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APPROACHES: LIBERAL, REALIST
Unit Structure
1.0 Structure
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Liberal Approach
1.3 Characteristics of the Liberal School of Thought
1.4 Classical Liberalism
1.5 Liberal Approaches in Post -war Years
1.6 Interdependence Liberalism
1.7 Realist Approach
1.8 Classical Realism
1.9 Contemporary Realism or Neo Realism
1.10 Conclusion
1.11 References
1.0 STRUCTURE
• Introduction
• Characteristics of the Liberal school of thought
• Classical Liberalism
• Liberal approaches in post -war years
• Realist Approach
• Classical Realism
• Neo-Realismsm
• Conclusion
1.1 OBJECTIVES
• To understand the liberal approach to international relations
• To analyze various schools of thought within the umbrella id eology
of liberal school
• To understand the realist perspective on international relations
• To analyze various schools of thought within the umbrella ideology
of the realist school munotes.in
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2 1.2 LIBERAL APPROACH
Liberalism is one of the mainstream approaches to unders tanding
international politics. During the 18th and 19th centuries liberal scholars and
political philosophers were trying to chalk out ways to establish peaceful
relations between the states. A systematic account of the problems that
prevailed in world peace was given by Immanuel Kant in 1795. His ideas
influenced the development of the school of liberalism in international
relations.
Till the first world war the liberal scholars were content with their ideas but
after the war broke out and the d estruction it brought with it; liberal scholars
were forced to think about the means to prevent such wars in future. On the
ideology of liberalism, the League of Nations was established in the
interwar period. But the outbreak of the Second World War prove d the
league of nations to be insufficient. Liberalism kept evolving over time and
several different sub -schools under liberalism were developed which will
be discussed later in this chapter.
1.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF T HE LIBERAL SCHOOL
OF THOUGHT
1. Liberal thinkers have faith in human reason. According to liberal
scholars' human beings are capable of understanding what is right and
logical.
2. Liberal theorists believe that there is a possibility of historic progress.
The process of social learning and reason gives man a chance to
progress. Mankind will not live in a state of conflict perpetually and
will choose to adopt political strategies to avoid conflicts. Liberal
philosophers argue that it is possible to reform international relations.
3. Liberal theorists believe there exists a strong linkage between state
and society and international politics. These are not isolated areas.
4. Liberal theorists are pluralist in nature. They believe that the state is
just one of the many actors active in inte rnational politics.
5. Some scholars like David Ricardo and Richard Cobden supported the
idea of free trade as they believed that economic interdependence
increases the stakes of trading partners in each other's economy, and
this helps in avoiding war.
6. Liberal theorists place great emphasis on the establishment and
importance of institutions.
1.4 CLASSICAL LIBERALISM
The liberal thought that existed in the interwar period was called classical
liberal thought. It was inherently based on the idea that human beings know munotes.in
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3 Approaches: Liberal, Realist what is best for them. They are driven by logic and reason. Humans tend to
cooperate, and this tendency would have a spillover effect in domestic and
international politics. Liberalism focuses on individual liberty. The
theoretical base for the development of classical liberalism can be found in
the work of Adam Smith, John Locke, and Jeremy Bentham.
Locke is known as the father of classical liberalism. He argued that the
consent of the people is a prerequisite for a government to rule. He
advocated for a limited government. The main responsibilities of a
government are to protect the rights and liberties of its citizens. Adam Smith
coined the term Laissez Faire economy. He argued that if every individual
in an economy would try to maxim ize his profit the economy would prosper.
He argued the for least sate interference in the economy. Jeremy Bentham
gave the concept of the greatest happiness of the greatest number of people.
Throughout the twentieth century the classical liberal school o f
international relations was the dominant school. The rise of the Classical
liberal school of thought led to the establishment of academic discipline in
the field of international relations. Liberal scholars played a very important
role after the First W orld War in shaping the liberal world order. As
proposed by Woodrow Wilson, the then US president, The league of nations
was set up. It was intended to restore peace and prevent wars. It promoted
the idea of collective security.
Liberal ideas were able to influence policymaking but could not prevent
conflicts and ultimately the second world war broke out. In fact, the failure
of liberal ideas gave rise to the realist school of thought.
1.5 LIBERAL APPROACHES I N POST -WAR YEARS
Despite the failure of liberal theory to prove itself successful in practice, the
scholars kept innovating and building new theories to keep up with the
changing geo -political scenarios. Some of the schools of thought that
emerged after the Second World War are discussed below.
Socio logical Liberalism
The writings of Richard Cobden, Karl Deutsch and John Burton have
explained the idea of sociological liberalism. Cobden argues that the more
communication between the states across the globe the more peaceful would
be the relations amongst them. These interactions should involve actors
other than states. People -to-people contact should be encouraged. When
people of one country interact with the people of the other country, they
develop a relationship of friendship and trust and become mor e empathetic
towards each other. There are fewer chances of such countries going to war
against each other. Karl Deutsch introduced the idea of a ‘security
community’. It means that regular interaction among people can lead to the
development of a ‘commun ity feeling’ among themselves. The trust deficit
can be replaced by mutual trust and states would feel less threatened by each
other. munotes.in
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4 Functionalism
David Mitrany and Ernst Haas are the Pro pounders of functionalism
liberalism. They argue that states shou ld make a list of all the conflicts they
have with each other and then segregate the conflicts as political and non -
political. The areas of conflict that are non -political and less controversial
should be solved through diplomatic channels and then eventually when the
countries see the positive outcome of this process, they would be willing to
cooperate in the field of political conflicts too. One of the most practical
and functional examples of functionalist liberalism is the working of the
EU. The countri es cooperate without compromising on their sovereignty.
1.6 INTERDEPENDENCE LIBE RALISM
This concept was introduced in international politics in the later part of the
1970s. Robert O’ Keohane and Joseph S. Nye developed this concept. They
pointed out that all actors of international relations – state and non -state are
mutually dependent on one another. Interdependence has risen due to rising
interactions between states at economic, social and cultural levels during
globalization. The three main features of interdependence are: -
• There are multiple networks that connect people across societies. Not
just the formal but informal channels of communications like social
media also play an important role in promoting people to people
contact.
• In international politics the issues do not have a hierarchy. Liberalists
question the policy makers for giving more importance to military and
security issues. Liberals argue that some domestic political issues can
have a great impact on the international politics.
• Sometimes national issues of one country have a negative impact on
international politics. For example, with rising economic
interdependence, financial crisis in one nation can impact the global
economy. (Moravcsik, A.)
Check your progress exercise 1
Q1) Explain the liberal approach to International Relations?
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1.7 REALIST APPROACH
Out of all the major theories to study international relations, realism has by
far been the most dominant of all. The reason which makes this school of
thought very popular is its ability to provide the most reasonable munotes.in
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5 Approaches: Liberal, Realist explanation for the reason of constant wars and trust deficit in the arena of
international politics.
Some of the basic assumptions on which the realist school functions are:
1. Realist schools believe that the most important actor in international
politics is the state. All the other actors just act as proxies of states. It
is believed that international politics is state centric.
2. Every state aims at protecting its sovereignty.
3. Safeguarding national interest is paramount for nations. National
interest can be defined differently for different countries. Its definition
cannot be static, it will have to be modified according to the geo -
political envir onment.
4. The only way to safeguard national interest is to accumulate power.
5. Realist schools believe that power is a zero -sum game. When one
nation acquires more power the other feels less powerful
The origin of the realist school can be traced bac k to Thucydides' account
of the Peloponnesian War (43 1 BC), and to Sun Tzu's classic work on
strategy, The Art of War, written at roughly the same time in China. Realism
emerged as the dominant international perspective only during the 20th
Century. Reali sm was a reaction that emerged to counter the claims of
idealism. Idealism was a normative theory which argued that states are
united by the principle “Harmony for Interest”. This view was supported by
the establishment of the League of Nations. When the s econd World War
broke out, the perspective of idealism was shattered. Realists argued that
international politics should be studies from a scientific perspective and not
from a philosophical point of view. They believed that history acts as the
best guide to the future of international relations. While Idealism
emphasized that international relations should be guided by morality,
realists believed in power politics to guard national interest. Realism also
has variations. There are a number of scholars within the broad category of
realist school who differ in their approach towards international politics.
The two major schools are Classical Realism and contemporary or neo
realism.
1.8 CLASSICAL REALISM
The main proponents of the classical school of realism are Thucydides,
Machiavelli, and E.H. Carr and Morgenthau. The main theme around which
classical realism revolves around is that international politics is driven by
endless struggle for power. This feature of international politics has its roots
in human n ature. Classical realism recognizes that principles, morals and
ethics have no role to play in international relations. States should go with
decisions that are morally based on the situation and not on what is
considered moral at a universal level. This s chool of thought gained
prominence during the inter -war period when young scholars took an
interest in looking at the changing nature of international relations. munotes.in
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6 Morgenthau’s Realist Theory
Morgenthau has been the most prominent scholar of classical realis m. He
has given six principles:
1. First Principle: Politics is governed by Objective Laws that have roots
in Human Nature:
He believed that politics is governed by objective laws which have
their roots in human nature. These laws cannot be refuted or
challenged. Taking these as the basis, we can formulate a rational
theory of International Politics; Political Realism believes that
international politics operates based on cert ain objective laws.”
Morgenthau describes man as a power -hungry social animal. Thus, in
international politics too, the states are constantly seeking more
power.
2. Second Principle: National Interest defined in terms of National
Power
The states always d efine and act for securing national interest by
means of power. History tells us that foreign policies have always
considered power as the central idea.
3. Third Principle: Interest is always Dynamic
Every nation must keep re -defining its national interes ts regularly.
With constantly changing geo -political scenario the interest of the
nation's keeps shifting. As such, national interest defined in terms of
national power must be repeatedly and continuously analyzed for
realistically analyzing the course of international relations.
4. Fourth Principle: Abstract Moral Principles cannot be applied to
Politics
Moral principles should do not determine policies and actions of
states. These should simply be a source of some influence.
5. Fifth Principle: Differenc e between Moral Aspirations of a Nation and
the Universal Moral Principles:
States should go with what is moral in each situation and what suits
its national interest rather than following the universal concepts of
morality.
6. Sixth Principle: Autonomy of International Politics
Morgenthau argues that international politics as a discipline is
autonomous. It's different from law, ethics and economics. (Jervis, R.,
1998)
1.9 CONTEMPORARY REALISM OR NEO REALISM
This is one of the newer branches of realism. Thi s school has developed
under the influence of Kenneth Waltz. Neo realists continue to acknowledge
the importance of power in international politics. They shift the basis of
understanding international politics from individual states to the structure
of the system. They base their theory on the structural level and not on the munotes.in
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7 Approaches: Liberal, Realist actor level. Kenneth Waltz talks about how the structure of international
politics compels the states to go for a power struggle. There is no guarantee
of protection in international re lations due to lack of global government.
Therefore, there is a constant trust dilemma that urges the states to acquire
more power to protect their national interest. Unlike the classical Realists
who trace the causes of war to human nature, the Neorealist s explain
international conflict within the framework of the anarchic structure of the
international system. (Waltz, K. N., 1990)
Check your progress exercise 2.
Q. 1) Explain the Classical and neoclassical approaches to international
relations.
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____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
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1.10 CONCLUSION
Liberalism has strong faith in human reason and rationality. It believes that
human beings can interact with and understand each other and find peaceful
solutions to problems. Liberalism emphasizes people -to-people contact and
enhancing interdependence to avoid conflict. failure of liberalism in the
interwar period led to rise of realist school of thought. Realists believe in
power politics. They argue that history is the best guide to be followed by
foreign policy makers. Liberal ideas might be very attrac tive, but they are
not practical. Realists also have different lines of thought. The classical
realists believe that the power -seeking nature of state has its roots in the
human nature whereas the neo realist believes that it’s the structure if
internation al politics that compels the states to go for power maximization.
Realist school of international relations is the most dominant school of
thought prevailing in today’s time and age.
1.11 REFERENCES
Moravcsik, A. Liberalism and International Relations The ory. Center of
European Studies. Harvard University. Retrieved from
https://www.princeton.edu/~amoravcs/library/liberalism_working.pdf
Jervis, R. (1998). Realism in the Study of World Politics. International
Organization, 52(4), 971 –991. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2601364 .
Waltz, K. N. (1990). REALIST THOUGHT AND NEOREALIST
THEORY. J ournal of International Affairs, 44(1), 21 –37.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/24357222
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8 2
EVOLUTION OF INTERNATIONAL
ORGANIZATION
Unit Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The history of international organisation
2.3 Characteristics of international organisation
2.31. Internationalism
2.3.2 Supranationalism
2.3.3 Promotes the idea of collective security
2.3.4 Defensive alliances
2.3.5 Preventive Diplomacy
2.4 Study of International Organization
2.5 Conclusion
2.6 References
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• To help understand the evolution of international organization
• To understand the characteristics of international organization
• Understanding the academic support for the study of international
organizations
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The First World War encouraged the world to invest in the formation of
international organizations. The purpose was to protect the world in future
from any such wars and aimed at establishing peace. Over the years, rising
globalization and increased interactions of nation s at not just economic but
socio -cultural levels have enhanced the role of international organizations.
These bodies provide platforms for nation states to engage with each other.
With rising role of non -state actors like terrorist outfits that operate as
multinational organizations it becomes even more important to have better
coordination amongst nations. The purpose of establishing international
organizations was not to have a world government but to have better
diplomatic ties amongst states.
munotes.in
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9 Evolution of International Organization Internat ional organizations are institutions which are established by states.
These are continuing and formal structures to conduct certain aspects of
relationships amongst states. These institutions are a reaction to extreme
decentralization that prevailed in the traditional system of international
relations. It is an effort by the statemen to help navigate the extremely
complex interdependence structure of international politics in contemporary
times.
2.2 THE HISTORY OF INTER NATIONAL
ORGANIZATIONS
The process of establishment of international organizations has its origin in
nineteenth century Europe. With the rise in industrialization, urbanization
and newer methods of transport and communication there is a need felt to
create special purpose agencies which specialize in these areas. These were
often called Public International Unions and were designed to facilitate the
collaboration of governments of different countries in dealing with
economic, social and technical problems of the newly established systems.
Some of the notable organizations included the international telegraphic
union (1865) and the universal postal union (1874).
In the political domain, one of the first efforts to establish an international
organization was made at the congress of Vienna in the year 1815. The
concept of “concert of Europe” was proposed which was an idea like
collective security. Although no political institution was established as
such, it created a platform for all the major powers of that time to organize
themselves and have b etter diplomatic relations. This platform was
functional till World War 1 broke out. This concept was widened in scope
by the Hague Conference of 1899 and 1907. The aim of this conference was
to bring small states and great powers and even non -European sta tes to
participate in the collective political deliberations. Towards the end of
nineteenth century, we saw the establishment of Pan American Union. The
idea of international organization was flourishing in the western
hemisphere.
This pre -world War I dev elopment in international organizations provided
the foundation for more sophisticated international political institutions to
be established in the twentieth century. The nineteenth century also saw
emerging distinctions between the political and nonpolit ical agencies,
between the regional and geographically undefined organizations, between
the status of great powers and the small states. These distinctions proved to
be very significant in the later course of international organization. The
basic patterns and structures of institutions evolved in this period. There
were mainly two motivations to build international organizations:
• States were desperate to promote coordinated responses towards the
problems related to establishment of peace because this was an era of
rising global trade and more interdependence. Political or social
uncertainties caused heavy damage to the economies of states. munotes.in
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10 • It was acknowledged that there is a need to establish a mechanism to
moderate between states to avoid political and military conflicts.
The first attempt to organize one general organization with maximum
inclusion was made at the end of World War I when the League of nations
and its affiliated bodies were established. The league of nations was the first
general internati onal organization in the following sense:
• It combined the great power council, general conference of statemen
and the technically oriented international bureau.
• It was a multipurpose organization in true sense which not just dealt
with the matters pertai ning to conflict resolutions but also had
separate bodies for prevention of illegal opium trade, slave trade etc.
• It was in actual sense a world institution. Although it did maintain the
Europe centric characteristics, yet it was inclusive.
After World War II the league of nations was superseded by the United
Nations, it was also a general organization which derived its structure from
the lessons of experience provided by the league. The United Nations was
to assume a more evolved role. It wo uld include specialized agencies,
following the pattern first set by the public international unions, and such
regional organizations as existed or might be created by limited groups of
states. Post -World War II the system of international organization evo lved
in operations. A dozen of new specialized agencies came up some were
independent of united nations and others were coordinated with varied
degree of effectiveness by the United Nations. After 1945 the system of
cooperating at international platforms proliferated to regional organizations.
Most of the regional organizations worked independently.
The network of international institutions comprises of hundreds of
intergovernmental agencies outside the scope of United Nations, dealing
with vast range of p roblems and providing variety of mechanisms for the
conduct of relations amongst states. These are supplemented by a well -
connected network of civil society organizations which promote
international consultations and activities in the specialized fields at the
unofficial levels.
2.3 THE CHARACTERISTICS OF INTERNATIONAL
ORGANIZATION
2.3.1. Internationalism
International organizations have so far mostly functioned as a loose
association, trying to keep up with the national values of their member
states. These organizations are heavily dependent on the voluntary
acceptance of their authority by the states. They mostly work on the
principles of persuasion because most of the decisions are to be taken by
consensus. For this purpose, countries use their soft power to politically
influence the other members to vote in Favour or against the motions munotes.in
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11 Evolution of International Organization introduced in these organizations. Use of command and coercion are not the
recommended tools to be used in the functioning of international
organizati on. The international agencies have legislative and the
enforcement authority on in limited areas. Their capacity to operate depends
heavily upon how politically accommodative the member states are. The
idea of international organization is not to have power over states rather it
is to facilitate the states in peaceful development.
In most of the organizations each state has a power called veto. If a state
does not agree with the decisions or policies of the organization, they can
use veto to convey their disagreement. This gives international
organizations, international character in a true sense. With years of
experience, it was realized that giving veto power to each state prolonged
the process of decision -making unnecessarily. In Favour of quicker
decisi on-making United Nations has now confined the veto just the
members of Security council. Only the five permanent members are
authorized to veto certain decisions of nonprocedural character.
There has been a tendency since the end of World War II to compar e
international organizations with that of the world government. It is too
utopian a view to think that the world could become a federation of nations
any day soon. That would require the setting up of a central agency with
coercive powers to hold national government accountable.
2.3.2. Supranationalism
From the viewpoint of establishing a world government the closest that any
organization stands are the European Union. European union began with the
creation of European Coal and steel community by Luxembou rg,
Netherlands, Belgium, west Germany, Italy and France. Eventually it was
expanded to become the European Economic Community and European
Atomic Energy community. Some features of these organizations allowed
them to deal authoritatively and directly with individuals and business
enterprises within the member states. This led to giving them a
supernational character.
There is no one universally accepted definition of what supranationalism
stands for, but it generally means possessing government -like
chara cteristics. These are the organizations which are closer to the idea of
world government but not completely a world government. The difference
between a supranational organization and an international organization is
the relationship they share with the n ational government. A supranational
body is superior to its member states whereas an international organization
works on the concept and mutual agreement of member states.
Supernationalism precisely portrays the autonomy attained by some
international organizations in the field of international affairs, over time
from the control of national governments.
2.3.3. Promotes Idea of collective security
Prior to the end of the First World War international relations were
conducted based on the Westphalia world o rder principles. They're existed munotes.in
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12 severe security dilemma and trust deficits between the nations. There was
no credible global platform to extend diplomatic ties and engage in
meaningful dialogue. States preferred to form alliances with the like -
minded stat es to safeguard their sovereignty. This system was often referred
to as the balance of power system. The formation of league of nation, post
the world war I tried to contain this system and provide a platform for
peaceful resolution of conflicts between the states. League of nations was
one of the major steps taken in the direction of promoting the idea of
collective security. Despite the failure of the league, it did teach us
meaningful lessons based on which the United Nations still stands strong in
media ting between the states and conducting international affairs.
2.3.4. Defensive alliances
During the period of the cold war where there was a power struggle between
the two superpowers - USSR and USA, there emerged international
organizations for the purpos e of implementing collective security of
respective blocks. During the cold war there was a constant threat of war
and international organizations were used to protect the interest of the
members of the block. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is
an example of one such organization which was built for the purpose of
defense of the members of western bloc. It was built in reaction to the
expansion of the Soviet Union.
2.3.5. Preventive Diplomacy
Organizations like NATO were formed for military defense activities. The
task of providing a platform for flourishing diplomatic relationships was left
to the United Nations. International organizations like the United Nations
provide a political forum with private, public, formal and informal dispute
resolution mechanisms. The function of preventive diplomacy was added to
the realm of UN after the middle eastern crisis of 1956. UN would carry out
military interventions to ensure peace in certain countries across the world.
Such military interventions wer e undertaken only after the consent of all the
parties involved in the conflict. The purpose of the intervention was not to
combat the aggressor but to stabilize the local situation. (Clark, Grenville;
and Sohn, Louis B., 1958)
Know your progress exercise 1:
Q.1) Explain the characteristics of international organizations?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
2.4 THE STUDY OF INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION
Since World War II scholars in the field of international relations started
taking interest in research of the field of international organization. munotes.in
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13 Evolution of International Organization Scholarships were disbursed largely in the field of structural and legal
reforms in international politics. With rising globalization, the emphasis of
the research was on the rising interdependence amongst the nations. Several
studies have been conducted of the policies and attitudes of states toward
and within the United Nations and other international organizations.
Extensive research has also been undertaken on the development of bloc
affiliations, voting patterns, and other aspects of the political processes
within international agencies.
2.5 CONCLUSION
International organizations, which are often referred to as
intergovernmental org anizations, are a set of stable norms and rules which
are meant to keep a check on the behavior of member states and other actors
in the field of international relations. These organizations play a very
important role in today's time and age by providing a platform for all the
actors to raise their concerns and communicate with each other for better
cooperations. With rising globalization and interdependence on each other
even threats have become global. To deal with pandemic or transnational
terror outfits countries need to be better networked and that is where
international organization plays an important role. There may be incidences
where the international organization has failed to bring out favorable
outcomes like the ongoing war between Ukraine and Russia, yet we cannot
undermine their valuable inputs especially post World War II.
2.6 REFERENCES
Clark, Grenville; and Sohn, Louis B. (1958) 1960 World Peace Through
World Law. 2d ed., rev. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press.
Commission To Study The O rganization Of Peace 1957 Strengthening the
United Nations. New York: Harper.
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14 3
THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
Unit Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Origin of League of Nations
3.3 Structure of League of Nations
3.4 Various Bodies of League of Nations
3.5 Some Successes of the League of Nations
3.6 Failures of the League of Nations
3.6 Conclusion
3.7 References
3.0 OBJECTIVES
• To help understand the origin of league of nations
• To help understand its functions
• To help understand the reasons for its failures
3.1 INTRODUCTION
League of nations was an international organization which was founded
after the Paris peace conference in the year 1919. It was a reaction of the
First World War. The organization’s goals included, preventing future wars
through collecti ve security, settling disputes between the countries
peacefully, providing a diplomatic channel for communications between
nations, disarmament and improving global welfare. The diplomatic
philosophy on which the structure of league of nations was placed w as
fundamentally different from what the philosophy which was being
preached over last hundred years. The league did not have an armed force
of its own thus it was always dependent on the big powers to ensure its
decisions were implemented peacefully. The league was successful in
averting some conflicts, but it proved to be a failure when it could not
prevent the Axis powers in 1930s from taking aggressive actions which
ultimately led to the second world war. Later the United Nations
organization replaced it after the second world war and inherited several of
its organizations. munotes.in
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15 The League of Nations 3.2 ORIGIN OF LEAGUE OF NATIONS
The idea of having a peaceful community of nations had been previously
described by Immanuel Kant’s work “Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical
Sketch in th e year 1795. the Origins of the League of Nations was found in
the Fourteen Points laid down by US President Woodrow Wilson which
envisioned an organization that would solve a dispute between its members.
It was proposed after the First World War. The esta blishment of league was
approved and ratified by the Treaty of Versailles at the Versailles
Conference in April 1919. The first session of the league was held in
Geneva in the year 1920. There were various means that were used by the
league to deter the me mbers from violating its principles and rules. Some
of the methods used were imposition of economic sanctions, imposition oof
quarantines etc.
Germany and Soviet Union were both excluded from the league and
congress did not approve United states to join t he league. Therefore, the
major players remained nonmembers of the organization. Internally too the
league never represented a united voice. Americans on the other hand were
apprehensive that if US joins the international politics it would lose its
autonom y.
The League of Nations consisted of a council made up of four permanent
powers – Britain, France, Italy and Japan and four others chosen at intervals
from the remaining member states. The First four were Belgium, Greece,
Spain and Brazil, but Brazil beca me the first state to leave the League when
it forced Italy to withdraw from its unilateral occupation of Corfu in 1923,
was scored against one of the organization’s own principal council
members. (Supti, 2020) .
3.3 STRUCTURE OF LEAGUE OF NATIONS
3.3.1 Council
The council had the authority to make decisions related to matters of world
peace. Initially the council had four permanent members (United Kingdom,
France, Italy, Japan) and four non -permanent members which were elected
by the assembly for a period of three years. The first four non -permanent
members were Belgium, Brazil, Greece and Spain. United State of America
was supposed to be the fifth permanent member of the council, but the US
senate was dominated by the republican party which voted against joining
the league of nations.
The initial structure of the council was changed several times during the life
of the league to accommodate the changing geo -political scenarios across
the globe. Non -permanent seats were increased from four to six in the year
1922 and then to nine in 1926. One more permanent seat was added to th e
council to make Germany the fifth permanent member of the council. Later munotes.in
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16 when Germany and Japan both quit the membership of the league, their
seats were taken over by the non -permanent members. On average the
council met at least five times a year and so metimes even more if any
extraordinary situation arose.
3.3.2 Secretariat
The agenda of the council and the assembly was prepared by the secretariat
staff. The secretariat staff was also responsible for publishing the reports of
the meetings and other routine matters. The secretariat acted as the civil
services of the league.
Throughout the life of the League from 1920 –1946, the three Secretaries
General were:
• Sir James Eric Drummond, 7th Earl of Perth (UK) (1920 -1933)
• Joseph Avenol (France) (1933 -1940)
• Seán Lester (Ireland) (1940 -1946)
3.3.3 Assembly
The Assembly represented all the members of the league of nations. Eah
member country had one vote in the assembly. All the member countries
did not have a representative permanently stationed at Geneva (the
headquarters of league of nations). The Assembly held its sessions once a
year in September.
3.4 VARIOUS BODIES OF LEAGUE OF NATIONS
• ILO: The International labor organization was the most successful
agency of the league of the nation. The goals of ILO included fixing
maximum working days and minimum wages, ensuring that member
nations provide unemployment benefits and old age pensions. The aim
was to create a better working culture in the expanding private sector.
• Refugee organization: It helped the Prisoners of War in Russia to
resettle once released. In 1933, it helped the Jews, who were fleeing to
escape Nazi persecution, to resettle in different countries where they
would be safe. The refugee organization worked in providing basic
standards of living and human rights to the refugees.
• Health organization: It did good work in finding causes of different
epidemics. It was especially successful in combating the Typhus
epidemic in Russia which had the potential to spread to the rest of
Europe. This was an extremely important organization as by this time
the diseases had the potential to spread across countries due to a rise in
the level of interaction.
• Mandates commission: It had the responsibility of monitoring the
governance of territories given to member nations as Mandates. munotes.in
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17 The League of Nations • Disarmament Commission: the first successful task accomplished by
the commission was to obtain an agreement by France, Italy, Japan and
Britain to limit the size of their Navies. Later Uk refused to sign a
disarmam ent treaty in 1923 along with the Kellogg -Briand Pact in the
year 1928. This put the authority of the league under threat. The
commission also failed to keep a check on the military buildup during
1930s by Axis powers.
• Permanent Central Opium Board: The Bo ard was established to
supervise the statistical control system introduced by the second
International Opium Convention. This system mediated the production,
manufacture, trade and retail of opium and its by -products. The Board
also established a system of providing certificates for import and export
of opium to check illegal flow of drugs across the globe.
• Slavery Commission: The commission aimed at eradicating the
practice of slavery and forced prostitution across the globe. It succeeded
in gaining the em ancipation of 200,000 slaves in Sierra Leone and
organized raids against slave traders in its efforts to stop the practice of
forced labour in Africa. It also succeeded in reducing the death rate of
workers constructing the Tanganyika railway from 55% to 4 %. The
Commission kept records on slavery, prostitution and drug trafficking
to monitor those issues. (Medhat, 2020)
3.5 SOME SUCCESSES OF TH E LEAGUE OF NATIONS
• Aland Islands: these were a collection of islands which lie between
Sweden and Finland. The i nhabitants of the island speak Swedish and
expressed their desire to be governed by Sweden instead of Finland.
Sweden took the matter to the league of nations and the league
decided to keep the governance of these islands with Finland itself but
granted au tonomy in their administrative affairs. This led to a version
of conflict between Sweden and Finland.
• Greece and Bulgaria: In one such incident, it forced Greece to pay
compensation to Bulgaria, when the former invaded the latter. But
none of these disput es threatened world peace. In another incident
Poland’s sovereignty was threatened. The first issue came during the
occupation of Vilna by the Soviet Union in 1920 and its subsequent
handover to Lithuania. Following a demand that Lithuania’s
independence is recognized, the League of Nations got involved.
Through careful mediation, Vilvia was returned to Poland. The
League was also brought in as Poland grappled with Germany about
Upper Silesia and with Czechoslovakia over the town of Teschen.
• Liberia: Ther e were reports of forced labor in the independent
country of Liberia. The league of nations immediately launched an
investigation into the matter pertaining to allegations against the
Firestone Ruber plantation for using forced labor. The report munotes.in
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18 published by the league implicated many government officials for
being involved in recruitment of bonded labor. This led to the
President of the country to hand over his resignation.
Know your progress exercise 1:
Q.1) Explain the structure and relevance of League of Nations?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
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3.6 FAILURES OF THE LEAG UE OF NATIONS
• One of the biggest reasons for the failure of the league of nations was
that it was designed by America but was being run by European
powers who did not believe in the democratic and diplomatic
philosophy of the league. The member countries did not trust each
other and thus went along to form alliances and counter alliances
secretly. The security dilemma existed amongst the nations and all the
countries were skeptical about other country’s plan of action.
• The very foundation of the league was based peace treaties whose
terms and conditions were viewed as unfair by nations and its
implementation was inviting protests. It was an organization of the
allied powers especially Britain and France. It was only Germany,
which was made to disarm under the Treaty of Versailles. The League
failed to convince other major powers to disarm. Hitler used this as
an excuse to quit the World Disarmament Conference. Soon, he
denoun ced the League of Nations and made Germany quit it as well.
• The Conference of Ambassadors was set up as a temporary body to
resolve disputes. But it continued to exist even after the formation of
the League. This hurt the legitimacy and the authority of the League
of Nations.
• The League of Nations was not a truly representative organization. It
had limited membership and the USA did not join it. Th is resulted in
a lack of funds for the League’s work.
• The league of nations did not just fail because of the aggressive
nations who defied its authority, but it also failed due to its own
members. To appease Hitler, Britain and France two of the most
power ful nations of the league ignored the institution and its
principles.
• Economic depression in 1930s led to extreme hardships for the
general public and factions like fascists and Nazis used it to their
advantage to manipulate the public opinion. Fascist dictatorships took munotes.in
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19 The League of Nations power in Germany, Italy and Japan, which were intent on empire -
building and these countries defied the League.
• Despite the objection from the league Japan invaded Manchuria and
the league could not stop the invasion. This was a major failu re on the
part of the league as one of the core objectives of the organization was
to stop nations from going on war. With this incidence this very
purpose was defeated.
• Hitler openly announced the Germans quitting league of nations in the
year 1932. This was a great setback for the league as later Germany
became one of the founders of Axis power which initiated the second
world war.
• Italy invaded Abyssinia in 1935. Although the League officially
condemned the Italians, France and Britain were caught maki ng a
secret agreement to give Abyssinia to Italy. This explains that league
was not able to provide the desired platform for engagement or
diplomatic communication between countries. Nations still went for
backdoor channels to have informal and secret a greements with each
other.
3.6 CONCLUSION
All these flaws ultimately led to the outbreak of World War 2. Despite the
fact the League of Nations could not stop another world war, its importance
cannot be undermined. It laid the foundations for further develop ment of
international organizations. The League of Nations along with its various
affiliated bodies worked tirelessly to institutionalize international politics
and bring some order in its work. It ultimately led to the establishment of
the United Nations.
Check your progress exercise 3:
Q.1) Discuss the reasons for failure of the League of nations.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
3.7 REFERENCES
Medhat, A. (2020). A Critical Analysis to the United Nations' Performance
in the light of Contemporary Global Challenges. Egyptian Competition
Authority.
Supti, A. (2020). Formation of the League of Nations was unique, though it
failed, yet. Retrieved from Research Gate.
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20 4
UNITED NATIONS
Unit Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objective of Chapter
4.2 Objectives of the United Nations
4.3 Principles of the United Nations
4.4 T he United Nations Charter
4.5 Principal Organs of the United Nations Organizations
4.5.1 General Assembly
4.5.2 Power and Functions or Jurisdiction of the General Assembly
4.5.3 Security Council
4.5.4 Voting and Veto Power
4.5.5 Powers and Functions of Security Council
4.5.6 Power and Functions or Jurisdiction of the Security Council
4.6 International Court of Justice
4.6.1 Composition
4.6.2 Election
4.6.3 Seat
4.6.4 Officers and Salary
4.7 Administration
4.7.1 Functions and Powers
4.7.2 Jurisdiction
4.8 Contentious Juri sdiction
4.9 Law Applied by the Court
4.10 Advisory Jurisdiction
4.10.1 Critique:
4.11 Secretary General
4.11.1 Power and Functions of the Secretary -general
4.12 Economic and Social Council (Ecosoc)
4.13 Trusteeship Council
4.14 Summary
4.14.1 Critique
4.15 Reference munotes.in
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21 United Nations 4.0 INTRODUCTION
As seen in the previous chapter, the League of Nations had several defects
that led to its failure, biggest being its inability to prevent the Second World
War. In response to this historic The United Nations was established after a
series of efforts. For example, the London Declaration 1949 created the
modern Commonwealth of Nations, the Atlantic Charter in the same year
and the Casablanca Conference in 1943 that United States and Britain
signed for the post -war world. During the 1943 Moscow Conference, the
USSR agreed to US wish to create a world organization and finally in the
Yalta Conference 1945 wherein US, UK and Soviet Union came together
for collective security.
Established in 1945 following the end of the Second World War, the United
Nations (UN) is a prime example of an international governmental
organization with almost universal membership. Only states can be
members of the United Nations and membership is val ued because it confers
upon the member state international recognition of its sovereignty. There
are 193 UN member states – but it is important to note that a small number
of states are not members – voluntarily such as Vatican City and due to
crisis, such as Palestine and Taiwan. In the absence of a ‘world
government’, the United Nations is in the effort towards Global
Governance.
4.1 OBJECTIVE OF CHA PTER
•To develop an understanding of the structure and workings of the
United Nations
•To analyze global issues and critique the dynamics of the international
relations while addressing them at this forum
4.2 OBJECTIVES OF TH E UNITED NATIONS
The objectives of the United Nations are enshrined in the Preamble to the
Charter. There are four major objectives -
(1) To save the succeeding generations from the scourge of war.
(2) To reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the work and
dignity of human person and equal rights of men, women and nations
large and small.
(3) To establish conditions under which jus tice and respect for the
obligations arising from treaties and other sources of international law
can be maintained;
(4) To promote social progress and better standard of life in larger
freedom.
The objectives of the United Nations envisage a peaceful life to the people
of the world through practicing tolerance. and living together in peace and
harmony with one another. This spirit has facilitated the emergence of the
concept of peaceful co -existence among the states despite political,
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22 4.3 PRINCIPLES OF THE UNITED NATIONS
The UNO is based on the principle of sovereign equality of all its members.
They strive to settle international disputes using peaceful means and refrain
from the use of threat or force that can threaten international peace and
solidarity. At the same time, the members of the organization also block
attempts by rogue nations to disturb peace and stability by taking preventive
or enforcement action.
While carrying out these functions, Article 2 of the UN Charter also lays
down an important principle of non -interference in internal matters of any
state. But in case any matter of domestic jurisdiction can cause threat to
peace, the UNO will apply enforcement action.
4.4 THE UNITED NATIONS CHARTER
During World War II on 1st January 1942, the United States, United
Kingdom, United Soviet Socialist Republic and China issued a declaration
of coming together as ‘United Nations’. Over 800 representatives of 50
nations assembled for the San Francisco Conference where they signed the
United Nations Charter on 26th June 1945. This document forms the
foundation of the largest inter -governmental organization.
The Charter begins with a preamble and thereafter contains 111 articles
categorized int o 19 chapters. The Preamble envisages the principle of
collective security to maintain international peace and security.
The broad segregation of the chapters is as follows: Chapter Article Provision Summary I 1 - 2 Purposes & Principles II 3 - 6 Membership III – XV 7 - 101 Organs- their constitution and functions XVI - XVII 102 - 107 Adherence to International Law XVIII - XIX 108 - 111 Amendment and Ratification It would be essential to read atleast Article 1 of the UN Charter. It lays down
the four purposes of the Organization:
1. To maintain international peace and security , and to that end: to
take effective collective measures for the prevention and removal o f
threats to the peace, and for the suppression of acts of aggression or
other breaches of the peace, and to bring about by peaceful means,
and in conformity with the principles of justice and international law,
adjustment or settlement of international disputes or situations which
might lead to a breach of the peace; munotes.in
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23 United Nations 2. To develop friendly relations among nations based on respect for the
principle of equal rights and self -determination of peoples, and to
take other appropriate measures to strengthen univer sal peace;
3. To achieve international co -operation in solving international
problems of an economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian
character, and in promoting and encouraging respect for human
rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to
race, sex, language, or religion; and
4. To be a centre for harmonizing the actions of nation s in the
attainment of these common ends.
Therefore, the 4 -fold purpose of the UN Charter is peace -keeping, peace -
building, conflict prevention and humanitarian assistance. These are done
through the organs and specialized agencies.
Chapter II of the charter has provisions to grant membership, suspend,
expel, or restore rights and privileges of membership of states from the UN.
The Security Council has been assigned this function.
Chapter III enlists the 6 organs that will carry out the business of the UNO
and also provides for the creation of subsidiary organs. Chapter IV (Art. 9 -
22) & Chapter V (Art. 23 – 32) enlist provisions for the composition,
functions and powers of the General Assembly (UNGA) and the Security
Council (UNSC) respectively.
Chapter VI deals with methods for pacific settlement of disputes such as
negotiation, enquiry, mediation, conciliation, arbitration, and judicial
settlement. The next Chapter VII reserves power with the Security Council
to determine threats to peace and take appropriate action.
Chapter VIII has the objective of regional arrangements or agencies for
dealing with such matters relating to the maintenance of international peace
and security.
Under the Chapter IX, Article 55 enlists steps to be taken for creation of
conditions of stability and well -being which are necessary for peaceful and
friendly relations among nations based on respect for the principle of equ al
rights and self -determination of peoples. Hence it establishes the organ
Economic and Social Council for this purpose through provisions in
Chapter X.
The UN assumes responsibilities for Non -Self-Governing Territories in
Chapter XI. The Charter lays dow n the founding principles of the
Trusteeship System in Chapter XII and thereby establishes the Trusteeship
Council in Chapter XIII.
Article 92 of Chapter XIV continues the role of the Permanent Court of
International Justice as the principal judicial organ under the newly created
International Court of Justice. It creates an obligation on member states to
comply with its decisions in case to which it is a party.
Chapter XV lays down provisions for administrative set -up of the UNO.
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24 perform duties as international officials responsible to only the UNO and
not any government.
Chapters XVI and XVII list down miscellaneous functions and transitional
security arrangements. The final Chapter XVIII lays down the procedure
for Amendments and the following Chapter XIX lays down the procedure
for Ratification and Signature. The annexure to the Charter enlists the
Amendments made to Articles 23, 27 and 61and 109.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
Note: Use the space given below for your answer.
1) Explain the origin of the United Nations.
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____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
2) What are the components and provisions of the United Nations Charter?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
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4.5 PRINCIPAL ORGANS OF THE UNITED NATIONS
ORGANIZATIONS
The UN has 6 organs, namely - (i) General Assembly, (ii) Security Council,
(iii) the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), (iv) Trusteeship Council,
(v) Secretariate and (vi) International Court of Justice.
4.5.1 General Assembly
General Assembly, also know n as UNGA - short for United Nations General
Assembly, as stated on the official website is “the main policy -making
organ of the Organization. Comprising all Member States, it provides a
unique forum for multilateral discussion of the full spectrum of inter national
issues covered by the Charter of the United Nations.” This is the chief organ
of the UNO that has membership of all member countries. Each member
sends upto five delegates to the General Assembly but only one has the right
to vote based on the pri nciple of equality of states. Once a state is a member
of the United Nations, it is automatically a member of the General
Assembly.
The Assembly meets once a year for three to four months starting from the
third Tuesday in September every year. Extraordin ary or special session can
be convened on the request of a majority of the states or by the Security
Council. Emergency sessions can be convened to discuss any specified
problem that may arise. The General Assembly decides its own
international rules and r egulations. munotes.in
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25 United Nations The UNGA members debate in matters of international importance in their
annual meetings. Most work, however, is delegated to six main committees,
known as (1) Disarmament and International Security, (2) Economic and
Financial, (3) Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural, (4) Special Political and
Decolonization, (5) Administrative and Budgetary, and (6) Legal.
4.5.2 Power and Functions or Jurisdiction of the General Assembly
The main tasks of the UNGA as per the UN Charter include discussion,
debate and making recommendations on subjects pertaining to international
peace and security, as well as peaceful resolution of disputes. The General
Assembly exercises deliberative, supervisory, financial, and elective
functions relating to any matter within the scope of the UN Charter.
Deliberative: It discusses any matter within the scope of the UN Charter
such as the general principles of co -operation in maintenance of
international peace and security. The Assembly makes recommendations on
political, economic, humanitarian, social and legal matters to States on
international issues except those being considered by the Security Council.
It discusses granting of membership, the suspension of the rights and
privileges of membership, the expulsion of members and qu estions relating
to the operation of the trusteeship system.
Supervisory: As part of supervising the organs of the United Nations
Organization, the General Assembly receives and considers reports from
the UNSC and other UN organs. In case of threats to peace, wherein a
permanent member of the Security Council may have used its veto, the
UNGA can consider the matter and recommend actions to its members. This
organ can initiate studies for the purpose of encouraging the progressive
development of internationa l law and its codification and promote
conditions for the realization of human rights and fundamental freedoms for
all without discrimination.
Elective: Election of the non -permanent members of the Security Council,
members of the Economic and Social counc il, and some of the members of
the Trusteeship Council. It also participates in the election of the Judges of
the International Council of Justice. The Secretary -General appointed by
the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council.
Decis ions on other questions, including the determination of additional
categories of questions to be decided by a two -thirds majority, shall be made
by a majority of the members present and voting. (Art. 18).
Financial: The General Assembly considers and approves the budget of the
UN. It establishes the financial assessment of member States. It also
oversees a peacekeeping budget for funding and equipping the forces. It also
makes financial and budgetary arrangement s with specialized agencies.
A member of the U.N. which is in arrears in the payment of its financial
contribution to the Organization shall have no vote in the General Assembly
if the amount of its arrears equal or exceeds the amount of the contributions
due from it for the preceding two full years. The General Assembly may, munotes.in
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26 nevertheless, permit such Member to vote if it is satisfied that the failure to
pay is due to conditions beyond the control of the Member.
4.5.3 Security Council
The Security Council is considered the most import ant organ of the UNO.
It is the only organ that can impose sanctions on states or deploy military
forces on behalf of the international community to keep the peace in a
certain area, region or country. It is also known as the Enforcement Wing.
The United Nations itself does not have its own military force. Through the
contributory support of member states, the UNSC can muster military and
police personnel in times of crisis. These forces are referred to as
‘peacekeepers’, considering their non -offensive rol e. The UNSC also
ensures that the rules of war are observed. This includes international
humanitarian law to protect civilians, provide medical aid to injured
soldiers, treat prisoners with dignity etc.
It is a much smaller body than the General Assembly It consists of fifteen
(originally, eleven) members of the U.NO. Five nations are permanement
members of this organ, namely - China, France, Russia, the UK and the
USSR. The General Assembly shall elect ten (originally six) other members
of the UNO to be no n-permanent members of the Security Council for a
term of two years. The non -permanent members are not eligible for
immediate re -election.
While electing, due regard is paid to the contribution of the members of the
U.N. to the maintenance of internationa l peace and security and to other
purposes of the organisation and to equitable geographical distribution.
(Five from Afro -Asian nations, one from Eastern Europe, two from Latin
America and two from Western Countries as per Gentlemen's Agreement).
Each me mber of the Security Council has one representative on the Council.
Every month one member of the Security Council acts as President. Those
act as Presidents every month based on the list of members arranged in
alphabetical order in English while the Secur ity Council is considering a
matter pertaining to a particular state which is not a member of the Security
Council its representative is permitted to participate in the proceedings of
the Council but does not enjoy the right to vote.
The Security Council does not have fixed sessions; it meets as and when
necessary. Its organisation and powers are such that it must be able to take
quick decisions and action. However, it meets periodically as well even
without being requested by any member state. Every member state of
Security Council has a permanent representative resident in New York.
Several changes have taken place since the inception of the UNO. The
number of countries has increased. The USSR has been split into 15
countries. Japan, Germany, and India hav e become giant economic powers
in the world. There is pressure on the UNO to increase the number of
permanent members by including Japan, Germany, India, Brazil etc.
depending upon the population, economy, technology etc. munotes.in
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27 United Nations 4.5.4 Voting and Veto Power
Each m ember of the Security Council shall have one vote. Decisions of the
Security Council on procedural matters shall be made by an affirmative vote
of nine (originally seven) members.
Decision of the Security Council on all other matters relating to the peacef ul
settlement of disputes shall be in affirmative vote of nine (originally seven)
members including the concurring votes of permanent members: provided
that in decisions, a party to a dispute shall abstain from voting. But if a
member of the Security Counc il is a party to the dispute, it is not entitled to
vote.
If a vote is taken to impose sanction upon an aggressor, either economic or
military, the majority of two thirds must include all the Big Five even if one
of them is a party to the dispute. Thus any of the Big Five can vote any
decision of the Security Council in such cases. This in effect means that the
Council cannot apply sanctions if any of the Big Five wants to commit an
act of aggression. If the Council fails to act, however, the General Assem bly
can consider the cases and make recommendations to its members by a two
thirds majority.
Veto: Rejecting a resolution ratified by nine members is called Veto. The
veto i.e., the power to prevent decisions by a negative vote, is a privilege of
the big f ive namely, the USA Russia, the U.K, France and China. The veto
is a right vested by law in a member of constitutional body to declare
inoperative a decision made by others. The incorporation of Veto was the
result of a consensus among the major powers in 1945 in a view of their
military power these nations should not fight among themselves. Therefore,
any decision not acceptable to any one of them was made unimplementable
by instituting the veto. The Big Five have nuclear weapons and they are not
likely to think of a war against each other. The rule of equality among states
is not applicable in the Security Council due to the veto power of the Big
Five. The UNO preferred non -functioning to an action which might put the
U.N. against one of the Big Five.
Doub le Veto : The veto does not apply to procedural question. If doubt
arises regarding any matter presented to the Security Council whether it is
a general issue or an important matter, the doubt itself is treated as an
important issue.
If a resolution is mad e against the wishes of a permanent member on its
voting over the matter of treating a general matter as an important issue the
exercise of the veto for a second time to condemn such a resolution is called
the ‘Double Veto’. Thus, a permanent member of the Security Council can
veto any attempt to treat a question as procedural and then proceed to veto
the draft resolution dealing with that question.
To meet the emergency conditions arising due to use of veto power, the
General Assembly adopted an “Uniting for Peace Resolution" on November
3, 1950 authorizing the General Assembly to meet in 24 hours if the
Security Council is prevented the veto from exercising its primary
responsibility on international peace and security. In such cases General
Assembly reco mmend collective measures, including the use of force or munotes.in
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28 establishing Peace Observation Commission. It created a Collective
Measure Committee to strengthen international peace and security.
The veto power of the Big Five has paralysed the Security Council on
several occasions. In 1956, when the USSR invaded Hungary, the USSR,
used the veto power and blocked the Security Council. In the same vear the
Anglo -French veto paralysed the Security Council in the Suez Crises.
During the Korean Crises, when the USSR used her veto power and
paralysed the Security Council, the USA introduced the "Uniting for Peace"
resolution (otherwise known as Aitchison resolution) in the General
Assembly and the resolution was adopted. The resolution empowers the
General Assembly to take up an issue which is likely to threaten the
international peace and security and which the Security Council has failed
to resolve because of veto. The General Assembly can take collective
measures to maintain peace and security.
In fact, recently the UN is limited from intervening in the war in Ukraine
because Russia remains a permanent member of the UN Security Council
and can veto any resolution dealing with the conflict that goes against its
national interests. This was used when Russia vetoed the Security Council
resolution condemning attempted annexation of Ukraine regions.
To quote another example where India was impacted was the proposal
tabled by the United States of America and co -sponsored by India with the
demand to freeze the assets of the P akistani -backed terrorist Sajid Mir,
impose a travel ban and arms embargo on him. The United Nations Security
Council (UNSC) proposal to blacklist him was blocked by China.
4.5.5 Powers and Functions of Security Council
The Security Council is the chief organ of the U.N. to maintain international
peace and security. The Security Council shall adopt its own rules of
procedure, including the method of selecting its President. (Art. 30). It may
establish such subsidiary orga n. as it deems necessary for the performance
of its functions. (Art. 29). There are four committees for assisting the
Security Council, namely (i) Disarmament Committee (ii) Committee for
enrolment of new members (iii) Committee of the Chiefs of Staff of A rmed
Forces and Temporary Commission: Palestine Issue Investigation
Commission
4.5.6 Power and Functions or Jurisdiction of the Security Council
The functions of the Security Council are enlisted in Articles 24 to 26 of the
UN Charter. The primary function of the Security Council is to maintain
international peace and security. The members of the UN have to accept and
carry out the decisions of the Security Council (Art. 25)
It also submits annual reports to the General Assembly for its consideratio n.
(Art. 24)
The UNSC also must promote the establishment and maintenance of peace
and security by least diversion of armaments, With the assistance of the munotes.in
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29 United Nations Military Staff Committee, their plans are to be submitted to the members of
the UN for resolution o f armaments (Art. 26)
The Council strives towards direct and peaceful resolution of disputes
among states. They guide them with several methods of pacific resolution
such as mediation, negotiation and arbitration. If these fail, then the UNSC
may advice ju dicial settlement of the dispute through the International Court
of Justice.
If all means fail, the Security Council may announce its own decision.
Those who do not comply are faced with economic sanctions. In an extreme
situation, if any State is not limi ted even by economic sanctions, the
Security Council may take military action. For this purpose, member states
must compulsorily send the required arm armed forces.
The UNSC also plays an important part in election of the 15 judges to ICJ,
the appointment of the Secretary General, admission of ne states by two -
thirds majority and supervising the activities of the other organs.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
Note: Use the space given below for your answer.
1) Elaborate upon the functions of the United Nations General Assembly.
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____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
2) Evaluate the role of United Nations Security Council in maintaining
international peace and security.
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4.6 INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE
The International Court of Justice (ICJ) is the judicial arm of the United
Nations Organization among its principal organs. Its predecessor was the
Permanent Court of Justice set up by the League of Nations. The
establishment of this organ is based on the Statute of the International Court
of Justice which is considered a part of the UN Charter. It was set up in
1946 with headquarters at the H ague, Netherlands.
The ICJ constitutes all members of the UN as ipso facto parties to the
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30 to become part to the ICJ Statute. Nothing in the Statute or UN Charter
prevents the members to approach other tribunals with disputes which they
have signed or would sign in future.
4.6.1 Composition
The court consists of 15 judges elected regardless of their nationality. Care
is taken that at any given point in time, no two judges will be from t he same
nationality. The criteria for nomination is to have ‘high moral character,
possess the qualifications required in their respective countries of
appointment to higher judicial offices or are jurists, consultants of
recognized competence in internati onal law.’
4.6.2 Election
The process of election of the judges of the ICJ is illustrated below:
4.6.3 Seat
The Court is always in session at the Hague. Cases are heard by full Court,
but it can also form chambers composed of three or more Judges to deal
with specific categories of cases viz., labour, transit and communication
cases. The quorum of court has been at nine. The expenses of the court are
borne by the U.N.
4.6.4 Officers and Salary
The chief among the judges are called ‘President’ and ‘Vice President’.
They are elected for a term of three years. They are eligible for re -election.
The Statute states no age of retirement age of the Judges. A Judge can be
dismissed only by the unanimous decision of the other members of the
Court.
4.7 ADMINISTRAT ION
The Court also appoints a Registrar and such other officers as may be
necessary. The salary, allowance and compensation these officials is
determined by the General Assembly and cannot be reduced during the term
of their office. They are also entitled to pension on retirement.
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The Court makes decisions based on a majority vote by the judges present.
The President of the Court has no vote except in case of a tie.
The sovereign nations that have accepted the ICJ Statute can be party to a
dispute registered with the Court. There is no provision for automatic
reference of the case of disputes to the Court unless referred by member
states. At this point it would be necessary to repeat that the nothing in the
Statute binds the mem ber states from approaching other tribunals under
other agreements to resolve legal disputes.
During the hearing of a case, some concessions have been made to the idea
of national representation by incorporating the provision that each party to
a dispute s hould be allowed to have on the Court one Judge of its nationality
or choice. Since the decisions of the Court are taken by majority vote, no
one party is able to Veto it.
4.7.2 Jurisdiction
Jurisdiction means the legal power of the Court to administer and enforce
the law. The International Court of Justice has two main jurisdictions -
Contentious jurisdiction and Advisory jurisdiction.
4.8 CONTENTIOUS JURISDIC TION
The States in dispute may be parties before the Court by submitting their
causes of action t o it. Individuals shall not become parties before this Court,
but they may become parties indirectly via states in exceptional cases.
The contentious jurisdiction can be divided into voluntary or original
jurisdiction and compulsory or optional jurisdictio n.
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32 1. Voluntary or Original Jurisdiction The voluntary jurisdiction of the
court is based upon the consent of the parties to a dispute. This
jurisdiction may extend to bilateral as well as multilateral treaties, and
the parties to it must submit their willingness to submit a dispute
thereunder to the ICJ. As per Article 36(1) of the Statute of
International Court of Justice deals with voluntary Jurisdiction and
reads as "the jurisdiction of the Court comprise all cases which the
parties refer to it and all matters specially provided for the Charter of
the U.N. or in treaties and conventions in force."
2. Compulsory or Optional Jurisdiction: Article 36(2) of the Statute of
the International Court of Justice provided for the Optional Clause. It
provides, "The States parties to the present statute may at any time,
declare that they recognize as compulsory ipso facto and without
special agreement, in relation to any other state accepting the same
obligation, the jurisdiction of the Court in all legal dispute s
concerning :
(a) the interpretation of a treaty;
(b) any question of international law;
(c) the existence of any fact which, if established, would constitute
a breach of an international obligation;
(d) the nature or extent of the preparation to be made for the breach
of an international obligation”
The declarations referred to above may be made unconditionally or any
conditions of reciprocity on the part of several or certain states, or for a
certain time. [Art. 36(3)]. Such declarations shall be deposit ed with the
Secretary -General of the U.N., who shall transmit copies thereof to the
parties to the statute and to the Registrar to the Court. [Art. 36(4)].
The procedure for this begins with any state that is party to the Statute by
conferring its willing ness to the jurisdictions on any question concerning
the optional clause by a declaration. The declaration is to be deposited with
the Secretary -General of the UN who transmits the copies of the declaration
to the Registrar of the Court as well as the part ies of the statue. Note that
the submission of such declaration is 'optional'. After such declaration is
submitted, it becomes compulsory.
By 1958, thirty -eight states had agreed to court's compulsory jurisdiction
under the 'Optional clause', but many of them had done so with certain
reservations. For example: The U.S.A submitted its declaration along with
such reservations that the court shall not have jurisdiction over certain
matters "which are essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of the United
States as determined by the United States." Such reservations tend to
dilution of the Court jurisdiction. India too filed its declaration in 1974 with
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33 United Nations There is also a mode of compulsory jurisdiction known as ‘Transferred’
Jurisdiction. W hen a case is transferred from Permanent Court of
International Justice of League of Nations to the International Court of
Justice of the UNO. It is called transferred jurisdiction.
4.9 LAW APPLIED BY THE C OURT
The Court decides the cases submitted to it in accordance with international
law, international conventions, established rules expressly recognized by
the contesting states, the general principles of law recognized by the
civilized nations. When the Court goes outside the realm of law for reaching
its decision, it is said to have used the Roman principle ‘ex aequo et bono’.
The principles of law may include considerations of fair dealing and good
faith, which may be independent or even contrary to the law. Judicial
decisions and the writings of renow ned jurists of the various nations are also
used for the determination of rules of law. The previous decisions of the
Court are not binding on similar cases in future.
The parties that approach the ICJ undertake to accept and comply with the
decision of th e court. No specific machinery for enforcing the decisions of
the Court has been provided. In case of non -compliance, the opposing party
may approach the Security Council, which may take effective measures to
operationalize or enforce the judgment.
4.10 A DVISORY JURISDICTION
The General Assembly and the Security Council may request the
International Court of Justice to give advisory opinions on legal questions.
This power is also extended to other organs of the UN and specialized
agencies to seek advice on legal question arising within the scope of their
activities. This request is laid before the Court through a written request
stating the exact question of law. Attaching documents that can give context
may also be attached. This implies that the Court do es not give advisory
opinion on its own.
However, there is no compulsion to give advisory opinion on the part of the
Court. The Court may refuse to give its advisory opinion if the problem
conflicts with the provisions of the UN Charter and the Statute of the
International Court of Justice. As it is not a legal ‘decision’, the advice
tendered by the Court is not binding on the organ seeking it, although it has
great prestige and moral value.
A few examples of questions of law posed to the ICJ include repar ation of
the injuries suffered in the service of the U.N., Competence of the General
Assembly regarding admission of a State to United Nations, the disputes
over the peace treaties with Bulgaria, Hungary and Rumania and concerning
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34 4.10.1 Critique:
The International Court of Justice was able to achieve much success in the
settlement of disputes. This was primarily because in most of these disputes
the vital interests of the Big Five were not at stake. These cases mainly
pertained to subjects like fishing rights, financial claims of states, asylum,
aerial incidents. etc. Again, the Court has played an important role in the
development international law and encouraged peaceful settlement of
disputes.
4.11 SECRE TARY GENERAL
The principal organ of the Secretariate is chiefly responsible for all
administrative business of the United Nations. It is the headquarters of the
United Nations Organisation. Article 97 of the Charter of UN provides that
“the Secretariat shall comprise a Secretary -General and such staff as the
Organisation may require.”
The Secretary General (UNSG) is the Chief Administrative Officer of the
UNO. He is appointed by the General Assembly upon the recommendation
of the Security Council for a term of five years. This implies unanimity
among the permanent members of the Security Council. As a matter of
convention, the Secretary -General does not belong to the permanent
member. As of 2022, António Guterres from Portugal is the ninth UNSG
and is servin g his second term.
He looks after the day -to-day functioning of the Organization with his
10000 member staff of officials. The Secretariat services may be called an
international civil service.
4.11.1 Power and Functions of the Secretary -General
The Secretary General plays designated roles in all the meetings of all the
organs except the ICJ as entrusted to him. He makes the annual report that
is submitted to the UNGA. He may draw the Security Council’s attention to
matters that threaten the maintenan ce of international peace and security.
The staff of the Secretariat and the permanent staff of ECOSOC and the
Trusteeship Council work under the guidance of the Secretary -General.
Internal administrative policy is devised keeping in mind the principles of
efficiency, competency and integrity. Another important function is the
registration and publication of treaties and agreements entered into by any
members of the UN under the purview of the UN Charter.
The Secretariat, including the Secretary -General who leads the United
Nations, cannot take action against states on its own and can only appeal to
member states to ‘do something’. Because of this, the United Nations
remains undeniably and irrevocably an international governmental
organisation and not a level of authority above the states. It is binding on
the Secretary -General and the staff to perform functions with an
international character and not get influenced by any member state. munotes.in
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35 United Nations 4.12 ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL (ECOSOC)
Under the authority of the Gene ral Assembly, the Economic and Social
Council has been established by the UN Charter. The aim of this organ is to
create conditions of stability and well -being which are necessary for
peaceful and friendly relations among nations based on respect for the
principle of equal rights and self -determination of peoples. To this effect,
UN promotes the following -
(a) higher standards of living, conditions of full employment, and
economic and social progress and development;
(b) solutions of international economic, social health, and related
problems and international cultural and educational cooperation; and
(c) universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and
fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex,
language, or religion .
It constitutes 54 members elected by the General Assembly for a term of 2
years. It is a permanent organ with 1/3rd of its members replaced every year.
The Council meets twice a year. The ECOSOC carries out its functions with
9 commissions and may enter into agreements with specialized agencies. It
can make arrangement for consultation with international non -government
organizations for matters within its competence.
4.13 TRUSTEESHIP COUNCIL
Drawing from the Mandates Commission of the League of nations, the
Trusteeship Council was created to aid non -self-governing territories such
as those under colonial rule or detached from an enemy state after World
War II or those voluntarily placing their administration under this system,
termed as ‘trust territories , to obtain and realize the right to self -
determination. This organ then guides and aids such territories to transition
into independent sovereign States.
The Trusteeship Council recognizes the principle that the interests of the
inhabitants of these terr itories are paramount and accept as a sacred trust the
obligation to promote to the utmost within the system of international peace
and security established by the UN Charter. It is responsible to the General
Assembly that determines the terms of trusteesh ip and to the Security
Council only to assist it with functions relating to ‘Strategic Areas’.
This organ is constituted by representatives from the trust territories
themselves, those that are not governing them, and other members elected
by UNGA for a te rm of 3 years. Each member shall have one vote. A few
examples of trust territories that have now become independent are
Cameroon, Togo and Rwanda -Burundi. New Guinea which was also a trust
territory merged with the territory of Papua to become Papua New G uinea. munotes.in
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36 Check Your Progress Exercise 3
Note: Use the space given below for your answer.
1) Comment on the efficacy of the International Court of Justice as the
judicial arm of the UNO.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
2) Explicate the scope of the roles and responsibilities of the Secretary
General of the United Nations Organisation.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
4.14 SUMMARY
We have traced the origin of the United Nations. This chapter has given a
detailed overview of the working of the UNO. The power and functions of
each of the 6 organs has been described briefly.
The UN General Assembly works as a democratic organ wherein all
member states deliberate and vote upon matters. The UN Security Council
is dominate by the 5 permanent members who enjoy veto power. The
Secretary General heads the Secretariate - the administrative organ of the
UNO. The International Court of Justice is the judicial organ that ensures
justice to the aggrieved parties after all pacific methods of conflict
resolution have been tried. The Economic and Social Council oversees the
functioning of all specialized agencies and promotes the ideals of equality
and justice. The Trusteeship Council enables nations to realize their right to
self-determination against colonial powers.
The main aim of all these 6 organs and specialized agencies is to work
towards the maintenance of international peace and security. They codify
international law and ensure that nations respect and observe them in their
interactio n with each other.
4.14.1 Critique
The United Nations Organization was established with the objective of
maintenance of peace and security. It has been quite successful in playing
its role. The organs have aided in social improvement, accelerated economic
progress of developing countries, and brought political stability to troubled
nations. It has also guided with codification of laws in the process of helping
previously colonized nations realize their right to self -determination. munotes.in
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37 United Nations The efforts of the UN in garnering cooperation and peaceful conflict
resolution has prevented another World War from breaking out. They have
also made successful efforts through several conventions and treaties in
controlling proliferation and use of nuclear and biochemical weapon s.
However, it has not been able to stop aggression from certain powerful
countries.
The veto power enjoyed by the permanent members of the United Nations
Security Council (P5) is unfair. It has been used for selfish national interests
by these States and blocked the opportunity for other States to get
membership.
Several global issues such as terrorism and poverty continue to remain
challenges for the UN and its agencies.
4.15 REFERENCE
Baylis, J., & Smith, S. (2001). The Globalization of World Politics. New
York: Oxford University Press.
Charter of the United Nations and Statute of the International Court of
Justice. San Francisco. (1945).
Hanhimäki, J. M. (2008). The United Nations: A Very Short Introduction.
New York: Oxford University Press.
Heywood, A. (2011). Politicl Theory: An Introduction. London: Palgrave
McMillan.
McGlinchey, S., Walters, R., & Scheinpflug, C. (2017). International
Relations Theory. Bristol: E -International Relations.
Murthy, B. S. (2002). International Relations and Organization. Lucknow:
Eastern Book Company.
Rhodes, R. A., Binder, S. A., & Rockman, B. A. (2006). The Oxford
Handbook of Political institutions. New York: Oxford University Press.
Tansey, S. D., & Jackson, N. (2008). Politics: The basics. London and New
York: Routledge Taylor and Francis Group.
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38 5
ROLE OF UNITED NATIONS
Unit Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Maintenance of international peace and security.
5.3 Protection and Promotion of Human Rights.
5.4 International Labour Organisation, United Nations Educational
scientific Cult ural organisation.
5.5 World Health Organisation
5.6 Summary/Conclusion
5.7 References
5.0 OBJECTIVES
In this unit you all will be familiarized with the Role of United Nations. On
24th October 1945 , the world witnessed the conclusion of two months of
intense multilateral diplomacy, with the signing of the Charter of the United
Nations. In one of the defining acts of the twentieth century, representatives of
50 countries endorsed the formation of an international organization created in
the hopes of pres erving peace and building a better world for all. . In this lesson
we will study about the work of the United Nations impacts people around the
world on issues related to peace and security, development and human rights;
from disarmament to efforts to combat terrorism and extremism; from conflict
prevention to peacekeeping and peace building; from disease prevention to the
promotion of gender equality and universal education; from refugee
resettlement to humanitarian assistance; from the rule of law to the fight against
transnational crime . After studying this lesson, you would be able to -
• Understand the role , powrs and functions of United nation in ensuring
peace all over the world;
• identify the various initiatives taken by UN for resolving conflicts;
• analyze how UN protects Human rights and promotes them;
• identify the nature and role of International Labour Organisation; and
• explain the role of UNESCO and WHO;
5.1 INTRODUCTION:
United Nations is entrusted with the gigantic task of maintaining world
peace. Global issues are the issues that transcend national boundaries and
cannot be solved by any one country acting alone. The United Nations munotes.in
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39 Role of United Nations focuses on particular issues because if they are not addressed, they could
negatively impact the lives of billions , slow progress towards achieving the
sustainable development goals, affect the short -term and long -term
environmental health of the planet on which we live, and halt human
progress in the 21st century. In the more than seven decades since its
creation, the United Nations has focused on new challenges, such as youth,
gender equality, climate change, big data for the SDGs, and AIDS, in order
to find solutions and encourage action. From supporting the major
decolonization efforts across Africa and Asia to pro viding a critical platform for
discourse throughout the cold war; from eradicating extreme poverty and
hunger to addressing the pressing challenge of climate change; the United
Nations has been at the forefront of efforts to ensure a secure, prosperous and
equitable world (United Nations). Since its establishment in 1945, the United
Nations has been active in extensive areas including peace -keeping, arms
control, the North -South problem, social and human rights issues.
Following the progress made in East -West dialogue and other recent
changes in the international situation, it has stepped up its activities while
its roles and responsibilities are being expanded. In the area of peace -
keeping, in particular, the United Nations has played an important role in
Namibia achieving independence. - the last colony in Africa - and in the
general elections held in Nicaragua in February 1990. The peace -keeping
operations of the United Nations, traditionally geared to truce supervision
activities, has expanded into more c omprehensive activities including
observation of elections, as occasioned by its operations in Namibia. In
August 1990, the U.N. Security Council decided on comprehensive and
mandatory sanctions, for the first time in the past 22 years against Iraq's
invas ion of Kuwait. At the same time, international cooperation extended
through the United Nations and its organizations has become progressively
important in dealing with global issues such as drugs and the environment.
Despite financial constraints, United Nations has ensured that there isn’t
any lag when dealing with dire humanitarian issues all over the world. Born
out of war, the UN has sought to curtail plagues of a past characterized by
two world wars. Based on the idea of liberal institutionalism where
multilateral institutions are to facilitate inter -state cooperation, the UN
intended to bring the major military powers together with the main task of
maintaining international peace and security (Weiss 2018: 174, Hanhimaki
2015: 18). This has, however, be en fraught with difficulties along with the
challenges and opportunities with different peace and security initiatives, in
an attempt to evaluate the UN’s success in its main task. United Nations
specific focus on peace operations, nuclear disarmament and humanitarian
intervention, are some of the main areas through which the UN is
maintaining international peace and security (UN 2020). As one main actor
in global governance, it could be said that the real success of the UN has
been in its role as a normati ve power, guiding the global understanding of
acceptable behavior. The decisions taken by United Nations is in sync with
its Charter. The main organs of the UN are the General Assembly, the
Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship
Council, the International Court of Justice, and the UN Secretariat. All were
established in 1945 when the UN was founded. These organs of United
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40 5.2 MAINTENANCE OF INTER NATIONAL PEACE
AND SECURITY.
The United Nations was created in 1945, following the devastation of the
Second World War, with one central mission: the maintenance of international
peace and security. The UN accomplishes this by working to prevent conflict,
helping parties in conflict make peace, deploying peacekeepers , and creating the
conditions to allow peace to hold and flourish. These activities often overlap
and should reinforce one another, to be ef fective.
The UN Security Council has the primary responsibility for international peace
and security. The General Assembly and the Secretary -General play major,
important, and complementary roles, along with other UN offices and bodies.
The Security Counci l takes the lead in determining the existence of a threat to
the peace or an act of aggression. It calls upon the parties to a dispute to settle it
by peaceful means and recommends methods of adjustment or terms of
settlement. Under Chapter VII of the UN C harter, the Security Council can take
enforcement measures to maintain or restore international peace and security.
Such measures range from economic sanctions to international military action.
The Council also establishes UN Peacekeeping Operations and Special
Political Missions . On the other hand, The General Assembly is the main
deliberative, policymaking and representative organ of the UN. Through regular
meetings, the General Assembly provides a forum for Member States to express
their views to the entire membership and find consensus on difficult issues. It
makes recommendations in the form of General Assembly resolutions .
Decisions on important questions, such as those on peace and security,
admission of new members and budgetary matters, require a two -thirds
majority, but other questions are decided by simple majority.
The UN Security Council (UNSC) is the organ with the primary
responsibility for maintaining international peace and security. Outlining its
structure and function is an essential first step for determining its success.
It consists of 15 members, 5 of which are permanent and have veto po wer
(the P5), namely the United States, the United Kingdom, Russia, China and
France. These were considered the main military powers when the UN was
founded and their veto right would prevent them from going to war against
each other, while creating a nece ssary balance when taking decisions on
security issues that would be collectively enforced (Goodrich 1965: 430).
This illustrates how the constellation itself was based on peace and security
considerations, and there has in fact never been a direct physica l war
between the P5 since the UN’s beginning. Despite a period of inaction
during the Cold War, many UNSC resolutions have also been passed to
support peace processes, solve disputes, respond to illegitimate uses of force
and enforce sanctions in situations where peace and security has been
threatened. This involvement ranges from Bosnia in 1993 to Afghanistan in
2001 to its Anti -Piracy resolution in 2008 (Mingst and Karns 2011: 108).
UNSC resolutions have been central for tackling conflict situations and
have also demonstrated that extensive joint action can be taken to respond
to crisis, such as in the case of Iraq’s occupation of Kuwait in 1990 where
it condemned its action and authorized states to “use all necessary means”
to stop the occupation (Mingst and Karns 2011: 105). Such examples would munotes.in
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41 Role of United Nations challenge the realist assumption that there is an inherent collective action
problem in international relations and the system of anarchy. Nevertheless,
the UNSC has attracted vast criticism for upholding procedur es that impede
robust action in important situations where international law has been
violated but the P5 disagree, such as in Syria (Nadin 2017), as well as for
keeping an outdated permanent membership and for being undemocratic
(Weiss & Kuele 2014). In t he mentioned example of Iraq 1990, the agreed
resolution authorized a US -led military operation, but UN oversight was
weak and the autonomy of US action as well as the lack of inclusion of
supportive states outside of the Council in the decision -making pro cess is
one example that points to the undemocratic structure of the Council as well
as the continued importance of powerful states during interventions, rather
than the UN itself (Ebegbulem 2011: 25). Furthermore, Security Council
vetoes have not always m anaged to stop nations from proceeding with their
endeavors, which was the case with the US’ invasion of Iraq, 2003 (Morris
& Wheeler 2007: 221). This shows that the individual interests of some
states make them deviate from institutional constraints, poin ting to flaws in
the theory of liberal institutionalism that laid the basis for the UN. Such
examples spark doubt about the credibility of the UN and UNSC and disrupt
the balance that the composition of UNSC is to uphold, which is one
important obstacle to its success in maintaining peace and security.
Beyond internal tensions, the UN has an active presence in the world
through peace operations, which has become central for the UNSC and its
approach to maintaining peace. The mandates range from protecting
civilians to supporting state -building efforts, a list that has become more
extensive in its attempt to improve the strategy towards sustainable peace.
There is no mention of peace operations in the UN Charter, and the concept
of peacekeeping has adapted i n line with shifting nature of war and
understanding of security, leading up to today’s multidimensional peace
operations (Williams & Bellamy 2013: 415). Traditionally, the presence of
UN forces was to be approved by all parties in the host country, they w ere
to be impartial, lightly armed, with the main goal to maintain a truce. The
peace has indeed been kept between states such as Israel -Syria or Iraq -
Kuwait, indicating the success of UN deployment for preventing interstate
conflict (Mingst and Karns 2011 : 130). With the increase of intrastate wars
in the 1990s however, conflicts had become more complex, requiring a
more complex response. Peacekeepers were deployed in situations where
there was no peace to keep, and they encountered atrocities that put bot h
them and civilians in danger, demanding greater military response (Bellamy
& Hunt 2015: 1277, Doyle & Sambanis 2008: 2). Their mandate therefore
expanded and started bordering on enforcement, as was the case of Bosnia
in the 1990s. One problem was the di screpancy between the expectations of
the operations and the actual capabilities in form of manpower or resources,
showing a political unwillingness to transform the operations to more robust
ones (Thakur 2006: 62, Autesserre 2019). Bosnia was a clear exam ple of
the failure that can ensue when undertaking ad hoc responses to a situation
that does not match the original mandate, as it might lead to the inability to
perform the envisioned tasks entrusted upon peacekeepers as they are
prevented by nation state reluctance (Crossette 1999). This shows the
importance of broad member state support of missions in today’s complex munotes.in
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42 conflict situations and the need for nations to be willing to adapt to
challenges that might arise. Underlying UN peace operations is the i deal of
a liberal democratic peace, which has been a further hindrance to success in
some contexts. Afghanistan is a telling example, where democratization,
rule of law and economic restructuring was promoted (Saikal 2012: 219),
showing a disregard for eve ry state’s right to “choose its political,
economic, social and cultural system” (UN Declaration 1965). The state -
building efforts saw the quick establishment of governance structures based
on Western ideals. It was a rushed affair that eventually failed a s the
government was neither representative nor accountable (Saikal 2012: 226).
Postcolonialism offers a valid critique of the ideational dominance of
Western values and understandings, and its failure to recognize imperialist
tendencies in the vision that liberal peace is universally applicable and
desirable (Nair 2017). Imposing structures in a top -down fashion can have
important consequences in fragile situations where society is
multidimensional. The conception of peace should not be equated with
libera lism but rather promoted in a balanced effort through combined
considerations for basic democratic principles with local understandings of
governance. This is called hybrid peace building by authors such as
Richmond (2009: 578). Only then will the UN enabl e long -term success as
it would empower the local community through an inclusive bottom -up
approach.
Beyond Peacekeeping – Recognizing the Normative Power of the UN
The active presence of the UN in the world through its different missions
has resolved disp utes, inhibited escalation of conflict and spurred peace in
some situations, but the inherent problems that were highlighted continue
to attract criticism. The failure of the UN to foster long -term peace in
settings with complex conflict -dynamics shows an important limitation to
the claim to success (Sambanis 2008: 29). An alternative area in which its
role as a peace and security defender has been more successful, and in my
view most successful, is through the spread important norms that have
ranged from e xpanding the security agenda to upholding a nuclear taboo. A
telling example is the role of the Nuclear Non -Proliferation Treaty (NPT).
As authors such as Scott Sagan argue, norms embedded in the NPT shape
“states’ identities and expectations and even powe rful actors [become]
constrained by the norms they [have] created” (Sagan 1997: 76). The NPT
regime helped establish shared understandings of what was considered
prestigious, legitimate or delegitimate and states thereby chose to disarm
rather than be clas sified as rogue nations by the international community
(Sagan 1997: 80). It has also constrained both Russia and the US in their
attempts to modernize their arsenals. Even in cases where the norm has been
contested, such as when US recognized India as a nu clear weapons state, it
never seriously challenged the core assumptions of the nuclear non -
proliferation norm (Carranza 2019: 14). Critics would disagree and argue
that the accomplishments in the area of nuclear disarmament has been weak,
as with collectiv e security (MacKenzie 2015: 489), but the UN’s efforts
have evidently hindered armament and possible escalation, pointing to a
major success for maintaining peace and security in the world. munotes.in
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43 Role of United Nations Beyond nuclear disarmament, there is also the shared understanding of
illegitimate and legitimate uses of force. The UNSC holds strong authority
in this realm, which again points to the normative power of the UN in its
role for maintaining international peace and security (Mingst and Karns
2011: 100). Even though tension s can run high between states in the
Security Council, this shared understanding has enhanced the risks that an
aggressor might face when “breaking” these norms, as the response from
the international community can take the form of international
condemnati on, coordinated sanctions or even humanitarian intervention.
This last point particularly derives from the enhanced focus on human rights
and human security within the UN, as well as the shifting nature of war after
the Cold War (Bellamy 2013: 488). The pr inciples of sovereignty and non -
interference came into question with the atrocities committed during
intrastate conflicts such as in Rwanda and Bosnia. The “responsibility to
protect” principle (R2P) was thereby born during the 2005 World Summit,
which cam e to mean that all states have a responsibility to protect civilians
from genocide, ethnic cleansing, war crimes or crimes against humanity
(UN 2020b). In cases where a state couldn’t or wouldn’t fulfil this function,
humanitarian intervention by the inter national community would be
legitimate. This is in line with the human security agenda that was promoted
by the UN in the 1990s, as the security of individuals was to be prioritized
over the protection of the state (Hampson 2013: 279). While it contradicts
the thesis of realism with its focus on self -interested states, there have been
debates on this new role for the UN and how successful it has actually been
to use force to support human security objectives (Hampson 2013: 286).
One main criticism is about the questions of interpretation. Who dictates
when this responsibility is to be invoked? There have also been instances
where unlawful intervention has been done in the name of R2P, such as in
the case of Russia’s intervention in Georgia where they claimed to protect
Russian citizens (Allison 2009: 178). However, the jointly accepted
humanitarian intervention in Libya 2011 based on the R2P norm is an
important example that illustrates how normative shifts driven by the UN
can bring nations together to prote ct peace and security in the world. Both
China and Russia agreed to humanitarian intervention, despite their
traditional opposition to it, which stopped Qaddafi from proceeding with
possible crimes against humanity (Bellamy 2013: 500). Except operational
successes, the fact that the international community has agreed to legitimize
action to protect human beings as such rather than states, and that there is a
general understanding that states should not stand idly by while atrocities
are committed, remain tw o key achievement for the UN in the realm of
peace and security.
How does UN maintain peace and security?
1) Preventive Diplomacy and Mediation – The most effective way to
diminish human suffering and the massive economic costs of conflicts
and their afte rmath is to prevent conflicts in the first place. The United
Nations plays an important role in conflict prevention, using diplomacy,
good offices and mediation. Among the tools, the organization uses are
special envoys and political missions in the field. munotes.in
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44 The United Nations
44 2) Special and Personal Representatives, Envoys and Advisers of the
Secretary - General in many areas.
3) UN office for West Africa - The UN office for West Africa, in Dakar,
Senegal was the first regional conflict prevention and peace building
office of the United Nations. Its overall mandate was to enhance
contributions of the UN towards the achievement of peace and security in
West Africa and to promote an integrated regional approach in addressing
issues that impact stability in the region.
4) Peaceke eping - For over seven decades, UN peacekeeping has been
one of the most important tools the UN has at its disposal for conflict
mitigation and stabilization. Helping countries navigate the difficult
path from conflict to peace, peacekeeping has unique strengths,
including legitimacy, burden sharing, and an ability to deploy and
sustain troops and police from around the globe, integrating them
with civilian peacekeepers to advance multidimensional
mandates. Today’s peacekeeping operations are called upon not only
to maintain peace and security, but also to facilitate the political
process, protect civilians, assist in the disarmament, demobilization
and reintegration of former combatants; support democratic values
such as organizing elections, protecting and promoting human rights
and assisting in the creation and restoration of rule of law. India has
been among the largest troop - contributing countries to the U.N
peacekeeping missions. As of November 2021 data, India is the
second highest military (1,888) and fifth –highest (139) police –
contributing country to the United Nations Organisation Stabilisation
Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO).
Peacekeeping by the United Nations is a role held by the Department
of Peace Operations as an "instrument developed by the organization
as a way to help countries torn by conflict to create the conditions for
lasting peace". It is distinguished from peace building, peacemaking,
and peace enforcement although the United Nations does
acknowledge that all activities are "mutually reinforcing" and that
overlap between them is frequent in practice. Peacekeepers monitor
and observe peace processes in post -conflict areas and assist ex -
combatants in implementing the peace agreements they may have
signed. Such assistance comes in many forms, including confidence -
building measures, power -sharing arrangements, electoral support,
strengthening the rule of law, and economic and social development.
Accordingly, UN peacekeepers (often referred to as Blue
Berets or Blue Helmets because of their light blue berets or helmets
can include soldiers, police officers, and civilian personnel).
5) Peace building - "To save succeeding generations from the scourge of
war" are among the first very words of the UN Charter (in its Preamble),
and those words were the main motivation for creating the United
Nations, whose founders had lived through the devastation of two world
wars by 1945. Since the UN's creation on 24 Oct ober 1945 (the date
its Charter came into force), the United Nations has often been called
upon to prevent disputes from escalating into war, or to help restore peace munotes.in
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45 Role of United Nations following the outbreak of armed conflict, and to promote lasting peace in
societies emerging from wars. In this direction, Peace building is one of
the major initiatives taken by U.N. Within the United Nations, peace
building refers to efforts to assist countries and regions in their transition s
from war to peace and to reduce a country's risk of lapsing or relapsing
into conflict by strengthening national capacities for conflict
management, and laying the foundations for sustainable peace and
development.
Building lasting peace in war -torn soci eties is a daunting challenge for
global peace and security. Peacebuilding requires sustained international
support for national efforts across the broadest range of activities. For
instance, peacebuilders monitor ceasefires, demobilize and reintegrate
combatants, assist the return of refugees and displaced persons, help to
organize and monitor elections of a new government, support justice and
security sector reforms, enhance human rights protections, and foster
reconciliation after past atrocities. Peaceb uilding involves action by a
wide array of organizations of the UN system, including the World Bank,
regional economic commissions, NGOs and local citizens’ groups.
Peacebuilding has played a prominent role in UN operations in Bosnia
and Herzegovina, Cambodia, El Salvador, Guatemala, Kosovo, Liberia
and Mozambique, as well as more recently in Afghanistan, Burundi, Iraq,
Sierra Leone and Timor -Leste. An example of inter -state peacebuilding
has been the UN Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea.
6) Rule of Law - Promoting the rule of law at the national and international
levels is at the heart of the United Nations’ mission. Establishing respect
for the rule of law is fundamental to achieving a durable peace in the
aftermath of conflict, to the effective protection of human rights, and to
sustained economic progress and development. The principle that
everyone – from the individual to the State itself – is accountable to laws
that are publicly pr omulgated, equally enforced and independently
adjudicated is a fundamental concept which drives much of the United
Nations work. The main United Nations organs, including the General
Assembly and the Security Council, play essential roles in supporting
Member States to strengthen the rule of law, as do many United Nations
entities.
7) Women and Children in Conflict - In contemporary conflicts, up to 90
per cent of casualties are civilians, mostly women and children. Women
in war -torn societies can face spec ific and devastating forms of sexual
violence, which are sometimes deployed systematically to achieve
military or political objectives. Moreover, women continue to be poorly
represented in formal peace processes, although they contribute in many
informal w ays to conflict resolution. However, the UN Security Council
in its Resolution 1325, on women, peace and security has recognized that
including women and gender perspectives in decision -making can
strengthen prospects for sustainable peace. The landmark re solution
addresses the situation of women in armed conflict and calls for their
participation at all levels of decision -making on conflict resolution and
peacebuilding. munotes.in
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46 Since 1999, the systematic engagement of the UN Security Council has
firmly placed the situation of children affected by armed conflict as an
issue affecting peace and security. The Security Council has created a
strong framework and provided the Secretary -General with tools to
respond to violations against children. The Special Representative of the
Secretary -General for Children and Armed Conflict serves as the leading
UN advocate for the protection and well -being of children affected by
armed conflict.
8) Peaceful Uses of Outer Space - The UN works to ensure that outer space
is used for peaceful purposes and that the benefits from space activities
are shared by all nations. This concern for the peaceful uses of outer space
began soon after the launch of Sputnik — the first artificial satellite — by
the Soviet Union in 1957 and has kept pace with advances in space
technology. The UN has played an important role by developing
international space law and by promoting international cooperation in
space science and technology. The Vienna -based United Nations Office
for Outer Space serves as the secretariat for the Committee on the
Peaceful Uses of Outer Space and its subcommittee s, and assists
developing countries in using space technology for development.
Therefore, history has shown that UN nations, and the P5, are agreeing
on important resolutions and overcoming their differences. States
have also acted in line with the normati ve frameworks that the UN
has promoted. The UN can be and should be criticized for its inability
to act where needed or for its inability to stop action deemed
damaging to peace and security, but it has an ability to adapt and
reinvent itself in line with emerging global challenges that shouldn’t
be undermined (MacKenzie 2015: 490). Such adaptability gives
constructivism right in its understanding that process affects interests,
which thereby transforms structure (Wendt 1992: 393). This
understanding explai ns how the UNCS has been able to legitimize
certain norms and practices, even when they intrude into the realm of
national sovereignty (Willia ms & Bellamy 2013: 416). The UN is
indeed the sum of its parts, composed of member states with their
individual in terests, but state interaction in this institutional context
continue to shape states’ evolving interest, enabling policy change
that corresponds with its task of maintaining peace and security.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
Note: i) Use the space given below for your an swer.
1) Critically analyze United Nations role in ensuring peace and
security with relevant examples .
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________ munotes.in
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47 Role of United Nations 5.3 PROMOTION AND PROTEC TION OF HUMAN
RIGHTS
The promotion and protection of all human rights is among the main
objectives of the United Nations. The U.N. has established organizations to
deal with human rights including the Commission on Human Rights,
drafted various human rights instruments, encouraged states to accede to
them, adopted resolutions requesting that states should improve their human
rights situations, and organized a number of world -wide conferences. In
June, 1993, World Conference on Human Rights adopted the Vienna
Declaration and Programme of Action, which has a large impact on
activities in the field of human rights. The post of the United Nations H igh
commissioner for Human Rights was created in 1993, and Mrs. Mary
Robinson, former President of Ireland, was appointed as the second High
Commissioner in June 1997. She has been active in coordinating relevant
U.N. activities and international cooperations since she assumed the office.
Japan firmly supports High Commissioner's activities including human
rights field operations and advisory services and technical assistance. To
raise international awareness for human rights, the 10 -year period beginning
from 1995 is proclaimed as the U.N. Decade for Human Rights Education.
Under the Decade, U.N. organizations, governments, human rights
institutions in different parts of the world are expected to make head to the
goal by promoting human rights education. To accomplish this task, in
December 1995, the Government of Japan established the Headquarters for
the Promotion of the Plan of Action of the U.N. Decade for Human Rights
Education, with the Prime Minister as its chair. The Headquarters finalized
a National Plan of Action in July 1997. U.N uses following means to protect
Human Rights:
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: An International
Standard Since 1948
One of the first UN documents, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights,
reflects many of the i deals of the Bill of Rights in the United States
Constitution. The Declaration spells out what the member states of the UN
believe are minimum human rights of all people. Among the basic rights it
mandates are the right of people to determine their government, freedom of
thought and religion, the right to privacy, and the right to a fair trial. It goes
on to condemn slavery, torture, and arbitrary arrest. Americans take these
rights for granted, but even today they are not the standard in many parts of
the world. The universality of the Declaration was reaffirmed at the 1993
World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna.
"All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are
endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one anothe r in
a spirit of brotherhood."
Article 1, Universal Declaration of Human Rights munotes.in
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48 Treaties and legal instruments
The International Bill of Human Rights - The International Bill of Human
Rights is made of three instruments: The UDHR, the International Cov enant
on Civil and Political Rights, and the International Covenant on Economic,
Social and Cultural Rights. The UDHR is the foundation of international
human rights law. The two covenants reiterate many of the articles in the
UDHR, but the covenants are l egally -binding treaties.
Conventions - A convention is a legally binding agreement between
contracting countries and the UN. Several conventions address human
rights issues, such as the International Convention on the Elimination of All
Forms of Racial D iscrimination; the Convention on the Elimination of All
Forms of Discrimination Against Women; and the Convention on the Rights
of the Child.
Entities that address human rights:
The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) -
Based in Geneva, the OHCHR is the main UN entity that protects and
promotes human rights. It supports the human rights aspects of
peacekeeping missions and maintains offices in different regions such as
Africa, the Americas, the Middle East, and Europe and Central Asia. The
High Commissioner for Human Rights has the authority to investigate
human rights situations, publish reports, and comment on human rights
issues.
The Human Rights Council
In 2006, the HRC replaced the UN Commission on Human Rights. Its
mission is to promote and protect human rights. The Council has 47 elected
members that address human rights violations, make recommendations, and
discuss “thematic human rights issues and situations.” Members are elected
for staggered three -year terms on a regional gro up basis.
The Security Council
The Security Council frequently deals with human rights abuses, especially
in conflict zones. The Council has the authority for certain actions. They
can investigate, mediate, dispatch a mission, appoint special envoys,
dispa tch a peacekeeping force, and issue a ceasefire directive. They can also
establish travel bans, economic sanctions, arms embargoes, and more.
The UN Development Group’s Human Rights Working Group
This group was established in 2009 at the request of the UN Secretary -
General. Abbreviated as UNDG -HRWG, this group’s role is to advance
human rights mainstreaming efforts with the UN development system. The
OHCHR serves as the Chair. Priorities include making human rights
expertise available to national developmen t actors and helping the UN
development system deliver rights -based development results. munotes.in
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49 Role of United Nations Treaty bodies
There are ten human rights treaty bodies made of independent experts in
human rights. They are elected for fixed renewable four -year terms by State
parties. Their role is to monitor the implementation of the core international
human rights treaties, such as the International Covenant on Economic,
Social and Cultural Rights.
Human Rights Abuses Against Women
One of the most widespread abuses of human rights is violence against
women. This takes many forms, from son preference, in which female
fetuses or newborns are exterminated, to domestic violence. Rape has been
used as a weapon of war, as in the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda, and
various forms of sexual h arassment occur in developed and developing
countries alike. Governments at the UN's Fourth World Conference on
Women, held in Beijing, China, in September 1995, agreed that there should
be shelters, legal aid, and other services for girls and women at ris k, and
counseling and rehabilitation for perpetrators. With the vigorous support of
the UN, some countries have recently taken steps toward improving laws
relating to violence against women. In Burkina Faso, the Government
launched a strong advertising campaign to educate and raise awareness
about the unhealthy practice of female genital mutilation. In Brazil, police
stations staffed entirely by women have been designated to deal with
women's issues, including domestic violence.
Human rights provisions unde r UN Charter
The preamble of the United Nations, declared its aim to wipe out the fear of
war, the promotion of human rights and the worth of human person and
dignity of mankind. It also seeks to establish justice, and promotes
corporation between the Sta tes to discharge their duties to create a just
economic, social and cultural order wherein mankind can realize the
fundamental human rights in accordance with the principles of international
law. Accordingly, a number of provisions of the Charter have inco rporated
human rights. They are as follows:
1) Article 1 of the Charter lays down the purposes of the United Nations.
Accordingly, it is one of the duties of the UN as a world body to take
necessary steps to achieve international co -operation in order to
reduce the inequalities of economic, social, and cultural aspects. It
also oversees to promote and encourage the nation -states to respect
the human rights of man and the promotion of all the fundamental
freedoms without any distinction to race, sex, languag e or religion.
2) Article 8 of the charter lays down that the UN shall place no
restriction on the eligibility of men and women to participate in any
capacity equally in its principal and subsidiary organs. According to
the provisions of this article, all persons of the world are eligible to
join the UN and serve in its jobs as per the qualifications prescribed
for each post. These jobs, the internships, and various projects that are munotes.in
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50 The United Nations
50 available with UN are open to all without any discrimination to race,
sex, language or any other ground.
3) According to Article 13 , to achieve the purposes and objectives of the
Charter, especially with respect to the promotion of Human Rights,
the General Assembly (since the General Assembly represents all the
nations), it has been entrusted with the task of taking harmonized
steps in the promotion of human rights of economic, social, cultural,
educational and fundamental freedoms.
4) According to Article 55 , it is the responsibility of the United Nations
to take General Assembly (since the General Assembly represents all
the nations), it has been entrusted with the task of taking harmonized
steps in the promotion of human rights of economic, social, cultural,
education and fundamental freedoms.
5) According to Article 51 , if an y country disobeys the mandate,
especially in the promotion and protection of human rights, or if any
country is under threat from another country, the Security Council is
empowered to take all necessary steps including even to declare a war
to achieve pea ce and security, which includes the promotion and
protection of human rights.
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights
(OHCHR)
In connection with the programme for reform of the United nations, the
Office of the U.N. High Commissione r for Human Rights and the Centre
for Human Rights were consolidated into a single Office of the United
Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) on September
15, 1997. The OHCHR is located at Geneva. It maintains a liaison office in
New -York as w ell as numerous country offices around the world. The office
is headed by a High Commissioner with the rank of Under Secretary -
General.
The High Commissioner is responsible for all the activities of the Office of
the United Nations High Commissioner for H uman Rights. He carries out
the functions specifically assigned to him or her by the General Assembly
in its resolution 48/141 of December 20, 1993, i.e., the resolution which
created the post of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. He advises
the Secre tary-General on the Policies of the United Nations in the area of
human rights. He ensures that substantive and administrative support is
given to the projects, activities, organs and bodies of the human rights
programmes. He represents the SecretaryGenera l at meetings of the human
rights organs and at other human rights events. He also carried out special
assignment as decided by the Secretary -General.
The OHCHR maintains an office at the Headquarter which is called New
York office which is headed by a Director who is accountable to the High
Commissioner. The Director performs a number of functions including the
representation of the High Commissioner at Headquarters, at meetings of
policy making bodies, with permanent missions of Member States. The munotes.in
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51 Role of United Nations New Yor k office also provides advice and recommendations on substantive
matters to the High Commissioner.
Functions of OHCHR - The OHCHR performs the following functions –
• The OHCHR promotes universal enjoyment of all human rights by
giving practical effect t o the will and resolve of the World community
as expressed by the United nations.
• The Office plays the leading role on human rights issues and
emphasises the importance human rights at the international and
national levels,
• OHCHR promotes internation al cooperation for human rights;
• The Office stimulates and coordinates action for human rights
throughout the United Nations system.
• The Office promotes universal ratification and implementation of
international standards;
• The Office assists in th e development of new norms;The Office
supports human rights organ and treaty monitoring bodies;
• The Office responds to serious violations of human rights;
• The Office undertakes preventive human rights action;
• The Office promotes the establishment of national human rights
infrastructures.
• The Office undertakes human rights field activities and operations;
Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women
(CEDAW)
The Convention on the Elimination of all formal of Discrimination Again st
Women” 1979 Adopted by General Assembly Resolution 34/180 of 18 Dec.
1979. The Convention sets out, in legally binding form, internationally
accepted principles on the rights of women which are applicable to all
women in all fields. The basic legal norm of the Convention is the
prohibition of all forms of discrimination against women. This norm cannot
be satisfied merely by the enactment of genderneutral laws. In addition to
demanding that women be accorded equal rights with men. the Convention
goes furt her by prescribing the measures to be taken to ensure that women
everywhere are able to enjoy the rights to which they are entitled. The
Convention recognizes rights of women in the form of obligations on State
parties.
Article 2 establishes, in a general way, the obligations of States under the
Convention and the policy to be followed in eliminating discrimination
against women. By becoming parties to the Convention, States accept the
responsibility to take active steps to implement the principle of equal ity
between men and women into their national constitutions and other relevant
legislation. States should also eliminate the legal bases for discrimination
by revising existing laws and civil, penal and labour codes. It is not enough
merely to insert antid iscrimination clauses into legislation. The Convention munotes.in
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52 also requires States parties to protect women's rights effectively and provide
women with opportunities for recourse and protection against
discrimination. They should incorporate sanctions into legisl ation that deter
discrimination against women, and establish a system for filing complaints
within national tribunals and courts. States parties to the Convention must
take steps to eliminate discrimination in both public and private spheres. It
is not eno ugh to strive for "vertical" gender equality of the individual
woman vis -a-vis public authorities; States must also work to secure non -
discrimination at the "horizontal" level, even within the family.
Therefore, through its various organs, treaties, bodi es and initiatives U.N
ensures protection and promotion of Human Rights.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
1) Write a detailed essay on Protection and Promotion of Human
Rights by United Nations.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
5.4 INTERNATIONAL LABOU R ORGANISATION &
UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL SCIENTIFIC
CULTURAL ORGANISATIO N.
“The failure of any nation to adopt humane conditions of labour is an
obstacle in the way of other nations which desire to improve the
conditio ns in their own countries.” - ILO Constitution
The International Labour Organization (ILO) is built on the constitutional
principle that universal and lasting peace can be established only if it is
based upon social justice. The ILO has generated such hall marks of
industrial society as the eight -hour working day, maternity protection,
child -labour laws, and a range of policies which promote workplace safety
and peaceful industrial relations. The ILO is the international institutional
framework which makes i t possible to address such issues – and to find
solutions allowing working conditions to improve everywhere. No country
or industry could have afforded to introduce any of these in the absence of
similar and simultaneous action by its competitors.
Origins of the ILO
The International Labour Organization emerged with the League of Nations
from the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. It was founded to give expression to
the growing concern for social reform after World War I, and the conviction
that any reform had to be conducted at an international level. After World munotes.in
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53 Role of United Nations War II, a dynamic restatement and enlargement of the ILO’s basic goals and
principles was made in the Declaration of Philadelphia. The Declaration
anticipated postwar growth in national independence, and heralded the birth
of large -scale technical cooperation with the developing world. In 1946, the
ILO became the first specialized agency associated with the newly formed
United Nations Organization. On its 50th anniversary in 1969, it was
awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.
Nature of ILO
The ILO has a tripartite structure unique in the United Nations, in which
employers’ and workers’ representatives – the “social partners” of the
economy – have an equal voice with those of governments in shaping its
policie s and programmes. The ILO also encourages this tripartism within
its member States by promoting a “social dialogue” between trade unions
and employers in formulating, and where appropriate, implementing
national policy on social, economic, and many other i ssues. Minimum
international labour standards and the broad policies of the ILO are set by
the International Labour Conference, which meets annually.
Every two years, the Conference adopts the ILO’s biennial work
programme and budget, which is financed by member States. The
Conference also provides an international forum for discussion of world
labour and social problems. Each member country has the right to send four
delegates to the Conference, two from the government and one each
representing workers and employers. These delegates are free to speak and
vote independently. Between annual sessions of the Conference, the work
of the ILO is guided by the Governing Body of 28 government members
and 14 worker and 14 employer members.
The ILO secretariat, operational headquarters, research centre and
publishing house, are based in the International Labour Office, Geneva.
Administration and management are decentralized in regional, area, and
branch offices in more than 40 countries. The work of the Governing Body
and of the Office is aided by tripartite committees covering major industries.
It is also supported by committees of experts on such matters as vocational
training, management development, occupational safety and health,
industrial relations, workers’ education, and special problems of women
and young workers. Regional meetings of the ILO member States are held
periodically to examine matters of special interest to the regions concerned.
The ILO has four principal strategic objectives:
1) To promote and r ealize standards, and fundamental principles and
rights at work.
2) To create greater opportunities for women and men to secure decent
employment.
3) To enhance the coverage and effectiveness of social protection for all.
4) To strengthen tripartism and social dialogue. munotes.in
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54 Policies and Programmes of International Labour Organisation -
A) Declaration of Philadelphia - In 1944, the International Labour
Conference met in Philadelphia, USA, and adopted the Declaration of
Philadelphia. This redefined the aims and purpose of the ILO by
adopting the following principles:
• Labour is not a commodity.
• Freedom of expression and of association are essential to
sustained progress.
• Poverty anywhere constitutes a danger to prosperity
everywhere.
• All human beings, irrespective of race, creed, or sex, have the
right to pursue both their material wellbeing and their spiritual
development in conditions of freedom and dignity, of economic
security, and of equal opportunity.
B) Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work - In
1998, the International Labour Conference adopted the Declaration
on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work, which reaffirmed the
commitment of the international community to “respect, to promote
and to realize in good faith” the righ ts of workers and employers to
freedom of association and the effective right to collective bargaining.
It also commits member States to work towards the elimination of all
forms of forced or compulsory labour, the effective abolition of child
labour, and the elimination of discrimination in employment and
occupation. The Declaration emphasizes that all member States have
an obligation to respect the fundamental principles involved, whether
or not they have ratified the relevant Conventions.
ILO Conventions and Recommendations :
One of the ILO’s original and most important functions is the adoption by
the tripartite International Labour Conference (employers, workers and
governments) of Conventions and Recommendations which set
international standards. Throu gh ratifications by member States, these
Conventions create binding obligations to implement their provisions.
Recommendations provide guidance on policy, legislation, and practice.
Since 1919, Conventions and Recommendations have been adopted
covering pr actically all issues relating to the world of work. These include
certain basic human rights (notably freedom of association, the right to
organize and bargain collectively, the abolition of forced labour and child
labour, and the elimination of discrimina tion in employment), labour
administration, industrial relations, employment policy, working
conditions, social security, occupational safety and health, employment of
women, and employment of special categories such as migrant workers and
seafarers.
Each member State is required to submit all Conventions and munotes.in
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55 Role of United Nations Recommendations adopted by the Conference to the competent national
authorities for a decision on action to be taken. The ratifications of these
Conventions have continued to increase in number.
The I LO has established a supervisory procedure to ensure their application
in law and practice, which is the most advanced of all such international
procedures. It is based on objective evaluation by independent experts of
the manner in which obligations are c omplied with, and on examination of
cases by the ILO tripartite bodies. There is a special procedure to investigate
complaints of infringement of freedom of association.
The eight -core conventions of the ILO are:
• Forced Labour Convention (No. 29)
• Abol ition of Forced Labour Convention (No.105)
• Equal Remuneration Convention (No.100)
• Discrimination (Employment Occupation) Convention (No.111)
• Minimum Age Convention (No.138)
• Worst forms of Child Labour Convention (No.182)
• Freedom of Association an d Protection of Right to Organised
Convention (No.87)
• Right to Organise and Collective Bargaining Convention (No.98)
Focus on child labour
Child labour is a pressing social, economic and human rights issue. As many
as 250 million children worldwide are thought to be working, deprived of
adequate education, good health, and basic freedoms. Individual children
pay the highest price, but countries suffer as well. Ending child labour is a
goal in itself; but it is also a powerful way of promoting economic an d
human development. The ILO Minimum Age Convention, 1973 (No. 138),
containing the principle of the effective abolition of child labour, is
strengthened by adoption of a new Worst Forms of Child Labour
Convention, 1999 (No. 182), calling for immediate mea sures to eliminate
as a matter of urgency all of the worst forms of child labour – ranging from
slavery and compulsory labour to use of a child in any illicit activity, and
any work which is likely to harm the health, safety or morals of children.
As the w orld has awakened to the abuses of child labour, the movement
against it has evolved into a global cause virtually unprecedented in its pace
and intensity. It is a movement which transcends political boundaries,
languages, cultures and spiritual traditions . Every segment of civil society
– governments, employers, trade unions, NGOs, and religious organizations
– has joined together to declare that exploitative child labour must end. The
International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC)
curre ntly manages over 1,000 programmes worldwide promoting
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56 Gender and Jobs
Gender equality is a key element of the ILO agenda of Decent Work for All
Women and Men. Gender equality, along with development, is one of the
two cross -cutting issues of the four strategic objectives of the Decent Work
agenda. The ILO’s approach to gender equality is to mainstream gender
concerns in all its policies and programmes. Women have transformed the
labour markets of the world. In some cases, they have succeeded in
obtaining greater opportunities and economic autonomy. Yet, gender
inequalities still permeate every aspect of the employment problem. Women
still form the majority of unpaid, atypical, or discouraged workers in most
countries.
India is a founding member of the ILO and it has been a permanent
member of the ILO Governing Body since 1922. In India, the first ILO
Office was started in 1928. The decades of productive partnership between
the ILO and its constituents has mutual trust and respec t as underlying
principles and is grounded in building sustained institutional capacities and
strengthening capacities of partners. India has not ratified the two
core/fundamental conventions, namely Freedom of Association and
Protection of the Right to Organise Convention, 1948 (No.
87) and Right to Organise and Collective Bargaining Convention, 1949
(No. 98). The main reason for non -ratification of ILO conventions No.87 &
98 is due to certain restrictions imposed on the government servants.
Hence, ILO wo rks to promote social justice at the workplace, as it believes
that social justice is the key to lasting peace. It also promotes employment
generation and the concept of decent work, while adhering to international
labour and human rights.
United Nations Educational Scientific Scientific Cultural Organisation
(UNESCO)
“Since wars begin in the minds of men and women, it is in the minds of men
and women that the defences of peace must be constructed” – UNESCO
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultu ral Organization
(UNESCO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) . It seeks
to build peace through international cooperation in Education, the Sciences
and Culture. It is also a member of the United Nations Sustainable
Development Group (UNSDG), a coalition of UN agencies and
organizations aimed at fulfilling the Sustainable Development G oals
(SDGs). UNESCO’s Headquarters are located in Paris and the
Organization has more than 50 field offices around the world. It has 193
Members and 11 Associate Members (As of April 2020) and is governed by
the General Conference and the Executive Board. munotes.in
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57 Role of United Nations UNESCO focuses on a set of objectives such as:
• Attaining quality education for all and lifelong learning
• Mobilizing science knowledge and policy for sustainable
development
• Addressing emerging social and ethical challenges
• Fostering cultural diversity, intercultural dialogue and a culture of
peace
• Building inclusive knowledge societies through information and
communication
• Focuses on global priority areas - “Africa” and “Gender Equality”.
In 1942, during the Second World War, the governments of the European
countries, which were confronting Germany and its allies, met in the United
Kingdom for the Conference of Allied Ministers of Education (CAME).
Upon the proposal of CAME, a United Nations Conference for the
establishment of an educational and cultural organization was convened in
London in November 1945. At the end of the conference, UNESCO was
founded on 16 November 1945. The first session of the General Conference
of UNESCO was held in Paris during November -December of 1946.
Areas of Special ization of UNESCO –
A) Education Transforms Lives - Education transforms lives and is at the
heart of UNESCO’s mission to build peace, eradicate poverty and
drive sustainable development. T he Organization is the only United
Nations agency with a mandate to cover all aspects of education . It
has been entrusted to lead the Global Education 2030
Agenda through Sustainable Development Goal - 4.
‘Education 2030 Framework for Action’ (Incheon Declaration) is
the roadmap to achieve the global education 2030 agenda. It’s work
encompasses educational development from pre -school to higher
education and beyond.
B) Protecting Our Heritage and Fostering Creativity - It is becoming
a fact that no development can be sustainable without a strong culture
component.UNESCO has a dopted a three -pronged approach to
make culture takes it rightful place in development strategies and
processes:
i) Spearheads worldwide advocacy for culture and
development.
ii) Engages with the international community to set clear
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58 iii) Works on the ground to support governments and local
stakeholders to safeguard heritage, strengthen creative
industries and encourage cultural pluralism.
Some important conventions and International treaties of UNESCO
to protect and safeguard t he world’s cultural and natural heritage:
• The Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the
Diversity of Cultural Expressions (2005)
• The Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural
Heritage (2003)
• The Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity (2001)
• The Convention on t he Protection of the Underwater Cultural
Heritage (2001)
• The Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and
Natural Heritage (1972)
• The Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the
Illicit Traffic of Cultural Property (1970)
Scien ce for a Sustainable Future -
Science equips us to find solutions to today’s acute economic, social and
environmental challenges and to achieving sustainable development and
greener societies.UNESCO works to assist countries to invest in Science,
Technolog y and Innovation (STI), to develop national science policies, to
reform their science systems and to build capacity to monitor and evaluate
performance through STI indicators. Also, UNESCO works with its
member states to foster informed decisions about the use of science and
technology, in particular in the field of bioethics.
Social and Human Sciences -
UNESCO helps to enable people to create and use knowledge for just and
inclusive societies, support them in understanding each other and working
together to build lasting peace.It promotes mutual understanding among
member states through its intergovernmental Programme
like Management of Social Transformations (MOST), its Youth
Programme and the Culture of Peace and Non -Violence
Programme which include initia tives for democracy and global
citizenship, intercultural dialogue, peace -building .
Communication and Information –
UNESCO advances freedom of expression and the safety of journalists,
combats online hate speech, as well as disinformation and misinformati on
through awareness raising initiatives.It also supports universal access to
information and knowledge through promoting Open Solutions, including munotes.in
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59 Role of United Nations Open Educational Resources, access for marginalized people, and
multilingualism in Cyberspace.
Some of the I mportant Initiatives of UNESCO:
World Heritage Convention and List –
• World Heritage Convention -1972 links together the concepts of
nature conservation and the preservation of cultural properties.
• The Convention defines the kind of natural or cultural sites (World
Heritage Sites) which can be considered for inscription on the World
Heritage List.
• The States Parties of convention are encouraged to integrate the
protection of the cultural and natural heritage into regional planning
programmes , set up s taff and services at their sites, undertake
scientific and technical conservation research.
• It explains how the World Heritage Fund is to be used and managed.
• Globally there are 1154 World Heritage sites in the 167 countries .
Meanwhile, India has 40 World Heritage Sites that include 30
Cultural properties, 7 Natural properties and 1 mixed site.
• Harappan city of Dholavira in Gujarat as India’s 40th world
heritage site.
• Ramappa Temple (Telangana) was India's 39th World Heritage
Site.
• Khangchendzonga National Park, Sikkim has been inscribed as
India's first and the only “Mixed World Heritage Site”.
• In 2022 , the Union Ministry of Culture nominated Sacred Ensembles
of the Hoysalas temples for consideration as a World Heritage s ite for
the year 2022-2023.
Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme –
It is an intergovernmental scientific programme that aims to establish a
scientific basis for enhancing the relationship between people and their
environments. It promotes innovative appr oaches to economic development
that are socially and culturally appropriate and environmentally sustainable.
The World Network of Biosphere Reserves currently counts 701 sites in
124 countries all over the world, including 21 trans boundary sites. India
has 18 Biosphere reserves out of which 12 have been recognized
internationally under MAB program.
World Water Assessment Programme (WWAP) - The growing global
water crisis threatens the security, stability and environmental sustainability
of developing nations. The programme focuses on assessing the developing
situation of freshwater throughout the world. It also coordinates the work of
31 UN -Water member s and partners in the World Water Development
Report (WWDR) munotes.in
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60 UNESCO & India :
India has been a member of the UNESCO since its inception in 1946.
UNESCO constitution requires that each Member State should have a
principle body that shall work with the Organization. Thus, in India, Indian
National Commission for Cooperation with UNESCO (INCCU) was
commissioned. UNESCO has two Offices in India
The New Delhi cluster office for eleven countries in South and Central Asia
(Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, I ran, Maldives, Mongolia,
Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka) The MGIEP – the Mahatma
Gandhi Institute of Education for Peace and Sustainable Development fully
supported and funded by the Government of India.
India has been elected to the Intergovernmen tal Committee of UNESCO’s
2003 Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage
(ICH) for the 2022 -2026 cycle.
• India has served as a member of the ICH Committee twice — from
2006 to 2010 and from 2014 to 2018.
• Earlier, Durga Puja in Kolkata was inscribed on the UNESCO ’s
Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) of
Humanity.
What is Intangible Cultural Heritage?
Intangible cultural heritage is the practices, expressions, knowledge and
skills that commun ities, groups and sometimes individuals recognise as part
of their cultural heritage. Also called living cultural heritage , it is
usually expressed in one of the following forms:
• Oral Traditions
• Performing Arts
• Social Practices
• Rituals and Festive events
• Knowledge and Practices concerning nature and the universe
• Traditional Craftsmanship
India has been elected to the Intergovernmental Committee of UNESCO’s
2003 Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage
(ICH) for the 202 2-2026 cycle.
• India has served as a member of the ICH Committee twice — from
2006 to 2010 and from 2014 to 2018.
• Earlier, Durga Puja in Kolkata was inscribed on the UNESCO’ s
Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) of
Humanity. munotes.in
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61 Role of United Nations Check Your Progress Exercise 3
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
1) Elucidate on International Labour Union and UNESCO with
suitable examples.
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_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
5.5 WORLD HEALTH ORGANIS ATION -
At the 1945 United Nations Conference on International Organization (also
known as the San Francisco Conference), Szeming Sze, a delegate from the
Repub lic of China (modern -day Taiwan), proposed the creation of an
international health organization under the auspices of the new United
Nations. Alger Hiss, the Secretary -General of the conference,
recommended using a declaration to establish such an organiza tion. As a
result of these proceedings, the World Health Organisation came to be
established in 1948. It became the first specialized agency of the United
Nations to which every member subscribed.
The WHO Constitution states that the organization’s objecti ve “is the
attainment by all people of the highest possible level of health”. The WHO
fulfills this objective through the following functions:
1. By playing a role as the directing and coordinating authority on
international health work.
2. Maintaining and establishing collaboration with the UN and any other
appropriate bodies.
3. Assisting governments, upon request, in strengthening their health
services.
4. Giving appropriate technical assistance and in case of emergencies,
required aid upon the request o r acceptance of governments.
Contribution of WHO :
The WHO has been instrumental in eradicating the suffering of millions all
over the world through its assistance to various governments. Some of the
important milestones include:
• Eradication of smallpox in 1980.
• The organization is close to eradicating Polio, a disease that
affects mainly infants and young children. Due to eradication
programs by the WHO, polio cases have come down by 99% since munotes.in
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62 1988. As of 2019, only three nations are suffering from pol io –
Nigeria, Afghanistan, and Pakistan.
• About 216 million people are suffering from Malaria, mostly in
tropical Africa, where 90% of Malaria cases and deaths are recorded.
In the African region, the death rate due to malaria has been brought
down by 60% as of 2018.
• In 2008, the WHO initiated the observance of the ‘World Malaria
Day’. This day is observed annually on April 25. Read more about
this day in This Day in History dated April 25.
• It focuses on infectious diseases like HIV, influenza,
malaria, tuberculosis, and Ebola; and also other non -communicable
diseases such as heart disease and cancer.
• It also takes efforts in the direction of maternity and infant
healthcare, old -age care, and hygienic food and water for all.
How is WHO governed?
• World Health Assembly - World Health Assembly (WHA) is
WHO’s decision -making body attended by delegations from all of
WHO’s member states. It is held yearly at the headquarters of WHO,
i.e., Geneva, Switzerland. Specific health agenda prepared by the
Executive Board remains the focus of this assembly. Since the start of
the Covid -19 pandemic, 2022’s assembly is the first in -person
assembly.The Health Assembly determines the policies of the
Organization. It supervises the financial policies of the Organization
and reviews and approves the budget. It reports to the Economic and
Social Council in accordance with any agreement between the
Organization and the United Nations. The Director -General is
appointed by the Health Assembly on the nomination of the Board
on su ch terms as the Health Assembly may determine.
World Health Organisation & India ;
• India became a party to the WHO on 12 January 1948. Regional office
for South East Asia is located in New Delhi. In 1967 the total number
of smallpox cases recorded in India accounted for nearly 65% of all
cases in the world. Of this 26,225 cases died, g iving a grim picture of
the relentless fight that lay ahead. In 1967, the WHO launched the
Intensified Smallpox Eradication Programme. With a coordinated
effort by Indian government with the World Health Organization
(WHO), smallpox was eradicated in 1977. India began the battle
against the disease in response to the WHO’s 1988 Global Polio
Eradication Initiative with financial and technical help from World
Bank.
• Polio Campaign -2012: The Indian Government, in partnership with
UNICEF, the World Health Organization (WHO), the Bill & Melinda
Gates Foundation, Rotary International and the Centers for Disease munotes.in
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63 Role of United Nations Control and Prevention contributed to almost universal awar eness of
the need to vaccinate all children under five against polio. As a result
of these efforts, India was removed from the list of endemic countries
in 2014. Recently, the Prime Minister addressed the Second Global
Covid Virtual Summit of the World Health Organisation (WHO) ,
where he emphasized WHO Reforms.
Reforms suggested to stre ngthen WHO -
A) Strengthening the Public Health Emergency of International Concern
(PHEIC) declaration process It is important to devise objective
criteria with clear parameters for declaring PHEIC. The emphasis
must be on transparency and pr omptness in the declaration process.
A PHEIC implies a situation that is:
• Serious, sudden, unusual or unexpected;
• Carries implications for public health beyond the affected
State’s national border; and
• May require immediate international action.
• Funding: Most of the financing for Programmatic Activities of the
WHO come s from extra budgetary contributions, which though
voluntary in nature, are normally earmarked. The WHO enjoys very
little flexibility in the use of these funds. There is a need to ensure
that extra budgetary or voluntary contributions are unearmarked to
ensure that the WHO has the necessary flexibility for it s usage in
areas where they are required the most.
C) Enhancement of the response capacities of the WHO and Member
States.
D) Improvement of the WHO's governance structure: Being a
technical Organisation, most of the work in WHO is done in
Technical Commit tees composed of independent experts. Moreover,
considering the growing risks associated with emergence of disease
outbreaks the role of the Independent Oversight and Advisory
Committee (IOAC), responsible for the performance of the WHO
Health Emergencies Programme (WHE), becomes extremely crucial.
It is important that the member States have a greater say in the
functioning of the WHO , given that it is the States which are
responsible for implementation on ground of the technical advice and
recommendations coming from the WHO.
E) Creation of Global Framework for Management of Infectious
Diseases & Pandemic.
Therefore, by implementing above suggested reforms would prove to be
very instrumental in the functioning of World health Organisation. munotes.in
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64 Check Your Prog ress Exercise 4
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
1) Elaborate on World Health Organisation’s functions.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
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5.6 LET US SUM UP ( SUMMARY/ CONCLUSION)
In this module we discussed the Role of United Nations, which expands
beyond maintaining world peace. UN is an international organization
founded committed to maintaining international peace a nd security,
developing friendly relations among nations and promoting social
progress, better living standards and human rights through its various
organs and treaties.
5.7 REFERENCES
1. Thomas George Weiss, Sam Daws (Edt.), The Oxford Handbook on
the U nited Nations,Oxford University Press, New York, 2007
2. Joachim Koops, Norrie MacQueen, Thierry Tardy, Paul D. Williams
(Edt), The Oxford Handbook of United Nations Peacekeeping
Operations, Oxford University Press, 2015
3. Gordenker, Leon, The UN Secretar y-General and Secretariat, Second
Edition, Routledge, New York, 2010.
4. Karns, Margaret P., and Mingst, Karen A., International
Organisations ThePolitics and Processes of Global Governance, Viva
Books, New Delhi, 2005
5. Krasno, Jean E., United Nation: Co nfronting the Challenges of a
Global Society, Lynne Rienner, London, 2004.
6. Mehrish, B.N., The United Nations in the New Millennium: A
Changing Scenario, Academic Excellence, Delhi, 2007.
7. Moore, John A., and Pubantz, Jerry, New United Nations:
Interna tionalOrganization in The Twenty -First Century, Pearson
Prentice Hall, Upper SaddleRiver, 2006.
8. Singh, J. P., UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and
CulturalOrganization) Creating Norms for a Complex World,
Routledge, New York, 2010.
9. Thakur, Ramesh, The United Nations, Peace and Security, Cambridge
University Press,Cambridge, 2006.
10. United Nations, United Nations Today, United Nations Publications,
New York, 2008.
11. Whitworth, Sandra, Men, Militarism, and Peacekeeping: A Gendered
Analysis, Lynne 80 Rienner, Boulder, 2007.
12. Zweifel, Thomas D., International Organizations and Democracy:
Accountability,Politics, and Power, Lynne Rienner, Boulder, 2005.
7777777munotes.in
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UNITED NATIONS TODAY
Unit Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Changing Nature
6.2 .1 Peace and Security
6.3 Social and Economic Development
6.5 Promoting and Protecting Human Rights
6.6 Reforms
6.7 Relevance
6.0 OBJECTIVES
• To understand and analyse the changing nature of United Nations
• To study the various reform proposals to the United Nations
• To understand the relevance of United Nations in today’s time
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The world is far more complex than it was during the post -war period. Some
51 countries came together to form the U nited Nations in 1945 and there
are 193 member states today. Power politics has shifted tremendously since
that era. Bipolar or unipolar global order has been replaced by multipolar.
When the UN was established, state governments were the dominant actors
in the global sphere but today there are many non - state actors as well.
Economic, social and cultural globalisation has facilitated global trade.
Social and economic inequalities have reached new heights and capital is
ever more concentrated in the hands o f a few, with just one per cent of the
world’s population controlling more than 50 per cent of the wealth.
Established in 1945, the United Nations was designed for a different era. Its
institutional structure and culture still reflect this past era, rather than the
realities of the 21st century. It has undergone some changes over the years
but to keep pace with time, more reforms are needed for the UN to be
relevant in the 21st century.
6.2 CHANGING NATURE:
6.2.1 Peace and Security:
According to the UN Charter, the UN is meant to uphold international peace
and security. The meaning of ‘peace and security’ has evolved over the munotes.in
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66 decades. Originally, it simply meant the ‘national security’ of the nation -
state. Later it came to mean the ‘c ommon security’ of the international
community, which is chiefly the responsibility of the United Nations. More
recently, ‘human security’ has been added to focus on individuals and the
responsibility of governments to them. The term refers to a whole arra y of
global challenges that lead to ‘insecurity’ like terrorism, refugee crisis,
climate change, pandemic, cyber attacks, etc. The Charter names other
forms of security including freedom from hunger and the right to housing,
employment and health. The func tioning of the UN has also changed to
encompass these new dimensions of peace and security.
Some key terms to understand UN Peace Operations:
1. Peacekeeping : involves helping war -torn countries create conditions
for lasting peace.
2. Peacemaking : refers to diplomatic action to bring hostile parties to
an agreement, including through negotiation, enquiry, mediation,
conciliation, arbitration, judicial settlement or with the help of
regional agencies.
3. Peace enforcement : requires the authorization of the Sec urity
Council and involves a range of coercive measures, including the use
of military force.
4. Peacebuilding : focuses on post -conflict recovery and reconstruction,
aiming to build national capacities for conflict management and create
the conditions for su stainable peace.
The original peacekeeping missions of the UN were limited to lightly armed
forces acting as mediators and monitors, interceding between conflicting
combatants to keep them apart. They depended on the principles of consent,
neutrality and the non -use of force. Over the years, peace operations
expanded going well beyond pure peacemaking, by working towards
peacebuilding with the monitoring of elections and international support for
the development of institutions and finances in failed states. Operations
became multidimensional, aiming to facilitate the political process, protect
civilians, promote human rights, support election, restore the rule of law,
and assist in the disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration of former
combatants .
After the 1990s, the nature of wars changed from inter -states conflict to
internal state conflict and the UN was drawn more and more. Post 1990,
The Security Council tackled various and diversified conflicts including
domestic rivalries.
The peacekeeping missions are some of the UN’s greatest successes and
greatest failures. Among the successes were: the independence of Namibia;
ending the conflict in El Salvador; demobilisation, peace and
reestablishment of Cambodia; peace, disarmament an d elections in
Mozambique; independence and a new government in East Timor; and
ending the civil war and re -establishing the government in Sierra Leone. munotes.in
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67 United Nations Today Terrible failures were in Somalia, Bosnia, Rwanda and Syria, where the
Security Council refused to mobi lise sufficient forces to control the
situation and civilians were slaughtered by the thousands.
The Department of Peacekeeping Operations supervises more troops in the
field, some 120,000, than any individual country. As of 2016, there were 16
UN led mi ssions on the field.
6.3 SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT:
Development is among the three founding pillars of the UN system. The
UN Charter states that “the United Nations shall promote higher standards
of living, full employment, and conditions of economic and social progress
and development”. Yet the understandi ng of development when the Charter
declared it was different and the concept has evolved greatly over the years.
Early development efforts of the international system focused on post -
World War II reconstruction. In 1948, the US launched the Marshall Pla n,
a massive aid initiative to rebuild Western Europe following the devastation
of the war. In the years that followed, the emphasis shifted to developing
countries that gained independence from their colonial powers. Between
1956 and 1968, UN membership grew from 80 to 126 and most of these
additional members were African and Asian countries, newly independent
from European colonial powers. This period of rapid decolonization,
recognised the right to self -determination of all. In 1960, the UN General
Asse mbly adopted the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to
Colonial Countries and Peoples, formalising this basic right.
At the time of its inception, the UN primarily focused on maintaining peace
and security and the UN had just a handful of develop ment -related agencies.
The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) was created to coordinate
social and economic activities within the UN system, while the International
Labour Organization (ILO), Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and
United Nations Edu cational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) were specialised agencies that fell under ECOSOC’s mandate.
During the 1960s and 1970s there was a proliferation of new UN funds,
programmes and specialised agencies dealing with poverty and hunger,
social development, health, women, environment and housing.
The year 2000 was a milestone for development cooperation. The
Millennium Development Goals, also referred to as the MDGs, came into
force with the cooperation amongst all the states. In 2012, the idea to replace
MDGs with a new set of goals was tabled. The states unanimously adopted
the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), also known as the Global
Goals at the UN Sustainable Development Summit in September 2015. The
development of SDGs addr essed the shortcomings of MDGs and adapted
the challenges of a new era.
The post -2015 development planning of the UN involved consultations -
based approach unlike the others. For SDGs, tens of millions of people were
consulted and about 70 per cent of those were under 30 years of age. There munotes.in
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68 is an increasing role of the private sector as well. The private sector is a
critical element in the 21st century notion of partnerships for development.
The UN Global Compact, is a voluntary initiative based on busin ess leaders’
commitments to adopt sustainable and socially responsible policies. More
than 16,000 participating companies and 3,800 non -business participants
have already embraced the commitments of the UN Global Compact.
Environmental issues are one exam ple of how the UN has successfully
adapted to changing times. The United Nations Environment Program
(UNEP) was created as the voice for the environment in the UN system in
1972 at the first United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in
Stockholm.
In the UN’s early days, its development work was carried out by a few
specialised agencies. During the 1960s and 1970s there was a proliferation
of organisations in the UN development system, and today there are more
than 30 organisations plus research and training institutions working in the
arena of economic and social development.
6.4 PROMOTING AND PROTEC TING HUMAN RIGHTS:
Human rights feature prominently in the UN Charter. The Charter begins
with a series of pledges: to save succeeding generations from the scourge of
war, to maintain compliance with international law, to promote social
progress and to “reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity
and worth of the human person, in equal rights of men and women and of
nations large and sma ll”. But the protection and promotion of human rights
is among the most controversial issues at the United Nations. The states are
the central unit and they must protect the rights of their citizens. Yet it is
states that are the primary violator.
A seri es of human rights treaties, conventions and declarations adopted
since 1945 have given legal form to inherent human rights. The Universal
Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the General Assembly on
December 10th 1948, is the most significant.
The Commission on Human Rights was established in 1946 as the UN’s
principal mechanism and forum for the promotion and protection of human
rights. During its first 20 years it successfully established the international
legal framework. In the late 1960s, it shifted to monitoring and
implementing human rights. This meant going beyond elaborating treaties
to investigating, reporting on, and condemning violators. It turned political
and the political nature of the Commission led to marked regionalism and
group- blocking action. The Commission was ultimately scrapped and
replaced with the Human Rights Council in 2006. The Human Rights
Council set international standards and norms, raised awareness on human
rights issues, and convened actors at global forums.
Crimes against humanity, war crimes and genocide represent the most
heinous human rights abuses. International criminal courts and tribunals
were established to prosecute individuals who, in committing these grave munotes.in
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69 United Nations Today crimes, violate international criminal law . The International Criminal Court
(ICC) based in the Hague, the Netherlands, is the first -ever permanent,
treaty -based court of its kind that hears cases against individuals (the
International Court of Justice is also a permanent, treaty -based internation al
court, but only deals with disputes between states). When the ICC was
established, there was a strong sense of hope that it would effectively
challenge state sovereignty and international politics and put human rights
first. But state power and politics have prevailed over attempts to prosecute
the worst human rights violators and ICC remained a flawed institution.
The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) is the
UN’s refugee agency and the guardian of the Refugee Convention. It was
established in 1950 to help the millions of Europeans displaced after the
Second World War. UNHCR was only meant to exist for three years, and
was to conclude its work once it had successfully dealt with the refugee
problem in Europe. But the refugee crisis o nly grew over the years and it
dealt with new challenges every few years. The number of people that fall
under its mandate has risen steadily each decade and since 2012, the
increase has been drastic. The scenes of mass population movements have
shifted over time from Europe to Asia beginning in the 1960s, and then to
the Middle East in the 21st century.
The UN is well regarded for its humanitarian work and support for
refugees. UNHCR has helped more than 50 million refugees since inception
and received two Nobel Peace Prizes for its worldwide assistance to
refugees.
A crucial role is played by involvement of NGOs, international institutions
and domestic players in pressuring states to act in accordance with human
rights. The International human rights NGOs like Amnesty International
and Human Rights Watch have been particularly instrumental in supporting
the UN over the past decades to protect and promote human rights. Over the
years, the more inclusive nature of the UN has helped garner more suppor t
for its work.
Check Your Progress - Exercise 1:
1) Explain the changing nature of the United Nations with relevant
use of examples.
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2) Explain the role of the United Nations in tackling the
humanitarian crisis around the world.
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6.5 REFORMS:
Just as the need for the UN is evident, so is the need for its transformation
into an effective global institution.
The first building block of reform is to reach consensus on the basic purpose
and goals of the organisation. When the UN Charter was signed in San
Francisco in l945, a clear consensus existed. The nations of the world were
committed to creating an organisa tion that would help prevent another
world war and avoid another global depression. The language of the Charter
reflected this consensus, identifying the purpose of the organisation as “to
maintain international peace and security” and “achieve internation al
cooperation in solving international problems of an economic, social,
cultural, or humanitarian nature.” But the world has changed a lot after 1945
and each stage of development has added a new set of problems and
challenges. The member states of the UN, need to identify the need and goal
to transform the United Nations. The consensus that the forefathers of the
UN had is needed to bring about a significant reform.
The UN reform and revitalization effort will be dependent on strong
leadership from me mber states and the secretary -general, as well as solid
political recommitment by member states to the organisation. A political
commitment to multilateralism, a commitment to the United Nations is
required. A number of middle powers and developing countr ies have
cooled toward the organisation; but it is the lack of support from the United
States that is the most serious problem at the moment. The United States’
refusal to pay its dues is viewed as hampering the reform effort.
The United Nations’ reform initiative needs a road map with a clear, easily
recognized destination. The working groups, which represent the only
existing intergovernmental process, must come to closure on what is doable
and demonstrate that progress is bei ng made in addressing functional
inadequacies throughout the UN system.
There are nine popular proposals to reform the UN:
1. A more legitimate Security Council :
The Security Council’s two -tier system that accords a veto to the
powerful is an unequal tr eatment. Its decisions are not moral or
justified, when vetoes are used. The ideas for resolving the question
of the veto and improving peace operations are:
• Where there are reasonable grounds to justify it, members
should be requested to defend their ‘no’ votes publicly in the
Security Council. munotes.in
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71 United Nations Today • Permanent members should be given the option of casting a
‘dissenting vote’ that does not rise to the level of a veto and
therefore does not block passage of a resolution.
• The Council should ensure sufficient r esources and political
support to new peace operations where there are potential risks
of war crimes.
• For each peace operation a ‘Group of Friends’ should be
constituted, States that can help bring political and diplomatic
pressure to bear on the situati on.
• The Council must consult troop and police contributing
countries whenever there are problems and address their
concerns.
• It should undertake a rolling analysis of those terrorist, criminal
and extremist elements that are capable of influencing the
context of peace operations.
The current requirements for social, economic and legal support for
peace and security favours instituting a formal mechanism of
consultation for regular, structured discussions between the Security
Council and representative s of civil society, business and
municipalities. All these stakeholders make specific contributions to
the new dimensions of security.
2. A more balanced and focused General Assembly:
The General Assembly that relies on ‘one member, one vote’ rather
than a form of weighted voting is also charged with being
unrepresentative. At present, the three most populous countries
(China, India and the United States) have 42 per cent of the world’s
population but only 1.6 percent of votes in the General Assembly. A
well-designed system of weighted voting would mitigate these
defects. The three basic principles for the weighted vote of each
member would be: 1) the democratic principle in which popul ation is
the determining factor; 2) economic capacity represented by
contributions to the UN budget; and 3) the sovereign equality
principle whereby each state is treated equally.
Once the voting power within the General Assembly is more
balanced, its op erations need to be more focused. The GA should be
authorised to legislate binding international law when there is a two -
thirds majority that includes 50 per cent of the total world population.
The GA should be given limited capacity to pass legally bindi ng
resolutions.
3. An Economic, Social and Environmental Council:
The Economic and Social Council deals with its own challenges,
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72 binding decisions and whose mandate greatly overlaps with th at of the
General Assembly. The major suggestion is that ECOSOC be
transformed to a Social and Economic Security Council or an
Economic, Social and Environmental Council (ESEC), with powers
and methods parallel to those of the Security Council (without P5
vetoes). Its policy proposals would be transferred back to the GA for
debate and majority approval. The new ESEC would have effective
control and coordination over all agencies, financial institutions and
multilateral groups in the UN system in the sphere s of economics,
social development and the environment. To govern the new council,
a ministerial board of some 25 governments could be created along
with an advisory commission. Alternatively, the General Committee
of the General Assembly could be the lead er of ECOSOC. The
governing bodies of the major development agencies would be
combined into one executive committee.
The Commission on Peace, Justice and Governance outlined an
alternative idea to strengthen the United Nations role in the field of
econom ics without completely redesigning ECOSOC. It proposed
transforming the G20 into the G20+. The term ‘co -optation’ is not
used, but this is the essence of the proposal to institutionalise the G20
and strengthen its coordination with the UN, the World Bank, IMF,
WTO, ILO and regional organisations. The proposed G20+ would
meet every two years at the UN. The UN would furnish a secretariat,
a liaison mechanism, a UN deputy secretary -general, and a technical
body of experts to frame its activities.
4. A reconfigu red Human Rights Council:
The Human Rights Council struggles to protect human rights globally
as it struggles with a fundamental contradiction: it is a political body
expected to take principled action.
Ideas for reforming the Human Rights Council:
• Representation: Governments could remain members but the
representatives they select should be judges or academics with
human rights expertise. Membership could also be expanded to
include independent experts in addition to government
representatives.
• Status within the UN: The Council could eventually be made a
principal UN organ, rather than a subsidiary organ of the
General Assembly.
• Prevention: Strategies that emphasise preventing conflict and
violence that lead to human rights abuses should be pursued.
• Protection: A provision on implementing the Responsibility to
Protect could be added to the Council’s mandate.
• Universal Periodic Review: The UPR process could integrate a
procedure for dealing with violators, to ensure that dialogue and
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73 United Nations Today • NGOs: A more formal institutional framework around the
relationship of NGOs to the Council would be beneficial. The
consultative status that NGOs enjoy with ECOSOC would be a
model to follow.
5. Improved staffing and management practices:
One of the chief criticisms of the Secretariat relates to the politicised
approach to hiring, particularly when it comes to top appointments. It
explains how permanent Security Council members have dominated
the selection process for secretaries -general, often supporting
candidates in exchange for promises to reserve senior posts for their
own nationals. The Commission on Global Security, Justice and
Governance stated that through the General Assembly, member states
politicise hiring at all levels by micro managing the budget. It is
suggested that the Secretary -General has greater discretion to manage
the Secretariat. It proposes that member states continue to approve the
selections, but the Secretary -General be presented with an array of
candidates from whi ch to choose.
A second issue in the spotlight relates to management practices. The
organisation relies on rigid staffing and the excessively hierarchical
structure is a legacy from an earlier age. It is suggested to have a
flatter, flexible, effective, a nd cross -disciplinary structure that can
better respond to complex challenges. It is also suggested that more
of the Secretariat’s staff should be in the field, rather than at
headquarters. This would help shift the UN’s work from report
writing to executi ng its mandate on the ground.
6. Autonomous emergency services for the UN:
The UN requires additional resources to give it the autonomy to carry
out its work. The United Nations Emergency Peace Service (UNEPS)
has helped improve conditions in 69 armed conflicts worldwide. The
chief problem is that it currently takes 6 -12 months for the UN to
mount a peace operation as opposed to the seven days it took to deploy
forces in the initial days. The UN is now spending $8.2 billion
annually on peacekeeping, but only after conflicts have spread,
thousands have died and countries have been destroyed.
Creating a UNEPS would help prevent the spread of conflict along
with the ensuing mass atrocities and huge costs. Its principal
characteristics would be:
• a permanent standing, integrated UN formation
• highly trained and well -equipped
• ready for immediate deployment by the Security Council
composed of soldiers, police and civilian experts
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74 • 13,000 to 15,000 professional volunteers
• equitable regional and gender representation
• a first responder to cover the initial six months until member
states can deploy
The central aim of UNEPS would be to deter aggression and its
spread. There would be sufficient military forces and police to restore
and maintain order and civilian teams to provide essential services.
7. Financing the UN:
The last building block for UN reform and revitalization is to secure
reliable and adequate financing. The United Nations today relies on
both assessed and voluntary contributions by its member states. While
the UN regular budget and peacekeeping activities are funded through
member -state assessments, which are based on each state’s ability to
pay, UN specialised agencies receive a signif icant portion of their
funds through voluntary contributions. Under the current financing
system, fifteen major donor countries supply 85 percent of UN funds.
Many member states are chronically late in paying their dues, or fail
to pay them altogether, which has subjected the United Nations to
frequent financial crises through the year. The basic problem is that
member states never provided a sufficient budget to finance the UN’s
multitude of operations. When these are supplemented by voluntary
contribution s from states, they are still insufficient and tend to reflect
the priorities of the particular donor. It is proposed that the easiest
path would be for the UN to return to its original financial well in a
more astute manner. Scrapping the present complicated and
contentious system used to calculate member state assessments, and
replacing it by one wherein all states are assessed at a “very small,
affordable and equal percentage” (say 0.1 per cent initially) of their
respective gross national incomes (GNI) .
Tax evasion is another issue that harms national budgets, and thus the
UN’s budget. There are calls on the UN to create new institutions for
a platform for tax collaboration. The world is losing hundreds of
billions in tax revenues annually because of a la ck of international
cooperation on tax issues which permits rich individuals and
corporations to evade or avoid taxes in offshore tax havens or to
demand preferential treatment in their host countries.
8. Principles and criteria for the Responsibility to P rotect:
The Responsibility to Protect, or R2P, was developed in the early
2000s to overcome the principles of non -intervention and sovereignty
in the face of mass atrocities. The idea behind R2P was simple.
Sovereignty is not a one -way street that leaders can use with impunity.
Alongside a state’s right to sovereign independence comes the duty
and responsibility to protect its citizens from gross violations. If a
state proves unable or unwilling to do so, or if the state itself is the
perpetrator, the prin ciple of non -intervention yields to the munotes.in
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75 United Nations Today international responsibility to protect. It came about as an alternative
to humanitarian intervention.
Without clear principles for intervention, the UN lacked the key
instruments for deciding when to put R2P into action.The six
principles that should be respected before the UN would decide on
military intervention in the name of protecting civilian populations:
• The ‘just cause threshold’ stated that there had to be actual or
apprehended large scale loss of life or ethnic cleansing. Human
rights violations, the overthrow of democracy, or the desire to
rescue one’s nationals were not sufficient cause.
• The ‘right intention’ principle said the intervention must be to
avert human suffering which could best be assure d by
‘multilateral operations’ supported by regional opinion and the
victims concerned.
• The ‘last resort’ principle stipulated that every form of
negotiation and non -military forms of arm -twisting had to have
been exhausted.
• The principle of ‘proportio nal means’ asserted that the scale,
duration and intensity of the intervention has to be the minimum
necessary to achieve the human rights objectives.
• The principle of ‘reasonable prospects’ insisted there has to be
reasonable chances of success and that action will not be worse
than inaction.
• The principle of ‘right authority’ stipulates that the Security
Council is the appropriate body for authorising interventions,
but it should act promptly. In addition, the Permanent Five
should not apply their vet o power except when their vital state
interests are involved.
9. The dispersion and control of global power:
It is important to provide the United Nations with greater authority
today. Humanity collectively is capable of better and more fairly
governing the world. The well founded concerns some have of a
‘world government’ can be addressed by designing transformed
global institutions based on the diffusion and control of power. The
techniques of federalism, subsidiarity, checks and balances, the
divisio n of powers, constitutionally guaranteed freedoms, rights and
equality, liberalism, the rule of law, transparency and participation all
help to decentralise power. Thus, world federalism would promote a
continuing balancing of power between states and a UN with more
authority. So, if the UN had small but autonomous emergency peace
forces and sources of funding, the member states would still have their
national military and police forces along with their own legislatures,
judiciaries, public services and eve rything else that goes to make
sovereign nation -states. munotes.in
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76 Meaningful and lasting reform of the United Nations will require, at
a minimum, a substantial investment of political will, compromise,
patience, perseverance, and resources. It will also require ove rcoming
fears of loss of power and of the unknown. Member states will need
to reflect on the strengths and weaknesses of the United Nations. The
current UN situation is, “serious, but not yet fatal.” But everyone
agrees there is indeed hope.
6.6 RELEVANCE:
The world witnessed the conclusion of two months of intense multilateral
diplomacy, with the signing of the Charter of the United Nations in 1945.
Certainly, the United Nations has strived and continues to strive for
humanity’s progress and well-being.
The work of the United Nations impacts people around the world on issues
related to peace and security, development and human rights; from
disarmament to efforts to combat terrorism and extremism; from conflict
prevention to peacekeeping and peacebuilding; from disease prevention to
the promotion of gender equality and universal education; from refugee
resettlement to humanitarian assistance; from the rule of law to the fight
against transnational crime.
From supporting the major decolonization efforts across Africa and Asia to
providing a critical platform for discourse throughout the cold war; from
eradicating extreme poverty and hunger to addressing the pressing
challenge of climate change; the United N ations has been at the forefront of
efforts to ensure a secure, prosperous and equitable world.
The United Nations cannot solve all of the world’s problems, but, for
member states, the United Nations is worth preserving for what it has
accomplished and what it could accomplish in the future. The United
Nations has aided the international community through its programs and
diplomacy. It has served and can continue to serve serious geopolitical and
socio economic purposes. It has built constituencies for glo bal problems and
has provided a vehicle for ameliorating global rivalries as power
relationships among nations shift. It is a convenient arena to address issues
that nations cannot, or will not, confront on their own and is the only
established forum where the governments of the world can interact on an
equal footing.
Member states need to contemplate how these global developments have
affected the relevance of the United Nations and decide how the
organisation might be changed to better serve contemporary needs. The
governments of the world need to identify the kind of international
organisation they want and the specific agenda it should follow so that the
UN remains relevant in the 21st century as well.
The United Nations is a way for countries to burd en-share global
challenges - be they related to diplomacy, development, or security, that are
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77 United Nations Today membership is the explicit acknowledgement that all member nations are
sovereign states. The United Nations also supports countries in several
important sectors such as humanitarian assistance, economic development,
global health, and human rights on four key fronts: maintaining peace
throughout the world, developing friendly relations among nations, helping
nations work together to improve the lives of people, and serving as a forum
to discuss the actions of nations to achieve global goals.
The institutions and systems that were born out of the ashes of World War
II, including the United Nati ons, have allowed our societies to flourish.
Through shared responsibility and accountability, shared burdens and costs,
if not abolished, inter -state war, and have seen significant reductions in
famine and poverty coupled with massive gains in development and the
protection of human rights.
That is not to say that things are perfect, nor that the UN has an impeccable
record, far from it, but it is clear that addressing the issues as a united group
of nations offers much more promise of success and sustaina bility.
Global challenges require global solutions, and there is no body or entity
more representative or emblematic of global cooperation and
multilateralism than the United Nations. States must continue to foster
mutually reinforcing and coordinated eff orts amongst the main organs of
the United Nations to boost and uphold multilateralism. The General
Assembly, the Security Council, and other UN organs and entities all play
crucial roles, complementary roles, within their respective mandates, in
fostering international peace and security.
Check Your Progress - Exercise 2:
1) Explain the reforms needed for the transformation of the United
Nations.
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2) Explain major criticism of the Security Council and proposed
reforms.
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3) What are the major challenges in Uni ted Nations Financing and
what kind of reforms are required?
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4) Do you think the United Nations is still relevant? Give your views.
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Foundation, S. (1996). The United Nations and the Twenty -First Century:
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Schreyer, W. A. (2020, May 1). Competing and Winning in the Multilateral
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Trent, J. E., & Schnurr, L. (2017). A United Nations Renaissance: What the
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