MA-History-SEM-4-Paper-6-Sources-in-Historical-Research-Eng.-Version-munotes

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MEANING, SCOPE AND NATURE OF
HISTORY
Unit Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Meaning and definitions of History
1.3 Nature of History
1.4 Scope of History
1.5 Summary
1.6 Questions
1.7 References
1.0 OBJECTIVES  To introd uce the students to Sources in Historical Research.
 To shed light on the Historiography and theory related to Historical
Research.
 To build basic skills for conducting Historical Research .
 To orient learners about Meaning, Scope and nature of History .
1.1 INTRODUCTION History is a dynamic and multifaceted subject. It is reckoned as the mother
of all subjects. History has its types according to place, time and subject.
Pre-historic, ancient, medieval and modern are the types of history on the
basis of „time‟ . Economic, military, social, cultural, political etc. are the
types of history according to „subject‟. Local, regional, national and
international are the types of history on the basis of „place‟. International
history emphases on the study of such events and happenings which made
their impact on the entire human community worldwide e.g. French
revolution, World War I, Russi an Revolution and World War II. Events
and happenings which made their impact on the subsequent countries are
studied in national hist ory. E.g. in Indian context, national revolt of 1857,
Noncooperation movement. Regional history focuses on the happenings
and events happening their impact limited up to a particular region or state
e.g. History of Marathas. Local history comprises of hist ory which
includes significant happenings limited to local area and influencing local
community e.g. History of (Bomb ay) Mumb ai in modern times . Local
history research is gaining special emphasis. Reflections of dynamic
social, political, economic transfor mations are replicated in local history.
History in conventional terms is the recognition of past events and past life munotes.in

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2 with its merits and demerits. In this unit we will be dealing with meaning,
nature and scope of history, and importance of history.
1.2 MEANING AND DEFINITIONS OF HISTORY History is the analysis and interpretation of the human past enabling us to
study continuity and changes that are taking place over time. It is an act of
both investigation and imagination that seeks to explain how people have
changed over time. Historians use all forms of evidence to examine,
interpret, revisit, and reinterpret the past. These include not just written
documents, but also oral communication and objects such as buildings,
artifacts, photographs, and paintin gs. Historians are trained in the methods
of discovering and evaluating these sources and the challenging task of
making historical sense out of them. History is a means to understand the
past and present.
The different interpretations of the past allow u s to see the present
differently and therefore imagine -and work towards -different futures. It is
often said to be the „queen‟ or „mother‟ of the social sciences. It is the
basis of all subjects of study which fall under the category of Humanities
and Socia l Sciences. It is also the basis of the study of philosophy, politics,
economics and even art and religion. No wonder, it is considered an
indispensable subject in the complete education of man. The first meaning
of history is „tale, story,‟ and the second meaning is „a chronological
record of significant past events.‟ The opening of tales for children -„Once
upon a time‟ -captures both the story and time nature of history.... It
happens that the word „history‟ comes from the Greek „to know.‟
The origin of th e word History is associated with the Greek word
„Historia‟ which means „information‟ or „an enquiry designed to elicit
truth‟. Man looked at the wilderness of the past when he was brute and
savage, and even as he looked, he beheld a garden which could be created
out of a jungle. He has an eye not merely on the dizzy Heights of the past
but on the ditches and uneven surfaces as well, with the intention of
building a glorious monument for the future. The nature history is too
complex and its scope too vast, touching almost every domain of human
activity.
Let us start with a few definitions of history. History has been defined
differently by different scholars. Following definitions indicate the
meaning of History.
Aristotle:
“History contrasts research into the facts, with the logical task of
explanation.” The term „contrasts‟ is very significant here, as it suggests
that things in history are related to one another in a systematic and
permanent manner, forming the entire story of man into one integrated
whole. Aristotle further suggests that history is an account of the
unchanging past the sense that human nature does not change, and that all
activities that originate with the same intentions and motives differ only in munotes.in

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3 Meaning, Scope and Nature of History the degree of details and not in their basic nature. Thus wars, conquests,
expansion and exploitation are a constant factor in history although every
age and every country had its own technique to achieve the objective.
Henry Johnson:
“History, in its broadest sense, is everything that ever ha ppened."
Smith, V.S:
“The value and interest of history depend largely on the degree in which
the present is illuminated by the past.”
Rapson:
“History is a connected account of the course of events or progress of
ideas.”
NCERT:
“History is the scient ific study of past happenings in all their aspects, in
the life of a social group, in the light of present happenings.” The
scientific study is promoted through explaining the meaning of history as
study of human society in different times through all dime nsions like the
political, social, economic, cultural, scientific etc. Study of past
happenings in the light of evidences as well as insistence for unfolding of
truth through causal relationship is of prime significance. Shedding light
upon truth with the help of sources is vital here along with organizing
historical facts scientifically.
Jawaharlal Nehru:
“History is the story of Man's struggle through the ages against Nature and
the elements; against wild beasts and the jungle and some of his own kind
who have tried to keep him down and to exploit him for their own
benefit.” Man has made the journey of his progress from the primitive to
the modern man of today. He had to battle against the nature and its
different elements for his existence and progress d uring the course. The
society had to struggle against specific class in every age and every place
to seek justice. This struggle still persists even today. Pandit Nehru
expects the account of this struggle throughout ages. According to Pandit
Nehru history means the struggle of human endeavour against the nature.
Carr E.H.:
A novel interpretation of history is given by Carr E.H. He states: “History
is the continuous process of interaction between the historian and his facts,
and an unending dialogue between the present and the past.” Carr admires
history to be a continuous process, that process is the process of
interaction between historian and facts. The validity of the event gets
decided through how the historian describes the event with the help of
obtai ned facts and what interpretation he draws out. The constant
correlation between occurred events and the present conditions has been munotes.in

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4 given importance in history. Today‟s situations and current happenings are
going to be the past tomorrow. Yesterday has its influence on today and
also today on tomorrow. There is some background to every happening
and its success or failure. It leads to certain impressions e.g. the entire
world witnessed the undying evil -impacts of imperialism and nuclear
weapons during the W orld War II. But, even today the imperialism and
nuclear accomplishm ent still exist in the world. The roots of it can be
found out in the colonialism, imperialism and consequent World Wars.
The seeds of all -round accomplishments of today‟s Japan are in the
lessons they took from the demolition in World War II. That is why
history is an unending dialogue between past and present. The past and
present are closely related with each other. They have an eternal relation
between them. The ancestries of the presen t problems can be seen in the
past. Henceforth history is reckoned to be an unending dialogue between
the past and the present. The events from the past can be experienced in
the present in different form. Human behaviour lies at the roots of these
events.
Burk Hardt:
Famous historian Burk Hardt has defined history as, “the record of what
age finds worthy of note in another.” The era of Indian freedom movement
has its unique significance in Indian history. The present generation
receives guidance for active living through cruel policy of the British, the
fight of Indians and the freedom achievement. It can be perceived that the
injustice can also be eradicated by truth and non -violence. The vitality of
freedom, equity, fraternity and justice can be grasped a nd the
contemporary generation can get apt direction.That is why here the history
is referred as the record of the things of one age worthy of note in another.
Herodotus:
According to Herodotus, “History means inquiry into the interesting and
memorable pas t events.” Here history is predestined to be ascertainment of
interesting and distinct events occurred in the past. But, meaning of
history cannot be such insular. History is the subject which reviews all the
dimensions the human life on the basis of past events. Eminence of
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj remains not in how many battles he won or
how much exploits he performed but remains in his accomplishment in
those times and what we shall take for our lives.
“History is the lamp of experience.” Happold has given this a visionary
definition of history. Here really the penetrating meaning of history is
expressed. History guidesus throughout life just like the lamp in the
darkness. We can move towards appropriate direction by taking precept
from the past happe nings and success along with failure of the ancestors.
We can be prosperous by avoiding the mistakes made by the ancestors and
by following constructive deeds. The deterioration of Maratha Empire can
be observed in the dearth of planning, materialistic sta nce and lack of
unity of Peshwas, hence appropriate planning is essential to be successful munotes.in

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5 Meaning, Scope and Nature of History in life. Its execution is also crucial. We can perceive that it is quite
necessary mutual regards and feeling of integrity to accomplish anytask.
While explaining th e meaning of history, German thinker Herder says,
“History is the chain of events.” According to Herder no historical event
cannot be examined secluded; in fact, there is a chain of events behind
every event. For instance, Murder of Archduke Ferdinand was not the
mere reason behind the World War I, in fact it was one of the reasons.
World War II did not begin only due to Hitler‟s attack on Poland; it was
just one of the reasons.
Karl Marx:
Numerous historians made attempts to apprehend the meaning of histor y
by detecting and interpreting countless events from the past. The
philosophy of history came into existence as per the establishment of
meaning of history through those efforts. Karl Marx, a German thinker
discovered the meaning of history in such philos ophical form. He saw
only class conflict in history. According to Karl Marx, “The human
history is nothing but class struggle.” He firmly believes that the nature of
class conflict changed as per the time but, the conflict still continues and
we study only this class conflict through history.
V. K. Rajwade:
“History as an entity gets generated through appropriate offspring of
various happenings.” This definition of history by V. K. Rajwade is in
quite broader sense. History does not include only political e vents but, it is
the study of all the dimensions of human life. The happenings till
yesterday come under the orbit of history.
Various definitions of history gradually developed through the attempts to
answer the question of what is history. There seems to be a common
principle in all these definitions although they all seem to be different
from each other. The thread is past society. History means the study of the
past social components. The entire society is the ultimate accomplishment
whether talking abo ut the happenings in the society, rise or fall of the
civilizations, class conflicts among them, moral values among them or
politics among them.
A broader definition can be made, “history means the graph of various
aspects of human life and his development .” The graph comprises of
thought of every field of human life. It includes not only his political and
social life but also his values, ethics, art and literary expression. Overall,
the present arises by carrying influence of past happenings, thoughts and
elements. That‟s why history is the graph of human advancement.
The above definitions explain History as a significant record of events of
the past, a meaningful story of mankind depicting the details of what
happened to man and why it happened. Mainly it deals with the human
world. History is a growing discipline the serious study of which started in
the second half of the 18th century, so it is said that it is still in the munotes.in

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6 developing stage as a comprehensive subject. The History which is a
record of uniqu e events in the life of mankind is the stir and vibration of
life. It is not only the conserving and understanding of what has happened,
but also the completion of what has been going on at present.
Check your progress:
1) Examine the meaning of History.
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2) Examine the various definitions of History.
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1.3 NATURE OF HISTORY The nature of history is very complex. It lends itself to various
explanations. No one branch of history is more than a single glimpse of a
vast complex of phenomena. History repeats itself in one sense but does
not repeat itself also. History has contemporaneity and it is an unending
dialogue between the past and the present. Value -judgment is an as pect of
history which we cannot ignore. It is very often coloured by the current
ideas of a period or country. It is a prophecy in reverse, as it needs to some
extent in knowing what to expect in future. It is regarded as linear by some
and cyclical by oth ers. However, no one can dispute the dynamic nature of
history, which concerns itself with an ever -changing drama of life which
has a purpose and a meaning.
History is not a description of interesting stories but, it is a broad subject
which guides the lif e and aims for the better future. The nature of history
as a subject can be perceived through following points:
A study of the present in the light of the past:
The present has evolved out of the past. Modern history enables us to
understand how society ha s come to its present form so that one may
intelligently interpret the sequence of events. The causal relationships
between the selected happenings are unearthed that help in revealing the
nature of happenings and framing of general laws.
History is the st udy of man:
History deals with man's struggle through the ages. His tory is not static.
By selecting „innumerable biographies‟ and presenting their lives in the
appropriate social context and the ideas in the human context, we munotes.in

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7 Meaning, Scope and Nature of History understand the sweep of events . It traces the fascinating story of how man
has developed through the ages, how man has studied to use and control
his environment and how the present institutions have grown out of the
past.
History is concerned with man in time:
It deals with a series o f events and each event occurs at a given point in
time. Human history, in fact, is the process of human development in time.
It is time which affords a perspective to events and lends a charm that
brightens up the past.
History is concerned with man in sp ace:
The interaction of man on environment and vice versa is a dynamic one.
History describes about nations and human activities in the context of their
physical and geographical environment. Out of this arise the varied trends
in the political, social, ec onomic and cultural spheres of man's activities
and achievements.
History is a dialogue between the events of the past and progressively
emerging future ends:
The historian‟s interpretation of the past, his selection of the significant
and the relevant eve nts, evolves with the progressive emergence of new
goals. The general laws regulating historical happenings may not be
considered enough; attempts have to be made to predict future happenings
on the basis of the laws.
Continuity and coherence are the neces sary requisites of history:
History carries the burden of human progress as it is passed down from
generation to generation, from society to society, justifying the essence of
continuity. It becomes thus necessary for history to be rewritten from time
to time. The past events have got to be re -valued in the light of fresh
developments and new ideas.
Relevant:
In the study of history only those events are included which are relevant to
the understanding of the present life. The affairs of men and nations are
constantly in motion. Consequently, there has been a radical change in
recent years as to the proper nature and scope of history. In the past it was
merely a catalogue of events serialised in a descriptive manner. We have
now to study history in a critica l and scientific way, wherein the historian
thinks for himself instead of merely repeating the stories found in old
books. History becomes a study of reality in its aspect of becoming.
Comprehensiveness:
According to modern concept, history is not confined to one period or
country or nation. It also deals with all aspects of human life -political,
social, economic, religious, literary, aesthetic and physical, giving a clear munotes.in

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8 sense of world unity and world citizenship. Historical activity involves
three differ ent types of functions which should be performed
simultaneously. The first is to get at the truth, to know the entire -human
past as it actually happened, and to be sure that solid facts are at hand. The
second job is to interpret the facts, to assess, to e valuate and to explain
their significance. The third task is to present the ideas in a clear and
attractive manner. These three functions make the historian a scientist
togather facts, a philosopher to interpret them and a litterateur to express
them.
Obje ctive record of happenings:
Every precaution is taken to base the data on original sources and make
them free from subjective interpretation. It helps in clear understanding of
the past and enables us to take well informed decisions. Objective record
of ev ents is quite crucial in history. The sources and evidences preferred
by the historian are of prime importance while writing the history. It is
also necessary to write history bias free and neutrally with the help of
evidences. Otherwise it may lead to fal se information, false interpretation
and false message to the learners. Hence, objective record is the basic
feature of study of history.
Multisided:
History is related with all the aspects of human life. As perceived earlier,
the nature of history is not only political but, history aims at all the
dimensions of human life. It does not throw light on only sole aspect of
past human life. In fact, history is multifaceted as being social, economic,
cultural, scientific, political, arts and literary, religious etc. Holistic view
of contemporary social systems, political scenario, economy, judiciary,
arts and literature, various inventions and developments in science and
technology can be seen while studying past happenings. However, it is not
confined to the stu dy of Kings, Empires or elite social strata but, it
comprises of study of all the people from all the socio -economic -religious
strata. That is why the nature of history is diversified and eclectic.
Time and Place relevance:
This is the main feature of hist ory. History is time relevant and place
relevant. It means one has to understand the contemporary situation and
time while studying past happenings. For example, while studying
thrashing of Afzal Khan by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, contemporary
situation (Pratapgarh, its geographical significance) needs to be
understood. One has to take into consideration the then socio -political
scenario in India and specifically in Maharashtra (time) and the
significance of geographical structure of Maharashtra in his su ccess
(place). Otherwise it will lead to misperception about him. It is not
necessary that ideology, idols, values, principles of social life of a specific
time and place may not be applic able to other situations. Hence , history is
time relevant and place relevant.
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9 Meaning, Scope and Nature of History Correlation among past, present and future:
History is an unending dialogue between the past and the present. The
roots of present situations viz. present ideologies, lifestyles, problems,
success and failures are in the history. The origins of p resent Indo -Pak
crisis can be observed in „divide and rule policy‟ of British and partition of
Bengal. We will have a bright future only by perceiving and avoiding
mistakes of the past. Past legends, their thoughts and their acts are
influential to the gen erations even today. The present can work positively
by taking inspirations through them and it leads to the emergence of
legends of tomorrow. We cannot see the present separate from the past.
Past is the background of the present. Prof. Lecky, “A study is the
understanding and estimating the present age for the betterment of the
future.”
Scientific study of the past:
History cannot be decided through rumours but, it is written on the bases
of sources. No history is written just by probing. It is impossible to write
history without the help of sources. “No documents, no history,” is the
popular saying among historians and learners of history. Science believes
in evidences. Background and effects of any event (causal relationship) is
studied in history throug h the study of past events with the help of primary
or secondary sources.
Study of human struggle, development and transformation of human
civilization:
Man has to battle with surrounding circumstances throughout the ages.
The struggle for the human existe nce and development is still on. Also, a
particular social group has continued efforts to dominate on the others for
its greed in every generation. History comprises of the description of this
struggle of mankind against such social group in all times. Hum an
existence as community -society, various civilization saroused and
developed through various times are the integral part of studyof history.
Human life is studied through various civilizations and various dimensions
in history. Also, history comprises of portrayal of how human life changed
and how man gained progress. History can be termed asre viewing human
progress.
Not only narration but, analysis and synthesis as well:
History does not only mean to be the report of occurred incidents. History
includes the diagnosis of events. The factors having impact on the event
are also studied. The contemporary circumstances, roles of different
people in the event and the contemporary ideology are analyzed and the
complete portrayal of the event is expressed. That is why history is not
only description but analysis and synthesis as well. E.g. while studying
French revolution, history does not tell only how it occurred but also, it
analyses the social, political, economic and ideological contexts as well.
Also, histo ry throws light on the values like equity, freedom and munotes.in

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10 egalitarianism which were the real output of this revolution for the entire
humanity.
Integration of science and literature:
History is a science as far as the study of events through causal
relationsh ip with the help of available sources and evidences is concerned.
When one has to explain and interpret the occurred event, naturally there
come the individual difference of writing style, language and flavour.
Everybody describes the event through his own outlook. Hence, history is
an art as well. That is why history is science at the beginning and it turns
into art afterwards.
Check your progress:
1) Discuss the nature of History.
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1.4 SCOPE OF HISTORY Scope me ans the breadth, comprehensiveness, diversity and extent of
learning experiences offered through the study of a specific subject. Man
can enhance his intellectual outlook and rationale through the study of
history. Prof. Collingwood in his book „Idea of Hi story‟ has explained the
scope of history. He said, “History has vital significance. Its lessons are
quite useful for human life as the tone between the current happenings and
their effects can change as between past happenings and their effects.
Significa nt events if remembered can be useful in decision making in
future. These cannot be shown in visible form but, they can be directive
regarding what can happen and which treats can occur in current
chronology.”
Profundity and inclusiveness of history can be seen through its
development as a faculty. Identities which were previously the ideals of a
particular society have become a part of global history while portraying
the picture of man‟s success in every field. There were times when history
as reckoned as the collection of fables and narrations of gallantry which
was studied for some entertainment and value inculcation. Today there is
no facet of human action which does not come under the area of authority
of history. Scope of history can be perceived throu gh the points mentioned
below; History previously as a part of literature has now emerged as an
independent and complete discipline. We see different types of history
today such as ‛ history of arts‟, ‛history of culture‟, ‛history of religion‟,
‛history of music‟, ‛history of literature‟, ‛history of geography‟, ‛history
of education‟, ‛history of biology‟, ‛histo ry of atoms and molecules‟,
‛history of mathematics‟, etc. We can catch various types of history
including political, cultural, social, scientific, artistic, religious, economic, munotes.in

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11 Meaning, Scope and Nature of History legal, constitutional, military and ideological history. Nowadays
interdiscip linary approach is a salient feature of history. Other disciplines
and supportive sciences are frequently referred while writing and studying
history e.g. geography, economics, sociology, science, numismatics,
anthropology, geology, astronomy, archaeology, etc
Focus is on time and place in the study of history. We can find different
types of history on the base of time as pre -historic, ancient, medieval and
modern. Types of history according to place are local history, regional
history, National history and world history. Today‟s history is not
confined to Kings, worriers, religious preceptors, highbrows of the society
as it was previously. It instead studies different aspects of lives of people
from all strata of society. History is not the property of one particular
community. It involves every human group and its social, economic,
political, cultural, ideological evolution. History is not circumscribed up to
the narration of merely political and subjective events. Instead it involves
analysis of social, cu ltural, economic conditions.
The aim of history is to inculcate various values on human mind. History
is not mugging up the heroics of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, Mahatma
Gandhi, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar, Nelson Mandela, etc. but, it is about
nurturing the values on the future generations these icons opted. History
aims to develop sublime outlook by inculcating not the event but the core
of events, to stimulate not just patriotism but to enable the man to think as
a human species and to promote the feeling o f internationalism, global
tolerance.
History is not merely reviewing past events. It has about construing
meaning to past events and living in present, solving current problems and
developing a prosperous future. Now the scope of history has emerged in
explaining the motive behind the historical happenings through collecting
and interpreting sources. According to Prof. Trivellion, “Scope of history
is touching three different aspects namely scientific, imaginative and
literature.” It means history is deali ng with three fields of science,
imagination and literature. It has the power of understanding many
subjects. That is why scope of history is quite.
The question is always asked about whether history as a social science is a
science or an art. Then it beco mes a prime duty of a historical researcher
to enquire about this question. Bury says, “History is a science, no less no
more.” Lord Acton says, “The study of history is critical and objective. It
is a science.” History opt its own techniques for establish ment of facts and
interpretation. History is a science in this perspective. History just like
physics, chemistry or other material science is an experiencebased study
because it involves use of various methods like observation,
categorization, formulating hypotheses and analysis of evidences before
explaining the facts. They are as follows;
1. There is collection of facts acquired from different sources.
2. Various methods of data collection are opted. munotes.in

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12 3. Collected data is carefully and systematically analysed and selected.
4. The entire world is the laboratory of history. Its various components
are acquired by different human communities.
5. Different principles and theories are established on the basis of
observation of events, analysis and compar ative study. Hence, history
is a science.
But there are certain limitations while considering history as a science.
Facts in history are complex and their repetition occurs exceptionally.
Hence, it is not possible to unfold principles and generalised trut h through
it.
1. Historical information is not collected through observation or
experimentation like other sciences.
2. Historian is never an eyewitness most of the times. That‟s why history
is written on the basis of available evidences.
3. Sometimes documents accepted as evidence can be bias of writer
about the related event.
4. Actual history cannot come into light due to collective/social bias.
There are also some distinct problems in writing of history. They are
as follows :
1) Prompt records abo ut the past are not easily available.
2) Deficiency of original sources is a major problem in writing of
history.
3) Ambiguity can be seen in available sources.
4) Bias is reflected while recording the events.
5) Individual differences can easily see a s per every historian
regarding the interpretation of event.
If narration of historical events is done in a scientific manner, it will seem
to be uninteresting. Artistic method of presenting the history attracts the
reader towards learning of history. It i s said, “The dead presented in the
dead form has no appeal.” That‟s why historian has the task of bringing
dead past into a live form through his writing style. Historian has to
promote human emotions and motivations through powerful narration,
imagination and comprehension of human psychology on the basis of
norms of available evidences. Hence, historian has to possess the quality
of narrating life relevant, powerful and interesting story in attractive and
appealing style on the base of evidences. Accordin g to Toynbee, “Dull
history is false history.” It makes us clear that history is an art.
History is a social science. It does not possess precise and accurate
principles, facts, laws and theories etc. Although it relates with human life,
various human deed s and his physical progress, causal relationship is munotes.in

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13 Meaning, Scope and Nature of History established on the basis of evidences. Prof. Travel lion, “History is a
science, also it is an art.” It is assured that facts searched through history
are scientific and then it has to be presented in an artistic manner in front
of the reader. Therefore, history is a science in terms of and during the aim
of discovering the truth on the basis of evidences, recording of events,
unfolding through sources and analysis (Organising in the form of past,
present and future, causes and effects through arranging the events).
History is also an art in terms of interpreting the events and presenting it in
front of the readers attractively in historian‟s own style. Hence, history is a
science as well as an art.
With th e passage of time the scope of history has been widened, and new
areas are included in it. History is gradually assuming all the three
dimensions viz.,
i) what happened
ii) how it happened
iii) to analyse why it happened
Instead of the descriptive catal ogue of political events relating to the rise
and fall of dynasties, kings, courts, wars and peace. Now it has a more
humanistic approach which takes into account all the multifarious
activities of man, not excluding social functions such as games, manners ,
customs and all the things which constitute the substance of the daily life
of the common man.
History is no longer a branch of literature or politics or philosophy or any
other discipline. It has an independent status of its own whose main
function is n ow to study society in its aspect of promoting a culture, which
constitutes knowledge, faith, belief, art, morals, customs and any other
capabilities or habits acquired by man as a member of society. History has
mainly two functions to perform. One is the collection of data and the
other is the interpretation of the data to explain the fundamental forces of
history. The first part has to be objective and therefore scientific. The
second part is subjective and hence humanistic.
Even though it is said th at, history excludes from its scope the study of
nature and confines its attention to the story of man's evolution from
humble beginnings to complex achievements , however nature also comes
within the scope of history, if it has anything to do with man. The scop e of
history includes both man and nature in so far as these two play a
significant part in the life of mankind. The scope of history includes all
activities of man. The historian must look beyond government to people,
beyond laws to legends, beyond religi on to folklore and the arts, and he
must study every phenomenon, whether intellectual, political, social,
philosophical, material, moral or emotional relating to man in society.
History has to consider all human achievements in all their aspects such as
science, technology, discoveries, inventions and adventures. But primarily
the social life of man, his political achievements, his cultural attainment, munotes.in

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14 his constitutional management and his economic endeavours form the
main scope of history, as it is through the medium of state and society that
man finds his identity. The study of economic and social change is also
gaining greater importance in history in modern period. In communist
countries the entire orientation is on Marxist -dialecticism. The labour
movem ent, the class struggle, inland and international trade, arts, crafts,
industry, business, commerce, agriculture, peasant movement and so on
are receiving greater attention. Likewise, social reforms, caste and class
distinctions, family life, position of w omen, customs, manners, and way of
life are exciting the interest of the historians. The history of institutions
and ideas too are engaging the attention of the scholars.
Besides, we have universal history which takes into account the significant
activitie s of entire mankind. The Arab historian, Ibn Khaldun happens to
be the father of universal history, and also of the science of culture. The
philosophy of history has made the subject of history very profound, ever
since the time of Voltaire who coined the phrase. Great thinkers like
Hegel, Marx, Comte, Spengler, Croce and Toynbee have contributed
much to the philosophy of history. This kind of history does not treat
isolated events or the role of individuals but takes into account the
progress and decline o f societies with reference to all aspects of human
culture. To a social scientist, all history is social history, though other
historians may classify it as social history, political history, economic
history, religious history, or history of some other ki nd.
Thus, the scope of history is ever expanding. Herodotus the father of
history was merely an excellent story -teller, but only thirteen years later,
his successor, Thucydides happened, to be almost a scientific historian.
Surprisingly enough, he appears to be so modern that one could mistake
him to be a historian of either the nineteenth or the twentieth century.
Nineteenth -century historians dealt largely with governments and great
men, with the development of national consciousness and the growth of
political liberalism. The twentieth century witnessed a change in emphasis
towards economic and social history, towards people and away from
individuals.
The shape and content of history has also undergone a change, depending
upon the material available and t he method of treatment adopted.
Anthropology has also excited the interest of the historians and much
useful work has been done in this field by scholars who have traced
historically the customs and manners of the aborigines; social stratification
of small communities who are a little higher up than the aborigines has
been greatly facilitated by the availability of modern sophisticated
techniques. Further, the scope of history has been enlarged from objective
empiricism to historicism. Objective empiricism means the establishment
of facts as they really were. It is something like presenting a photographic
copy of how things really existed in the past. Historicism means tracing
the growth and development of an event from its early stages. It is like a
genetic process which takes into account evolutionary trends and how
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15 Meaning, Scope and Nature of History Apart from these two views history was dragged into the arena of the
'positivists' who believed that history was qualified on every score to have
a series of general laws. The scope of history was further widened when
attempts were made particularly in the USA to develop a new concept
called „historical relativism‟. This concept was the by -product of the
closer study of Freud and Einstein whose principles w ere applied to
historical growth and development. Thus, from the nineteenth century the
scope of history has been much widened. The nineteenth century which is
called 'the century of history has humanised history and made it a centre of
reality and of thou ght.
Features of the scope:
In order to facilitate understanding the scope of history, the following
features would be helpful :
(1) The scope of historical study depends upon the subject of inquiry of
the past events.
(2) The scope of history is dete rmined by the activities, experiences and
thoughts of men at different times in the past.
(3) The scope depends upon the nature of inquiry of the past such as
social, economic, political or other kind of inquiry. Thus, if we want
to know a single aspect of Quit India Movement of 1942 say
economic aspect, its scope is narrower than a general assessment of
the Movement from different angles.
(4) If we intend to study universal history of the progress of mankind it is
greater in extent than a local or a na tional history.
(5) Similarly, when we think about world history the time factor makes it
necessary to define what exactly we want to study. If we simply say
human activities it would mean a never -ending search as human
activities from the beginning to o ur days implies scope beyond our
human capacities.
(6) Just as the present has innumerable matters for consideration, the past
which for some generations in the past was a living present and as
such they dealt with many known and unknown matters. The sco pe of
our studies in general matters would be both impossible and end in a
cloud. We have therefore to fix our attention on some points
Limitations of the scope :
When we say history is a study of man's activities in time, the scope of our
inquiry is limit ed by the time factor, If we do not fix the time of what
happened in the past it would be a fantasy. The scope of history is limited
by our knowledge of chronological details. Man appeared on this planet
several million years ago but the recorded history o f his activities cannot
be pushed back beyond five thousand years. Those records do not give us
a clear idea of his activities in civilized societies. History in the real sense
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16 about Greco -Persian War in the 5th century B.C. This was the first history
of its kind in the world and the beginning of History is thus reckoned from
that time. The scope of history of the world is thus limited to the history of
man‟s social activities to a few thous and years. The activities of men
before the historical period, that is before 5th century B.C. is enveloped in
the mist of ignorance
The second factor that limits the scope of history is the geographical
factor. When we talk about world history we actually refer to few places
on the earth. As everybody knows more than half the surface of the earth
is covered by water. Out of the remaining part a sizeable surface is
occupied by hills, mountains, deserts and rivers ice etc. Thus, the habitable
portion of the earth is limited. Further man grew civilizations in a few
favourable lands. The scope of history is thus limited.
Thirdly the scope of history cannot be rigidly fixed at any time. Suppose
today we say history covers life of man and his activities in civili zed
societies, a few years or centuries after our time, historians would say
history is concerned with activities and experiences of men and women
only in highly developed societies or they may say it is confined only to
the societies which are now develop ing. Fourthly just as the scope of
history is limited by time it is limited by the prevailing conception of
history at a given time. In communist countries the conception of history
is different from those of democratic countries or countries under despoti c
rule. Thus, the scope of historical inquiry responds to the necessity of
knowing the truth about certain people at certain time.
Check your progress:
1) Explain the Scope of History
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1.5 SUMMARY In the beginnin g of this lesson, we described about definitions of history
so that students become familiar with different aspects through which
history is perceived by historians and intellectuals. The sum and substance
of the nature and scope of history can be summariz ed as follows: History
is scientific as it with a problem and conducts an inquiry to solve the
problem. History is humanistic as it asks questions about things done and
experienced by men in the past. History is rational as it gives answers to
the question s based on evidence. The conclusions arrived by historians on
the basis of such evidence have to be logical and without partiality.
History reveals what man has done and so what man can do. Purposive
search for truth of man‟s activities, his thoughts and p assions give a better
idea the present problems. While reconstructing the story of man‟s
activities in the past, it has to be done methodically. We have therefore munotes.in

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17 Meaning, Scope and Nature of History referred to Data, chronology, language, surveys, classification of sources
etc. So that stude nts study and remember these points which will be
elaborated in historical research methodology
1.6 QUESTIONS 1. Discuss the meaning and scope of History.
2. Explain the Nature of History.
3. Explain the Scope of History
1.7 REFERENCES  Ali B. Sheik, History: Its Theory and Method, Macmillan
IndiaLimited, Madras, 1978.
 Carr E. H., What is History, Penguin Books, London, 1961.
 Collingwood R. G., Idea of History, Oxford Paperbacks,
OxfordUniversity Press, London, 1966.
 Dilthey W. (ed.), Meaning in History, H. P. Rickman, London, 1961.
 Elton G. R., Practice of History, London, 1975.
 Finberg H.P.A. (Ed), Approaches to History, London, 1962.
 Garranghan G.H., Guide to Historical Method, 1971.


*****



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18 2
AUTHENTICITY, CREDIBILITY AND
RELEVANCE OF SOURCES
Unit Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Socio -Political and Religious influences on History Writing
2.3 Sources of History
2.4 Authenticity of Sources
2.5 Authenticity and Credibility of Sources
2.6 Relevance of Sources
2.7 Summary
2.8 Questions
2.9 References
2.0 OBJECTIVES  Comprehend the meaning and features of authenticity.
 Explain the authenticity and credibility of sources.
 Understand both authenticity and credibility in the Historical research.
 Examine the relevance of sources.
2.1 INTRODUCTION The collection and classification of sources is a very difficult task. The
collected data must be reliable. It requires a cautions and special approach
to source material. History need s is facts in their pure and unblemished
forms and consistency in narrative. History deals with events in the past. It
is, therefore the duty of the researcher to show the events in their original
forms. In this unit we will study the ‘Authenticity’ of sou rces and examine
the fallacies, malpractice and falsification of documents. We will also
examine few remedial measures in order to establish authenticity of
sources.
To write history a leap of imagination is required. To write history a
degree of creativit y, critical power of selection & analysis are essential
aspects of a historian. Since the past is not in front of us therefore, a fertile
imagination reasoning & analysis are the keys which will unlock the past
cramped material. The historians from coheren t shapes, present in an
interesting way to the readers. History writing is totally different from
fiction, as it is not only imagination, it is a hard effort of a history writer to
present the past in a perfect m anner therefore his word depend upon the munotes.in

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19 Authenticity, Credibility and Relevance of Sources various available sources from which he develops his hypothesis then the
tedious work of data collection which to be arranged for some logical
conclusions. A historian has to follow certain methodological frame work,
within given parameters, historical explan ations & interpretations written
in a narrative form.
2.2 SOCIO -POLITICAL & RELIGIOUS INFLUENCES ON HISTORY WRITING History writing is a complex phenomena, it surely many a times comes
under the socio political & religious influence. Early history was the part
of Theology. The great historian Herodotos restricted his writings of
history with the chronological order of ruling dynasties, battles and wars
victories and defeats. with the passage of time many changes came in the
history writing process. With the 18th century enlightenment recognizably
‘modern, scientific’ versions of recounting the past began to appear, as in
Montesquieu’s “Spirit of Laws” which sought to identify & explain in
secular terms regularities & variations in types of government. In the
writings of a great German philosopher Hegel, fundamentally religious
frame work was present, the heritage of Judeo - Christian tradition, with
its notion of the original fall & progressive struggle towards redemption in
the “Final Day of Judgement” can b e clearly discerned in Hegal’s key
notion of historical stages in terms of world sprit realizing itself. Many of
the great historical works of the latter 18th & 19th centuries continued to
be marked by combination of moral engagement and literary endeavor,
many historical analysis were also prompted by serious political
engagement with the key issue of their time i.e American War of
Independence and the French Revolution (Tocqueville, Bruke).
Changes in History Writing:
With the new faith in positivist con ceptions of science history was
established as a University subject, worthy of study in its own right along
side with other subjects. History has often been defined “work of judging
the past” in order to teach the present world for the use of it knowledge in
future. Leopold Ranke promoting a notion of “investigating the past as it
actually was”. Karl Marx more radical began as he saw it - to unlock
Bourgeois notion of history Marx tried to show that history was at heart of
record, and not some mystical “wor ld spirit realizing itself but rather a
collective struggle of real people, thus Marx simply turned from
metaphysics to class struggle. This Marxist approach of history where
economic exploitation, class struggle problems of labourers w ere the
prime focus of the historians. In the form of Marxism - Leninism, Marx’s
approach was institutionalized in the historical academies of 20th century
communist states This neo -Marxism although with dramatic variations and
much internal factionalism.
Max Weber came out w ith methodologically self aware approach to
problems of world history. He sought to combine the systematic pursuit of
valid historical generalizations with an emphasis on the need for an
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20 both in the sense of individual motives for action and in the wider sense of
collective belief system which could not be reduced as in Marx’s work in
the course of 20th century, nationally defined history was viewed in the
new ways by those coming from po st colonial perspectives. differences
over subject area were cross -cut by theoretical and methodological
debates. History written with prejudice was challenged and also traditional
historical narratives written with motives, actions contingencies,
combinat ion of circumstances were challenged by those who wanted more
analytical approach to history. The systematic hypothesis, rational
generalization and logical conclusions. Thus over course of past two
centuries, a wide diversity of approaches to history have been developed.
Differences in historical approach have also been linked to socio - political
environment, narratives of high politics have often been linked to
conservatism. Social history for instance, labour history, feminist history
have been associat ed with self styled left wing or radical historians.
Marxist historiographical approaches (communist regimes) sustained but
the changes occurred after the cold war 1989 - 90 the collapse of
communist regimes of Eastern Europe rejected the Marxist approach, the
ideas of dictatorship have also been discredited. The changes of
restructuring of research in historiography began.
Despite of major differences among both post modernist historical
narrative should be transparent through which one can glimpse at leas t
some elements of the real past. Historians now a days think that history
should be
i) A science of answering of queries
ii) Concerned with human beings and their actions
iii) Interpretation of evidence.
But this is not the way in which always thoug ht of history says a historian
R. G. Collingwood. History written quite often difficult due to lack of any
past record, for instance the ancient Sumerians left nothing behind them
which is to be labelled as history, like wise many civilizations have been
raised or disappeared without leaving any concrete things but even if some
concrete event / evidence left over is difficult to analyze for example the
American War of Independence of 1775 have 13 different schools of
thought. Similarly, the French Revolutio n of 1789, have beenwritten from
various angles for some it was rotten administration of France which
brought the Revolution where as some think that it was due to socio -
economic conditions there was out break of the revolution. Thus it is a
difficult ta sk for a historian to write -off the past. A researcher for his
narratives seeks help from various accounts what it is called as sources in
history.

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21 Authenticity, Credibility and Relevance of Sources Check your progress:
1) Assess the socio -political and religious influence on history writing.
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2.3 SOURCES OF HISTORY There are various sources of history from which a researcher developes his
narratives but broadly speaking sources are divided into two categories
viz., primary & secondary sources. Primary sources m ay include diaries,
letters, interviews, oral history, news paper articles government document s,
coins, inscriptions, Folk literature, songs etc. The collection and analysis
of primary sources is central to historic research
Secondary sources are books, pub lished articles, magazines, journals,
bibliographies for the further research or articulations Historical traces are
all around us, we inhabit a world full of signs of the past survivals. We
have been born into world which previously we lived in. we grow u p with
degrees of awareness of different aspects of the past. Every human society
inhabits landscapes of memory for example a person born and brought up
in the city like Mumbai will always come across the gothic structures like
Victoria Terminus (C.S.T) Ra ilway station, Fort area Buildings which
simply indicate the colonial rule. Similarly medieval architecture in Delhi
like Red Fort etc. gives idea of Mogul rule therefore, the physical
representation of the past activities are surrounded however , jumbled and
lacking in organization.
The primary sources in history are many a times eye witness account
created by a participant in an event in history. Letters, diaries, speeches,
publications, some important newspaper (supporting the research work)
therefore, i t is a task of a researcher to pick up the important element
which supports his preposition how much the source material is valuable
to him and how it will be utilized must be clear to a researcher.
For centuries a primary purpose of public historic recons truction has been
emotive, to elicit a sense of sympathy with high ideals, former heroes,
glorious past a common set of goals for the writers. Creation of various
stories, statues of heroes and cultural icons paintings of great battles, war
memorials showi ng the past in a particular way. Practically in many
countries of the world war memorials, squares, town halls dedicated to
soldiers have been created. Many a times historical representation
designed almost entirely for the purpose of exhibition and entert ainment
like quasi historical films Benhur, Ten Commandments, Gandhi & films
on world wars. Holocaust representation in Spielberg’s Schindler’s List
having extraordinary capacity to evoke the past there are many different
national and sub - structural mode s of representing selected aspect of the
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22 While having a glance of museums, buildings memorials, forts etc. we can
draw some inferences of the past but to understand in a better way minute
details are to b e added in order to make the history in proper context. the
academic historians think hard about the ways in which they present their
work as they do the research evaluation of the evidence, the relationship of
their findings and relevant literature.
The h istory writers who go through the process of auth entic and rational
writings use the sources extensively to prove their research work a
valuable one. Let us take a simple fact as historian often deals with it in
the year 49 BC Julius Ceaser crossed the Rub icon river near southern Gaul
(near modern city of Italy) a familiar fact known to all obviously of some
importance. But is this fact a simple as it sounds? When we say Julius
Ceaser crossed the river we do not mean that he crossed it alone, but with
his a rmy, which involved many acts, thoughts and actions, that is to say a
thousand lesser facts went to make up the one simple fact that Ceaser
crossed the Rubicon river. If a history writer gathers all the facts to this
small event a book of 500 pages will co me to shape. Therefore minute
observations of any event in history gives outstanding results.
Check your progress:
1) Explain the sources of History.
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2.4 AUTHENTICITY OF SOURCES Historical sources cover many thi ngs subject to authentication there are
many documents, artifacts, archaeological sites, oral transmissions, stone
inscriptions, paintings, photographs, folk songs, stories and so on. The
authentic sources at their most basic level supports the history wri ting the
historical sites like Mohan Jo Daro, Ajanta Caves which surely give the
idea of past. Historians with their abilities with reasoning and analysis
arrives on certain conclusions. The secondary sources are also to be
authenticated for some important research work for example seals of Indus
Valley Civilization or coins of Mauryan age is no doubt a primary source
but the drawings done on it during 1960 - 70 would be a secondary source.
Similarly the visit of Fahien or Hiuen Tsang during the ancient tim es may
be a primary source but when their travelogue published somewhere in
19th century will be a secondary source for a research scholar. Similarly,
Babur Nama written during the medieval age is a primary source but the
commentaries and the books written by the scholars is sure a secondary
source Sometimes a small source with authentic knowledge gives huge
information. If we look at the temples of ancient India specially in the
southern part of the country which speak volumes i.e. the advanced
geometrical knowledge, measurements, beautiful art and architecture ,
knowledge of metallurgy, chemistry simply gives the idea about the munotes.in

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23 Authenticity, Credibility and Relevance of Sources superb knowledge of ancient Indians in architecture. many a time the
architecture also gives knowledge of the ruling elite of the t ime and their
patronage for art and architecture. The book written during ancient times
viz. Arthashastra by Chanakya gives socio economic life of the people
during the Mauryan period.
Ancient sources :
The relics, scriptures, carvings, pottery, coins, caves, temples, artifacts,
weapons, autobiographies, travelogue etc. (material source) are considered
reliable form of evidence. But if we go a step further during the Rig Vedic
age the vedic text or hymns were preserved by reciting it from generation
to gener ation. This is surely an oral source of history. Similarly Powadas
legendary stories, poems are examples of oral source of history which is to
be accounted far. The another source to be considered as authentic is
inscriptions which prov ide valuable histori cal facts. T he study of
inscription is called epigraphy. The study of the writings on ancient
inscriptions is called palaeography. Some inscriptions convey monarchical
orders regarding administrative, religious and major decisions which are
called royal pr oclamations and commandments. Others are the records of
the followers of major religion these followers convey their devotion on
temple walls, pillars, stupas & monasteries, but these are written by court
poets (only praised the kings) however these rocks pillars inscriptions
contain most valuable historical data. Political and religious matters are
also gathered from such sources. For a study of Indus Valley Civilization
or Harappan culture, archaeology is regarded as chief authentic source of
information.
Medieval Sources :
The medieval sources are archaeological remains, buildings, forts, temples
etc. which are in good condition and important source of medieval history,
these remains provide lot of help to a researcher for eg. the fort at
Daulatabad by Yad avas rulers of Devgiri the fort remained unconquered
because of its design, the line of defense and the military might of the
kings the fort was built by king Bhillam, the fort made his name immortal
in history. Apart from forts buildings etc. lots of writ en doccuments,
correspondence, official records (preserved in state archives and libraries)
which surely proved to be helpful to a researcher working on medieval
history.
Modern Sources :
Modern sources in history are ample viz. written document s, films,
documentaries, photographs, speeches war films etc. these contemporary
records mostly authenticated and preserved.
Check your progress:
1) Explain the types of Sources of History.
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2.5 AUTHENTICITY & CREDIBILITY O F SOURCES Authentic source is a term used to refer “ to a set of data held by a body
that has been appointed by a legal act to manage these data which are
unauthoritative in a particular area of competence, the data must concern
natural person or legal ent ities or legal facts”. The adjective authentic
describes something that is real or genuine and not counterfeit. In addition
to describing something real and reliable based on fact. Some sources may
be considered more reliable than others but many a times s ource is biased
in some way or other because of this, historians read skeptically and cross -
check the sources against other evidence. a researcher tries to seek
someone with first hand knowledge of an event and naturally want to
corroborate the contents of the document, working with the information
from other sources that ha ve been proven legitimate. some time non -
textual source like photograph information of group of people provides
more information that traditional archival cannot but that does not mean
that textual source is less important, because for number of informations
or events of the world we rely on encyclopedias.
Government papers, diaries are often considered the most reliable
documents the main value of these sources is that people producing them
know that they can say or write what they like honestly without concern
for the view of others. How authentication of source is checked:
 What type of source is this?
 In case of official report, the writing seal etc. is to be checked
 Historical accou nt and other supporting facts to be checked
 A fictional reconstruction or analysis of newspaper reports
We must also ask number of significant questions:
a) Who produced it?
b) Where were they?
c) In what condition?
d) Why did they produce this tex t or object & for what reason ?
There is criteria for determining whethe r the source is reliable or not:
1. Accuracy :
The information gathered by a researcher against the information found in
the source, looks also for disclaimers as to accuracy of the con tent. One
can also double check the information a source that a researcher already
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25 Authenticity, Credibility and Relevance of Sources 2. Authorit y:
One must make sure that the source is then by a reliable author and / or
institution if one is using a web page, can usually identify t he owner /
publisher by url link or check for copy right statement. Sources like
Wikipedia have to be checked and rechecked since anyone can edit them.
Make sure the author has proper credentials on the subject matter.
3. Coverage :
A researcher will also want to examine of the content of source and how to
fit in the research information one needs. After identifying that it is
relevant for the topic and valuable in subject matter , one must also make
sure that i t provides enough information.
Historians work is based on an authentic sources rather than imaginary
fiction. For example Platonic Love may be a good metaphor for a poet and
a novelist but not for the historian. Historian must also reject the
perceptions prevailed for example short men are cunning, pe ople with cat
like eyes are shrewd these statements seem to be good in novels but not in
historical documents. Credibility or trust worthiness is surety that the
presented thing or a document is true and real. Therefore it is said the
records preserved in archives, libraries churches may not be true unless
those are verified by a historian or a researcher.
Therefore, to say what is credible in fiction may not be credible in historic
writings. Credibility of sources comes out with the content of evidence in
written form or relics of the past. The documents of the past are surely
subject to verification checks and counter checks supported by reasoning.
The researcher has to abandon unwanted part of lengthy documents or
official records and takes out the relate d information for his / her research.
The documents / records quite often torn smudged, eligible specially
manuscripts like Government orders, deeds, sanads, correspondence hence
a researcher should take at most care to hande these documents.
According to Vico generally there are five errors (to be avoided) in
history writing:
1) Prejudice & Exaggeration .
2) Nation’s Complex presenting the past in glorious manner
3) Prefixing concept of past
4) Boasting
5) Difficulties in analyzing old documents.
Check your progress:
1) Analyse the importance of authenticity and credibility in historical
research.
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2.6 RELEVANCE OF SOURCES History is not confined to the study of past but, it is related to present and
future also e very happening has specific context and it leads to specific
effects. The present of today is going to be the past of tomorrow. The
origin of each contemporary problem lies in the past. The present situation
shapes up through the past and it also decides the future direction. e.g.
‘reservation’ is one of the hot issues of today. It has its grassroots in the
‘divide and rule’ policy of the British rule. History escorts the decision
making for the future. We can perceive the decisions and their deeds of
our ancestors, their influence from history. We can create a bright future
through understanding which things to follow and which blunders to avoid
of our forefathers.
“History is the record of the life of the societies of man, of the changes
which tho se societies have gone through, of the ideas which have
determined the action of those societies and the material conditions which
have helped or hindered their development.” Charles Vth expresses the
broader view of history. He agrees that history is the record but, he also
describes the details of the records.
Importance is given to how human society developed, how different
cultures upspring (e.g. Harappa culture, Egyptian culture) in the flow of
time. Social system is reckoned to be the core in history in every period
whether it may be ancient or modern. History also includes study of how
societies transformed, which reforms occurred (for example; industrial
revolution, globalization etc.) Study of constructive as well as destructive
actions of mankind i n different times and at various levels, their impacts
and the ideologies behind them are also involved in history.
i) Diverse Human society and social life in different times, at different
levels and in different situations.
ii) Revolutions and reforms in human society during the course of time.
iii) Deeds by human society and thoughts and ideologies behind them.
iv) Physical conditions favourable and unfavorable to human
development.
It is necessary to study the historical events on the basis of evi dences and
causal relationships. It promotes research attitude. Mental and ideological
competence is fostered. One has to think divergently and multidimensional
while reaching at conclusion about an event rather than just thinking
convergent. History is no t just a subject of study or entertainment perhaps,
it is the lamp of experience. Cromwell says, “God manifests himself
through history.” It means history shows direction regarding deciding
about right -wrong, moral way. munotes.in

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27 Authenticity, Credibility and Relevance of Sources Martin Luther says, “History is the mirror of looking at owns self.”
“Curiosity about the past events is the feature of human nature.” This
statement of McMurry reflects the natural tendency of mankind to know
about the history. We come to know about the braveries our ancestors had
done, the qualities upon which they gained success through studying
history of our ancestors. But we also understand their blunders, perceive
about their mistakes due to which their next generations had to suffer.
Subsequently we can try to avoid such blunders and mistakes.
Edmond Burk says, “History is the guide of foresight.” We need to have
knowledge about the past of our motherland while maturing form a child
to be an adult. We can gain the awareness about the efforts and sacrifice
made by our ancestors in the f reedom and security of our Nation, cultural
tradition of our Nation, contribution of our Nation to the entire human
species, legends born in this soil, sustainable philosophy in our soil and
the sense of responsibility on our shoulders to preserve and nurt ure it as
we are the future citizen of this Nation. History in this perspectiveengraves
discretion, urge for truth, courage, non -violence, just, freedom equality,
patriotism, international understanding, persistence, perseverance, self -
esteem on the minds of people. It also throws light on the evil customs,
blind beliefs, traditions, social revolutions and works of legends against
them. History subsequently tries to promote idological renaissance
through it.
Study of history helps in the development of memo ry, imagination and
thought process as a whole. When we study the past events and characters,
we tend to see ourselves in them. Our imagination and thought process
fosters through it. Truth narration is a great gift of history. We can
understand the truth about what had happened in the past. Our bias,
misperceptions or wrong egos get cleared. Reader is helped by history in
the study of other subjects.
Tarmious has aptly said, “History helps to bridge the usual gulf in
education between theory and practice.” History works in bringing
theories closer to the life and reality. An individual is able to see the
educational knowledge through life -oriented outlook due to history.
History is considered as mother of all subjects. Study of history is directly
or indire ctly supplementary to the learning of other subjects. History can
become the medium of social unity while narrating our ancestors, our
Nation, our culture and our traditions. It can assist in nurturing National
integration by bringing people closer ideolog ically and emotionally. While
doing this, history also gives education of humanity and international
brotherhood. It shows us that we are all humans first; we do have same
needs and same feelings. We are all incomplete without each other. Hence,
history te aches us to look at each other with affection, love and
cooperation and not with enmity. It gives the lessons of humanity. History
strongly promotes internationalism through widening of human outlook.
Therefore, importance of history as the mother of all s ubjects, source of all
values, teacher of human mind and attitude and philosophy of living
successful life is incredible. munotes.in

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Sources in Historical Research
28 History is not merely the collection of events. In fact, it is the discovery of
events in detail. History means narrating about the pa st happenings as they
happened. It is necessary to search history to understand the present. If the
present is not perceived properly, it will not be possible to foresight the
future. History enables the prompt perception of present on the basis of
which t he future can be foresighted properly. Hence, the main job of
historian is not just recording the events but, to evaluate them.
The importance of history has increased in modern times. Along with
telling the occurrences, nature of history is becoming wides pread through
intellectual analysis of facts and to draw conclusions for the future on their
basis. Earlier history was confined to political dynasties and families of
Kings. It was related only with battles, victories, defeats and treaties. But,
this natu re of history has become a history. All social aspects of common
man, customs, traditions, languages, ideas, thoughts andbehaviours are
considered in history in modern times. In fact, the daily of man has now
become the part of history.
Historiography has to be considered as equally responsible for the
transforming scope of history as learning of history was limited only up to
political events and incidents till 19th century. But today we deliberate
social, economic, political, moral, literature, religious, etc. aspects while
considering history as we think about human development in history.
Hence, we must have to consider these all aspects. Support of literature is
taken to make history subject brighter and more attractive rather than let it
remain dull -lifeless. Historiography has continued to collect sources with
the help of above -mentioned subjects and to give insight into the events
occurred in the past.
History is reckoned as a science since 20th century. Prof. Bury from
Cambridge University has firmly said, “History is a science, no more no
less.” It changed the direction of study of history. Dynamics of time and
history taken into account while understanding history. History is a
discipline. Many streams have emerged through the fine study of history.
More motion is occurring in the process of regional and local
historiography. National history shapes up through regional and local
history. Hence, world history and National history are called macro history
while regional history is called micro history.
The study of history is like visiting strange far -off lands. Like travel, it
takes us out of the narrowness and commonplace events of everyday life.
It presents before us an exciting picture of the march of man across the
centuries, and the work of the mu ltitudes of human beings trying to pass
on to us a better life than theirs. It is the story of the development of
human society, its arts and letters, philosophy and religion, adventure and
administration, culture and way of life, and all other aspects rel ating to
man's significant activities. It is rightly said that history depicts “the
struggle of man to carry truth and justice into the administration of human
society, in the rise and fall of the creeds, in the world of ideas and in the
character and deed s of the great actors in the drama of life, where good
and evil fight out their everlasting battle.” munotes.in

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29 Authenticity, Credibility and Relevance of Sources History helps us to understand how the world developed into what it is. It
makes us know interesting men and women and promotes in us a
knowledge of human nature. It links the present with the past, and enables
us to see how man has discovered better ways of living and built up
orderly societies which we call civilisation. The study of history is no
waste of time or luxury, but a pressing need. A nation that forgets history
will have no future. It is the epitome of human experience, and it makes
men wise by teaching them what is good so that it may be adopted, and
what is bad, so that it may be avoided.
History attempts to give us the meaning of life. Man sta rts to search for
the purpose of life. He puts such questions as why and how do I live?
Where have I come from? In this search for the reality of the past, he
comes to know that he has built institutions; he has waged wars; he has
made treaties of peace; a nd he has invented thousands of things to make
life comfortable. In this sense history gives us an insight into man's life
and action. This knowledge is very helpful to him. It offers him a mental
discipline which helps him to meet new problems soberly and
intelligently, and not emotionally and superficially. Although man now
controls nature, and possesses enough knowledge about it, he cannot
control his own emotions and ambitions. He can send a rocket to the moon
but he has not yet eradicated hunger and po verty on this earth. A
knowledge of the past as to how man has suffered because of his mistakes
may help humanity to correct itself, and thus history may meet the
demands of pressing social needs.
History has the ability to improve the understanding of man . Man has left
behind the deeds of his day for the education and the enjoyment of
posterity. Such a study will not only furnish a mental discipline but also
will enable one to know the past and interpret its significance. It will come
in time to meet our d aily needs and will ultimately play an infinitely more
important role in an intellectual life. Any phenomenon or principle cannot
be understood philosophically or intelligently unless it is explained
historically. We cannot understand any issue properly un less its whole
background is furnished to us. A doctor would not be able to diagnose the
disease unless he is posted with the history of the case; and that is why the
word history appears in bold letters on top of the prescription chit.
By placing the fact s of life before a person, history which is a study of
human nature enables him to live in a state of peace and understanding.
History in that case becomes a guide pointing in the direction of unity and
progress. As history is a voice ever sounding across the centuries about the
laws of right and wrong, it could become an instrument to promote human
understanding. Those sovereigns and statesmen who had a good
knowledge of history, like Frederick the Great, Napoleon, Churchill and
Nehru, have played a vital role in history. The true interpretation of history
is to view it as the record of social, moral and intellectual education of
man, which is so essential to dispel darkness. History not only tells us
about the right principles of life, but also warns us th rough concrete
examples about the inevitable destruction of society, if these principles
were to be neglected. munotes.in

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Sources in Historical Research
30 The purpose of history has been to indicate what mistakes man has done in
the past, how he could avoid them in the future and how he could preser ve
the four freedoms, namely the freedom from want, freedom from
oppression, freedom of religion and freedom of expression. The moralists
required that man should put his conscience into harmony with true
historical development.
History not only educates a man, but also trains his mind. Before we begin
to understand or improve any system or idea the Best thing, we do is to
find out the history of that system or idea. A musician or a mathematician
or a philosopher could never understand or improve a newidea until he is
very clear of the antecedents of that idea. When Bertrand Russell was
asked about the need for history, he said, “I think it is enormously
important, it gives stability and it gives depth to your thought and to your
feeling.” The present is the child of the past, and has grown out of the past.
Our present social, political and economic conditions are the result of
factors that preceded them. This chain of cause and effect goes back to the
dim past. We in the twentieth century are closely affecte d by what was
done by Ripon, Dalhousie, Shivaji, Akbar, Babar, Harsha, Samudragupta.
Asoka, Buddha, Vyasa and their predecessors going back to the cavemen
of the Stone Age.
We teach history to children because it helps them in gaining powers of
memory, ima gination and reasoning. It has ethical values as history is
philosophy teaching by examples. It inculcates in young minds moral laws
of right and wrong. It fosters patriotism in our youth, for they would feel a
sense of pride by the knowledge of our rich h eritage and glory of the past,
which should instill these are secondary issues that come under the
importance of history.
The primary aim is to promote understanding of the present by a
knowledge of the past. To the question, “What is history for?"
Colling wood answered, “It is for human self -knowledge. Knowing
yourself means knowing what it is to be the kind of man you are; and
thirdly, what it is to be the man you are and nobody else is.” Lord Acton
explained the necessity for history thus,” If the past ha s been an obstacle
and a burden, knowledge of the past is the safest and the surest
emancipation.” An objective study of history would save humanity from
bigotry, bias and obsessions. Lecky observes, “He who has learned to
understand the true characters an d them a sense of love for the
motherland. But tendency of many succeeding years is not likely to go
very far wrong in estimating his own.”
Thinkers have gone to the extent of saying that all our hopes of the future
depend on a sound knowledge of the past. In conclusion it must be said
that history has the capacity to inspire youth to higher pursuits of life, and
to stimulate the aged to endure the inevitable. History is a delight in itself.
It is an adventure in the field of reconstructing the hazy past. T revelyan
said that “History's chief but not the only significance is poetic as a great
poem is an epic without beginning or end.” The importance of history may munotes.in

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31 Authenticity, Credibility and Relevance of Sources not be so much scientific as educational, to broaden the vision, to enlarge
the understanding an d to promote the pleasure of contemplation.
Check your progress :
1) Examine the Importance of History and relevance of sources.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
________ ____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
2.7 SUMMARY In this unit, we have discussed about methods of history writing and al so
explained the authenticity of sources for historical research. Authenticity
and credibility of sources comes out with the content of evidence in
written form or relics or the past. The researcher has to abandon unwanted
part of lengthy documents or prox y documents with checking their
authenticity and credibility. Authenticity and credibility have played very
crucial role for historical research. Due to this history writing and
collection of authentic documents will be meaningful and useful.
Authenticity and credibility is the heart of historical research. Finally we
have also looked at the importance and relevance of historical sources.
2.8 QUESTIONS 1) Examine the authenticity of historical sources.
2) Write a detailed note on the credibility of histor ical sources.
3) Discuss the relevance of historical sources.
2.9 REFERENCES  G. J. Garraghan, A guide to Historical Research, Fordhan University
Press, New York, 1946.
 K.N. Chitnis, Research Methodology in History, Atlantic Publishers,
New Delhi, 2006.
 Sreedharan E, A manual of Historical Research Methodology, centre
for South Indian Studies, Kerala, 2007.

***** munotes.in

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32 3
REPOSITORIES OF SOURCES
Unit Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Repositories of Primary Sources
3.3 Libraries as Repositories
3.4 Archives as Repositories
3.5 Museums as Repositories
3.6 Summary
3.7 Questions
3.8 References
3.0 OBJECTI VES  To introduce students to Sources in Historical Research.
 To shed light on the Historiography and theory related to Historical
Research.
 To build basic skills for conducting Historical Research .
 To orient learners about Repositories of Sources .
3.1 INTR ODUCTION First of all let us understand the meaning of the word repository. It is a
place where things are stored for safekeeping, or where there is an ample
supply of something, or a person or thing with a lot of information about
something. Generally, in history we have two types of sources. They are
primary sources and secondary sources. Repositories mostly of the
primary sources and secondary sources are placed in museums, libraries or
public and private institutions and repositories.
Primary sources gi ve historian and students of history an almost real -time
understanding of past events. The study of history often misunderstood as
a mere listing of persons and events provide a clear and accurate picture of
a people’s past culture and society. Historian s have shown the importance
of looking at the diverse ways of evaluating historical evidences. And in
order to fully appreciate history and learn the most out of historical
studies, professionals and students of history alike must be able to
distinguish th e different classes of primary sources.
Secondary sources talk about and analyze a primary source. They are at
least one step removed from the primary source, such as when an article
was written in a newspaper about something that happened half a century munotes.in

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33 Repositories of Sources ago. If a historian is investigating a person’s life, he must not rely solely
on what is written about him. Today, historical revisionism and post -truth
create space for discussion on the importance of credibility to history
writing.
Check your progress:
1) Define Repository.
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3.2 REPOSITORIESOF PRIMARY SOURCES Primary Sources are the first -hand sources. Examples of Primary Sources
include Diaries, Correspondence, journals, speeches, interviews, letters,
memos, photographs, videos, public opinion polls, and government
records, Manuscript, Pamphlets, Broadsides, Posters, Newspaper
Articles Photographs and Illustrations, Autobiographical Materials,
Interview Or Speech Transcripts, Oral Histories , Government
Documents (Laws, Bills, Proceedings, Acts, Census Records, etc.
Sources of history, whether primary or secondary, come from the past and
give insight into the period being studied. Instead of viewing history as a
list of dates and fac ts, primary sources provide the original artifacts of
historical interpretation. They are stored, preserved and accessed from
institutions and sites tasked and dedicated to give an accurate and clear
perspective of the past. For the conduct of historical research there are a
lot of repositories of primary sources. Although it is the toughest part of
studying history, it is also most rewarding, especially when sources
collected becomes the solid foundation for a scholarly work. Both
physical, personal and online repositories of sources abound. The real
challenge is to produce a well -curated collection of materials.
An advice would be the use of the right terminology from the era under
study in order to properly locate significant materials. Materials from
libraries, museums and archives are next to nothing in terms of credibility
yet can consume a lot of time. Online or digital sources are abundant so
researchers have to pore over a great quantity of records, thus, it could be
exhausting. These repositorie s kept by the government, public or private
institutions area veritable stockpile of knowledge. Markers and
monuments also function to keep record of important events and
personalities. Sometimes special fields are needed to aid the historians in
their pur suit of sources.
For example, epigraphy studies the meanings and significance of
inscriptions in monuments which could help in making sources
meaningful. Other special related fields that help historian in the work are
numismatics, paleography genetics, c ryptography, museology, etc. munotes.in

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Sources in Historical Research
34 Museums is where artifacts and implements of the past are exhibited and
restored. Archive is a place where old government or church documents
are stored for safekeeping and research. Libraries are depositories of
written texts and other media. A number of museums across the country
are found commemorating historically important persons, events and
places.
Check your progress:
1) Examine the meaning of Primary Sources.
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
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2) Examine the repositories of Primary Sources.
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––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
3.3 LIBRARIES AS REPOSITORIES A library is a collection of materials, books or media that are accessible
for use and not just for display purposes. A library provides physical (h ard
copies) or digital access (soft copies) materials, and may be a physical
location or a virtual space, or both. A library's collection can include
printed materials and other physical resources in many formats such as
DVD, CD and cassette as well as acc ess to information, music or other
content held on bibliographic databases.
A library, which may vary widely in size, may be organized for use and
maintained by a public body such as a government; an institution such as a
school or museum; a corporation; o r a private individual. In addition to
providing materials, libraries also provide the services of librarians who
are trained and experts at finding, selecting, circulating and organizing
information and at interpreting information needs, navigating and
analyzing very large amounts of information with a variety of resources.
Library buildings often provide quiet areas for studying, as well as
common areas for group study and collaboration, and may provide public
facilities for access to their electronic res ources; for instance: computers
and access to the Internet. The library's clientele and services offered vary
depending on its type: users of a public library have different needs from
those of a special library or academic library, for example. Libraries may
also be community hubs, where programs are delivered and people engage
in lifelong learning. Modern libraries extend their services beyond the
physical walls of a building by providing material accessible by electronic
means, including from home via th e Internet. munotes.in

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35 Repositories of Sources The services the library offers are variously described as library services,
information services, or the combination "library and information
services", although different institutions and sources define such
terminology differently. The term library is based on the Latin word liber
for 'book' or 'document’.
Libraries may provide physical or digital access to material, and may be a
physical location or a virtual space, or both. A library's collection can
include books, periodicals, newspapers, manuscripts, films, maps, prints,
documents, microform, CDs, cassettes, videotapes, DVDs, Blu -ray Discs,
e-books, audio books, databases, table games, video games and other
formats. Libraries range widely in size, up to millions of items.
Libraries often p rovide quiet areas for studying, and they also often offer
common areas to facilitate group study and collaboration. Libraries often
provide public facilities for access to their electronic resources and the
Internet. Public and institutional collections a nd services may be intended
for use by people who choose not to —or cannot afford to —purchase an
extensive collection themselves, who need material no individual can
reasonably be expected to have, or who require professional assistance
with their research.
Services offered by a library are variously described as library services,
information services, or the combination "library and information
services", although different institutions and sources define such
terminology differently. Organizations or depar tments are often called by
one of these names.
Check your progress:
1) Discuss how libraries can serve as repositories.
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3.4 ARCHIVES AS REPOSITORIES An archive is an accumulation of historical records or materials – in any
medium – or the physical facility in which they are located.
Arch ives contain primary source documents that have accumulated over
the course of an individual or organization's lifetime, and are kept to show
the function of that person or or ganization. Professional archivists and
historians generally understand archives to be records that have been
naturally and necessarily generated as a product of regular legal,
commerci al, administrative, or social activities. They have been
metaphorically defined as "the secretions of an organism", and are
distinguished from documents that have been consciously written or
created to communicate a particular message to posterity. munotes.in

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Sources in Historical Research
36 In gene ral, archives consist of records that have been selected for
permanent or long -term preservation on grounds of their enduring cultural,
historical, or evidentiary value. Archival records are normally unpublished
and almost always unique, unlike books or ma gazines of which many
identical copies may exist. This means that archives are quite distinct
from libraries with regard to their functions and organization, although
archival collections c an often be found within library buildings.
A person who works in archives is called an archivist . The study and
practice of organizing, preserving, and providing access to information
and materials in archives is called archival science . The physical place of
storage can be referred to as an archive (more usual in the United
Kingdom ), an archives (more usual in the United States ), or a repository.
The computing use of the term "archive" should not be confused with the
record -keeping meaning of the term. The practice of keeping official
documents is very old. Archaeologists have discovered archives of
hundreds (and sometime thousands) of clay tablets going back to the third
and second millennia BC i n sites like Ebla, Mari, Amarna, Hattus as,
Ugarit, and Pylos. These discoveries have been fundamental to learning
about ancient alphabets, languages, literature, and politics.
Archives were well developed by the ancient Chinese, the ancient Greeks,
and an cient Romans (who called them Tabularia). However, those
archives have been lost, since documents written on materials like papyrus
and paper deteriorated relatively quickly, unlike their clay tablet
counterparts. Archives of churches, kingdoms, and cities from the Middle
Ages survive and have often kept their official status uninterruptedly to
the present. They are the basic tool for historical research on this period.
England after 1066 developed archives and archival access methods. The
Swiss developed a rchival systems after 1450.
Modern archival thinking has some roots dating back to the French
Revolution. The French National Archives, which possess perhaps the
largest archival collection in the world (with records going as far back as
625 A.D.), were cr eated in 1790 during the Revolution from various
government, religious, and private archives seized by the revolutionaries.
Historians, genealogists, lawyers, demographers, filmmakers, and others
conduct research at archives. The research process at each a rchive is
unique, and depends upon the institution that houses the archive. While
there are many kinds of archives, the most recent census of archivists in
the United States identifies five major types: academic, business (for
profit), government, non -profit, and other. There are also four main areas
of inquiry involved with archives: material technologies, organizing
principles, geographic locations, and tangled embodiments of humans and
non-humans. These areas help to further categorize what kind of archi ve is
being created.
Archives in colleges, universities, and other educational facilities are
typically housed within a library, and duties may be carried out by an
archivist. Academic archives exist to preserve institutional history and munotes.in

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37 Repositories of Sources serve the academic community. An academic archive may contain
materials such as the institution's administrative records, personal and
professional papers of former professors and presidents, memorabilia
related to school organizations and activities, and items the academic
library wishes to remain in a closed -stack setting, such as rare books or
thesis copies. Access to the collections in these archives is usually by prior
appointment only; some have posted hours for making inquiries. Users of
academic archives can be under graduates, graduate students, faculty and
staff, scholarly researchers, and the general public. Many academic
archives work closely with alumni relations departments or other campus
institutions to help raise funds for their library or school.
Archives loc ated in for -profit institutions are usually those owned by a
private business. Examples of prominent business archives in the United
States include Coca -Cola (which also owns the separate museum World of
Coca -Cola), Procter and Gamble, Motorola Heritage Se rvices and
Archives, and Levi Strauss & Co. In India Godrej Company has its
corporate archives. These corporate archives maintain historic documents
and items related to the history and administration of their companies.
Business archives serve the purpose of helping their corporations maintain
control over their brand by retaining memories of the company's past.
Especially in business archives, records management is separate from the
historic aspect of archives. Workers in these types of archives may have
any combination of training and degrees, from either a history or library
background. These archives are typically not open to the public and only
used by workers of the owner company, though some allow approved
visitors by appointment.
Government archives include those maintained by local and state
government as well as those maintained by the national (or federal)
government. Anyone may use a government archive, and frequent users
include reporters, genealogists, writers, historians, students, and people
seeking information on the history of their home or region. Many
government archives are open to the public and no appointment is required
to visit. In Maharashtra, the state archives is housed in the Elphinstone
College opposite the Chattrapati Shivaji Ma haraj Vastusangrahalay.
In the United States, National Archives and Records Administration
(NARA) maintains central archival facilities in the District of Columbia
and College Park, Maryland, with regional facilities distributed throughout
the United Stat es. Some city or local governments may have repositories,
but their organization and accessibility varies widely.
In the UK, the National Archives (formerly known as the Public Record
Office) is the government archive for England and Wales. The physical
records stored by the National Archives amount to 185 km (115 miles) of
shelving, a number that increases every year. The English Heritage
Archive is the public archive of English Heritage. A network of county
record offices and other local authority -run arc hives exists throughout
England, Wales, and Scotland and holds many important collections, munotes.in

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Sources in Historical Research
38 including local government, landed estates, church, and business records.
In India, the National Archives (NAI) are located in New Delhi.
A prominent church archive is the Vatican Apostolic Archive.
Archdioceses, dioceses, and parishes also have archives in the Roman
Catholic and Anglican Churches. Very important are monastery archives,
because of their antiquity, like the ones of Monte Cassino, Saint Gall, and
Fulda. The records in these archives include manuscripts, papal records,
local church records, photographs, oral histories, audiovisual materials,
and architectural drawings.
Non-profit archives include those in historical societies, not -for-profit
businesses su ch as hospitals, and the repositories within foundations. Such
repositories are typically set up with private funds from donors to preserve
the papers and history of specific persons or places. These institutions may
rely on grant funding from the governme nt as well as private funds.
Depending on the availability of funds, non -profit archives may be as
small as the historical society in a rural town to as big as a state historical
society that rivals a government archives. Users of this type of archive
may vary as much as the institutions that hold them. Employees of non -
profit archives may be professional archivists, paraprofessionals, or
volunteers, as the education required for a position at a non -profit archive
varies with the demands of the collection's user base.
Some archives defy categorization. There are tribal archives within the
Native American nations in North America, and there are archives that
exist within the papers of private individuals. Many museums keep
archives in order to prove the prove nance of their pieces. Any institution
or persons wishing to keep their significant papers in an organized fashion
that employs the most basic principles of archival science may have an
archive. In the 2004 census of archivists taken in the United States, 2.7%
of archivists were employed in institutions that defied categorization. This
was a separate figure from the 1.3% that identified themselves as self -
employed.
Another type of archive is the Public Secrets project. This is an interactive
testimonial, in which women incarcerated in the California State Prison
System describe what happened to them. The archive's mission is to gather
stories from women who want to express themselves, and want their
stories heard. This collection includes transcripts and an audio recording
of the women telling their stories.
The archives of an individual may include letters, papers, photographs,
computer files, scrapbooks, financial records, or diaries created or
collected by the individual – regardless of medium or format. T he archives
of an organization (such as a corporation or government) tend to contain
other types of records, such as administrative files, business records,
memos, official correspondence, and meeting minutes. Some archives are
made up of a compilation of both types of collections. An example of this
type of combined compilation is The Transgender Archives at the
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39 Repositories of Sources donations from both individuals and organizations from all over the world.
Many of these donations have yet to be catalogued, but are currently in the
process of being digitally preserved and made available to the public
online.
Check your progress:
1) Discuss Archives as Repositories of Sources.
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3.5 MUSEUMS AS REPOSITORIES A museum is a building or institution that cares for and displays a
collection of artifacts and other objects of artistic, cultural, historical, or
scientific importance. Many public museums make these items available
for public viewing through exhibits that may be permanent or temporary.
The largest museums are located in major cities throughout the world,
while thousands of local museums exist in smaller cities, towns, and rural
areas. Museums have varying aims, ranging from the conservation and
documentation of their collection, serving researchers and specialists, to
catering to the general public. The goal of serving researchers is not only
scientific, but intended to serve the general public.
There are many types of museums, including art museums, natural history
museums, science museums, war museums, and children's museums.
According to the International Council of Museums (ICOM), there are
more than 55,000 museums in 202 countries.
The purpose of modern museums is t o collect, preserve, interpret, and
display objects of artistic, cultural, or scientific significance for the study
and education of the public. From a visitor or community perspective, this
purpose can also depend on one's point of view. A trip to a local history
museum or large city art museum can be an entertaining and enlightening
way to spend the day. To city leaders, an active museum community can
be seen as a gauge of the cultural or economic health of a city, and a way
to increase the sophistication of its inhabitants. To a museum professional,
a museum might be seen as a way to educate the public about the
museum's mission, such as civil rights or environmentalism. Museums are,
above all, storehouses of knowledge.
Museums of natural history in the l ate 19th century exemplified the
scientific desire for classification and for interpretations of the world.
Gathering all examples for each field of knowledge for research and
display was the purpose. As American colleges grew in the 19th century,
they dev eloped their own natural history collections for the use of their
students. By the last quarter of the 19th century, scientific research in
universities was shifting toward biological research on a cellular level, and munotes.in

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Sources in Historical Research
40 cutting -edge research moved from museu ms to university laboratories.
While many large museums, such as the Smithsonian Institution, are still
respected as research centers, research is no longer a main purpose of most
museums. While there is an ongoing debate about the purposes of
interpretati on of a museum's collection, there has been a consistent
mission to protect and preserve cultural artifacts for future generations.
Much care, expertise, and expense is invested in preservation efforts to
retard decomposition in aging documents, artifacts, artworks, and
buildings. All museums display objects that are important to a culture. As
historian Steven Conn writes, "To see the thing itself, with one's own eyes
and in a public place, surrounded by other people having some version of
the same experien ce, can be enchanting."
Museum purposes vary from institution to institution. Some favor
education over conservation, or vice versa. For example, in the 1970s, the
Canada Science and Technology Museum favored education over
preservation of their objects. T hey displayed objects as well as their
functions. One exhibit featured a historical printing press that a staff
member used for visitors to create museum memorabilia.Some museums
seek to reach a wide audience, such as a national or state museum, while
others have specific audiences, like the LDS Church History Museum or
local history organizations. Generally speaking, museums collect objects
of significance that comply with their mission statement for conservation
and display.
Major museum professional orga nizations from around the world offer
some definitions as to what a museum is and their purpose. Common
themes in all the definitions are public good and care, preservation, and
interpretation of collections.
The International Council of Museums' current d efinition of a
museum (adopted in 2022):
"A museum is a not -for-profit, permanent institution in the service of
society that researches, collects, conserves, interprets and exhibits tangible
and intangible heritage. Open to the public, accessible and incl usive,
museums foster diversity and sustainability. They operate and
communicate ethically, professionally and with the participation of
communities, offering varied experiences for education, enjoyment,
reflection and knowledge sharing."
The Canadian Muse ums Association's definition:
"A museum is a non -profit, permanent establishment, that does not exist
primarily for the purpose of conducting temporary exhibitions and that is
open to the public during regular hours and administered in the public
interest for the purpose of conserving, preserving, studying, interpreting,
assembling and exhibiting to the public for the instruction and enjoyment
of the public, objects and specimens or educational and cultural value
including artistic, scientific, historical and technological material."
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41 Repositories of Sources The United Kingdom's Museums Association's definition:
"Museums enable people to explore collections for inspiration, learning
and enjoyment. They are institutions that collect, safeguard and make
accessible artifacts and spe cimens, which they hold in trust for society."
While the American Alliance of Museums does not have a definition
their list of accreditation criteria to participate in their Accreditation
Program states a museum must:
"Be a legally organized nonprofit ins titution or part of a nonprofit
organization or government entity; Be essentially educational in nature;
Have a formally stated and approved mission; Use and interpret objects or
a site for the public presentation of regularly scheduled programs and
exhibi ts; Have a formal and appropriate program of documentation, care,
and use of collections or objects; Carry out the above functions primarily
at a physical facility or site; Have been open to the public for at least two
years; Be open to the public at least 1,000 hours a year; Have accessioned
80 percent of its permanent collection; Have at least one paid professional
staff with museum knowledge and experience; Have a full -time director to
whom authority is delegated for day -to-day operations; Have the finan cial
resources sufficient to operate effectively; Demonstrate that it meets the
Core Standards for Museums; Successfully complete the Core Documents
Verification Program"
Additionally a there is a legal definition of museum in United States
legislation in the authorizing the establishment of the Institute of
Museum and Library Services:
"Museum means a public, tribal, or private nonprofit institution which is
organized on a permanent basis for essentially educational, cultural
heritage, or aesthetic purpo ses and which, using a professional staff: Owns
or uses tangible objects, either animate or inanimate; Cares for these
objects; and Exhibits them to the general public on a regular basis."
(Museum Services Act 1976)
Check your progress:
1) Examine museums as repositories of sources.
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3.6 SUMMARY Generally, in history we have two types of sources. They are primary
sources and secondary sources. Repositories mostly of the primary sources
and secondary sources are p laced in museums, libraries or public and
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42 Primary Sources are the first -hand sources. Examples of Primary Sources
include Diaries, Correspondence, journals, speeches, interviews, letters,
memos, photographs, videos, p ublic opinion polls, and government
records, Manuscript, Pamphlets, Broadsides, Posters, Newspaper
Articles Photographs and Illustrations, Autobiographical Materials,
Interview Or Speech Transcripts, Oral Histories, Government
Documen ts (Laws, Bills, Proceedings, Acts, Census Records, etc.
Sources of history, whether primary or secondary, come from the past and
give insight into the period being studied. Instead of viewing history as a
list of dates and facts, primary sources pr ovide the original artifacts of
historical interpretation. They are stored, preserved and accessed from
institutions and sites tasked and dedicated to give an accurate and clear
perspective of the past. For the conduct of historical research there are a
lot of repositories of primary sources. Although it is the toughest part of
studying history, it is also most rewarding, especially when sources
collected becomes the solid foundation for a scholarly work. Both
physical, personal and online repositories of sources abound. The real
challenge is to produce a well -curated collection of materials.
3.7 QUESTIONS 1. Discuss Libraries as Repositories of Sources.
2. Examine the importance of Archives as Repositories of Sources.
3. Examine the contribution of Mu seums as Repositories of Sources.
3.8 REFERENCES  https://www.studocu.com/ph/document/university -of-rizal-
system/readings -in-philippine -history/module -4-kinds -of-primary -
sources -and-repositories -of-primary -sources/22505324
 http://dohistory.org/on_your_own/t oolkit/primarySources.html,
9/16/2015.
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archive
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum

*****

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43 4
CLASSIFICATION AND ORGANISATION
Unit Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Information sources: Categories
4.3 Primary Sources
4.4 Secondary Sources
4.5 Tertiary Sources
4.6 Organisation of Data
4.7 Summary
4.8 Questions
4.9 References
4.0 OBJECTIVES  To understand how Historical information sources can be categorised.
 To understand specific criteria for categorisation of Historical
information.
 To understand the process and importance of categorisation.
4.1 INTRODUCTION Histor ical information sources are many and varied. Since time
immemorial human beings are generating information by observation,
experimentation, imagination, reasoning, and experiencing through
sensory organs. The information they generated were generally
comm unicated to others for their own interest and survival. In olden days
when a human being used to spot a wild animal in the vicinity of her / his
habitation, immediately she/he used to inform others so that the animal
could be killed to save their own lives and earn a day’s meal. Even today
this practice may be seen in remote forests of Africa, Amazon basin, etc.
The ancient habit of human beings relating to information still exists and
thus they are still powerful sources of information.
In the long path of human progress, a time came when humans started
recording information by painting or carving on cave walls and stones.
Gradually the media and methods of recording changed. From cave walls
and stones they advanced to clay tablets, papyrus, palm leaves, pa rchment,
vellum, paper and finally to electronic media. Also, there was transition
from paintings to pictographic writings to letters and alphabets. Prior to
the invention of printing from movable types in 1450s, hand written books
were the order of the da y. Scribes in many parts of the world used to copy
the books and sell them. Obviously, this particular process could not munotes.in

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44 generate a huge number of books. With the invention of printing,
production of books increased many fold. This change gave birth to a
variety of documentary sources like books, pamphlets, journals,
newspapers , etc.
Institutions like libraries and universities started emerging more than two
thousand years ago. Even by today’s standard, the library in Alexandria
that flourished from 3rd cen tury BC to 3rd century AD was a huge library
as it contained about four hundred thousand documents. The library
harboured almost the entire knowledge generated by human being still that
time in the world and served as a great source of information. It was more
or less like today’s Internet which is an unthinkable, huge reservoir of
information generated from all parts of the world. In brief, this is the story
of the birth of documentary and non -documentary sources of information.
We are all familiar with printed sources like books, newspapers,
magazines, and others. Similarly we have seen hand -written documents
called manuscripts, letters, notes, and electronic sources like CDs, micro
films, etc. They are non-print sources. Some sources are produced and
distributed by publishers. They may be printed, electronic or micro -
documents (i.e. documents in micro -forms).They are usually priced. These
are published sources. Typed sources like a thesis, hand -written sources
like a letter, are unpublished sources .
When w e go through the content of a documentary source, we find that all
of them do not contain the same type of information. Some sources
provide totally new information that was not known before. They may
inform about new discoveries, new inventions, new ideas , new concepts,
etc. These are called primary sources. Take for example are search
periodical which includes research articles that always report new
findings. Another type of information source is generated by gathering
information from primary sources. T he information gathered from primary
sources is compiled in systematic order and published in the form of a
book, journal, etc. These types of sources are known as secondary sources.
Indian Historical Review is an example of secondary source so
information . Publications pertaining to tertiary sources are sometimes
produced based on secondary sources. A bibliography is a secondary
source. Now, if a bibliography of bibliographies is produced, it will be
atertiary source. Guides to reference sources are also t ertiary sources as
reference sources are secondary sources. Rang Nathan divided documents
in two different broad groups macro documents and micro documents as
well as conventional and no conventional documents. We shall discuss the
mat relevant places in this Unit .
4.2 INFORMATION SOURCES: CATEGORIES From the discussion above we have got a fair idea about various types of
information sources such as documentary and non -documentary, print and
non-print, published and unpublished, macro and micro, conventiona l and
non-conventional. We have also noted that documentary sources can be
further sub divided as primary, secondary, tertiary according to content. munotes.in

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45 Classification and Organisation We shall just enumerate the sources here as they will be discussed in detail
in subsequent units of this Block.
a) Documentary Sources:
All sources in the form of documents are documentary sources. The
connotation of the term ‘document’ has undergone many change s in recent
years and now includes books, periodicals, manuscripts, video tapes,
computer files, and databases. A selective list of documentary sources is
given below:
 Books , Treatises , Monographs , Textbooks
Reference Books :
 Manu scripts
 Periodicals
 Theses
 Conference Documents
 Souvenirs
 Articles (popular, technical, research)
 Diaries
 Letters
 Office Files
 CD-ROM Recordings
 Video Recordings
 Databases
 Computer Files
 Laboratory Notebooks
b) Non-documentary Sources:
We have three types of non-documentary sources of information, i.e.
humans, organisations, and World Wide Web.
Humans :
 Information Professionals
 Consultants
 Experts
 Resource Persons
 Common Men, etc. munotes.in

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46 Organisations:
 International Agencies
 Government Ministries and Departments
 Research and Development Organisations
 Academic Institutions
 Societies
 Publishing Houses
 Press
 Broadcasting Houses
 Libraries and Information
Centres :
 Museums
 Archives
 Exhibitions
 Database Vendors
 Information Analysis Centres
 Referral Centres, etc.
i) Print Sources:
All sources that are in print formare print sources. Some of the examples
off print sources are given below:
 Books
 Periodicals
 Patents
 Standards
 Conference Documents
 Souvenirs
 Reports (technical, administrative, trip)
 Articles (popular, technical, research)

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47 Classification and Organisation ii) Non-print Sources
Documentary sources that are not printed are all non-print sources, such as
the following:
 Manu scripts (typed or hand -written)
 Theses
 Project Reports (typed)
 Diaries
 Letters
 Office Files
 Laboratory Notebooks
 Microforms
 CD Recordings
 Video Recordings
 Databases
 Computer Files
 E-publications
 Humans
 Organisations
 World Wide Web, etc.
ii) Published Sources:
These sources are documentary sources, both printed and non-printed.
They are brought out by publishers in large number of copies, usually
priced and sold. Some of the examples are as follows:
 Books
 Periodicals
 Patents
 Standards
 Conference Documents
 Souvenirs
 Festschriften munotes.in

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48  CD Recordings
 Video Recordings
 Databases, etc.
iii) Unpublished Sources:
These documentary sources are neither published nor produced in large
number of copies, and usually are not for sale. Unpublished sources, at
times, can turn i nto published sources as well. For example, letters written
by Rabindranath Tagore have been published in book form by Visva
Bharati at a later date. Some of the examples of unpublished sources are
given below:
 Manuscripts (typed or hand written)
 Theses
 Project Reports (typed)
 Diaries
 Letters
 Office Files
 Laboratory Notebooks
 Memoranda
 Medical Records, etc.
 Databases
 Computer Files
 E-publications
 Humans
 Organisations
 World Wide Web, etc.
iv) Published Sources:
These sources are documentary sources, both printed and non-printed.
They are brought out by publishers in large number of copies, usually
priced and s old. Some of the examples are as follows:
 Books
 Periodicals
 Patents munotes.in

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49 Classification and Organisation  Standards
 Conference Documents
 Souvenirs
 Festschriften
 CD Recordings
 Video Recording s
 Databases, etc.
v) Unpublished Sources:
These documentary sources are neither published nor produced in large
number of copies, and usually are not for sale. Unpublished sources, at
times, can turn into published sources as well. For example, letters wri tten
by Rabindranath Tagore have been published in book form by Visva
Bharati at a later date. Some of the examples of unpublished sources are
given below:
 Manuscripts (typed or hand written)
 Theses
 Project Reports (typed)
 Diaries
 Letters
 Office Files
 Labo ratory Notebooks
 Memoranda
 Medical Records, etc.
Check your Progress:
1) What are the documentary and non -documentary sources.
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4.3 PRIMARY SOURCES A source will be considered as a primary source in case it carri es newly
generated information, original work of research, or new interpretation of
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50 published record of original research. The information contained in
primary sources is generally scattered and unorganised.
Monographs are included here as primary sources. Monographs are
basically longer search articles or a short book on a specific theme. It is to
be remembered that only research monographs are primary sources and
the rest are secondary sources.
Collection of papers Sometimes articles are collected on a particular topic,
or contributed by a particular person and brought out in the form of a
book. If the articles belong to primary sources, the anthology will also be a
primary source. Under thi s heading both collected works and fests chriften
can be accommodated.
Textbooks and manuals have been considered as primary sources by some
historians, which others have considered as secondary or tertiary sources.
Serials, journals and magazines all figu re in the list. Journals and
magazines being serials there was no need to mention all the three. It is
also a fact that all serials are not primary sources.
Newspapers are excluded from others’ list since they do not pertain to
scientific and technical lit erature. It is included here as this categorisation
covers the entire gamut of literature. Newspapers contain primary
information and its placement here is well justified.
Technical catalogues are generally manufacturers’ catalogues and form
trade literatu re. Similarly information leaflets supplied along with the
products, processes, etc. by manufacturers also form trade literature. They
are primary sources. However, information leaf lets based on primary
literature are secondary sources.
An invitation card is an information card. Even a letter contained in a
postcard is an information card. Information cards exist in various fields.
Even you may receive a card from a journal editor informing that your
article has-been accepted for publication is also an example under this
category.
Manuscripts and galleys – A manuscript may be a handwritten book or
any other document or a typed article or the like that has been sent for
publication. The galley is a printer’s proof. All these are original
documents, and hence placed under primary sources.
Data files are computerized files containing data. If the data belongs to
primary sources, then the data files will be primary sources.
Check your Progress:
1) Describe the nature of sources of History.
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51 Classification and Organisation ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
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4.4 SECONDARY SOURCES A source which is more or less completely dependent on primary sources
for its existence is a secondary source. Information in secondary sources is
organised and arranged according to a definite plan. Indexing and
abstracting periodicals are one of the examples of secondary sources.
Indexing periodical, indexes the contents of periodicals or some other type
of publications usually on regular basis, whereas abstracting
periodicalalongwiththecontentsalsogivestheabs tract.Theabstractcanbeindic
ative or informative. Indexing and abstracting periodicals may be either
general in nature or on a specific theme. In any abstracting andindexing
periodical you will notice that articles of the same topic have all been put
togeth er, and of related topics close by. They are no more scattered. Even
if the articles are indifferent languages you will find the abstracts in the
same language. In a way it is overcoming the language barrier. As the
bibliographical details of the primary s ources are usually given in the
secondary sources, these sources act as a key to primary sources. In a
review article, also a secondary source, the entire information on a
particular topic for a certain period is first collected, then digested and
finally are port is written where in the entire matter is organized
coherently. Here the entire phenomenon of scattering is done away with
and the whole matter gets well -organised. Generally most reference books
also draw materials from primary sources.
Check your Progress:
1) Write a note on secondary sources.
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4.5 TERTIARY SOURCES A source that is entirely dependent on secondary sources or primary and
secondary sources for its existence is a tertiary source.
Sources like ‘guides to reference sources’ and ‘bibliography of
bibliographies’ are examples of tertiary sources. These sources act as key
to primary sources as well as secondary sources. Some authors have
considered directories, yearbooks, etc. also as tertiary sour ces as they help
the searcher in using primary and secondary sources. There are sources,
like directory of on-going research projects, which are placed under
tertiary sources.
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52 Macro and Micro Sources:
Documents embodying macro thoughts such as books are m acro
documents, and those embodying micro thoughts such as journal articles
are micro documents. It is to be noted that documents in micro forms are
not always micro documents since a micro film can harbour a book a
macro document, or a journal article a micro document.
Conventional and Non-conventional Sources:
Documents such as books printed on paper as conventional sources, and
micro film, repro graph, etc. as non-conventional sources.
Usefulness of categorisation:
i) To judge the soundness of a collecti on, categorisation of documents
renders positive help. Take for example the periodical collection of
are search library. If the library contains more primary periodicals
compared to secondary, then the collection will be considered
balanced and more helpfu l for research. In any scientific library
wherever there is dominance of primary documents, it is surely the
sign of a good collection.
ii) Using categorization it is possible to determine to what extent a
particular field is research -oriented. Take the current periodical sofa
particular field. Categorise them in primary and secondary sources,
and then find out the percentage of periodicals in each category. The
percentage will indicate to what extent the field is research -oriented.
If in a field more than 50% periodicals are primary, then the field is
surely research -dominated.
Check your Progress:
1) Define tertiary sources.
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4.6 ORGANISATION OF DATA Strong historical writing can be traced in part to effective n ote taking.
Historians have to select from a wide array of different possible sources
ranging from secondary literature to a variety of archival collections when
creating a narrative. And unlike a finalized narrative, primary sources in
the archives rarely have a clear beginning, middle, and end. Part of the
goalintaking notes is to effectively and clearly organize primary source
documents for later use in constructing a historical narrative.
Traditionally, historians organized their notes a round a card system.
Many historians used note cards to record valuable pieces of information
gained from secondary readings or primary source materials. A quotation munotes.in

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53 Classification and Organisation from a letter, for instance, could be written on the front, with citation in
formation recorded on the back of the card. A historian could then
organize the notes in any way he or she saw fit, arranging and rearranging
the ideas gleaned from their sources in a different order and eventually
creating an outline for a narrative. The quotations or ideas from each card
could then be copied into a manuscript raft as it was created. Notes might
include a brief transcription of the evidence and brief description of its
significance to the overall argument or historical question. This system
had several advantages. Note cards could be physically arranged and
rearranged based on the project and your findings. Unlike writing in a
notebook, a single note or small group of notes could easily be transferred
from one point to another if doing so made sense. Note cards also helped
historians think visually and were, in some sense, a physical manifestation
of the historian’s thoughts.
They also likely contributed to the honing of the mental recallability of
generations of historians. Note cards, however, also possessed numerous
disadvantages. They could easily be lost or misplaced. They lacked any
sort of search function unless typed into a cumber some database. They
were time-consuming to create. Finally, not all notes can be fitted onto a
small card. New note -taking systems, s uch as Zotero and End note,
attempt to mimi colder forms of note taking, while also making the notes
both searchable and more compatible with the web (imagine writing down
lengthy URLs on note cards!). However, a clear note taking system does
not require a new piece of software.
Above that will be noted the folder and box numbers containing the
primary source. While such a method can be useful, remember also to save
a copy of these notes in the more permanent PDF format at the end of your
visit. Later on, w hen you start to move these notes around as you construct
a narrative, it can be easy to fail to transfer citation in formation if it is
only listed at the top of a section of notes. Clearly define the contents of
each source and note what words are origin al to the source, and what
words are your own. One needs to simply use quotation marks to highlight
the original words, and bullet points with no quotation marks to indicate
the significance of the document and where it fit into your broader claims.
Notes for your project can be based on themes, keywords, or individuals.
Your own notes can be based on the archival collections themselves. You
can try to make your own collections of notes mirror the archival system,
which, for you, can result in easy citation s and easy recall. You can keep
your notes for manuscripts where you organize work through various ideas
regarding our narrative in a separate document. When taking notes on your
laptop, you can note at the top of each document the exact citation for the
particular archival collection. Once you have created this document, you
can begin to read the archival material. Selecting which documents to
transcribe or photo graphs to take is a skill you can constantly work upon
and get better at. As it might on occas ion be difficult for you to return to
some archives, you need to err on the side of gathering even material that
might seems only marginally relevant to your work both in terms of
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54 comprehen sive as possible. Many historians recommend taking a more
limited number of notes, as this will prevents you from becoming bogged
down in your own materials later on. You need to ask yours elf how each
document fits into your existing narrative arc or how it might change the
manner in which you tell your basic story. Does it add detail, depth, or
texture to the existing narrative? Is this collection of documents replicated
somewhere else, or is it unique to this archive? If the document represents
something valuable for once research, one needs transcribe it or
photograph it, and record once actions that person have taken (noting, for
example, where digital images of archival materials have been stored on
once computer).
When transcribing document, you shoul d ask yourself if the notes you
have taken will make sense several weeks or months later, when you are
mentally and physically removed from the collection. To ensure that your
notes will continue to make sense, one can sometimes include an
introductory sen tence or two above the document recording your notes.
The introductory sentence is not marked with quotation marks, so one
knows the sentences are in your own language. Generally, this short
introductory statement simply summarizes your thoughts on how this
collection might relate to the overall project. These thoughts might be
based partially on clues provided by the finding aid or a conversation with
an archivist. Later on, when transcribing a document from a collection, a
letter might be introduced with a brief sentence or two explaining that the
previous set of letters revolved around a philosophical argument that this
letter continued to address. You might suspect that a particular individual
was the author of an anonymous memorandum, or speculate from other
evidence that an undated document was created at a specific time. Your
introductory notes to that document could simply remind you of your
initial suspicion. If you are lucky, collections of documents will reveal to
you a basic story that you are hop ing to tell in your narrative. Remind
yourself throughout your notes of the pieces of a story a sit comes
together.
a) Organizing Digital Files:
A lengthy day in the archives can result in dozens or even hundreds of
photographs or scans, in addition to tra nscribed notes. If you are taking or
transferring notes to your computer, there is the potential to lose valuable
information or misplace the correct citation for the documents. How do
you keep all of those files organized? Just as with basic note -taking
systems, researchers will have to develop a system for organizing files
based on their owner search projects and habits. One needs to break digital
files into two basic components. When you arrive at a new archive, you
need to create a new electronic fol der labelled with the name of the
archive. If you are, for example, looking at three separate collections on
the day that you visit a new archive, within the folder created for the large
archive, you need to create three separate folders for each particula r
collection you are planning to explore. Within the collection folders, you
need to start a new document in a word processing program to record the
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55 Classification and Organisation documents. When photographing, you need to take pictures of the outside
labels of boxes, folder labels, and the documents themselves. Then, on the
master document for the collection you need to record what photographs
have been taken and assign a citation to particular documents. The
advantage of this system is that you can look back at your notes several
weeks or months later and be reminded of exactly where a collection of
transcribed documents or photographs was originally found and provide a
complete citation for the collection. The disadvantag e, however, is that
you need to recall what collection a document was in to track it down
(applications such as Google Desktop and Windows Search can help
streamline this process). While this system works well for some, others
may find it confusing if the y are working with numerous collections with
over lapping names and key words. Each historian should develop a
unique system based around their strengths for memory and recall as well
as one geared to their particular kinds of archival materials.
b) Organi zing PhysicalFiles:
As a historical researcher, you will likely acquire a number of photocopies
of original archival documents as well as a collection of permission forms
and paperwork from archives. As you begin your work in the archives,
consider how bes t to store these types of files. Will they go in your filing
cabinet? Will you choose to digitize them? Few decades ago people used
to make a large number of photocopies of original documents. Over the
past few years, historians have started transitioning away from
photocopies toward digital photographs, scans, and transcriptions stored in
a computer. Nevertheless, some paper documents are simply unavoidable.
As you begin your work, consider how these types of documents will be
stored a long side your growi ng personal archive. If you are making a
large number of photocopies, however, you should consider creating an
organizational system that is more specific to your subject chronologically
or the matically, for instance and meets the needs of your work.
Chec k your Progress:
1) Explain the importance of organization of data.
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4.7 SUMMARY Records and Information Management is a tool used by managers to
determine which records to retain, and for how long, and which rec ords to
discard. It also includes tools to improve access to current records such as
document management systems, standardized file plans, indexing, etc. The
discipline of Records and Information Management applies tests and
standards to an organization's records, determining their value both to
thegroupandtootherpotentialusers.Recordsmanagerssurveyandcategorize munotes.in

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56 records by type and function. They evaluate each category to schedule
records for retention and disposal. Some records are permanently useful,
either to the organization itself or to other interested parties. We say these
records have permanent or archival value. If properly retained, organized,
and preserved, these noncurrent records become the organization’s
archives. They reflect the values, activ ities, and goals of the organization.
This body of records tells the story of the organization’s past, and hence
becomes the basis for understanding its history.
4.8 QUESTIONS 1. Bring out the various aspects of classification of Historical sources.
2. Discuss the process of organization of sources.
3. Write a short on various primary sources.
4. Write a short note on various secondary sources.
4.9 REFERENCES  Garraghan G. S., A Guide to Historical Method , New York, Fordham
University Press 1996.
 Gottstack, L.,UnderstandingHistory,NewYork,AlfredA.Knof1951.
 McMillan J. H. and Schumander S. Researchin Education:A
Conceptual Introduction Boston MA: Little Brownand Company
1984.
 Shafer R. J., A Guide to Historical Method, Illions : the Dorsey
Press,1974.

*****


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57 5
PRIMARY SOURCES, SECONDARY
SOURCES; UNCONVENTIONAL
SOURCES
Unit Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Nature of sources of History
5.3 Primary Literary sources
5.4 Primary Archaeological sources
5.5 Secondary Literary sources
5.6 Oral sources
5.7 Unconventional sources
5.8 Summary
5.9 Questions
5.10 References
5.0 OBJECTIVES After the study of this unit, the students will be able to:
 Understand the nature and types of the sources for Ancient, medieval
and modern History.
 Know the primary and sec ondary sources.
 Grasp the Unconventional sources.
5.1 INTRODUCTION The source material is the essential part of history writing. There are
various types of the historical sources. They can be categorized according
to their nature. The sources play importan t role in the history writings.
Hence the historian carry search for it at different places like archives,
museums and institutions. A historian tries to construct a systematic
account of the past event with the help of historical sources. They can be
categorized into following ways in a broader form.
1. Archaeological sources
2. Literary sources
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58 These sources can also be classified into two types :
Primary Sources :
Gottschalk defines a primary data source as “th e testimony of any eye
writers by any other of the senses.” In other words primary sources are
tangible materials that provide a description of an historical event and
were produced shortly after the event happened. They have a direct
physical relationship to the event being studied . Examples of primary
sources include news paper report s, letters, public document s, court
decisions, personal diaries, autobiographies, artifacts and eye witnesses’
verbal accounts. The primary sources of data can be divided into two
broad categories as follows:
1) The remains or relics of given historical period. These could include
photographs, corves skeletons, fossils tools, weapons, utensils
furniture and buildings. Though these were not originally meant for
transmitting information future generations. They would prove very
useful sources in providing reliable and sound evidence about the
past. These relics provide non-verbal information.
2) Those objects that have a direct physical relationship with the events
being reconstru cted. This includes documents such as laws, files,
letters, manuscripts, government resolutions, characters, memoranda,
wills, newspapers, magazines, journals, files, government or other
official publications, maps, charts, books, catalogues, research
reports, record of minutes of meetings recording inscription,
transcriptions and so on.
b) Secondary Sources:
A secondary source is one in which the eye witness or the participant i.e.
the person describing the event was not actually present but who obtained
the descriptions or narrations from another person or source. This another
person may or may not be a primary source. Secondary sources, thus, do
not have a direct physical relationship with the event being studies. They
include data which are not original example of secondary sources include
text books, biographies, encyclopedias, reference books, replicas of out
objects and paintings and so on. It is possible that secondary sources
contain errors due to passing of information from one source to another.
These errors could get multiplied when the information passes through
many sources there by resulting in an error of great magnitude in the final
data. Thus, wherever possible, the searcher should try to use primary
sources of data. However, that does not re duce the value of secondary
sources.
Primary sources can be divided into literary and archaeological sources.
5.2 THE NATURE OF SOURCES OF HISTORY The term sources in reference to history covers a body of materials vast in
range and diversified in characte r. Written records, oral records, remains munotes.in

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59 Primary Sources, Secondary Sources; Unconventional Sources of prehistoric villages, towns, ancient inscripations on the sides of rocks;
in short, any bit of testimony, any object that can throw light on the human
story , finds place in the category “historical sources.” One may define the
terms “human remains and such products of man’s activity as either were
meant by their authors to communicate knowledge of historical facts, or
by their nature are calculated to do so.” Let us take two examples from
Ancient Indian history t o elucidate the nature of historical sources. A
standard version of ‘Arthashastra’ of Kautilya and Buddhist Stupa at
Sanchi. Arthashastra helps us to recreate an image of mauryan empire, the
organization of Government, the economy and social and cultural
information. The Sanchi great stupa presents a different aspects of
historical facts.
A suggestive way to look at historical sources is to regard them as “traces”
left behind by past events. The events of history are no longer realities,
though they once were. All that survives of them is the impression they
made on observes, which impression the observes themselves, or other
persons, relying directly or indirectly on the reports of observes, fixed in
writing or in the some other medium or record. The record ed impressions
are therefore, the only traces which past events have left in their wake.
The historian must work recorded impressions and through them on the
events. Heuristics is therefore in the nature or mining process, having for
its object to bring th e raw material of history to light. From this point view
Niebuhr was led to describe it as a “working under -ground”.
Nature of historical sources in relation to their utility in the construction of
the past as it was. In this respect we have to consider th e time scheme.
Such as ancient, medieval and modern resources.
Historical knowledge is an indirect knowledge. It is derived by inference
from the facts as revealed through the records of the past ages. These
records are in different forms such as documents and artifacts.
Check your Progress:
1) Describe the nature of sources of History.
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5.3 PRIMARY LITERARY SOURCES Primary sources are the pieces of evidence that historians use to learn
about people, events, and everyday life in the past. Just like detectives,
historians look at clues, through evidence, and reach conclusions. Diaries,
letters, certificates of birth, death, or marriage, deeds, contracts,
constitutions, laws, court records, tax records, census record s, wills,
inventories, treaties, report cards, medical records, passenger lists, munotes.in

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60 passports, visas, naturalization papers, and military enlistment or
discharge papers can be considered as primary sources.
Letters :
A form of correspondence between people with a first-hand account of
events, feelings, or stories. Letters are often personal in nature, but they
can also be more formal. The officials and unofficial letters are important
sources to get knowledge of contemporary events.
Memoirs :
Baburnama is the na me given to the memoirs of Babar, founder of the
Mughal Empire. It reflect s the nature and personality of Babaur. Tuzuk -e-
Jahangiri or Tuzuk -i-Jahangiri is the auto biography of Mughal Emperor
Jahangir (1569 -1627). Also referred to as Jahangirnama, Tuzk -e-Jahangiri
is written in Persian, and follows the tradition of his great -grandfather.
Mahatma Gandhi’s ‘My Experiments with truth’ reveals the important
events in his life and the formation of Gandhi’s character from childhood.
Court Writings:
The Ain-i-Akbari by Abul Fazal contains regulations in all departments on
all subjects and include besides some extraneous matter. It is a valuable
and minute statistical account of his empire with historical and other notes.
It gives details of Mughal administration and state policies. It covers every
aspect of the history of the time. The third volume tells us about the
ancestry and the biography of Abul Fazal.
Adnyapatra issued on November 21, 1716, by Sambhaji Raje of Kolhapur
Ramchandra Amatya is responsible for th e contents.
The importance of the work is due to Ramchandra’s knowledge of
Maratha state policy and the political events during the most important
period of Maratha History from 1672 to 1717. He had participated in
establishment of Swarajya under Shivaji M aharaj, and also under Rajaram
and Tarabai. He had also participated in the civil war between Tarabai and
Shahu.
Private Records:
Private Archives Section has in its custody a rich collection of private
papers of eminent persons who have contributed immens ely in various
fields of public life in India. These papers have been acquired mainly
through donations and gifts from individuals and institutions across the
world. They are an important source to supplement the information
contained amongst the public records. Some of the most important private
papers in archives are those of Mahatma Gandhi, Rajendra Prasad,
Dadabhai Naoroji, P.D. Tandon, Maulana Azad, Minoo Masani, Sardar
Patel, K. D. Malaviya, etc. All these private papers are accessible as per
provisio ns contained in the Public Records Rules, 1997or conditions as
laid down by the donor at the time of their donation to the National
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61 Primary Sources, Secondary Sources; Unconventional Sources Dairies:
A diary would be considered a primary source. As a historian the use of
primary sources is essen tial to building an argument that can cite these
primary sources as direct examples that can support or refute a thesis. The
diaries of the British officers compiled in ‘India during the raj: eye witness
accounts Diaries and Related Records’ held at the British Library, London,
covered good evidence on contemporary issues. They reveal the extent to
which the Mutiny shook British power in India, particularly in the north
and the centre. Providing insights into the ways in which Britain
contributed a more complex conservative system of government with a
Civil Service, Viceroy and Governors, aiming to be fair and efficient,
these source materials allow scholars to study how this process was
received and how successfully it was implemented.
Government documents:
Official records have been found relating to the history of the Turko -
Afghan and the Mughal rule in the India. These are obviously the most
valuable and reliable source materials for the said period. But due to lack
of proper upkeep and several other reas ons much of them did not reach us.
The Factory Records, as the name indicates, are records of the commercial
establishments of the East India Company in Western India from Sind in
the North to Tellicherry on the Malabar Coast. Factory also included
Commerc ial Residency, Mahi Commercial Residency, etc. Factory and
Residency Records mainly register the business transactions of the
Company, but incidentally refer to Political events in the country. A
document officially written by the government, like treaties and executive
orders, usually spelling out rules and laws. The constitution of India is one
example of a government document.
Newspaper Article:
A journalist’s written account of an event. Newspapers or magazines can
be local, regional, or national in circulation, so it’s important to keep in
mind how many readers a newspaper article may actually have reached,
and who the intended audience was for the information given in the
article . Articles written by Lokmanya Tilak in Kesri and Maratha,
Gandhiji’s arti cles in Navjeevan, Lokhitwadi’s shatapatre etc. are
important source of the events in that period. Kesri in Marathi and
Maratha in English had good readership .
Records of the Historical Families and Private Papers:
The State of Maharashtra is rich in archival material. Many historical
families have in their possession voluminous record depicting the velour
of their ancestors. Family legends imperial and royal deeds, public and
private correspondence, and state papers in possession of the descendants
of men once high in authority, law suits and law decisions, account papers
and manuscripts of every description in Persian and Modi bring to light
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62 for posterity. They are indexed or catalogu ed and made available for
research to scholars and students.
Interview:
Interview conducted with a person to find out more information about an
event or that person’s life and decisions. Interviews can be conducted one
on one, or they can be done in a pres s conference format. An interview can
be recorded and then transcribed to create a written record of the audio.
Questionnaire:
A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions
for the purpose of gathering information from respon dents. Within social
science research and practice, questionnaires are most frequently used to
collect quantitative data using many scales. Questionnaire is asset of
questions. Generally it is mailed to the respondents of collecting data. It is
employed wh en the area of study is wide and the subjects are widely
dispersed. In this method the researcher does not collect the data by
himself.
Maps and Photo Copies:
There are about 20,000 old maps relating to Bombay Presidency and other
provinces. Survey operati ons started vigorously in this Province from
1820. Copies of the maps prepared from that period to date of the districts
of Bombay Presidency, surrounding areas and of the Mumbai Island are
found in this collection. Majority of the maps have been prepared by the
Survey of India. Plans of Indian Railway Lines since the inception of Rail
ways in India have been added to this collection.
Check your Progress:
1) Explain the primary literary sources.
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5.4 PRIMARY ARCHA EOLOGICAL SOURCES Monuments:
The monuments include temples, stupas, monasteries (viharas), palaces,
forts etc. In addition to individual monuments, there are vast remains of
ancient cities. Mohenjodaro and Harappa cities produce this type of
sources. In ab sence of literary records the monuments play vital role in
history writings. The information about ancient dynasties like Kushanas
and Western Sutrapas can be gathered by excavation of the sites and
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63 Primary Sources, Secondary Sources; Unconventional Sources Besides the monuments and their remains, sculptures, paintings, pottery
and other artifacts help us in reconstructing the history and culture of
ancient India. The cave paintings of Ajanta, the animal sculptures at the
Buddhist stupas at Sanchi, Bharut etc. show scenes from the life of the
Buddha and represent the Jataka stories. The South Indian temples of the
Pallavs, Chola, Chalukya and Pandya period are full of sculptures that
help us in understanding the artistic achievements of the ancient Indian
sculpt or sand artists. Arte facts of different kinds also help us in
reconstructing the history and culture of ancient, medieval and modern
India.
Paintings:
The sultanate period, except in some regions like Gujarat and Malwa, did
not have many illustrated manuscripts. The Persian practice of miniature
painting was also first introduced by these regional rulers. It was during
Akbar’s reign that painting was organized by an imperial establishment
which brought together Hindu and Muslim painters and artisans from
different parts of India, especially, from regions like Gujarat and Malwa
where this tradition of manuscripts and miniature paintings had developed.
Despite the objection of orthodox religious leaders, who regarded painting
as un -Islamic, the Mughal e mperors patronized this art. The painters,
besides depicting usual scenes like war, hunting, and other public
activities, also started specializing in portrait paintings. A similar style of
painting developed in Rajasthan using Hindu mythological themes.
Coins:
The legends and effigies on the coins help the historian to reconstruct the
religious history of the period. The gradual Indianization of the foreign
invaders such as the Sakas, Pahlavas and Kushanas can be understood
from their coins. These foreig n invaders embraced Indian religions, either
Hinduism or Buddhism and also adopted Indian names. The coins provide
us lot of information about republican and monarchical government in
ancient India. Most of the ancient states had issued coins. The coins had
legend engraved on it.
 The legend on coins helps historian to reconstruct the religious history
of the period.
 The coins of Gupta period, especially those of Samudra gupta and
Kumargupta throw light are the history of the period. Their study
brings to l ight the knowledge of metals in those days the development
of art of carving on coins along with leg ends engeaned are ve ry
important to understand the History of the period.
Inscriptions:
The archaeological sources played an important role in constructin g or
reconstructing the history of a region. The archaeological source improved
our awareness about our past and also provided important materials, which
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64 are the important branches of the study of history, which has greatly
enhanced the understanding of India's past. For the reconstruction of the
political history of ancient India inscriptions are of great value. These
inscriptions being engraved on stones or metals are authentic as they a re
free from tampering. The inscriptions contain various subjects. They
include religious matters, decrees of rulers, records of conquests, sale or
gift of land by various rulers to individuals or religious institutions,
description of achievements etc. The best example of inscription is the
Allahabad Pillar inscription or Allahabad Prashasti written by
Samudragupta’s court poet Harisena, so it is an authentic source of
Ancient Indian History.
Archival records:
Mumbai Archives has a collection of good number of printed records in
the form of volumes and books. The old publications consist of Printed
Abstracts of Proceedings, Government Gazettes, Reports of various
Department s, Offices, Commissions and Committees, Acts, Rules and
Orders issued by the Government, Civil Lists and numerous Government
Publications published from time to time. Three copies of each State
Government publication are sent to Mumbai Archives for preservation. A
part from the vast bulk of Public Records and Private Papers, t he National
Archives has a rich and ever growing collection of Library. This has some
of the oldest and rare publications on a variety of subjects, besides
contemporary published material.
Check your Progress:
1) Discuss on primary archaeological sources.
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5.5 SECONDARY LITERARY SOURCES The literary sources for the study of ancient Indian history and culture may
be divided into two major categories. The literary sources to reconstruct
Ancient Indian history can be classified between two broad categories :
1) The Religious literature and 2) Secular Literature.
Genealogical tree:
In the medieval period, there was tradition of preparing a genealogical tree
of the families of eminent persons. Such genealogical trees refer to the
acts of bravery, military expeditions or other achievements of the different
members of the family. Such information is generally based on official
records and hence is useful as sources of history.
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65 Primary Sources, Secondary Sources; Unconventional Sources Powade and poem s:
The powadas are a kind of b allad written in an exciting style and narrate
historical events in an inspiring manner. The composers and singers of the
powadas are known as Shahirs. The early powadas are mostly composed
by the eyewitnesses of the great events celebrated in these ballad s. The
earliest notable powada was the Afzal Khanacha Vadh (The Killing of
Afzal Khan) (1659) by Agnidas, which recorded Shivaji's encounter with
Afzal Khan. The next notable powada was the Tanaji Malusare by
Tulsidas, which gave an account of the capture of Sinhagad fort by Tanaji.
Biography:
Certain writers in ancient Indian adopted the lives of their royal patrons as
the theme of their literary works. This category of secular literature
include Buddhacharita written by Asvaghosa, which gives an account o f
the life and teachings of Gautama Buddha. Banabhatta, the great master of
the Sanskrit prose wrote the Harshacharita. In the Sultanate period Firoz
Shah Tughluq wrote his biographies called Fatuhat -i-Firoz Sahi. Sultan
Mahmud and Timur had their own biog raphies. And Chand Bardoi
became famous for his lyrical balard called ‘Prithviraj Raso’. The most
important memories and biographies of the Mughal India are the memoirs
of Babar and Jahangir and biographical sketch of Humayun by Gulbadan
Begum.
Descriptive Writings:
Tarikh -i-Hindby Al-Beruni :
Al-Beruni, came to India and took up service under Mahmud of Ghazni.
He was well acquainted in Arabic, Persian and had a great intellectual in
Medicine, Logic, Mathematics, Philosophy, Theology and Religion.
During his stay in India he learnt Sanskrit and studied Hindu religion and
philosophy. He even translated two Sanskrit works into Arabic. His most
important literary work being Tarikh -ul-Hind written in masterly Arabic
with great accuracy and scholarly presentation, gives us an account of the
literature, science and religion of the Hindus of the 11thcentury. The book
gives us an account of India at the time of Mahmud of Gazni’s invasion of
India.
Other Writings :
There are lot of writings about the Sultanate and Mugha l period. "Tabaqat -
i-Nasiri" of Minhaj -us-Siraj is an important contemporary source giving
firsthand account of the conquests of Muhammad Ghori and the history of
the Turkish kingdom in India up to 1260 Minjah -us-Siraj was the chief
qazi at Delhi under Sul tan Nasir -ud-din Mahmud. "Tarikh -i-Alaior
Khazain -ul-Futuh" by Amir Khusrav written in Persian. He enjoyed the
patronage of several Sultans of Delhi such as Kaiqubad, Jalal -ud-din
Khilji. Ala -ud-din Khilji. Qutub -ud-din Mubarak Shah Khilji and Ghiyas -
ud-din Tughlaq. Amir Khusrav was a prolific writer of prose and poetry.
He was the poet laureate in 1290 The Khazain -ul-Futuh also known as the munotes.in

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66 Tarikh -i-Alai is a court history of the first sixteen years of the reign of
Ala-ud-din Khilji. It gives details of th e Deccan campaigns of Malik Kafur
hut does not mention the murder of Jalal -ud-din or the defeats of the
Sultan by the Mongols. Amir Khusrav has several other works to his
credit. This include the "Miftah -ul-Futuh" written in 1291 describes the
military campaigns of Jalal-ud-dinKhilji, the Tughlaqnama traces the
course of events leading to the accession of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.
Tarikh -i-Firozshahi was written by Ziauuddin Barani. The Tarikh -i-
Firozshahi was written about 1358. It gives us information about th e
Sultans of Delhi from Balban to Muhammad -bin Tughlaq and the first six
years of the reign of Firoz Shah. He was not very accurate about dates. He
has also not described the events in their chronological order. Fatawah -i-
Jahandari by Zia -ud-din Barani was composed in the early 14th century.
Barani wrote his views on government policies and the ideal code of
conduct which a Muslim king should follow.
Tarikh -i-Firoz Shahiby Shams -i-Siraj Afif was probably composed in the
first decade of the fifteenth century . The author was a favourite of Sultan
Firozshah. He has described the history of the long reign of the Sultan. He
has also written about the culture of this period.
His account is of great significance for the history of Sultan FirozTughlaq.
The Muntakhab -ut-Tawarikh or Tarikh -i-Badauni was written by Abdul
Qadir Badauni. The first volume is about the rule of Babur and Humayun.
Muntakhab -ul-Lubab was written by Muhammad Hashim alias Khafi
Khan. As there was a ban on the writing of history Khafi Khan wrote it
secretly. It is a complete history of the Mughals beginning with the reign
of Babur upto 1733. He has dealt with all aspects of Aurangzeb's reign,
including the aftermath of his illiberal policies.
Periodicals and newspapers :
The contemporary periodical s and newspapers give us various kinds of
information about socio political condition. Bombay Chronicle (1825 to
1959), Bombay Courier (1797 to 1846), Bombay Telegraph and Courier
(1847 to 1861), BombayTimes (1838 to 1859), Bombay Gazette (1809 to
1914), Bombay Darpan (Marathi) (1832and1834), Marattha (1913 to
1925), Poona Observer(1852 -53,1861 -62,1876 -1915), Kesari (Marathi)
(1900 to 1931, 1962 to 1973), Navjivan (1919 to 1932), Young India
(1915 to 1932), Indian Express (1955 to Dec. 2008), Blitz (1957 to 1964),
Financial Express (1961 to 1964), London times, Times of India (1861up -
to-date), Maharashtra Times (Marathi) (1962 up-to-date), Loksatta
(Marathi) (1960 to Dec. 2008), Sakal (Marathi) (1965 to 1968) and many
others contemporary periodicals like Asi atic Journal Asiatic Journal New
Series, Bengal Obituary (Calcutta, 1848) A compilation of tablets and
monumental inscriptions from various parts of the Bengal and Agra
Presidencies. Also includes biographical sketches and memoirs of eminent
persons in Bri tish India from the early 18th century to 1848.
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67 Primary Sources, Secondary Sources; Unconventional Sources Census Report s:
The Census Reports (1871onwards) are a valuable and basic source on
demographic studies and contain data about the population, castes, tribes,
occupation etc. for the use of scholars and other users.
5.6 ORALSOURCES Oral histories are the collections of accounts, and interpretations of the
past in their own words. They are a record of an individual’s direct
feelings and opinions about the events in which he or she was involved.
The oral histor ies provide information about significant events that may
otherwise lack documentation in written or archival records. Oral histories
are obtained through interviews and are preserved on audio and video
recordings, in films, and in written transcripts. Stu dy oral histories as
primary sources and recognize the advantages they have as source
materials. Many times, oral histories record the experiences of individuals
who were not able, or who lacked the time, to leave written accounts. The
interviewer’s questi ons often create spontaneity and candor that might not
be present in a personally written account. Moreover, in are corded inter
view, the informant’s voice may reveal unique speech characteristics and
tone that could not be captured in other sources. Oral history presents
challenges in its analysis. Memory is fallible. There liability of the
informant’s information may be in question. The informants may be
reluctant to discuss certain topics, resulting in an inaccurate or an
incomplete record. As with all sources, oral histories must be evaluated
along with other documentation to determine whether they present
information that is exceptional or conforms to previously established.
Check your Progress:
1) Give an account of oral sources of History.
5.7 UNCONVENTIONAL SOURCES Digitization has made it possible for libraries, archives, historical
societies, museums and individuals to easily share their collections with
the world. Researchers today have unprecedented access to images of
primary source ma terials with descriptive metadata that, in the pre -digital
age, were available only to those who could visit a collection in person.
1) Internet archives :
Web archiving provides social scientists and digital humanities researchers
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68 phenomena. One of the most notable efforts to record the history of the
WorldWide Webis the Internet Archive (IA) project, which maintains the
largest repository of archived data in the world. Understanding the qu ality
of archived data and the completeness of each record of a single website is
a central issue for scholarly research, and yet there is no standard record of
the provenance of digital archives. Indeed, although present day records
tend to be quite accur ate, archived Web content deteriorates as one moves
back in time. The Web Archives for Historical Research (WAHR) group
has the goal of linking history and big data to give historians the tools
required to find and interpret digital sources from web archiv es. Our
research focuses on both web histories writing about the recent past as
reflected in web archives as well as methodological approaches to
understanding these repositories.
2) Word Cat :
Find items from 10,000 libraries worldwide, with books, DVDs, CDs, and
articles up for grabs. You can even find your closest library with World
Cat’s tools.
3) GoogleBooks :
GoogleBooks (previously known as Google Book Search and Google
Print and by its codename Project Ocean is a service from Google
In. those searches the full text of books and magazines that Google has
scanned, converted to text using optical character recognition (OCR), and
stored in its digital database. Books are provided either by publishers and
authors, through the Google Books Par tner Program, o r by Google's
library partners, through the Library Project. Additionally, Google has
partnered with a number of magazine publishers to digitize their archives.
4) Ancient India –The British Museum :
The British Museum’s online o fferings are impressive. The Ancient
Civilizations websites highlights achievements of some remarkable world
civilizations and explores cross -cultural themes of human develop ment.
Explore the people, culture, beliefs, and history of a ncient India us ing
animations, 3D models and object s from The British Museum’s
collec tions.
5) Exploring Ancient World Cultures: India :
Another fine introduction to Ancient India, though some links are broken.
The most interesting features are an article entit led “The Histori cal
Context of The Bhagavad Git a and Its Relation to Indian Religious
Doctrines, and an online translation of The Bhagavad Gita. You can also
find a wholesale of images of Harrarpa.
6) Daily Life in Ancient India :
The numerous lesson plans and resources available at this popular site
have been developed by Mr. Don n and other contributors. Lessons cover:
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69 Primary Sources, Secondary Sources; Unconventional Sources Daily Life 1500 -500 BCE, Vedic Period 1500 -1000 BCE, Epics Period
1000 –500 BCE, and Age of Empires Daily Life 500 BCE -700CE.
Audio visual sources :
Audio record includes the speeches of great personalities photographs,
film, video, paintings, drawings, cartoons, prints, designs, and three -
dimensional art such as sculpture and architecture and can be categorized
as fine art or documentary record. Some visual resources are one-of-a-
kind, while others are reproduced (like prints or illustrations in books and
magazines).
Films :
Towards the experimental film, which portrays social reality in a departure
from narrative history, w e can easily adopt a favourable attitude. For
instance, films highlighting systemic exploitation, the underworld, wage
slavery, the emotional trauma of women or problems of migrant workers
and the unemployed need not fictionalize history - that is the stuf f history
is made of in any case. They are necessary to draw our attention to many
emotions which written history either ignores or cannot express. A film
like Shyam Benegal's 'Ankur', for example, is at once historical in its focus
on rural feudalism in a region of south India and socio -cultural in its
presentation. The same is true of Govind Nihalani's 'Aakrosh' which under
scores the exploitation of tribal by India's ruling elite and the iragents.
Check your Progress:
1) Describe the Unconventional sourc es.
5.8 SUMMARY All the material directly reflecting the historical process and providing an
opportunity for studying the past of human society is known as source of
history. Historical sources thus comprise everything created a tan earlier
date by human society and available to us in the form of objects of
material culture or written documents that permit evaluation of the
manners, customs, and language of peoples. Written historical sources,
including handwritten documents (on rock, birch bark, parchment, paper)
and the printed documents of more recent periods, constitute the largest
group. These written sources differ in origin (archives of the state,
patrimonial estates, factories, institutions, and families), in content, and in
purpose (for e xample, statistical economic materials, juridical documents,
administrative records, legislation, diplomatic and military papers,
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70 5.9 QUESTIONS 1) Describe the natures and types of the historica l sources.
2) What are the types of the historical sources? Explain its nature.
3) Discuss the importance of Secondary Literary sources
4) Explain the primary sources for the historical research.
5) Explain the Unconventional sources.
5.10 REFERENCES  Ali B. Sheik, History: Its Theory and Method, Macmillan India
Limited, Madras, 1978.
 CarrE.H.,WhatisHistory,PenguinBooks,London,1961.
 Colling wood R. G., Idea of History, Oxford Paper backs, Oxford
University Press, London, 1966.
 Dilthey W.(ed.), Meaning in History, H. P. Rickman, London, 1961.
 Elton G. R., Practice of History, London,1975.
 Finberg H.P.A.(Ed), ApproachestoHistory,London,1962.
 Garranghan G. H., Guideto Historical Method,1971.
 Gottschalk Louis, Understanding History, NewYork,1956.
 Renier G.J., History its purpose and Method,London,1961.
 LalI., Research in History, Swastik Publishers & Distributors, Delhi,
2008.
 Rajayyan K., History in Theory and Method, Madurai, 1976.
 Webster John C.B., An Introduction to History. New Delhi, 1981.
 Anirudh Deshpa nde, Films as Historical Sources or Alternative
History, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 39, No. 40 (Oct. 2 -
8,2004),Published by: Economic and Political Weekly.
 Garraghan G. S., A Guide to Historical Method, New York, Fordham
University Press 1996. 2) Gottstack, L., Understanding History, New
York, Alfred A. Knof1951.
 McMillan J. H. and Schumander S. Research in Education: A
Conceptual Introduction Boston MA: Little Brown and Company
1984.
 Shafer R. J., A Guide to Historical Method, Ilion’s : the Dorsey
Press,1974.
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71 6
CITATON METHODS AND
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Unit structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Importance of Citation and Referencing
6.3 Citation Methods
6.4 Bibliography
6.5 Care to be taken while giving a bibliography
6.6 Summary
6.7 Questions
6.8 References
6.0 OBJECTIVES After the completion of this unit the student will be able to :
 Understand the rational and various methods of citations
 Explain the importance of referencing and various types of it
 Gasp the importance and care to be taken in bi bliography
 Understand the contribution of technical aids in history
6.1 INTRODUCTION A citation is a way of giving credit to individuals for their creative and
intellectual works that you utilized to support your research. It can also be
used to locate p articular sources and combat plagiarism. Footnotes appear
at the bottom of the page and endnotes come at the end of the document. A
number or symbol matches on the footnote or endnote with a reference
mark in the document. Click the location where you want to go in the
context of the footnote or endnote. At the end of the research project, a list
of all the books useful in the research is given. It's called bibliography.
6.2 IMPORTANCE OF CITATION AND REFERENCING IN FOOTNOTES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY The following s are valid reasons why a student or researcher must
refer to, quote and cite sources in his or her research writing:
1) It is an evidence that research is based on facts. Citations to sources
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72 Sources in Historical Research
72 effective strategies for locating authoritative, relevant sources about a
topic is to review footnotes or references from known sources.
2) It shows the theoretical foundation of the research and, therefore,
you are reporting your research from an informed and critically
engaged perspective. The list of sources used increases your
credibility as the author of the work. If you disagree with a
researcher's ideas or you believe there is a gap in understanding
the research problem, your citatio ns can serve as sources from
which to argue an alternative viewpoint or the need to pursue a
different course of action.
3) It justifies the reliability of the research findings and conclusion .
Properly citing sources prevents your reputation from being
tarnished if the facts or ideas of those cited are proven to be
inaccurate or off -base. It prevents readers from concluding that
you ignored or dismissed the findings of others, even if they are
disputed.
4) It allows interested readers to track and follow the cited works for the
continuance of knowledge. In academic and the professional world,
failure to cite other people's intellectual property ruins careers and
reputations and can result in legal action. Citing sources as a student
in college will help y ou get in the habit of acknowledging and
properly citing the work of others.
6.3 CITATION METHODS Academic faculties require different referencing method. This is also the
case with scientific Journals and other professional publications. The
student or researcher should first determine the requirement of his or her
department, faculty or professional body. Ostentatiously, and in the ambit
of this chapter, some of the academic departments or disciplines and the
referencing method they usually subscribe to are presented in the table
below. Sr. Methods Disciplines 1 Harvard Method All Language Studies, History, Arts, and Literary studies, Theology, Sociology, Criminology, etc. 2 APA Method Social and behavioral sciences such as Education Library and Information Science, management Sciences, Nursing, other behavioural and Social Science disciplines. 3 MLA Method Linguistics and Literary Subjects

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73 Citaton Methods and Bibliography APA (American Psychological Association) method examples:
Following are the examples of some references in the form of footnote or
endnote.
An article in a print journal: Ernest Renan (1994), ‘Qu’est -cequ’une
nation?’ from Oxford Readers Nationalism, edited by John Hutchinson
and Anthony D. Smith, Oxford University Press, New York,
A book -Gail Omvedt (1976), Cultural Revolt In Colonial Society: The
Non Brahmin Movement In Western India 1873 to 1930, scientific
Socialist Education Trust, Bombay.
MLA (Modern Language Association) style is used by the
Humanities:
Book in print: Omvedt, Gail. Cultural Revolt In C olonial Society: The
Non Brahmin Movement In Western India 1873 to 1930, scientific
Socialist Education Trust, Bombay, 1976.
An article in a print journal: Renan , Ernest . ‘Qu’est-cequ’une nation?’
from Oxford Readers Nationalism, edited by John Hutchinson and
Anthony D. Smith, Oxford University Press, New York, 1994.
6.3.1 Citation Methods in the written Text:
There are four means according to which a student or research er can cite a
source or reference during scientific writing.
1) Referencing to the S ources: This is done by placing the citation in
brackets in the text at the precise place where the event occurs.
2) Content Referencing: Content referencing is used within the text to
provide additional explanation or discussion. The content referencing
is used to
1. Acquaint the reader to other sources that can offer more
information on a specific topic
2. Elucidate information in the text, for example by providing more
information on people or places, explain foreign words, etc.
3. Make available extra information that, although important, cannot
be included in the text without disrupting its flow
4. Expand on a standpoint
6.3.2 Methods of notes:
Endnotes and footnotes:
Endnotes appear on a separate page at the end of the research
project. They are indicated in the text by means of superscript
(raised Arabic numerals). Endnotes are more cumbersome than footnotes
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74 Sources in Historical Research
74 Advantages of Using Endnotes:
1) Endnotes are less distracting to the reader and allow the narrative to
flow better.
2) Endnotes don't clutter up the page.
3) As a separate section of a research paper, endnotes allow the reader to
read and contemplate all the notes at once.
Footnotes appear at the bottom of a page and are separated from the last
line of text by additional space or a line, or a smaller font. They are also
indicated in the text through superscript, which are preferably placed at the
end of the sentence and usually after the punctuate Essential Components
of Every Reference Generally, references to all kinds of information
sources have to contain some essential components (bibliographic
records). The essence is to give all the information as completely as
possi ble to allow the reader to trace the correct sources.
6.3.3 Advantages of Using Footnotes:
1) Readers interested in identifying the source or note can quickly glance
down the page to find what they are looking for.
2) It allows the reader to immediate ly link the footnote to the subject of
the text without having to take the time to find the note at the back of
the paper.
3) Footnotes are automatically included when printing off specific pages.
Things to keep in mind when considering using either endn otes or
footnotes in your research paper:
1) Footnotes are numbered consecutively throughout a research paper,
except for those notes accompanying special material (e.g., figures,
tables, charts, etc.) Arabic numbers typed slightly above the line of
text. Do not include periods, parentheses, or slashes. They can follow
all punctuation marks except dashes. In general, to avoid interrupting
the continuity of the text, footnote numbers are placed at the end of
the sentence, clause, or phrase containing the q uoted or paraphrased
material.
2) Depending on the writing style used in your class, endnotes may take
the place of a list of resources cited in your paper or they may
represent non -bibliographic items, such as comments or observations,
followed by a sep arate list of references to the sources you cited and
arranged alphabetically by the author's last name. If you are unsure
about how to use endnotes, consult with your professor.
3) In general, the use of footnotes in most academic writing is now
conside red a bit outdated and has been replaced by endnotes, which
are much easier to place in your paper, even with the advent of word
processing programs. However, some disciplines, such as law and munotes.in

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75 Citaton Methods and Bibliography history, still predominantly utilize footnotes. Consult with yo ur
professor about which form to use and always remember that,
whichever style of citation you choose, apply it consistently
throughout your paper.
6.3.4 Abbreviation in footnote and endnotes:
There are two main types of information sources: print and non -print
sources. The first time any book or article is mentioned in a footnote, all
the information requested above must be provided. After that, however,
there are shortcuts that should be used.
If there several quotations in sequence from the same book, the
abbreviation to be used is Ibid. a Latin word meaning "in the same place."
(Notice that Ibid. is not underlined). Ibid. can be used by itself, if you are
referring to the same page as the previous footnote does, or it can be
combined with a page numb er or numbers.
Print Sources:
The components that constitute each reference entry for print sources
include:
1) Author or Authors
2) The date of publication
3) Title of the book
4) Edition
5) Place of publication
6) Publisher
7) Volume, number and/or page numbers
Non-print Sources (electronic materials):
To accurately cite and reference electronic sources of information,
the following basic information (which must appear in every likely
credible electronic material) must be clearly visible where available
1) Name of the Author or Editor (If provided in source)
2) Title of the page or article
3) Title of the web page.
4) Type of medium (for example electronic journal, online)
5) Date on which the website was updated or the copyright date
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76 Sources in Historical Research
76 6.4 BIBLIOGRAPHY A bibliography is a listing of all the sources used when researching a
paper. Generally speaking, a bibliography is a list of books on a particu lar
topic or subject prepared for the reference of a particular library user. You
may include texts that you have not referred to directly in your work, but
which have had an influence on your ideas. If you find you have a lot of
works that are not referre d to directly though, you may wish to look back
over your work and check that all of the ideas are fully referenced. In most
cases, a bibliography is a single alphabetically -ordered list of all the
sources used, regardless of format. So books, journal arti cles and websites
would all be listed together. This list appears in a separate section at the
end of the paper and includes such information as the author(s), title,
editor, and date of publication.
6.4.1 Rational of Bibliographies:
The need of bibliogr aphy is to organize information about materials on a
given subject so that students of the subject may have access to it. A
descriptive bibliography may take the form of information about a
particular author's works or about works on a given subject or on a
particular nation or period. Critical bibliography, which emerged in the
early 20th century, involves meticulous descriptions of the physical
features of books, including the paper, binding, printing, typography, and
production processes used, to help es tablish such facts as printing dates
and authenticity. Thus a bibliography is a list of books or articles related
by way of authorship or subject, and sometimes annotated. Large
bibliographies may be published as books in their own right. One of the
purpos es of a bibliographic entry is to give credit to other authors whose
work one has consulted in research. Another objective of a bibliography is
to make it easy for a reader to find the source which has been used.
Bibliography is an important source of info rmation for a research scholar.
It serves as a ready reference and directs him or her towards the right kind
of material which helps in research and studies. Bibliography helps in
organizing research material properly and saves the time of user.
Preparing a bibliography is a specialized job and requires some knowledge
and understanding of the subject.
6.5 CARE TO BE TAKEN WHILE GIVING A BIBLIOGRAPHY 1) Primary and secondary sources should be listed in separate sections.
Each section should be labelled "Pr imary Sources" or "Secondary
Sources." Journal articles and encyclopaedia articles should be listed
with secondary sources.
2) Entries are placed in alphabetical order under each author’s last name.
Because ancient and medieval authors usually do not hav e a last
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77 Citaton Methods and Bibliography 3) Each entry should be single -spaced within the entry. It should be
separated from the next entry by a blank line. Information within in
each citation is separated by periods.
4) The first line of each entry should begin at the left margin. Each
subsequent line should be indented spaces from the left margin.
5) When listing more than one item by the same author, it is not
necessary to write the author’s name twice so long as the aut hor’s
name has been printed in exactly the same way for each work (which
is not always the case). For each subsequent reference in the
bibliography, type five dashes and a period to begin the entry. Some
of the examples of bibliography mentioned below.
6.5.1 Primary sources:
Primary sources are the pieces of evidence that historians use to learn
about people, events, and everyday life in the past. Just like detectives,
historians look at clues, through evidence, and reach conclusions. Diaries,
letters, certificates of birth, death, or marriage, deeds, contracts,
constitutions, laws, court records, tax records, census records, wills,
inventories, treaties, report cards, medical records, passenger lists,
passports, visas, naturalization papers, and military en listment or
discharge papers can be considered as primary sources.
 Letters
 Memoirs
 Court Writings
 Private Records
 Government documents
 Newspaper Article
 Records of the Historical Families and Private Papers
 Interview
 Questionnaire
 Maps and Photo Copies
I. Files from Maharashtra State Archives, Mumbai:
 Educational Department Files of Government of Bombay.
 E. D. Vol. No. 1, Compilation - 35, 1825.
 E. D. Vol. No. 2, 1826.
 E. D. Vol. No. 3, 1827.
 Home Department Files of Government of Bombay. munotes.in

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78 Sources in Historical Research
78  H. D. (Spl.) File No 575, 1922.
 H. D. (Spl.) File No 363 (5), 1928.
 General Department Files of Government of Bombay.
 G. D. Vol. No. 3/809, 1844.
 G. D. Vol. No. 4/810, 1844.
II. Official Publications:
Report of The Director Public Instruction, 1857 -1858, Bombay, Published
in 1859.
Selections from the records of The Bombay Government No. CXXXII,
New Series, Poona, 1873.
IV. Newspapers And Periodicals:
 Nibandhmala (Marathi) (1974 to 1978)
 Deenbandhu (Marathi)(1877 to 1879)
 Dinmitra(Marathi) ( 1888)
 Subodh Patrika (Marathi) ( 1867 to 1868)
6.5.2 Secondary Sources:
I. Books:
 Agarkar Gopal Ganesh, NivdakLekhvaDongaritilTurungatil Amache
101 Divas(in Marathi),SamanvayPrakashan, Kolhapur, 2012.
 Dr. Ambedkar B. R., TheBudha and His Dhamma, Oxford University
Press,
 Ayer A. J., Volta ire, Faber and Faber, London 1988.
 Bagade Umesh, MaharashtratilPrabodhan ani Vargjatiprabhutv (in
Marathi), SugavaPrakashan, Pune, 2006.
 Bagade Umesh, Maharashtra CharitraGranthmalaSanch - Mahatma
Jotirao Phule(in Marathi),Shri GandharvaVedPrakashan, Pune, 2010.
 Bayly Susan, The New Cambridge History of India: Caste, Society
and Politics in India from the Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age,
Cambridge University Press, 1999, (Indian edition 2000).
II. Journals and Periodicals:
 Critical Enquiry
 Economic and Political Weekly
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79 Citaton Methods and Bibliography Encyclopedias:
The New Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. 8, 17 and 25, (Micropedia), 15th
edition, London, 1974.
IV. Articles:
1) Bagade Umesh, ‘Mahatma Jotirao Phul yanche Dharam chintan’(in
Marathi), Sanshodhan Mandal, Fourth Issue, Octobe r-December
1993, Dhule.
2) Bhagwat Vidyut, ‘A Review of the Women’s Movement in
Maharashtra’, Paramarsh, May 1989.
6.5.3 Internet Sources:
1) Steven Kreis, The History Guide: Lectures on Ancient and Medieval
European I, www.historyguide.org/ancient/lecture8b.html/ Date -
9/09/2013, 09.30 am.
2) Dr. C. George Boeree, The Ancient Greeks, part one: The Pre -
Socratics, webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/greeks.html, date -
13/09/2013,02.02pm.
3)
http://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/epgpdata/upload s/epgp_content/library_and
_information_science/social_science_information_systems/09.referen
ce_sources____bibliographies,_indexes_and__abstracts/et/2158_et_m
9.pdf
6.5.4 Other component of Bibliography:
Abbreviations:
An abbreviation (from Latin brev is, meaning short) is a shortened form of
a word or phrase. It consists of a group of letters taken from the word or
phrase. For example, the word abbreviation can itself be represented by
the abbreviation.
Some examples of abbreviations :
art. - article
cat. - catalogue
cf. - compare
ed. - edited by, editor
edn - edition
e.g. - for example
etc. - and so forth, and so on
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80 Sources in Historical Research
80 i.e. - that is
ISBN - Inter National Standard Book Number
n.d - no date of publication
n.p - no place of publication
op. cit - in the work cited, such as a publication referred to earlier, but
not in the immediately preceding footnote.
p. - page
pp - pages
trans - translated by, translator
viz - that is to say, namely
vol - volume
6.5.5 Appendices:
An appendix or appendices (more than one item) is information that is not
essential to be mentioned findings in the essay or report that you have
written. Appendices are used when the incorporation of material in the
body of th e work would make it poorly structured or too long and detailed.
Along with above mentioned component there are many other things
related with research that can be a part of Bibliography such as charts,
tables, maps, glossary, photos etc. used widely for t eaching learners of all
ages. For adult learning focused on employability and experiential
learning programs, technical aids are essential.
6.6 SUMMARY Academic institutions and scientific publications demand references for all
sources used in the course of writing. Bibliographies can organize
citations in a helpful manner and make it possible to find relevant
information quickly. The best bibliographies provide subject grouping to
give some indication of the schema of the discipline with a keyword index
for quick access. The need of bibliography is to organize information
about materials on a given subject so that students of the subject may have
access to it.
6.7 QUESTIONS 1) Explain the importance of citation with its various methods.
2) Describe th e referencing methods and care to be taken while
referencing the source.
3) What are the components of bibliography?
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81 Citaton Methods and Bibliography 6.8 REFERENCES  Wilkinson and Bhandenkar : Methodology and Techniques of Social
Research, Himalaya Publishing House, Mumbai 1977.
 Kumar Ranjit, Research Methodology Ed.2, Pearson Education, 2006.
 B. Sheik Ali, History: Its Theory and Methods, Macmillan pub. Delhi,
1978.
 Goode and Hatt, Methods in Social Research, Mc Graw Hill Book
Company, 1981
 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/292869655_BIBLIOGRAP
HIC_CITATION_AND_REFERENCING_METHOD



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82 7
MARX AND GRAMSCI
Unit Structure
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.3 Karl Marx
7.4 Marxist Conceptual Legacy
7.6 Gramsci
7.7 Subaltern School of History: Legacy of Gramsci
7.8 Subaltern historiography
7.9 Summary
7.10 Questions
7.11 References
7.0 OBJECTIVES After going through this unit the student wil l be able to :
 Understand the Marxist approach towards history
 Examine the tenets and nature of subaltern approach in history
 Enumerate contribution of Karl Marx and Gramsci in hi storical
understanding and writing.
7.1 INTRODUCTION The Marxist school of Indian historiography made conscious efforts to
bring about change in history writing from narrative and descriptive to
explanatory and interpretative. Marxism offered a materialis tic
explanation of the changes in society. Marx traced the impact of economy
on social and political life. The subaltern historical school is a recent
development in historical writings. The founder of this historical approach
was Italian communist philoso pher Antonio Gramsci. He was active
Marxist leader yet he did not accept Marxist approach towards history
writing completely. He added new dimension to the history writing. His
philosophical approach in history writing is known as subaltern approach.
Both, Marx and Gramsci paved a way for new historical thinking.
7.3 KARL MARX Karl Marx, the radical German socialist put forward a theory of scientific
socialism, with his friend Fredrick Engels, that often came to be known as
Marxism or communism. Karl was radical socialist leader. He had to live
in poverty and in exile due to his radical thought. He sought refugee in
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83 Marx and Gramsci 1858. He had developed lifelong friendship with Fredrick Engels. In 1848
he published communist manifesto that became main basic framework of
formulation of Marxism. In London he founded the international working
Mens Association. In 1857 he published his famous work Das Capital that
became the solid foundation of upcomin g Marxist ideological movement.
The remaining volume of this book were published by Engels after the
death of Marx. This book left an incalculable impact on the minds of
modern social and political thinkers in the world. Most of the socialist and
communist ideology of modern times derived great deal of influence from
this book. He adopted Hegel’s dialectic material to his own materialistic
position to produce the theory of the Dialectical materialism. His theory
propagated that the hitherto existing society is the history of class struggle.
Marx offered economic interpretation for historical events.
7.4 MARXIST CONCEPTUAL LEGACY Marx gave a materialistic explanation of the changes in society. He
points out three important factors to understand the historica l process.
1) Economic structure of the society
2) Mode of production in material life
3) Stages of development of material power of production.
Alan Donagen and Barbara Donagan ha ve highlighted few thought s of
Marx regarding influence of materialism on historical events. According
to Marx the modes of produc tion in material life determine the general
character of the social, political and spiritual processes of life.
Class Struggle:
Marx postulates the concept that every social order based on class division
contai n the germ of its own destruction until the emergence of classless
society. The proletariat, workers would became ruling class and classes
will wither away with the pace of time. According to Marx it was the
logical outcome of class struggle. Hegelian dia lectic was used by Marx to
explain historical changes. Hegel traced ideas to nature whereas Marx
proceeded from material practice to formulation of ideas. Marx visualized
class struggle between capitalist and proletariat. The Marxist school of
Indian histo riography made conscious efforts to bring about change in
history writing from narrative and descriptive to explanatory and
interpretative. In this process of change these historians emphasized more
on large movements and not on events to prove that interp retation of fact
is history and not the mere description of events.
Class and social revolution:
Marx defined the society in the periphery of class that occurs due to its
emergence in dialectic line. In a society dialectic lines bring about tussle
betwee n the two opposite classes which eventually turns into social
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84 at the background of the English society where he argues that the capitalist
system forces people into one of the two cla ss i.e. proletariat and
bourgeoisie. He argues that proletariat (oppressed) and bourgeoisie
(oppressor) are two opposite poles of a society who always struggle with
each other for their vested interest. The ongoing struggle, especially in
extreme phase lik e in capitalist society the amount of production achieved
through the means of deprivation and exploitation of oppressed class. The
difference between the two classes will increase more and more that
means the rich becoming richer and poor becoming poorer. This will
create huge gap between the two and polarize the society. Marx says the
exploitation by the capitalist led class consciousness in which the
proletariat realized their exploited condition. The class consciousness in
the working group created revo lution.
Class and Capitalist Society:
This is another consequence of the class that is based on socio -economic
background. Marx explains class from the angle of economics without
excluding society. To him the progress in economy leads to change the
struct ure of a society where the class play important role. According to
Marx the idea of capital is not merely related to economy it is about
economy and society both. So capital is a social relation of production. In
other words the capital society in nothing but a class society. Here the
class means two fold division that comprises on one hand a class with
property and on other hand class without property who sell their labour.
Marx called them capital or bourgeoisie and proletariat or wage labour
respectively . The property of the capital consists of various means of
industrial production like land, factories, machines, mine, wealth whereas
the wage labour only possess man power and dependent on capitalist.
However the capitalist too is dependent on labour for industrial
production. Thus there is an interdependent yet antagonist relation
between both the classes. As a result a conflicting situation developed
between them in which one supports the legitimacy of the possession of
property while the other one raise the demand of equal distribution of
property or larger share in the profit.
Class and political revolution:
Political revolution is the other consequence of class struggle. Marx was
of view that in course of class struggle people tends to change the old
system through political power. Therefore, on one side the capital society
is an immediate effect of class and social revolution is reaction of the
capital society where as on the other side political revolution is the final
result of the class. In this con text the Marx idea of political revolution is
not just implies change in leadership, government but a change that
involve social stratum too. So the change in political sphere is not coming
within itself but a social structure explode in political revoluti on. In deeper
sense Marx’s theory of social revolution is used for a political revolution
that denotes to social revival through transformation of state power to a
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85 Marx and Gramsci Most of the Marx’s class concept is still applicable like the socia l change
and class conflict, social structure and social change etc. But some of the
aspects of Marx’s class theory have to be rejected. Due to change in
economic activities, organizations, labour force the class theory of Marx’s
could not fit in the prese nt socioeconomic condition. In social structure too
other segments have more share that the economic activities. The
economy is not limited to industries only. As a matter of fact the service
sector - government as well as private have got prominent place i n today’s
economy. Consequently, the social structure has rapidly changed. Even the
role of a state has changed a lot. The emergence of new middle class, its
role in society and politics has augmented. The questions pertaining to
new middle class cannot be answered satisfactorily through Marx’s class
theory.
7.6 GRAMSCI Gramsci claimed that the history of the subaltern classes was just as
complex as the history of the leading classes, although the history of the
latter is usually that which is accepted as main course of history.
According to him, the history of subaltern social groups is necessarily
fragmented and sporadic, since they are always subject to the activity of
ruling groups. Gramsci did not accept viewpoint of Marx and Lenin
completely. He spoke of relationship of human thought, and feelings. He
rejected the conventional form of intellectualism. He called proletariat
who identified themselves with masses as organic intellectuals. According
to him the workers did not need elite leaders since they could not express
the actual experience and feelings of the masses. He advocated open
Marxism to trace the unorganized and unconscious masses including
peasants and workers. Subaltern is the social group who are socially,
politically, and geographically ou tside of the hegemonic power structure
of the colony and of the colonial homeland . In describing "history told
from below", the term subaltern derived from Anton io Gramsci 's work on
cultural hegemony , which identified the social groups who are excluded
from a society's established structures for political representation, the
means by which people have a voice in their society.
Subaltern Meaning:
Subaltern, meaning ‘of inferior rank’, or subordinate. This term is coined
by Antonio Gramsci to refer to those groups in society who are subject to
the hegemony of the ruling classes. It is opposite to the elite or creamy
layer element in the society. It is a term applied for common people’s
history. Subaltern classes may include peasants, workers and other groups
denied acc ess to ‘hegemonic’ power. Since the history of the ruling classes
is realized in the history, Gramsci was interested in the historiography of
the subaltern classes. In ‘Notes on Italian history’ (1934 -35) he outlined a
six point plan for studying the histo ry of the subaltern classes which
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86 2) Their active or passive affiliation to the dominant political formations
3) The birth of new parties and dominant groups
4) The formations that the subaltern groups produce to press their claims
5) New formations within the old framework that assert the autonomy of
the subaltern classes; and
6) Other points referring to trade unions and political parties.
7.7 SUBALTERN SCHOOL OF HISTORY: LEGACY OF GRAMSCI In the preface to the inaugural issue of Subaltern Studies, published in
1982, Indian historian Ranajit Guha called for more educational work on
subaltern themes and critiques of elitist historiography. Moving beyond
the focus on South Asia, the Subaltern Studies Collec tive has influenced
the nature of research all over the world and has inspired the formation of
similar groups such as the Latin American Subaltern Studies group. These
articles prove both how subaltern studies is pursued beyond the Indian
subcontinent and how it might guide the study of representation, identity,
power, and modernization.
7.8 SUBALTERN HISTORIOGRAPHY Subaltern studies bring to light the lower section of the society hitherto
unknown or neglected by elite historiography. The term subaltern
describes the lower classes and the social groups who are at the margins of
a society - a subaltern is a person rendered without agency due to his or her
social status . In discussions of the meaning of the "subaltern" in Gramsci's
writings, Spivak and others have argued that Gramsci used the word as a
synonym for the proletariat (a code -word to deceive the pr ison censor to
allow his manuscripts out the prison), but this interpretation has been
contested, with evidence indicating that it was a novel concept in
Gramsci's political theory.
In the context of India the term subaltern stands for women from poor
background , dalits , rural, tribal, immigrant laborers, and illiterate women.
The subaltern are peoples who have been silenced in the administration of
the colonial states they constitute, they can be heard by means of their
political actions, effected in protest against the discourse of mainstream
development, and, thereby, create their own, proper forms of
modernization and devel opment.
The terms subaltern and subaltern studies entered postcolonial studies
through the works of the Subaltern Studies Group , a collection of south
Asian historians w ho explored the political -actor role of the men and
women who are the mass population rather than the political roles of the
social and economic elites in the history of south Asia. In the 1970s,
subaltern began to denote the colonized peoples of the Indian
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87 Marx and Gramsci colony, told from the point of view of the colonized man and woman,
rather than from that of the colonizers. Marxist historians already had been
investigating colonial history told f rom the perspective of the proletariat ,
using the concept of social classes based in economic relations.
As a method of intellectual discourse, the concept of the subaltern
remained a western method of historical enquiry when studying the non –
Western people of Africa, Asia, and the Middle East. From having
originated as an historical research model for studying the colonial
experience of South Asian peoples. The term "subaltern" is used in the
fields of history, anthropology, sociology, human geography, and literary
criticism. The Western intellectuals refer other, non -Western (African,
Asian, Middle Eastern) fo rms of knowing of acquiring knowledge of the
world to the margins of intellectual discourse, by reformulating said forms
of knowing as myth and as folklore.
Therefore, in order to be heard and known, the oppressed subaltern must
adopt Western ways of know ing, of thought, reasoning, and language.
Because of such Westernization , a subaltern people can never express
their ways of knowing (thought, reasoning, language) and instead must
conform expression of their non –Western knowledge of colonial life. The
subordinated man and woman can only be heard by his oppressors if he or
she speaks the language of the oppressor; thus, intellectual and cultural
filters of conformity make it di fficult to expose the true voice of the
subaltern. For example, in Colonial Latin America , the oppressed
subaltern must conform to t he colonial culture and utilize the filters of
religion and servitude, in his or her language, when addressing the Spanish
Imperial oppressor. In order to appeal to the good gr aces of their Spanish
oppressors, slaves and natives would identify their own voices with the
culture of the Spanish regime.
The term has been adapted to post colonial studies from the work of the
Subaltern Studies group of historians, who aimed to promote a systematic
discussion of subaltern themes in South Asian Studies. The group founded
by Ranajit Guha, included Shahid Amin, David Arnold, Partha Chatterjee,
David Hardiman and Gyan Pandey. They have produced five volumes of
Subaltern Studies -essays relat ing to the history, politics, economics and
sociology of sub alternity as w ell as the attitudes, thoughts and belief
systems.
The purpose of the Subaltern Studies project was to redress the inequality
created in academic work by a tendency to focus on elites and elite culture
in South Asian historiography. The goals of the group curtailed from the
belief that the historiography of Indian nationalism, for instance, had long
been dominated by elite historians. Such historiography suggested that the
development of a nationalist consciousness was an exclusive elite
achievement, either of colonial administrators, policy or culture, or of elite
Indian personalities, institutions or ideas. Guha asserts that such w riting
cannot acknowledge or interpret the contributi on made by people on their
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88 One clear demonstration of the difference between the elite and the
subaltern lies in the nature of political mobilization. The elite mobilization
was attained vertically through adaptat ion of British parliamentary
institutions , while the subaltern relied on the traditional organization of
kinship and territoriality or class associations. Popular mobilization in the
colonial period took the form of peasant uprisings and the contention is
that this remains a primary focus of political action, despite the change in
political structure. This is very different from the claims of elite
historiography that Indian nationalism was primarily an idealist project in
which the indigenous elite led the people from suppression to freedom. To
guard against essentialist views of subalterneity, Guha suggests that there
is a further distinction to be made between the subaltern and principal
indigenous groups at the regional and local levels. The task of rese arch is
to examine, classify and measure the specific nature of the degree of
deviation of the foremost indigenous groups at the local level from the
ideal the subaltern and locate it historically.
7.9 SUMMARY Subaltern term is coined by Antonio Gramsci to refer to those groups in
society who are subject to the hegemony of the ruling classes. It is
opposite to the elite or creamy layer element in the society. It is a term
applied for common pe ople’s history. Subaltern classes may include
peasants, workers and other groups denied access to ‘hegemonic’ power.
Ranajit Guha, Shahid Amin, David Arnold, Partha Chatterjee, David
Hardiman, Gyan Pandey and many other have written tried to adopt
subalter n methodology in historical writings. They have produced new
volumes of Subaltern Studies -essays relating to the history, politics,
economics and sociology of subalternity.
7.10 QUESTIONS 1) Explain the Marxist concept of class struggle.
2) What is the contribution of subaltern historian in history writings?
3) Trace the conceptual legacy of Marx and Gramsci.
7.11 REFERENCES  Marcus Green , Gramsci Cannot Speak: Presentations and
Interpretations of Gramsci' s Concept of the Subaltern , 2002,
Rethinking Marxism , volume 14, issue 3
 RanjitGuha and gyanendra Pandey, Subaltern studies: writings on
South Asian history and society, Subaltern studies : writings on South
Asian history and society, Jan 1st 1990 .
 B. Shaikh Ali, History and its Methods , Macmillan pub., 1998.
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89 8
FOUCAULT, POSTMODERNISM, POST -
STRUCTURALISM
Unit Structure
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Meaning of the Post Modernism
8.3 Michel Foucault: Post -Modernist
8.4 Criticism on postmodernism
8.5 Post-structuralism
8.6 Summary
8.7 Questions
8.8 References
8.0 OBJECTIVES After going through this unit the student wilt be able to:
 Understand the contribution if Michel Foucault in history
 Examine the tenets and nature of post -modernist approach in history
 Enumerate the post-structuralist perspective
8.1 INTRODUCTION Michel Foucault (1926 -84), Jacques Derrida (1976) and Julia Kristeva
(1974) are some the most influential figures in an intellectual movement
known as post structuralism and post modernism. Foucault became more
influential in social science streams. He exemplified distinct thinking in
the modern world from that of earlier era. In his writings on crime, the
body, madness and sexuality, Michel Foucault examined the emergence of
modern institutions such as prisons, hospitals and s chools having played
an increasing role in directing and monitoring the social elements. Jacques
Derrida was one of the most well known twentieth century post -
structuralist philosophers.
Michel Foucault:
Foucault tried to demonstrate that there was 'anothe r side' to
enlightenment ideas about individual liberty concerned with discipline and
surveillance. His unconventional and innovative ideas about the
relationship between power, ideology and discourse in relation to modern
organizational systems. The study of power that relates to how individuals
and groups achieve their end against those of others is of fundamental
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90 discussed the concept of power. Foucault continued to advocate some of
their ideas. His thinking about power and control in society is central idea
to his philosophy. He used the new terminology to refer new ways of
thinking about particular subjects that are united by common assumptions.
Foucault demonstrated a new way of discour ses changed ideas from
medieval times through to the present day. In the Middle Ages the insanity
was regarded as harmless; some believed that they might even have
possessed a special ability of perception. In modern societies, however,
'madness' has been shaped by a musicalized discourse, emphasizing illness
and treatment. This musicalized discourse is supported and perpetuated by
a highly developed and influential network of doctors, medical experts,
hospitals, professional associations and medical journa ls.
8.2 MEANING OF THE POST MODERNISM Postmodernism is a late twentieth century movement in the arts,
architecture, and criticism that was a departure from modernism.
Postmodernism professes skeptical understandings of culture, literature,
art, philosophy , history, economics, architecture, fiction, and literary
criticism. It is often associated with deconstruction and post -structuralism
because its usage as a term gained significant popularity at the same time
as twentieth -century post -structural thought. It is a reaction to modernism.
It is a cluster of philosophical, literary, intellectual and cultural movement
which developed out of disillusionment with modernism which had
dominated the society till the first half of the twentieth century.
The term postm odern was first used around by John Watkins Chapman
suggested "a Postmodern style of painting" as a way to depart from French
Impressionism in 1870. J. M. Thompson, used it to describe changes in
attitudes and beliefs in the critique of religion in 1914. A s a general
theory for a historical movement it was first used in 1939 by Arnold J.
Toynbee: "Our own Post -Modern Age has been inaugurated by the general
war of 1914 -1918". Michel Foucault (1926 —1984) gives us a great
perspective of Postmodern history. He introduced concepts such as
'discursive regime', 'episteme' and 'genealogy, in order to explain the
relationship among meaning, power, and social behavior within social
orders in his writings like The Order of Things, The Archaeology of
Knowledge, Discipli ne and Punish and The History of Sexuality.
Check your progress :
1] Explain ideas of Michel Foucault on Historical writings.
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91 Foucault, Postmodernism, Post-Structuralism 2] Explain the meaning of the Post Modernism and Post -Structuralism.
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8.3 MICHEL FOUCAULT: POST -MODERNIST Foucault is one of the originators of this postmodern approach to history,
which offers a profound challenge to the norm. Professor John Coffey, in a
biography of Foucault, provides insigh t into how Foucault’s background
influenced his views on history. One of Foucault’s major theses was that
truth and knowledge were nothing other than claims to power. For
Foucault, truth and knowledge were constructions we offer to persuade
others. They ne ed not correspond to reality, for we construct our own
reality in such a way as to give, us power over others. While the history of
humanity itself may not have a purpose, the writing of historical accounts
does. Resonating with Foucault’s approach to hist ory is the view that the
writing of history should promote an ideology. If, as Foucault declares, a
claim to knowledge really is nothing but an attempt to overpower others,
then retelling history serves the purpose of gaining power for some
repressed group .
Foucault remarks that power works in the social issues such as crime,
madness or sexuality. Expert discourses established by those with power
or authority can often be countered only by competing expert discourses
on same subjects. In such a way, discour ses can be used as a powerful tool
to restrict alternative ways of thinking or speaking while knowledge
becomes a force of control. Most of the Foucault's writings highlight the
way power and knowledge are linked to technologies of surveillance,
enforcemen t and discipline. Foucault set about the task to make sense of
the familiar by excavating the past. He energetically attacked the present
the well accepted concepts, beliefs and structures that are largely invisible
precisely because they are familiar. For example, he explored how the
notion of sexuality has not always existed, but has been created through
processes of social development. Foucault historical writing on current
beliefs and practices tries to make the present 'visible' by accessing it from
the past.
The major work of 1963 for Foucault was his follow -up to his The History
of Madness , entitled The Birth of the Clinic: An Archaeology of Medical
Perception . The Birth of the Clinic examines the emergence of modern
medicine. It follows on from the History of Madness logically enough: the
analysis of the psychiatric classification of madness as disease is followed
by an analysis on the emergence of modern medicine itself. In Discipline
and Punish he develops a notion of “power -knowledge. Foucault ske tches
a notion of power in Discipline and Punish , but his conception of power is
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92 the first volume of his History of Sexuality , with the title The Will to
Knowledge.
With this in mind, his admission in Knowledge and Power is-revealing: “I
am well aware that I have never written anything but fictions. I do not
mean to say, however, that truth is therefore absent. It seems to me that the
possibility exists for fiction to function in truth . Both Lacan and Foucault
argue that each historical period has its own knowledge system and
individuals are unavoidably entangled within these systems. Answers to
life’s questions cannot be found by appealing to some external truth, but
only to the norms and forms within each culture that phrase the question.
This rewriting of the past to serve a purpose, known as revisionist history,
contributes to empowering oppressed social minorities. Thus feminist
histories attempt to expose a male - dominated, patria rchal past and point
the way for empowering women. Likewise, homosexual histories are put
forward (in response to homophobic repressions) to provide equality for
homosexuals. Black histories emphasize the horrors of slavery to redress
past maltreatment of African Americans. Every repressed group minorities
of all colors, ethnicities, nationalities, and sexualities has an injustice that
must be exposed in order to rectify the abuses of the past.
The traditional approach to history holds that by sifting throu gh the
evidence at hand (texts, artifacts, etc.), we may arrive at a more or less
accurate understanding of past events and their significance. This means
that not all descriptions of history are equally valid. Some accounts may
be more true to the actual events than others. As new information comes to
light, any narrative of history could be revised or supplemented. However
the Postmodernists doubt that an accurate telling of the past is possible
because they there is little difference between fact and fic tion. Some even
claim that all historical accounts are fiction.
Postmodernist approach towards the history :
The postmodernist approach professes that the past events can not be
discovered completely. What historians write depends on their own
purposes and their own point of view, and there is no way of deciding
whether one representation of the past is true and another, contradictory
one, untrue. Po stmodernists like Keith Jenkins have tried to explain that
by insisting that there is a huge difference betwe en historical fact and
historical interpretation. Facts are easy to establish, it’s interpretation
that is the problem. It is a fundamental premise of postmodernist
critiques of history that a document is re -invented and re -interpreted every
time someone l ooks at it, so that it can never have any fixed meaning at
all. If this claim doesn’t mean that we can never use documen ts to find
out basic historical facts, then it doesn’t mean anything at all.
Postmodernists maintain that all knowledge is not only “kn owledge about”
particular things but also “knowledge for” particular social groups and
cultural projects. Thus, the validity of any given presentation of the past
and history is to be assessed in terms of its utility for the group for which
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93 Foucault, Postmodernism, Post-Structuralism Like Foucault, postmodernists are less interested in the past as a thing in
itself than as a means of comprehending the present. Where history offers
no insight into the present, it is condemned as mere antiquarianism. For
postmodernists, truth is a semantic rather than an epistemological issue.
Statements about the past and about their relevance for comprehending the
present have less to do with what is said than with what is meant in what is
said. Consequently, the significance of an utterance whet her about the
present or about the past cannot be separated from the context within
which it is uttered. This idea of truth opens postmodernism to charges of
relativism: cultural, moral, epistemic. Postmodernists do not deny that we
can have knowledge of t he past. It is, rather, that we must use the
imagination along with reason in the construction of that knowledge. And
by imagination they mean not merely fantasy, dream and reverie.
When it comes to the meaning of the big events of modern history the
French Revolution, capitalism, industrialism, events so important to our
own identities that we cannot confront them, there can be no definitive
answers. But of the making of interpretations, there is no end. We can only
multiply interpretations and thereby un dermine any dogmatic claims about
the past, history, and human nature thereby. Since the past is by definition
no longer open to perception, we can never be certain that any description
of it or of any of its elements is adequate to it. In this respect the past
differs from the present which, in principle, is observable. But what we
mean by the present is as much a construction of thought and imagination,
fantasy and hope or fear, as the past. Thus, caught between two abysses, a
past that is dead and a futu re that is still unborn, we must choose to live in
ambiguity, ambivalence, and despair.
Check your progress :
1] What is contribution of Foucault as Michel Foucault: Post -Modernist
and Post Structuralist?
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8.4 CRITICISM ON POSTMODERNISM Criticisms of postmodernism are intellectually diverse, including the
proclamations that postmodernism is meaningless and promote s
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94 meaningless because it adds nothing to analytical or empirical knowledge.
He asks why postmodernist intellectuals do not respond like people in
other fields when asked, "what are the principles of their theories, on what
evidence are they based, what do they explain that wasn't already obvious,
etc. Christian philosopher William Lane Craig has noted "The idea that we
live in a postmodern culture is a myth. In fact, a postmodern culture is an
impo ssibility; it would be utterly unlivable. People are not relativistic
when it comes to matters of science, engineering, and technology; rather,
they are relativistic and pluralistic in matters of religion and ethics. But, of
course, that's not postmodernis m; that's modernism."
Philosopher Daniel Dennett declared opined that according to
postmodernism there are no truths, only interpretations. Noam Chomsky
has argued that postmodernism is meaningless because it adds nothing to
analytical or empirical knowl edge. He asks why postmodernist
intellectuals do not respond like people in other fields when asked, "what
are the principles of their theories, on what evidence are they based, what
do they explain that wasn't already obvious, etc? Christian philosopher
William Lane Craig has noted that the idea of living in a postmodern
culture is a myth. In fact, a postmodern culture is an impossibility; it
would be utterly unlivable. People follow relative attitude when it comes
to matters of science, engineering, and t echnology; rather, they are
relativistic and pluralistic in matters of religion and ethics and that is
modernism and not postmodernism.
8.5 POST -STRUCTURALISM Post-structuralism is a term for a variety of philosophical and literary
theories that build upon and reject ideas established by intellectual projects
that preceded those established by structuralism. A post -structuralist
approach rejects the self -sufficiency of structuralism. According to
postmodernism, post -structuralism abandons the idea of interpreting the
world in terms of pre -established and socially constructed structures.
Structuralism asserts that human culture can be understood through the
structure underlying language. According to this, there is a picture of
reality on the one hand and a bstract ideas about reality on the other, and a
'third system' mediating between the two. A hallmark of poststructuralist
thought is the ability and tendency to categorize information into universal
truths found in poststructuralist critique. Writers whose works are often
characterized as post -structuralist include Roland Barthes, Jacques
Derrida, Michel Foucault, Gilles Deleuze, and Jean Baudrillard, although
many theorists known as "post -structuralists" reject the designation.
Post-structuralism and struc turalism :
Structuralism as an intellectual movement in France in the 1950s and
1960s studied underlying structures and used analytical concepts from
linguistics, psychology, anthropology, and other fields to interpret those
structures. The post -structurali st approach argues that in order to
understand an object one must study the knowledge system that produces
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95 Foucault, Postmodernism, Post-Structuralism structuralism sometimes become more blurred. Post -structuralism
emerged in Franc e in the 1960s as a movement critical of structuralism. In
a lecture entitled "Structure, Sign, and Play in the Discourse of the Human
Sciences" in 1966, Jacques Derrida presented a thesis on the apparent
disintegration of intellectual life. Derrida interp reted this phenomenon as
the "decentralization" of the former intellectual universe.
Jacques Derrida was one of the most well known twentieth century post -
structuralist philosophers. He was also one of the most prolific. Distancing
himself from the various philosophical movements and traditions that
preceded him on the French intellectual scene (phenomenology,
existentialism, and structuralism), he developed a strategy called
"deconstruction" in the mid 1960s. Although not purely negative,
deconstruction is primarily concerned with something tantamount to a
critique of the Western philosophical tradition. Deconstruction is generally
presented via an analysis of specific texts. It has at least two aspects:
literary and philosophical. The literary aspect conce rns the textual
interpretation, where invention is essential to finding hidden alternative
meanings in the text. The philosophical aspect concerns the main target of
deconstruction: the “metaphysics of presence,” or simply metaphysics.
Criticism :
Against post-structuralism some observers have questioned the validity of
this field. American philosopher John Searle suggested in the 1990s that
the proliferation of post -structuralist approaches to literary theory is
perhaps the most famous example of an absurd but non -catastrophic
phenomenon. Vid Foster Wallace wrote that deconstructionist is a
longstanding misconception. Post-structuralists claim that writing has no
fixed meaning, thus undermining the idea of the post -structuralist
movement with its own part icular approach.
8.6 SUMMARY It is a fundamental premise of postmodernist critiques of history that a
document is reinvented and reinterpreted every time someone looks at it,
so that it can never have any fixed meaning at all. Postmodernists do not
deny t hat we can have knowledge of the past. It is, rather, that we must use
the imagination along with reason in the construction of that knowledge.
Criticisms of postmodernism are intellectually diverse, including the
assertions that postmodernism is meaningle ss and promotes obscurantism.
The post -structuralist approach argues that in order to understand an object
one must study the knowledge system that produces that object. These
new approaches brought new dimension in historical writing. Many critics
of post -structuralism have said that it boils down to a sense of negativism
since everything is essentially meaningless and therefore lacks any reason
to exist.
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96 8.7 QUESTIONS 1) What are the tenets of postmodernism in history?
2) Trace the contribution of M ichel Foucault in postmodern history.
3) Explain Post-structural attitude in history.
8.8 REFERENCES  Michel Foucault, “Nietzsche, Genealogy, History.” In Language,
Counter -Memory, Practice: Selected Essays and Interviews, edited by
D. F. Bouchard. Ithac a: Cornell University Press, 1977
 Mats Alvesson, Postmodernism, Critical quest, Open University
press, New Delhi, 2006
 Modernism, Postmodernism and Organizational Analysis: The
contribution of Michael Focault, Organization studies, Vol 9.
 Baudrillard J., The Mirror of Production, Telos press, 1975.
 Eribon Didier, Michel Foucault, Harvard University Press, 1991
 David macey, The Lives of Michel Foucault, London, Hutchinson.


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97 9
CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY AND
INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACH
Unit Structure
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Methodology of Cultural anthropology
9.3 Interdisciplinary Approach of Cultural anthropology
9.4 Summary
9.5 Questions
9.6 References
9.0 OBJE CTIVES After going through this unit the student wilt be able to :
 Understand the meaning and scope of Cultural Anthropology .
 Grasp the Interdisciplinary Approach of Cultural anthropology .
 Enumerate the Methodology of Cultural Anthropology .
9.1 INTRODUCTION Man is a social being and lives in groups. Of all the living beings of the
world, only he is the creator of culture. The culture of each generation
develops. Culture is that part of the complex that is constructed by human
beings themselves. The cultural anthropologist studies the ways in which
human beings cope with their natural and social situation, learn rituals and
pass on them from one generation to the next. Different cultures have
many means of the same purpose. Nevertheless, in every society, the work
of life is well -planned. The static forms of tradition also change due to
internal development or external contact. The individual is born into a
particular society and adopts, behaves and influences the rituals that are
his cultural heritage. All suc h subjects come under cultural anthropology.
Definition and Origin:
Cultural anthropology is a branch of anthropology focused on the study of
cultural variation among humans. It is in contrast to social anthropology,
which perceives cultural variation as a subset of a posited anthropological
constant. The term sociocultural anthropology includes both cultural and
social anthropology traditions Anthropologists have pointed out that
through culture people can adapt to their environment in non -genetic
ways, s o people living in different environments will often have different
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98 of and interest in the tension between the local (specific cultures) and the
global (a universal human nature, or the web of connections between
people in distinct places) Cultural anthropology has a rich methodology,
including participant observation (often called fieldwork because it
requires the anthropologist spending an extended period of time at the
research lo cation), interviews, and surveys.
Anthropologist have pointed out that though culture people can adapt
according to change in environment. Consequently, people living in
different environment will have different cultures. Edward Tylor an
English anthropolo gist is regarded as the father of cultural anthropology.
His most popular writing ‘Primitive Culture ’ (1871) was influenced by
Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution.
Cultural Anthropology , a major division of anthropology that deals with
the study of culture in all of its aspects and that uses the methods,
concepts, and data of archaeology , ethnography and ethnology, folklore,
and linguistics in its descriptions and analyses of the diverse peoples of the
world. Etymologically, anthropology is the science of humans. In fact,
however, it is only one of the sciences of humans, bringing together
those disciplines the common aims of which ar e to describe human beings
and explain them on the basis of the biological and cultural characteristics
of the populations among which they are distributed and to emphasize,
through time, the differences and variations of these populations. The
concept of race, on the one hand, and that of culture , on the other, have
received special attention; and although their meaning is still subject to
debate, these terms are doubtless the most common o f those in the
anthropologist’s vocabulary.
9.2 METHODOLOGY OF CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY Participant Observation (Ethnography):
In this method, the observer himself participates in the activities of the
group in which he is studying. Because of the participat ion of the
observer, this is known as participant observation. The observer doesn't
need to identify himself with the group or actively take part in all the acts.
But he has to be physically present while the members of the group
perform their activities. Generally, participant observation is kind of
uncontrolled observation, in which the researcher may or may not reveal
his identity. This method allows observation of the individual’s behavior
in the most natural condition secondly, the researcher has acces s to a body
of information that would not have been easily obtained by an observer as
an outsider.
A researcher has the privilege of being part of the group. He gets to share
the feelings, emotions and behavior of the group. He gets to share the
feelings, emotions and behavior of the group members (subjects) and thus
records it more accurately. He is able to see not only the actions or
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99 Cultural Anthropology and Interdisciplinary Approach situation subjects act or behave in a given manner. Par ticipant observation
also allows the researcher to check the truth of statements made by the
members of the group. Participant observation though is an effective
method of data collection, it has its limitations with a greater degree of
participation, and the observer is likely to develop a close relationship
with other members of the group. This can kill investigator’s ability in the
group to the extent that he may forget to observe certain relevant aspects
of human behavior. Affiliation with the group can also make the
researcher biased or partial towards a particular subgroup, therefore,
hammering scientific accuracy. In participant observation, researcher is
forced to occupy a particular position. This limits the scope of the
observer to study the phenom enon fully moreover, if the researcher comes
to occupy and strategic position in a group, he generally ends up bringing
about changes in group dynamics, therefore hounding the purpose of data
collection.
Case Study method:
P. V. Young defines a case study as a comprehensive study of a social
unit, be it a person, a group of people, an institution, or community is
called a case study, According to Goode and Hatt, it is an approach that
views any social unit as a whole. It is a way of organizing social data so as
to preserve the unitary character of the social object being studied.” the
case study method is qualitative, inclusive, intensive, insight stimulating
and comprehensive approach. The field study is comparatively limited but
has more depth in it. It a ims at studying everything rather than something
about everything as in case of statistical method. In other words, it is study
of Micro problem at macro level. The approach to a case study research
may not be based on hypothes is or on any well -established conclusions
but the study itself may help in formulating a well -founded hypothesis for
further investigation. This research approach is therefore, an open and
objective investigation of a particular unit to develop a hypothesis in
character so the researc her has complete freedom in selecting a problem
that is considered as described and fruit bearing.
The case study is often termed as method, sometimes as technique and at
others an approach to social reality. A thorough study and careful analysis
can deri ve various generalizations which may be developed into
hypothesis. A study of relevant literature and case study are the two potent
sources of hypothesis. It helps in framing questionnaire or schedules. It
aids in sampling, by studying the individual units thoroughly. It locates
deviant cases. The deviant case is those units that behave against the
proposed hypothesis . The tendency is to ignore them but for scientific
analysis they are important. Case study method enlarges the range of
personal experience of the researcher in statistical method, generally a
narrow range of topic is selected and the researcher’s knowledge is limited
to the particular aspect only. In case of case study, the whole of range of
subjective life is studied and the range of knowled ge is naturally enlarged.
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100 Survey:
The Survey is defined as fact finding study dealing chiefly with working
class poverty and this the nature in the problem of community. Heriman N
Morse defines it as ‘a method of analysis in Scientific and orderly form for
defined purpose of a given social situation activities.’ According to Mark
Abrams, a social survey is a process by which quantitative facts are
collected about the social aspect of community composition and activities
from the above definition.
Survey describe the phenomena to a social scientists a survey may have
descriptive as a way of studying social condition, relationship and
behaviour for example survey communities. Socio economic survey
describes the living condition of people of a geographical a rea. Social
survey has intensive usage and is widely used in a number of disciplines.
In social sciences it can be used for variety of purpose availability of
nature of the source of information is the main and source of undertaking a
survey. Broadly the s ubject matter of social surveys are divided into
1) Demographic Features
2) Social conditions
3) Opinion and attitudes.
Social activities such as expenditure pattern, radio listening newspaper
reading social mobility information for example to know th e expenditure
putter of a group of family house. It requires to the survey or following
knowledge on expenditure habit say, expenditure towards family, clothing,
education, cigarettes, cinema and other. Opinion attitude service, includes
information regard ing opinion and attitudes of the people toward various
factor and the motives and the expenditure of them this information may
be necessary as the basis of nature of question that may safety be asked for
electing rich response.
9.3 INTERDISCIPLINARY APPRO ACH OF CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY Physical Anthropology and Cultural anthropology:
Thus two large disciplines - physical anthropology and cultural
anthropology - and such related disciplines as prehistory and linguistics
now cover the program that originally wa s set up for a single study of
anthropology. The two fields are largely autonomous , having their own
relations with disciplines outside anthropology; and it is unlikely that any
research ers today work simultaneously in the fields of physical and
cultural anthropology. The generalist has become rare. On the other hand,
the fields have not been cut off from one another. Specialists in the two
fields still cooperate in specific genetic or demographic problems and
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101 Cultural Anthropology and Interdisciplinary Approach Cultural psychology:
One development of the interwar (1st and 2nd world war) period led certain
cultural anthropologists to speak of a new sub disc ipline, cultural
psychology, or ethno -psychology, which is based on the idea that culture
conditions the very psychological makeup of individuals (as opposed to
the older notion of a universal psyche or human nature). In the 1930s, for
instance, in her stu dies of the American Southwest, Ruth Benedict found
that the ways in which the Pueblo Indians thought and reasoned were
strikingly different from the ways in which their immediate neighbours
thought and reasoned, even though their geographical environment was
virtually identical. Her conclusion was that each culture over the ages had
evolved and given to its members a unique “psychological set” or
orientation toward reality and that this set actually determined how the
members saw and processed information from the environment. Culture,
in effect, affects the ways in which the mind works.
Cultural anthropology and sociology:
Cultural anthropology maintains relations with a great number of other
sciences. It has been said of sociology , for instance, that it was almost the
twin sister of anthropology. The two are presum ably differentiated by their
field of study (modern societies versus traditional societies). But the
contrast is forced. These two social sciences often meet. Thus, the study of
colonial societies borrows as much from sociology as from cultural
anthropology. And it has already been remarked how cultural
anthropology intervenes more and more frequently in urban and industrial
fields classically the domain of sociology.
Political scienc e:
In political science the discussion of the concept of the state and of its
origin has been nourished by cultural anthropology. Economists, too, have
depended on cultural anthropology to see concepts in a more comparative
light and even to challenge the very notion of an “economic man”
(suspiciously similar to the 19th -century capitalist revered by the classical
economists).
Ethno -psychiatry :
Cultural anthropology has brought to psychology new bases on which to
reflect on concepts of personality and the formation of personality. It has
permitted psychology to develop a system of cross -cultural psychiatry, or
so-called ethno -psychiatry . Conversely, the psychological sciences,
particularly psychoanalysis, have offered cultural anthropology
new hypotheses for an interpretation of the concept of culture.
History:
The link with history has long been a vital one because cultural
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102 because it has striven to reconstruct the cultura l history of societies about
which, for lack of written documents, no historical record could be
determined. Cultural anthropology has more recently suggested to
historians new techniques of research based on the analysis
and criticism of oral tradition . And so “ ethnohistory ” is beginning to
emerge. Finally, cultu ral anthropology has close links with
human geography . Both of them place great importance on man either as
he uses space or acts to transform the natural environment . It is not
without significance that some early anthropologists were originally
geographers.
Bio-cultural Anthropology:
The Foundations of Bio -cultural Anthropology section begins with the
origins of holistic anthropology, considers mediating traditions from
earlier to recent research, covers evolutionary and cultural theory
amenable to interdisciplinary work, and highlights research that crosses
the bio -cultural divide. Disciplinary Divisions, Controversies, and
Syntheses delves into the recent history of anthropology, examining the
disciplinary divisions that sprang up in the 1970s; then tracks important
controversies that cut across the bio -cultural divide in the ensuin g decades;
and finally examines recent integrative attempts and reworking of
anthropology’s holistic tradition. The final section covers neuro -
anthropology and addiction as two examples of bio -cultural research.
9.4 SUMMARY Cultural anthropologists study h ow human beings cope with natural and
social conditions with their basic motivations, carry out the necessary
things, and pass them on their information from one generation to the next.
Different cultures have many means to achieve the same purpose.
Nevert heless, in every society, the work of life is well -planned.The stable
forms of tradition are also changing due to internal development or
external contact. A person is born in a particular society and carries
forward the rituals that have his cultural heri tage. All such thoughts and
topics come in cultural anthropology.
9.5 QUESTIONS 1) Which methods of data collection are used in cultural anthropology?
2) Explain the Interdisciplinary Approach of Cultural anthropology.
9.6 REFERENCES  Pavline V. Young: Scientific Social Surveys and Research, Prentice,
Hall of India Private Ltd., 1984.
 Goode and Hatt, Methods in Social Research, McGraw Hill Book
Company, 1981. munotes.in

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103 Cultural Anthropology and Interdisciplinary Approach  Clifford, James and George E. Marcus (1986) Writing culture: the
poetics and politics of ethno graphy. Berkeley: University of
California Press.
 Mead, Margaret, Ruth Benedict: A Humanist in Anthropology .
Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-13491 -0. Ruth Benedict
Ralph Linton, 2005
 B. Sheik Ali, History: Its Theory and Methods, Macmillan pub. Delhi,
19710.


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104 10
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HISTORY,
MEMORY AND BIOGRAPHY
Unit Structure
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Differences between History and Memory
10.3 Relationship between History and Memory
10.4 Memoir and Biography
10.5 Autobiography and Biography
10.6 History and Biography
10.7 Summary
10.8 Questions
10.9 References
10.0 OBJECTIVES  To introduce students to Sources in Historical Research.
 To shed light on the Analysis of sources.
 To understand History and its characteristics.
 To orie nt learners about History, Memory and Biography .
10.1 INTRODUCTION As a discipline, History is not just a narrative of interesting events of the
past. It is a systematic study which is based on hardcore evidence and
research. At the same time there is a ce rtain philosophy which is followed
by every historian. The philosophy that the historian follows influences his
narration of the historical account. Philosophy of history is the
philosophical study of history and its discipline.
The philosophy of history and the method of narrating history has evolved
over the years. The Greeks were regarded as the pioneers in history
writing. In the beginning it was just passing on the story from one
generation to another. Herodotus, a fifth -century BC personality, broke
from the Homeric tradition of passing narrative from generation to
generation in his work "Investigations", also known as Histories.
Herodotus is regarded by many as the first systematic historian. Herodotus
and later, Plutarch (46 –120 CE) freely invented speeches for their
historical figures and chose their historical subjects with an eye toward
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105 Difference between History, Memory and Biography According to them History was supposed to teach good examples for one
to follow. The assumption that history "should teach good examp les"
influenced how writers produced history. Events of the past are just as
likely to show bad examples that one should not follow, but classical
historians would either not record such examples or would re -interpret
them.
From the Classical period to th e Renaissance, historians alternated
between focusing on subjects designed to improve mankind and on a
devotion to fact. History was composed mainly of hagiographies of
monarchs or of epic poetry describing heroic gestures. In the fourteenth
century, Ibn K haldun, who is considered one of the fathers of the
philosophy of history, discussed his philosophy of history and society in
detail in his Muqaddimah (1377).
Ibn Khaldun often criticized "idle superstition and uncritical acceptance of
historical data". H e introduced a scientific method to the philosophy of
history and he often referred to it as his "new science", which is now
associated with historiography. His historical method also laid the
groundwork for the observation of the role of the state, commun ication,
propaganda, and systematic bias in history.
By the eighteenth century historians had turned toward a more positivist
approach -focusing on fact as much as possible, but still with an eye on
telling histories that could instruct and improve. Startin g with Fustel de
Coulanges (1830 -1889) and Theodor Mommsen (1817 -1903), historical
studies began to move towards a more modern scientific form. In the
Victorian era, historiographers debated less whether history was intended
to improve the reader, and more on what causes turned history and how
one could understand historical change.
Check your progress:
1) Define History?
2) How has history developed over the years?
10.2 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN HISTORY AND MEMORY The topic of memory has engage d many of the historians. Memory refers
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106 moments and events in their history. The former is often referred to as
individual memory, whereas the latter is considered collective memory or
public memory. Individual memory can take several forms, such as an oral
history interview, or a piece of artwork. Societies have chosen to display
their collective memory through statues, monuments, parades, and
national holidays such as Independence D ay. In recent years, historians
have analyzed how memory has affected our impressions of the past,
including the Revolution of 1857, the Civil Disobedience Movement,
World War II, and the Quit India Movement. Many of the research theses
focus on some form of collective memory.
Many historians try to create an active memory, one that is used as a
reminder of past injustices and of the need for addressing contemporary
social issues. Let us see the differences between history and memory.
There are concrete co nnections between history, and memory, but
differences are also there. Memory is an absolute necessity for the
existence of history. If we choose to forget about the past, and decide to
move on, history ceases to exist. But it is insufficient, and limited. History,
on the other hand, can be prejudiced, one -sided, and exclusive. Yet history
does have one distinct advantage over memory. History advances through
hypothesis; memory evolves, but never really advances.
Memory is random and unexpected. Humans have dreadful memories, and
what we remember about the past can be clouded by our own biases and
what we forget through the passage of time. Furthermore, we don’t really
have the mental capacity to choose what we want to remember. Historians
can use primary so urce documents to test their conclusions about the past,
but a person’s memory of an event cannot be tested in such a manner.This
makes the creation of a collective memory all the more complicated.
History has its own limitations, but it seems that through the process of
hypothesis it has the possibility of being corrected in a way that memory
cannot.
Check your progress:
1) Define Memory.
2) Examine the difference between history and memory. munotes.in

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107 Difference between History, Memory and Biography 10.3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HISTORY AND MEMORY “Memory is often owned, history interpreted. Memory is passed down
through generations; history is revised.”
For more than a decade, historians from many fields and nations have
been studying the past through the lens of “memory.” Some say we have
deviated f rom our training and subject matter. It is important to
investigate how societies remember certain things and create a collective
historical consciousness.
The concepts of history and memory can be blended or separately
preserved in use and meaning. We n eed to understand what each one
means and it is important to establish their differences. Historians are
custodians of the past. As historians we are protectors and discoverers of
the facts and stories out of which people visualize their public lives. But
we need a sense of both humbleness and engagement in the face of public
memory. We need to understand that the remembered past is much greater
and more vast than what is created as the recorded past.History is what
trained historians do, a reasoned reconst ruction of the past deep -rooted in
research; it inclines to be critical and doubtful of human motive and
action, and therefore more secular than what people commonly call
memory. History can be read by or belong to everyone; it is more relative,
and depend ent on place, chronology, and scale.
If history is shared and secular, memory is often treated as a revered set of
total meanings and stories, possessed as the heritage or identity of a
community. Memory is often owned, history interpreted. Memory is
passe d down through generations; history is revised. Memory often
combines in objects, sites, and monuments; history seeks to understand
contexts in all their complexity. History asserts the authority of academic
training and standards of evidence; Leopold von Ranke, (1795 —1886),
was a leading German historian of the 19th century, whose scholarly
method and way of teaching had a great influence on
Western historiography. He concentrated on the translation of texts. He
later developed this approach into a techniq ue of historical textual
criticism. Ranke was an objective historian. He did not try to please
anyone either the liberals or the conservatives. The liberals thought that he
was too devoted to the state and the conservatives thought that he was not
too rigi d.
Memory carries the often more immediate authority of community
membership and experience. There is a certain appeal that memory has. It
has an emotional bond and an attachment to the past. It may not
necessarily be an intellectual bond as the historian s have. Bernard Bailyn
has aptly stated memory’s appeal: “its relatio n to the past is an embrace.
ultimately emotional, not intellectual.” This has been mentioned by David
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108 Scholars working on memory are also de voted to traditional sources as
other scholars are devoted to sources of any other subject. Historians
assess all manner of individual memories and actual remembered
experience in letters, memoirs, speeches, debates, and autobiography. But
the main concern is with the deceptive problem of collective memory –the
ways in which groups, peoples, or countries construct varieties of the past
and employ them for self -understanding and to win power in an ever -
changing present.
All said and done, historians study me mory because it has been such a
significant contemporary tool of control. And what historians studying
memory have come to understand is simply that the process by which
societies or nations remember collectively itself has a history.
There are risks, obvi ously, as historians change their observation to
matters of social and public memory. Historians could become servants of
the very culture wars that have given rise to so many struggles over
memory in our own time. Memory is usually raised in the name of n ation,
ethnicity, race, religion, or on behalf of a marginalized group who are
victimized. It often thrives on grievance and its essence is the perceived
marginalization and victimization of a group of people. We cannot take
memory lightly in recent times . Like our subjects, we can’t risk thinking
about memory casually. Indeed, the study of memory is fueled in part by
the world’s post -Holocaust and post -Cold War need to assess the stories of
survivors of genocide, trauma, or totalitarian control over histo rical
consciousness. Historians agree that the world is divided with too much
memory, and that its passions can smother democratizing and
universalizing principles. It is precisely because of this dilemma that we
must study historical memory. We should kno w its uses and perils, its
values and murky tendencies.
People will develop a sense of the past by one means or another –from
schooling, religion, family, and popular culture. Historical consciousness
can result from indoctrination or a free market of a hun dred blooming
interpretations. But the greatest risk, writes is a tendency of people to
derive their sense of the past only from the inspiration of people with
vested interests. History is often weak in the face of the fabled power of
memory and its prophe cies. Historians hope the public would adopt a
more critical, interpretive sense of the past. Otherwise without a proper
understanding of the past, it is futile to move ahead or direct our future
because it is the past which guides our present and future. As historians,
we are bound by our craft and by our humanity to study the problem of
memory and thereby help make a future. We should respect the poets and
priests; we should study the defining legends in any memory argument.
But then, standing at the conv ergence of the two streams of history and
memory, we should write the history of memory, observing and explaining
the turmoil we find.
A case in point is the episode of the American Civil War. The most
turbulent problem in American historical memory has lo ng been the Civil
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109 Difference between History, Memory and Biography 1861 -65 into a national epic of unity, of mutual glory and sacrifice. But
the politics of reconciliation came at tremendous costs in American race
relations; they requir ed a removal of the story of black emancipation at the
heart of the war. For most of the twentieth century as well, Americans
preferred a story of reconciled conflict to the reality of unanswered racial
and legal legacies.
The modern civil rights movement, occurring at the same time as the Civil
War centenary, made new memories and narratives possible as never
before. But the industry of Civil War publishing, reminiscence, and
tourism will demonstrate that the story of the war is a sad but heroic
episode on the journey to greater harmony and progress. This narrative is
alive and well in popular memory. Widely divergent views of the war’s
meaning have surfaced in recent years over Confederate symbols.
Moreover, the Sons of Confederate Veterans have become pol iticized as
never before, portraying themselves and other advocates of Confederate
tradition as victims of “cultural ethnic cleansing” and “wholesale
persecution” by the academic historians and their messengers in
government.
Most Americans love a good sto ry of reunion, as shown in the popularity
of Jay Winik’s book, April 1865: The Month that Saved America.
According to Winik, America was “saved” in one packed month of
reconciliationist drama and spirit, from the fall of Richmond to the burial
of Lincoln. A long view of Reconstruction, seems to vast numbers of
enthusiastic readers unnecessary in order to understand the place of the
war in American memory.
Check your progress:
1) Discuss the relationship between History and Memory.
2) Examine the wa ys in which memory misrepresents history.
10.4 MEMOIR AND BIOGRAPHY What is the difference between a biography and a memoir? Both
biographies and memoirs tell the stories of a person’s life. They are
generally found in the format of a book, which is where the original
meaning is used, but it may also be observed taking the modern shape of a
movie or video documentary. It might be said that you are “reading a munotes.in

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110 biography of George Washington and then you will watch the movie, that
is also a biography of his life”. You may also “read the memoirs of
George Washington, that he wrote while fighting the Revolutionary War”.
The differences between the usage of ‘biography’ and ‘memoir’ are
technical, but important to know and understand for correct usage.
A biography gives a general account of the events of someone’s life. Most
published or filmed biographies are about historical figures or famous
people. A biography generally starts with a person’s childhood. It may
even begin the telling of the story before the person was born, in order to
better understand the person’s family situation or the events in the lives of
the person’s parents. A biography ends with the person’s death, or if they
are still alive, with a momentous event or current situation in their life. It
chronicles or tells the events in their life in the order that they happened. It
may have commentary, discussion or interpretation on the events in a
person’s life, but it mostly focuses on factual or historical evidence. An
autobiography is a bi ography that someone has written about their own
life in a similar manner as a biography. This may be published while they
are still alive or posthumously, after the person has died.
The well known example of memoir in Indian context is Tuzu -ki-
Babari or Baburnama written by Babu.
A memoir focuses on certain memories, experiences or particular aspects
of someone’s life. It is less broad and less general than a biography. A
memoir is written by the person it is about or written by a professional
writer at th e request of the person. Usually a memoir has more of a focus
on emotions and feelings rather than merely an account of chronological
events, such as an autobiography would tell. It may not be based on
factual event as much as the person wanting their audi ence to understand
‘their side of the story’, or their perception of how they were affected by
events. Because of this, there is also a more anecdotal, or story -like tone to
the writing. It may also be that the person’s account is of a particular
noteworth y or famous historical event that is based on their personal
knowledge or experience, such as a soldier’s memoir about surviving
World War II in a prisoner of war camp.
So when trying to decide whether a story about someone’s life is a
biography or a memoi r, keep in mind who wrote the story, what does the
story tell, how it is written, and what the meaning or purpose the author
had in mind when writing the story.
Check your progress:
1) Discuss the meaning of biography.
munotes.in

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111 Difference between History, Memory and Biography 2) Discuss the difference be tween memoir and biography.
10.5 AUTOBIOGRAPHY AND BIOGRAPHY Autobiography and biography are both account of a particular individual’s
life. The factuality of either one is not necessarily relevant in these terms,
though generally it is distingui shed in the description of most
autobiographical and biographical works. There are also a number of
subtleties to consider in the distinguishing between these.
An autobiography is technically a work that describes a life that is created
by that individual. In general this refers to a book that is written by the
individual about their life. Autobiographies can vary in their artistic and
reporting approach. Some may be intentionally entertaining and other
intentionally informative. Typically they are intended to be fairly accurate
regarding hard facts. Something that is common among some
autobiographies is the work of a ghost -writer. A ghost writer may have a
varying role in different projects. For example in one work they may
simply create an outline or edit a work. In others, they may actually help
in the writing of the text. Usually if a ghost -writer writes the entire book
you would expect the work to be labeled a biography.
A biography is also a work that describes a life. These works however are
created by an individual other than the individual that the work is about.
Biographies are typically considered to be accurate in regard to hard facts
also. These works however are instances where differences even in the
reporting of hard facts become evident. Some biographies, especially
when written about living individuals can be the cause of controversy and
the terming ‘unauthorized biography’ has become rather common. These
distinctions and the greater possibility of revealing unwanted information
attract a numb er of individuals to biographies for reading. Biographies can
be written by anyone and about anyone. As a result it is less common that
ghost -writers work on biographies, but it isn’t unheard of.
Autobiographies and biographies can provide information that is collected
through time consuming research. It can inform an audience and bring
them closer to the people they want to know. Many however, shouldn’t be
considered the same types of reference works as encyclopedias and
dictionaries.
Check your progress :
1) Define Autobiography. munotes.in

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112
2) Examine the difference between Autobiography and Biography.
10.6 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY Biography, as a form of literature, is commonly considered nonfictional,
the subject of which is the life of an individu al. One of the oldest forms of
literary expression, it seeks to re -create in words the life of a human
being —as understood from the historical or personal perspective of the
author —by drawing upon all available evidence, including that retained in
memory a s well as written, oral, and pictorial material.
Features :
1. Historical :
Biography is sometimes regarded as a branch of history, and earlier
biographical writings . Biography is commonly considered as nonfictional
and the subject of biography is life of an individual. In simple words one
can say that biography is life history of a person written a book by
someone. As sources are describing a person -facts about the person
retained in memory as well as written, oral and pictorial material. So
biography is man y times regarded as a branch of history and sometimes
the biographical works like Harshcharita written by Banabhatta, the 7th
century Sanskrit scholar, Akbarnama by Abul Fazal, Tarikh -i-Firozshah
by Zaiuddin Brani, Shri Shivabharat by sanskrit poet Paraman anda are
treated as historical material, though they are literary works in their own
right. Similarly in western history biographical writings such as the 15th -
century Mémoires of the French councellor of state, Philippe de
Commynes, or George Cavendish’s 16th-century life of Thomas Cardinal
Wolsey -have often been treated as historical material rather than as
literary works in their own right. Some entries in ancient Chinese
chronicles included biographical sketches; imbedded in the Roman
historian Tacitus’ s Annals is the most famous biography of the emperor
Tiberius; conversely, Sir Winston Churchill’s magnificent life of his
ancestor John Churchill, first duke of Marlborough, can be read as a
history of Britain and much of Europe during the War of the Span ish
Succession (1701 -14). Yet there is general recognition today that history
and biography are quite distinct forms of literature. History usually deals
in generalizations about a period of time (for example, the Renaissance),
about a group of people in t ime (the English colonies in North America),
about an institution (monasticism during the Middle Ages). Biography munotes.in

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113 Difference between History, Memory and Biography more typically focuses upon a single human being and deals in the
particulars of that person’s life.
Both biography and history, however, are often concerned with the past,
and it is in the hunting down, evaluating, and selection of sources that they
are similar. In this sense biography can be regarded as a craft rather than
an art: techniques of research and general rules for testing evidence c an be
learned by anyone and thus need involve comparatively little of that
personal commitment associated with art.
A biographer in pursuit of an individual , long dead is usually hampered by
a lack of sources: it is often impossible to check or verify what written
evidence there is; there are no witnesses to cross -examine. No method has
yet been developed by which to overcome such problems. Each life,
however, presents its own opportunities as well as specific difficulties to
the biographer: the ingenuity w ith which the biographer handles gaps in
the record -by providing information, for example, about the age that casts
light upon the subject -has much to do with the quality of the resulting
work. James Boswell knew comparatively little about Samuel Johnson’s
earlier years; it is one of the greatnesses of his Life of Samuel Johnson
LL.D. (1791) that he succeeded, without inventing matter or deceiving the
reader, in giving the sense of a life progressively unfolding. Another
masterpiece of reconstruction in the face of little evidence is A.J.A.
Symons’ biography of the English author and eccentric Frederick William
Rolfe, The Quest for Corvo (1934). A further difficulty is the unreliability
of most collections of papers, letters, and other memorabilia edited bef ore
the 20th century. Not only did editors feel free to omit and transpose
materials, but sometimes the authors of documents revised their personal
writings for the benefit of future, often falsifying the record and presenting
their biographers with a diff icult situation when the originals were no
longer extant.
The biographer writing the life of a person recently dead is often faced
with the opposite problem: an abundance of living witnesses and a
plethora of materials, which include the subject’s papers a nd letters,
sometimes transcriptions of telephone conversations and conferences, as
well as the record of interviews granted to the biographer by the subject’s
friends and associates. Frank Friedel, for example, in creating a biography
of the U.S. presiden t Franklin D. Roosevelt, had to wrestle with something
like 40 tons of paper. But finally, when writing the life of any person,
whether long or recently dead, the biographer’s chief responsibility is
vigorously to test the authenticity of the collected mat erials by whatever
rules and techniques are available. When the subject of a biography is still
alive and a contributor to the work, the biographer’s task is to examine the
subject’s perspective against multiple, even contradictory sources.
2. Psychologic al:
Assembling a string of facts in chronological order does not constitute the
life of a person; it only gives an outline of events. The biographer
therefore seeks to elicit from his materials the motives for his subject’s munotes.in

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114 actions and to discover the shap e of his personality. The biographer who
has known his subject in life enjoys the advantage of his own direct
impressions, often fortified by what the subject has himself revealed in
conversations, and of his having lived in the same era (thus avoiding the
pitfalls in depicting distant centuries). But on the debit side, such a
biographer’s view is coloured by the emotional factor almost inevitably
present in a living association. Conversely, the biographer who knows his
subject only from written evidence, a nd perhaps from the report of
witnesses, lacks the insight generated by a personal relationship but can
generally command a greater objectivity in his effort to probe his subject’s
inner life.
Biographers of the 20th century have had at their disposal the
psychological theories and practice of Sigmund Freud and of his followers
and rivals. The extent to which these new biographical tools for the
unlocking of personality have been employed and the results of their use
have varied greatly. On the one hand, so me biographers have deployed
upon their pages the apparatus of psychological revelation -analysis of
behaviour symbols, interpretation based on the Oedipus complex,
detection of Jungian archetypal patterns of behaviour, and the like. Other
biographers, usua lly the authors of scholarly large -scale lives, have
continued to ignore the psychological method; while still others, though
avoiding explicit psychological analysis and terminology, have
nonetheless presented aspects of their subjects’ behaviours in such a way
as to suggest psychological interpretations. In general, the movement,
since World War I, has been toward a discreet use of the psychological
method, from Katherine Anthony’s Margaret Fuller (1920) and Joseph
Wood Krutch’s study of Edgar Allan Poe ( 1926), which enthusiastically
embrace such techniques, through Erik Erikson’s Young Man Luther
(1958) and Gandhi’s Truth on the Origins of Militant Nonviolence (1969),
where they are adroitly and sagaciously used by a biographer who is
himself a psychiatri st, to Leon Edel’s vast biography of Henry James (5
vol., 1953 -72), where they are used with sophistication by a man of letters.
The science of psychology has also begun to affect the biographer’s very
approach to his subject: a number of 20th -century auth ors seek to explore
their own involvement with the person they are writing about before
embarking upon the life itself.
3. Ethical :
The biographer, particularly the biographer of a contemporary, is often
confronted with an ethical problem: how much of the truth, as he has been
able to ascertain it, should be printed? Since the inception of biographical
criticism in the later 18th century, this somewhat arid -because
unanswerable -question has dominated both literary and popular discussion
of biographical lite rature. Upon the publication of the Life of Samuel
Johnson, James Boswell was bitterly accused of slandering his celebrated
subject. More than a century and a half later, Lord Moran’s Winston
Churchill: The Struggle for Survival, 1940 -1965 (1966), in which Lord
Moran used the Boswellian techniques of reproducing conversations from
his immediate notes and jottings, was attacked in much the same terms munotes.in

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115 Difference between History, Memory and Biography (though the question was complicated by Lord Moran’s confidential
position as Churchill’s physician). In the United States, William
Manchester’s Death of a President (1967), on John F. Kennedy, created an
even greater stir in the popular press. There the issue is usually presented
as “the public’s right to know”; but for the biographer it is a problem of
his obli gation to preserve historical truth as measured against the personal
anguish he may inflict on others in doing so. Since no standard of
“biographical morality” has ever been agreed upon -Boswell, Lord Moran,
and Manchester have all, for example, had eloquen t defenders -the
individual biographer must steer his own course. That course in the 20th
century is sometimes complicated by the refusal of the custodians of the
papers of important persons, particularly national political figures, to
provide access to all the documents.
4. Aesthetic :
Biography, while related to history in its search for facts and its
responsibility to truth, is truly a branch of literature because it seeks to
elicit from facts, by selection and design, the illusion of a life actually
being lived. Within the bounds of given data, the biographer seeks to
transform plain information into illumination. If he invents or suppresses
material in order to create an effect, he fails truth; if he is content to
recount facts, he fails art. This tension , between the requirements of
authenticity and the necessity for an imaginative ordering of materials to
achieve lifelikeness, is perhaps best exemplified in the biographical
problem of time. On the one hand, the biographer seeks to portray the
unfolding o f a life with all its cross -currents of interests, changing
emotional states, events; yet in order to avoid reproducing the confusion
and clutter of actual daily existence, he must interrupt the flow of diurnal
time and group his materials so as to reveal traits of personality, grand
themes of experience, and the actions and attitudes leading to moments of
high decision. His achievement as a biographical artist will be measured,
in great part, by his ability to suggest the sweep of chronology and yet to
highlight the major patterns of behaviour that give a life its shape and
meaning.
Kinds of Biographies :
Biographies are difficult to classify. It is easily recognizable that there are
many kinds of life writing, but one kind can easily shade into another; no
standard basis for classification has yet been developed. A fundamental
division offers, however, a useful preliminary view: biographies written
from personal knowledge of the subject and those written from research.
1. Firsthand knowledge :
The biography that results from what might be called a vital relationship
between the biographer and his subject often represents a conjunction of
two main biographical forces: a desire on the part of the writer to preserve
“the earthly pilgrimage of a man,” as the 19th -century historian Thomas
Carlyle calls it (Critical and Miscellaneous Essays, 1838), and an
awareness that he has the special qualifications, because of direct munotes.in

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116 observation and access to personal papers, to undertake such a task. This
kind of biography is, in one form or another, to be found in most of the
cultures that preserve any kind of written biographical tradition, and it is
commonly to be found in all ages from the earliest literatures to the
present. In its first manifestations, it was often produc ed by, or based upon
the recollections of, the disciples of a religious figure -such as the
biographical fragments concerning Buddha, portions of the Old
Testament, and the Christian gospels.
It is sometimes called “source biography” because it preserves o riginal
materials, the testimony of the biographer, and often intimate papers of the
subject (which have proved invaluable for later biographers and historians
such as Life of Charlemagne” or Thomas Moore’s Letters and Journals of
Lord Byron [1830]). Biogr aphy based on a living relationship has
produced a wealth of masterpieces: Tacitus’s life of his father -in-law in
the Agricola, William Roper’s life of his father -in-law Sir Thomas More
(1626), John Gibson Lockhart’s biography (1837 -38) of his father -in-law
Sir Walter Scott, Johann Peter Eckermann’s Conversations with Goethe
(1836; trans. 1839), and Ernest Jones’s Life and Work of Sigmund Freud
(1953 -57). Indeed, what is generally acknowledged as the greatest
biography ever written belongs to this class: Ja mes Boswell’s Life of
Samuel Johnson.
2. Research :
Biographies that are the result of research rather than firsthand knowledge
present a rather bewildering array of forms. First, however, there should
be mentioned two special kinds of biographical activity .
3. Reference collections :
Since the late 18th century, the Western world -and, in the 20th century,
the rest of the world as well -has produced increasing numbers of
compilations of biographical facts concerning both the living and the dead.
These collecti ons stand apart from literature. Many nations have
multivolume biographical dictionaries such as the Dictionary of National
Biography in Britain and the Dictionary of American Biography in the
United States; general encyclopaedias contain extensive informa tion about
figures of world importance; classified collections such as Lives of the
Lord Chancellors (Britain) and biographical manuals devoted to scholars,
scientists, and other groups are available in growing numbers; information
about living persons is gathered into such national collections as Who’s
Who? (Britain), Chi è? (Italy), and Who’s Who in America?
4. Character sketches :
The short life, however, is a genuine current in the mainstream of
biographical literature and is represented in many ages and cultures.
Excluding early quasi -biographical materials about religious or political
figures, the short biography first appeared in China at about the end of the
2nd century BCE, and two centuries later it was a fully developed literary
form in the Roman E mpire. The Shiji (“Historical Records”), by Sima munotes.in

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117 Difference between History, Memory and Biography Qian (145? –c. 85 BCE), include lively biographical sketches, very short
and anecdotal with plentiful dialogue, grouped by character -occupation
types such as “maligned statesmen,” “rash generals,” “assassins, ” a
method that became established tradition with the Hanshu (History of the
Former Han Dynasty), by Sima Qian’s successor and imitator, Pan Gu
(32–92 CE). Toward the end of the 1st century CE, in the Mediterranean
world, Plutarch’s Lives of the Noble Grec ians and Romans, which are
contrasting pairs of biographies, one Greek and one Roman, appeared;
there followed within a brief span of years the Lives of the Caesars, by the
Roman emperor Hadrian’s librarian Suetonius. These works established a
quite subtle mingling of character sketch with chronological narrative that
has ever since been the dominant mark of this genre.
Plutarch, from an ethical standpoint emphasizing the political virtues of
man as governor, and Suetonius, from the promptings of sheer
biographical curiosity, develop their subjects with telling details of speech
and action; and though Plutarch, generally considered to be the superior
artist, has greatly influenced other arts than biographical literature -witness
Shakespeare’s Roman plays, wh ich are based on his Lives -Suetonius
created in the Life of Nero one of the supreme examples of the form.
Islamic literature, from the 10th century, produced short “typed”
biographies based on occupation -saints, scholars, and the like -or on
arbitrarily cho sen personal characteristics. The series of brief biographies
has continued to the present day with such representative collections as, in
the Renaissance, Giorgio Vasari’s Lives of the Most Eminent Italian
Painters, Sculptors, and Architects, Thomas Fulle r’s History of the
Worthies of England in the 17th century, Samuel Johnson’s Lives of the
English Poets in the 18th, and, in more recent times, the “psychographs”
of the American Gamaliel Bradford (Damaged Souls, 1923), Lytton
Strachey’s Eminent Victorians (1918) and the “profiles” that have become
a hallmark of the weekly magazine The New Yorker.
Further classification of biographies compiled by research can be achieved
by regarding the comparative objectivity of approach. For convenience,
six categories, blending one into the other in infinite gradations and
stretching from the most objective to the most subjective, can be
employed.
5. Informative biography :
This, the first category, is the most objective and is sometimes called
“accumulative” biography. T he author of such a work, avoiding all forms
of interpretation except selection -for selection, even in the most
comprehensive accumulation, is inevitable -seeks to unfold a life by
presenting, usually in chronological order, the paper remains, the
evidences , relating to that life. This biographer takes no risks but, in turn,
seldom wins much critical acclaim: his work is likely to become a prime
source for biographers who follow him. During the 19th century, the Life
of Milton: Narrated in Connection with th e Political, Ecclesiastical, and
Literary History of his Time (7 vol., 1859 -94), by David Masson, and
Abraham Lincoln: A History (10 vol., 1890), by John G. Nicolay and John munotes.in

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Sources in Historical Research
118 Hay, offer representative samples. In the 20th century such works as
Edward Nehls’ s, D.H. Lawrence: A Composite Biography (1957 -59) and
David Alec Wilson’s collection of the life records of Thomas Carlyle
(1923 -29), in six volumes, continue the traditions of this kind of life
writing.
6. Critical biography :
This second category, scholar ly and critical, unlike the first, does offer a
genuine presentation of a life. These works are very carefully researched;
sources and “justifications” (as the French call them) are scrupulously set
forth in notes, appendixes, bibliographies; inference and conjecture, when
used, are duly labeled as such; no fictional devices or manipulations of
material are permitted, and the life is generally developed in straight
chronological order. Yet such biography, though not taking great risks,
does employ the arts of selection and arrangement. The densest of these
works, completely dominated by fact, have small appeal except to the
specialist. Those written with the greatest skill and insight are in the first
rank of modern life writing. In these scholarly biographi es—the “life and
times” or the minutely detailed life —the author is able to deploy an
enormous weight of matter and yet convey the sense of a personality in
action, as exemplified in Leslie Marchand’s Byron (1957), with some
1,200 pages of text and 300 pag es of notes, Dumas Malone’s Jefferson and
His Time (4 vol., 1948 –70), Churchill’s Marlborough (1933 –38), Douglas
S. Freeman’s George Washington (1948 –57). The critical biography aims
at evaluating the works as well as unfolding the life of its subject, eit her
by interweaving the life in its consideration of the works or else by
devoting separate chapters to the works. Critical biography has had its
share of failures: except in skillful hands, criticism clumsily intrudes upon
the continuity of a life, or the works of the subject are made to yield
doubtful interpretations of character, particularly in the case of literary
figures. It has to its credit, however, such fine biographies as Arthur S.
Link, Wilson (5 vol., 1947 –65); Richard Ellmann, James Joyce (195 9);
Ernest Jones, The Life and Works of Sigmund Freud; Douglas S.
Freeman, Lee (1934 –35); and Edgar Johnson, Charles Dickens (1952).
7. “Standard” biography :
This third, and central, category of biography, balanced between the
objective and the subjective, represents the mainstream of biographical
literature, the practice of biography as an art. From antiquity until the
present —within the limits of the psychological awareness of the particular
age and the availability of materials —this kind of biographical literature
has had as its objective what Sir Edmund Gosse called “the faithful
portrait of a soul in its adventures through life.” It seeks to transform, by
literary methods that do not distort or falsify, the truthful record of fact
into the truthful effe ct of a life being lived. Such biography ranges in style
and method from George Cavendish’s 16th -century life of Cardinal
Wolsey, Roger North’s late -17th-century lives of his three brothers, and
Boswell’s life of Johnson to modern works like Lord David Cec il’s munotes.in

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119 Difference between History, Memory and Biography Melbourne, Garrett Mattingly’s Catherine of Aragon, Andrew Turnbull’s
Scott Fitzgerald, and Leon Edel’s Henry James.
8. Interpretative biography :
This fourth category of life writing is subjective and has no standard
identity. At its best it is repres ented by the earlier works of Catherine
Drinker Bowen, particularly her lives of Tchaikovsky, “Beloved Friend”
(1937), and Oliver Wendell Holmes, Yankee from Olympus (1944). She
molds her sources into a vivid narrative, worked up into dramatic scenes
that always have some warranty of documentation —the dialogue, for
example, is sometimes devised from the indirect discourse of letter or
diary. She does not invent materials; but she quite freely manipulates
them —that is to say, interprets them —according to the promptings of
insight, derived from arduous research, and with the aim of unfolding her
subject’s life as vividly as possible. (Mrs. Bowen, much more
conservative in her later works, clearly demonstrates the essential distance
between the third and fourth categories: her distinguished life of Sir
Edward Coke, The Lion and the Throne [1957], foregoes manipulation
and the “re -creation” of dialogue and limits interpretation to the artful
deployment of biographical resources.) Very many interpretative
biograph ies stop just short of fictionalizing in the freedom with which they
exploit materials. The works of Frank Harris (Oscar Wilde, 1916) and
Hesketh Pearson (Tom Paine, Friend of Mankind, 1937; Beerbohm Tree,
1956) demonstrate this kind of biographical latitu de.
9. Fictionalized biography :
The books in this fifth category belong to biographical literature only by
courtesy. Materials are freely invented, scenes and conversations are
imagined; unlike the previous category, this class often depends almost
entirel y upon secondary sources and cursory research. Its authors, well
represented on the paperback shelves, have created a hybrid form designed
to mate the appeal of the novel with a vague claim to authenticity. This
form is exemplified by writers such as Irvin g Stone, in his Lust for Life
(on van Gogh) and The Agony and the Ecstasy (on Michelangelo).
Whereas the compiler of biographical information (the first category) risks
no involvement, the fictionalizer admits no limit to it.
10. Fiction presented as biogr aphy :
The sixth and final category is outright fiction, the novel written as
biography or autobiography. It has enjoyed brilliant successes. Such works
do not masquerade as lives; rather, they imaginatively take the place of
biography where perhaps there c an be no genuine life writing for lack of
materials. Among the most highly regarded examples of this genre are, in
the guise of autobiography, Robert Graves’s books on the Roman emperor
Claudius, I, Claudius and Claudius the God and His Wife Messalina; Mar y
Renault’s The King Must Die on the legendary hero Theseus; and
Marguerite Yourcenar’s Memoirs of Hadrian. The diary form of
autobiography was amusingly used by George and Weedon Grossmith to
tell the trials and tribulations of their fictional character C harles Pooter in munotes.in

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Sources in Historical Research
120 The Diary of a Nobody (1892). In the form of biography this category
includes Graves’s Count Belisarius and Hope Muntz’s Golden Warrior (on
Harold II, vanquished at the Battle of Hastings, 1066). Some novels -as-
biography, using fictional n ames, are designed to evoke rather than re -
create an actual life, such as W. Somerset Maugham’s Moon and Sixpence
(Gauguin) and Cakes and Ale (Thomas Hardy) and Robert Penn Warren’s
All the King’s Men (Huey Long).
11. “Special -purpose” biography :
In additi on to these six main categories, there exists a large class of works
that might be denominated “special -purpose” biography. In these works
the art of biography has become the servant of other interests. They
include potboilers (written as propaganda or as a scandalous exposé) and
“as-told-to” narratives (often popular in newspapers) designed to publicize
a celebrity. This category includes also “campaign biographies” aimed at
forwarding the cause of a political candidate (Nathaniel Hawthorne’s Life
of Frank lin Pierce [1852] being an early example); the weighty
commemorative volume, not infrequently commissioned by the widow
(which, particularly in Victorian times, has usually enshrouded the subject
in monotonous eulogy); and pious works that are properly
called hagiography, or lives of holy men, written to edify the reader.
Check your progress:
1) Define Biography
2) Examine the types of Biography.
10.7 SUMMARY The topic of memory has engaged many of the historians. Memory refers
to the ways in which individuals and societies choose to remember certain
moments and events in their history. The former is often referred to as
individual memory, whereas the latter is considered collective memory or
public memory. Individual memory can take severa l forms, such as an oral
history interview, or a piece of artwork. Societies have chosen to display
their collective memory through statues, monuments, parades, and
national holidays such as Independence Day. In recent years, historians
have analyzed how m emory has affected our impressions of the past,
including the Revolution of 1857, the Civil Disobedience Movement, munotes.in

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121 Difference between History, Memory and Biography World War II, and the Quit India Movement. Many of the research theses
focus on some form of collective memory.
A biography gives a general account of the events of someone’s life. Most
published or filmed biographies are about historical figures or famous
people. A biography generally starts with a person’s childhood. It may
even begin the telling of the story before the person was born, in o rder to
better understand the person’s family situation or the events in the lives of
the person’s parents. A biography ends with the person’s death, or if they
are still alive, with a momentous event or current situation in their life. It
chronicles or te lls the events in their life in the order that they happened. It
may have commentary, discussion or interpretation on the events in a
person’s life, but it mostly focuses on factual or historical evidence. An
autobiography is a biography that someone has w ritten about their own
life in a similar manner as a biography. This may be published while they
are still alive or posthumously, after the person has died.
10.8 QUESTIONS 1. Analyze the concept of History.
2. Discuss the difference between History and M emory.
3. Examine the relationship between History and Biography.
10.9 REFERENCES  Lectures on the History of Philosophy, Volume 3" , By Georg
Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Translated by E. S. Haldane and Frances H.
Simson, M. A., University of Nebraska Press .
 https://www.britannica.com/biography/Leopold -von-
Ranke#ref291476 , written by Rudolf Vierhaus , Professor and
Director, Max Planck Institute for History, Göttingen, Germany.
 David Mikics, ed. A New Handbook of Literary Terms , 2007.
 Toews, J. (2019). Historic ism from Ranke to Nietzsche. In W.
Breckman& P. Gordon (Eds.), The Cambridge History of Modern
European Thought . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 Understanding the Differences Between History and Memory by Nick
Sacco, Source:
https://pastexplore.word press.com/2013/01/12/understanding -the-
differences -between -history -and-memory/, Accessed on 31 August
2022
 Historians and “Memory”, David W. Blight,This article originally
appeared in issue 2.3 (April, 2002).Source:
http://commonplace.online/article/histor ians-and-memory/Accessed
on 31 August 2022 munotes.in

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Sources in Historical Research
122  Difference Between Memoir and Biography | Difference Between
http://www.differencebetween.net/language/words -
language/difference -between -memoir -and-
biography/#ixzz7dVkgXIvB
 Difference Between Autobiography and Bio graphy | Difference
Between http://www.differencebetween.net/miscellaneous/difference -
between -autobiography -and-biography/#ixzz7dVlsNIY3


*****
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123 11
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HISTORY AND
FICTION
Unit Structure
11.0 Objectives
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Differences between History and Fiction
11.3 Relationship between History and Fiction
11.4 Fictional Writers and History
11.5 Historians and Fiction
11.6 Combining History and Fiction
11.7 Summary
11.8 Questions
11.9 References
11.0 OBJECTIVES  To introduce students to Sources in Historical Research.
 To shed light on the Analysis of sources.
 To understand History and its characteristics.
 To orient learn ers about History and Fiction .
11.1 INTRODUCTION In the previous unit we have seen the relationship and difference between
history, memory and biography. In this unit we will try to analyse the
difference between history and fiction. Very often fiction pas ses off as
history. And many times history is fictionalized. Artists take creative
license with history and attempt to create larger than life images and
personas. While such an attempt has a visual appeal and is very
entertaining to the masses at large, b ut historians have a serious
reservation with such kind of a portrayal which has glaring flaws.
History tries to describe past events as they really happened. It aims at
faithful representation which was the goal of Leopold Von Ranke as we
discussed in th e previous unit on History, Memory and Biography. Its
concept of truth is correspondence with what was once reality.
Epic and dramatic fiction depict what is to be considered true from a
certain point of, no matter whether the story told really happened or not.
Generally historians do not deal with the effects the author wants to bring
about by his work and with its philosophical, artistic, and moral content.
Many writers seek merely to entertain the public. Others are more munotes.in

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124 Sources in Historical Research ambitious. In telling a story, th ey try to suggest a general view of man's
fate, of life and death, of human effort and suffering, of success and
frustration. Their message differs radically from that of science as well as
from that of philosophy.
Check your progress:
1) Define History?
2) Examine the meaning of Fiction.
11.2 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN HISTORY AND FICTION Science, in describing and interpreting the universe, relies entirely upon
reason and experience. It is a systematic study which is empirical in
nature. It av oids propositions that are not open to demonstration by means
of logic and experience. It analyzes parts of the universe without making
any statements about the totality of things. Philosophy tries to build upon
the foundations laid by science a comprehens ive worldview. In striving
after this end, it feels itself bound not to contradict any of the well -
founded theses of contemporary science. Thus its path too is confined by
reason and experience.
Poets and artists approach things and problems in another moo d. In
dealing with a single aspect of the universe they are always dealing with
the whole. Narration and description, the portrayal of individual things and
of particular events, is for them only a means. The essential feature of
their work is beyond words , designs, and colors. It is in the indescribable
feelings and ideas that activated the creator and move the reader and
spectator.
There is a fundamental difference between the most faithful photograph
and a portrait painted by an artist. What characterize s a work of literature
and art as such is not its reporting of facts but the way it reveals an aspect
of the universe and man's attitude toward it. What makes an artist is not
experience and knowledge as such. It is his particular reaction to the
problems of human existence and fate. It is a purely personal response to
the reality of his environment and his experience. munotes.in

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125 Difference between History, Memory and Biography Poets and artists have a message to tell. But this message refers to
overwhelming feelings and ideas. It is not open to sound in an explicit way
precisely because it is indescribable. We can never know whether what we
experience in enjoying their work is what they experienced in creating it.
For their work is not simply a communication. Apart from what it
communicates, it stirs up in the reade r and spectator feelings and ideas that
may differ from those of its author.
It is a hopeless task to interpret a symphony, a painting, or a novel. The
interpreter at best tries to tell us something about his reaction to the work.
He cannot tell us with ce rtainty what the creator's meaning was or what
other people may see in it. Even if the creator himself provides a
commentary on his work, this uncertainty remains. There are no words to
describe the indescribable.
What history and fiction have in common is the fact that both are based on
knowledge concerning the human mind. They operate with human motive
and experience. Their method of approach is the specific understanding of
human evaluations, of the way people react to the challenge of their
natural and social environment. But then their ways part. What the
historian has to tell is completely expressed in his report. He
communicates to the reader all he has established. His message is simple
and lucid. There is nothing that would go beyond the content of his book
as intelligible to competent readers.
It may happen that the study of history, or for that matter also the study of
the natural sciences, rouses in the mind of a man those indescribable
thoughts and views of the universe as a whole. But this does not change
the nature and character of the historian's work. History is absolutely the
search after facts and events that really happened.
Fiction is free to depict events that never occurred. The writer creates, as
people say, an imaginary story. He is f ree to deviate from reality. The tests
of truth, authenticity and credibilitythat apply to the work of the historian
do not apply to his work. External and internal criticism of his sources is
not required.
Yet his freedom is limited. He is not free to de fy the teachings of human
experience. It is not a requirement of novels and plays that the things
related should really have happened. It is not even necessary that they
could happen at all; they may introduce fairies, animals acting in human
manner, ghost s, and other phantoms. But all the characters of a novel or a
play must act in a humanly intelligible way. The concepts of truth and
falsehood as applied to epic and dramatic works refer to humancredibility.
The author is free to create fictitious persons and plots but he must not try
to invent a psychology which is different from that derived from the
observation of human conduct.
Fiction, like history, does not deal with average man or man in the abstract
or general man but with individual men and individ ual events. Yet even
here, there is a visible difference between history and fiction.The
individuals with whom history deals may be and often are groups of munotes.in

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126 Sources in Historical Research individuals, and the individual events with which it deals are events that
affected such groups of i ndividuals. The single individual is a subject of
the historian's interest primarily from the point of view of the influence his
actions exercised upon a multitude of people or as a typical specimen
representative of whole groups of individuals. The histor ian does not
bother about other people. But for the writer of fiction it is always only the
individual as such that counts, no matter what his influence upon other
people or whether or not he is to be considered typical.
This has been entirely misunderstoo d in some doctrines about literature
developed in the second part of the 19th century. The authors of these
doctrines were misled by contemporary changes in the treatment of
history. While older historians wrote chiefly about great men and affairs of
state, modern historians shifted to the history of ideas, institutions, and
social conditions. At a time when the prestige of science far surpassed that
of literature, and positivist extremists mocked at fiction as a useless
pastime, writers tried to justify th eir profession by representing it as a
branch of scientific research.
In the opinion of Emile Zola the novel was a sort of descriptive economics
and social psychology, to be based upon particular conditions and
institutions. Other authors went even further and asserted that only the fate
of classes, nations, and races — not that of individuals — is to be treated
in novels and plays. They eliminated the distinction between a statistical
report and a social novel or play.
The books and plays written in compli ance with the precepts of this
naturalistic aesthetics were clumsy pieces of work. No outstanding writer
paid more than lip service to these principles. Zola himself was very
restrained in the application of his doctrine.
The theme of novels and plays is i ndividual man as he lives, feels, and
acts, and not anonymous collective wholes. The milieu is the background
of the portraits the author paints; it is the state of external affairs to which
the characters respond by moves and acts. There is no such thing as a
novel or play whose hero is an abstract concept such as a race, a nation, a
caste, or a political party. Man alone is the recurrent subject of literature:
individual, real man as he lives and acts.
The theories of the sciences like logic, mathematics, and praxeology and
the experimental facts established by the natural sciences can be viewed
without reference to the personality of their authors. In dealing with the
problems of Euclidian geometry, we are not concerned with the man
Euclid and may forget that he ever lived.
The work of the historian is necessarily colored by the historian's specific
understanding of the problems involved, but it is still possible to discuss
the various issues implied without referring to the historical fact that they
origi nated from a definite author. No such objectivity is permitted in
dealing with works of fiction. A novel or a play always has one hero more
than the plot indicates. It is also a confession of the author and tells no less munotes.in

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127 Difference between History, Memory and Biography about him than about the persons in the story. It reveals his innermost
soul.
It has sometimes been asserted that there is more truth in fiction than in
history. Insofar as the novel or play is looked upon as a disclosure of the
author's mind, this is certainly correct. The poet always writ es about
himself, always analyzes his own soul.
Check your progress:
1) Define History.
2) Examine the difference between History and Fiction.
11.3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HISTORY AND FICTION History and fiction have much in common but are n ot easily reconciled
with one another. Both aim at recreating a reality and making it accessible
to readers. History seeks to come as close as possible to truth, but fiction is
by definition not truthful. Sources of inspiration and knowledge are
different too. History is based on research, while fiction on imagination,
on occasion spiced by personal memory. Good history is not boring, while
fiction without drama does not appeal.
Historical fiction uses an actual historical past as the setting of the story,
but it remains subject to the same conventions of drama applying to works
of literature in general, including an internal logic, suspense and
revelations. The logical point of departure for reflections on historical
fiction as a literary genre is the hist orical novel that can draw on a long
and distinguished history culminating in an increasing popularity in recent
years.
There is traditionally a strong tendency among writers of novels to refer to
a historical past behind them as a tool to increase credib ility of the plot
and make the story more easily accessible to readers. This tendency finds
its roots long before historical fiction emerged as an independent literary
genre in the nineteenth century. Historians have long been inclined to shy
away from wri ting fiction, at any rate fiction applying the knowledge that
they have themselves accumulated in professional capacity. But things are
changing. Historians have in recent years increasingly joined the ranks of munotes.in

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128 Sources in Historical Research the historical novelists, often reaching a la rger audience than with their
monographs and scientific articles. After all, as award -winning novelist
Hilary Mantel noted, ‘fiction is commonly more persuasive than history
texts’.
Historical novel is defined as ‘fiction set in the past’. The problem with
that definition is that it is so broad that virtually anything can fit in under
this label. Such a broad definition runs the risk of becoming meaningless
because there is too much overlap with other genres of literature. How far
back do we need to go to f ind the appropriate historical reality? The first
answer is commonly cited: the story should be written at least fifty years
after the event. The author of the story should not have been alive at the
time of the event, or at any rate been able to witness i t as an adult
observer. The author works from research, not from personal memory.
But the historical novel is more than a story defined in terms of a time lag
and an empirical foundation in research rather than imagination or
personal memory. It aims at re creating a genuine historical reality in
which the reader is immersed. The past is often likened with a foreign
country, one well worth visiting, where some elements are familiar and
others are not. A unique key feature of the historical novel, therefore, is
attention to detail. This applies to how people were dressed, what they ate
and drank, physical surroundings, even the smell in streets, the weather,
means of transport and time required for travel, not to mention
innumerable cultural traits, including vocabulary in speech and ways of
thinking. Writers of historical novels and commentators on the genre
generally agree that the details of the recreated historical reality should be
factually correct. They are also acutely aware of the fact that readers of
historical novels are frequently observant when it comes to detail. The
fundamental issue of historicity or authenticity determines whether the
story succeeds as a historical novel.
The historical novel remains a work of fiction with different aims and
functions compared to a report on outcomes of historical research. The
overall aim of a novel of short story is to entertain and inspire, to offer
interesting insights and evoke emotions. This holds true for the historical
novel as well, although the story ca n also serve as a source of information
about realities of the past, provided the details are correct. The writer of
the historical novel is compelled by the demands of fiction to take liberties
with the historical reality. Time frames are compressed, acti ons and
reactions are extrapolated from existing evidence, more drama is added if
need be, while historical persons mix freely with fictitious personages.
The historical novel struggles continuously with the tension between
authenticity and fiction.
The po sition of the historical event itself in the story varies. It may serve
as backdrop to a story of fiction, thus providing an interesting framework
for dramatic action. It can also develop into the main target of the quest
told by the fictional story, espec ially when the solution of a historical
mystery is at stake. The main purpose can also be to portray a reality of
the past, adding fictional elements to make the story more attractive to munotes.in

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129 Difference between History, Memory and Biography readers. Yet another aim can be to comment on today’s world by offeri ng
an alternative perspective to life. The plot then needs to be geared towards
themes relevant to present society.
The historical novel must not be confused with history -writing The
concept of the historical novel must also be kept apart from the inventio n
of pseudo -facts with the intention of misinforming the public, a practice
that regrettably seems to become increasingly popular. Meanwhile, the
genre of the historical novel expanded in several directions. A whole host
of subgenres have seen the light, i ncluding documentary fiction, fictional
biography, historical mystery, historical romance, pirate fiction, as well as
separate branches attuned to the taste of young adults and children. The
tendency gained momentum after the turn to the twenty -first centu ry.
There seems to have been a stronger urge than ever to resolve mysteries in
the past by using the tool of the historical novel. The past two decades
have seen an explosion in both quantity and quality. Historical mysteries
nowadays cover a wide scope of human experience’.
Despite widespread appreciation by the general public, the historical novel
continues to be haunted by a lack of respectability. In the eyes of literary
critics, these novels are supposed to be less well written than genuine
literary f unction when it comes to style and drama. At the same time,
professional historians are quick to point out factual inaccuracies and
misinterpretations of historical events. The status of the historical novel
remains low with those writing such fiction easi ly dismissed as amateurs.
A glance at the current mass of Internet articles on history and fiction
suggests that increasing popularity in recent years has done little to
improve the reputation of the historical novel.
Check your progress:
1) Discuss the re lationship between History and Fiction.
2) Examine the criticisms faced by the historical novel.
11.4 FICTIONAL WRITERS AND HISTORY History offers a virtually limitless wealth of interesting material for good
fiction, provided the histor ical information is treated properly from the
perspective of fiction as well as history. Examples abound from centuries
of a long literary tradition. W. Somerset Maugham (1874 -1965) became munotes.in

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130 Sources in Historical Research known as the commercially most successful of English short story wr iters
ever. His historical fiction was based on extensive travel in the 1920s in
the British colonies in Southeast Asia. The resulting short stories are set
among English expatriates living and working in the Federated Malay
States in the late -colonial per iod. His short stories were published in two
volumes.
The author was keen to expose arrogance and hypocrisy among the British
emigrants. In an added afterthought, he claimed that the characters were
all fictitious. Nevertheless, both collections of short stories were very
negatively received by the expatriates in British Malaya. The expat
community felt scandalized and accused Maugham of having abused his
position as an honored guest to collect ordinary gossip and reproduce this
information in best -selling short stories. He was no longer welcome as a
guest. Viewed from a broader perspective, Maugham’s short stories
remain highly informative about the inherent peculiarities of colonial
society.
The context of colonialism plays a key role in part of the work by the
Dutch novelist Hella Haasse (1918 -2011), who herself spent her entire
childhood in the then Netherlands Indies. In her debut novel, titled Oeroeg
(1948), she uses the Indonesian Revolution in the second half of the 1940s
as the backdrop to the touch ing story of the friendship between two boys,
one Dutch, the other Indonesian, who end up on opposite sides in the
Dutch -Indonesian conflict. The characters are fictitious, while the
historical setting is not. The novel offers unique insights into the
extraordinary social relations evolving in Indonesia as Dutch colonialism
in Indonesia came to a conclusion. At a far later stage, the story became a
major movie (1993) and was translated into both Indonesian (2009) and
English (2013).
Several decades after Oe roeg, Hella Haassereturned to her original
Indonesian context with the novel The Tea Lords (2010), which originally
appeared in Dutch in 1992. This is the account of the life of the planter
Rudolf Kerkhoven who ran a tea estate in West Java in the 1870s an d
1880s. It is a genuinely historical novel, based on preserved letters and
other primary documentation. There are no fictitious characters involved.
It is probably as close to a work of historical non -fiction as a historical
novel can become, rich in auth entic detail but lacking the emotional drama
of Oeroeg.
The foremost historical novelist in Indonesian letters was without doubt
Pramoedya Ananta Toer (1925 -2006), the sole Indonesian ever to be
nominated for the Nobel Prize in literature. His most famous and most
historical work is the Buru tetralogy, written during imprisonment on the
island of Buru in East Indonesia. This is a series of four historical novels,
in English translation titled Earth of Mankind, Child of All Nations,
Footsteps and House of G lass (1980 - 1988). The setting is colonial
Indonesia in the early twentieth century at the time of the birth and early
development of the Indonesian nationalist movement. The protagonist in
the first volumes is known by his slightly derogative nickname Min ke and munotes.in

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131 Difference between History, Memory and Biography said to have been born on the very same day as Dutch Queen Wilhelmina
(31 August 1880). Pramoedya later explained that Minke is based on an
actual historical person, the journalist Tirto Adhi Surjo (1880 -1918), who
played an important role in the ea rly nationalist movement. Other
personages are mostly fictitious (Kurniawan, 2006). The early novels in
particularprovide us with an acute understanding of the complex social
relations between the young nationalist from the Javanese elite and the
poor peop le in the rural Java he is supposed to deliver from the yoke of
Dutch colonialism.
One of Pramoedya’s disciples is Eka Kurniawan (born 1975), who not
only wrote about Pramoedya himself but also similarly used a historical
context in his work of fiction. Hi s most famous work, in English translated
as Beauty is a Wound, is set in the violent times of the Japanese
occupation (1942 -1945) and the Indonesian mass killings (1965/66). The
characters are fictitious, but the surroundings are not, just like in Hella
Haasse’s Oeroeg. In addition, male characters are depicted in such a way
as to represent a variety of violent figures in Indonesian history, notably
the brutal military man, the fanatic Marxist and the criminal thug. A flavor
of surrealism permeates the plo t, which brings the novel closer to fiction
than to history
Sixteenth -century Tudor England has never ceased to appeal to British
writers. Hilary Mantel (born 1952) became famous with the novel Wolf
Hall (Mantel, 2009b) for which she received the Man Booke r Prize. It is a
fictionalized biography of the powerful first minister of Henry VIII,
Thomas Cromwell. The novel conveys a significantly more sympathetic
impression of the controversial statesman than what is conventionally
given in non -fiction historical texts. In addition, Wolf Hall treats the
readers to a vivid description of what life was like in early sixteenth -
century England. The sequel, titled Bring Up the Bodies (2012), follows
Cromwell during the short period when Anne Boleyn was Henry VIII’s
queen. Again, Hilary Mantel was awarded the Man Booker Prize,
allegedly the first woman ever to gain this distinction twice.
Another much favored period among British novelists is the first half of
the nineteenth century, encompassing both the Regency under t he later
George IV and the start of the Victorian era. Daisy Goodwin (born 1961),
a television and arts producer with a degree from Cambridge, was one of
those who allowed themselves to be inspired by the young Queen Victoria,
ascending to the throne in 18 37 at the age of eighteen. The resulting novel,
simply titled Victoria (2016), is in the form of a fictionalized biography of
an actual historical person, completewith inner monologue and sincere
emotions, which obviously have nowhere been documented in pr imary
sources. The story pays special attention to Victoria’s relationships with
both her dominant mother and Viscount Melbourne, her first prime
minister who lovingly treated her as his own daughter.
The short stories of Somerset Maugham and the first nov el by Hella
Haasse did not by conventional standards qualify as historical novels when
they were written since the historical events were unfolding precisely at munotes.in

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132 Sources in Historical Research that time. However, eventually they did acquire the flavor of such fiction
by virtue of depicti ng an actual historical reality.
Check your progress:
1) Discuss some examples of Fictional writers who used History.
2) Do Fictional writers accurately depict history?
11.5 HISTORIANS AND FICTION There was a time when professional histo rians looked down with
unmistakable disdain at novelists using historical materials for their
stories, as if the latter were not fully qualified and as if history should
remain the exclusive domain of those who had made it their profession.
Or, to put it i n neutral terms, one was either a historian or a novelist, not
both at the same time. Times have changed and nowadays people are
combining history and fiction.
Leonard Blussé (born 1946) is emeritus professor of overseas history at
Leiden University in the Netherlands, specialized in the history of the
Chinese in Southeast Asia. He published extensively on, amongst others,
the Dutch East India Company (VOC) in the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries. His sole work of historical fiction is the novel Bitter Bonds: A
Colonial Divorce Drama of the Seventeenth Century. The award -winning
English version appeared in 2002 but had been preceded by a Dutch -
language version in 1998. Cornelia van Nijenrode, the main character of
the story has to endure an uphill strugg le considering the subordinate legal
and social position of women in the seventeenth century. But at long last,
after fifteen years, she gets her divorce. The novel is based on meticulous
archival research. It vividly depicts what life was like in the metr opolis of
the Dutch East India Company in the seventeenth century. The plot makes
use of reactions inferred from primary sources rather than purely fictitious
characters.
Alison Weir (born 1951) is as a writer of popular history without a formal
affiliatio n with an academic institution. She has been extraordinarily
prolific, publishing numerous works of non -fiction as well as seven
historical novels. She developed a specialization in historical biography, in
particular writing about women of importance to B ritish history such as
Eleanor of Aquitaine, Queen, first of France, then of England, in the munotes.in

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133 Difference between History, Memory and Biography twelfth century. In addition, she wrote on the British royal families and the
six wives of Henry VIII. She made her debut as a writer of historical
fiction in 2007 with the novel Innocent Traitor about the unfortunate Lady
Jane Grey, queen for nine days in 1553. Another six novels have so far
followed suit, Recent novels include The Marriage Game about Elizabeth
I and the Earl of Leicester (2014) and a fictionalized biography of Anne
Boleyn (2017).
Saul David (born 1966) is professor of military history at the University of
Buckingham and a popular presenter of programs on military and imperial
matters on British television. He published numerous studies on military
personalities and specific military events, notably the Indian mutiny in
1857 and the Allied invasion of Italy in 1943. His career as a writer of
historical fiction commenced in 2007 with the novel Zulu Hart, set in a
war in South Africa that the same auth or at an earlier stage had covered in
non-fictional form. Zulu Hart is the first volume in a series of novels about
George Hart, a young soldier of mixed Irish and African descent. In its
sequel, Hart of Empire (2010a), protagonist George Hart gets involve d in
the Second Anglo -Afghan War (1878 -1882). The plot of both novels is
based on a synthesis of military fact and sometimes romantic fiction.
Readers’ reactions were mixed but commentators were impressed by the
amount and accuracy of military detail.
Simo n Sebag Montefiore (born 1965) holds a PhD in history from
Cambridge University. He developed a specialization in Russian history,
writing on such diverse figures as for instance Catherine the Great and
Stalin. In the meantime, he gained popularity as an a cclaimed presenter of
historical programs on British television. Although he began publishing
historical fiction already in the 1990s, his best -known fictional work is of
later date. The novel Sashenka (2008) focuses on the fate of a young
woman at the tim e just before and just after the Russian Revolution in
1917. It is full of emotion and suspense with a wealth of historical detail.
The novel was very well received. It was the first volume of a trilogy of
dramatic life stories situated in the days of revo lution and under Stalin’s
harsh regime. The sequels are titled One Night in Winter (2013) and Red
Sky at Noon (2017). Together, these three novels became known as the
‘Moscow Trilogy’. Reviewers praised the accuracy in historical details,
whereas, striking ly, fellow historians complained about factual errors in
his recent non -fiction work on the history of the Romanov family
(Harrison, 2017).
Ian Mortimer (born 1967) is affiliated with the universities of Exeter and
Reading and a specialist on British medie val and early modern history. He
published biographies of Edward III and Henry IV and reached a large,
general audience with The Time Traveller’s Guide to Medieval England
(2008). In recent years he has moved into the genre of historical function,
using a pen name, James Forrester. His socalledClarenceaux trilogy
focused on the Elizabethan period and embraced the novels Sacred
Treason, Roots of Betrayal and The Final Sacrement (2010 - 2012). The
plot is set in the 1560s. The protagonist is William Harley, an actual
historical figure, holding the office of ‘Clarenceaux King of Arms’ in an munotes.in

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134 Sources in Historical Research ancient college of arms in London. As a custodian of Catholic tradition he
is torn between loyalties to the crown under the Protestant Elizabeth I and
his religion. The trilo gy was applauded for its suspense and the author’s
demonstrated familiarity with the period.
Check your progress:
1) What is the general attitude of historians towards fiction?
2) Examine some examples of historians who have become novelists.
11.6 COMBINING HISTORY AND FICTION Historical fiction is not easy. It has been characterized as ‘a peculiarly
demanding and problematic genre’, in which the plot negotiates ‘between
readers’ contemporary sensibilities and historical accuracy’ (Brown,
1998). The writer of historical fiction is continuously seeking to strike the
right balance between the standards of history as a science and the artistic
ambitions of fiction. It is the compromise between historical accuracy and
literary imagination that makes the genre so demanding but that is also one
reason why it carries such a strong appeal to both readers and writers.
Factual accuracy is highly valued in historical fiction. Readers will be
disappointed by obvious factual errors, not to speak of react ions by
professional historians. This being said, it invites a set of questions of
crucial importance to the effort of combining history and fiction in such a
way that the outcome is acceptable in both worlds. How do we define
historical accuracy? How much historical detail should be provided? How
should actual historical figures be handled? And, finally, what kind of
historical reality can a novel convey? These four questions need to be
touched upon briefly. Science has come a long way since the adagium of
German historian Leopold van Ranke (1795 -1886), proclaiming that the
task of the historian is to find out ‘what has essentially happened’ (Evans,
2000: 17).
There is now widespread consensus that history must not be considered as
a piece of information o f absolute certainty. The historical account is by
definition a perception of reality in the past. Although supported by
empirical facts, it remains a narrative in itself. And, as we all know,
perceptions of the same reality may vary a great deal across ob servers.
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135 Difference between History, Memory and Biography reality is applicable in fictionalized format. Therefore, the writer needs to
view historical sources with a critical eye, just as professional historians
are supposed to do . Incidentally, this also implies that serious historical
fiction is difficult to reconcile with alt -history (for alternative), where
pivotal events are given another outcome than sources tell. But how much
historical detail should there be in story? Exces sively much will most
likely discourage or bore the reader. An important key consideration is
how much readers can be expected to know about the historical events and
personalities and the times depicted in the story. Much detail may be
necessary when read ers are not familiar with the historical background
(Fleming, 2004).
Another consideration refers to the very function of historical detail in the
story. The idea is not to demonstrate the author’s wide knowledge of
history but rather to submerge the reade r into a fascinating past offering a
measure of familiarity that was not there before reading the story. Period
detail is important, not in itself but because it renders a stronger sense of
authenticity to the story (David, 2010b). That is also why a top p riority
needs to be attached to accuracy in historical detail. Actual historical
persons are indispensable when mixing history and fiction, but how do we
go about them? Again, much depends on how familiar the historical
persons are to readers and what thei r function is in the plot. Widespread
previous knowledge about a historical person tends to reduce the degrees
of freedom available to the author in depicting the person. Do the
historical persons serve as minor figures in the plot, next to fictitious
protagonists, or does the author aim at a fictionalized biography? The
former approach is in the line of Simon Sebag Montefiore, where the latter
one was successfully applied by Hilary Mantel with respect to Thomas
Cromwell. Special caution needs to be exercis ed when expressing
thoughts and emotions by persons who have actually lived. Whenever the
author writes ‘he thought’ or ‘she felt’, it is clear that it is the author’s
imagination at work.
Historical figures should at all times stay true to the spirit of the person
(Mantel, 2009a). This is only achieved by careful and critical study of
preserved documents such as letters and diaries. Historical fiction conveys
a certain historical reality, which inevitably deviates from actual or
perceived historical reali ty. The author has been compelled to take
liberties with the historical facts in order to make the story fit the format of
fiction. Saul David urges historical novelists to be restrictive when
applying such liberties. To this opinion, the story should stay closely to
perceived historical truth, thus offering readers with a kind of history as it
could conceivably have looked like (David, 2010b). This translates as an
overall guideline for almost any kind of historical fiction, whilst ruling out
an all too li beral use of the author’s own imagination. Historical fiction
flourishes by virtue of attractive narratives, as opposed to the kind of
painstaking and systematic analysis characteristic of much of the historical
science. Current popularity with historical fiction, not only in novels but
even more so in adaptations for the screen, has encouraged the
narratization of history at large. An acknowledged specialist on the munotes.in

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136 Sources in Historical Research historical novel as a genre, Jerome de Groot, even spoke of a tendency
towards ‘perverting h istory’ (De Groot, 2015). It is apparent that not all
branches of the historical science lend themselves readily for fiction. The
narrative carries a strong appeal to the general public. Yet readers and
viewers are easily left with a somewhat distorted per ception of what
history is all about.
Costly television series, intended for a mass audience, are currently
making a highly significant contribution towards popularizing history and
supporting the genre of historical fiction. The issue of accuracy of
historical fact is brought to a head when historical events and persons are
displayed on the screen rather than being derived from the author’s
description. A notorious example is the television series Vikings, already
into its sixth season at Britain’s Histor y Channel. The series was charged
with blatant inaccuracies in the very appearance of the Vikings (Wallace,
2016). Other celebrated adaptations for television include BBC’s mini -
series Wolf Hall in 2015, the French -Canadian joint venture Versailles
with tw o completed seasons (2015 -2017) and Netflix production The
Crown, also with two completed seasons so far (2016 -2017). A few
scattered observations on the latter two appear relevant in the context of
the preceding discussion about the importance of accuracy in historical
detail. Versailles pictures personal life and immediatesof Louis XIV in the
late 1660s and early 1670s. The true essence of the elaborate plot lies in
the relationship between the two brothers, Louis XIV, brother and king,
and Philip of Orle ans, only brother, and the most famous openly gay man
of the seventeenth century. This highly complex relationship is depicted
with a great sense for drama. Still, a few unnecessary modifications of the
historical reality were made. For instance, the two b rothers realized how
strong their mutual bond in fact was, not at the deathbed of Philip’s wife
Henriette in 1673 as in the series but at the more likely moment of their
mother’s deathbed in 1665. Also, Philip’s sincere deep concern about the
health of his brother was not when they were adults as shown, but at an
earlier stage when they were teenagers and arguably more prone to
emotional outbursts (Barker, 1989).
A pivotal scene in the second season of Versailles features an
extraordinary conversation betw een Louis XIV and his main adversary,
the far younger and more naïve William of Orange, situated in a
monastery in Utrecht during the vain attempt by Louis XIV to invade the
Dutch Republic in 1672. Again, the viewer gets great drama. The only
problem is th at this meeting never took place. Few producers of historical
fiction have taken as much liberties with historical fact as the makers of
Versailles.
The first two seasons of The Crown follow Elizabeth II from her marriage
to Prince Philip in 1947 to the m id-1960s. The series shows restraint in
presenting scenes that may cause offense, especially where still living
historical persons are involved. It appears faithful to historical accuracy
and rightly keeps away from speculations about extramarital activiti es of
Prince Philip. As in all fictionalized contemporary history, the actual munotes.in

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137 Difference between History, Memory and Biography historical figures are by appearance well -known to viewers, which makes
appropriate casting absolutely crucial. In The Crown the casting was
highly successful for Churchill, but far less so for Kennedy. The producer
of historical fiction, in writing or for the screen, can choose between
different approaches with respect to handling the issue of accuracy in
historical detail. The most cautious one is to introduce a fictitious perso n
who observes an historical event or a historical person. It is a safe way to
avoid the pitfalls of disputable interpretations, let alone factual errors. One
step further is to step into the mind of an actual historical person,
reproducing talk, thoughts and emotions as best as possible. Daisy
Goodwin opted for this solution when writing about the young Queen
Victoria. However, her intimate involvement with the protagonist
presupposed a liberal use of her own imagination. This implied making the
most of th e young woman’s virtual infatuation with her far older Prime
Minister, Melbourne, which in turn implied ignoring Albert, her later
husband. In the novel Victoria changes her mind improbably fast. It is not
commensurate with historical fact as Victoria’s wa rm feelings for Albert
are reported to date from before she became queen (Strachey, 1921). A
third option is the one chosen in Versailles. The timing of key moments is
altered and historical events are even invented. There is room for
unfounded allegations as in the case of the presumed implication by
Madame de Montespan in the series of poisoning at Versailles in the
1760s. Although taking such liberties does expand the scope for fictional
drama, it fails to do full justice to history. These three options are at the
disposal of both the novelist wishing to use history and the professional
historian wishing to become a novelist. All three have their shortcomings
and advantages. In the final analysis, it is the author who decides which
path to choose.
Check y our progress:
1) Discuss the ways in which history and fiction are combined.
11.7 SUMMARY These reflections on the combination of history and fiction have brought
to light a number of observations about historical fiction as a genre in its
own rig ht. The genre has demonstrably great potential precisely on
account of its twin origins in historical science and fiction as an artistic
expression. A limited selection of writers has highlighted the impressive
versatility of novelists using historical mat erials within widely different
national traditions of literature. Another limited selection of writers has
underscored a similar versatility within the more recent trend of
professional historians turning novelists. A further digression of the
possibilitie s of combining history and fiction emphasized the crucial point munotes.in

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138 Sources in Historical Research of accuracy in historical detail. This digression ended with a
differentiation of how to combine history and fiction, ranked by level of
accuracy of detail and direct involvement by the author in the historical
scenery. Historical fiction remains strangely demanding and problematic.
11.8 QUESTIONS 1. Analyze the concept of History.
2. Discuss the approach of Fiction.
3. Examine the difference between History and Fiction.
11.9 REFERENCES  Reynolds, Andrew (1999). "What is historicism?". International
Studies in the Philosophy of Science. 13 ISSN 0269 -8595
 Lectures on the History of Philosophy, Volume 3", By Georg
Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Translated by E. S. Haldane and Frances H.
Simson, M. A ., University of Nebraska Press.
 https://www.britannica.com/biography/Leopold -von-
Ranke#ref291476, written by Rudolf Vierhaus , Professor and
Director, Max Planck Institute for History, Göttingen, Germany.
 David Mikics, ed. A New Handbook of Literary Terms , 2007.
 Toews, J. (2019). Historicism from Ranke to Nietzsche. In W.
Breckman& P. Gordon (Eds.), The Cambridge History of Modern
European Thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 https://m ises.org/library/history -and-fiction , History and Fiction
[Excerpted from chapter 12 of Theory and History .] by Ludwig Von
Mises. Accessed on 5th September 2022.
 History and Fiction: An Uneasy Marriage? J. Thomas Lindblad
Leiden University, the Netherlands/Universitas Gadjah Mada,
Indonesia in
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326094886_History_and_Fi
ction_An_Uneasy_Marriage/link/5b38 2b314585150d23e98b4c/downl
oad, Accessed on 5th September 2022


*****

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139 12
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HISTORY AND
ANTIQUARIANISM
Unit Structure
12.0 Objectives
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Differences between History and Antiquarianism
12.3 Relationship between History and Antiquarianism
12.4 History of Antiquarianism
12.5 Historia ns and Antiquaries
12.6 Summary
12.7 Questions
12.8 References
12.0 OBJECTIVES  To introduce students to Sources in Historical Research.
 To shed light on the Analysis of sources.
 To understand History and its characteristics.
 To orient learners about History and Antiquarianism .
12.1 INTRODUCTION In the previous unit we have seen the relationship and difference between
history and fiction. In this unit we will try to analyse the difference
between history and antiquarianism. Antiquarianism is an interest in the
customs, art, and social structure of earlier peoples and civilizations. An
antiquarian or antiquary is an enthusiast or student of antiquities or things
of the past. More specifically, the term is used for those who study history
with particular atte ntion to ancient artifacts, archaeological and historic
sites, or historic archives and manuscripts. The essence of antiquarianism
is a focus on the empirical evidence of the past, and is perhaps best
encapsulated in the motto adopted by the 18th -century a ntiquary, Sir
Richard Colt Hoare, "We speak from facts not theory". Today the term is
often used in a disapproving sense, to refer to an excessively narrow focus
on factual historical trivia, to the exclusion of a sense of historical context
or process.

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140 Check your progress:
1) Define Antiquarianism.
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12.2 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN HISTORY AND ANTIQUARIANISM Antiquarianism and history have always been closely related, because they
are both disciplines primarily concern ed with the study of the past.
Historians, however, do not generally use the word 'antiquarian' in a
positive sense. If a book is described as 'antiquarian' the implication is that
its focus is narrow; that it is full of detail; but that it fails to see th e 'big
picture'. Antiquarian scholarship may be meticulously researched, but
there is often an assumption that the subject matter is obscure, of little
interest to anyone except the specialist, and that in the midst of empirical
detail, the argument is los t. History, by contrast, seeks to analyse,
understand and explain; it is interested in ideas as much as artefacts, and
considers the general as well as a specific. It is an interpretation of the past
rather than a simple record of factual observations.
There is a long history to this rather negative view of antiquarianism and
its relationship to history. Even in the 17th century the figure of the
antiquary was mocked as a man strangely cautious of Time past, and a
person indeed who fetches out many things w hen they are now all rotten
and stinking. It was said that he is one that has that unnatural disease to be
charmed of old age and wrinkles, and loves all things which are stale and
worm -eaten.
This image of the antiquarian suggests an unhealthy, unreasonab le
fascination with the past, which values objects indiscriminately because of
their age and their state of decay, rather than because of their meaning or
significance. Given the negative associations of the word 'antiquarian' it is
hardly surprising that few people today define themselves primarily as
such. There is, however, a large and flourishing Society of Antiquaries
(founded 1707) which has a current membership of over 2,300. There are
also numerous regional and local societies which bear the word
'antiquarian' in their title, such as the Cambridge Antiquarian Society, the
Halifax Antiquarian Society, the Bradford Historical and Antiquarian
Society or the Numismatic and Antiquarian Society of Philadelphia.
The membership of the Society of Antiquaries of London includes
archaeologists, art historians, architectural historians, historians
specialising in any period from ancient history to the 20th century,
archivists, and professionals involved in heritage and conservation. The
majority, however, are co ncerned with some aspect of the material
remains of the past, whether through archaeology, works of art, munotes.in

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141 Difference between History and Antiquarianism manuscripts and books, or the built environment. Archaeologists are by
the far the largest single group in the Society of Antiquaries, and although
the recent exhibition celebrating the Society of Antiquaries' history was
called 'Making History', there was an undeniable emphasis upon the
contribution of the Society and its membership to the development of
archaeology as a profession and a discipline. Thu s the antiquarians of
today are still associated with an object -oriented approach to the past, and
with the excavation and preservation of its material remains.
What then has antiquarianism had to offer the discipline of history, as
opposed to the developm ent of modern archaeology? Traditionally, it was
seen as the 'handmaid' to history, providing the raw materials from which
a historical narrative might be constructed, and verifying the events of
history with corroborative material derived from the evidenc e of, for
example, coins and inscriptions. But this understanding of the nature of
the relationship between antiquarianism and history was articulated at a
time when the writing of history was essentially a literary exercise, rather
than a work of research as we would understand it today. The historian
strove to write a narrative that was both elegant in tone and edifying in
content. The purpose of writing history was to provide a guide to action
for the present. The antiquarian was simply concerned with th e recovery
of the empirical detail of the past.
Antiquarians prided themselves upon avoiding guesswork, fancy,
distortion and exaggeration. Whilst historians might write for polemical
purposes, to prove a political or moral point, the antiquarian presented the
facts simply as they happened. Historians might try to force the events of
the past into some preconceived agenda but the antiquarian was studiously
neutral. As one antiquarian, Sir Richard Colt Hoare, succinctly expressed
it, 'We speak from facts not theory'.(4) In their emphasis upon rigorous
empirical observation and comparative analysis, the antiquarians of the
past borrowed much of the language of scientific experimentation: they
compared their own labours to that of the scientist in a laboratory. They
were proud to claim that antiquarianism was a science, based upon
scrupulous observation and attention to detail.
The importance of careful empirical research, whether documentary or
archaeological, fed into mainstream history in the 19th century. Hi storians
such as William Stubbs, who founded the chair in constitutional history at
the University of Oxford, used profoundly 'antiquarian' methods and
sources in their research. Similarly, the demand of Leopold von Ranke
that historians should seek to est ablish objectivity through thorough and
detailed archival research has a clear tone with the ethos of antiquarian
scholarship expressed by the 18th -century antiquarian, Richard Gough:
'The arrangement and the proper use of facts', he wrote, is history'.
In our post -modern age historians have less confidence in their ability to
'recover' the past with empirical certainty, but it is still possible to trace the
influence of antiquarian thinking and methodology upon the history. For
example, although historians from a social science background may not be
accustomed to think of themselves as 'antiquarian' in spirit, they are munotes.in

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142 perhaps as close as anyone today in the historical profession to the
antiquarians of the past. They collect evidence methodically; they use
comparative analysis; they often believe that their data reflects the
objective reality of the past; and like antiquarians of the past, they define
their discipline as a 'science'. In earlier periods, critics, poured disrespect
on antiquarians because they were interested in the most dull remains of
the material past: a rusty ring, fragments of clothing, medical recipes or
children's toys. Such items, antiquarians believed, shed light on the
'manners and customs' of the past. Today we can recognise this ear ly
interest in the customs, habits and dress of 'ordinary' people as one of the
foundation stones of social history.
The legacy of antiquarianism also lives on in the field of family history.
Genealogical studies were always a key element of antiquarian re search
and were crucial in establishing legal rights to property in cases of
disputed inheritance or in demonstrating the antiquity of one's family
lineage, at a time when social status was much more dependent on birth
and ownership of land. Family histori ans today owe a debt of gratitude to
the researches of earlier antiquarians and share much of their methodology
and their sources. But the family historian is not the modern equivalent of
the 18th - or 19th -century antiquarian. Rather, they are generally mo tivated
by the desire to discover something about where their family came from.
The need to establish the rights of inheritance to property or the antiquity
of one's family has lost the pressing urgency which originally gave rise to
this branch of study.
Similarly, antiquarianism has always had strong links with the study of
local history. Some of the earliest antiquaries were topographers such as
John Leland or William Camden who realised that the landscape could
offer important clues about the history of the people who had once
inhabited that place. The first attempts to trace Roman roads, to describe
stone circles, or to identify iron age forts were made by antiquarians.
Moreover, antiquarians have always appreciated the importance of the
local study for illustrating the impact of historical change upon individuals
and communities. The pursuit of total history exemplified by the Annales
school shares the same all -encompassing vision of the past that
antiquarians sought to recover in earlier periods. Simila rly, the
interdisciplinarity which is one of the defining strengths of local history, is
the modern equal to the intellectual diversity practised by antiquarians of
the past.
Check your progress:
1) Examine the difference between History and Antiquarianism .
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143 Difference between History and Antiquarianism 2) Examine the contribution of Antiquarianism to History.
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12.3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HISTORY AND ANTIQUARIANISM In the eighteenth -century antiquaries were mocked as the “muddle -
headed” collectors of old things and odd facts. Scholars like Arnold
Momigliana argued that Antiquarianism was not, the pastime of strange
fetishists who hoarded old stuff just because it was old; rather,
antiquarianism established the founda tion of so -called “modern” history
by making the study of primary source material, including physical
remains, the foundations on which historians’ claims about the past should
be based. Momigliano explained that religious and political history in the
seventeenth century was based around the work of traditional historians.
Suspicious that polemical biases had corrupted the writings of traditional
historians, antiquaries bypassed secondary accounts of the past and went
straight to examining primary, often no nliterary, sources instead. In so
doing, they established archival documents and archaeological artifacts as
the most reliable evidence for historical study —and future historians
found themselves tasked with discovering and describing such evidence
before they could proceed to interpreting it.
Since 1950, scholars have followed Momigliano’s lead and examinedhow
antiquaries disciplined historical inquiry. Antiquarianism, however,has
come under fire again in the twenty -first century. Critics say that
antiquar ianism that now operates under the guise of modern
historiography. These twenty -first century dismissals of antiquarianism
share the assumptions of Momigliano’s midcentury readers: that
antiquaries collect the waste of the past for its own sake. They also,
however, accept the argument that Momigliano made: that antiquarianism
constitutes a rigorous method of study that prioritizes the discovery of
history’s bare facts over theories.
But there are also supporters of antiquarianism. They say that Antiquaries
were not confused fetishists for objects or for facts who avoided from
varieties of speculation. Antiquaries like Aubrey and Britton said that old
objects had the power to reveal facts about the past. Although this power
meant that those old objects contro lled interpretive possibilities, it just as
often meant that those old objects enticed antiquaries into speculating
about matters that exceeded the physical as well as the temporal
boundedness of the objects themselves. In this way, antiquarianism was
not the deadening methodology that twenty -first century academics who
are eager to escape the tyranny of positivism should dismiss. Rather,
antiquarianism is a method they might consider returning to for the ways it
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144 of lively historical artifacts into theories that transcended the boundaries
between the past and the present as well as between the personal and the
political.
Supporters say that antiquarianism has a preference for prim ary sources
and the facts they preserve; on the other hand, they use antiquarianism to
signify an interpretive mode that turns the facts one finds in primary
sources into interpretations of sociocultural phenomena. They study the
effects of the specific hi storical contexts and particular slices of time in
particular places in which they occurred.
Check your progress:
1) Discuss the relationship between History and Antiquarianism.
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12.4 HISTORY OF ANTIQUARIANISM In ancient Rome, a strong sense of traditionalism motivated an interest in
studying and recording the monuments of the past; the Augustan historian
Livy uses the Latin monumenta in the sense of antiquarian matters. Books
on antiquarian topics covered such s ubjects as the origin of customs,
religious rituals, and political institutions; genealogy; topography and
landmarks; and etymology. Annals and histories might also include
sections pertaining to these subjects, but annals are chronological in
structure, a nd Roman histories, such as those of Livy and Tacitus, are both
chronological and offer an overarching narrative and interpretation of
events. By contrast, antiquarian works as a literary form are organized by
topic, and any narrative is short and illustra tive, in the form of anecdotes.
Major antiquarian Latin writers with surviving works include Varro, Pliny
the Elder, Aulus Gellius, and Macrobius. The Roman emperor Claudius
published antiquarian works, none of which is extant. Some of Cicero's
treatises, particularly his work on divination, show strong antiquarian
interests, but their primary purpose is the exploration of philosophical
questions. Roman -era Greek writers also dealt with antiquarian material,
such as Plutarch in his Roman Questions and the D eipnosophistae of
Athenaeus. The aim of Latin antiquarian works is to collect a great
number of possible explanations, with less emphasis on arriving at a truth
than in compiling the evidence. The antiquarians are often used as sources
by the ancient histo rians, and many antiquarian writers are known only
through these citations.
Despite the importance of antiquarian writing in the literature of ancient
Rome, some scholars view antiquarianism as emerging only in the Middle
Ages. Medieval antiquarians someti mes made collections of inscriptions
or records of monuments, but the concept of antiquities among the munotes.in

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145 Difference between History and Antiquarianism Romans as the systematic collections of all the relics of the past faded.
Antiquarianism's wider blossoming is more generally associated with the
Renaiss ance, and with the critical assessment and questioning of classical
texts undertaken in that period by humanist scholars. Textual criticism
soon broadened into an awareness of the supplementary perspectives on
the past which could be offered by the study o f coins, inscriptions and
other archaeological remains, as well as documents from medieval
periods. Antiquaries often formed collections of these and other objects;
cabinet of curiosities is a general term for early collections, which often
encompassed ant iquities and more recent art, items of natural history,
memorabilia and items from far -away lands.
The importance placed on lineage in early modern Europe meant that
antiquarianism was often closely associated with genealogy, and a number
of prominent anti quaries including Robert Glover, William Camden,
William Dugdale and Elias Ashmole) held office as professional heralds.
The development of genealogy as a "scientific" discipline i.e. one that
rejected unsubstantiated legends, and demanded high standards o f proof
for its claims went hand -in-hand with the development of antiquarianism.
Genealogical antiquaries recognised the evidential value for their
researches of non -textual sources, including seals and church monuments.
Many early modern antiquaries were also chorographers: that is to say,
they recorded landscapes and monuments within regional or national
descriptions. In England, some of the most important of these took the
form of county histories. In the context of the 17th -century scientific
revolution , and more specifically that of the Quarrel of the Ancients and
the Moderns in England and France, the antiquaries were firmly on the
side of the Moderns. They increasingly argued that empirical primary
evidence could be used to refine and challenge the re ceived interpretations
of history handed down from literary authorities.
By the end of the 19th century, antiquarianism had diverged into a number
of more specialized academic disciplines including archaeology, art
history, numismatics, sigillography, phil ology, literary studies and
diplomatics. Antiquaries had always attracted a degree of ridicule, and
since the mid -19th century the term has tended to be used most commonly
in negative or derogatory contexts. Nevertheless, many practising
antiquaries contin ue to claim the title with pride. In recent years, in a
scholarly environment in which interdisciplinarity is increasingly
encouraged, many of the established antiquarian societies see below have
found new roles as facilitators for collaboration between sp ecialists.
"Antiquary" was the usual term in English from the 16th to the mid -18th
centuries to describe a person interested in antiquities. Until the second
quarter of the 19th century, there was very little market for what are now
considered to be antiqu es; accordingly, prices were remarkably low. In
England the increasing appreciation of such items was connected with the
Gothic Revival and with Romantic antiquarianism. The English man of
letters Horace Walpole was one of the first collectors to furnish h is house
with antiques as well as antiquities. His example was followed by the munotes.in

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146 eccentric author William Beckford at Fonthill Abbey and was paralleled
on the Continent by collectors such as Alexandre du Sommerard, founder
of the Cluny Museum.
This spirit of antiquarianism affected silverwork in London during the
Regency period: Rundell, Bridge and Rundell, England’s leading silver
manufacturer, built up a huge stock of old silver to use as a design source
for their products. The interest in antiques also led to the emergence of
dealers whose primary trade was the supply of secondhand goods. One of
the most successful in England was Edward Holmes Baldock, who in the
1830s supplied his aristocratic clients with a mixture of masterpieces and
fakes.
The last quar ter of the 19th century saw a shift from aristocratic to
plutocratic collecting, a trend exemplified by families such as the
Rothschilds. By about 1900, American collectors had started to play a
major role in the antiques and art markets. They were supplie d by the likes
of Jacques Seligmann, the great Parisian dealer whose clients included
industrialist Henry Clay Frick, financier John Pierpont Morgan, and
merchant S.H. Kress.
Check your progress:
1) Discuss the history of Antiquarianism.
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12.5 HISTORIANS AND ANTIQUARIES From the 16th to the 19th centuries, a clear distinction was perceived to
exist between the interests and activities of the antiquary and the historian.
The antiquary was concerned with the relics of the past whether
documents, artefacts or monuments, whereas the historian was concerned
with the narrative of the past, and its political or moral lessons for the
present. The skills of the antiquary tended to be those of the critical
examination and in terrogation of his sources, whereas those of the
historian were those of the philosophical and literary reinterpretation of
received narratives. Francis Bacon in 1605 described readings of the past
based on antiquities as unperfect Histories. Such distinct ions began to be
eroded in the second half of the 19th century as the school of empirical
source -based history championed by Leopold von Ranke began to find
widespread acceptance, and today's historians employ the full range of
techniques pioneered by the early antiquaries.
18th-century antiquaries had more in common with the professional
historian of the twenty -first century, in terms of methodology, approach to
sources and the struggle to reconcile erudition with style, than did the
authors of the grand narratives of national history. In many European munotes.in

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147 Difference between History and Antiquarianism languages, the word antiquarian (or its equivalent) has shifted in modern
times to refer to a person who either trades in or collects rare and ancient
antiquarian books; or who trades in or collects antique objects more
generally. In English, however, the word either as antiquarian or antiquary
very rarely carries this sense. An antiquarian is primarily a student of
ancient books, documents, artefacts or monuments. Many antiquarians
have also built up extensi ve personal collections in order to inform their
studies, but a far greater number have not; and conversely many collectors
of books or antiques would not regard themselves or be regarded as
antiquarians.
Antiquaries often appeared to possess an unwholesom e interest in death,
decay, and the unfashionable, while their focus on obscure and arcane
details meant that they seemed to lack an awareness both of the realities
and practicalities of modern life, and of the wider currents of history. For
all these reas ons they frequently became objects of ridicule.
Professional historians still often use the term "antiquarian" in a
derogatory sense, to refer to historical studies which seem concerned only
to place on record unimportant or insignificant facts, and which fail to
consider the wider implications of these, or to formulate any kind of
argument. The term is also sometimes applied to the activities of amateur
historians such as historical reenactors, who may have a meticulous
approach to reconstructing the costu mes or material culture of past eras,
but who are perceived to lack much understanding of the cultural values
and historical contexts of the periods in question.
Writing local histories was a favourite hobby of many in the 18th century
who had spare time, money, and a desire to find out more about their
towns and country. Rosemary Sweet examines some of the motivations of
local historians and the usefulness of their work for historians today.
Local historians, wrote John Ives in 1772, ‘are no longer represe nted as
men of uncultivated minds, fit only to pore over musty records, or grovel
amongst ruined walls; and their accounts are no longer considered the dull
outpourings of meticulousness or the wordyes says of folly’. Ives’
comment reflects the enormous po pularity of writing – and reading – local
history during the 18th century.
At community, urban and county level, thousands of individuals were
compiling historical collections throughout the 18th century. Many of
these made it into print, but even more rem ained unpublished, as
‘collections towards’: either because the costs of publication were too high
and the potential market too small, or because the author was unable to
bring his researches into publishable form. There were many who, like Sir
Peter Thomp son of Poole, collected materials for a local history but found
the putting them into a Method for the Public too arduous a task. As a
result the British Library and local record officers are full of unpublished
collections or notes for local history.
Most local historians of the 18th century would also have regarded
themselves as ‘antiquaries’, that is someone interested in any aspect of the munotes.in

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Sources in Historical Research
148 remains of the past, and as such they studied both the material and the
textual remains of the past. They were not bothered about disciplinary
boundaries: they concerned themselves with anything relating to their
locality – particularly in the past, but also in the present, being conscious
that materials collected in their own time would be the historical records
of th e future. Local history and antiquarianism went hand in hand and
cannot be clearly distinguished, but this essay will focus upon
antiquarianism which was pursued in specific local contexts. Within this
very broad context, however, a number of themes can be identified that are
common to much of the local history that was produced.
Check your progress:
1) Discuss the interconnection between historians and antiquarians.
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12.6 SUMMARY Antiquarianism, the early modern study of the past, occupies a central role
in modern studies of humanist and post -humanist scholarship. Its
relationship to modern disciplines such as archaeology is widely
acknowledged, and many antiquaries such as John Aubrey, William
Camden, and William Dugdale are well -known to the historians.
Antiquarian scholarship responded to diverse needs and flowered in
diverse conditions across early modern Europe. Unsurprisingly, its
practices were equally diverse and varied widely from region to region,
country to country. In understanding the discipline as a whole, then, no
single national study can hope to fully understand its diversity; as new
scholarly traditions are investigated, new forms of antiquarianism will
emerge. This applies not only in space, but i n time. At the end of the end
of the eighteenth and the beginning of the nineteenth century,
antiquarianism’ began to undergo a profound semantic shift, becoming a
term of abuse for poor scholarship or a love of pointless detail rather than
for the multi -disciplinary study of the past. This should not, however, lead
us into a belief that antiquarianism decayed or died. Instead, antiquarian
practices assumed new labels as the modern historical and social sciences.
12.7 QUESTIONS 1. Analyze the concept of An tiquarianism.
2. Discuss the difference between History and Antiquarianism.
3. Examine the relationship between History and Antiquarianism.
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149 Difference between History and Antiquarianism 12.8. REFERENCES  Brian Leiter, Michael Rosen (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of
Continental Philosophy, Oxford Univer sity Press, 2007.
 Reynolds, Andrew (1999). "What is historicism?". International
Studies in the Philosophy of Science. 13 ISSN 0269 -8595
 https://www.britannica.com/biography/Leopold -von-
Ranke#ref291476, written by Rudolf Vierhaus , Professor and
Director, Max Planck Institute for History, Göttingen, Germany.
 David Mikics, ed. A New Handbook of Literary Terms, 2007.
 Toews, J. (2019). Historicism from Ranke to Nietzsche. In W.
Breckman& P. Gordon (Eds.), The Cambridge History of Modern
European Thought. Camb ridge: Cambridge University Press.
 Antiquarianism as a Vital Historiography for the Twenty -First
Century, Crystal B. Lake,
https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/full/10.1086/702584,
Accessed on 9th September 2022.
 Antiquarianism and history, Roey
Sweet,htt ps://archives.history.ac.uk/makinghistory/resources/articles/a
ntiquarianism.html, Accessed on 9th September 2022.
 https://educalingo.com/en/dic -
en/antiquarianismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiquarian
 https://www.britannica.com/topic/art -market/The -rise-of-the-
antique#ref1052155
 Antiquarianism: A Reinterpretation, Kelsey Jackson
Williams,https://dspace.stir.ac.uk/bitstream/1893/24655/1/Antiquarian
ism%20Survey%20AAM.pdf



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