use power to devoidthe citizenry of their rights. Interestof the ruler is above the interest of the public. They often abuse theirpower to enforce arbitrary rules and regulations. However, there aredifferences among the authoritarian regime on the extent to which theyimpose conformity, suppress freedom, use of violence, repression, etc.They are often corrupt and self-aggrandizing.Mexico under PRI, Marcosregime in Philippines,Rawlings in Ghana, etc,However, there are somemunotes.in
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exceptions too who have actively promotedsocio-economic developmentsand modernization like Turkey, Vietnam, etc.3.5.4 Characteristics of Authoritarian Regime:•Maintaining monopoly of power.•Hereditary Succession, Use of Military force (threatened or actual)and popular elections are the sources of power in an authoritarianregime.•Nexus between Institutions and Authoritarian Rulers.•Suppress opposition by imposing press censorships, illegitimating thepolitical party,•They often seek to control the economyto rule out policies based ontheir interests. However, there are some authoritarian who tried towork for public interest risking their political holdings too like JosefBroz Tito of Yugoslavia and Anwar-al-Sadat of Egypt.•Most authoritarian states are underdeveloped, and a clear distinctioncan be seen between rich and poor.•Against ‘Individualism’ as submission to an authority is itsfoundation.•Subservience and obedience are kept by punishing no conformity in abrutal or exemplary way.3.5.5Totalitarian system:Totalitarian Regime is based on single party system. Soviet Union,Balkans, Cuba, Nazi Germany, and fascist Italy are some of the examplesof totalitarian regime. It aims at legitimizing the authority of the politicalorganization. Itseeks to control every aspect of the public and political lifeand sees no limit on their authority. It can be distinguished fromAuthoritarianism as unlike authoritarianism it tends to control everyinstitutions or powers outside the governmental rule too. It is more like anideological authority that holds power and intrudes into the ideology of themasses. Political power, economy, religion, culture, ideology is undertotalitarian control and we cannot count anything outside it. It is regardedas the extreme form of authoritarianism. They employ all-encompassingcampaigns where their propaganda is broadcasted by state-controlled massmedia. In extreme cases secret police, concentration camps, stateterrorism, religious persecution, fraudulent elections, possession ofweapons of mass destruction, state sponsored genocide also forms a partof totalitarian regime. Joseph Stalin (Soviet Union), Benito Mussolini(Italy), Adolf Hitler (Germany) is examples of totalitarian leaders.Moreover, Mao Zedong (China) led his country since the formation ofPeople’s Republic of China (1949) until his death in 1976 in line with thepractices of totalitarian regime. North Korea is being ruled by the samefamily since 1948.munotes.in
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Characteristics of Totalitarian Regime:•Extensive political and individual repression.•Personality cultism and mass appeal via ‘Ideology’.•Complete lack of democracy and fraudulent elections.•Absolute control over the state economy and public as well as theprivate life of the citizens.•Limitations on individual rights.•Press censorship or state control over mass media to propagate theircampaigns.Hannah Arendt in “The Origin of Totalitarianism” pointed out that theNazism in Germany and the Communist regimes were different from thethenauthoritarian regime and resembled tyranny in modern version. Shefurther argues that the source of mass appeal of the totalitarian regimes istheir ‘Ideology’ which provides a clear-cut solution for the miseries ofpast, present and future. They all had their own way to appeal to themasses-For Nazis history was race struggle, it was class struggle forcommunists based on which they established their authority over statepolitics.Friedrich and Brzezinski summarized totalitarianism into sixcharacteristics-Elaborate guiding ideology; Single mass party typicallyled by a leader; system of terror through violence and secret police;monopoly on weapons; monopoly on the means of communication; centralcontrol on economy via state planning.3.5.6 Nazism:The Triple Entente (Britain, UK, and Russia) emerged victorious in theFirst World War (1914-18) against Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary). It concluded with the Treaty of Versailles was in which Italywas also invited along with the victor forces. It was a unilateral treaty withGermany which it was humiliated and was charged with the war clause topunish it apart from encircling its territory. Germany lost its prestige in thetimes of economic crises as it must pay heavy war indemnities to thevictor states. Moreover, it was a time of Great depression and highinflations. People were not happy with the terms of treaty and theirinhumane treatment by foreign powers. Weimar Republic was not verysuccessful in handling of the crisis and there wasuproarfor a powerfulleader which came into life as ‘Adolf Hitler’.Nazism was a totalitarian movement (National Socialism) in Germanyaftermath First World War under Nazi Party headed by Adolf Hitlertowards a dictatorial rule based on mass appeal and extreme nationalism.It is primarily focused on ‘One Party, One Leader’ Rule and citizens arepainted antinational if they criticize any policies of the government. It is apolitical and economic doctrine practiced by Nazis in Germany from 1933to 1945. Thereis no space for the opposition party as they are ruthlesslysuppressed by the ruling regime. Government usually holds a strong gripmunotes.in
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over every institutions, mass media, and political choices of the masses soas to promote the propaganda of the party via these agencies. They areanti-democratic, anti-peace, criticize individual rights and glorify war.Hitler favored ‘Racial Superiority ‘considering him from Aryan race andwas ‘Anti-Semitic’. He considered Jews as well as democrats for thedefeat of Germany. Thus, he is responsible for Jews’ genocide and massmurder to punish them based on impure blood. As soon as Hitler assumespower in 1933, Jews minorities were purposely excluded from governmentoffices, put into concentration camps (1941) and their homeswerevandalized. Richard J Evans in his book “The Third Reich in Power”argues that the Nazi regime was using sterilization to crush those who didnot conform to the Nazi ideals. They used military control to fulfill theiragenda and thus became the reason for Second World War which came toa horrific end after the death of Hitler and bombarding of Hiroshima andNagasaki.Salient features of Nazi regime:•Anti-democratic and totalitarian in nature.•Based on Racial Supremacy and Personality cultism.•SingleParty, Single Leader control via military and state-controlledpropaganda.•A defined ideology with anti-democratic propaganda.•Thwarted opposition and individual rights.•Extreme form of ‘Nationalism’.•Glorification of ‘War’ and mass murder.3.5.7 Fascism:Fascism in general means a tendency towards a strong dictatorial controlover state. It emphasizes extreme nationalism, Statism, chauvinism,corporatism, militarism, totalitarianism, etc. Unlike Nazism, it believes inthe incorporation of all elements of the society into ‘Organic State’.Therefore, State holds the supreme command in fascism rather than aleader or some personalitycult that was practiced in Nazism. They hold nostrong opinion about any specific race. It encourages the class system aswell as the concept of social mobility.Fascism refers to the political regime in Italy under Benito Mussolini afterthe FirstWorld War. It is widely understood as the vocation of far-rightideology whose objective is to hold unlimited state power using military orreligion as their agents. It is ideologically different from totalitarianism asit does not hinder the working of non-state actors but is focused on thesuperiority of state in top-down decision-making which shows publicacceptance. It is not a product of a weak state, but a strong developed stateoften resolved into a failed democracy.People sometimes willingly abandon their rights to gain collectivestrength. Socio-economic or political crises, primacy of a particular classmunotes.in
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or group, victimization of one community, etc. often lead to fascism. Itdoes not discourage corporatism but is inclines towards keeping theproduction under the control of the state. It acts as a force to guard thestate from foreign dominance, keeping order in the society, elimination ofpan ethnicity, etc.3.5.8The Geddes, Wright and Frantz(GWF)AutocraticRegimesDatasets:Regimeis definedas a set offormal and informal rules in choosing theleaders or policies giving primacy to identity of the group.Anundemocratic regime can beone whereleaders can be eitherchosenbydirect electionsor indirect one.No party can be restricted to run for anelection.However, the election will be regarded as ‘reasonably free andfair’when at least 10% population iseligible to vote.However, the breakdown of autocratic regime result into threepossibilities-the incumbent leader maybe replaced by a democraticregime or replaced by someone from his group with another possibility ofcompletely losing control resulting in replacement by another autocrat.GWF datasetsproposed that an autocratic regime tends to break regardlessof whether democratic transition takes place or not, which motivatesautocratsto embrace democratic structure. These sets have practicalimplications with reference to the Arab Spring as discussed in the previouschapter.References can be drawn fromEgyptian President Anwar Sadat’srule,Ben Ali of Tunisia,Libya under Qaddafi and Yemen under Saleh,etc.The data set identifies 280 autocraticregimes (1946-2010)in independentcountries.Each country-year is coded as:1.Autocratic2.Democratic3.Not independent4.Occupied by foreign troops5.Ruled by a provisional government charged with overseeing atransition to democracy6.Lacking a central government3.5.9TheCheibub, Jennifer Gandhi and James Raymond Vreeland(CGV) Autocratic Regimes Datasets:Democracy-Dictatorship(DD)forms the basis of this datasetwhich is aminimalist dichotomous measure of political regime.Theyintroducedasix-fold regime classification covering 199 countries(1946-2008).Theyperceive political regime in terms of ‘inner sanctums where real decisionsare made and potential rivals are kept under close scrutiny’.They putforward three criterionsto be satisfied for a regime to be democraticnamely uncertainty,irreversibility and repeatability.These criterions canbe fulfilled under apopularly elected legislature and chief executive.It isenough to have more than one party in elections.munotes.in
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A regime is classified as a democracy if it meets the requirementsstipulated in all of the following four rules:1.The chief executive must be chosen by popular election or by a bodythat was itself popularly elected.2.The legislature must be popularly elected.3.There must be more than one party competing in the elections.4.Analternation in power under electoral rules identical to the ones thatbrought the incumbent to office must have taken place.3.6 SUMMARYNon-democratic system is regarded as a suppressor of individualism inmodern politics. However, citizens sometimes surrender their rightswillfully to achieve collective power due to various reasons. Non-democratic system does not necessarily mean under-development or nodevelopment as it all depends in its intensity. Some totalitarian systems arein negation of corporatism whereas Fascism favors both Statism andCorporatism. However, it is crucial to realize that with increasingawareness, it is importantto grant freedom to citizens against repressingtheir rights. Order is necessary in any governance, but it should not costfreedom of individuals.3.7UNIT END QUESTIONS1.What do you mean by a non-democratic system of governance?2.How can anon-democratic system be distinguished from a democraticsystem?3.What do you mean by authoritarianism? What are its keycharacteristics?4.What are the salient features of a totalitarian system of governance?Explain with relevant examples.5.What ledto the formation of Nazism? What was the ideology of NaziGermany under Adolf Hitler?6.What is Fascism? What are its characteristics? Explain withillustrations.7.What is the difference between Fascism and Nazism? What are theirideological differences?8.How Fascism and Nazism are similar in ideology?9.Why non-democratic system not regarded as a true representativesystem?10.What is the difference between GWF and CGV Autocratic Regimedatasets?munotes.in
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3.6 REFERENCES•Samuel P. Huntington,theThird Wave: Democratization in the LateTwentieth Century (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991).•Joseph A. Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy(London: Unwin University Books, 1974).•Geddes, B., Wright, J., & Frantz, E. (2014).Autocratic Breakdownand Regime Transitions: A New Data Set.Perspectives on Politics.•Brownlee,Jason.2009. “Portents of Pluralism: How Hybrid RegimesAffect DemocraticTransitions.”American Journal of PoliticalScience.•Brooker, P. (1995). Twentieth-century dictatorships: the ideologicalone party states. New York: New York University Press•Gandhi, J. (2008). Political institutions under dictatorship. New York:Cambridge University Press.•Gandhi, J., & Vreeland, J. R. (2004). Political institutions and civilwar: unpacking anocracy. Emory University, manuscript.•Gandhi, J., & Vreeland, J. R. (2004). Political institutions and civilwar: unpacking anocracy. Emory University, manuscript.•Lijphart, A. (1999). Patterns of democracy:government forms andperformance in thirty-six countries. New Haven: Yale UniversityPress.•Linz, J. J., & Stepan, A. (1996). Problems of democratic transitionand consolidation. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.•Vreeland, J. R. (2008). The effectof political regime on civil war:unpacking anocracy. Journal of Conflict Resolution.•Cheibub, José Antonio, Jennifer Gandhi, and James RaymondVreeland. 2010.“Democracy and Dictatorship Revisited.”•Michael Wahman, Jan Teorell & Axel Hadenius(2013) Authoritarianregime types revisited: updated data in comparative perspective,Contemporary Politics•Møller, Jørgen and Jørgen Svend-Erik Skaaning. “The Third Wave:Inside the Numbers.”Journal of Democracy24 (2013): 109-97.•Lindsay Benstead, “Why Do Some Arab Citizens See Democracy asUnsuitable for Their Country?” Democratizationmunotes.in
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4POLITICAL PROCESSUnit Structure4.0Political Party and Pressure Groups4.0.1Introduction4.0.2Political Party4.0.3Meaning and Nature4.0.4Classification of Political Parties4.0.5Functions of Political Parties4.1Pressure Groups4.1.1Classifications of Pressure Groups4.1.2 Types of Pressure Groups4.2Public Opinion and Mass Media4.2.1Public Opinion4.2.2Mass Media4.2.3Types of Mass Media4.2.4Role of Mass Media4.2.5Impact of the Mass Media4.3Civil Society and Social Movements4.4Unit End Questions4.5Suggested ReadingA. POLITICAL PARTY AND PRESSURE GROUPS4.0INTRODUCTIONA political party is a political group that aims to acquire power andrealizepolicies with a platform that shows political ideas.Since modern society iscomplex and diverse, political parties play an important role inconsolidating people's interests into concrete policies and managingpolitics in a policy-oriented manner.Since political parties were formedwith the development of parliamentary politics, full-scale political partiesappeared around the 18th and 19th centuries, but at that time it was an eraof restricted elections and consisted of local influential peoplewith"education and property". It did not go beyond the boundariesof the nobleparty to be held.From the latter half of the 19th century, the movement to demanduniversal suffrage becamewidespreadand mass-based parties with strictdiscipline and largeorganizations based on a popular foundation began tomunotes.in
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appear in each country.As de-idealism progressed in the latter half of the20th century and class conflicts became ambiguous, a comprehensivepolitical party emerged that sought the support of variousclasses andsocial groups under the bannerof "national political party."Apressuregroup isan interest group that puts pressure on the governmentand political parties and tries to realize their special interests. It isessentially different from a political party in thatit does not aim to gainpower.In the United States, where pressure groups are more activenumerousgroups such as agricultural groups, religious groups, environmentalgroups, and gun enthusiast groups are putting pressureon Congress andthe government.People called lobbyists are acting on behalf of theorganization and arerequired to register and report on their activitiesunder the Federal Lobbying Control Act.4.0.2 Political Party:Political parties occupy a special place among the subjects of politicalactivity, acting asintermediaries between citizens and the state.Theclassic definition of a party belongs to theFrenchPolitical ScientistRogerGerard Schwarzenberg According to him Parties unite the most activerepresentatives of social groups with similar ideological and politicalviews and striving for statepower.In Political Science, there has always been great attention to the problemof political parties. It has become especially close in recent decades. "Evena cursory glance at the bookshelves of the libraries of most modernpolitical scientists or at the indexes of published articles in almost anyprofessional journal," writes the American scholar A. King, "wouldconvince many of us that one of the most important directions in modernpolitical science is the study of political parties." At the same time, theirrole throughout the entire period of existence was inadequately assessed.Until the emergence ofParliamentaryas a system of public administration,political parties saw the source of crises, a force that opposes the state anddestroys its integrity. Andit's not acoincidence.4.0.3Meaning and Nature:In modern society, parties perform a number of specific internal andexternal functions.Internal functions relate to recruiting new members,ensuring party funding, establishing effective interaction between theleadership and local branches, etc.External functions are decisive for party activities:•Expression, defense and protection of the interests of large socialgroups and strata; integration of people within social groups on thebasis of common goals, mobilization of the masses to solve importantsocial problems;munotes.in
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•Thedevelopment of ideology, the formation of public opinion, thedissemination of political culture;•Creatingopportunities for the political socialization of the individual;•Trainingof personnel for political institutions, participation in theformation of the political elite;•Organizationof election campaigns and participation in them;•Strugglefor state power and participation in political governance.The experience of politicaldevelopment shows that, despite pessimisticforecasts, parties remain the most effective mechanism for ensuring theconnection between civil society and the state.4.0.4Classification of Political Parties:Several typologies of political parties have been proposed:Accordingto theirideological orientation,parties are distinguished asliberal, conservative, communist,etc.Onaterritorial basis-federal, regional, etc.Onthesocial basis-workers, peasants, businessmen, etc.In relation tosocialtransformations-radical and moderate,revolutionary and reformist, progressive and reactionary;Onparticipation in power-ruling and opposition, legal and illegal,parliamentary and non-parliamentary.The most famous is the classification of parties according totheirorganizational structure, according to which cadre and mass partiesare distinguished.The cadre parties arefocused on the participation of professionalpoliticians, parliamentarians and are united around a group of leaders-apolitical committee.Such parties are usually small and elite, and receivefunding from private sources.Their activity is intensified during theelections.Mass parties arenumerous, funded from membership fees.They arecentralized organizations with statutorymembership, they are organizedand disciplined,and theycarry out extensive advocacy work in the field,as they are interested in increasing the number of their members (and,consequently, the amount of membership fees).If the cadre parties striveto mobilize the elites,then the mass ones-to mobilizethe broad masses ofthe people.The group subjects of political activity also include mass movements,public organizations, pressure groups, etc.munotes.in
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According to the social criterion, class parties aredistinguished, interclassparties, “grab everyone” by organizational structure and nature ofmembership:Personnel;Massive.With clear and formally defined principles of membership and with freemembership, with individual and collective membership, in relation to theplace in the political system-legal, semi-legal and illegal, ruling andopposition, parliamentary and extra-parliamentary, monopoly-state andavant-garde, etc.Bytarget and ideological attitudes, methods and forms of action-radical,liberal, conservative;communist, socialist and social democratic;By the number of parliamentary seats-majoritarian parties, parties with amajoritarian vocation, dominant parties and minority parties;Extra-Parliamentaryparties consider the activity of representativebodies of power and the struggle for deputy mandates to besecondary.Their origin is associated with the development of massmovements and the expansion of the political participation of the workingclass.Depending on the position in the political system, parties are divided intogovernment and opposition parties.Thewinninggovernmentparties playa leading role in forming the government.Oppositionparties represent theinterests of the political minority.They focus on criticizing therulingparties and their policies.In turn, the opposition is subdivided intosystemic and non-systemic.Systemicopposition does not questionexisting basic values, political norms and procedures.She disagrees withthe government party on tactical issues(the size of taxes, the nature ofsocial norms, the degree of state regulation of the economy, etc.).Non-systemicthe opposition denies the existing political order, the nature ofthe priorities of social development in general.Its purpose, as a rule, is tochange the existing political system.From the point of view of the nature of the organization,Cadre and MassPartiesare distinguished.ACadrePartyis a group of famous peoplecreated to prepare for elections, conduct election campaigns, and contactvoters.Firstly included popular and influential persons, whose prestige andconnections are able to support the candidate and attract voters to his side.Secondly, experts, specialists in the field of election campaigns andpolitical advertisingThirdly, the hiddenoneswho providesfunding for thepoliticalpartymunotes.in
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MassPartyis a well-organized association, the main features of whichare: broad, active membership;a certain ideology;existence on the basisof membership fees.A party of this typeassumes the responsibility of itsparliamentary representatives to the voters for the decisions and policiesthey make.It is characterized by strict discipline, adherence to the charterand program by its adherents.In accordance with ideological orientations, liberal, conservative,communist, socialist, fascist and other parties are distinguished.In the last two or three decades, a type of political force has emerged thatis unreasonably called a party.These are the so-calledUniversalParties(Parties of All Voters).Unlike traditional parties that target specificelectoral groups, they seek to win over different groups of voters.They arecharacterized by the following features: optional fixing of membership;aspecial type of intellectual leader playing the role of a worldviewsymbol;lack of clearly fixed social interests.The emergence of this typeof parties is facilitated by the blurring of rigid boundaries between socialfunctions and the consequent weakening of the party identity of thevoters;the growth of the well-being of society;development of the media,allowing party leaders to address not individual groups, but all voters atonce.Parties of this type are more connected with the state than with civilsociety, and their main function isnot to articulate and aggregate theinterests of society, but to protect the political course of a givengovernment.4.0.5Functions of aPolitical Party:1. Theoretical function:analysis of the state and theoretical assessment of the developmentprospects of societyidentifying the interests of different social groups in society;development of a strategy and tactics for the struggle for the renewalof society;2. Ideological function:spreading among the masses and defending their worldview andmoralvalues;promoting their goals and policies;attracting citizens to the side and into the ranks of the party;3. Political function:power struggle;participation in domestic and foreign policy (development, formation,implementation);implementationof electoral programsmunotes.in
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4. Organizational function:implementation of software installations and solutions;conducting election campaigns;Selectionof candidates for elective positions, personnel fornomination to the government, central and local leadership.The function of social representationas noted above, any political partyis the exponent of certain social interests, relies in its activities on specificsocial strata and groups, and is their representative in the political arena. Inthis regard, it has as one of the central tasks from the whole variety of themost diverse interests of these groups (economic, ethnic, religious, etc.) toidentify, form and substantiate their aggregate political interest, as well asto clearly articulate it in political power sphere.The function of political socialization of citizens, i.e. their politicaleducation and training, the formation of properties and skills ofparticipation in political and power processes, as well as influence on themwith the help of certain conventional (constitutionally stipulated andlegislatively enshrined ) actions and procedures.The function of social integration-due tothe fact that any party in ademocratically organized society can come to power only by gaining amajority in the elections, it necessarily seeks to unite the most diversestrata of the population around its program.A pragmatic functionassociated not somuch with the struggle forpower, but, first of all, with its administration and retention. We aretalking about the art of skillfully using and disposing of power in order topreserve it beyond the constitutional period of acquisition, i.e. not to losein the new elections.The function of reproduction and recruiting of the political elitefor alllevels of the system of organization ofstate power,Due to the fact that thechange of the "power guard" in a democracy occurs only following theresults of elections, the party claiming power should be ready to put itsteam in the power "chairs" in the event of a victory in these elections topleaders ofthe system of state leadership and administration of the country.4.1PRESSURE GROUPSPressure groups are organizations of various types (entrepreneurial, tradeunion, religious, cultural, etc.)whosemembers, without claiming thehighest political powerin the system, try to influence it to ensure theirspecific interests. Pressure groups are trying to influence the political elite,rather than direct control. This is their difference from political parties.The influence of pressure groups is determinedmainly by the number oftheir members, economic power, and the role they play in society as awhole. These groups, considering themselves outside of politics, oftenmunotes.in
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have a greater influence on the political life of the country than politicalparties. Thereare cases when large transnational corporations or powerfultrade unions forced the political elite to back down and make a decision intheir favor.The theory of A. Bentley and his approach to the study of publicadministration is based on the concept of “people’ s activities”. In life, thisactivity is conditioned by the interests of people and is aimed at theirrealization. People achieve their goals not individually, but through groupsin which they are united on the basis of common interests. Thus, thepolicy appears as the interaction of interest groups pursuing their owngoals. These groups (that is, the social forces they represent) force thegovernment to make decisions that are beneficial to them.Pressure groups use a variety of methods. For example, they launch publiccampaigns to convince the ruling elite of the legitimacy of their demands,using the media for this. If these campaigns fail, they turn to threats tomake the elite more "responsive" to their demands. If these measures alsofail, the money can be used to “buy consent” and sabotage governmentactions, for example, by paralyzing production, obstructing certain criticalservices, or causing financial panic. In other words, the means by whichpressure groups achieve their goals span a wide range-from persuasion todirect action.The activities of pressure groups are public, but this does not mean thatthey conduct their operations in daylight. On the contrary, the leaders ofthese groups tend to prefer that public opinion be unaware of theseoperations. They have “proxies” in the state apparatus, in political parties,in parliaments, through their influence on government decisions. Leadersof pressure groups easily navigate the "higher spheres", maintainingrelationships withpeopleinfluential in various fields of activity.4.1.1Classification ofPressure Groups:The political process in modern societies is increasingly becoming aninteraction of rival groups, in which none of them absolutely prevails. Thismade it possible for theAmerican political scientist R. Dahl to call themodel of power in them not democracy, but Polyarchy.R. Dahl conducted an empirical study in the city of New Haven in order todetermine the place of interest groups in the mechanism of power. Hepresentedhis results in the work “Who rules? Democracy and Power inthe AmericanCity”(1961),R. Dahl considered the main subjects ofpolitics to be interest groups, which are an association of individuals withcommon values, requirements and goals. Among them, there are bothrelatively stable groups and groups prone to fluidity.Classification of pressure groups as a political force, different from otherforces, requires the definition of their characteristic features. Not everymunotes.in
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group that influences power is a pressure group. It should have thefollowing characteristics:1)Formalizationof the organizational structure (organization);2)Protectionof their own interests (i.e., the goals of pressure are its owngoals);3)Itsexistence as an autonomous decision-making center, and not as aninstrument in the hands of another organization;4)Theprovision of effective pressure by the group.4.1.2Types of Pressure Groups:American political scientists G. Almond and D.Powell identified fourtypes of interest groups according to the degree of their specialization andorganization:1)Spontaneousinterest groups, including spontaneous, ephemeral andoften violent interests (for example, interests revealed during riots,manifestations);2)Non-associativeinterest groups that combine the interests of informal,non-permanent and non-violent groupings (formed, for example, onthe basis of family ties, faith), characterized by a lack of continuity ofexistence and organization;3)Institutionalinterest groups, that is, the interests of formalorganizations (parties, assemblies, administration, army, church),endowed with other functions in addition to expressing interests (forexample, a close-knit group of officers, the governing body of theparty);4)Associativegroups of interests of voluntary and specializing in theexpression of interests of organizations: trade unions, groups ofbusiness people or industrialists, ethnic or religious associations ofcitizens.Consequently, the community of interests in some cases causes theirirregular and transient manifestations, while in others it causes theformation of a real and strong organization, which specifically takes on thedefense of common interests. In this way, stable, collective bonds areestablished instead of spontaneous and explosive actions. It is theassociative interest groups that have such a degree of organization andspecialization, which is characteristic of effective pressure groups.B. PUBLIC OPINION AND MASS MEDIA4.2PUBLICOPINIONAND MASS MEDIAPoliticians are overwhelmed by the trends in public opinion, and publicopinion sometimes changes politics significantly.Although public opinionis a key concept in democratic politics, its substance is uncertain.munotes.in
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4.2.1 PublicOpinion:Public opinionis a state ofmass consciousness, which expressestheattitude(hidden or explicit) of various groups of people, calledthepublic, to phenomena, events and facts ofsocial realitythat affecttheirneedsandinterests.In everyday use, the concept of "publicopinion" most often implies the point of view ofsocietyon a particularsocially significant issue.Public opinion research is carried out using theso-called sociologicalopinion polls.Contrary to widespread beliefs, public opinion is not any public statementof certain members of the public (for example, political or public leaders),and even less a mechanical sum of many statements (individual opinions)recorded in public opinion polls, but an organic product of sociallife,akind of collective judgment that arises in the process and as a result ofcomplex social communication-public discussion.The emergence of thisproduct presupposes the presence of many important conditions in society:a society that is aware ofitself as a subject of social behavior;availabilityof free and accessible information to public groups on the subject ofdiscussion;public interest in this information;the ability of communitygroups to articulate their position;finally,Theformation and development of public opinion occurs bothpurposefully-as a result of the impact of political organizations and socialinstitutions and institutions on the consciousness of social groups, andspontaneously-under the direct influence of life circumstances, socialexperience and traditions.Signs of a particular public opinion include itsprevalence and intensity.In contrast to the public mood, it is manifestedmore clearly and is characterized by relative stability.As an organic unityofrational, emotional and volitional elements, public opinion can manifestitself on three levels: as a spiritual attitude (through value judgments), as aspiritual-practical attitude (through emotional-volitional motives,aspirations,intentions and so on)and as a practical attitude (through massactions and deeds).The strength of the authority and influence of publicopinion is due to its reliance on the majority, which raises its socialsignificance and practical effectiveness.Public opinion operates in almost all spheres of society.At the same time,the boundaries of his judgments are well defined.As a rule, only thosefacts and events of reality that arouse publicinterestsare distinguished bytheir significance and relevance act as the object of statements.In eachspecific case, the content and other characteristics of public opinion (thedegree of its unanimity, the sign of statements, and so on) are determinedby a number of factors-the socio-demographic structure of thecommunity being expressed, the degree of coincidence of the needs andinterests of its various groups, the nature of the issue under discussion, andso on.At the same time, the processes of formationand functioning ofpublic opinion can proceed spontaneously, regardless of the activities ofcertain social institutions,munotes.in
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Public opinion operates both within the framework of society as a whole,and within the framework of various social groups and segments of thepopulation.In this sense, one can speak not only about the public opinionof the entire country, but also about public opinion, for example,employees, workers, youth of a particular region, persons of oneprofession, employees of an enterprise,members of an organization, andso on.In various democratic societies, the usual channels (and forms) ofexpression of public opinion are: elections to government bodies, themedia, public meetings, rallies and others.Along with this, statementsinspired by political, research and other interests and taking the form ofreferendums, mass discussions of any problems, expert meetings, samplepolls of the population, and so on are also widespread.The activity offunctioning and the actual importance of public opinion in the life ofvarious societies is determined by the socio-political conditions existing insociety-both general, associated with the class structure of society, andspecific, associated with the level of development of democraticinstitutions and freedoms in society.4.2.2 Mass Media:Media which acts as a mediumthat conveys information to massspecifically;it refers to media such as newspapers, magazines, television,and radio.The mass media plays the role of "mass communication" thatconveysdiverse information to an unspecified number of consumers, and is oftenreferred to as the mass media by abbreviation. The mass media playsmultipleroles such as news, commentary/enlightenment, education,entertainment, and advertising, and is also characterized by its great socialinfluence.4.2.3Types ofMass Media:Generally, mass media refers to four media: newspapers, magazines,television, andradio. Web media and the Internet related social mediawhich continue to expand their influenceto the extent that they arecomparable to the mass media.Explainingthe features of the four major media1. Newspaper:Newspapers are periodicals such as daily and weekly that provideinformation of interest to the public, such as news, opinions, andspecialfeatures. It is generally published on paper, but in recent years, electronicversions that can be subscribed to on smartphones and tablets and onlinedistribution that can be read on the Web have become widespread.munotes.in
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2. Magazine:A magazine is aperiodical that bears a specific magazine name andpublishes various articles. Weekly and monthly publications are themainstream, but biweekly and quarterly publications are also available.Magazines are often sold at bookstores and convenience stores, but likethe newspapers mentioned above, the form of selling them as electronicbooks on smartphones and tablets is also widespread.3. TV:Television is a technology that uses radio waves to transmit images toremote locations and reproduce the images on a receiver. Alternatively, itoften refers to the equipment used for that purpose,especially television.The big difference from the otherfour majormedia is information can beconveyed by video and audio, and because it has a large number ofviewers, the impact of broadcasting is great... It is highly breaking news,you can get information by video, and there is no viewing fee forcommercial broadcasting. In addition, there are many programs closelyrelated to the local area at local stations.4. Radio:Radio is audio broadcasting such as news reports and music sent frombroadcasting stations using radio waves. Because information can beobtained in real time in voice format,Due to its characteristics, manylisteners enjoy the program in parallel with work such as driving,studying, and cooking... One of the unique features of radio is that itallows two-way communication between the personality and the listener.Media on the Internetcan be broadly classified into two types:•WebMedia and Social Media•Web media refers to websites that send out some information on theInternet, and specifically, news sites, curation sites, corporate sites,etc. are categorized. Social media refers to media that includes socialelements such as information dissemination by individuals andconnections between individuals. Specifically, Twitter, Instagram,Facebook, and YouTube etc.4.2.4Roleof MassMedia:Regarding the roleof mass media, American scholar Wilbur Schramm,who is also called the father of communication studies, said, "LookoutFunction""DebateFunction""TeacherFunctionarethree categoriesMassMedia.First of all, the "Lookout Function"It is a role to convey information andissue warnings about the current situation and changes in the socialenvironment.The mass media disseminates political and economic trends,which gives the public a sense of crisis and their own thoughts. Itfunctions as a lookout by giving companies and organizations theawareness that they are being seen by the world.munotes.in
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Next is the "Discussion Function".It is the role of organizing opinionsamong members regarding the social environment and forming publicopinion.In addition to the conventional four major media, it has becomeeasier for individuals to express their opinions on the Web media andsocial media, which have become the fifth mass media in recent years, andthe debate function of the media has becomemore active.The final "Teacher Role"It is a role that connects values, social norms,knowledge, etc. to the next generation.In particular, newspapers arehighly shared media and magazines are highly preserved media, and aremass media suitable for transmitting information to the next generation.American scholar Harold Lasswellalso categorizes each as"Environmental Surveillance","Member Interaction" and "GenerationalTransmission of Social Heritage”.The names of the roles are different, butthe contents are the same as the above-mentioned "watch function","discussion function", and "teacher function".4.2.5Impactof the Mass Media:1. Impact on politics:Citizens are informed by the mass mediareporting and commenting onpolitical facts and use it as a basis for making decisions on political topics.Its influence is great, and it is sometimes called the "fourth estate" alongwith legislation, judiciary, and administration.2. Economic impact:Information flowing from the mass media has a great impact on people'seconomic activities. The information about products and services that yousee in the mass media may be advertisements placed by companies or maybe exposures of the results of public relations activities.3. Impact onculture:As mentioned earlier, the mass media has a "teacher function," that is,therole of connecting valuesand knowledge to the nextgeneration. On TVthere are language learning programs, educational programs for children,and hobby programs.If it is a magazine, there are specialized magazinesof various genres (newspapers are specialized newspapers), whichinfluences the creation of cultural and cultural soil.Furthermore, the mass media has great significance as entertainment.Specifically, there are movies and dramas, live sports, programs thatprovide entertainment information for enjoying leisure and leisure, andvariety programs centered on talk and laughter. These entertainmentcontents are creating trends by establishing popular culture that peopleenjoy widely and establishing popularity with an object.munotes.in
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C. CIVIL SOCIETY AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS4.3 CIVIL SOCIETY AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTSNowadays there is a lot of talk about "civil society".Its sphere covers thearea ofpersonal, private, every day and other interests of members ofsociety, and structurally represents the sum of unions, associations, unionsof interest.This includes the public organizations,political partiesandvarious social movements.The key components of civil society are theright to organize, recruit members, speak publicly, assemble, solicit, anddeclare their interests.Social movements are one of the main elements of the “third sector” ofcivil society.Sometimes uniting millions ofpeople in its ranks, themovement allows, firstly, to formulate the interests that society aims toachieve, secondly, to promote its demands, and, finally, to “force” theauthorities, if not fully follow these proclaimed interests, then take theserequirements into account in their activities000.Civil Society and Social movements in their development usually gothrough several stages.At the beginning, an initiative group appears,which promulgates the main goal of the movement, then the circle ofactivists expands and various organizations join the movement, for whichthe declared goal is acceptable.At this stage, it is possible to hold ageneral forum of the movement, where ideas and requirements are moreclearly formulated.At the same time, coordinating bodies are oftencreated, but nevertheless, the movement, unlike the party, dispenses with aformal internal hierarchy, systematic discipline, and a single structure.Inthe future, social and political activity can lead to the transformation of themovement into a social and political organization or to the fading of themovement due to the implementation of the original goal or the lack ofprospects for its achievement.This concept also denotes the entire set of public relations existingindependently of the state and its organs: political, economic, cultural,national, religious, family and others, reflects the variety of privateinterests.The purpose of civil society is to protect the interests of eachmember of society, to represent his interestsin the face of the authoritiesand society, public control over the activities of the authorities and theformation of domestic and foreign policies of this society.Public associationsare political parties, trade unions and otherassociations of citizens created on a voluntary basis to achieve commongoals that do not contradict legislation.Public associations are non-profitorganizations.Social movementsare non-state formations that unite people according totheir interests and professions.Social movements and organizations differmunotes.in
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in many ways: in their goals, the functions they perform in relation to theinterests of their members, as well as in relation to state power;at theplace of business;by types and methods of activity;by the nature of theoccurrence, by the way of organization, and so on.According to thecriterion of the goal, there are social and political movements andorganizations: revolutionary and counter-revolutionary, reformist andconservative, national-democratic, general democratic, ecological.By the nature of their occurrence: spontaneous and deliberatelyorganized;by the way of organization: clubs, associations, associations,unions, fronts;by social composition: youth, women, professional.Allsocial movements and organizations are called upon to perform two maintasks:a)Theexpression and implementation of group interests;b)Ensuringthe participation of members of a particular group orcommunity in the management of public affairsand self-governmentProblems.In difficult to difficult times, people saturated with ideologicalcontradictions are first grouped into protest movements and organizations,then popular fronts, associations, mass movementsbegin to exist,moreover, within the systemic state, party, trade union and youthstructures: independent trade union organizations, strike committees,various groups of deputies.In the future, there is integration of movementsand organizations that have formed both outside and insidethe politicalsystem.He reduced the problem of social and political practice to theproblem of mutual understanding, the language of political power, parties,social groups, and so on.In his ideas, or in another way, concepts, there isa socio-politicalorientation.There is a growth and strengthening of the role of social and politicalmovements, which indicates the involvement of a huge number of peoplein politics.There are various options for the relationship of social politicalmovements with parties, but independent social political movements donot enter into any relationship with parties.This happens when theparticipants in the movements, having a certain political interest, are at thesame time not satisfied with the activities of the parties.The creation ofsome movements is initiated by a party or a bloc of parties in order toinvolve broad masses of non-party people in the struggle for the politicaltask put forward.4.4 UNIT END QUESTIONS1.Explain the functions of Political Parties2. Write on Meaning and Nature of Political Parties3. Discuss the Types of Pressure Groupsmunotes.in
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4. Describe the Role of Mass Media in Political Process5. Write a Note on Civil Society6. Discuss the Influence of Social Movement on Society4.5SUGGESTEDREADINGS•AmirAli,2001’The Evolution of the Public Sphere in India’,Economic and Political Weekly, 30 June.•Andrew, Arato. & Jean L. Cohen, 1994 Civil Society and PoliticalTheory, The MIT Press•Antonio Gramsci, 1971Selections from the Prison NotebooksLawrence and Wishart.•Antony McGrew 1998‘The statein advanced capitalist society’Global Society, Vol. 12, No.3, 1998•Baviskar, B.S. 2001. “NGOs and Civil Society in India”, SociologicalBulletin, vol. 50, issue 1.•Bennett, W.L. &Paletz, D. L. (1994),Taken by Storm: The Media,Public Opinion and U.S. Foreign Policy in the Gulf War. Chicago: TheUniversity of Chicago Press.•Berglund, Henrik. 2009. Civil Society in India: democratic space orthe extension of elite domination? Working Paper, Stockholm,Stockholm University•Bottomore, T.1993/94,Blackwell Dictionary of social Thought•Bourgault, L. (1995).Mass Media in SubSaharan Africa,Bloomington: Indiana University Press.•David, Lewis. 2004. On the difficulty of studying civil society’:Reflections on NGOs, state and democracy in Banglades.Contributions to Indian sociology, 38, SAGE Publications New Delhi•Ferguson, Adam. 1767/1995An Essays on history of civil society,Cambridge University Press.•Gail, Omvedt. 1994. “Peasants, Dalits and Women: Democracy andIndia’ s new social movements”. Journal•Goswami D.&Tandon, R. (2013),CivilSociety in ChangingIndia:Emerging roles, relationships, and strategies. Development in Practice•Keane J. (2003)GlobalCivil SocietyCambridgeUniversity Press•Kinder D. R. (2003)Communication and politics in the age ofinformation, In D. O•Sears, L. Huddy, & R. Jervis (Eds.), Oxford handbook of politicalpsychologyOxford: Oxford University Pressmunotes.in
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•Klapper, J. T. (1960). The effects of mass communication,Glencoe:The Free Press. (pp. 19 20)•Menair, Brain (2003). Politics in age of mediation,anintroduction topolitical communication,London: Routledge. 12.•Njaastad,O (1999). Televisionjournalism,Oslo: Gyldendal/AdNotam.•Zaller, J. R. (1992). The nature and origins of mass opinion,Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.munotes.in