MA-Politics-SEM-1-public-administration-munotes

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Module 1UNIT1MEANING, SCOPE,AND SIGNIFICANCEUnit Structure1.0Objective1.1Introduction1.2Evolution and changing character of the discipline:1.2.1Comparative Public Administration1.2.2Development Administration1.2.3New PublicAdministration1.3Challenges of liberalization, privatization, globalization, changingrole ofthepublic sector, public-private relations.1.4Good Governance: Concept and Application; New PublicManagement1.5Let us sum up1.6Unit end questions1.7Reference1.0OBJECTIVEIn this unit,we will attempt to understand the meaning of PublicAdministration and its evolution as a discipline. Along with the earlierdevelopments in the field,the unit will discuss in detail three majoradvancesofthePost-World War era,whichare, Comparative PublicAdministration, Development Administration,and New PublicAdministration. The unit also coversthe impact of globalization on PublicAdministration. Sections on Good Governance and New PublicManagement will introduce the learner tothe major post-1980developments in the larger field of governance.1.1 INTRODUCTIONHuman actions have social implications. Human behavior requiresregulation and control. Humans need support and coordination ofessential supplies for their existence. Their security is ensured by beingtogether with other fellow beings. These and many more such conditionsindicate that humans need the organization which pervades humanexistence from the cradle to the grave. Public administration is anall-pervasive organization performingawide range of tasks at all levels ofgovernment like, budgeting, legislation, policy framing, policy execution,and administering government branches and agencies.munotes.in

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The term administration is derived fromthe Latin words ‘ad’ and‘ministaire’, which means to care for,manage, anddirect. To a certainextent,it suggests the management of people’s affairs.Scholars differintheir understanding of the exact meaning of the term. For F.M. Marx andJ. M. Pfiffner public administration is essentially a cooperative,organizational effort to systematically channelize resources to achievecommon objectivesto protectthe public interest. While some thinkersargue forabroader approach towardsthescope and rangeof activities ofpublic administration and include all governmental activities forfulfillment of public policy, some scholars argue foranarrow view andconsider only those activities which are concerned with the executivebranch of government. L.D. White advocates to include activitiesconcerning fulfillment or enforcement ofthepublic policy. WoodrowWilson proposedadetailed and systematic application ofthelaw. Dimockalso heldasimilar opinion. Simon limits public administration to theactivitiesof the executive or administrative branch only. Pfiffner arguesfor the coordinating role of administration in getting the work ofgovernment done so that people can work together to accomplish their settasks.Speaking broadly,public administrationis the development,implementation,and study of branches of government policy. It isconcerned with the pursuit of public good by empowering civil society,ensuring a well-run, fair, and effective public service. Itincludesgovernment offices at various levels ranging from local to national. Thusprimarily public administration denotes the institutions of publicbureaucracy within a state, the organizational structures which form thebasis of public decision-making and implementation; and thearrangements by which public services are delivered.In the preceding paragraph,we referred to narrow and broaderperspectives about the scope of public administration.The narrowviewpoint, also calledthemanagerial approach was advocated by classicaltheorists likeLuther Gullick and Lyndall Urwick. In this sense,publicadministration as a practice is concerned with those aspects ofadministrationthatare related to the executive branch. As a field of study,the scope is limited to discover the scientific principles of administrationwhich are supposed to be the universal objective laws of the management.The major thrust of the study is to improve the efficiency and economy ofthe organization. As against it L.D. White and others offered integratedbroader viewpointsand suggestedexpandingthe scope of publicadministration.Negro givesacomprehensive account of the scope ofpublic administration. According to him public administration andpolitical as well as social system are related to each other. Thisconnectivity demandsabroader approach towards the study of the subject.By this logic public administration is concerned with the formulation andimplementation of public policies; it covers all three branches-executive,legislative and judicial-and their interrelationships, organizationalstructures,and machinery of administration; studies administrativeprocesses, bureaucracy,and its activities; and necessitates coordination ofmunotes.in

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group activity and close association between private groups andindividuals to serve the people.1.2EVOLUTION AND CHANGING CHARACTER OF THEDISCIPLINEAs a practice,publicadministration has a history of thousands ofyears. Ancient civilizations of China, Egypt, and India bear traces of itstimeless relevance. Excavations at Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa revealthesystematic approach of the administrators of those societies to providesolutions to civic issues. Writings of Plato and Aristotle in Greece,Kautilya in India on the issues of governance and administration providetestimony to the fact that public administration took definite shape andform intheancient period.Modern thinking on public administration began at the end ofthe19thcentury. Forces of industrialization and colonialism pushed the debateover public administration from its traditional circles to modern arenas.The spread of rational thinking, scientificoutlook,and democracy inducedthe transition of society from traditional to modern. Amidst such far-reaching global changes,the subject of Public Administration was strivingto emerge as an independent discipline. Woodrow Wilson initiated thisprocess in1887 by publishing his famous essay, “The study of PublicAdministration” in which he addressed the problems and character ofpublic administration inamodern democratic society. He laidthefoundation of the science of public administration.Avasthi and Maheshwari described five phases oftheevolution ofPublic Administration. During the first phase (1887-1926) scholars likeWoodrow Wilson and Frank Goodnow tried to separate the subject frompolitical science. The emphasis was on efficient administration for therational implementation of goals. Woodrow Wilson emphasized the needfor a scientific approach to studyingpublic administration. In the firstquarter ofthe20thcentury,the subject received increasing recognition inAmerican academics. In 1926 Leonard D. White publishedthefirsttextbook on the subject, ‘Introduction to the Study of PublicAdministration.’ He underlined the politics and administration dichotomywith a note that administration is linked with politics via its involvementin policy matters.The second phase (1926-1937) is known for the quest for scientificprinciples of administration and to establish the subject as an independentdiscipline.Willoughby’s ‘Principles of Public Administration’, MaryParker Follett’sCreative Experience, Henri Fayol’sIndustrial andGeneral Management, Mooney and Reiley’sPrinciples of Organisationareimportant works during this phase. Luther Gulick and Lyndall Urwick intheir ‘Papers on the Science of Administration’ stated that Administrationis a science. They argued for the discovery of objective principles ofhuman organization, just like laws governingthephysical world, whichmunotes.in

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can be discovered by the scientific inductive method and have universalapplicability.The third phase(1938-1947) posedaformidable challenge to theclaim that objective, universally applicable scientific principles of publicadministration can be discovered. Behaviouralists likeChester BernardandHerbert Simon were at the forefront to declare that scientificmanagement thinking was a myth on the ground that administration iscomprised of humans and not machines. Robert Dahl summarized thisoppositionstating thatadministration is value-laden while science isvalue-free; human personalities differ and so do the social frameworkswithin which organizations inevitably operate and there is a need to takeinto account normative considerations, human behavior,and sociologicaland other factors while defining the parameters of public administration.Duringthe fourth phase (1948-1970) the discipline of publicadministration underwentacrisis of identity. The main reason was thebehaviouralists'challenge. The movement for autonomy of the subjectreceivedasevere setback.Pfiffner and V.O. Key both advocated thefusion of politics and administration. D. Waldo called fortheinclusion ofpolicy issues and decision-making processes in the subject matter.Similarly,Paul Appleby in his Policy and Administration (1949)suggested that administration atahigherlevel is more generalized,political,and has a total governmental significance. At lower levels, it isless political and more particularistic. During this period Political Scienceovershadowedthegrowth and development of Public Administration as aseparate discipline.The fifth phase (1971 onwards) gave new lease of life to thediscipline.During this phase,Public Administration acquiredinterdisciplinary character. The Minnowbrook Conference (1968) andsubsequent publication of its proceedings by Frank Marini titledTowardsa New Public Administrationformulated basic postulates of New PublicAdministration. It rejectedthevalue-neutral position of administration andfocused on morality, ethics,and values. It upholds bureaucraticresponsiveness, citizen participation in decision-making, social equity,andadministrative responsibility for program effectiveness as constituents ofpublic service ethic. It emphasized moral and political philosophy foradministrators who must be proactive and client-oriented rather than beingexclusively concerned with the virtues of economy and efficiency inadministration.To summarize, the subject nature of public administration evolvedsincethe19thcentury. Under the changing global context and underpressure from the growing academic body in adjoining social and naturalsciences the subject developed various approaches and theories. Some ofthese theories are discussed in unit II of the syllabus. In the followingsections,we will discuss some major developmentswithin the field ofpublic administration during post Second World War era.munotes.in

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1.2.1Comparative Public Administration:Comparative Public Administration (CPA) is the major theoreticaland methodological development in terms oftheevolution of publicadministration inthepost-war period. The major objective was to produceauniversally valid body of knowledge of administrative behavior.RobertDahl and Dwight Waldoargued that without comparative methodology,the claim of public administration for a ‘science of administration’ wouldbe hollow. CPA took the administrative theory-building beyond Americanexperiences and stood for cross-cultural and cross-national publicadministration. Post-World War II necessitates the body of knowledge inpublic administration to solve development questionsin erstwhile colonialcountries. Societies in newly independent states were not inaposition toapply studies from western societies in their countries. As a result,scholars emphasized the needto study politico-administrative institutionsin their social settings. Theory building in Public Administration andengaging with administrative problems of developing countries are basicmotivational factors behind the emergence of CPA. Its origin can betracedto the 1952 conference of public administration held at Princeton. Theestablishment oftheComparative Administrative Group (CAG) in 1960with the help oftheFord Foundation was a milestone in the history ofpublic administration.Robert H. Jackson defined CPA as “that facet of the study ofpublic administration which is concerned with making rigorous cross-cultural comparisons of the structures and processes involved in theactivity of administering public affairs.”Comparative PublicAdministration studies and compares similar and dissimilar features orcharacteristics of administrative organizations or systems in differentcultures and settings. The objective is to identify the “causes” or “reasons”for efficient or effective performance. Thiscomparison can be cross-national, intra-national, cross-cultural,or cross-temporal.Fred W. Riggs identified three trends in the comparative study ofpublic administration. These are, normative to empirical orientation,idiographic to nomothetic orientation,and non-ecological to ecologicalorientation. The first trend is to study public administration empirically;the second trend proposes to seek generalizations, laws,and hypothesesthat assert regularities of behavior and correlation with variables,andfinally; the third trend is towardsthestudy of administration as a part ofthe larger administrative system or ecology.Generally,there are three levels at which comparativeadministrative studies are conducted. Macro Studies compare entireadministrative systems in their proper ecological contexts mainly tounderstand and explain the relationship between an administrative systemand its external environment. For example India and Britain. Middle-rangestudies focusonspecific aspects oftheadministrative system. Forexample a comparison of local governments. Micro studies providemunotes.in

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analysis of a part of an administrative system in two or moreadministrative organizations. For example budget preparation in India andtheUSA.Comparative Public Administration approaches the question ofadministrative development to induce socio-economic change. Whiledoing so it pays attention to theecological and developmental aspects ofpublic administration inacomparative context. Fromanecologicalperspective,it studies the interaction between the administrative systemsand their environment. It attempts to analyze the unique goals of particularculturesconcerningtheir administrative systems. It exploresthedevelopmental dimensionbycomparing the linkages of administrativesystems with the question of modernization. Lastly,it pursues broadcomparison among administrative systems of Westernand no-Westerncountries.The scope of comparative administration covers administrativesystems, structures, organization, functions,and methods of all types ofpublic authority engaged in administration, whether national, regional,orlocal,and executive or advisory. It also deals with the comparison of thefunctions of administrative authorities including executive, legislature,andjudicial functions. Itincludes a comparative study of various forms ofcontrol over administration, personnel administration and its problems,functional administration such as educational administration, socialadministration, and foreign administration.Comparative Public Administration significantly contributed to thefield of public administration. Generalizations based on the vast datacollected from different nations and cultures helped in developing theoryand provide a scientific basis to the subject. It helped to understand thenature of administrative systems across nations and cultures. It helped toexplain the similarities and differencesbetween administrative systemsand discover variables/factors responsible for that. It helped theadministrators as well as academicians to examine the factors affectingtheperformance of particular administrativestructures and patterns indifferent environmental settings. It offered the lessons to handle situationsand solve problems in our systems by drawing from observations of othernations and systems. More importantly,it providedaneffectivemethodologicaltool kit to allow access for social scientists into the aliensocieties to transcend their cultural domains.1.2.2Development Administration:The concept of Development Administration emerged after theSecond World War. It developed as a response to the challenges thrownby the countries from Asia, Africa, Latin America, which were thecolonies of the Western European powers. These Newly IndependentStates (NIS) constitute two-third of the total world population. Thesecountries were facing post-colonial situations of poverty, unemployment,munotes.in

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illiteracy, malnutrition, population explosion. The role of government andadministration in these countries required more than justalaissez faireattitude and was expected to bring change and modernization. Integrationof socio-economic structures with political systemsand change in thestructure or behavior of public institutions accompanied byatransformation in the attitudes, values,and perspectives of the people wasa necessary prerequisite of building robust national administrative culturein these countries. The need of these nations could not be accommodatedmerely bythetraditional emphasis of the field of public administration onpursuing efficiency and economy of the organizations. They requireanewapproach to suitthevarying needs of public administration in differentecological settings, and to help achieve a set of social goals.The term development administration was first coined by an IndianCivil Servant, U.L. Goswami in 1955. Later, it was popularized byscholars like Fred W. Riggs, Edwards W. Weidner, Joseph La Palombara.Scholars disagree over the exact meaning of Development Administration.Weidner defines it as “an action-oriented, goal-oriented administrativesystem.” He describedthedevelopment as a state of mind, a tendency, adirection rather than a fixed goal. Further, Development is seen as “anaspect of change that is desirable, broadly predicted or planned, or at leastinfluenced by governmental action.” Riggs viewed Development asinvolving, “the increased ability of human societies to shape theirphysical, human and cultural environments.” A ‘developed’ system,therefore, is capable of changing its environment toa greater degree thanan ‘underdeveloped’ system. He asserted that the study of developmentadministration can help to identify the conditions under which a maximumrate of development is sought and obtained. Largely, it refers to theadministration of developmental programs, the methods used by large-scale organizations, especially governments, to implement policies andplans designed to meet developmental goals, thus involves strengtheningof administrative capabilities. PaiPanandikar identifies developmentadministration with “administration of planned change.” Theadministrative capabilities are strengthened in a planned manner withinaspecified time to achieve specific developmental goals. The phrase,‘Development Administration’ is intrinsically intertwined with thisprocess of change and refers to the structure, organization,and behaviornecessary for the implementation of schemes and programs of socio-economic change undertaken by the governments of developing nations.Development Administration ischange-oriented, it deliberatelytries to reorient people in desired directions. The administrative system isentrusted with the role of a changeagent. Development administration isresult-oriented as it expects specific results and sets clear norms ofperformance. Development is a process of socio-economic change. Itssuccess depends upon citizen’s participation in public administration.Public servants must be equipped to carry people along with them anddraw them actively into the development processes.This requiresabasicchange in the outlook of civil servants towards people. Developmentmunotes.in

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administration demandsacommitment to socio-economic change, a senseof involvement,and emphatic concern on the part of civil servants forcompleting time-bound programs. Development administration is dynamicand progressive to bring innovation in the governing structures and normsto suit the changing political and social environment. It is compassionateand carriesasympathetic attitude towards meeting the needsofmarginalized sections, backward and minority communities. Developmentadministration requires the administrators to be responsive andaccountable and demonstrate their willingness, dedication,andperseverance to achieve developmental goals. Development administrationsuggests time-bound execution of programs.1.2.3New Public Administration:The period ofthe1960s is known as the most turbulent and crisis-ridden phase in the post-war era. It heavily influenced many social sciencedisciplines including Public Administration. The periodwasbesieged bynumerous societal problems. Dissatisfaction amongtheAmericanpopulation about the Vietnam War, population increase, environmentalproblems, increasing social conflicts,and economic crisis made theyounger generation of intellectuals question the efficacy and speed of theresponse of the political and administrative systems. In addition,there wasa generation gap among the scholars and practitioners of the discipline.Suggestions were forthcoming fortherestoration of values and publicpurpose in government. It was felt necessary to inject the goals of beingresponsive to the needs of clients and ensuring social equity in servicedelivery. This shift led to the emergence oftheNew Public Administration(NPA).During 1967-68 various efforts were initiated in the USA,toprovidea multidisciplinary, public policy,and social equity-oriented focuson public administration. Honey Report on Higher Education published in1967 identified four problems confronting the discipline; inadequatefunds, uncertainty,and confusion over the status of the discipline,institutional shortcomings, absence of communication between scholarsand practicing administrators. Taking note of the report the AmericanAcademy of Political and Social Science organized a conference inPhiladelphia in December 1967, to discuss the topic: ‘The Theory andPractice of Public Administration: Scope, Objectives, and Methods’. Itwas viewed as an academic discipline, as a field exercise, and as aprofession. This conference was followed by the Minnowbrookconference on Public Administration in 1968. Itwas presided over by D.Waldo whose address reflected “New Thinking” in Public Administration.The proceedings of the Conference have been authentically recorded in“Towards a New Public Administration-the Minnowbrook Perspective”–abook edited by FrankMarini (1971). The Minnowbrook conferenceformed the basis of the New Public Administration movement in PublicAdministration.munotes.in

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Twenty years later in 1988, The Second Minnowbrook Conferencewas held against the backdrop of the changing role of state andgovernment, more privatization, contracting out, and increasing role fornon-state actors in the governance process. The period of the firstconference was characterized bytheinfluence of public purpose, theVietnam War, urban riots, and campus unrest, accompanied by growingcynicism towards all institutions, especially the government. The contextofthesecond conference was radically different and dominated by thephilosophy of privatization and concern for private interest. TheMinnowbrook II aimed to compare theoretical and research perspectivesof both the periods and their respective influences on the conduct ofgovernmental and other public affairs.The NPA has an obvious moral tone in its conceptualization. It ismainly normative and rooted in ethics. It criticized the obsession oftraditional Public Administration with efficiency andtheeconomy. Thetraditional approaches were said to be ill-equipped to deal withcontemporary problems and therefore became irrelevant. PublicAdministration as managerial science lost appeal as wider implications ofadministrative actions inapolitical environment wasnot recognized in it.NPA questioned the value-neutrality of behavioral political sciencein general and management-oriented public administration in particular. Itchampioned the cause of the disadvantaged sections in society andadvocated the utility of values being served through administrative action.It proposedtheproactive role of governmental institutions in reducingeconomic and social disparities and ensuring life opportunities for allsocial groups inside the organization. It gaveanew motto, ‘to serve thecause of social equity is to actively work for social change’ for publicadministration. It suggestedtheinstitutionalization of change and remedialmeasures to reduce the bureaucratic tendencies of big organizations. Forthese new theorists,the study of formal organization, its structure,andprocesses was of secondary importance. For NPA priority was given to bealive to the contemporary social and political issues and problemsto findways and means for their solution and to have organizational changes tosuit the changing times.The scholars emphasized four major goals that publicadministration was expected to achieve, namely relevance, values, socialequity, change,and client orientation.Relevance:New Public Administration seeks to bring studies of publicadministration closer to ground realities. It pointed out that the disciplineshould have relevance to contemporary problems and issues. The subjectshould explicitly deal with the political environment and implications ofadministrative action. The new movement demanded radical syllabichange to facilitate meaningful studies oriented toward the realities ofmodern-day public life.munotes.in

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Values:NPA is value-oriented. It seeks to champion the cause of thedisadvantaged sections in society. It advocates openness about the valuesbeing served through administrative action. It characterizes the new publicadministrator as less ‘generic’ and more ‘public’, less ‘descriptive’ andmore ‘prescriptive’, less ‘institutionorientedand more ‘client-impactoriented’, less ‘neutral’ and more ‘normative’.Social Equity:It openly advocates the side of the socially deprivedgroups withanaction-oriented approach. It states that the distributivefunctions and impact of governmental institutions should be publicadministration’s basic concern. The purpose of public action should be thereduction of economic and social disparities and the enhancement of lifeopportunities for all social groups inside the organization.Change:NPA attacked the status quo and the powerful interestsentrenched in permanent institutions. It explored the ways ofinstitutionalizing change and remedying the bureaucratic tendencies of bigorganizations. It advocated active work for social change.In addition to these four goals, the NPA advocated greaterparticipation byall employees in an organization in matters of publicpolicy formulation, implementation,and revision. In addition,participation from individuals and groups from outside the organizationwas sought to make public administration more responsive and client-oriented. It called for a change in the attitudes of bureaucrats to be people-oriented. The Minnowbrook conference made a significant contribution inchanging the complexion of public administration by advocating clientorientation, social sensitivity,and normative concerns. The normativeapproach called on the government to adopt the objective of reducing theeconomic and social disparities and enhance life opportunities foreveryone in the society.1.3 CHALLENGES OF LIBERALIZATION,PRIVATIZATION,GLOBALIZATION, CHANGINGROLE OF PUBLIC SECTOR, PUBLIC-PRIVATERELATIONS.Globalization refers totheinterconnectedness of states andsocieties across national borders. It is the compression of time and space atan unprecedented scale, level,and depth. It is the process by which thehappenings in one part of the world caused repercussions and impact onother parts of the world. Globalization transformed the world into a globalvillage which brought individuals, communities, organizations closer toeach other and facilitated the exchange of capital, people, information,andculture from one society to another without any hindrances. It made thetraditional notion of state sovereignty redundant and reduced geographicalboundaries to mere symbolic importanceon maps.munotes.in

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It is perceived that globalization is the product ofatechnologicalrevolution inthecommunication and information process as well as theaggressive position adopted by global capitalism inthepost-Cold War era.Fromaneconomic perspective itimplies, removaloftrade barriers,facilitating Foreign Direct Investment. Revolution in InformationCommunication Technology led to the global exchange of information,data,and knowledge. Integration of culture in terms of cuisine, fashion,art,etc, brought the synthesis of traditions and transformed societieseverywhere. The situation of law and order along with security anddefense acquiredaglobal dimension with the spread ofaglobal networkof terror and underworld.The societies and communitiesin different partsof the world aredifferently affected by this new interconnectedness. Their responsesreflect their conditions vis-à-vis developed societies.The situation ofnations on the issue of poverty, employment opportunities,thestandard ofliving, environmental degradation, sustainable livelihood, loss of culture,social strife, income disparities are notthesame everywhere. Thegovernance and administration of the countries’ responses to globalizationaredetermined by the local political-socio-economical-cultural dynamics.Globalizationradically altered the notion of governance. Theglobal institutions like United Nations, World Bank, InternationalMonetary Fund, Organization Economic Cooperation,and Developmentset the parameters of governance while distributing financial aid andexpected the recipient countries to abide by them. This led totheemergence of global governance.The entry of powerful Multi-NationalCorporations, whose annual turnover is much higher thanthecollectivebudget of many countries started playingamajor role in policy decision-making. Even in the area of service delivery the flourishing civil societyorganizations, International and National level no GovernmentalOrganizations replaced the governmental agencies.The role of the state is radically altered amidst the acceleratedpaceof globalization and free-marketcompetition. The existing systems ofadministration and governance were seen as inadequate to deal with thecomplex problems of society. Asaconsequence,the public administrationtoo came under heavy pressure to transform. Some areas of this impactcan be listed as below:a)EntrepreneurialGovernment:The traditional notion that the administration is separate from the politicsand meant to execute the policies has received flak due totheconstantpressure of globalization.The efficiency and productivity of the publicsector organizations became the norm under the idea of entrepreneurialgovernment. Slow-paced moving files, excessive rigidity,and red-tapismare seen as a thing of the past.munotes.in

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b)Changing Role ofBureaucracy:The administration is not perceived as the catalyst for change ratherasaservice provider. Its role transformed from beingtheexecutor of policiesand running units of production to merelyregulating and facilitating theservice delivery. The new economic order placed the responsibility ofservice provisions ontheprivate sector.c)Reinventing theGovernment:Ideas like New Public Management and Good Governance havereinventedthe process of governance beyond recognition. It asked fortransparency, accountability, rule of law, free market,aguarantee ofhuman rights,and client-friendly orientation in working of thegovernment.d)Public Service Reforms:As a result ofanemphasis ontheprivate sector and entry of private capitalin the process of governance through schemes like Public-PrivatePartnerships,the reforms in public service becamethenecessity of thehour. Reduction in the size ofthepublic sector led to reducingthelaborforce in the government establishments. Disinvestment and privatizationoftheeconomy led to releasing the tapped capital of the state in publicservices. All this demanded public service reforms. Removal of pensionschemes and other retirement benefits, ideas of linking employees'fundswiththemarket have hadafar-reaching impact on the public employmentsector.e)E-Governance:Revolution in Information and Communication Technology led tothetransformation ofthefunctioning of government departments andministries. It facilitated transparency in the administration and access ofthe people to the services through technology.The speed and nature ofintragovernmental communication, intradepartmental communication,andcommunication between people and the government haveprofoundlyincreased. Online financial transactions further improved the speed andcomfort of doing business.f)Law and Order Situation:With the global connectivity, crime and terrorism receivedaglobaldimension. Cybercrimes, financial frauds, cyber-attacks becameacause ofconcernfortheadministration. Law and order administration of thecountry required remodeling ofthepolice department.The introduction ofcybercrime units in the police administration became necessary.International terrorist organizations with their widespread networks madeit mandatory to have strong counter-terrorism measures with internationalsupport and cooperation solicited from other nations.Thus the process of globalization leadsto the transformation ofpublic administration all over the world. Globalization caused socio-munotes.in

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economic-cultural-upheavals worldwide and public administration cameunder heavy pressure to respondappropriately. It radically altered themeaning of governance along with the lives of people.1.4GOOD GOVERNANCE: CONCEPT AND APPLICATION;NEW PUBLIC MANAGEMENTGood Governance:The concept of Good Governance is the result ofaneoliberalcritique of governance and politics. It was originated inthe1980s byinternational lending institutions like World Bank and Organization forEconomic Change and Development (OECD). It is an attempt to redefinethe idea of Governance by advocating state contractionism andtheincreased role of the market and private sector as key regulators of societyand economy. Good Governance, as a concept is defined over the decadeofthe 90s in various documents and reports published by World Bank andOECD. Some prominent among them are the World Bank document onSub-Saharan Arica of 1989, the Harare Commonwealth Declaration of1991,theWorld Bank report on Governance and Development publishedin 1992, Policy directives of the OECD countries.Several reasons can be sighted for the emergence of the concept ofGood Governance. The dissolution oftheSoviet Union inthe90sfacilitated the Western capitalist institutions to pushtheneo-liberalframework in erstwhile socialist economies. Socialism and plannedeconomy model was perceived as failure and alternative modelsofLiberalization, Privatization,and Globalization received wide recognition.The government-led bureaucracy failed to deliver the promises ofdevelopment and modernization. Problems of poverty, unemployment,income inequality, lack of health care facilities,and social disorganizationcontinued even after decades of experimenting with socialist governance.Bythe1990s most of the countries dipped in severe economic crisis.Thelarge size ofbureaucracy and excessive intervention of government in thesociety and market was seen asthecause of ‘misallocation of plannedresources, distortion of priorities, rampant corruption and abuse of powerby public agencies.To bail the countries out of the depth of balance of payments issuesand help them to stabilize their economy the global financial institutionslike WB and OECD redefined the idea of ‘governance’ and demanded‘structural adjustments’ to full fill certain ‘conditionality’. The concept ofGood Governance found its disposition in those directives. For example,the World Bank (WB) in 1989 document on sub-Saharan Africa definedgovernance in terms of (a) public sector management, (b) accountability,(c) legal framework for development, (d) information and transparency.Leftwich pointed out three traits of governance as stated in the 1992World Bank document, ‘Governance and Development(1992). These are,firstly, open, market-friendly competitive economy reducing bureaucracy,munotes.in

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increasingprivatization,and remodeling state as ‘enabler’ than as a‘provider’. Second, support for democratization,and third, improvementof human rights records.RumkiBasu (2005) enlistedthefollowing features of Good Governance.•Economic liberalism which constitutes private ownership, investment,and greater equality;•Political pluralism, which refers to the democratic participation ofpeople in the development process and decentralization of authorityfrom the center;•Social development which includes humanrights, rule of law; anindependent judiciary,and a free press;•Administrative accountability, which refers to transparency; lesscorruption, economy; efficiency and effectiveness; and•Public sector reforms, strategic planning,and management of changeThus good governance isaclear departure from the earliertraditions of governance and defined it in terms of an autonomouscapacity, as separate from the politics in the society, of the society tofulfill its requirements. It lays stress on the market andcivil society to fillthe void created by the exit ofthestate. This led to some serious concernsbeing raised about the viability of the idea in terms of addressing theissues of governance. Some of them are how to ensure accountability oftheprivate sector to society. How to ensure ethical behavior from theprivate industries? How much flexibility can be afforded without beingrisked for political mistakes? And, finally to ensure equity andrepresentation ofthemasses against the influential interestgroups andelites intheallocation of resources.New Public Management:The New Public Management represents the major transitionthrough which the discipline of public administration was passing throughduringthe1980s. The concept denotes the shift in the worldwideparadigmatic shift in the conceptualizations and practice of publicadministration. NPM sought to question the basic features of traditionalpublic administration and replacethemwithnewones.The theoretical and normative principles of traditional publicadministration of the early years ofthe20thcentury wereaninstitutionalstructure of work, specialization and hierarchy of offices, centralization ofcommand structure, and public/private distinction. The guiding philosophyof this epoch was the management of public interest and the separation ofpolitics from administration. This classical Weberian/scientificmanagement model has been criticizedbecauseit led to rigid hierarchicalcentralized structures which are proven to be inadequate to meetorganizational goals. Public agencies became machine-like, rigid,andmunotes.in

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impersonal. The concept of bureaucracy symbolized corruption, red-tapism,andtheapathetic orientation of administration. Effectivemanagement and efficient production of organizational targets wereunable to meet.In the second half of the 20thcentury,many new approaches sprungup that underlined the role of human motivation, efficiency,andeffectiveness in public policymaking, implementation,and management. Itis emphasized thattheactual process of administration confronts theconstraints of time, data,and other perceptual limitations. Most publicpolicy decisions involve multiple interests reconciling and henceincremental and synthesizing in nature.This new post-Weberian view of public administration has beenpeople-oriented as distinguishedfrom a structure-orientation. As opposedto mechanization and routinization it stresses human relations in work,employee job satisfaction,and flexible work structures. As againsthierarchy and centralization,it emphasized decentralization foradaptability, flexibility,and mobilization of local initiatives to suit localneeds and changed situations. Furthermore, participative decision-makingandthefree flow of information from bottom to top and vice versa are themost valued principles of this new approach.Some features of this post-Weberian, Post Wilson approach are asfollows:-1.In the real world of governance,the politics/administrationdichotomy is unworkable and unrealistic. Such separation ofpolicymaking and implementation may lead to rigidityanddisinterestedness, and ineffectiveness of administration.2.Rationality maximization is not feasible in the actual administration.‘Bounded rationality’ which involved reconciliation of interests canbe followed in policy decisions.3.“Hierarchy” must bereplaced bya“bottom-up approach” withdecentralization of power and initiative. It is necessary for effective,productive,and innovative organizational design.4.Rigid, rule-bound monocratic structures are unsuitable for goalachievement and effectiveness. Job satisfaction and opportunity forfull self-realization through multiple work roles is the key to goalachievement and effectiveness.5.Public employees are not the sole custodians of public interest. Manytimes they can be self-aggrandizing and budgetmaximizing.New Public Management advocates the adoption of private-sectortechniques for public agencies in providing high-quality services tocitizens and managerial autonomy to public management.munotes.in

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Firstly, it suggests performance evaluation indicatorsmeasureactual achievements and quality of services. Operating responsibilities areto be shifted from central departments to field agencies. Greater flexibilityin working conditions such as contractual appointments is being permittedto make use of moreexpertise and employee creativity. The citizens areviewed as active customers.Secondly, it rejects the principle of hierarchy to createenvironments for more effective and productive managerial leadership.Motivated and focused human and technological resources throughrecruitment and training of personnel based on merit, performance,andreward of attractive salary structure, diverse roles is considered the need ofmanagerial leadership.Thirdly, personal responsibility and accountabilityaresought tobebuilt into the production process. Rewards including pay structures arebased onthefulfillment of performance targets. There is a shift of generalemphasis from policy to management with full cost-consciousness beforemaking any decision. Private sector initiatives in infrastructuredevelopment such as roads, electricity, transport, etc,and involvement ofNon-Government agencies in the social sector like health and educationareencouraged.Thus N.P.M. limits the political leadership only to macropoliticswhile allows the bureaucrats the flexibility and autonomy of publicmanagers who would bemaking decisionsbased oncost and resultaccountability, ensure fair and transparent administration and beresponsive to public needs and preferences. Economic rationality and‘performance’ are the keywords in NPM.Thus NPM movement was essentially a by-product of the collapseof the socialist states and management failures of the public sector in thefirst and the third worlds. NPM wishes to help revitalizethe image of thebureaucracy from a machine-like, rigid, impersonal, inefficient, wasteful,and ultimately ineffective custodian of the public interest to a dynamic,result-oriented, efficient, responsive,and responsible public servant who issensitive and aware of public needs, wishes and preferences.1.5LET US SUM UPInthepast more than a century,the subject of PublicAdministration has come a long way. Beginning from the emergence ofrational thinking andthespread of industrialization, the subject isintrinsically linked to the idea ofthepublic. The major trends in itsevolution reflected upon the changing nature of this relationship. In therecent past with the advance of globalization,we see a completelytransformed nature of the disciplines. Yet there is connectivity. Itoriginated duringthelaissez-faireparadigm ofthe19thCentury which itchallenged then, and advocated state expansion to execute the idea ofamunotes.in

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welfare state. Inthe21stcentury,it went full circle back and followed neo-liberal state contractionism under globalization, liberalization,andprivatization. In the course of this journey various themes, theories andformulations evolved and enriched the field.1.6UNIT END QUESTIONS1)Concerningvarious phases in the evolution describe the changingcharacter of the discipline of Public Administration.2)Explain in detail the concept and theory of Comparative PublicAdministration.3)Write a detailed note on Development Administration.4)Elaborate the factors that led to the emergence of New PublicManagement? Explain the features of NPA.5)Write an essay on the impact of globalization and publicadministration.6)Writeanote on:a.Good Governanceb.New Public Management1.7REFERENCE•Bava, Noorjahan.Public Administration in the 21stCentury,Kanishka Publishers New Delhi,2010.•Avasthi, Maheshwari,Public Administration, Laxmi NarayanAgarwal Publications, Agra, 2006.•Basu, Rumki,Public Administration: Concept and Theories,SterlingPublications, New Delhi, 2005.•Bhattacharya, Mohit,NewHorizons of Public Administration,Jawahar Publications, New Delhi,2008.•Chakrabarty, Bidyut, and Bhattacharya Mohit (ed.),PublicAdministration a Reader, OxfordUniversity Press, New Delhi, 2005•Fadia, B.L. &Dr.KuldeepFadia,Public Administration:Administrative Theories andConcepts,SahityaBhawan,Agra, 2015•Henry, Nicholas.,Paradigms of Public Administration,PublicAdministration Review.Vol. 35, No. 4 (July-Aug, 1975) pp. 378-389.•Sharma, M. P., and Sadana, B. L.,Public Administration in Theoryand Practice, KitabMahal,New Delhi, .2014.




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Module 2UNIT2THEORIES AND APPROACHESUnit Structure2.0Objective2.1Introduction2.2Classical, Bureaucratic Model, Human Relations School.2.2.1Classical Approach2.2.2Bureaucratic Model2.2.3Human Relations School2.3ScientificManagement, Behavioral, Structural-functional Approach.2.3.1Scientific Management Approach2.3.2Behavioral Approach2.3.3Structural-Functional Approach2.4Marxian, Public Choice, Post-Modern.2.4.1Marxian Approach2.4.2Public Choice Approach2.4.3Post-Modern Approach2.5Let us sum up2.6Unit end questions2.7Reference2.0 OBJECTIVEIn this unit,we will study various approaches to study publicadministration. The major objective of the unit is to familiarize the learnerwith major themes developed bythevarious school of thought in the fieldof public administration. Total nine broad approachesthat helped the fieldof public administration to expand its theoretical frontiers are illustratedand presented here.2.1 INTRODUCTIONEver since Woodrow Wilson publishedthefirst paper on the studyof public administration, the subject evolved as an independent discipline.To laythefoundation of the subject, many scholars contributed to theprocess of theory building of public administration. As a result,variousapproachesevolved. Each approach contributed withadifferentperspective and methodology to answer problems encountered by modernsociety.The study of these approaches is an essential step towardsacquiringacomfortable grip on the subject matter.munotes.in

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 The approaches discussed in this unit defy the chronologicalarrangement. Their development and evolutionareentangled in eachother. Some grew parallel to others while some emerged out offormulations of others. Some grew astheantithesis of others while someappearalmost identical to each other. Nevertheless, no single approach canbe sufficient and adequate to understand and explain everything in thesubject of public administration. They are complementary to each otherandtheappropriate selection of approach toansweringthe given questionis entirely dependent upon the student.These approaches are the product and reaction to worldlyphenomenaand forces. Some broad forces that caused their emergence inthepast century can be outlined asthegrowth ofthecapitalist economy,defeat of colonialism, technological innovations, and spread of democraticsystems worldwide.2.2 CLASSICAL, BUREAUCRATIC MODEL, HUMANRELATIONS SCHOOL2.2.1 Classical Approach to Public Administration:The classical approach of public administration mainly dealt withthe questionofwhether public administration is an art or a science. Themajor concern of the classical theory was to discover the objective laws onthe lines of laws governing the natural worlddiscovered bynatural/physical sciences. These principles were presumed to be theprerequisite for improvingtheproductivity, efficiency,and economy oforganizations. The approach is developed by the likes of Luther Gulick,Lyndall Urwick, Henry Fayol,Mooney, Reiley, M.P. Follet,and Shelton.There are four defining features of classical theory-impersonality,specialization, efficiency,and hierarchy.Luther Gulick authored several books and contributed to the fieldof science of administration and modern management. Urwick too wroteextensively on the science of administration. Both of them were greatlyinfluenced by the work of Henri Fayol and Fredrick Taylor. Together theyproposed the Classical Theory of Management also known asAdministrative Management Theory. The theory defended publicadministration as a science. In the development oftheclassical theory ofpublic administration,Gulick and Urwick laid stress on the importance ofthestudy ofthestructure oftheorganization. Gulick identified 10principles which according to him form the strong foundation of modernorganizations. They areadivision of labor, departmental organization,hierarchy, coordination, coordination committees, decentralization, unityof command, staff and line, delegation,and span of control. Urwickproposed 8 principles, viz. the objective of the organization, the principleof correspondence, authority and responsibility, scalar principle,aspan ofmunotes.in

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control, the principle of specialization coordination, and the principle ofdefinition amongst other principles. The famous POSDCORB principlesare the major contribution of Gulick that transformed the way theorganizationsare managed thereafter. They are illustrated as Planning,Organization, Staffing, Directing, Coordination, Reporting, andBudgeting.Henry Fayol stated that management is the need of all humanactivities and organizations. He divided all activities of organizationsintosix groups: technical, commercial, financial, security, accounting,andadministrative. He listed fourteen principles of organization which are:division of work, authority, discipline, unity of command, unity ofdirection, subordination ofindividual interest to general interest,remuneration of personal, centralization, scalar chain, order, equity,stability of tenure of personnel, initiative,and comradeships. Mooney andReileyemphasizedthe principle of scalar formation i.e. hierarchical,graded arrangement within the organization with a system of superior-subordinate relationships.The classical approach is subjected to severe criticisms for itsshortcomings. Herbert Simon dubbed the principles of publicadministration as “proverbs” mainly due to lack of empirical validity anduniversal applicability, both are the necessary conditions ofthescientificstatus of the inquiry. The principles also lack consistency and appear to becontradictory to each other. The theory also neglects the human element inanorganization. It projects organizations as a system of mechanicalelements of which humans are placed as one of the parts. This mechanicalperception of human beingsconsiders humans asaninsignificant andpassive element in the production process. The theory is accused of beingpro-management and reduces human labor to the instrumental use inincreasing productivity and efficiency in the organization.2.2.2 Bureaucratic Model of Public Administration:The bureaucratic model of publicadministration is the majorcontribution of Max Weber, a German Sociologist, to the field of PublicAdministration. His book Economy and Society published in 1922contained his ideas of bureaucracy. His writings coveralarge canvas ofthe study of ancientand modern states to elaborate the working ofbureaucracies in different eras. He was greatly influenced by the ideas ofImmanuel Kant and Heinrich Rickert. Under the influence of both,heborrowed the belief in rationalization as the core of working of economy,politics, society, culture,and religion in modern society.According to Weber, the need to maintain armies, public finances,andtherunning of political affairs of the empires resulted inbureaucratization in ancient times.Modern societies aremore complex ascompared to the ancient societies hence the administration too developedas a complex organism. He stressed thatabureaucratic state ismunotes.in

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characterized by certain behavioral and structural features like division oflabor, hierarchy, rulesand rationality, impersonality, rules orientation,andneutrality.Weber used the term ‘rational-legal authority’ to characterize themodern liberal states. He argued that authority can be classified into threetypes namely, traditional authority, charismatic authority,and legal-rational authority. Traditional is based on the legitimacy endowed by thevirtue of heredity and customs or conventions.The charismatic authorityreceived legitimacy from the personality traits of the individual. Bothaccordingto Weber are not suitable to the functioning of liberaldemocracy as they cause the irrational distribution of power and positionsin the given society.Weber was concerned with the functioning ofaliberal democraticsociety for which he proposed rational-legal authority based on thelegitimacy from the rule of law. The power in this type of authorityemanates from the legal offices that the individuals hold. It is temporaryand held by the official while holding the office for the term the positivelawof the land permits to do so. Further,the persons to hold suchauthority are selectedbased onformal qualifications through the processestablished by the law. It is consistent with the political systems operatingbased onthe Constitutions.The bureaucratic model proposed by Weber invited criticism fromvarious quarters. Herbert Simon and Chester Bernard argued that byfollowing Weber’s structural approach efficiency will be reduced, becauseinformal organizations and better human relations are prerequisitesforimproved efficiency, and both are compromised in Weber’s model.Gouldner criticized Weber for denying the bureaucrat necessaryoperational freedom. By laying stress on obedience and discipline Weberkills innovations and pro-activeness among the administrators. Weber didnot pay adequate attention to human behavior, relations, morale,andmotivational factors. This made his model a mechanistic structure andneglectsthehuman side of the enterprise. Laski criticized Weber forreplacing passionwithroutine, flexibility by rules, promptness by delay inaction,and innovation by precedence in decision making.2.2.3 Human Relations School of Public Administration:Human Relations school countered the mechanical conception ofscientific management theory and placed human beings at the center ofadministrative thinking. The theory stressed that administrativeorganizations are comprised of individuals with different psychologicalmotivations and thus their behavior inside the organizations exhibitssocio-psychological dynamics. Some important thinkers of this school areRobert Merton, FJ Roethlisberger, Alex Bavelas, Keith Davis, A HMaslow, D Cartwright, Leonard Sayles,and Chris Argyris.munotes.in

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Elton Mayo is the chief exponent of the human relations theory ofpublic administration. The famous Hawthorne experiments conductedunder his supervision investigated the relationship between productivityand factors like the physical conditions attheworkplace (lighting,humidity, temperature, and hours of sleep), participation of workers, socialrelations,and networks among the workers. The experiment wasconducted in several phases duringtheinterwar period and established thenew paradigm in Managerial Studies.The approach mainly stressed that humanbeings are motivated byseveral factors like social environment, group dynamics, personal goals,value systems, beliefs, code of conduct,and ethics. It is necessary to alignthese factors with that of the organization's objective to getabetter resultinterms of the efficiency of the workers. The theory demonstrated that theclassical understanding of measuring and setting targets for employees andmotivating them by providing economical incentives may not alwayswork. The theory also rejected the efforts ofthescientific managementapproachexplainingtheworking of organizationsbased oncertainobjective principles of organizations.The theory highlighted the importance of human factors likeinformal relationships and the group dynamics in day to day operations ofan organization whichisas complex as the formal structure andmechanism of modern organizations.Human relations theory was criticized for adoptingananti-unionstand. The theory underestimated the scope of worker-managementconflict and labor unrest. There was fear that the theory might be misusedby management for exploitation oftheworking-class bymanipulatingworkers to comply with management directives instead of bringingmanagement to an understanding of human nature and thereby bringing inthe necessary changes in the organization. The theory is also criticized foroverstating human needs while undermining the need for accomplishmentor responsibility. It is also said that the so-called stated relationshipbetween employee satisfaction and increased productivity has no universalvalidity.2.3 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT, BEHAVIORAL,STRUCTURAL-FUNCTIONAL APPROACH.2.3.1 Scientific Management Approach of Public Administration:The idea of scientific management originated inthelatter part ofthe19thCentury as a result of industrialization in America. Henry R.Towne (1844-1924), is the early exponent of this approach. In the paperpresented in 1886, titled “The Engineer as an Economist”, he argued thatthe time has come for the engineers to pay attention tothedevelopment ofmanagement techniques as a part of their engineering profession. The termmunotes.in

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‘scientific management’ was coined by Louis Brandies in 1910. Theapproach is mainly known due to the work of F. W. Taylor who isregarded as the father ofScientific Management. Taylor argued that likeany other social or personal activity management is also a science.Theapplication of scientific principles improves the performance of theseactivities. His major works are A Piece-rate System (1895), ShopManagement (1903), The Art of Cutting Metals (1906),and The Principlesof Scientific Management (1911).Taylor criticized the managerial style of traditional managers asauthoritarian and ill-suited for running modern workplaces. According tohim,they were guilty of neglecting their managerial responsibilities ofdetermining standards, planning work, organizing, controlling,anddevising incentive schemes. According to him,theforemost objective ofmanagement should be to pay high wages and have low unitproductioncoststo achieve the increased industrial efficiency. His philosophy ofscientific management is that there is no inherent conflict in the interest ofthe employers, workers,and consumers. The results of higher productivityshould equally benefit all people i.e. workers, employers, and consumersin the shape of higher wages to the workers, greater profits to themanagement,and payment of lower prices for the products by theconsumers.Taylor’s philosophy of management was based on four basicprinciples of scientific management:a) Development of True Science of Work:Taylor hadatremendous belief inthecapacity of scientificmethodology to improve productivity and solve problems of humanorganizations. He suggestedtheapplication of scientific methods ofresearch and experiments. He believed that ‘science, not rule of thumb’will enable the organizations to enhance productivity, help the workers toincrease earnings,and help the company to prosper.b)Harmony, Not Discord:As per this principle, the atmosphere in the organization should beof mutual trust and harmony. The management and the labor shouldfollow the ‘mental revolution’ to end all conflicts between the two partiesfor the sake ofthebenefit of each other.C)Cooperation, Not Individualism:Taylor suggested that the manager and the workers should developthe spirit of cooperation. They should decide together the standards ofperformance and put collective effort to achieve those. This will increasetheinvolvement and participation of the workers in decision-making andtherefore will develop the feeling of responsibility.munotes.in

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d)DevelopmentofEveryPersontoHis/HerGreatestEfficiencyandProsperity:Taylor recognized the need forthescientific method of selection ofthe right employees for the appropriate jobsbased ontheir initialqualifications and potential for further learning.He wanted the effectivesupervision of a worker and his working conditions after placing theworker in the right place. Taylor laid the foundation for modern personnelmanagement by emphasizing bringing togetherthescience of work andscientifically selected and trained Men.F.W. Taylor followed scientific methods to answer the problems ofmanagement during his professional career asamechanical engineer. Heconducted series of experiments to know the most effective tool, theoptimum cutting speed,etc. His experiments led to the discovery of high-speed steel. In the development of the shop system, Taylorconductedacontrolled experiment to know how long a man or a machine would orshould take to perform a given task, in a specified process, using specifiedmaterial and methods. In another experiment,he analyzed how theworkers handled materials, machines,and tools and attempted todeterminethe ability of workers in dealing with equipment and materials. To counterthe practice of soldiering among workers and to improve efficiency, heconducted experiments to determine the best level of performance for jobsand the conditions necessary to achieve that level. Taylor proposed apiece-rate system to improve the wage administration inafactory.2.3.2Behavioral Approach of Public Administration:The behavioral approach was the result ofthereaction to thebureaucratic, institutional-structural, and organizational approach. Itchallenged the so-called scientific management approach that laid undueemphasis on the discovery of universal objective laws of organizationalstructures.The behavioral approach developed inthefourth decade ofthe20thCentury. It focuses on the actual behavior of individuals and groups inorganizations. Herbert Simon and Robert Dahlwere the major exponentsof behavioralism in public administration. They argued that administrativebehavior is a part of behavioral science and public administration shouldstudy individual and collective human behavior.The behavioral approach is largely descriptive. Individuals are paidadequate attention in the analysis of organizations. Inthebehavioralapproach factors like motivation, decision making, authority andregulation are given due emphasis.The approach laid stress on the informal aspects of anorganization. The patterns of communication are studied to understand theworking styleof members as well as leaders amongst themselves and witheach other. The methodology of inquiry is empirical and applies fieldstudy, laboratory experiments, and application of statistical methods forsystematically analyzing data. The approach is interdisciplinary andmunotes.in

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borrows theories, concepts,and formulations from other social scienceslike social psychology and cultural anthropology.The behavioral approach expanded the canvas of understanding ofpublic administration by paying adequate attention tothe effect ofpolitical, social, economic,and psychological environments on humanmotivation. It resolved that this broader context determines the level ofcontribution of an individual to the working oftheadministration. Thechoices that leaders make,the effect of human sentiments on the workingof administration, role of biases,and perceptions of leaders as well asfollowers in the working ofanorganization are studied by behaviouralists.The approach stirred the field of administrative studies byopeningnew frontiers of cross-structural and cross-cultural administrativebehaviors that resulted inthedevelopment ofacomparative approachtopublic administration.The behavioral approach is criticized for its limited utility toanalyze all types of administrative phenomena. The formulations ofbehavioral sciences have limited application to explain only administrativebehavior. Other dimensions and issues of administration remain largelybeyond the scope of the theory.Behavioral science per se is mainlyhelpful to study small social groups and individuals, whereas publicadministration covers a huge size ofthehuman collective activity of largerhuman communities.One of the major criticism is the neglect of humanvalues and norms in the study of human behavior. Value neutrality ofbehavioral sciences makes the study of public administration sterile andirrelevant to the vital issues ofthemodern age. Human valuescannot bequantified or observed and do not qualify to be fit enough to bethesubjectmatter ofthebehavioral approach. Public administration without humanvalues will be reduced to the machine producing desired output, which isjust not possible.2.3.3Structural-Functional Approach of Public Administration:Fred Riggs is considered the chief exponent ofthestructural-functional approach of administration. The approach borrowed theoreticalformulations ofthestructural and functional school of Malinowski andRedcliff Brown from the disciplines of sociology and anthropology.According to them, society has norms, customs, traditions,and institutionsthat collectively form the structures and functions of that society. In theabsence of those or failureof their working,the society will becomedysfunctional or decay. Major proponents of this approach are GabrielAlmond, David Apter, Talcott Parsons, Robert Merton,and Fred Riggs.Fred Riggs was interested in understanding the administrations ofsocieties other than America, especially of the developing countries. Heresorted to the structural-functional approach ofAnthropology andSociology and followed terminology and conceptual framework tomunotes.in

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understand the distinct and unfamiliar societies ofthedeveloping world.In this way,Riggs contributed an effective analytical tool to understandandcomparatively study public administration.The approach analyses the administration, both asaconcretesystem of departments and sections held together by sharedbeliefs,customs,and morals as well as abstract or analytic formed by power orauthority. These structures perform certain functions like communication,administration, lawmaking, adjudication,etc. These structures displaycharacteristics like hierarchy,specialization, rules,and roles. There can bebehavioral attributes of these structures like rationality, neutrality,professionalism,and rule orientation.The structural functionalists believed that similar kinds ofstructuresdonot necessarily performthesame functions acrossorganizations. A single structure can very well perform multiple functionswhile multiple structures can performasingle function.According to Riggs, economic, socio-communicational, symbolic,and political are four functional requisites of a society. Riggs proposed aPrismatic Model that illustrates how the society transitioned fromatraditional toamodern industrialized way of life. The traditional societyaccording to him hasafused structure while industrial modern society isdiffracted. As the light passes throughaprism,the white light representsafused structure of traditional society and the resultant rainbow representsrefracted structures of an industrialized society.2.4 MARXIAN, PUBLIC CHOICE, POST-MODERN.2.4.1Marxian Approach of Public Administration:Marxian Approach is named after Karl Marx, a renownedphilosopher of the 19thCentury whose contribution to the field of humansciences is path-breaking in terms of volume and scope, breadth,anddepth of his formulations spread across multiple disciplines. Marxianapproach to public administration can better be understood fromtheimplication of his general theory of Communism rather than his directhandling of the topic which is rare to findin his writings. Steward Clegg,David Dunkerly, NicosMouzelis, Braverman are the main exponent oftheMarxian approach.Marx opined that bureaucracy is the political expression of thedivision of labor. He suggested that bureaucracy creates conditionsthatsubject people to gross manipulations. In Marxian analysis,thestate is theagent ofthebourgeoisie class and serves their interest against the interestofthemasses. Masses are impoverished and controlled by the statethrough the apparatus of bureaucracy. Inacapitalist society,bureaucracyoperates hand in glow with the dominant class and projects the interests ofthe haves as that of the interest of the entire society.munotes.in

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In this sense bureaucracy is mainly an oppressive system beyondthe comprehension and control oftheProletariat. Although it masqueradesas efficient and comprised of meritorious individuals, in reality,it isutterly incompetent and does not serve the function which it claims. In acertain way,it has certain symbols and secret ways of working andstaunch traditions that make it a class in itself maintained to continue thestate control over the allocation of resources.Marx predicted that following class struggle the state will witheraway. Bureaucracy as the instrument of the state will also end along withit. In the resultant Communist society, the functions of the bureaucracywould be taken over by the members of the society. In the course ofevents,theexploitative nature of the administration will go away and bereplaced bythe management of things and not of the people.In the transition phase between the proletariat revolution and theestablishment ofanegalitarian communist society, the state will becontrolled by the proletariat. During the domination of the proletariat,statebureaucracy will act as an agent of social transformation to get rid ofbourgeoisie elements in the society. IntheMarxist tradition,this is treatedasatransitional phenomenon.The critics oftheMarxian school of administration argued thatinsocialist systems bureaucracy constituted as a “New Class”, i.e. ruling inthe name of the proletariat. This class exhibitsdictatorial tendencies withstrong vices of red-tapism, secrecy, disregard for human rights,and self-aggrandizement.2.4.2Public Choice Approach of Public Administration:The Public Choice Approach to public administration emerged inthe 1960s. Vincent Ostrom was the chief exponent of this approach. Hecalledto replace the traditional paradigm of bureaucratic administrationwithademocratic administration.The Public Choice Approachadvocatedinstitutional pluralism in the provision of public goods andservices. It emphasizes institutional pluralism,diverse democratic decision-making,and management of public service distribution by applyingthelogic of economics, decentralization,and participation of people inAdministration. It is highly critical ofthetraditional bureaucratic processwhich follows single centralized administrative power, separation ofpolitics from administration, administrative hierarchy,and rational neutralbureaucracy.The Public Choice Approach to public administration challengedthe dichotomy of politics and administration. The first generationadministrative thinkers like Wilson, Goodnow, White,and Willoughbyformulated the separation of political functions and administrativefunctions of the government. This distinction prevailed foranear half-century and influenced the practice of public administration thereto. Thisview was subjected to criticism after the Second World War. Post worldmunotes.in

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war period witnessedacrisis of identity in the subject of publicadministration. The effort to separate politics and administration wasperceived to be futile while dealing with changing circumstancesworldwide. Separation of administration from politics, implementationfrom policy-making,and private from public administration is reworkedandanew integrated approach to public administration became the newparadigm of administrative theory.Other exponentsof thisapproach are Buchanan, Downs, Olson,Tullock, Mitchell, Niskanen,and Oppenheimer. They formulated thetheory of administrative egoism. The approach suggested that the real-lifebureaucracy is usually hostile tothepublic interest and favors resourcemanipulation and self-aggrandizement. They believe that bureaucratsprefer self-interest overthepublic interest.Such behaviors and attitudeslead to an increase in size and costs of government and inflateddepartmentalbudgets. Bureaucracy is responsible for the declining qualityof public services. There is no such thingasneutral and rationalbureaucracy.The approach suggested the new paradigm of governmentcollaboration with market forces and remodeling of working ofgovernment to increase efficiency through competitiveness. Public Choiceis the economic theory of politics as well as public administration.Choiceimplies competition. The competition improves the standards of services.The ‘public choice’ approach challenged the state monopoly in theprovision of public goods and services. It believes thatthemultiplicity ofservice providers gives individual citizens the necessary choice. Anindividual knows his self-interest and would maximize this in his choices.The Public Choice Approach challenges the traditionallyestablished public interest theory of democratic government that assumesthat decision-making in government is motivated by unselfish benevolenceby elected representatives or full-time government employees, thus publicservants are motivated by a desire to maximize society’s welfare. Asagainst it,Public Choice Approach argues that careerbureaucracy isinefficient and unresponsive because it is not subject to market forces.Civil servants’ attitude towards consumers of their services is differentfrom the attitude of private sector producersto his customers. Theproducer’s revenue comesfrom his customer but in government,there isno clear correlation between public revenue and expenditure: the revenuecomes from the finance ministry. Secondly,acivil servant has littleincentive to minimize the costs and maximum profits. In government,hedoes not gain financially from any such transaction.Niskanen suggestedincreasingcompetition among the bureau forthe supply of public services. He also advisedchangingthe incentives forbureaucracy to motivate them. He further suggestedincreasingthecompetition to the bureaucracy by greater use of private sources forthesupply of public services.munotes.in

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 The public choice school has recommended organizational reformslike reducing the role ofthestate,curbing the power of governmentmonopolies, constitutional checks to curb the power of politicians andcivil servants of running budget deficits or imposing taxationbeyond acertain extent. Further,the approach suggests separation of the advisory,regulatory,and delivery functions of bureaucracy,privatization of healthcare or education reducing the size of bureaucracies, controlling thegovernmental expenditures,and promoting competitiveness among publicagencies.2.4.3Post-Modern Approach of Public Administration:Postmodern PublicAdministration is the most recent addition tothe field of public administration.The term post-modernism was coined byliterary critics and French philosophers like Jacques Derrida, MichelFoucault, Francois Lyotard, German philosophers like Nietzsche andHeidegger in the 1960s. In public administration,the roots of post-modernism can be traced to the United States of America. In AmericanPublic Administration the core of the post-modern discussion was startedby a small group of scholars organized by Public Administration Theory-Network (PAT-Net, 1981) and held its first national conference in 1988, intheUSA. They were inspired by Gareth Morgan’s Book (1986) ‘Images ofOrganization’, which discussed the contemporary trends in organizationaland culturalsociology and how our thinking abouttheorganization maybe understood as metaphors rather than as anything “real”.To strengthenour creative abilities in thinking, Morgan said we should think in terms of‘imagination’ rather than ‘organization.’Public administration as a study is part of social sciences. Socialscientists sincethelast 150 years have been preoccupied with modernityand the characteristics of modern society and industrialization. Thinkerslike Karl Marx, Durkheim,and Max Weber interpreted modernity in theirway.The industrial revolution is the basisof modernity. The term thepostmodern denotes that modern is gone and that something new which ispostmodern has taken over. Public administration covers institutions,government,theprocess of administration, etc. Post-modernism questionsthe relevance to various social or public institutions and challenges theontological presuppositions about the society and the individual.Modernism believes in organizational rationality. Rationality is thebasis because organizations are established from the Industrial Revolution.Rational thinking is modernity. Post-modernism debunks this rationalprocess and denies that such principles can be mastered by theadministrators.The postmodern reaction against 20th-century modernism takes theform ofanew type of system criticizing the hierarchy-based structure inpublic administration, supporting group activity,and supporting sociallymunotes.in

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excluded and oppressed groups in society. At the same time,thepostmodernists are against categorization.Postmodernism questions the underlying assumptions and methodsin social sciences. It questions the meaningfulness of the concept ofobjective knowledge. Modernists use scientific methods likedocumentation analysis, statistical analysis, survey methods,and otherrigorous procedures of inquiry but post-modernists are against thesemethods. Modernists call this morality in the research methods tounderstand something. But postmodernists prefer relativism to objectivity.A rational idea or a thought is replaced by processes of reasoning.Post-modernism inclines toward decentralization,individualization,and internationalization. The worldwide matrixorganization, outsourcing,and the user-run publicorganizations arecharacteristic organizational features of postmodern conditions. In publicadministration,it advocates for a retreat from central planning and relianceon specialists. In political science,it questions the authority ofhierarchical, bureaucratic decision-making structures, that functionincarefully defined spheres.There are post-modernist writers like Fox and Miller who are oftenconcerned with the contrast between the contemporary state of PublicAdministration and various ideasoutlinedin normative theories. Theyraise the question about the contemporary state of public administration.Post-modernism contains assumptions associated with imagination,deconstruction, deterritorialization,and alterity. Imagination counters thelimits of rational bureaucracy based on rule observance. While themodernists relied on rationalization, the post-modernists relied onimagination. Deconstruction of texts, events,and symbols reveals how“reality” is socially constructed and thereby enablingnew perspectives.Farmer used the method of deconstruction to question what liesunderneath the seemingly well-established categories such as bureaucraticphenomena. The public administrators should use the method of post-modern analysis to re-examine their fundamental assumptions based onfixed paradigms, concepts,and categories. According to Farmerenhancing,efficiency does not constitute good administration. Rather, asociety in which the marginalized section of the community i.e. the poor,the oppressed,and the downtrodden including women are liberated, thatsociety is well-administered. Thus, efficiency is not an important criterionfor post-modernists. Efficiency should not be interpreted merely as astraightforward formula or a ratio but, in the words of Dwight Waldo, itshould be within a framework of consciously held values in the society.Under post-modern conditions, the alternative values such as fairness,equality, utility,and autonomy may be furthered, but they must meet theformal requirements of the modern strategy to get recognition in the policydesign phase. Deterritorialization refers to radical changes in the structureof thinking under post-modernism, opposing such rationalist concepts asmunotes.in

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central planning and other authority-based structures. Alterity refers toempathy with andanew focus on socially excluded and oppressed groups.In the process, the modern assumptions underlying representation isnegated. Alterity refers to the moral stance that counterweighs thestandard bureaucratic-efficiency model of public administration. Farmerfirmly takes an anti-administrative stance in this regard. He wantsadministrators to become less authoritative and more service-oriented. Hesaid there is no one single way of understanding and diversity must befurthered.Post-modernists created the concept of discursive democracy. Itimplies a pro-active role for public administrators.Public officials oradministrators should be more pragmatic in their dealings with the people.They should look foranadaptive process to create a democraticenvironment. The post-modernists opine that there should be areengagement of the government withits people and the participation ofthe civil servants in their environments, as conscious actors in ademocratic system. Public administration should be more facilitative in thesense that it should make efforts to involve citizens in the administrativeprocess through collaborative pragmatism. Pragmatism demandsexperimentation and learning through experience and not rigid adherenceto any particular system of governance. But it should be based onademocratic understandingofits multiple realities andconflicts.The post-modernists say that there should not be any grand theorizing or grandnarratives in public administration. The administrator should beatransformative, facilitative, public service practitioner.Under post-modernism,there is a concept of critical theory,according to which agents/administrators work towards emancipation.They try to transform society through dialogue, discussion, education.Therole of the administrators is that of a mediator in a critical analysis or inthe process of resolving the tensions and stresses which arise on accountof contradictions opposition and negation.2.5 LET US SUM UPTo sum up, public administration is an established field ofinquirywith considerable autonomy over the subject matter. Even though it is apart ofalarger field of social sciences and borrowed theories,formulations, concepts from other disciplines, it still has developed itsown identity by transforming and adapting to changing conditions of timeand place. The wide variety of approaches discussed above is evidence ofthis dynamic and robust nature of the subject. Although the discussionstarted in this chapter is only preliminary, the learner is expected to studythe vast material available on these approaches. Some of them are listedbelow in the reference section.munotes.in

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2.6 UNIT END QUESTIONS1)Explain in detail the classical approach to the study of publicadministration.2)Elaborate the Weberian model of bureaucracy.3)Examine the contribution of human relations school to the study ofpublic administration.4)What are the main features ofthescientific management theory ofpublic administration?5)What is the contribution ofthebehavioral school to the study ofpublic administration?6)Write a note onthestructural-functional approach of publicadministration.7)Discuss the unique contribution oftheMarxian approach tounderstandingthe role of bureaucracy in capitalist society.8)Explain the public choice approach of publicadministration.9)How isthepost-modern approach different from other approaches ofpublic administration? Discuss at length.2.7 REFERENCE•Bava, Noorjahan.Public Administration in the 21stCentury,Kanishka Publishers New Delhi,2010.•Avasthi, Maheshwari,Public Administration, Laxmi NarayanAgarwal Publications, Agra, 2006.•Basu, Rumki,Public Administration: Concept and Theories,SterlingPublications, New Delhi, 2005.•Bhattacharya, Mohit,NewHorizons of Public Administration,Jawahar Publications, New Delhi,2008.•Chakrabarty, Bidyut, and Bhattacharya Mohit (ed.),PublicAdministration a Reader, OxfordUniversity Press, New Delhi, 2005•Fadia, B. L. &Dr.KuldeepFadia,Public Administration:Administrative Theories andConcepts,SahityaBhawan,Agra, 2015•Sahni, Pardeep, and Vayunandan, Etakula,Administrative Theory,PHI, New Delhi, 2010•Sharma, M. P., and Sadana, B. L.,Public Administration in Theoryand Practice, KitabMahal,New Delhi, .2014•VishnooBhagwan and VidyaBhusan,Public Administrative, S.Chand., New Delhi, 2010.




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Module 3PERSONNEL ADMINISTRATIONUnitStructure3.0Objective3.1Introduction3.2Origin of the Term3.3Issues related to personnel Administration–I3.3.1Recruitment3.3.2Training3.3.3Promotion3.3.4 PerformanceAppraisal3.3.5ServiceCondition3.4Issues related to personnel Administration–II3.4.1Civil Service Reforms3.4.2Employer-employee relation3.4.3Grievance Redressal3.4.4Code of Conduct3.4.5Administrative Ethics3.5Further Readingfor All Units3.0 OBJECTIVEObjectivesof this module are,inbrief;1)To understand the structure of personnel administration.2)To understand the process of civil service recruitment, Training,Promotion, and Service Conditions.3)To describe in brief. The civil services reforms in Indiaand employer-employee relations.4)To explain the grievance redressal machinery and code of conduct5)To understand the nature of administrative ethics.3.1INTRODUCTIONWe are living in an age of technological revolution. Computers,theInternet, Software use are anintegral part of our work processing system.Despitesuch awe-inspiring high technology development,humanresourcesremain the most important resourceinan organization. It isproved thataquality workforce has beenthecauseoforganizationalsuccess. Personnel movesthe administrative machinery. Well throughoutmunotes.in

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and well-considered policies, pans and programs remain successful due toavailable competent human material which manages public affairs. Noactivity of publicadministration can be performed without CompetentPersonnel. Most of the time the term ‘Civil Service’ and ‘Bureaucracy’ areused with the same meaning. Civil Servantsare contemptuously describedas ‘bureaucrats’. Bureaucracy is a termthatis used with contempt to showthe despoticautocracy of Civil Servants. Technically spacing, bureaucracymeans ‘desk government’. It has been given different interpretations bydifferent writers. It is a Professional clan of technically skilled personswho are organizedhierarchically andimpartially serve the state. Theactivities of the state, the role,andtheimportance of personnel havealsoincreaseddespitetheadoption ofafree economy and LPG (Liberalization,Privatisation,and Globalization) the importance ofpersonneladministration has not come down. Thecomplexproblems of modernsociety cannot be solved without the help of trained,skilledandprofessionally managedpersonnel. To perform the multifarious tasks ofthe modern state, only competent personnel, who are selected on merit, arerequired.3.2 ORIGIN& MEANING OF THE TERMThe business ofthemodern state is carried on for the most part byits administrative agencies. It is vastlyproductive to toy to build into ourpublic services the kind of competent and responsive public employeeswhich makes the best of government. This is the task of public personneladministration managing the human resources of man’s largest and themost difficult undertaking i.e. government.•Personneladministrationis amethod of developing the potentialitiesof employees so that they get maximum satisfaction out of their workand give their best efforts to the organisation.•Personneladministration isconcerned with manpower or people,organisationalresources of output.•In short personnel administration is mainly concerned withtheeffective utilisation of human resources for the attainment oforganisational goals. It is related to maintaininganadequateorganisational structure and a desirable working relationshipamong allthe members ofanorganisation. To generate development skills bytraining and on-the-jobeducation and to recognise and rewardemployees'performance with adequate economic and other typesofincentives. Also to maintain high moraleand better human relations bysustaining and improving working conditions in the organisations.The challenges that willbe faced bythose in the public servicesector in the coming years aresubstantial.Theyrequire to resolve theproblems in a way that restores and then maintains public confidence.Theefforts to maintain/restore meaning and integrity to the public service aremuch needed in our society. They should be accompanied by a clearmunotes.in

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understanding of several important trends in our field that will reshape thevalues and commitment of public service itself.To sumup, in public administration personnel administrationconstitutes a vital sector of administration. It isatruism that noadministrator can rise very much abovethe quality of its administrations.In other words,the quality of efficiency of the total administrative systemdependson the efficient working of its personnel subsystem.munotes.in

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Unit33.3 ISSUES RELATED TO PERSONNELADMINISTRATION-IIntroduction.The merit-based public personnel administrationhas four basic steps.a)Recruitmentb)Trainingc)Promotiond)AppraisalIn this sub-unit,we willtry to explain and understand themeaning,importance,types,and process of recruitment.3.3.1RECRUITMENT:Recruitment is a process of vital importance to the administrativesystem as awhole. It determines the tone and quality of the public servicesand the usefulness & relevance of the machinery of government.Recruitment stands for the machinery of government. Recruitment standsfor the search for proper personnel to perform the various activities andobligations in the process of administration. The increasingly technicalnature of public service andthegrowth of democratic ideas andinstitutions have made the problem of recruitment much more importanttoday than ever before.”publicrecruitment is that process through whichsuitable candidates are induced to compete for appointments to the publicservice”. In short,recruitment is the first step in the employment programand it is the core of the personnel administration.Principlesof recruitment:The credit for developing a scientific system of recruitment for thefirst time goes to China where recruitmentthrough competitiveexamination was introduced in the second century BC.Beforetheintroduction of merit,asystem ofrecruitment was based on the followingthree principles, which were existed in almost all countries.a)Principle of selling of office:This methodprevailed in France. Thepublic offices were annuallyauctioned to private parties. The interested partieswho can give higherbidding bought the office. This method was advocated by the rulers ofFrance.munotes.in

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b)Patronage system:This method was widely prevalent in Prussia. Under this system,those people who weredear and hear to the King were appointed as publicofficers.c) Spoils system:It is associated with the development of the American politicalsystem. Underthis system victoriousPolitical party appointed itscandidates to offices in the state on the principle ‘to the victors belong thespoils. The spoils system became popular on the belief that party policiescan be carried out best by those who believe in party ideology. Thissystemstill prevailsintheUSA for the appointment of some key posts.d)Principle ofMerit (or Merit system):The above-mentioned system had its disadvantages which wererealized in early 1883 (intheUSA) whenthePendleton act was enacted.Hence thenation thought of after alternative and one such was that ofthemerit system. India adopted the merit system right fromthebeginning.This system becomes more popular as it ensures political Neutrality anddemocratic spirit. The system ensurestheloyalty of all governmentsof theday. Under this system specialization became possible and public servantscan adopt public service asaprofession and career under this system,public personnelisrecruited by two methods.1.Recruitment from within or by promotion.2.Direct recruitment from the open market.1)Recruitmentfromwithin:Under this method,the employee is promoted from one position tothe other higher position. This method is mostly applied for therecruitment of superior officials. But at the same time, not all superiorpositions are filled in by the promotion method. (The concept ofpromotion is discoed separately in the module.)The promotion method of recruitment has the following advantages—a)People enter into public servicesintendingto make their jobacareer.The promotion methodallows themto make an advancement in theircareerb)Employees who are already in the job are experienced persons, thisexperience helps them in performing new duties i.e. working atahigher position.c)Motivation and incentives are the better criteria to improve theperformance of an employee. Promotion isa greatincentivefor themto workefficiently.munotes.in

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d)The merit system is criticized on the ground that, testing of merit byexamination does not necessarily discover the working capabilities ofindividuals.An employee, who is already working in the departmenthis capacities are well known hence the promotion methods isconsidered to be better.e)An employee, who is already working in the department is fully awareand accosted with the formal and informal method of working of thedepartment. Hence a promoted employee isbetter qualified to acceptthe new responsibilityDis-advantages of promotionmethod of recruitment:a)The promotion method narrows down the area of selection. It leads tostagnation and no influx of new blood into service.b)Possibly the experienced and old persons in administration make thesystem static and stagnant. There isageneral tendency among the oldpeople not to adopt the change.c)The new generation (young & talented)loseinterest in public serviceand they are deprived of an opportunityto enter in govt administration.d)If the promotion method isapplied for all higher posts, it underminesthe principle of equality of opportunity.e)The promotionmethod isnot useful for the administration ofthe21stcentury where the administrative work is changing day by day with thechange of new technology and techniques.II)Direct Recruitment:Themethod of direct recruitment isinconsonance with the principle ofdemocracy i.e.all qualified persons have an equal opportunity to enter intothe public services. It isawidely accepted method of recruitment.Advantages of direct recruitment:a)Direct recruitment considerably widens an opportunity to select themost capable availablepersons in the market.b)This system provides an opportunityfor all capable and qualifiedyoung people to enter into public servicesc)This system is also in keepingwith democratic principles, whichstands for equal opportunities for all.d)It is argued thatthe system is essential for technical jobs where newscientific methods are being triedandtheyoung are capabletopickupthese trends.e)Last but not least is that it is said if there is no provision for directrecruitment the young qualified persons will be deprived of anopportunity which is likely to lead frustration amongtheyounggeneration.munotes.in

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 Dis-advantages of direct recruitment:a)The system of direct recruitment is very expensive and time-consumingb)When the fresh and raw hands will join the service they will take theirown time in picking up the work. The state will have to spend a lot ontheir trainingc)There is no guaranteethat the fresh graduates will possess highcharacter and integrityd)It is also difficult to maintain proper co-ordination and healthyrelations between old & experienced employee and fresh recruits.e)This system is likely to create jealousies among old and fresh whichmay lead to discontentment and unhealthy rivalrieswhich is nothealthy for an organization.But in short, most of the Nations including India have adopted amiddle path. A mixed system of direct and indirect recruitment isaccepted. Under this system,a fixed percentage is earmarked for fillinghigher jobs through direct recruitment,and some quotais reserved fordepartmental promotionThe procedure of Recruitment:The procedure adopted for direct recruitment to fill up thevacancies is lengthy and complicated.Recruitment means not only makingappointments butselecting proper and suitable candidates for filling thevacancies. The scientific system of recruitment has the followingimportant steps.1.Location of Authority2.Methods of Recruitment3.Appointment1)Location of Authority:It is an essential feature ofthe Personnel system. Generally,thereare two methods of locating the recruitment and appointing authority. Inone system the power of recruitment is vested in a special type ofgovernment organization e.g. In IndiaUPSCandSPSCSare selectingauthorities;inthe UK there istheCivil Services commission andin theUSA,theFederal Service Commission. These authorities are notappointing authorities. Their job is to select the proper candidates forvarious posts as per the need of the various departments of the govtAppointment are made by the concerned departmental authorities from thelist of selected candidates by the recruiting agencies.In the other system recruitment & appointment,authoritiesarevested with the department where the special selection committees’ aremunotes.in

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constituted for this purpose. Very few appointments are made through thissystem.ii)Methods of Recruitment:For the recruitment oftheright candidates fortheright posts,theconcerned recruitment agencies (Public Servicecommissions orDepartmental Selection committees)followthe Following steps ofrecruitment.1.To laydown pre-requisite qualifications for the concernedposts.2.To publishtheadvertisement and asking foranapplication.3.Verification of documents andissuing call letters for written tests.4.Testing of merits through written test, oral examination, performancedemonstration (Wheneverapplicable)5.CertificationLet usdiscuss in detail the above five steps.1.Determining Qualification:Laying downproper qualificationsis necessary to select suitablecandidates. Broadly speaking educational qualifications are of two types.(a) General qualifications and special qualifications. The generalqualifications whichareconsidered to be required for all types of posts,consists ofa)Citizenship:The candidate should be a citizen of the state.b)Domicile or Residence:In some cases,only the residence of aparticular state orparts of the country areeligible for publicappointments.c)Sex:In democratic countries, the principle of equality of sex isfollowed for most of the publicappointments. However someparticular posts are mainly reservedfor male candidates or sometimesmarried women are disqualified for certain posts, due to somesocial/family reasonsd)Age:The general practice is to recruit young age persons for publicservices. Therefore age limit is fixed for entering into public services.Early age entry into public services isthebenefit to the concerned toget early promotion and useful for career advancement.e)Education:essential minimum qualification for entry into publicservices is a university graduate degree. The advantage of the systemof formal educational requirements is o allow only those who have anychance of success to complete.f)Special Education:Govt requires not only general administrators butalso technicians, scientists, doctors, engineers, and other specializedprofessionals. These varyfrom post to post. Therefore there are nomunotes.in

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uniform qualifications for suchapost. As per the requirement oftheseposts,specialized or professional qualifications are mentioned in theadvertisement.g)Personal qualifications:In addition to formal educationalqualifications, It is expected that a candidate who is going to be anadministrator or executive should possess somepersonal traits likeintegrity, energy, faithfulness, scientific mode of thought problemsolving capable communication skills,etc.h)Experience:The Indian system provides fortherecruitmentof younggraduates. Hence experience is not made a compulsory qualificationfor all posts. Inthecase of technical/ professional services experienceis treated asadesirable qualification1.Publishing advertisement:As per the requirements of thevarious departments of govt therecruitment agency publish the advertisement for the same in variousnational or state level newspapers/ magazines. Recently advertisementsare published online on the portal ofarecruitment agency or department.The advertisement consists of various details about the posts.Qualification, Number of posts, Reservations if any closing date forapplication, mode of recruitment (i.e. written test interview),etc.2.Verification of documents:After receiving the applicationspoem the candidates the same areverified. The eligible candidates are called for appearing for the tests.Arrangements are made for conducting the test(writtenororal)adequatetime span is given for the candidates for appearing for the tests.3.Testing ofmerit:Generally,the following kinds of tests are conducted to test the merit ofthe candidatesa)Written examinationb)Oral Examinationc)Performance demonstration (if applicable)d)Physical fitness testa)Written Examination:Thisis the common methodprevailingin mostcountries. The mainpurpose of this examination is to know the general intelligence and subjectknowledge of the candidates. The written test may be of two kinds i.e.Essay type and objective type the purpose oftheessay type test is tojudgethecalibreof the candidate about facts and ability to reason and argueabout a problem. The object type test aims at testing the candidate'sgeneralknowledge and time sense.munotes.in

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b)Oral Examination:An oral test isamethod of finding outtheability, presence ofmind,and power of expression of a candidate in a shortspan of time. Itaims at finding out the grip of candidatesover current affairs, language,scientific and technical problems,etc. The principalmethod of oral testingis the useof the interview supplemented by an assessment of the record ofthe candidate's work. The oral test is also significant to judgethepersonality and attitudes of the candidate.c)Performance test:It is not a uniform test for all posts. Theperformance test isconducted for skilled and technical posts. The ability to perform aparticularjob successfully is known throughthis test.d)Physical fitness:It is a common criterionapplicable for all govtjobs. It is expectedthat theemployeeshould be physically fitand maintainaminimumstandard of fitness mainly for eye and hearing capacity. He shall not besuffering from any communicable diseases.V.Certification:After the candidates have beenexamined and they are met with anassessment, the recruitment agency prepares a list of selected candidates inorder of merit. Recruitment agencies are not appointing authorities. Thelist of selected candidates is forwarded to the concerned department.Appointmentsare then made by the departments stipulating terms andconditionsof services. Generally,the new entrants are appointed onprobation. The probation period rangesfromsix months to two yrs. Itvariesfrom one organization to the other and also from post to post.Sometimes thecandidates are givenanorientation by introducingthenature ofthejob, departmental rules–regulation,etc before starting theactual work.To avoid nepotism, favoritism the merit system of recruitment hasbeen adopted, appreciated and recognizeduniversally in almost allcountries in the world. However,it is not free from de-merit and criticism.After all,it is a human process and the humanbeing is not free fromdefects.Continuousevaluation and corrections are theonlyremedies tomake the system fullyproof.LET US SUM-UPIn this unit,we have studiedthemeaning and principles ofrecruitment. Types of recruitmenti.e.Recruitment from within and directrecruitment. Advantagesand disadvantages of promotion method and themunotes.in

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same of directrecruitment. We have also studied in detail, the method ofdirect recruitment with five steps of direct recruitment. We haveconcludedthatthemerit system of recruitment is the only better methodthan the previously prevailedspoil and other systems.A merit system isauniversally accepted method of direct recruitment.UNIT END QUESTIONSDefine public personnel administrator.1.What is Recruitment?2.Explain the principle of Recruitment3.Discuss the advantage and disadvantagea)Promotion methodb)Merit system4.Write an essay ontheRecruitment method5.Write short notes ona)Advertisementb)Written testc)CertificationSOME USEFUL READINGi)Avasthi&Maheshwari Public Administration,Laxmi N. Agarwal.Agraii)Mohit Bhattacharya Public Administration Jawahar Publishers, NewDelhiiii)C.P. Bhambri Public Administration,Jai Prakash & Company




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Unit: 4___________________________________________________________3.3.2TRAININGINTRODUCTIONTraining of personnel has become important due tothecontinuousexpansion of knowledge. It is necessary to adopt new technology.Theefficient performance of an employee is based on the training. Training isalso essential for broadening the vision of theemployees. Trainingimproves capacity,skill,and understanding. Training is the most widelyaccepted method of increasing the efficiency of the personnel. Training isdefined as the “Consciousefforts made to improveemployeeskill,powersand intelligence and to develop’his attitude and schemes of valuesinthedesired direction”.In this sub-module,we will try to understand the objectives, meaning,andtypesof training,and methods of imparting the training.i)Meaning:One personnel expert defines training as,“The process ofdeveloping skills habits, knowledge and aptitudes in employees for thepurpose of increasing effectiveness in their present govt positions & forfuture positions”.In short training means, imparting knowledge of facts, teaching,and improvementof techniques. Thus training provides the basicfoundation of the orientation and attitude formation of the employees.Training is narrow in scope than that of education, it aims ataspecific angle. Trainingcreates the ability to take independent decisions. Ithelps mold and shapestheentrantsto internalize the organizational skill,and character & helps them to adapt to new environments.ii)Objectives of Training:The committee onthetraining of civil servantsin1944 (GreatBritain. Popularlyknown as theAshetonCommittee) laid down theobjects and general principlesof training. These are still relevant.The following five are the major objectives of training—i)Training shouldendeavourto produce a civil servant whose precisionand clarity in the transaction of business can be taken for granted.ii)Training should makeacivil servant capable of tuning his mind tochanging circumstances and times.munotes.in

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iii)The aim of training must be to achieve the highest possible standard ofefficiency.iv)Training must be directed at making him fit for other duties and atdeveloping his capacity for higher work and greater responsibilities.v)Substantial regard to staff morale has to be paidgreater attention.These aims and objectives are universally recognized. The trainingprocess itselfcan give the traineeanadded sense of dignity.c)Types of Training:There are various types of training imparted to employees atdifferent stages ofservice. Atvarious levels the emphasis on the types oftraining changes with thenatureof duties. Generally,the followingtype’strainingisgiven to theemployees at different stages and different levels.i)Formal and Informal Trainingii)Pre-entry andpost-entry trainingiii)Short-term and long term Trainingiv)Technical and general Trainingv)Departmental and central Trainingvi)Orientation and Refresher TrainingLet us understand the details of the above:1)Formal and informal training:Formal trainingis given on the basis of prescribedrules,regulations,and norms. Itis prearranged well planned and conductedthrough expert guidance.The purpose of this training is to inculcate administrative skillsinto the employees.Informaltraining on the otherhand acquired by experiences andlearned in course of actuallydoing the job.1.Pre-entry and post-entry Training:Partially speaking pre-entry training is not a type of training. It isan educational qualification acquired by aspirant candidates for civilservices.Pre-entry training is specifically referred toasvocational orspecialized training. Now aday’s vocationaland technical courses aregiven in the formal education system.The post-entry training is given after joining the service. It may beformal or informal.It isageneraltype of training to acquire administrativeskillsand broadened understanding of the government as a whole.munotes.in

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b)Short term and long term training:It is a part of formal training imparted foralimitedperiod ofduration, short term,and long term. Short-term trainingisgenerallyconducted for 7 to 10 days, suchTrainingisorganized to understand andimplementNew/innovative schemes/projects or to make the employeesawareofnew rules/ regulations and new technologies.Long-term trainingisaformal in-service training imparted after a specific period of service(Generally two to three times in service) to understand the changing natureof administration. Such trainingisalso useful to the employees for theircareer advancement.1)Technical and general Training:Simply speaking technical training is related to enhancingparticular skillswhereas general training is imparted to upgrade theiradministrative skills.2)Departmental and central Training:Departmental training is given by the concerneddepartment to itsspecialized requirements.Whereascentral training is one whereinstructionisestablished to impart training on general lines and technicallies also. Some departments havetheirtrainingcentres.1)Orientation and Re-fresher training:Orientation training aims at introducing an employee to the basicconceptof his job. Whereas re-fresher training is given to an employeeafter completion of certain years of service. It boosts up their morale andmakes them adaptable to newer tasks.Broadly speaking the above-mentioned types of training areclassified on the basisoftime, purpose,and method of training. It is not awatertight classification. We may find more than one type of training inone category.d)Methods of Imparting Training:There is no uniformity in methods of imparting training (exceptsome formallyorganized type)Whenanemployee learns about their workby actually working in the office/field, it is known as training byexperience. Formal training is given to the employees as per therequirements and on the basis of the above-mentioned types of training. Inthe formal training, variousmethods are used to impart the training eg.Discussion, conference, seminars, lectures, etc. Reading material is alsogiven to the employees duringthetraining period. The employeesare alsoinformedabout new changes in rules,regulations, govt orders,etc throughcircularsnowadays most of the information and instructions are givenmunotes.in

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through digital/online methods.The digital way of working has become apart of training and communication methods which istheeasiest andfastestway contact–field visits are also arranged duringthetrainingperiod. In short,training is impartedfor aperiod through theoryknowledge, practical knowledgewith solutions,andtheup-gradation ofinformation. In India,we have various training institutes established attheNational and Regional levels to provide pre-entry and post-entry trainingto the employees atadifferent levels.SUMMARYEnhancement of bureaucratic capability requiresthedevelopmentof personnel administration. Training is the one wayto achieve the same. Ithis unit we have studied the meaning and objective of training along withvarious types of training and different techniques of imparting.UNIT ENDQUESTIONSi)Define the concept of Trainingii)Why training is essential?iii)Differentiate between formal and informal trainingiv)Discuss various types of trainingv)Discuss the different methods of imparting3.3.3PROMOTIONINTRODUCTIONPromotion occupies the most importantplace in the careeradvancement of the employees. It is an opportunity for them to rise high inthe administrative setup. A general promotion policy is necessary to keepthe organizationefficient.It is a continuous incentive to efficient workingon the part of an employee. Thehope of promotionis sufficient to keepthe man interested in the job. Promotion is an important constituent of asound personnel policy. It isthegreatest incentive to an employee to getplacement from one post tothenext higher post.Meaning andImportance:Promotion should not be confused withanannualincrement in thesalary.The annual increment may be automatic or conditional but in nocase,it isapromotion. The change induty andresponsibility is thenecessary feature ofthepromotion process. The term promotion is derivedfromtheLatin word from over means to move forward. Following aresome definitions of promotion.1)L.D. white defined promotion as, the means of appointment from agiven position toamore difficult type of work and greatermunotes.in

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responsibility, accompaniedby the change of the titleand usually apay increase.2)Prof Pigor and Mytes define that ‘Promotion is the advancementof anemployee toabetter job, in terms of greater responsibilities, moreprestige, greater skill and increased rate of pay.3)ProfFlippo said that “Promotion involves a change from one job orposition to another that is better in terms of status and responsibilities.Importance:Promotion policies keepthepersonnel efficient and ensurerewardsfor efficient service. This policy helps to attract qualified people in theservice at the timeofrecruitment from the point of viewofemployees,promotionis an opportunityforcareer advancement for him fromtheadministration point of view it is filling up higher posts from within theservice.1.Types of promotion:Generally,there are two types of promotion. One is Intradepartmental and secondary inter-department promotion means whenthepromotion is made within the same department from lower grade tothehigher grade. Generally,these types of promotionsare givenbased onseniority. However,there are various difficulties in givingintradepartmental promotions.These promotions are based on theprinciple of seniority. There are technical difficulties in deciding theseniority. Eg Age, qualification, technical qualification,changing thecadre, reservation categories,etc.The second type of promotion is inter-departmental promotion.Here promotions are given on the basis of merit. This type of promotion ismade only to fill up vacancies of higher posts2.Principle ofPromotion:The difficulties in making promotion are, the promotion posts arealways limited and secondly Promotion should be based on merit alone.Arbitrary promotions may create conflicts in the employees which maylead to harm inthesmooth working ofan organisation. Broadly speakingthe following two principles are followed while giving the promotions.a)Principle of seniority:It is a most traditional principle to determine promotion. Thelength of service of an employee is considereda criterionforthepromotion. As mentioned above, generally the principle of seniority istaken into account for giving intradepartmental promotions.munotes.in

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 b)Principle ofMerit:When promotions are made on the basis of qualification andachievements of an employeeirrespective of his length of service it isknown as promotion based on merit. This system enables the organizationto select meritorious persons to be promoted on higher posts.It providesadue incentive to the efficient and hard-working employees andthus helpsin building up to morale and efficiency of public service.B.Methods of Testing merit:When the promotion is to be given on the basis of merit andability, the question arises, how to judge the merit and ability? Broadlyspeaking thefollowing three criteria are applied for the same.i)Personal judgment of higher authority.ii)Promotional examinationiii)Service record/ratting.Let us discuss the above three criteriain detail:1.Personaljudgment of higherauthority:This is the factor indeciding the promotion. The higher authority isin continuous contact with the person, who has worked with him for manyyears. He knows about the qualities of employees.However,this methodis notfullyproof. It has its limitations anddemerits. Firstly this system is useful in small organizationswhereemployees are in directtouch with the authority. In large-scaleorganizations,the employees are not in touch with the authority.Sometimes there are two higher authorities in the departmenti.e. one isthegeneral administrator and another isatechnical administrator.Theemployeeis accountable to both the authorities. In this case both theauthorities may differ on their judgments.Secondly,this system is ‘subjective’ susceptible to extraneousconsiderations leading to unhealthy rivalry and ill-will among theemployees.However,this criterion is used in almost all governmentorganizationsalong with the other criteria’s1.Promotional Examination:This is an objective type of testing the candidates'ability. This is acompetitive examination open for outsiders as well as departmentalemployees. Promotional examinations are of three typesfirstly the opencompetition. The outsiders can appear for such exams. This method ismunotes.in

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criticized on grounds that the promotions are only for in-serviceemployees, hence the outsiders should not be allowed to compete for it.Secondly,it is the limited competitionin which onlyin-service employeesare allowed to compete. Thirdly,the in-service employees are allowed toappear for examsandthey have to pass the examination just to give proofoftheirminimum attainment.2.Service record/ Rating:The relation merit of the employees is evaluatedbased onhisservice record. IntheUSAthe efficiencyrating is decided on the basis ofproduction record–It is applicable for those employees whose work canbe quantitatively compared. Secondly,the graphic rating scale system–inthis method the trails of theemployees are marked and on itsbasis,thequalities of the employees are assessed. The graphic ratesscalegenerallyconsists of accuracy, neatness, speed of work common sense, initiative,execution of workability,organizinginventiveness,etc. Thirdly,thepersonality inventory system. It seeksthecomparative record of service bydifferent means. It is a very comprehensive listof human qualities relevantto employment. These are exactlytheoppositeofthegraphic rating scale.The negative characteristics of human nature are observed and evaluatedits impact on the efficiency rate of the employee.SUMMARYPromotion whether based on seniority or merit is significant tobuild up theefficiency and morale in the organization. We have studiedthe meaning and importance of promotion, Types of promotion mainlyIntra-departmental and inter-departmental promotions.While reading theprinciple of promotion we have discussed the principle ofseniority andtheprincipleof merit with the methods of testing merits.UNIT END QUESTIONS1.Define Promotion.2.Why Promotion is required?3.Explain the types of promotion.4.Discuss the Principle of Promotion5.What is merit? How it is decided?6.Write a note on ‘service rating’____________________________________________________________3.3.4PERFORMANCE APPRAISALIt is a system of assessment oftheperformance of its employeesperiodically; to determine the output of employees. The purpose oftheperformance appraisal system is primarily to assess the capabilities andefficiency of the employees andtheircontribution toward the achievementof the organizational goals.The ultimate object of performance appraisalmunotes.in

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is to manage better utilization of the services through correction orchanging the positions oftheemployee.The performanceappraisal system (PAS) consists of an annualappraisal reportwritten by the superior about the work of the subordinate.It is usually in the prescribed format. Thus it is an objective examinationof an employee. The format generally consists of certain objective criteriaabout the quality of work, general personality,and integrity of the person.This appraisal helps to decidethe promotional ability of the employee thereport is evaluated b reviewing officer and finally endorsed by the seniorofficer or HOD.The PAS has certain flaws. Firstly the qualities requiredof anofficer are not defined. Secondly,no common yardsticks are applied forthe evaluation. It may differ from superiorto superior. Finally,both thereviewing officer and counter-signing officer mayor may not have anydirect knowledgeabout the workoftheofficerreported upon.The ARC in India has suggested certain norms for performanceappraisal. Eg. ARC seeks that the officer reported upon should a briefresume of the work done by him. The graduation should be in the formthat whether the fit forpromotion not yet fit or until for promotion. Allthese suggestionsare likely to avoid unpleasantness.UNIT END QUESTIONS1.Define performance appraisal.2.What isanappraisal? How is it written?3.What are the laws oftheperformanceappraisal system?_________________________________________________________3.3.5SERVICE CONDITION OF CIVIL SERVANTSThe civil servants arethebackbone of government administrationprincipally speaking the civil servants are implementing authority of thegovernment. Theyalso help in framing laws and formulating policies toperform their functions efficiently and smoothly, they need to have peaceof mind and security ofajob. Therefore most countries in the world haveaccepted the importance of service conditions for civil service.Irrespective of the political and administrative system in the country, civilservices are covered with minimum conditions required forthesmoothfunctioning of the administration. The following conditions of services areuniversally accepted with some differentprovisionssuitable to theircountries'political and administrative systems.Conditions ofservices:Broadly speaking the followingare the service conditions provided to civilservants.munotes.in

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1)Security of tenure:Civil servants are guaranteed security of tenure ship throughout theservice period. The age of retirement is generally 58 or 60 years of age asthe case may be however underthe new economic policy most of theappointmentsare made onacontract basis.1)Appropriate training:It isthegovernment'sresponsibility to provide appropriate trainingto the civil servants to acquaint themselves with the nature of the work.2)Financialpackage:Salaries and allowances of each post are predetermined as per thepolicy of the government. Generally,thesalary of an employee includesbasic pay, dearness allowance, and other allowancesapplicable from timeto time to the concerneddepartment and post. Time scale increment is alsogiven to them.3)Promotions:Each civil servant isentitled to getapromotion during tenure-ship.However,the promotion policies of the department are not uniformed.Promotionsareof three types–i.e. time-boundpromotion, promotionupon seniority,and promotion on merit.4.Other condition:It includes-Transfer which is a part and parcel of their service.Transfers are made from one post to another post and from one place toanother. Sometimesthebonus is given to civil servants. The pay andallowances of the civil servants are adjustedwith the price level orinflation. The other perks include suitable accommodation or house rentallowance, transport allowance, medical aid,leave facility,etc.5.)After source facilities consist of providentfund:It is a sort of saving that a person can make from his salary. Thegovernment gives interestin the saving applicable from time totime bylaw. Secondly, gratuityis a sort ofbenefit which is allowed to the civilservants. Generally,it stands atafull payment of one month of every yearfinally civil servants are eligiblefor pension after retirement to sustaintheir family inthefuture.Thus these are the various conditions of service offered to the civilservants. This attractsmanyindividualstowards government jobs.munotes.in

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SummaryThe objective of offering various facilities and enlisting variousconditions is to attract the talent forgovernment jobs and facilitate themcomfort in the service period. Thecare has been taken bythe governmentof their services right from appointment to retirement and PF, Gratuity,pension, etc. for their future comfort.However,duetothe new government policies i.e. de-bureaucratization and good governance,etc., outsourcing of services hasbecome a new trend in the government job. Many states have either cutdown the pension. As a result of this government jobs are not veryattractive for youngstersnowadays.Questions1.Why service conditions are essential?2.What are the major service conditions laid down for civil servants?3.What is the importance of PF, Gratuity,and pension?4.What is the impact ofa new policy on the service conditions of civilservants?munotes.in

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Unit: 5_______________________________________3.4ISSUES RELATED TO PERSONNELADMINISTRATION-II____________________________________________________________3.4.1CIVIL SERVICE REFORMS:Administration being constantly involved in practical action,situations cannot afford to remain static. It has necessarily to change forthe sake of sheer survival. Broadlyspeaking there are four principalgoalsof reforms, they are changing policies andprograms, improvingadministrative effectiveness, solving personnel problems,and counteringpressures from outside organizations. Administrative reform is consideredto be a process. It is related to the existing administrative setup.Administrative reformsare often directive toward the following threeelements either separately or jointly.1)Structural reform:Thisis a very common administration. It isconcerned withthedivision of workdelegation and decentralization,creation of autonomousagencies,and setting up coordinating mechanismsto harmonize the actions of interdependent units.2)Procedural reforms:This mayinvolve changesin govt organizations,financial rules, alterations of work procedures,and general attempts toavoid re-tape.3)Behavioural reforms:civil service is often criticized for its impersonalbehavioral changes have therefore been suggested to improveinterpersonal and intergroup relationship within the bureaucracy.Special importance is attached to organization development as atechnique of bringing about planned organizational change. Organizationaldevelopment programs have made use of applied behavioral science.Reformprocess:Administrative reform is never a one-shot job. A progressive govtinterested in maintaining a certain standard of performance has tocontinually adjustadministrative machinery to the various kinds ofchanges in the society e.g. Govt of India had setuptheAdministrativeReforms Commission (1966-70). The railway reforms committee wassetupin1981. Recently after 1991 new economic policy,a committee wassetup to suggest reforms in administrationsuitable to our new adoptedpolicyThese examples indicate that reformsarea deliberate effort.They areinitiated at a particular point of time.munotes.in

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Administrative reforms become necessary when the administrationis unable to cope withtherising demands of clients. when it is unable toanticipate future demands andwhen it is lackingeffective methods to copewith its ongoing and projective activities.SummingThe needforreform is widely felt and its modalities are currentlyreceiving considerable attention. Reforms serveseveralpurposes and areof various types. The implementation of reforms has to be plannedproperly and monitoring should be a part of the implementation process.QUESTIONS FOR EXERCISE1)Define administrative reforms.2)Whatare the major types of reforms?3)Explainthereform process._____________________________________________________3.4.2EMPLOYER EMPLOYEE RELATIONSA)The smooth working of an administration depends largely on thecordial relations between employer and employee. In publicadministrationespeciallyin the parliamentarydemocratic system,successfulworking depends on the harmonious relationship between theemployer and employee. The ultimate owner of public administration isthepublic. The relationship between civil service andthepubliccannot beestablished in the formal routine structure. Through the sovereignauthority rests with the public. In practice,the political executive (i.e.ministers) are the real employers of the administration.Hence therelationship between political executives and permanent executives (i.e.bureaucracy or civil servants) is of great importance for its smooth &effective functioning. Therefore when we talk about employer-employeerelationsitis mainlytherelationship between civil servants and ministers.b)Nature ofRelationship:The relationship between the minister and secretary is both formaland informal. Principally speaking the role oftheminister is related topolicymaking andthesecretary or civil servants are responsible for itsexecution. Inpractice,the twocannot be separatedfromeach other.Theyare interdependent.A policy cannot be decided without proper informationand expert guidancethatis available with the civil service. The finalauthority of policy-making rests with the minister being a representative ofthe people. Minister playstherole of political master and civil servants asexecutors.Ideally speaking the relationship between ministers and secretaryshould be cordial which helps instrengthening the working ofthemunotes.in

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administration. The mutual trust and interdependenceof both of themarekeytothesuccess of publicadministration. In theory,both of them areservants ofthe people. The basicdifference is that political executives aretrustees of the sovereign authority and civil servants are paid servants ofadministration, therefore,political executives are masters i.e. employersand civil servants are employees.A political executive represents the willof people through policies and civil servants realize their will by itsexecution.In democratic administration,the power of representation alwaysprevails over the technical expertise and administrative skill, which thecivil servant passes. The relationship between ministers and secretariesisgenerally of threetypes. Firstly,agood relationshipisbased on mutualtrust and understanding. Both are dedicated and committed to their rules.Secondly,good relationsarebased on immoral and unethical grounds. Itmeans both are corrupt and dishonestintheir work. When both areengaged insafeguarding their interests instead ofapublic good. Thirdly,bad relationsarebased on two reasons one is thattheministerexpectscivil servants to do some illegal work and safeguard his interest. Twowhen bureaucrats are corrupt and ministers are honestB)Reasons of distorted relations between ministers and secretaries:i)Frequent changes in portfolios of the ministers do not provideadequate time to develop cordial relations between themii)Sometimesministers do not like the independentadviceofsecretaries.Theministers prefer to give oral ordersinsteadofwritten instructions.iii)Some officers haveasuperiority complex and criticize the ministers inprivate circles.The ego attitude of both of them createsadistortedrelationship.iv)Lack of understanding of their respective roles is one of the majorcausesof unhealthy relations.Undue political interference in the day-to-day administration and using political pressure for asking them todo illegalthings create problems in their relationship.v)The ‘yes boss’ attitude of civil servants supports and strengthens theauthoritarian tendenciesofpoliticalmasters just to safeguard thecareer interests of the civil servants.The administrative reforms committee has listed some causes ofdemoralizing the civil services–1.Constant interference with delegated authority.2.Victimization of otherwise good officials on political and personalgrounds.3.Special pay & posts tofavouriteofficials.4.Protecting corrupt officials to enjoy favours.5.Frequent and irrational transfers etc.munotes.in

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Conclusion:In the context of relationshipclear distinction between politicaland administrative to be made. In the democratic govt,the civil servantsarenot relatedtopolicy and its duty is to organize means of administrationappropriate to the objectives laid down and to act legally within the limitof power conceded to it. Whereas the minister should be adhered to its roleof policymaking and safeguardthepublic interest. Their cordialrelationship is a precondition for the success of publicadministration.3.4.3 GRIEVANCE REDRESSALThe concept of ‘socialistic state’ and ‘welfare state’ has resulted inthe expansion of the functions of the government. This role is played bythe public service expanded the bureaucracy. This has resulted in themultiplication of the administrative process whereby administrative powerand discretion providetheopportunityformaladministration andcorruption. In such a situation grievance arise.Grievance means a ground of complaint a condition felt to beoppressive or wrongful. A grievance may arise asa complaint againstsomeaction or decision taken by the govt or any other agency abuse ofpower in the form of harassment malpractices (nepotism,favouritism,etc.)and corruption on the part of the executive creates a general feeling ofdiscontentmentamong the citizens. They need the help of some authorityoutside the influence and control of the executive, who will act as a checkagainst the misuse of power. The general syndrome of grievances hasbecome a normal feature where there is a disparity between governmentperformance and popular expectations broadly speaking such grievancesmay be divided into the following categories1.Grievances against policies:people may have grievances againstcertain govt policiesadversely affecting the interest ofsome social groups.They try to pressurize the govt through legislative means or pressuregroupsby using various techniques.2.Grievances against maladministration:when the policies are in thestage of implementation, due to cumbersome procedures may causeresentment among the recipients. Thus the nature ofthepublic complaintis found to be closely linked with the nature of duties that the officialshave been assigned.3.Grievance against corruption:it is observed that honesty and integrityin both policies and administration are deteriorating. Every govtdepartment has become a den of corruption. People have losing faith in theintegrity of administrativecomplaints against corruption hasbecome acommon feature.munotes.in

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Institutional remedy for redressal ofGrievances:To redress the grievances of the citizens is not an easy taskgenerally grievances are redressed at judicial, legislative,andadministrative levels. The constitution has providedanindependentjudiciary to protect the citizens against arbitrary acts of the state.Legislative mechanisms are also available to drawtheattention of thehouse towards the grievances of the people. Thereis provision forinstituting departmental as well as public enquires. There are otheragencies like administrative tribunals which are quasi-judicial authoritiesto tackle the problems pertaining to certain kindsof citizens'grievances.TheSanthanamCommittee recommendedthat avigilancecommissionshould be setup andbased onits recommendation the central vigilancecommission was setupin 1964. Subsequently,the state hasalso setupastate vigilance commission in the state. The administrativereformscommission has recommended an authority to be setup and designated asLokpal andLokayukta.Toconclude,we can say that several steps have been taken byboth the central and state government to redress the grievance of thecitizen and honestefforts, proper and adequate support.3.4.4CODE OF CONDUCTEvery organization has its laws, rules,and regulations governingthe conduct of its employees. Hencea public servant is required to obey acode of conduct. He is supposedto be loyal and obedient. He is alsosupposedto maintain a high standard of character, civil service conductrulersare made. Through there is no uniformity in conduct rules, as theyare made considering the administrative structure and nature of thatcountry. But some common principles are there which are unanimouslyaccepted all over the world. Some common principles of code of conductcan be tracked as per the following–Code of conduct of public services involves:i)Integrity and loyalty to the govtor the concerned dept.ii)Discharging official duties as per the norms laid down by the deptfrom time to time.iii)He should not indulge in private trade or business.iv)He should be honest in his official dealing and should be respectfulto his superior.v)He shouldmaintain the dignity of his post and office.vi)Civil servants are supposedto maintain official secrecy.vii)He should not indulge in malpractices and not accept any giftviii)He should not enter intoapecuniary arrangement forhimself or thebenefit of others.munotes.in

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 ix)Heshould not engage himselfinany illegal dealing of property forhimself or his relatives.x)He should not publish any government document without priorpermission of the authority.This is not a final list of code. It differs from state to state.Nowadaysconduct rules are becoming more and stricter. It is humannature to violate rules for safeguarding own interests. For this purposevarious modes and methods of discipline are applied to curbthis tendencyeg. Indian civil servants are supposed to be politically neutral. He issubjected to disciplinary action if he participates in political activities ofthe country.Violation of rules/regulations leads to disciplinary action. Thisvariesfrom situation to situation. Generally,it includes–issuing notice,giving warning, reprimand, non-payment loss of senioritydelay inincrement suspension, demotion, removal of cause judicial prosecution,etc.Inshort,all measures are taken to maintain discipline inadministration while implementingacode of conduct and givingpunishment, care has been taken not to do any injustice to the concernedemployee. The code of conductappliesnot only to regular employees butnowadays it is also made applicable to contractual employees sometimesthe terms and conditions along withthecode are signed by both the partiesin the form ofamemorandum of understanding.3.4.5 ADMINISTRATIVE ETHICSThe notion that the public bureaucracyneedsethical sensitivity toserve the public interest is a fairly new one. The first code of ethics forapublic administrator was adopted in 1924 bytheinternational citymanagement association. It was a code that reflected the anti-corruptionand anti-politics values.Three developments have been instrumental in the emergency ofthe concept that ethics are pertinent to public administration. First was theabandonmentof the politicsadministrationdichotomy. Now the pub-administrators are forced to makeadecision not only on the comfortablebasis ofefficiency, economy,and administrative principle but on the moreagonizing criteria of morality as well. The second development was thenew role of decision-making theory. (H.A. SIMON) based onadministrative behavior. The third development emerged in Americaknown as ‘counter culture’.Broadly speaking administrative ethics denotes the professionalcode of morality in civil service.Civil servants are expected to maintainhigh moral standardsnot only for themselves fortheirmembers. Chestermunotes.in

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Bernard has described ethical conduct as governed bybeliefs of what isright or wrong. Glen Stahi remark that the problem of ethical conduct ofpublic official arises by virtue of the power and influence that hecommandsand the commitments that he undertakes of loyal anddisinterested service to the public. Paul H Appleby argues that morality(He used the word morality instead of ethics) and administration cannot beseparated. Morality in administration alone could ensurebetter govt.He delineated the following attribute of a moral administrator.i)A sense of responsibilityii)Skill in communicationiii)Abilityto cultivate & utilizeaninstitutional resourceiv)Personal confidencev)Safeguarding public interestInthecase oftheIndian administration, P.R. Dubhashi said that“In India through there is no ethical code for public administrator, therewhatiscalled, civil service code which lay down what constitutesmisconduct for public servants”.Factorsthatdetermine administrative ethics–i)Precedents and traditions set by the top administratorsii)Communication pattern in the administrative systemiii)Effectiveness ofdisciplinaryactioniv)The attitude of political authoritiesv)The soundness of service condition.These are some indicating factorsthathelp in determining the level ofadministration, corruption,and political pressures and interference,etc.To conclude:We can learn the techniques of management science, the nation oforganization theory,and the intricate of policy formulation andimplementation but ultimately public administration is a field of thoughtand practice in which personal ethical choices are made. Those who enterthe field are not infrequently, required to makeadecision about moralquestions that have far-reachingsocial consequences. Pub-administrationis a profession of large responsibilities and moral choices and ethicalobligation will always be an integral part of those responsibilities.3.5FURTHER READING FOR ALL UNITS1.Nicolas Henry,Public Administration& public affairs,Prentice-Hall, New Delhi2.M. Laxmi Kant,Public Administration,Tata Mc. Graw Hill NewDelhi.munotes.in

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3.Hoshiyar Singh &Mohindar Singh,PublicAdministrationin India,Starlingpublisher New Delhi4.Mohit Bhattacharya,Public Administration,Jawahar Publisher NewDelhi5.C.P. Bhambri,Public Administration,JaiprakashNath& Co. Merit6.Saroj Kumar Jena,Fundamentals ofPublic Administration,AnmolPublisher New Delhi7.Dr.Hans Raj,Indian Administration,Surjeet Publications NewDelhi.*****munotes.in

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Module 4UNIT6LEGISLATIVE, EXECUTIVE,ANDJUDICIAL CONTROL OVERADMINISTRATIONUnit Structure6.0Objective6.1Introduction6.2Legislative Control6.3Executive Control6.4Judicial Control6.5Unit End Questions6.6References6.0 OBJECTIVEIn this unit,we will try to understand three types of structuralmeans to control over administration,whichare mainly legislative,executive,and judicial.6.1 INTRODUCTIONAccountability and Control are the two crucial elements of publicadministration that are important in a democratic government.Administrative accountability is emphasizedusingseveral controls. Thepublic officials are accountable to various agencies which exercise controlover them. Now broadly speaking there are two types of administrativecontrol, namely internal control and external control.Internal controlmajorly refers to the Budgetary system, Hierarchical order, Personnelmanagement, Enquiries,and investigations,etc. Whereas, the externalcontrol over administration deals with three agencies namely: Legislature,Executive,and Judiciary. In any representative democratic government,whether it is Parliamentary or Presidential, the legislature isconsidered asthe supreme and crucial organ as it includes the representatives of thepeople. Its control over administration focuses on maintainingaccountability and responsibility.6.2LEGISLATIVE CONTROLThe parliamentary system of government is present in India today,which is formulated on the prime objective of ‘collective responsibility. Itmunotes.in

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means that the ministers are held responsible to the Parliament for theirpolicies and actions. However,the legislative control over administrationundertheparliamentary system is indirect that is through ministers. Inother words, it is the minister who is responsible for the actions of theadministrators working under his ministry/department. There areseveraltechniques or tools of parliamentary control overanadministration thatare:A) Law Making:It is considered as the core function of the Parliament.As the Parliament lays down the regulations and policies of thegovernment by enacting or repealing the laws. The Parliament enacts lawsin a skeleton form and authorizes the executive to make detailed rules,regulations,and policies within the framework of the parent law. This iscalled ‘Delegated Legislation’ as the rules and regulations are displayedbefore the Parliament for its consideration.B) Question Hour:Thevery first hour of every parliamentary proceedingis allotted for this. During this particular time,the member of Parliamentask questions and the ministers usually give answers. Thequestions areclassified into three categories thatareStarred, Unstarred,and ShortNotice. Questions or interpellations are often considered effective tools oflegislative control over administration and it helps in keeping the civilservice alert, aware,and on its toes.C) Zero Hour:It is usually an informal system thatis made available tothe members of the Parliament to raise questions/ matters without anyprior intimidation and it immediately starts after the Question Hour andlasts until the agenda for the day is wholly covered up. The time breachinstituted betweenthe Question Hour and the agenda is called Zero Hour.It is a part of the Indian Parliamentary procedure since 1962.D) Half-an-hour Discussion:This means discussion on an issue/matterof sufficient public importance which has been subjected to a lot ofdebateand the answer to which needs elucidation on a matter of fact. TheSpeaker of Lok Sabha can assign three days in a week for such type ofdiscussion. As there is no formal motion or voting before the Parliament.E)Short Duration Discussion:It isa two-hour discussion as the timeassigned for such a discussion should not exceed two hours. The existingmembers of Parliament can raise such discussions on a matter/issue ofurgent public attention and importance. Here again,the Speaker allots twodaysin a week to carry out discussions. This discussion is not subjected toaformal motion before theHouse nor voting, it is in practice since 1953.F)Other Discussions:Thereare several other occasions prevalent to themembers of Parliament to raise discussions and debates to examine andcriticize the administration for its failure and lapses. These majorlyinclude:munotes.in

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1.)Inaugural speech delivered by the President of India (alsoknown asMotion of Thanks).2.)Introduction of various bills fortheenactment of laws (that is knownas debates on legislation).3.)Introduction and passing of resolutions on issuesthatare of generalpublic interest.G)Calling Attention Motion:It is introduced in the Indian Parliament bya member to call the attention of a minister to an issue of urgent publicimportance and to seek a considerable authoritative statement from him onthat issue. It is an Indian innovation in the parliamentary procedure andhas beenin practice since 1954 and it is also incorporated in the rules ofprocedure.H)Adjournment Motion:This motion is another crucial element that isintroduced in the Parliament to drawtheattention of the House to a matterof urgent public importance. This particular motion requires the support of50 members to be present in the Parliament. As it deals with the regularfunctioning of the House, it is considered an extraordinary device. Itincludes an objective of censure against the government andthereforeRajya Sabha is not allowed to make use of this mechanism. However, thediscussion with regards to adjournment motion should lastamaximumoftwo hours and thirty minutes not more than that. The right to move amotion for an adjournment of theadministrative affairs of the House issubjected to some scrutiny and restrictions.I)NoConfidence Motion:This particular motion means that the ministrystays in office as long as it enjoysthesupport/confidence of the majorityof the members of the Lok Sabha. However, the Lok Sabha can removethe ministers from office by simply passing the No-Confidence Motion.Article 75 of the Indian Constitution coherently states that the Council ofMinisters shall be collectively accountable and responsible to the LowerHouse (Lok Sabha). Thus, the motion requiresthesupport of 50 memberspresent in the house and voting.J)Censure Motion:It requires a reason for its adoption in the Lok Sabha.It is primarily moved against an individual minister or a group of ministersor the entire Council of Ministers. This particular motion is moved forcensuring the Council of Ministers for specific policies, regulations,andactions. If gets passed in the Lower House the Council of Ministers are notsubjected to resign from the office.Budgetary System:Another important tool of parliamentary control overadministration is the Budgetary system. The parliament controls therevenues and expenditure of the government throughtheenactment of thebudget. It deals with the sanctioning, raising,and spending of governmentfunds. It can also criticize the policy mechanisms of the government andpoint out the drawbacks of administration during the process of enactmentmunotes.in

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of the budget. Effective legislative control over the expenditure of thegovernment requires the Parliament to satisfy itself that the appropriationshave been utilized economically for the approved purposes within theframework of the grants. It should also undertake a detailed analysis of theannual budget estimates of the government to suggest possible economiesin the implementation of plans and programs embodied therein.Audit System:The important authority that is Comptroller and AuditorGeneral of India (CAG), on behalf of the Parliament audits, executes theaccounts of government and submits an annual ‘Audit Report’ about themonetary transactions of the government. It also highlights theuneconomical and irregular expenditures of the government. The CAG isconsidered as an agent of the Parliament and is held responsible only to itthat is the Parliament. However, the financial accountability and stabilityof the government to the Parliamentaregranted through the audit report ofthe CAG.ParliamentaryCommittees:Apart from these tools andtechniquesseveral other committeescarry out the work of the legislature namely:•Public Accounts Committee•Estimates Committee•Committee on Public Undertakings6.3EXECUTIVE CONTROLThe Executive Control simply means that the control exercised bythe Chief Executive (Political executive) over the functioning ofthebureaucracy. In the Parliamentary system of government, the Cabinet iscollectively responsible and accountable to the Parliament for its policyimplementation and actions. Each Minister is solely responsible for thepolicies and acts of omission and commission in his particular Ministry. Inother words, it is the ministerial responsibilitythatforms thebasic featureof the Parliamentary government. For this prime reason,the politicalexecutive (Cabinet and Ministers) exercisescontrol over administration.The executive control is characterized as inclusive in content, constant,continuous, stimulative,corrective, and directive. The executive exercisescontrol over administration through the means of tools and techniques.A.Political Direction (Policy Making):In India, the Cabinet forms and directs the administrative policiesand enjoys the power of supervision and coordinationconcerningitsimplementation. The minister who is head of one or more departments,emphasizes laying down the departmental policy andsupervises, directs,and coordinates its implementation by the administrators. Thus, throughthe political mechanism, the minister controls the operations ofadministrative agencies working under his Ministry. The departmentalofficials are directly responsible to the Minister.munotes.in

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B)Budgetary System:The second important organ of the government that is theexecutive controls effectively the administration throughthebudgetarysystem. It formulates the budget, getsit enacted by the Parliament,andallocatesthe necessary funds to the administrative agencies to meet theirexpenditure. In all such activities, the Ministry of Finance (CentralFinancial Agency of Government of India) plays a crucial role. It helps inexercising financial control over administration.C)Appointment and Removal:This is the effective method of executive control overadministration. As the executive plays an efficient role in personnelmanagement and controls and enjoys the power of appointment andremoval of top officials. In thiswork, the executive is assisted andsupported by the Department of Personnel and Training, The Ministry ofFinance, and the UPSC. Therefore, the ministers have full control over theadministration of departments under their charge through the appointmentof such appointees.D)Ordinances:The Constitution of India empowers the President to promulgateordinances during the interval of Parliament to meet situationsdemandingimmediate attention and action. An ordinance is regardedas theauthoritative and powerful act of Parliament and hence governs thefunctioning oftheadministration.E)Civil Service Code:The executive has laid downaprescribed civil service code to beobserved and followed by the administrators in the exercise of theirofficial power. It includes a set of conduct rules which prevent theadministrators from misusingtheir powers for personal interest.Someimportant rules are:1.)All-India Services (Conduct) Rules 19542.)Central Civil Services (Conduct) Rules 19553.)RailwayServices (Conduct) Rules 1956These rules deal with several things like loyalty to the State, obeying theofficial orders of the superiors, political activities of civil servants,etc.A)Staff Agencies:The executive exercises control overadministration through Staff agencies also. The significant Staff agenciesestablished in India are the Department of Administrative Reforms, ThePlanning Commission (NITI Aayog), The Cabinet Secretariat,and thePrimeMinister’s Office. Therefore, these staff agencies exercise influenceand indirectly control the administrative agencies and play a crucial role incoordinating their policies and programs.munotes.in

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Thus, India has adoptedaParliamentary system where there aretwo executive heads in the Parliamentary System, one is nominal while theother isthereal head. The President of India is a nominal executive andthe Prime Minister is the real head of the government.6.4 JUDICIAL CONTROLThe control exercised by the Courts over the administration iscalled Judicial control. The primary principle of judicial control overadministration is the protection and safeguarding of the rights and libertiesof citizens by ensuring the legality of administrative acts. The basis ofjudicial control over administration emanates from the core concept of‘Rule of Law’ which is a cardinal feature of the British Constitution aswell astheIndian Constitution.The scope ofthejudiciary is to intervene in the administrative actswhen there isalack of jurisdiction that is the administrator acts withoutauthority or beyond the scope of his authority.The error of law is whenthe official administrator misinterprets the law and imposes upon thecitizen but these obligations are not mandatory by the content ofthelaw.Error in fact-finding, abuse of authority that is the official uses hisauthority vindictively to harm some person,and lastly,error of procedurewhen the official does not obey or follow the laid down procedure.The Judiciary exercises control over administration through themethods incorporated in the Constitution.A)Judicial Review:It is the efficient power of the Courts to examine thelegality and constitutionalityof administrative acts. On theexamination, if they are found to be violative of the Constitution (Ultravirus) then they can be declared as illegal/unconstitutional by theCourt.B)Statutory Appeal: The Parliamentary statute that is the law may itselfprovide that in a particular type of administrative action, the aggrievedcitizen will have the right of appeal to the courts. Under suchconditions, the statutory appeal ispossible.C)Suits against Government:In India,Article 300 of the Constitutiondeals with the suability of the State. It clearly states that the Uniongovernment and State government can be sued, subject to theprovisions of the law enforced by the Parliament and state legislature.However, the State is suable in contracts. That means the contractualliability oftheUnion government and State government is similartothat of an individual under the ordinary law of contract.D)Suits against Public Officials:The President and State Governorsenjoy personal immunity from legal liability for their official acts.During their particular term of proceedings. They simply cannot bemunotes.in

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 arrested or imprisoned. However, after furnishing two months'notice,civil proceedings can be implemented against them during their tenurein respect of personal acts. The ministers do not enjoy such powerbenefits, immunities and hence they can be sued in ordinary courts likecommon citizens for crimes as well as torts.Undertheprovision oftheJudicial Officer’s Protection Act of1850, the judicial administrators are subsequently immune from anyliability in respect of their acts and hence cannot be sued. The Civilservants are empowered with personal immunity from legal liability forofficial contracts under Article 299 of the Constitution of India.Thus, India is a federal state in which there is a dual government.But the judicial system is unitary. This means the Constituent States donot have a separate judiciary. The judiciary is considered as the law-interpreting organ of the government. India has a single integratedjudiciary with Supreme Court as the apex court. The Constitution of Indiaofficially regardstheSupremeCourtas the ‘Guardian of FundamentalRights. Hence the judges oftheSupreme Court and High Court can issuevarious types of Writs like Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition,Certiorari, Quo Warranto whichever may be appropriate for enforcementof Fundamental Rights.Nowadays judiciary has broadened the scope for interpretation ofits powers. This is going a step forward by taking up responsibilities ofprotectingtherights of citizens and for making scrutiny of governmentdecisions. In short, Judiciary has redefined the idea of who can approachthe Court.Earlier practice was that only the person whose rights getviolated can approach the court but now the Supreme Court allows thatany citizen on behalf of the person whose rights are in danger canapproach the court and the court will take note of that. This is calledJudicial Activism. The concept of judicial activism is getting executedthrough public interest litigation has been in practice since 1979.6.5 UNIT END QUESTIONS1)Write a short note ontheimportance of control over administration.2)What arethe various means of legislative control over administration?3)Describe in detail various ways of executive control overadministration.4)Explain the means of judicial control over administration.6.6 REFERENCES•Avasthi and Maheshwari, 2009, “Public Administration”LakshmiNarain Agarwal.•BasuRumki, 2004, “Public Administration: Concepts and Theories”Sterling Publishers Private Limited.•Laxmikanth.M, 2019, “Public Administration”McGraw HillEducation.




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UNIT7CITIZEN’S CHARTER, RIGHT TOINFORMATION, E-GOVERNANCE, ROLEOF CIVIL SOCIETYUnit Structure7.0Objective7.1Citizen’s Charter7.2Right to Information7.3E-Governance7.4Role of Civil Society7.5Unit End Questions7.6References7.0OBJECTIVESo far in this module, inthelast two units,we studied thestructural and institutional mechanisms designed to maintain ethics andaccountability of administration and governance. The constitutional andinstitutional means have their worth inhandling the issue of integrity andcorruption. But in recent years more emphasishas been giventothedirectintervention of the people in ensuring good governance and empoweringthe agency of civil society to check the government and the administrationto deliver what they are expected to deliver in the democracy. In this unitwe will focus on the devices of active citizen involvement like Citizen’sCharter, Right to Information, E-Governance to employ technology todeliver the public goods and role of Civil Society asaneffectivestakeholder in the process of governance.7.1 CITIZEN’S CHARTERThe concept of Citizen in the Citizen’s Charter implies the clientsor customers whose interests and values are dealtwithbytheCharter. TheCharter is generally not legally enforceable and thus is non-justiciable.The Citizen’s Charter institutional system is an effective mechanism forsolving the problems which a citizen encounters in day-to-day life whiledealing with the organizations providing public services.The emergence of the concept:The Citizen’s Charter concept enshrines a connection builtbasedontrust between the service provider and its users. The concept was firstformulatedand implemented intheUK by the Conservative Governmentof John Major in 1991 as a national program with the core aim tocontinuously improve the quality of public services for the people of themunotes.in

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 country so that these services respond to the needs and demands of theusers.Objectives of Citizen’s Charter:The basic objectives of the Citizen’s Charter are as follows:-a.Quality:Effectively improving the quality of servicesb.Choice:Where Possiblec.Standards:It specifies what to exactly expect and how to act ifstandards are not met.d.Value:For the taxpayer’s moneye.Accountability:Individuals and Organizationsf.Transparency:Rules/Procedures/Scenes/GrievancesThe Indian Scenario of Citizen’s Charter:Citizens have become more vigilant and expect the administrationnot merely torespond to their needs and demands but also to anticipatethem. A conference including Chief Secretaries was organized in 1996 todevelop “An agenda for an effective and responsive administration” tomake the public services more efficient, clean, transparent, accountable,and citizen-friendly. Another Conference was held in New Delhi in 1997including the Chief Ministers of various states and union territories whichwas presided over by the Prime Minister of India, an “Action Plan foreffective and responsive government” should be implemented at Centreand State levels. One of the major implications that wereformulated at theConference was that the Central and State government would articulateCitizen Charter starting with those sectors that have a largepublicinterface. The three main aspects oftheAction Plan that were discussedatthe Conference were:1.Making administration accountable, responsible, and citizen-friendly.2.Ensuring transparency and right to information3.Initiating measures tocleanse and motivate civil services.Moreover,theDepartment of Administrative Reforms and PublicGrievances in India formulated the task of coordinating, formulating,andoperationalizingtheCitizen’s Charter. It has effectively made efforts toformulate and operationalize Citizen Charter’s in Central Government,State Government,and Union Territory administrations. For the publicitypurpose,a comprehensive website oftheCitizen’s Charter intheGovernment of India has been developed and launched bytheDepartmentofAdministrative Reforms and Public Grievances (DARPG) on 31stMay2002. While the government continued the work with regards totheCitizen’s Charter in a major public interface area of government would notonly focus on the new concept inbureaucracy but also acts as a role modelfor replication in other sectors/areas.Therefore,thebankingsector wasconsidered appropriate for this purpose keeping in view to bring abouteconomic reforms and this sector was fairly advanced in terms ofcustomer service and information technology.munotes.in

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The primary goal was to set up the Banking sector as a model ofexcellence in the implementation of the Citizen’s Charter.Problems faced in implementing the charter:1.)Devoid of participative mechanism: In amajority of cases, the caseswere not formulated through a consultative process with cutting-edgestaff who will finally implement it.2.)Lack of public awareness: Only a small section of end-users wasaware of the provisions made inthecharter since effective efforts ofcommunicating and educating the people about the standards ofdelivery promise have not been adequately addressed.3.)End users, Civil society organizations,and NGOs are not consultedwhenthecharterisdrafted. As the basic aim ofthecharteris to makepublic service delivery more citizen-friendly consultation withstakeholders is a must.4.)Tendency to have a uniform Citizen’s charter for all offices under theparent organization.TheCharter hasstill not been adopted by allministers, departments. This overlooks local issues.Therefore, Citizen’s Charter constitutes a very important partofthe discourse of public administration to establish accountability andtransparency and to provide speedy solutions to the queries of citizens.7.2RIGHTTO INFORMATIONRight to information means the autonomy and freedom of peopleto have access to government information. It subjectively implies that thecitizens and non-governmental organizations should enjoy considerableand reasonable free access to all documentsaboutthe governmentaloperations, decisions,and performance. It offers openness andtransparency in the overall functioning of government. In the year 1992,World Bank has released a document titled ‘Governance andDevelopment. The documenthas incorporated seven elements ofgovernance and one of the elements is transparency and providinginformation. The right to information is necessary because of the below-mentioned reasons:1.)It helps in making the administration more transparent andaccountable to people.2.)It supports in reducing the gap between administration and people3.)Helps in public awareness regarding matters of administrativedecision-making.4.)Offers enhanced delivery of goods and services to people by civilservants.5.)Facilitates constructive criticism oftheadministration6.)It enhances public participation intheadministrationmunotes.in

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7.)Facilitates public interest by discouraging unlawfulnessandarbitrariness in administrative decision-making.8.)Helps in reducing the scope for corruption intheadministration9.)Facilitates making the administration more responsive to therequirements of people.10.)Supports in reducing the chance of abuse of authority by publicservants.Global Scenario:Sweden is considered to be the first country in the world to adoptand introduce the right to information in 1766. Later on, Finlandintroduced it as the Freedom of Information legislation in 1951. Followedby its USA granted the right to information to its citizens by the enactmentof Freedom of Information Act 1966.Both Denmark and Norway haveimplementedthesame legislation in 1970. In Britain, the FultonCommittee 1966-68 investigated and found too much pf secrecy in publicadministration,and in 2005 the UK Freedom of Information Act came intoexistence.Position in India:The important document that is the Constitution of India has nodirect provision expressly conferringtheright to information to thecitizens. Therefore, Supreme Court has stated in 1975 that the right toinformation is a crucial part of thefollowing two Fundamental Right’sguaranteed by the Constitution:-1.)Right to Freedom of Speech and Expression (Article 19)2.)Right to Life and Personal Liberty (Article 21)Moreover, in 2005 the Parliament has enacted new legislation that is theRight to Information Act and this new legislation replaced the oldFreedom of Information Act 2002. The new act has certain provisions:-1.)It provides for the appointment of an information officer in everydepartment to provide correct information to the people on request.2.)It has fixed a 30-day deadline for providing information deadline is48 hours in information is related tothelife or liberty of a person.3.)For people belowthepoverty line, the information is freely providedbut for others,a certain fee is charged.4.)It provides for the establishment of the office of a CentralInformation Commission and State Information Commission toimplement the provisions.5.)The President is empowered to appoint a Chief InformationCommissioner and Governors of State will appoint State InformationCommissioner and for a fixed term of 5 years.munotes.in

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6.)The new act of 2005 overrides the Official Secrets Act 1923 on therecommendation oftheFifth Pay Commission in 1994-97. Theinformation commissions can allow access to the info if publicinterest outweighstheharm to protected persons.At the state level also, several states have introduced their right toinformation legislation. Tamil Nadu is the first state to do so. In Rajasthan,the Right to Information movementwas started by Aruna Roy inthe1990s. The MazdoorKisan Shakti Sangathan has successfully carried outagitation, in accessing and usingtheinformation to put an end to localcorruption and exploitation. Intheearly 2000s,Anna Hazare led amovement in Maharashtra state which forced the state government toenact Maharashtra Right to Information Act and it was later considered asthe base document for the Right to Information Act 2005 enacted bytheUnion government.7.3E-GOVERNANCEE-governance that is electronic governance is the use ofInformation and Communication Technology to carry out the functioningof the government of a country. E-governance simply means theapplication of ICT to transform the efficiency, effectiveness, transparency,and accountability oftheexchange of information and transaction betweengovernments, government agencies, government and citizens, governmentand business. The concept of E-governance aims to empower peoplethrough the mechanism of providing them access to information. Themajor objective ofE-governance is to offer a SMARRT Government. Theacronym SMARRT implies Simple, Moral, Accountable, Responsive,Responsible,and Transparent government.Advantages of E-governance:1.Speed:Technology enhances communication to be speedier. Internet,Cell phones have reduced the time taken in normal communication.2. Cost Reduction:Most of the government expenditure is formulatedtowards the cost of stationary. Traditional paper-based communicationrequiresalot of stationary, printers, computers,etc. which leads tocontinuous heavy expenditure. However, modern technology liketheInternet, Phones makes communication faster and cheaper saving valuablemoneyforthe government.3.Transparency:The use of ICTmakes governing and administrativeprocesses transparent. All the crucial information of the government canbe made available on the internet. The citizens can have a look at theinformation at their ease. However, it can be only made possible wheneveryunit of the information of the government is correctly uploaded onthe internet and is made available for the public to peruse.4.Accountability:Once the governing and administrative processbecomes transparent then the government is ultimately made accountable.munotes.in

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Accountability usually impliestheanswerability of the government to thepublic. It is often the answerability for the deeds of the government. Anaccountablegovernment is always considered a responsible government.Therefore, the administration worldwide has got qualitative andquantitative transformations through the implementation of ICT. Theimpact of E-governance in reforming and assessing public administrationhas become a part of the academic discourse on good governance. Theconcept of E-governance now has become an accepted aspect forimproving and enhancing the quality of the delivery of public services.Reforming government processes is crucial for establishing transparency,efficiency, productivity, and reducing bureaucratic controls. The pace,transparency, and accountability associated with E-governance havethevaluable potential to make public administration responsive to ensuregood governance. Thus, we can say that E-governance is the effectivemechanism of Good Governance for developing countries like India toreducecorruption, provide efficient and effective quality services to theircitizens.7.4ROLE OF CIVIL SOCIETYThe concept of ‘Civil Society’ has come into existence to enjoymuch political, administrative and intellectual currency in recent years.But it hasafairly long historical background. So traditionally the twoterms ‘State’ and ‘Civil Society’ were used interchangeably and treatedsynonymously and this trend continued till the 18thcentury. G.W.F Hegelis considered the first political philosopher who separated anddifferentiated civil society from state. His footsteps were followed by KarlMarx and Fredrick Engels in the 19thCentury. In the 20thCentury,Antonio Gramsci conceptualized the concept of Civil Society. So, a CivilSociety covers all forms of voluntary association and social interactionwhich is not controlled by the state.Features of Civil Society:1.)It is often referred toasnon-state institutions, organized society andcovers a large space in society.2.)It considers the groups which are intermediate between the State(political society) and family (national society).3.)Though it is considered autonomous, it is subjected totheauthority ofthe state.4.)It is in pursuit ofacommon public good.5.)It effectively facilitates citizen’s participation in politico-administrative affairs.6.)Its crucial attribute is voluntarism,not coercion.7.)It preaches pluralism to reduce the degree of domination of the State.munotes.in

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8.)It strongly implies theexistence of freedom of association, freedomof thought,and other civil and economic rights.Components of Civil Society:The components included under the umbrella concept of Civil Society are:1.)Non-governmental organizations2.)Trade Unions3.)Cooperatives4.)Farmer’s Organization5.)Youth Groups6.)Religious associations7.)Women’s groups.IntheUSA, the concept of Civil Society is highly developed,while the scenario in India is that the concept is fast growing sincethe1970s. In India Civil Society is observed asa fluid association of socialgroupings or on religious mobilization as much as on voluntary socialassociations.Role of Civil Society:Civil Society plays a crucial role in welfare and developmentadministration. The various dimensions of their roleare:1.)Civil society mobilizes the poor for socio-economic development.2.)It disseminates information and helps in creating awareness amongthepublic regarding various schemes, programs, projects enacted bythe government for their betterment.3.)Enhances publicparticipation intheadministrative process.4.)Facilitates the administrative machinery to become more responsiveto the needs and aspirations of the people.5.)It helps in imposing a community system of accountability on theworking of administrative machinery at lower levels. Thus, it helpsin reducing the scopeofcorruption.6.)Helps in creating political consciousness among the people bydiscussing various political issues.7.)It acts as the watchdogs of the public interest.Limitations of Civil Society:Thus, there are somelimitationsalso of the voluntary organizations whichare a part of civil society.1.)Lack of sufficient monetary resourcesmunotes.in

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2.)Lack of efficient and trained workers3.)Bureaucratic non-cooperation and resistance4.)Insufficient information base5.)Stipulated functional perspective (nonholistic approach).6.)Political disturbance and influence7.)Resistance from local landlords, money lenders,etc.8.)A diverse socio-economic, political environment like casteism,communalism, poverty,etc.Therefore, assessing the relative merit and demerit of Civil SocietyandtheVoluntarySector, the World Development Report 1997 stated that,the voluntary sector portrays its strengths to the table but also itsweakness. It rigorously enhances public awareness, raising citizens'concerns, and delivering services. Local self-help organizationsaresometimes considered the givers of local public goods and services,because of their closeness to local matters. However, their concern is oftenfor certain religious groups and not particularly to society as a whole.Their accountability is often limited and their resources are constrained.7.5UNIT END QUESTIONS1)Explain the status oftheCitizens’ Charter in India.2)Write a detailed note on Right to Information asaneffectivetool toensure transparency in governance.3)Explain the implication of E-Governance to transform the waygovernments serve the citizen better.4)What is the role of Civil Society in modern governance?7.6REFERENCES•Fadia.L.B and Dr.FadiaKuldeep, 2020, “Public Administration:Administrative Theories”SahityaBhawan.•Laxmikanth.M, 2019, “Public Administration”McGraw HillEducation.•Shreyasi Ghosh, 2016, “The essence of e-governance in the modernera of Indian public administration today”Future of E-government:learning from the past, Vol.4 No.3 (2016) Issue-September, ISSN2347-6869 (E) pg no. 110 to 123.



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UNIT8OMBUDSMAN, LOK PAL ANDLOK AYUKTAUnit Structure8.0Objective8.1Ombudsman System8.2Lok Pal8.3LokAyukta8.4Unit End Questions8.5References8.0 OBJECTIVEIn this unit,we will try to study the institutions envisaged tocontain the problem of corruption intheadministration. There is a long-standing demand to have an institutional check on the administrationwhich will be effective and efficient as well. The demandforLok PalandLokayuktastems from this expectation. Follow the detailed descriptiongiven below regarding this.8.1OMBUDSMAN SYSTEMModern democratic states are often identified by welfareorientation. However, the government has come to play a crucialrole inthe social, economic,and political development of the nation and this hasultimately resulted in the wider expansion of bureaucracy and themultiplication of administrative process, which in turn has eventuallyincreased the administrative power and discretion enjoyed by the civilservants at different levels of the government. Thus, the misuse or abuseof this power and discretion by civil servants opens up scope forharassment, malpractices, maladministration,and corruption and such atype of situation often gives rise to citizen’s grievances againsttheadministration. The true success of democracy and the achievement ofsocial, economic,and political development depend on the degree towhich the citizen’s grievances are redressed. Therefore, the institutionaldevice formulated for citizen’s grievances is called as OmbudsmanSystem.The earliest deviceofademocratic institution established in theworld for speedy and fastestredressalof citizen’s grievance is theScandinavian institution of Ombudsman. The institutional device oftheOmbudsman was created for the first time in Sweden in 1809. ‘Ombud’ isa Swedish wordthatmeans a person who acts as the representative ormunotes.in

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spokesperson of another person. The Swedish institutional system ofOmbudsman deals with the citizen’s grievances in the following matters:1.)Misuse of administrative power and authority2.)Maladministrationi.e.inefficiency in achieving the goal and targets.3.)Corruption in administrative work that is demanding bribery fordoingthings4.)Nepotism5.)Discourtesy i.e.misbehavior, for instance,use of abusive language.The Swedish Ombudsman is appointed by the Parliament for atenure of four years. He is subjected to get removed only by theParliament ontheground of its loss of confidence in him. He is subjectedto submit his annual report to the Parliament and therefore is known as‘Parliamentary Ombudsman’. But he is independent of the Parliament(legislature) as well astheexecutive and judiciary. Moreover, theOmbudsman system isa Constitutional authority and completely enjoysthe powers and privileges to supervise the compliance of laws andregulations, by the public administrators and see to it that they dischargetheir duties properly. But the Ombudsman doesnot havethepowertoreverse or quash a decision and has no direct control over administrationor the Courts.The Ombudsman can act eitherbased ona complaint lodged by thecitizen against unfair administrative action or SuoMoto. He can prosecuteany hearing officially including the judges. But he cannot inflict anypunishment. He can only report the matter to higher authorities to takenecessary corrective action. Characteristics oftheOmbudsman system are:1.)Independence of action is granted from the executive.2.)Impartial and objective investigation of complaints3.)Suomoto power to start investigations.4.)Right to report to the Parliament as opposed to the executive. Theinstitution of Ombudsman is primarily based on the concept ofadministrative accountability to legislature.5.)Wide publicityisgiven to its working in press and others.6.)Direct, Simple, informal,cheap, speedy method of handling thereceived complaints.In Sweden initially,the Ombudsman was created but then it spreadto other Scandinavian countries like Finland (1919), Denmark (1955), andNorway (1962). However, New Zealand is considered to be the firstCommonwealth country in the world to have adopted the institutionaldevice oftheOmbudsman system in the form ofParliamentaryCommissioner for investigation in 1962. Since then more than 40countries of the world have adopted the Ombudsman system with differentmunotes.in

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nomenclature and functions. In India, the Ombudsman is called Lokpaland Lokayukta.Hence, the system ofOmbudsman isavery crucial institution forthe protection of democratic rights and freedoms and to free the generaladministration from corruption and efficiency and in Scandinaviancountries,the Ombudsman is regarded very important as it plays a crucialrole in granting redressal to citizen’s grievances.8.2LOK PALThe Administrative Reforms Commission (ARC) which wasinitially headed by the eminent leader Morarji Desai submitted a specialand important interim report on ‘Problems of Redressal of Citizen’sGrievances’ in the year 1966. In this particular report, the ARC speciallyinitiated for setting up of two important authorities designated as ‘Lokpal’and ‘Lokayukta’ with the main of providing speedyredressal of citizen’sgrievances. These particular institutions were to be set up based on themodel of the institution of Ombudsman in Scandinavian countries. TheLokpal specifically deals with complaints against ministers and secretariesattheCentral and State levels. The ARC kept the judiciary outside thepurview of Lokpal and Lokayukta as it is present in New Zealand. But inthe case of Sweden,the judicial system is within the purview oftheOmbudsman. According to the policies of ARC, the Lokpal would beappointed by the President after consultation with the Chief Justice ofIndia, the Speaker of LokSabha,and the Chairman of RajyaSabha. Thegovernment of India has accepted the policies and recommendations ofARC.The recommendations formulated by ARC are:1.)They should be independent andimpartial.2.)Their investigations and proceedings shall be conducted in private andshould beuniform.3.)Their appointment shall as far as possible should be non-political.4.)Their job is to tackle the issues basically in the discretionary fieldinvolving actsof injustice, corruption,and favoritism.5.)Their proceedings should not be subjected to judicial interference andthey should have the maximum latitude and powers in obtaininginformation relevant to their particular duties6.)They should not look forward toany benefit from the executivegovernment.So far, 8 official attempts have been initiated to bring aboutlegislation on the Lok pal subject. Bills were introduced in 1968, 1971,1977, 1985, 1989, 1996, 1998,and in August 2001 by the NDAmunotes.in

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 government underA.B. Vajpayee. However, none of the bills have beenpassed in the Parliament due to some reasons.The salient features of the 2001 Lokpal bill are as follows:1.)The bill effectively emphasizes the enactment of Lokpal to inquireinto allegations of corruption against public officials including thePrime Minister, provided the offense committed is within 10 yearsfrom the day the complaint is lodged.2.)The institution of Lokpal shall include a chairperson who is or hasbeen a Chief Justice or a Judge of the Supreme Court and twomembers who are or have been the Judges of the Supreme Court orthe Chief Justice of High Court.3.)The chairpersons and members need to be appointed bythePresidentof India on the recommendation of a committee which is under thecontroloftheVice President of India and comprising the PrimeMinister, the Speaker of LokSabha, Home Minister, Leader of theHouse other than the House in which the Prime Minister is a memberand leaders of the opposition in both the LokSabha and RajyaSabha.4.)The bill focuses on a fixed tenure of 3 years for the chairperson andthe members.5.)The bill entrusts that the Lokpal is capable of functioningindependently and discharge its functions without any kind of fear orfavor.6.)The institution of Lokpal will look into complaints alleging that apublic official has committed an offense punishable underthePrevention of Corruption Act 1983. Now public officials include thePrime Minister and Member of Parliament. The judges oftheSupreme Court and the institution oftheElection Commission havebeensubsequently kept out of the jurisdictionof Lok pal.7.)The complaints and allegations against the Prime Minister related tohis functions and duties in the matters of national security andmaintenance of public order have also been kept out of the purviewof Lokpal.8.)To enable the Lokpal to carry out its function efficiently and in aquasi-judicial manner, it has been entrusted with the powers of acivil court in respect of summoning and enforcing the attendance ofany personof examining him on oath.9.)The bill emphasizes for an open court or if the Lokpal wishes in-camera proceedings, it needs to be completed within 6 months, witha provision for extension of 6 months more.10.)The institution of Lokpal is entrusted with penalpowers todiscourage frivolous complaints.munotes.in

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8.3LOK AYUKTAIt deals with the complaints related to other higher officials apartfrom ministers and secretaries attheCentral and State level. InMaharashtra,the institution of Lokayukta was set up in 1971.There are 11states in which Lokayuktaisestablished. They arenamely Orissa (1970),Maharashtra (1971), Rajasthan (1973), Bihar (1974), Uttar Pradesh(1975), Madhya Pradesh (1981), Andhra Pradesh (1983), HimachalPradesh (1983), Karnataka (1985), Gujarat (1986) and Punjab (1995).The various aspects of Lokayukta are as follows:A)Structural Variations:The structure of Lokayukta is not similar in allstates. Some states like Rajasthan, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,andMaharashtra have established the Lokayukta as well as Up Lokayukta.While some other states like Bihar, Uttar Pradesh,and Himachal Pradeshhave created only Lokayukta and not Up-Lokayukta. This variation inthepattern was not suggested by ARC in thestates.B)Appointment:Both the Lokayukta and Up-Lokayukta are appointedbytheGovernment of the State. While appointing the Governor in most ofthe States, the institutional system of Lokayukta consultswith (a) the ChiefJustice of the State HighCourt (b) the Leader of the opposition in the statelegislative assembly.C)Qualifications:Judicial qualifications have been initiated andprescribed for Lokayukta in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh,Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Orissa, Karnataka, and Assam. But there is nospecific provision with regards to qualifications as prescribed in the statesof Bihar, Maharashtra,and Rajasthan.D)Tenure:In most of the states, the decided tenure is 5 years forLokayukta or 65 years of age whicheveris earlier and he is not eligible forreappointment for a second term.E)Jurisdiction:There is as such no uniformity regarding the jurisdictionof Lokayukta in all the States. The following points can be noted:-1.)The Chief Minister isconsidered as apart of the jurisdiction ofLokayukta in the states of Himachal Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh,Madhya Pradesh,and Gujarat but he is not included in states ofMaharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Bihar,and Orissa.2.)Ministers and higher civil administrators areincluded in the purviewof Lokayukta in almost all states. Talking of Maharashtra, it includedformer ministers and civil ministers in the Lokayukta.3.)Members of states legislature are included in the states of AndhraPradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh,and Assammunotes.in

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4.)The officials and authorities of the local bodies, corporations,companies,and societies are included in the purview of theinstitutional device of Lokayukta in most of the states.5.)Investigations: In most of the states the institution of Lokayuktainvestigatesbased ona complaint lodged by the citizen against unfairadministrative action or Suomoto.6.)Scope of Cases covered: The Lokayukta specifically tackles cases ofcitizen’s grievances as well as allegations in therespective statesnamely Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Assam, Bihar,and Karnataka.F)Other Features:1)The Lokayukta presents annually to the governor a consolidated reporton his performance. The Governor then displays the report along withan explanatory note before theState Legislature and the Lokayukta isresponsible to State Legislature.2)He takes assistance from the state investigating agencies forconductinginquiries.3)He can order relevant resources like files and documents from theState government departments.4)Therecommendation made by Lokayukta is only advisory and notbinding on the State Government.Thus, it can be said that India still has a long way to go as far ascontaining corruption is concerned. Two main reformsthatneed to bemade on an urgent basis are (a)theEstablishment of a strong Lokpal at theCentre and (b) Uniformity in the powers and functions of Lokayuktas intheStates.8.4UNIT END QUESTIONS1.)Write a short note on the Ombudsman System to contain corruptionin Indian Administration.2.)Writea detailed noteon the institution of Lokpal to controlcorruption at the Central level of governance.3.)What are the features of Lokayukta?8.5REFERENCES•Arora Ramesh, and Goyal “Indian Public Administration, Institutionsand Issues” Wishwa Publication.•Fadia. B. L. and Fadia. Kuldeep, 2020,“Public Administration:Administrative Theories”SahityaBhavan.•Laxmikanth.M, 2019, “Public Administration”McGraw HillEducation.




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