MA-History-SEM-2-Paper-7-Milestones-in-World-History-1750-CE-1960-CE-English-Version-munotes

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INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION: NATURE
AND IMPACT
Unit Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Meaning of the Industrial Revolution
1.3 Nature of Industrial Revolution
1.4 Causes of Industrial Revolution
1.5 Development of Industrial Revolution
1.6 Impact of the Industrial Revolution
1.7 Growth of Socialism and Communism
1.8 Summary
1.9 Questions
1.10 Additional Readings

1.0 OBJECTIVES • To understand the meaning of the Industrial Revolution.
• To examine the nature of the Industrial Revolution.
• To know the causes of the Industrial Revolution.
• To study the course of the Industrial Revolution.
• To review the development of the Industrial Revolution
• To assess the impact of the Industrial Revolution.

1.1 INTRODUCTION From the beginning of history u ntil the Industrial Revolution the work in
the world was done with hand tools. During this time power was supplied
by human or animal muscles wit h the help of pulleys or levers . It was also
supplemented by force of running water or moving air. The process of
shifting from hand tools to power machinery for substitution of manual
work by machines can be termed as Industrial Revolution . The earlier
revolutions were t urbulent and affected political , religious and social life.
Many of them were destructive and w ere accompanied by executions,
imprisonments and wars. The Industrial Revolution was slow and quiet
but when it gained momentum, it became the most noisy , affecting every
aspect of the life of man. munotes.in

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2 Industrial Revolution: Nature And Impact Looking back over the past, to the times when men lived t he life of
hunting and food gathering, one marvels at the progress men have made
since then. Inventions of fire, cultivation, wheel and metals were on
themselves magnificent achievements for the ancient men. Industri al
Revolution has proved to be even a gr eater achievement. It transformed
the agrarian society into an industrial one and totally changed the life of
man. It also led to the conquest of the forces of nature and harnessing
them for the good of mankind.

1.2 MEANING OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 1.2.1 Meaning of a Revolution :
A revolution does two things in the first place, it overthrows the old order,
i.e., the existing state of affairs and in the second place, it establishes or
introduces new order, i e., new state of affairs, in place of the old one. In
other words, the word "revolution" means and implies a fundamental
change - a radical and remarkable change. Accordingly, when we talk of a
political revolution, we mean a complete change of government; similarly,
a diplomatic revolution means an e ntire re -arrangement of international
alliances; likewise an agrarian revolution is fundamental change in the
technique and organization of agriculture; and a social revolution stands
for a radical change in the relative importance of certain social classe s and
values of life.
1.2.2 Meaning of the Industrial Revolution :
The Industrial Revolution is one of the most significant landmarks in the
history of mankind, the consequences of which revolutionised the social,
economic, cultural and political life of th e pepole. No other revolution has
so profoundly influenced the destiny of mankind or opened up wider
vistas of human progress as the Industrial Revolution. The term Industrial
Revolution was first used and popularised by the English economic
historian, Arn old Toynbee in 1884, to describe the economic development
of England from 1760 to 1840. However, the Industrial Revolution is
regarded more as a "process than as a period of time."
The Industrial Revolution means fundamental, radical and remarkable
changes in industrial method as well as in industrial organization. In the
words of Charles Beard, "By the industrial revolution, we mean that great
transformation, which has been brought about real change during the past
one hundred and fifty years, by discoveri es and inventions, which altered
fundamentally all the methods of production and distribution, of life, and
consequently revolutionized all the economic functions of society." In
other words, the Industrial Revolution was a series of changes in the
means o f production and distribution.
Check your progress
Q. 1. What do you understand by the 'Industrial Revolution'? munotes.in

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3 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) 1.3 NATURE OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION Following were Nature of the Industrial Revolution:
1.3.1 A Change from "Domestic System" to "Factory Syste m:
The Domestic Sytem, in the words of Prof. P.A.M. Taylor, "was a form of
industrial organization, in which people worked in their own homes with
hand -operated machinery, often owned by themselves. The raw material
was distributed to them and their produ ct was collected from them for
marketing by a capitalist, who therefore, became in large measure their
employer, though he exerted no detailed supervision." Such an employer
paid wages to the worker making an article. The Factory System, on the
other hand, according to Dr. J.F. Swain, "is characterised by the
assembling of a great number of workmen in one unit, by the careful
supervision and division of labour, by the introduction of machines driven
by motive power, by the concentration of capital, and by t he establishment
of a cash nexus (wage tie) between capital and labour."
1.3.2 A Change from Small Output to Mass Production :
When a man worked under the domestic system, he could produce very
little at a time, because he worked at home with hand -operated machinery.
But once he began to work under the factory system, he could
manufacture articles and goods in large quantities, because he worked in
factory in co -operation with others on machines, driven by m achine power
such as steam or electricity.
1.3.3 N ew Basic Materials :
The manufacturers began using new basic materials, mainly iron and steel.
1.3.4 New Energy Sources :
They used, not only new basic materials but also new energy sources,
including both fuels and motive power, such as coal, the steam engi ne,
electricity, petroleum etc.
1.3.5 Inventions :
The Industrial Revolution is characterised by numerous inventions, the
early inventions being the spinning jenny, the powerloom, cotton gin,
Davy's safety lamp, steam engine, bealze -bub, seed drill, etc.
1.3.6 Application of Science to Industry :
Finally, the Industrial Revolution led to an increasing application of
science to industry.
Check your progress
Q.1 What were the nature of the Industrial Revolution?
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4 Industrial Revolution: Nature And Impact 1.4 CAUSES OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 1.4.1 Abundant Money :
For Intensive industrialization, huge capital is essential to construct
factories and machines, to hire workers, and to buy raw materials. England
had abundant money to finance large enterprises. The naval supremacy of
England encouraged over seas trade, commerce and industry, through
which the English merchants and traders amassed great wealth in the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Moreover, the use of capital was
expedited by the Bank of England and other joint stock banks, which were
legalized in 1826, by efficient handling of governmental finances, and by
the rise of a London money market, where bills could be discounted and
shares bought and sold. Finally, much of England's industrial capital was
self-generated, i.e. a manufacturer, s tarting with a small capital, enlarged
his plant by ploughing back his profits into the business.
1.4.2 Abundant Labour :
Great Britain enjoyed the benefit of abundant labour which served well in
newly -established mills, mines, factories and workshops in to wns. Labour
came from three sources. First, the British popalation almost doubled in
the eighteenth century, and doubled again in the nineteenth century.
Second, there was some immigration into England of Continental
European labour in the eighteenth centu ry, and of Irish in the nineteenth
century. Finally, thousands of agriculturists became unemployed on
account of the Agricultural Revolution and migrated to towns in search of
gainful employment in mills, factories and workshops. Further, these
workers wer e free men and hence could move freely from place to place
for jobs in factories. This was, however, not so in the case of France,
which was still an agricultural country with peasants attached to the land,
bound to their masters in a number of ways. Hence , they could not leave
the land and go over to cities to seek employment in mills and factories.
1.4.3 Rich Resources :
England was well endowed with just the resources required for
industrialization. Its climate, being damp, was highly suitable for
mechani cal spinning and weaving. It had abundant water. More important,
England had enjoyed the benefit of an abundance of coal - a cheap fuel
which was required in large quantities for running factories, mills and
workshops. Of course, France, too, had coal mines , but she was very late
in tapping such resources. It had also abundant iron.
1.4.4 Manufacture of Inexpensive Products :
England had begun, quite early, the manufacture of in -expensive and more
practical products such as woollen and linen cloth and iron an d wooden
articles of various types for which there was an ever -increasing demand
from the people, particularly of the middle class. Further, foreign markets
would automatically grow if she could supply these manufactured articles munotes.in

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5 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) at cheap rates, which was possible only if the articles were produced on a
very large scale.
This naturally led the English to invent new techniques of production and
new machines, with the help of which they could produce, in large
quantities, various types of manufactured article s. However, this was not
so in the case of France, the country which had specialised in producing
luxury goods, the demand for which was quite limited, because, firstly it
depended more on individual taste and secondly they were quite expensive
and hence w ere meant only for the rich .
1.4.5 Immigration of Artisans :
On account of religious persecution, a large number of protestant artisans
in Spain and France fled their countries and went to England, where they
permanently settled down. Their skill, accompani ed with money, gave a
fresh impetus to the English industries.
1.4.6 Markets :
Since the Act of Union (1707). England and Scotland had formed a
consolidated open market, free of tariffs. To them, Ireland was united in
1800; thus, English industry came to en joy still m ore extensive home
market. Moreover, before the mid -eighteenth century, English merchants
had opened up channels of trade to all Europe, to North America, to
Africa, and to the F ar East. British markets continued to expand. The
United States con tinued buying British goods even after the American
War of Independence (1775 -1783). From the beginning of the nineteenth
century, all over the world, from Canton to Buenos Aires, and from
Capetown to North Cape, British commerce had no serious competitor.
1.4.7 Continental System of Napoleon Bonaparte :
Napoleon Bonaparte adopted the Continental System. i. e. eomnomic
blockade of England, under which English goods were prevented from
being imported into any part of Europe. But Napoleon could not enforce
the system. No wonder, the European countries, some secretly and others
openly, defied Napoleon and imported English goods. In retaliation, Great
Britain blockaded the continental ports. Hence, England could purchase, at
extremely low rates, the raw materials from over seas and sell finished
products in her colonies at quite high prices. Thus the Continental system
boosted the English industries at the cost of the French.
1.4.8 Political and Social Stability :
Unlike in France, there was political and social stab ility in England and,
hence, people invested their savings in new enterprises for earning more in
the future.
1.4.9 Inventive Genius :
Finally, in spite of the existence of all these favourable factors, the
Industrial Revolution could not have taken place f irst in England, had munotes.in

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6 Industrial Revolution: Nature And Impact there been no inventive genius. "Necessity is the mother of invention", and
when the English felt the necessity of new techniques of production, new
machines, tools and implements, they could invent them, because they had
an inventive genius. England was fortunate in producing great inventors
such as Sir Humphry Davy, George Stephenson, Dr. Edmund Cartwright,
James Watt and many others.
Check your progress
Q. 1. Examine the causes of the industrial Revolution.

1.5 DEVELOPMENT OF INDU STRIAL REVOLUTION 1.5.1 The Textile Industry:
The textile merchants got what they were looking for when the industrial
revolution began with various mechanical inventions that took place in the
manufacture of textiles. The first important advance was made when Kay's
flying shuttle was patented in 1733. As a result, weaving became faster.
The invention of flying shuttle led to scarcity of thread. This led to the
need to produce thread faster by improving spinning.
a. Spinning Jenny:
The inventions of the Spinning Jenny made of wood by James Hargreaves
in 1764 ushered in a new era in the textile industry of the world.
Hargreaves was an intelligent carpenter and weaver. One day, he
happened to see his wife upsetting her spinning wheel. What interested
him mo st was the fact that the spinning wheel continued to turn even after
it had fallen over. Being an imaginative carpenter, he developed the idea
of turning eight spindles at the same time with the help of one wheel. He
fabricated a wooden machine that could produce eight threads, instead of
one, at one and the same time with the help of eight spindles by
profession, was an imaginative inventor and businessman. Almost during
one operator could now produce as many threads as eight persons could
do. He named his machine after his wife Jenny as he got the idea when she
upset her spinning wheel.
b. Arkwright's Waterframe:
Richard Arkwright, though a barber by professional was an imaginative
inventor and businessman . Almost during the same time when the
Spinning Jenny was being produced, he invented in 1769, his own
spinning machine which was first run by horse power but was later made
to run by water power. His machine came to be known as Arkwright's
Waterframe. The speciality of his machine was that it could pro duce wool
or cotton strands which were twisted tightly by spindles after drawing
them out from between pairs of rollers. This thread was strong but coarse
while the thread produced by Spinning Jenny was fine but weak. munotes.in

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7 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) Arkwright became a factory owner and s oon became one of the first
wealthy men produced by the industrial revolution.
c. Crompton's Spinning Mule:
Samuel Crompton studied the working of both the Spinning Jenny and the
Arkwright's Waterframe and produced in 1779 a new spinning machine
called S pinning Mule. He avoided in his machine the defects of the earlier
two, so that the Spinning Mule could produce fine and strong thread. Since
his machine was hybrid, he called it the Spinning Mule. As a result of this
invention , England began to produce fine cloth in large quantities and
stopped importing calicoes from India.
d. Cartwright's power loom:
Edmund Cartwright, an English clergyman, suucceded in producing an
automatic weaving machine (power loom). His machine was patented in
1785 but took som e more time to per fect its working .By 1813 England
had as many as 2,400 such looms. Power looms gradually replaced hand -
looms. These inventions made the factory system inevitable.
e. New Machines in Textile Manufacture:
In 1785 Thomas Bell invented th e process of printing cloth by cylinders.
The method of printing cloth by hand blocks was given up. In 1794, the
cotton "gin" was invented by Eli Whitney, an American from
Massachusetts. His invention revolutionised the cumbersome process of
cleaning cotto n. The machine separated cotton fibres from the seed more
easily and faster, As a result America and other countrie s began to
produce more cotton . In the 18th century , most of the textile machines
were run by hydro power and therefore textile factories sp rang up on the
banks of fast flowing rivers .
1.5.2 Coal and Iron Industry:
The second important feature of the industrial revolution was
characterised by the inventions made in the production of coal and
specially in the manufacture of iron and steel. So far, only small quantity
of coal was produced. Iron was a costly metal and was not available in
large quantities because the process of its manufacture was not well
developed.
For the purpose of proper smelting of iron, a great amount of heat was
necess ary. Only charcoal was used in the furnaces for smelting iron. This
method was expensive and slow. At the same time, forests came to be cut
down in order to produce charcoal. In the 17th century, an Englishman
thought of using coal instead of charcoal. Coal was available easily in
Birmingham. The coal mines, as more coal was mined out, became
deeper. This necessitated the invention of steam engines to pump out and
remove water from the bottom of the mines.
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8 Industrial Revolution: Nature And Impact a. Henry Cort's Process:
Henry Cort (1740 -1800) was responsible for inventing the method of
manufacturing purer and stronger iron known as wrought iron and steel
from pig iron. The pig iron produced with the help of blast furnaces
contained lot of impurities and was brittle. In 1784 , Cort found that pi g
iron when heated in a special furnace and stirred , produced purer iron and
steel. This process is known as "puddling" by which the impurities were
removed. By a process of "rolling", molten iron bars and sheets were
made.
The manufacture of stronger and cheaper iron was a great blessing,
because iron could be used with advantage for the manufacture of tools
machines, engines, tanks and boilers. It certainly helped the development
of the steam engine. The invention of the lathe or the turning machine and
the "Slide -rest" further contributed to the manufacture of different parts of
machines. Cylinders are an essential part of most machines. Cylinders and
pistons could be made smooth only with the help of "Sliderest" which was
invented by Mandslay in 1794.
1.5.3 Construction of Roads:
The inventions in textile industry and the production of coal and iron
helped to increase textile and iron production. For collection of raw
materials and distribution of finished goods, better transportation facilities
were ne cessary. The 18th century English roads were bad. It was towards
the end of the century that two Scottish engineers, Macadam and Telford,
developed the science of good road building. Macadamised roads with a
foundation of broken stones or ballast covered w ith crushed stones came
to be built in England. The new roads were smoother and faster. Similarly,
many canals were built to serve as water ways for transport.
1.5.4 Revolution in Power:
a. Steam Engine:
The invention of the steam engine in the eighteent h century was the third
most important feature of the industrial revolution. James Watt is
considered to be the inventor of steam engine. But it may be pointed out
here that before him some efforts had been made to make use of steam
power. Edward Somerest (1601 -1667), after many experiments made a
"water commanding" engine which helped to raise water from the mines.
The next important invention in the use of steam power took place when
Thomas Newcomen (1663 -1729) made a steam engine in 1705 to pump
out wate r from coal mines. Newcomen's engine was defective as time and
energy were lost in moving the piston again after one stroke. It was James
Watt who improved this defect of Newcomen's engine.
b. Steam Locomotive:
Watt's engines were used most ly for pumping out water from the coal
mines. The next important development after Watt's engine was the munotes.in

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9 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) invention of the steam locomotive. If an engine could move any
machinery, it would also move itsel f. On this basis, Watt had planned to
produce a locomotive. But it was Richard Trevithick who prepared the
first locomotive in 1803. Trevithick's locomotive ran on wooden rails and
was used for handling coal wagons. It was further improved upon by
William Hedley when he manutactured his "Puffing Billy" in 1813. It was
powerful enough to draw eight coal wagons at a speed of about five miles
an hour.
c. Steam -boat:
The new idea was to use the locomotive engine to drive ships. In 1788,
Miller built the first steam -boat which could go at a Speed of 5 miles an
hour. William Symington improved upon Miller's steam -boat and
manufactured a new steam -boat named Chalotte Dundas which was used
on Forth and Clyde canal to pull two barges of 70 tons each. The
experiment was not very successful. The first successful experiment in this
regard was made by Robert Foulton (1765 -1815). His steam -boat Clemont
made its maiden voyage up the Hudson river between New York and
Albany in 1807, a distance of 150 miles. In 1819, the ship Savannah
crossed the Atlantic and sailed from Savannah (in the USA) to Liverpool
in twenty nine days with the help of sails. In 1838, two steam boats the
Sirius and the Great Western crossed the Altantic without sails. But it was
after 1870 that steamship navigation became more popular.
1.5.5 Agriculture :
a. Tull's s eed Drill:
Jethro Tull (1674 -1740) experimented with farming on a scientific basis.
He invented a Seed Drill that would distribute the seeds evenly in rows,
over a large piece of land.
b. Townsend's Crop Rotation:
The discovery of a new method of 'Crop Ro tation' was made by Viscount
Townsend (1674 -1738). This enabled one to keep land always under
cultivation, without letting it lie idle for a season. This helped to double
the yield per acre.
c. Scientific Breeding of Animals:
Robert Bakewell (1725 -1795) introduced scientific breeding of farm
animals. He found through experiments, that by selective breeding of farm
animals, he could improve the quality of cattle, horses and sheep..
1.5.6 Spread of the Industrial Revolution :
Though the Industrial Revolution started in Great Britain, it soon spread to
Europe and the U.S.A. Thus, Belgium, France and Germany imported
machines for industry from England. In these countries, bobbin lace
machines, textile machines, as well as industries for making the machines,
led to the spread of the Industrial Revolution on the Continent. England munotes.in

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10 Industrial Revolution: Nature And Impact maintained her industrial lead. However, the French textile manufacturers
produced cloth that was excellent in design and quality. So also Germany
was renowned for fine metal products. A huge industrial empire was also
established in the U.S.A. With further inventions of the automobile,
airplane, radio, telephone and television in the 19th and 20th centuries, the
Industrial Revolution spread throughout the world, where it still continues
as an ongoing process in various countries.
Check your progress
Q.1 Discuss the development of the Industrial Revolution.

1.6 IMPACT OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION The Industrial Revolution revolutionized industry, art, architecture,
literature and Science and also social, economic, political and cultural life
of the people. No other revolution in the history of mankind has so
profoundly affected human life as the Industrial Revolution.
1.6.1 Economic Impact :
1. Mass Production
Under the Factory System, pr oduction on a large scale took place. Mass
production in factories, naturally, led to the low cost of production per
unit. Further, uniformity and high quality could be introduced into the
production of goods at a cheaper rate.
2. Growth of Joint -Stock Com panies :
It led to the growth of joint -stock companies or corporations. The big
enterprises required more capital than any one individual possessed;
ownership, therefore, passed from individuals or partnerships to joint -
stock companies or corporations. Unde r it a shareholder was responsible
for his company's debts, only to the extent of his share.
3. Growth of Industrial Combinations :
The Industrial Revolution led to the growth of industrial combinations of
independent firms. In Britain, this came to be know n as the Trust
Movement.
4. Commerce and Banking Development :
The Industrial Revolution enlarged to a very great extent commerce and
banking which became truly world -wide in scope.
5. Growth of Capitalism :
Capital is money or any other form of wealth inclu ding land, machines,
and factories, used productively in business. A capitalist is an owner or
manager of such wealth, land, machinery, and such other means of munotes.in

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11 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) production. He invests his wealth, owns machines and factories, employs
skilled as well as unski lled workers, buys raw materials, transforms them
into finished products, and sells them at a handsome margin of profit.
Capitalism, thus, is a business system in which capital as well as
capitalists are the sole controlling factors. The Industrial Revolut ion led to
the development of capitalism and made capitalists the supreme masters of
industry.
The capitalists were always motivated by a lust for huge profits. Hence,
they bought raw materials and employed workers as cheaply as possible,
and sold finished products as dearly as possible.
6. Growth of Economie Liberalism :
The growth of capitalism led to the growth of economic liberalism. The
capitalists were deeply influenced by the laissez -faire doctrines of Adam
Smith's Wealth of Nations. It emphasized the individual and made
individual self -interest the supreme interest in the economic life. Hence, it
stood for freedom i.e. freedom of trade which implies no tariffs and no
subsidies, freedom of contract between individuals (hence, no labour
unions), freedom from govern - ment interference or regulation, and
freedom of competition.
Economic liberalism gained firm foothold and most triumphs in Great
Britain. Between 1800 and 1860, nearly all the long -standing British
restrictions on private industry and trade w ere repealed by parliamentary
enactments.
Economic liberalism won some converts in France and Germany but it
completely triumphed in the United States.
7. Capitalist and Labouring Classes :
The Industrial Revolution created two new types of classes the capi talist
class and the labouring class. The masters of industries, the managers of
mills and the proprietors of workshops were capitalists, who amassed
great wealth by a high margin of profit on goods sold and by paying very
little wages to workers and compe lling them to put up long hours of work
in their factories. The labouring class acted merely as a tool in factories.
Under these conditions, the poor became poorer and the rich richer. Thus,
the gap between the rich and the poor, between the capitalists an d the
workers, between the haves and the have -nots went on widening with the
passage of time. This caused social disharmony
8. England Rolled in Wealth :
England, the mother of the Industrial Revolution, began to roll in wealth
on account of its early indus trialization. She became a leading country in
the field of industry, trade, commerce and finance so much so tha t she was
able not only to with stand the strain of the various wars she participated
in, but could also afford to give financial assistance to th ose countries that
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12 Industrial Revolution: Nature And Impact Check your progress
Q.1 What was the economic impact of the Industrial Revolution on
Europe ?
1.6.2 Its Impact on Society :
The Industrial Revolution caused numerous social changes of vital
significance.
1. Urbanisation o f Culture :
The most harmful effect of the Industrial Revolution was on family life.
Before the Industrial Revolution, all members of the family helped the
head of the family in the family profession. But after the Industrial
Revolution the father and somet imes the entire family shifted to the
nearby city in search of gainful employment in factories, mills or
workshops. The shifting of population from the rural areas to the urban
centres was very much noticeable. This led to the growth of many new
cities in Great Britain such as Liverpool Leeds, Manchester, Birmingham
and Sheffield, which became centres of industry, trade and commerce.
Similar changes occurred on the Continent with sensational growth of
such cities as Brassels, Paris, Berlin, or Lille. Moreov er, hundreds of
towns grew into cities, and villages grew into towns all over Europe,
Russia and the U.S.A. Moreover, city life broadened the outlook of
persons, and our culture and civilization became fundamentally urban in
character.
2. City Sl ums:
With the establishment of factories, very soon, the cities got overcrowded
partly because of migration from villages and partly because of the high
rate of birth. The great shortage of houses in cities forced many of the
families to stay in dull, dark, dingy and dirty quarters and sometimes
underground houses which looked like cheese -boxes without sanitation
and ventilation. This situation, no doubt produced slums, the number of
which went on increasing, as factories sprang up in cities. These slums
caused fev ers and a variety of diseases and premature death s.
3. Women and Children in Factories :
Many a times the father was either too old to adapt himself to the new
factory system or could not find a job in factories. Hence, children had to
serve in order to fe ed their parents. Easy availability of women and
children for work in mills, industries and workshops led to low wages and
unemployment. The factory managers wanted to employ unskilled
workers, preferably women and children because they were cheaper and
could easily be man aged. In most of the cotton mills, young children of
about 5 to 6 years were employed. They began their work before dawn at
3.00 a.m. and continued upto 10 or so at night. Under these circumstances,
"stunted bodies, deformed backs, horribl y twisted legs, sunken chests and
savage natures resulted." munotes.in

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13 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) 4. Immorality :
Such conditions, naturally, poisoned home life and lowered the standards
of morality. As women began to work for 15 hours or so a day and lived in
extremely congested quarters, it b ecame extremely difficult for them to
maintain modesty and virtue. The women and children imitated the vices
of men and began to drink alcohol more than what was necessary. "What
family life was like under such circumstances," writes Professors Hayes,
Moon and Wayland, "in one of the cellar or cheese -box homes of an
industrial city, with ignorance, poverty, hunger, dirt, disease, and vice as
enemies, may be left to the reader's imagination."
5. Comforts and Luxuries of Life :
The inventions in the various fi elds during the period of the Industrial
Revolution multiplied the comforts, conveniences and luxuries of our
lives. The life became more comfortable, more secure, more conventient,
more luxurious, fuller and richer because of the Industrial Revolution.
New means of transport and communications, new methods of production,
railway locomotives, automobiles, steamboats and ships, etc. proved to be
boons to mankind.
6. Man -Dominant over Natural Obstacles :
The most striking thing in the Industrial Revolution is that man has been
made dominant over the natural obstacles, which hitherto had help ed him
bound. Prior to 1850, famine was the horror of almost every country.
Famine in one European country was generally "the herald of a scarcity in
all Europe." However, a fter that date, the failure of the harvest in Europe
could be made good, with mechanical transport, by the harvest of
Argentina, Canada, Australia, or India. There is the whole world to draw
upon, and the nineteenth century had a sense of security which wa s
previously unknown. Nothing now seem s impossible of accomplishment.
Rivers can be dam med; water can be conserved for irrigation by great
engineering works, as in Egypt and India; mountains can be pierced by
tunnels as in St. Gothard and Simplon; oceans c an be licked up by
waterways such as the Suez and Panama canals and thereby new trade
routes established; and railways can cross the rocky mountains and
penetrate into the desert. The development of the Industrial Revolution
and the modern scientific and t echnological advances have thus enabled
man to conquer the forces of Nature.
Check your progress
Q.1 Examine the impact of Industrial Revolution on society.
1.6.3 Colonial Imperialism :
The Industrial Revolution encouraged Great Britain and other European
countries to follow the policy of colonial imperialism. Hence, England,
France, Russia and many other European countries and also the U.S.A.
built large colonial empires, They needed colonies, first to acquire raw munotes.in

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14 Industrial Revolution: Nature And Impact materials at low prices for feeding their huge industries; and second, to
capture markets for the purpose of selling the finished products at high
prices. Thus, the Industrial Revolution led to colonialism and imperialism,
which caused untold miseries to colonial peoples."
1.6.4 Problems of the L abour :
The Industrial Revolution created numerous problems for labour, which
were of vital significance from the social, industrial, economic and
political points of view.
1. Labour Movements :
The Industrial Revolution made the life of working men wretched , poor,
miserable and unbearably burdensome. A factory or mill worker became a
beast of burden, working from dawn to dusk between 14 and 16 hours a
day, with wages miserably low, As pointed out earlier, child labour was
brutally exploited in the form of pa uper apprentices. Most factories. mills,
and workshops were without sanitation and safety guards on machinery,
causing frequent accidents. Moreover, no provisions were made to care for
the injured and the sick; and the continuous insecurity of service alwa ys
hung over heads of the working people. The correction of all these evils
required a long, hard and rigorous struggle by workers.
2. Formation of Trade Unions :
It was extremely difficult for them to organise and unite into labour
unions, for the formatio n of labour unions in 1800 was forbidden by
parliamentary law in England,
It was only in 1825 that some liberals and sympathizers of the workers
persuaded the British Parliament to legalise the formation of trade unions.
Soon thereafter, several trade unio ns sprang into existence all over the
country.
In the last quarter of the 19th century, trade unions came to be formed
everywhere in Europe and in the U.S.A. In most European and American
countries, the main demands of these trade unions were:
(1) an eigh t-hour work a day;
(2) the right of the trade unions to bargain collectively with the employer;
(3) sanitary and safer working conditions;
(4) enhanced wages; and
(5) prohibition of child labour.
3. Political Rights for Working Men :
Formation of tra de unions was not enough; the workers must enjoy
political rights and force Parliament to pass laws in their favour. The
Chartist Movement championed the cause of the workers but it fizzled out
in 1848. It was not until 1867 when the Reform Act was passed that the
workers of Great Britain were allowed to enjoy these political rights. Even munotes.in

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15 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) in the U.S.A. as well as in most of the industrialized countries on the
continent of Europe; workers came to be permitted to enjoy political
rights, irrespective of their religion or property qualifications."
4. Legislation for Social Betterment :
Having secured political rights, the workers then agitated for social
legislation that would improve their working as well as living conditions.
In this matter, Germany took the le ad. In the 1880's it was Chancellor
Bismarck who was responsible for some social legislations which
provided for accident insurance, regulation of child labour, maximum
hours of work, old -age insurance, and inspection and supervision of
factories and mines by government. Other countries, later on imitated
Germany's attempt to aid labour. More or less , such laws came to be
enacted by British Parliament under the leadership of Winston Churchill
and Lloyd George, and also by State Legislatures of some States i n the
U.S.A.
Check your progress
Q 1. Discuss the problems of Labour created by the Industrial Revolution.

1.7 GROWTH OF SOCIALISM AND COMMUNISM It was generally believed that the workingmen's troubles and most of the
social evils sprang into existence m ainly due to the introduction of factory
system and the consequent development of capitalism. To remove these
troubles and social evils, some of the early socialists like Saint -Simon
(1760 -1825), Charles Fourier (1772 -1837), Louis Blanc (1813 -1882) -all
Frenchmen -and Robert Owen (1772 -1857), an Englishman, proposed
some constitutional and peaceful schemes, by means of which the
capitalist class would be abolished and the key means of production like
wealth, land, mines, and machines would be owned and contro lled in some
form by the community.
All these early socialists were labelled Utopians - a name which was
derived from a book, known as Utopia on the ideal society authored by Sir
Thoomas More in the sixteenth century. The Utopian Socialists were thus
only i dealists, laying emphasis on the art of persuasion, voluntary co -
operation of all classes and people, and an appeal to the Christian doctrine
for eliminating the capitalist class and for creating and forming voluntary
socialist societies.
Scientific Social ism-Karl Marx:
Until 1838, Socialism was a peaceful working -class movement aiming at
the elimination of the capitalist class and the substitution of some form of
working class ownership and control of the key means of production by
peaceful methods. Howeve r, it was Karl Marx (1818 -1883), a German Jew
by birth, a man of action, and the Father of Marxism or Scientific
Socialism, also called Communism, and his close friend Friedrich Engels, munotes.in

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16 Industrial Revolution: Nature And Impact who issued in 1848 an irresistible appeal to world labour, in their
celebrated pamphlet, called the Communist Manifesto. The Communist
Manifesto called upon the workers of the world to unite together and
overthrow the capitalist system by a bloody revolution,
To quote it, "The proletarians have nothing to lose but their chai ns. They
have a world to win. Workers of the world Unite!"
In 1867, Marx and Engels published the first of three celebrated volumes,
entitled ‘Das Capital ’. In these books, they explained in great detail their
theories which were known as Marxi sm or Scient ific Socialism or
Communism.
Check your progress
Q.1 Analys e Karl Marx's role as a Socialist.

1.8 SUMMARY Socialism as a concept was a product of the 'Industrial Revolution. It
aimed at bettering the prospects of the exploited working class. Since it
was not able to achieve much, extreme socialism or communism was born.
If manifested itself as a working philosophy in the Soviet Union first, and
then to other countries. However with the disintegration of the Soviet
Union the whole concept of socialism as a working model is under review.
Socialism as a concept , was born at of the need of the day. Problems that
arose due to the Industrial Revolution needed to be readdressed.
Philosopers , therefore , began to dream concepts of the ‘Ideal Society ’ for
mankind. T hus socialism was born.
This concept passed through various p hases . The earlier socialist were
known as UTOPIANS. They were seeking the establishment of an ideal
society where there would be planning, common ownership, tolerance and
equality. These sociali st were Robert Owen, Saint Simon, Fourier etc.
When their pleas were not heard, Socialism took a more practical turn.
The person heading this change was Karl Marx, Marx's dicturn to the
exploited working class was 'To unite' and overthrow the capitalist. S o that
a dictatorship of the working class could be established.
Other forms of socialism was also established in the form of Fabian
Socialism, Anarchism, Leninism etc.

1.9 QUESTIONS 1. What do you understand by the Industrial Revolution'?
2. What were the nature of the Industrial Revolution? munotes.in

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17 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) 3. Examine the course of the industrial Revolution.
4. Discuss the factors that led to the Industrial Revolution.
5. Discuss the development of the Industrial Revolution.
6. What is the meaning of 'Socialism'? De scribe the essentials of
Socialism
7. Analys e Karl Marx's role as a Socialist .
8. What was the impact of the Industrial Revolution on Europe? What
new problems were created in European society?
9. Review the impact of the Industrial Revolution.

1.10 A DDITIONAL READINGS  Beik, Paul H. & Lavouvre, L., Modern Europe: A History Since 1815,
New York, Henry Holt & Co., 1959.
 Benns Lee, Europe 1870 -1914, Appleton tan Century Grafts, New
York, 1965.
 Breace, Richard M, The Making of the Modern World, New York,
Reinehart & Co., Inc. 1956.
 Comwell R. D., World History In the Twentieth Century, Longman
Group Ltd., London, 1977.
 Croce Bendetto , History of Europe in the Nineteenth Century, Unwin
University Books, England, 1965.
 Garraty, J., and Gay, Peter(Ed.), A H istory of the World, New York,
Harper & Row, 1972.
 Gressy Eduard, An Outline of Industrial History, Macmillan & Co.
London, 1929.
 Ketelbey C.D.M., A Brief History of Modern Times from 1789, Oxford
University Press, Calcutta, 1984.
 Lipson E., Europe in the 19 and 20 Centuries, English Language Book
Society, London, 1960.
 Palmer, R.R., and Colton, Joel, A History of the Modern World, New
York, Alfred A. Knopf, 1957.
 Weech W. N. - History of the World, Asia Publishing House, Bombay,
1961.
***** munotes.in

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18
2
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION (1776)
Unit Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Nature of the American Revolution
2.3 Causes of the American Revolution
2.4 Course of the American Revolution
2.5 George Washington (1732 - 1799)
2.6 Causes of Su ccess
2.7 Effects of the American Revolution
2.8 Summary
2.9 Questions
2.10 Additional Readings

2.0 OBJECTIVES The objectives of this lesson are as follows:
• To examine the nature of the American Revolution.
• To understand the the causes of the Ame rican Revolution.
• To briefly survey the course of the American Revolution.
• To assess the consequences of the American Revolution and its impact
on the history of the world.

2.1 INTRODUCTION It may be briefly mentioned here that Columbus discovered the ne w
continent in October 1492, America received its name from Amerigo
Vespucci who popularised the discovery of the new continent. Europeans,
especially the British, French, Spanish and Portuguese took a prominent
part in the colonisation of the Americas. Du ring the early years of the 17th
century, there was large -scale emigration of Englishmen because of
scarcity of land, unemployment and discontentment among the Protestants
especially Puritans regarding the political and religious policies of the
Stuart Kin gs who were Catholics. munotes.in

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19 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) By 1642 nearly 65,000 Englishmen had settled in different parts of
America, beginning with their first establishment in Jamestown in Virginia
in 1607. Another important group known as Pilgrim Fathers came in the
ship Mayflower in 16 20 and established a colony in Plymouth in the
northeast. Soon there were 13 English colonies located on the east coast of
America from Connecticut to Virginia which had close connection with
the mother country. Though they were governed by the King and th e
Parliament in England, they were allowed to develop their own way of life
and political, judicial and other institutions in America.
The thirteen colonies had their own independent elected legislative
assemblies which passed laws on matters of local imp ortance in each
colony.
However, the Governor of each colony was appointed by the King of
England but was paid by the colonial government. Though he had many
powers, in reality he could not exercise them. The British government had
ultimate authority over the colonies, However, since Armerica was far
away, the Americans created their own institutions so that they could
enjoy a large measure of self -government with minimum interference
from England.

2.2 NATURE OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION The American Revolu tion was an ideological and political revolution that
occurred in colonial North America between 1765 and 1791. The
Americans in the Thirteen Colonies formed independent states that
defeated the British in the American Revolutionary War (1775 –1783),
gainin g independence from the British Crown and establishing the United
States of America, the first modern constitutional liberal democracy.
American colonists objected to being taxed by the British Parliament, a
body in which they had no direct representation. Before the 1760s,
Britain's American colonies had enjoyed a high level of autonomy in their
internal affairs, which were locally governed by colonial legislatures. The
passage of the Stamp Act of 1765 imposed internal taxes on the colonies,
which led to c olonial protest, and the meeting of representatives of several
colonies in the Stamp Act Congress. Tensions relaxed with the British
repeal of the Stamp Act, but flared again with the passage of the
Townshend Acts in 1767. The British government deployed t roops to
Boston in 1768 to quell unrest, leading to the Boston Massacre in 1770.
The British government repealed most of the Townshend duties in 1770,
but retained the tax on tea in order to symbolically assert Parliament's
right to tax the colonies. The b urning of the Gaspee in Rhode Island in
1772, the passage of the Tea Act of 1773 and the Boston Tea Party in
December 1773 led to a new escalation in tensions. The British responded
by closing Boston Harbor and enacting a series of punitive laws which
effectively rescinded Massachusetts Bay Colony's privileges of self -
government. The other colonies rallied behind Massachusetts, and twelve munotes.in

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20 The American Revolution (1776) of the thirteen colonies sent delegates in late 1774 to form a Continental
Congress for the coordination of their resist ance to Britain. Opponents of
Britain were known as Patriots or Whigs, while colonists who retained
their allegiance to the Crown were known as Loyalists or Tories.
Open warfare erupted when British regulars sent to capture a cache of
military supplies wer e confronted by local Patriot militia at Lexington and
Concord on April 19, 1775. Patriot militia, joined by the newly formed
Continental Army, then put British forces in Boston under siege by land
and their forces withdrew by sea. Each colony formed a Pro vincial
Congress, which assumed power from the former colonial governments,
suppressed Loyalism, and contributed to the Continental Army led by
Commander in Chief General George Washington. The Patriots
unsuccessfully attempted to invade Quebec and rally s ympathetic colonists
there during the winter of 1775 –76.
The Continental Congress declared British King George III a tyrant who
trampled the colonists' rights as Englishmen, and they pronounced the
colonies free and independent states on July 4, 1776. The Patriot
leadership professed the political philosophies of liberalism and
republicanism to reject rule by monarchy and aristocracy. The Declaration
of Independence proclaimed that all men are created equal, though it was
not until later centuries that cons titutional amendments and federal laws
would increasingly grant equal rights to African Americans, Native
Americans, poor white men, and women.
The British captured New York City and its strategic harbor in the summer
of 1776, which they held for the durat ion of the war. The Continental
Army captured a British army at the Battle of Saratoga in October 1777,
and France then entered the war as an ally of the United States,
transforming the war into a global conflict. The Royal Navy blockaded
ports and capture d other cities for brief periods, but they failed to destroy
Washington's forces. Britain also attempted to hold the Southern states
with the anticipated aid of Loyalists, and the war moved south. British
general Charles Cornwallis captured an American arm y at Charleston,
South Carolina in early 1780, but he failed to enlist enough volunteers
from Loyalist civilians to take effective control of the territory. Finally, a
combined American and French force captured Cornwallis' army at
Yorktown in the fall of 1781, effectively ending the war. The Treaty of
Paris was signed on September 3, 1783, formally ending the conflict and
confirming the new nation's complete separation from the British Empire.
The United States took possession of nearly all the territory e ast of the
Mississippi River and south of the Great Lakes, with the British retaining
control of northern Canada, and Spain taking Florida.
Among the significant results of the war were American independence and
the end of British merchant alism in America, opening up worldwide trade
for the United States - including with Britain. The Americans soon
adopted the United States Constitution, replacing the weak Confederation
by establishing a comparatively strong national government structured as a
federal repub lic, which included an elected executive, a national judiciary, munotes.in

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21 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) and an elected bicameral Congress representing states in the Senate and
the population in the House of Representatives. It is the world’s first
federal democratic republic founded on the conse nt of the governed.
Shortly after a Bill of Rights was ratified as the first ten amendments,
guaranteeing fundamental rights used as justification for the revolution.
Around 60,000 Loyalists migrated to other British territories, particularly
to (Canada), but the great majority remained in the United States.
Check your progress
Q.1 Describe the nature of the American Revolution.

2.3 CAUSES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION Relations between the 13 American colonies and England, the mother
country began to brea k down during the mid eighteenth century. The
colonists had become accustomed to governing themselves and had
developed a sense of unity and independence. England passed laws that
taxed the colonists and restricted their freedom. As a result , the colonists
deeply resented what they considered British interference in their affairs.
Friction between the colonists and British increased and on 19thApril
1775, the Revolutionary War broke out between the two sides. The chief
causes of the American Revolution may be summarized as the following:
2.3.1 Political Causes :
1. Spirit of Self -reliance and Enterprise:
The colonists developed a spirit of self -reliance and enterprise. They had
established their own political institutions. Each colony had its own
legislative assembly elected by the colonists. The assembly performed a
number of duties such as enacting laws of local importance. Each of the 13
colonies was administered by governor as the nominee of the British King.
Colonial assemblies sanctioned the salary of g overnors of their respective
colonies However, George III and the British Parliament did not give any
political rights to the colonies, which in turn felt like slaves in the political
field. Each colony had a legislative assembly and a governor appointed b y
England. They gained great political experience by running their political
institutions. Thus, they resented the political control of England and had a
strong desire for self -government. They did not consider it necessary to be
under the control of Engla nd, their mother country.
2. Political Grievances:
The colonists had a number of political grievances against the mother
country. They did not like the interference of England in their internal
affairs. They were denied political rights. Laws meant for th e colonies
were passed by the British Parliament in which they had no representation.
The British kings and their governments did not attempt to develop cordial
relationship with the colonists. The kings insisted on treating these
colonies as their private estates. These factors along with the long distance munotes.in

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22 The American Revolution (1776) between the colonies and England led to lack of affection and loyalty
among the colonists towards their mother country.
3. Lack of Affection and Loyalty:
The colonists held neither affection nor loyalty towards England. The
religious intolerance of the English rulers had forced them to leave
England. Further, England did not attempt to maintain good relations with
the colonies.
2.3.2 Social Causes :
1. Heterogeneous Character of the American Colonies :
The Colonies could be divided into 3 categories:
a. The Northern colonies : viz New Hampshire, Masschusetts,
Connecticut and Rhode Island were fired with a burning desire for
political independence and hatred for any kind of external control and
interference. They had migrated to the America's' to seek their destiny
away from restrictions..
b. The Middle Colonies : viz. New York, Pennysylvania, New Jersey,
Maryland and Delaware were Catholic and resented control from
Protestant England.
c. The Southern Colonies : viz. North Carolina, South Georgia and
Virginia were mostly loyal to the British government.
In such heterogeneous character of the colonists, England needed a wise,
sound and tactful leader, who could keep the British Empire intact by
granting timely con cessions. But, king George III, and his Prime Minister
Lord North lacked these qualities.
Check your progress
Q.1 Explain the political and social causes of the American Revolution.
2.3.3 Economic Causes :
The Colonies were considered valuable chiefly fo r economic reasons - as a
source of raw materials and as a market for exports. But the cost to the
mother country for defence and administration probably equaled or
exceeded the commercial returns. After 1750, therefore Parliament
tightened up the regulatio n of trade and the collection of duties.
Until this time, the colonists had part with more than the local ta xes levied
by their colonial legislatures. They had achieved this 'immunity' by means
of wholescale smuggling and a flagrant disregard of the Britis h Navigation
acts. At the same time they showed little interest to provide for their own
military defence. munotes.in

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23 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) The English , therefore , began to impose a number of new taxes, and also
to collect existing taxes more strictly. This was resented by the colonists.
Some of them are as follows:
a. The Navigation Acts:
These contained 3 main provisions (i) all goods were to be exported only
through British Ships. (ii) Certain goods and commodities were to be sold
only to British merchants. (iii) Commodities were first to be shipped to
Britain and from there to any part of the world. This made the process of
shipping long and increased the prices of goods and commodities.
b. Prohibition of Manufacture of Certain Goods:
The manufacture of certain commodities like cloth was disallowed in the
colonies. This was done to boost industrial production in England.
However it was a death blow to industries in the colonies.
C. The Sugar Act of 1764:
This act imposed a prohibitive duty on the import of foreign colonial
molasses. The enforcement of this act would cripple if not destroy the
extremely important trade of the Northern British colonies with the
foreign, colonial possessions in the West Indies and South America
d. The Stamp Act of 1765:
Under this Act, every document in order to be "legal' should carry a
'stamp'. The legislatures of the leading North American colonies petitioned
against this Act, but it was of no use. The colonist realised the only way to
halt further encroachments on colonial self -government was to resi st this
Act even at the risk of war.
e. Quartering Act (1766):
In order to enforce various laws, the British Government stationed British
troops in the colonies. The Quartering Act was passed by the British
Parliament with the intention of making the colo nists to pay part of the
cost of stationing British troops in the colonies. The act ordered the
colonies to supply the troops with living quarters, fuel, candles, and cider
or beer. Most colonists half -heartedly obeyed the Quartering Act. Often
they provid ed fewer supplies than stipulated. The Quartering Act also
invited great resentment from the colonists.
f. Townshend Acts (1767):
The defiance of the colonists angered many members of the British
Government. They included Charles Townshend, the Chancellor of the
Exchequer. He devised a new plan for raising additional revenue from the
colonies. Accordingly, the Parliament passed the Townshend Acts in
1767. One act imposed duties on glass, paper, lead, paint and tea imported
into the colonies. Another Act se t up a customs agency in Boston to
collect these import duties efficiently. munotes.in

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24 The American Revolution (1776) The Townshend Acts as other previous acts met with a hostile reaction
from the colonists. As a protest against the duties, the colonists boycotted
the British goods. British mercha nts, who suffered loss of business due to
the boycott, appealed the British government to withdraw the duties. In
1770, the Parliament withdrew duties on all the commodities covered by
the Townshend Act except the one on tea. A nominal tax on tea was
conti nued to assert the right of the British government to tax the colonies.
g. Writs of Assistance:
This empowered British officers to search the house for smuggled goods
as well as ships for taxable goods. This was viewed by the colonists as
violation of th eir basic human rights.
h. English officers to be tried in England:
English Officers accused of violations of the law were tried in England.
This was viewed by the colonists as an act of acquital of the criminals,
because the English courts would naturally favour the accused.
2.3.4 The Spirit of Liberty :
The colonists had become acc ustomed to governing themselves, and had
developed a sense of unity and independence. Each of the colonies had
gained political training and experience in the art of self -governm ent.
Each colony had a popularly elected legislative assembly and a Governor,
whose salary was voted by the members of the legislative assembly. This
assembly passed acts on matters of local importance. Thus, the colonies
had a taste of self -rule. Therefor e, they desired that their legislative
assemblies should be treated on par with the British Parliament. Hence, it
aroused in the minds of the colonists the spirit of liberty, a burning desire
for complete independence.
2.3.5 England's Victory over France :
For security reason the 13 colonies had to depend on the military
protection of England. There was a constant threat from the French who
had been in occupation of Canada, to the north of the colonies. However,
the situation changed with the victory of Engl and over the French in the
Seven Years' War (1756 -1763). Thus, the French threat to the security of
the colonies vanished and the colonies were no longer required to look
forward to the military protection from England. Thus, the colonists did
not hesitate to defy and agitate against the unpopular and exploitative laws
of the British government and assert their independence.
2.3.6 Unsympathetic Attitude of British Kings :
The British kings followed harsh and unsympathetic policy towards the
colonies. King Ge orge III, who ascended the throne of England in 1760,
wanted to rule on the model of absolute rulers of Europe. He asserted his
right to govern the colonies as he liked. He never tried to understand the
hopes and aspirations of the colonists neither were h e keen in solving their munotes.in

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25 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) problems. He lacked statesmanlike qualities and was carried away by the
sinister advice of his ministers,
2.3.7 Influence of Ideas:
The American Revolutions was influenced by philosophers and thinkers of
the period. John Locke had strongly advocated that a government must be
based on the consent of the governed and it must not only serve the
interests of the people but also protect their freedom. Whenever a
government acts contrary to the interests of the governed and fails to
uphol d their liberties, the people have a right to overthrow such a
government.
Thomas Paine did much to advance the cause of rebellion in America. In
his work 'Common sense', declared that America's subjection to England
was 'contrary to reason'. He therefore advocated his fellowmen to fight for
total independence from England.
There were other writers like, Thomas Jefferson, Franklin Benjamin,
Alexander Hamilton etc. whose writing led to the rise of American
nationalism.
2.3.8 No Taxation Without Representatio n:
To the American colonists, a direct tax such as the Stamp Act was
outrageous and riots broke out. They believed that the British Parliament
could regulate the trade of her colonies but it had no right to levy direct
taxes when they had no representatio n in the Parliament. The cry "No
taxation without representation" was raised. This led to all round
discontentment leading to protest against Britain and the boycott of British
goods. In order to make the grievances known, delegates from nine
colonies met at New York in June 1765 and sent a petition to the British
Crown to repeal the Stamp Act.
Stamp Act was a direct attempt by England to raise revenue in the
colonies without the consent of the colonial assemblies. The Americans
feared that if such direct tax as Stamp Act was accepted it will open doors
for more burdensome taxation.
The British Parliament responded and repealed both the Sugar Act and the
Stamp Act in March 1766.
2.3.9 Immediate Cause :
a. Boston Tea Party , 1773 :
The East India Company whic h had suffered losses was sitting on a large
stock of unsold tea. The Company was on the verge of bankruptcy. In an
effort to save the company the British Parliament passed the Tea Act of
1773 and allowed the Company to import tea into the American colonie s
without paying any of the regular taxes. In fact, this tea was cheaper than
the tea which the Americans imported, but since, being cheaper, it was
undersold which adversely affected the interests of the American tea munotes.in

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26 The American Revolution (1776) merchants who suffered losses. Three E nglish ships, loaded with Indian
tea, were stationed at the Boston Port. When the Governor ordered the tea
to be unloaded, a group of Americans disguised as Mohawks boarded the
ships and emptied all the chests of tea into the ocean. This rebellious
inciden t gave a clarion call to the American Revolution.
b. Intolerable Acts of 1774 :
The Boston Tea Party enraged the British King, George III and his
government and in response the British Parliament passed a number of
laws to punish the colonists early in 1 774. These punitive acts came to be
known as the Intolerable Acts. One act closed Boston Harbour until
Bostonians paid for the destroyed tea. Another act restricted the activities
of the legislature of the Massachusetts and placed the colony under the
direct control of England. The colonists were directed to house and feed
British soldiers. These factors ultimately led to the American Revolution.
Check your progress
Q.1 Explain the economic and immediate causes of the American
Revolution.

2.4 COURSE OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 2.4.1 First Continental Congress (1774):
The Intolerable Acts broke the patience of the colonists. On 5th September
1774, delegates from all colonies except Georgia met in the First
Continental Congress at Philadelphia. The Congress di d not call for
independence from England. However, it passed a resolution calling the
colonies to cut off colonial trade with England unless Parliament abolished
the Intolerable Acts. The Congress drew up a Declaration of Rights. The
delegates hoped that t he colonies would regain their rights, which
Parliament had taken away from them. The Congress agreed to hold
another Continental Congress in May 1775 if England did not change its
policies by that time.
2.4.2 Second Continental Congress (1775):
Fighting b roke out between the colonists and British troops at Concord
and Lexington on 19th April 1775. This event led to the beginning of the
American War of Independence. As decided in the First Continental
Congress, colonial leaders met in the Second Continental Congress at
Philadelphia on 10th May 1775. The chief task of the Congress was to
prepare the colonies for a war of independence against England. It
organized the Continental Army. On 15th June 1775, the Congress named
George Washington of Virginia as the Commander -in-Chief of the
Continental Army.
The Congress constituted a committee consisting of Thomas Jefferson,
Benjamin Franklin and other important leaders to draf t the Declaration of munotes.in

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27 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) Independence, which was adopted by the Congres s on 4th July 1776.
Thus, the Second Continental Congress officially declared independence
and formed the United States of America The declaration put forward
certain self -evident truths that were basic to the revolutionary cause. It
said that, all men are created equal, and are endowed by their Creator with
rights to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. To protect those rights,
men organized governments, and the governments derived their powers
from the consent of the governed. But when a government ceased to
preserve the rights, it was the duty of the people to change the
government, or abolish it and form a new one.
2.4.3 Revolutionary War:
The American colonies entered the Revolutionary War without an army or
navy. Their fighting forces consisted of militia units in th e various
colonies. They lacked a well -trained army and experienced officers to
command the soldiers. They also did not possess good weapons and other
material and monetary resources. But they had the advantage of fighting
on their home territory. On the o ther hand the British had well -trained and
well equipped troops and officers. However, they were fighting in an
unfamiliar land thousands of miles from home. The colonists were
fortunate to get material and monetary assistance from France, Spain and
Hollan d, who were the enemies of England.
The Revolutionary War continued for nearly eight years. The colonial
troops led by Major General Horatio Gates scored a brilliant victory over
the British army under the command of Lieutenant General John
Burgoyne at Sar atoga in eastern New York (17th October, 1777). The last
major battle of the Revolutionary War was fought at Yorktown. The
colonial army with the support of the French forces delivered a crushing
defeat to British forces under the command of Cornwallis. Th e surrender
of Cornwallis at Yorktown on 19th October 1781 did not bring a sudden
end to the Revolutionary War. The fighting dragged on in some areas for
two more years. However, there was fear among the British leaders that
they might lose other parts of British Empire if they continued the war in
America. Following the defeat and surrender of Cornwallis a new group of
British ministers came to power early in 1782. They began peace talks
with the Americans.
2.4.4 Treaty of Paris (1783):
Following the peace negotiations between the British representatives and
American delegates in Paris in April 1782, the Treaty of Paris was signed
on 3rd September 1783. The Treaty of Paris recognized the independence
of the United States and also established the borders of the new nation.
The treaty also granted fishing rights to the Americans off the coast of
Newfoundland and Nova Scotia.
Check your progress
Q.1 Explain the Course of the American Revolution. munotes.in

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28 The American Revolution (1776) 2.5 GEORGE WASHINGTON (1732 - 1799) Recognition of the true great ness of George Washington, as a man and a
general, has somehow been diminished over the years. Born in 1732 in the
state of Virginia, Washington was a self -made man, though he came from
a background of being a plantation owner. At the age of 27 he married
Martha Curtis, a rich widow with children. He was fond of socializing and
was also a champion for the fights of the colonist.
In recognition of his great patriotism, and his qualities of leadership, the
Congress elected him as it's Commander -in-Chief. This he accepted
mainly as "a kind of destiny," as he told his wife.
When Washington reached the American camp at Cambridge on July 2,
1775, the problems that he faced were practically impossible to solve. He
needed to create an army from a mixture of forces r aised by the four New
England states -Massachusetts, Connecticut, N ew Hampshire a nd Rhode
Island -and the southern regiment yet to come. These soldiers were
volunteers, rugged individuals, resentful of discipline, ignorant of military
procedure, lacking cl othing, weapons, ammunition and other supplies with
which to wage a prolonged war. As Washington wrote to his brother that
the officers in general were "the most indifferent kind of people I ever
saw".
Washington also faced a crisis in the form of finance for the army. Yet
along with help of Robert Morris, Washington was able to inspire his men
in the field and also to raise money to finance the army.
He spent six years in the field with his troops, without once returning to
his beloved Mount Vernon. His l abour bore fruit with the triumph of the
Colonist armies over the British forces led by Lord Cornwallis. The final
victory of Washington at Yorktown on October 19, 1781, vindicated
Washington's fundamental strategy - to harass the enemy at every point,
but never to allow them the opportunity of crushing his army.
The British evacuated New York on November 23,1783. Washington
marched in leading his ill -clad, ragged army. It was there he bid farewell
to his officers and soldiers.
In recognition of his leade rship capabilities, the new Constitutional
Government that was formed elected George Washington as the first
President of the United States of America.

2.6 CAUSES OF SUCCESS It is surprising that Britain with all her resources of a world empire at its
comm and was defeated. Britain, however, had many handicaps. munotes.in

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29 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) (i) Not all Englishmen favoured the war and as a result it was a half -
hearted attempt on the part of Britain. Persons like William Pitt and
Burke favoured the colonists.
(ii) There was a threat of re bellion in Ireland. Britain at that time was
fighting against Spain, France and Holland.
(iii) The long distance between Britain and America hindered the regular
and timely supply of reinforcements,
(iv) The British soldiers and generals were not as well -conversant with
geography and topography of the colonies as the colonial army and
their general George Washington.
(v) The dynamic and determined leadership of George Washington
contributed a great deal to the success of the Americans.
(vi) French help by way of money, men and military supply greatly
improved American fighting capacity.
(vii) Above all, the Americans were inspired by the spirit of patriotism
and their heroic and determined fight to protect their rights was a
powerful force in itself.
Check your progress
Q. 1 Examine the role of George Washington in the American Revolution.

2.7 EFFECTS OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION The American Revolution is one of the most important landmarks in the
history of the world. It had far reaching consequences not o nly on the
history of the United States of America but also on the British Empire and
the world at large. The effects of the American Revolution are as follows:
2.7.1 Birth of a New Nation:
As a result of the American Revolution, the 13 British colonies e merged
as an independent nation, the United States of America. The military
success of the colonists against England was confirmed by the Treaty of
Paris (1783) when England recognized the independence of the colonies.
In the place of royal rule they estab lished governments ruled by law and
dedicated to the guarantee of certain basic rights, including life, liberty,
and the pursuit of happiness. The new nation of the United States
controlled all of North America from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mississippi
River between Canada and Florida. Canada, to the north, remained British
territory. England returned Florida to Spain, and Spain continued to
control the area west of the Mississippi river. The original 13 colonies
made up the first 13 states of the United S tates.
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30 The American Revolution (1776) 2.7.2. The American constitution:
At the end of the Revolutionary war, the new nation was still a loose
confederation of states. But in 1787, American leaders got together and
wrote the Constitution of the United States. The Constitution became the
basic law of the country that welded it together into a solid political unit.
The men who wrote the Constitution were some of the most famous and
important figures in American history. They included George Washington
and James Madison of Virginia, Alexande r Hamilton of New York, and
Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania. The authors of the Constitution, along
with other early leaders such as Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, won lasting
fame as the Founding Fathers of the United States.
2.7.3 Human Casualties:
It has been estimated that about 7, 200 Americans were killed and more
than 8, 200 were wounded in battles during the Revolutionary War. About
10,000 others died in military camps from disease or exposure. Nearly
8,500 died in prison after being captured by th e British. American military
deaths from all causes during the war thus, numbered about 25,700. Many
of the soldiers in the Continental Army came out of the war penniless.
They had received little or no pay while they served. Soldiers who had
enlisted for the Revolutionary War were given certificates for western
land. However, many veterans had to sell the certificates, as they needed
money before western lands became available. It was only in 1818 that
Congress agreed to pay pensions to needy veterans..
2.7.4 Huge Cost of the War:
The United States was deep in debt to finance the Revolutionary War. A
new Constitution, approved in 1788, gave the Congress power of taxation.
By the early 1800s much of the war debt was cleared the Congress
through taxes. The Revolutionary War severely strained England's
economy. There was great apprehension in England that the war might
bankrupt the country. But after the war, the increased trade with the
United States helped the British economy to recover. Taxes on trade
reduced England's debt. However, of all the warring nations, France
suffered huge financial loss during the Revolutionary War. By 1788, the
country was nearly bankrupt. The financial troubles of France helped in
bringing the French Revolution in 1789.
2.7.5 Inspiration to the French Revolution:
The principles of American Revolution inspired the revolutionaries.
French volunteers, who participated in the Revolutionary War such as
Lafayette, on their return, played a crucial role in the making of the French
Revo lution. The French Revolution broke out six years after the signing of
the Treaty of Paris (1783). The ideals of the French Revolution, liberty,
equality and fraternity were the reflection of American idealism of
democracy and rights of human beings.
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31 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) 2.7.6 Setback to the Absolute Monarchy in England:
The humiliating defeat of England by the colonial forces in the
Revolutionary War discredited the English monarchy. It brought about
liberal changes in English constitutional policies. The autocratic monarchy
of George III gave way to a constitutional monarchy. The Tories
(conservatives) who had dominated the government during the reign of
George III lost their credibility because of their poor handling of the
American affairs. The Tories were replaced by the W higs (liberals) who
were to introduce Parliamentary democracy and social reforms. Thus, the
American Revolution indirectly contributed in the transformation of the
English absolute monarchy into a constitutional monarchy,
2.7.7 Change in British Colonial Policy:
The loss of 13 American colonies following the American Revolution
forced England to change her attitude towards other colonies in Asia and
Africa. England learnt the bitter lesson that colonies like ripe fruits were
bound to fall in the long run. She realized that any excessive interference
in the internal affairs of a colony would ultimately lead to a revolution in
the colony. Hence, England followed cautious and sympathetic policy
towards her 'white' colonies of Canada, South Africa, Australia an d New
Zealand. These colonies were gradually granted autonomy, and they
remained within the British Empire as Dominions. Even the 'coloured'
colonies of Asia and Africa, after their independence in the middle of the
20th century continued their relations w ith England leading to the
formation of the Commonwealth of Nations.
2.7.8 Victory of Democracy and Liberty:
The American Revolution marked the victory of democracy and liberty.
The Declaration of American Independence is a document of great
historical imp ortance. Admiration for the principles that guided the
American Revolution led people elsewhere to demand political reforms.
Check your progress
Q.1 Examine the consequences of the American Revolution.

2.8 SUMMARY The American Revolution brought about the first expulsion of a European
colonial power replaced monarchial government with a viable republic
and established the practice of popular soverignity (democracy). As a
result of those achievements, the American Revolution was seen as a hope
and a model t o latter revolutions round the world.
America was colonised by the Europeans who came in search of better
prospects of all the Europeans. The British soon got mastery of all the 13
colonies that were established. munotes.in

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32 The American Revolution (1776) Over the period of time the colonists turne d hostile to British rule. This
was mainly due to the fact that Britain believed in the 'Mercantilist Policy'.
According to the policy. Colonies existed only for the benefit of the
'mother country'. As a result , rules were framed and taxes imposed which
were against the interest of the colonies.
As grievances of the colonies grew, Britain did not change. As a result one
event led to another, and in 1776 the war for Independent started. The war
dragged on for 7 years, till the other European powers helped in bringing
the war to an end in 1781. By the treaty of Paris 1783 America was at last
recognised as an Independent nation with the right to choose her own
destiny. American established a democracy was a concept that was to
extend not only to Europe but to t he rest of the world.

2.9 QUESTIONS 1. Discuss the causes of the American Revolution.
2. Explain the political and economic causes of the American
Revolution.
3. Briefly describe the causes and results of the American Revolution.
4. Examine the conse quences of the American Revolution.
5. Describe the nature of the American Revolution.
6. Explain the Course of the American Revolution.
7. Write short notes on the following:
(a) Economic causes of the American Revolution
(b) Navigation Laws (c) Bost on Tea Party
(d) George Washington

2.10 ADDITIONAL READINGS  Beik, Paul H. & Lavouvre, L., Modern Europe: A History Since 1815,
New York, Henry Holt & Co., 1959.
 Benns Lee, Europe 1870 -1914, Appleton tan Century Grafts, New
York, 1965.
 Breace, Richard M, Th e Making of the Modern World, New York,
Reinehart & Co., Inc. 1956.
 Comwell R. D., World History In the Twentieth Century, Longman
Group Ltd., London, 1977.
 Croce Bendetto , History of Europe in the Nineteenth Century, Unwin
University Books, England, 1965 .
 Garraty, J., and Gay, Peter(Ed.), A History of the World, New York,
Harper & Row, 1972. munotes.in

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33 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE)  Gressy Eduard, An Outline of Industrial History, Macmillan & Co.
London, 1929.
 Ketelbey C.D.M., A Brief History of Modern Times from 1789,
Oxford University Press, C alcutta, 1984.
 Lipson E., Europe in the 19 and 20 Centuries, English Language Book
Society, London, 1960.
 Platt, Nathaniel., and Drummond, Muriel J., Our Nation From Its
Creation, History of the United States, New York Prentice -Hall, Inc.,
1964.
 Palmer, R. R., and Colton, Joel, A History of the Modern World, New
York, Alfred A. Knopf, 1957.
 Weech W. N. - History of the World, Asia Publishing House, Bombay,
1961.
*****
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34
3
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
Unit Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Nature of French Revolution
3.3 Causes of French Revolution
3.4 Course of the Revolution
3.5 Rise and fall of Napoleon Bonaparte
3.6 Effects and Significance of the French Re volution
3.7 Summary
3.8 Questions
3.9 Additional Readings

3.0 OBJECTIVES 1. To introduce to the students the importance of the French Revolution
as a landmark in the history of the world.
2. To examine the nature of the French Revolution.
3. To un derstand the causes for the outbreak of the Revolution.
4. To study the course of the Revolution.
5. To evaluate Napolean Bonaparte's role in history.
6. To assess the effects of the French Revolution.

3.1 INTRODUCTION The American Revolution helped t o spark the French Revolution of 1789 -
which proved to be the most violent and f ar reaching of all the liberal
upheavals. Not only were liberal ideas ushered in, but also drastic changes
in the legal, social and economic order was introduced in France the most
populous country in Western history. As Tocqueville later wrote: 'The
French Revolution had no territory of its own; indeed, its effect was to
efface, in a way all old frontiers. If brought men together, divided them, in
spite of laws, traditions, character and language -turning enemies
sometimes into compatriots and kinsmen into strangers....... ’’. munotes.in

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35 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) The French Revolution formed a significant landmark in human history. A
struggle arose between the French people and the French monarch which
resulted in th e victory of the people over the king. Monarchy came to be
abolished and the first French Republic was born. It was the French
Revolution that really shook the European social, political, economic and
religious systems.

3.2 NATURE OF FRENCH REVOLUTION The French Revolution was a period of radical political and societal
change in France that began with the Estates General of 1789 and ended
with the formation of the French Consulate in November 1799. Many of
its ideas are considered fundamental principles of liberal democracy, while
phrases like Liberté, égalité, fraternité reappeared in other revolts, such as
the 1917 Russian Revolution and inspired campaigns for the abolition of
slavery and universal suffrage. Its values and the institutions it created
domi nate French politics to this day.
The Revolution precipitated a series of European wars, forcing the United
States to articulate a clear policy of neutrality in order to avoid being
embroiled in these European conflicts. The French Revolution also
influenc ed U.S. politics, as pro - and anti - Revolutionary factions sought to
influence American domestic and foreign policy.
The French Declaration of Rights when the first rumors of political change
in France reached American shores in 1789, the U.S. public was l argely
enthusiastic. Americans hoped for democratic reforms that would solidify
the existing Franco -American alliance and transform France into a
republican ally against aristocratic and monarchical Britain. However,
with revolutionary change also came pol itical instability, violence, and
calls for radical social change in France that frightened many Americans.
American political debate over the nature of the French Revolution
exacerbated pre -existing political divisions and resulted in the alignment
of the political elite along pro -French and pro -British lines. Secretary of
State Thomas Jefferson became the leader of the pro -French Democratic -
Republican Party that celebrated the republican ideals of the French
Revolution. Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton led the
Federalist Party, which viewed the Revolution with skepticism and sought
to preserve existing commercial ties with Great Britain. With the two most
powerful members of his cabinet locked in opposition, President George
Washington tried to strike a balance between the two.
The causes are generally agreed to be a combination of social, political
and economic factors, which the existing regime proved unable to manage.
In May 1789, widespread social distress led to the convocation of the
Estat es-General, which was converted into a National Assembly in June.
The Assembly passed a series of radical measures, including the abolition
of feudalism, state control of the Catholic Church and extending the right
to vote. munotes.in

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36 The French Revolution The next three years were domina ted by the struggle for political control,
exacerbated by economic depression and social unrest. External powers
like Austria, Britain and Prussia viewed the Revolution as a threat, leading
to the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars in April 1792.
Disillusionment with Louis XVI led to the establishment of the First
French Republic on 22 September 1792, followed by his execution in
January 1793. In June, an uprising in Paris replaced the Girondins who
dominated the National Assembly with the Committee of Public Safety,
headed by Maximilien Robespierre.
This sparked the Reign of Terror, an attempt to eradicate alleged "counter -
revolutionaries"; by the time it ended in July 1794, over 16,600 had been
executed in Paris and the provinces. From 1790 to 1794, the French
Revolution became increasingly radical. After French King Louis XVI
was tried and executed on January 21, 1793, war between France and
monarchal nations like Great Britain and Spain was inevitable. These two
powers joined Austria and other Euro pean nations in the war against
Revolutionary France that had already started in 1791. The United States
remained neutral, as both Federalists and Democratic -Republicans saw
that war would lead to economic disaster and the possibility of invasion.
This pol icy was made difficult by heavy -handed British and French
actions. The British harassed neutral American merchant ships, while the
French Government dispatched a controversial Minister to the United
States, Edmond -Charles Genêt, whose violations of the Ame rican
neutrality policy embroiled the two countries in the Citizen Genêt Affair
until his recall in 1794.
In 1794, the French Revolution entered its most violent phase, the Terror.
Under foreign invasion, the French Government declared a state of
emergency , and many foreigners residing in France were arrested,
including American revolutionary pamphleteer Thomas Paine, owing to
his British birth. Although U.S. Minister to France Gouverneur Morris
was unable to obtain Paine’s release, Morris was able to inter cede
successfully on behalf of many other Americans imprisoned during the
Terror, including the American Consuls at Dunkirk, Rouen, and Le Havre.
Once the Terror ended in late July of 1794, the arrests ended, and Paine,
who had been scheduled to be execute d, was released.
As well as external enemies, the Republic faced a series of internal
Royalist and Jacobin revolts; in order to deal with these, the French
Directory took power in November 1795. Despite a series of military
victories, the war caused econom ic stagnation and political divisions; in
November 1799, the Directory was replaced by the Consulate, which is
generally seen as the end of the Revolutionary period.
Although the French Revolution had ended its radical phase, Federalists in
the United Stat es remained wary of revolutionary ideology infiltrating the
United States. Many French citizens, refugees from the French and Haitian
revolutions, had settled in American cities and remained politically active,
setting up newspapers and agitating for their political causes. A French
spy, Victor Collot, traveled through the United States in 1796, noting the munotes.in

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37 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) weaknesses in its western border. When a breakdown in diplomatic
negotiations resulted in the Quasi -War with France, the Federalist -
controlled Congress p assed a series of laws known as the Alien and
Sedition Acts, intended to curb political dissent and limit the political
participation of immigrants by easing deportation and lengthening the time
required for citizenship. A number of political radicals were arrested for
sedition, including Congressman Matthew Lyon and newspaper editors
James Thompson Callendar and William Duane. Many refugees, sensing
American hostility, chose to return to France and Haiti since the political
situation had temporarily calmed in both places.
The Alien and Sedition Acts, originally intended to prevent a growth in
pro-French sentiment, actually backfired for the Federalists. Taken aback
by such extreme measures, swing voters in the presidential election of
1800 instead backed th e pro -French Thomas Jefferson and his
Democratic -Republican Party, instead of the Federalist John Adams, who
was running for re -election as President. Adams had also alienated the
anti-Revolutionary wing of his party by seeking peace with France, whose
revolution had already been brought to a close by General Napoleon
Bonaparte.
Despite Federalist warnings that electing Jefferson would bring revolution
to the United States, Jefferson instead chose to distance himself from
political radicals and win over pol itical moderates. The revolution in
France was over, and while many Americans voters sympathized with the
revolution in the abstract, they did not want the revolution’s most radical
changes put into effect in the United States.
The French Revolution was a watershed event in modern European history
that began in 1789 and ended in the late 1790s with the ascent of
Napoleon Bonaparte. During this period, French citizens razed and
redesigned their country’s political landscape, uprooting centuries -old
instituti ons such as absolute monarchy and the feudal system. The
upheaval was caused by widespread discontent with the French monarchy
and the poor economic policies of King Louis XVI, who met his death by
guillotine, as did his wife Marie Antoinette. Although it failed to achieve
all of its goals and at times degenerated into a chaotic bloodbath, the
French Revolution played a critical role in shaping modern nations by
showing the world the power inherent in the will of the people.
Check your progress
Q.1 Discuss the nature of the French Revolution, 1789.

3.3 CAUSES OF FRENCH REVOLUTION Many factors led to the outbreak of the French Revolution, viz, political,
social, intellectual and economic. The general conditions in France were in
no way different from those in the other countries of Europe. Then why
did the Revolution break out in France and not in any other country? munotes.in

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38 The French Revolution The revolution broke out first in France because the French monarchs had
become inefficient and ineffective. The French philosophers and thinker s
made the people of France more conscious of the miserable conditions of
the people and also made them aware of their rights. The Glorious
Revolution in England and the American Revolution provided the best
models for the French people to follow,
3.3.1 Po litical Factors :
(a) Weak Rulers:
The success of monarchical govermment depended upon the etficiency of
the monarch himself.
i) Louis XIV:
After Louis XIV, the French monarchs were not etficient administrators.
Louis XIV had indulged in constant wars dur ing the latter part of his life.
When he died in 1715 he left an empty treasury to his successor.
ii) Louis XV:
Instead of improving the French finances wasted wealth by living a life of
luxury. He did not reform or strengthen the administration but spent his
time with his many mistresses. He even allowed them to dictate to him his
domestic and foreign policies. His long rule (from 1715 to 1774) ruined
the French economy and loosened the administhative machinery. It was
during his rule that France lost the Seven Years' War (1756 -63) and her
colonies.
iii) Louis XVI :
His successor, Louis XVI was young and inexperienced when came to the
throne in 1774. He was well intentioned but inefficient and ineffective.
Moreover, under the feudal system, the influentia l nobles controlled the
king and his court. Unfortunately, the king was not interested in
administration. When Malesherbes, a minister of the interior, came to
tender his resignation, Louis XVI said, "How fortunate you are, I wish I
could resign too."
iv) Marie Antoinette:
His wife, Marie Antoinette was a more forceful personality than the King
but lacked political wisdom and statesmanship. Young and vivacious, she
brought more harm to her husband than good. The French monarchy had
become blind to the rea lities of the worsening situation in the county.
(b) The Central Administration:
There was excessive concentration of power in the hands of the French
kings. In such a situation, only an able monarch could manage the state of
France. There were other pro blems such as absentee landlordism,
oppressive taxation and corrupt and indifferent administratior. When munotes.in

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39 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) France went bankrupt, Louis XVI did not have the ability to solve her
financial problems. This brought about the Revolution.
3.3.2 Social Factors :
a) Social system:
The French social system was feudal and was based on class distinction
and privileges. The society was divided into three estates. The clergy
formed the first estate. The nobles formed the second estate. The third
estate consisted of the rest of the people of France such as peasants, serfs,
the businessmen and the professional class.
(b) Injustice :
The main problem of the Frencn society was that its first two estates
(nobles and clergy) enjoyed all the privileges, owned most of the lan d in
France, did comparatively little work and paid no taxes. AIl high posts in
the government were reserved for the first two estates. Important positions
in the army were occupied only by the nobles. A person from the third
estate, however, wealthy or in telligent, could not rise to higher status in
society. The people of the third estate paid all kinds of taxes and bore the
economic burden of the country. For example, the peasants paid direct and
indirect taxes to the king, tithes to the church and feudal and other dues,
including the corvee (forced labour) to the nobles. Because of absentee
land-lordism, the nobles never lived on their lands but sent their agents
regularly to collect dues from the peasants. There was no love lost
between the peasants and the noble.
(c) Social inequality:
The bourgeois or the middle class people who were professionals or
businessmen, though not as worse off as the peasants, suffered hardships
because of restrictions on their business or professional activities. Many of
them were as wealthy as some of the nobles, as such they resented the fact
that they did not have any privileges. In the first estate the clergy who held
higher positions in the church enjoyed all privileges and power while the
lower clergy who looked after pa rishes were poor and uncared for. Under
the circumstances, the third estate and many of the disgruntled members of
the first two estates had no hope or opportunity to get their grievances
redressed.
Check your progress
Q.1 Examine the political and social causes of the French Revolution,
1789.
3.3.2 French Thinkers :
The French philosophers, writers and intellectuals inspired by the ideas of
individual freedom advocated by John Locke were mainly responsible for
making the people conscious of their natural r ights and the injustice done
to them and of their sufferings. At the same time, they were also made
aware of their individual rights. Once the people became conscious of munotes.in

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40 The French Revolution their rights , they began to look for an opportunity to secure them. The
following wer e the prominent philosophers and writers responsible for the
spread of the new ideas.
(a) Montesquieu (1635 -1755):
He was born in a wealthy family. Though not a revolutionary he criticised
the moribund social and political system in France. He criticised the
corrupt practices and abuses of the Church and the inefficient despotism of
the State. He also criticised the so called superiority of French manners
and customs which helped nobody. He compared the French government
with that of the British and point ed out the advantages of the free
institutions of Britain based on liberty and equality. However, he did not
suggest the abolition of monarchy or the Church.
(b) Voltaire (1694 -1778):
He was a highly respected intellectual of his times in Europe. Voltaire was
a great poet, historian, philosopher satirist and a dramatist. He severely
attacked the despotism of the Church and the corupt practices of the higher
clergy. Though he attacked the abuses of the Church, he was not an
atheist. He knew the importance o f religion in the life of people and said,
"If God did not exist, it would be necessary to create him." He was also
not against monarchy, for he believed that the popular government could
create more problems and bring chaos. He advocated freedom of
expres sion and pointed out the advantages of British democratic system as
compared to French autocracy.
(c) Rousseau (1712 -1778):
Rousseau was mainly responsible for sowing the seeds of the French
Revolution. He went one step ahead of Voltaire. His book, the S ocial
Contract influenced the French people the most. He argued that man is
naturally free and equal but in the course of history, his rights and
privileges had been taken away. Man has been deprived of his right to
liberty and happiness. It is necessary t hat he should regain what he had
lost. He wrote, "Man is born free, but everywhere he is in chains." The
existing social and political institutions, he argued , had deprived man of
his natural rights.
In addition to these philosophers, there were others li ke encyclopaedists,
physiocrats and dramatists who also helped in fanning further the flame of
the revolution. A special mention should be made here about the
philosophers like Diderot and Condorcet who emphasised on remaking
society in accordance with the laws of nature. They believed that man has
capacity for unlimited progress.
Check your progress
Q.1 Explain the contribution of the Philosophers to the French
Revolution, 1789.
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41 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) 3.3.4 Influence of British and American Revolutions :
The infuence of the English revolutions of 1642 and 1688 and of the
American Revolution cannot be underestimated. French General Lafayette
and the French soldiers who had returned after the American War of
Independence inspired the French people with the idea that if the
Amer ican people could rebel against their king in England and succeed,
why not the French people? These French troops had returned from
America with the words liberty, equality and fraternity on their lips. These
three words became the watch words of the Frenc h Revolution.
3.3.5 Economic Factors and Financial Crisis :
The immediate cause for the outbreak of the Revolution was the
bankruptcy of the French treasury. French participation in the American
War of Independence had cost France too dearly. The impoveris hed
treasury was further depleted.
Louis XVI, who came to the throne in 1774, inaugurated an era of
economic reforms which lasted for seven years. Turgot was appointed
finance minister in 1774. He was succeeded by another able finance
minister named Necker . He further tried to improve the French economy
but when he failed in 1781, the Revloution was hastened. Turgot and
Necker could not succeed in giving France a stable economy because of
the king's vacillating attitude and the vested interest of his nobles and the
courtiers. The nobles and aristocracy opposed tax reforms and obstructed
the govemment in its efforts to restructure nation's financial system.
During the three years betore the revolution broke out, Louis XVI tried
every possible method to impro ve French finances but failed. The French
finance minister ,Colonne, appointed in 1783, adopted the policy of bluff
and spent more to borow more. In 1786 he introduced a radical reform by
proposing a direct tax on all land holders, nobles, clergy and commo ners.
Colonne's refoms were opposed by the land holders consisting of
numerical nobles and clergy and a few others as it was not in their interest.
When he failed miserably in his strategy the revolution became certain. In
order to save the situation, the king recalled Necker but it was too late and
nothing could save the French monarchy. When all the measures had
failed, the king was forced to call the Estates -General, a national body
that consisting of representatives from the three estates. Louis XVI
believed that this body would be able to help him to raise money and
avoid the disaster. The elections were held and the Estales -General met at
Paris on 5th May 1789. The national body, instead of helping the king to
solve the financial problem and avoid a national disaster, brought about
the Revolution
3.3.6 Agrarian Crisis and Famine :
Agricultural economy in France suffered in 1787 and 1788 because of
poor harvests and famine conditions. The poor peasants who only
subsisted began to starve because of poo r crops. Grain shortage led to munotes.in

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42 The French Revolution sharp increase in prices particularly of bread. For a decade prior to the
revolution French trade and economy were on the decline. Agricultural
profits were reduced. The noblemen and big farmers in order to make up
for their losses in agricultural income began to ask for more dues and
revenues which the tenant farmers could not afford. The countryside in
France was ripe for a revolution.
Check your progress
Q. 1 Discuss the causes of the French Revolution, 1789.

3.4 COURSE O F THE REVOLUTION 3.4.1 Summoning of the Estates General
The Estates -General, the French national body, had not been called since
1614. It was called after 175 years, as a last resort by the king to help him
to solve the financial problems of the country. The third estate took the
opportunity to help itself, and put an end to the monarchy.
Little did Louis XVI realise that the disaster was to come when the
Assembly met on 5th May, 1789 at Versailles. There were 308
representatives of the clergy (the first estate), 285 representatives of the
nobles (the second estate )and 621 representatives of the common people
(the third estate).
3.4.2 Voting as One Body :
When the Assembly met, the third estate was conscious of its strengtn.
The king was not trained in th e art of handling an assembly, The mood of
the third estate was best expressed by Abbe Sieyes in his pamphlet What
is the Third Estate argued that the real French nation was made up of
common people i.e. the third estate also, and not merely the clergy and the
nobles. Nobility was a useless estate which could be abolished without
loss. Therefore, the voice of majority that is of the third estate should be
decisive. The trouble started on the question of voting. The king and
nobles insisted that as per the custom the voting on any proposal of the
assembly be done estate wise, i.e., on any question, each estate was to be
allowed to vote separately. In such a case, the first two estates could pass
such laws as would be favourable to themselves which could b e pass ed
against the interests of the third estate. Therefore, the third estate
demanded that the Estate -General must vote as one body so that they
could have a better say because of their strength. The clergy first opposed,
but later agreed to join the t hird estate. The nobles resisted and influenced
the king not to yield to the demands of the third estate. This brought about
the catastrophe.
3.4.3 Tennis Court Oath :
On June 20, 1789 when members of the third estate went to meet in the
Assembly hall, the y found the doors locked by the orders of the king. munotes.in

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43 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) Then they moved to an adjacent room which was sometimes used as a
tennis court by the royal family. There, under their leader Bailly, they took
an oath and constituted themselves as the "National Assembly ." They also
decided not to retire until they prepared a constitution for France. The
Tennis Court Oath struck the first blow at monarchy and from then
onwards the authority began to pass gradually from the hands of the King
into the hands of the Assembly.
3.4.4 The National Assembly :
The third estate now became the National Assembly under the
chairmanship of Mirabeau, and later on took up the task of preparing a
Constitution for France, therefore, the National Assembly came to be
called as the Constituti onal Assembly. On 27th June 1789, the king
ordered that the three Estates must sit together as a National Assembly.
However, due to pressure of the first two estates, the King continued to
suppress the third estate with the help of the army.
3.4.5 Fall of Bastille :
The King felt helpless and yielded to the demands of the third estate. They
now sat as the National Assembly and voted as one body. But soon they
saw the movement of the royal troops towards Paris and Versailles. When
the King refused to withdra w the troops, the members of the third estate
saw the danger. The mob of Paris who had been suffering because of the
shortage of food, now came to the help of the National Assembly. From
11th to 14th of July, there were riots in Paris and on the 14th of Ju ly 1789,
the mob stormed the Bastille, an ancient fortress and prison of the
Bourbon rulers of France. The destruction of Bastille became symbolically
the destruction of the Bourbon monarchy. Since then, l4th of July, every
year is observed by the people o f France as a day of liberation and
National holiday.
3.4.6 "If they have no bread, let them eat cake" :
The food shortage in France was so severe that on 5th October 1789,
thousands of women marched on Versailles, shouting slogans "Bread,
Bread, Bread". on hearing that the people had no bread to eat, Queen
Marie Antoinette was reported to have remarked callously, "If they have
no bread, let them eat cake". 6th October 1789 marked invasion of the
royal palace by the mob. 20th June 1791, the King and the Qu een tried to
flee from France but failed. The National Assembly proclaimed the
declaration of Human Rights as prepared by Lafayette. The National
Assembly prepared a new Constitution for France, which came into effect
on 14" September 1791. The three princ iples, liberty, equality and
fraternity, as well as separation of powers formed the basis of the French
Constitution. The right to vote was granted only to the taxpayers.
3.4.7 The National Convention :
It was established in 1790. It had two main groups - Girondists and the
Jacobins. Girondist were democratic and their main leaders were Mirabeau munotes.in

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44 The French Revolution and Marat. Whereas, the Jacobins were radicals and their leaders were
Danton and Robespierre. On 21st January 1793, Louis XVI was executed
on the charge of treason. This was followed by a reign of terror in France.
Thousands of persons were guillotined. Lafayette, Didero, Mirabeau,
Abbesieye, Danton and Robespierre were the main leaders of the French
Revolution .
Check your progress
Q. 1. Describe the course of the Fr ench Revolution, 1789.

3.5 RISE AND FALL OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE The French Revolution destroyed the monarchy, but ended in the
dictatorship of Napoleon Bonaparte. When the experiments of the
National Convention and Directory failed, Napoleon Bonaparte e merged
as the new dictator of France. If Rousseau was the father of the French
Revolution, Napoleon is regarded as the child of the French Revolution'.
With his eyes on India, Napoleon conquered Egypt (1798) and thought of
a plan to construct Suez Canal. H owever, he got himself involved in the
continental wars and invited his own doom by invading the frost - covered
Russia. Britain gained maximum from the conflicts among the European
powers. She captured all the Dutch colonies in India, Sri Lanka (Ceylon)
and many islands on way to India. Britain emerged as the leader of anti -
Napoleon European coalition. It was under the leadership of Arther
Wellesley that Napoleon met his final defeat at the battlefield of Waterloo
(1815). The defeated Napoleon was made a p risoner and exiled to the
island of St. Helena, where he breathed his last. The Napoleonic wars led
to the unification of Germany. They brought the unity of France, England,
Austria and Russia. They also led to the Industrial Revolution in England.
Check y our progress
Q.1 Form an estimate of Napoleon Bonaparte

3.6 EFFECTS AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION The French Revolution produced effects of worldwide importance. It
shaped the destiny of mankind to a very great extent. it became a guiding
light to the oppressed people throughout the world to struggle for their
rights and liberties. The main results of the French Revolution are as
follows :
3.6.1 End of the "Old Order" :
The French Revolution resulted in a complete collapse of the Ancient
Regi me. All the elements of feudalism, serfdom, the privileges of the
clergy and the nobility, socio -economic inequalities, the absolute munotes.in

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45 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) autocracy of the monarchy received a death blow at the hands of the
revolution. A society based on the principle of democra cy and equality
was established.
3.6.2 Declaration of Human Rights :
In August 1789, The National Assembly proclaimed the declaration of
Human Rights. It said that all men being born equal should have equal
rights. Law is the expression of the general wil l. Every citizen has a right
to participate personally or through his representative in the formulation of
the laws. Law must be the same for all. The three principles, liberty,
equality and fraternity formed the basis of the French Constitution
prepared b y the National Assembly. This declaration occupies a
significant place in human history along with other documents such as, the
Magna Carta in England and the American Declaration of Independence.
Like all the other liberal democratic documents, it upheld civic liberties.
3.6.3 "Liberty, Equality and Fraternity" :
The central theme of the French Revolution was "Liberty, Equality and
Fraternity." To the French, Liberty means securing personal rights such as
the right to property, the right to security of li fe, the right to resistance,
and the freedom of speech, expression, press and faith. All were made to
pay the taxes. Feudalism was abolished. Privileges of the aristocracy and
the church were replaced by equality of social classes and of opportunity.
Peasa nts were given the ownership of the lands they tilled and the large
estates belonging to the nobility were confiscated and redistributed among
the farmers. Restrictions on business activities were removed. While these
changes helped in the growth of small freehold farmers, they enabled the
French businessmen to expand and develop their enterprise. The notion of
equality came to have greater meaning in social relations. Every man
should have an equal chance with other men to pursue happiness.
Fraternity mean s a feeling of brotherhood and sisterhood among all French
men.
3.6.4 Nationalism and Democracy :
The French Revolution spread the idea of nationalism and democracy
throughout the length and breadth of the world. The French democratic
slogan "Liberty, Equ ality and Fraternity" became the watchword of the
suppressed and the oppressed of the world. The idea that "Sovereignty
comes from the people from below and not from above" was a
fundamental principle that the Revolution put into practice. Absolute
monarch y was replaced by representative government. Suffrage was
granted to the adult male population. This democratic movement proved to
be an enduring form of government. Further, political parties developed
and expressed themselves through pressure groups, the press and other
instruments of public opinion. The state assumed greater power over the
people than the kings had exercised, through the principle of "Nation in
arms", which meant public education for citizens, distribution of
responsibilities and welfare of the population. munotes.in

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46 The French Revolution 3.6.5 Restrictions on the Church :
With the French Revolution, functions of the clergy were modified. The
Church not only was deprived of its privileges and property but also its
position was reduced with the promotion of the ideals of the Rights of
Man. This was followed by the secularization of education. The church
property was confiscated to solve the financial problems faced by the
revolutionary government. The church officials were made subservient to
the state. They were to be app ointed by the central government and were
to be paid fixed salaries. The clergy was required to take an oath of loyalty
to the state. Thus, the control of the church was transferred from the Pope
to the State.
3.6.6 Impact on Other Countries :
Like the Gl orious Revolution in England and the American Revolution,
the French Revolution also inspired the downtrodden and oppressed
masses of people in other countries. Following their example, the
movements for democracy began in other countries of Europe such as
Spain, Portugal, Italy, Germany and Ireland. Here the people rose in revolt
against their despotic or foreign rulers and tried to establish constitutional
Governments. Several revolutions broke out in Latin American countries
during the first quarter of t he 19th century. During the later part of the
19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, revolutionary ideals of
France, such as nationalism, democracy, republicanism along with liberty,
equality and fraternity inspired the subject people under th e colonial rule
of the European nations to initiate freedom struggle. Following their
independence, many of these countries including India incorporated the
ideals of liberty, equality and fraternity in the preamble of their
constitutions.
3.6.7 Social and Economic Reforms :
It Abolished the Negro Slavery and Imprisonment for Debt. It guaranteed
protection to women in their property claims on par with men. Further,
new laws of inheritance were passed, by which all heirs were to inherit the
ancestral property equally.
3.6.8 Metric System :
Code Napoleon laid the basis for a modernized legal system in Europe. It
introduced a metric system, a system of weights and measures based on
number ten. The entire European world and some of the Asiatic countries
adopted t his system.
Check your progress
Q.1 What were the effects and significance of the French Revolution,
1789?

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47 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) 3.7 SUMMARY The French Revolution was the inspiration for all revolutions of the 19th
century. If opened a new epoch in the history of mankind. It paved the
way for individualism as it proclaimed equality for mankind. The French
Revolution was an important landmark in the history of mankind. The
causes for this revolution can be traced to the social, economic and
political conditions of the old Regim e. Along with these the Influence of
the American Revolution failure of reforms also Contributed its share in
bringing about revolution in France.
The beginnings of the Revolution can be traced to the summoning of the
Estates general in 1789. The confusion that ensured in the processes of
elections to this body and the voting procedures to be adopted led to
disturbances and turmoil. This was especially because the king Louis XVI
refused to listen to the voice of the 3 estate dispite the fact that they
repre sented the bulk of the population in France.
This led to expulsion of the 3rd estate from the proceedings in the estate -
general Angered by this the 3rd estate took the ‘Tennis Court Oath ’
Vowing to establish a Constitution for France. They, also constitut ed
themselves into a National Assembly.
Fortunately , the National Assembly was able to survive due to Paris Mob
who were able to capture the 'Bastille", thus foiling the attempts of the
king to overthrow the National Assembly with the help of his troops.
From here there was no stopping the revolutionaries. A constitution was
established for France in 1791 with the king as a constitutional Monarch.
Unfortunately, the king along with his family were caught trying to escape
France. They were caught and put to the guillotine.
The next phase was the 'Reign of Terror' when Robespierre was the
dictator of France. Ultimat ely, Robespierre was put to death thus ending
revolution in France.
The 3 rd phase was that of the Directory. The 5 Directors sincerely tried to
bring order out of the turmoil but were unsuccessful. They were usurped
from power ultimately by Napoleon Bonaparte who established himself as
the first Consul of France and then the Emperor (1804 ) of France.
The most enduring of Napoleon's achievement was to make France
'secular' and his 'codes' were copied by the many countries of Europe.
Unfortunately , Napoleon's overambition, caused his downfall. He tried
conquering the continent. But a coalition of European powers was formed
against him. He was defeated i n 1814 and expelled to the Island of Elba.
He escaped and once again was able to raise an army for war. He was
again defeated by the coalition at Waterloo. He was banished to the island
of St. Helena (1815) where he ultimately perished. munotes.in

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48 The French Revolution The French Revoluti on had to impact all over the world especially as the
words 'Liberty, Equality and Fraternity' turned the keywords, engineering
the right to revolt against exploitation, and establishing a new world order.

3.8 QUESTIONS 1. Discuss the causes of the French Revolution, 1789.
2. Examine the political and social causes of the French Revolution, 1789.
3. Analyze the social and economic causes of the French Revolution,
1789.
4. Explain the contribution of the Philosophers to the French Revolution,
1789.
5. What were the effects of the French Revolution, 1789?
6. What were the causes and consequences of the French Revolution?
7. Form an estimate of Napoleon Bonaparte .
8. Discuss the nature of the French Revolution, 1789.
9. Describe the course of the Frenc h Revolution, 1789.

3.9 ADDITIONAL READINGS  Beik, Paul H. & Lavouvre, L., Modern Europe: A History Since 1815,
New York, Henry Holt & Co., 1959.
 Benns Lee, Europe 1870 -1914, Appleton tan Century Grafts, New
York, 1965.
 Breace, Richard M, The Making of the Modern World, New York,
Reinehart & Co., Inc. 1956.
 Comwell R. D., World History In the Twentieth Century, Longman
Group Ltd., London, 1977.
 Croce Bendetto , History of Europe in the Nineteenth Century, Unwin
University Books, England, 1965.
 Garraty, J., and Gay, Peter(Ed.), A History of the World, New York,
Harper & Row, 1972.
 Gressy Eduard, An Outline of Industrial History, Macmillan & Co.
London, 1929. munotes.in

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49 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE)  Ketelbey C.D.M., A Brief History of Modern Times from 1789, Oxford
University Press, Calcutta, 1984.
 Lipson E., Europe in the 19 and 20 Centuries, English Language Book
Society, London, 1960.
 Palmer, R.R., and Colton, Joel, A History of the Modern World, New
York, Alfred A. Knopf, 1957.
 Weech W. N. - History of the World, Asia Publishing House, Bombay,
1961.

*****
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50
4
THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION
Unit Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Nature of the Russian Revolution
4.3 Causes of the Russian Revolution
4.4 Course of The Russian Revolution
4.5 Nature of the October Revolution (1917)
4.6 Problems of The Provisional Government
4.7 The Bolshevik Revolution of 25th October (7th November) 1917
4.8 Effects and significance of the 1917 Russian Revolution
4.9 Summary
4.10 Questions
4.11 Additional Readings

4.0 OBJECTIVES After the completion of this uni t the student will be able :
 To understand the causes responsible for the Revolution in Russia.
 To discuss the main events that led to the February Revolution of 1917.
 To understand the nature of the February Revolution and the problems
faced by the Provis ional Govemment.
 To examine the ideology of Lenin's Bolshevik Party, and its success in
capturing power in the October Revolution 1917.
 To discuss the policy, programme and problems faced by the Bolshevik
Govemment.
 To appreciate the significance of the Bolshevik Revolution, and its
impact on t he rest of the world.

4.1 INTRODUCTION The Russian revolution of 1917 ranks as the greatest revolution in the
history of mankind. The consequences of the revolution were immense. It
affected at least two beginning of another. munotes.in

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51 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) World War I had seen the principles of nationalism and democracy
triumph in Central Europe. But in Russia it led to a revolution which
shook Russian society to its very foundations. It caused not only the
political structure but also the socia l order to collapse in ruins.
Russia until 1917, was an autocratic and despotic monarchy. Socially,
economically, politically and even militarily she was lagging behind all
major European countries. As regards the cause of the revolution there
were many a nd similar in many respects to those of the French revolution
of the 18th century.
The revolution took place in two phases. The political phase took place in
February (March) 1917, and it sealed the fate of autocracy: the social
phase or the Bolshevik rev olution followed in October (November) 1917,
and it brought into existence the first Worker's Republic.

4.2 NATURE OF THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION I. Nature of the February Revolution (1917) :
Bourgeois -Democratic Revolution :
The February Revolution of 1917 was essentially democratic in spirit.
This was reflected by the nature and activities of the Provisional
Government, that was established after the Tsarist Regime had been
overthrown. The Provisional Government was led under the chairmanship
of Prince George L vov, a liberal big land lord, a member of the
Constitutional Democratic Party. The first thing that the Provisional
Government did was the proclamatio n of the freedom of association of the
press, and of religion, and liberation of thousands of political pri soners. It
at once removed the ban on political exiles. It conferred complete
autonomy on Finland, and assured to extend it to Poland. It promised that
very soon a National Constituent Assembly would be elected by universal
manhood suffrage to frame a Cons titution for Russia on a permanent basis.
There was rejoicing all over Western Europe, and also in the U.S.A. that
the ancient Tsarist autocratic regime has overthrown, and in its place a
democratic government had been established. Thus, at the outset, the
February Revolution of 1917 in Russia was democratic in nature. In May,
power byer, Prince Lvov was succeeded by a radical, Alexander
Kerensky, who promised immediate, radical reforms within Russia.
Check your progress
Q.1 Explain the nature of the Februa ry Revolution, 1917.


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52 The Russian Revolution 4.3 CAUSES OF THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION OCTOBER 1917 Revolutions are not made; they come. A revolution is as natural a growth
as an oak. It comes out of the past. Its foundations are laid far back. The
Russian Revolution was caused by t he economic, social, and political
order, the roots of which were deeply embedded in the ancient autocratic
Tsarist regime in the soil of Russia. This order caused alarming
dissatisfaction to a breaking point all over the Russian empire. Let us now
briefly examine the various factors and forces that led to the Russian
Revolution of 1917.
4.3.I Economic Causes of the Revolution :
The seeds of the Russian revolution lay in Russia's backward, decadent
economic life. In spite of economic and industrial progress registered at
the turn of the twentieth century, Russi a remained basically a poor,
backward, and wretched country in relation to her population, her vast
territorial expanse, and the economic potential available with her. This
resulted in acute mass povert y, misery and grinding exploitation of the
masses.
1. Russian backward and decadent Agriculture :
Russia was basically an agricultural country but highly backward and
decadent. When the whole of Western Europe had adopted improved
methods and scientific tec hniques of farming, the Russian peasant farmers
were desperately striving with their primitive tools to draw a livelihood
from the soil. Most of the farmers did not even have their own tools and
horses to draw the plough and had to hire them from the noble s at
exorbitant rates. The per acre agricultural production in Russia in 1913,
was the lowest in Europe and except China in India the lowest in the
world. The Tsars and the nobles gave no incentives to the peasants to
improve the techniques of agriculture. On the contrary, they discouraged
enterprising farmers from employing better tools and improved techniques
of production. Famines were frequent. For example a severe famines
occurred in 1891. Russia had immense potentialities for boosting
agricultural pro duction but those who wielded economic power, wanted
the backward agriculture to continue as it was, so that they could continue
the exploitation of the peasantry. However, whenever the peasant tried to
better his farming by introducing some new innovatio ns, the Tsarist
officials often frowned at it.
2. Serfdom :
Until 1861, most of the peasants were tied down to the land as 'serfs' and
could be bought and sold like any other commodity. Serfdom was painful
and depressing. The master could them make work as domestic servants,
or could drive them to factories or mines, where they had to sweat for long
hours for the master's profit. Cruel masters flogged them severely and
interfered in their personal and family matters. Serfs lived on their munotes.in

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53 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) master's whims. Th ey could not marry or leave the estates without their
master's consent. Serfs, who tried to escape, were pursued, brought back
and severely punished. The prosperity of a noble was measured in terms
of how many serfs he had. The emancipation Decree issued by Tsar
Alexander II in 1 861, had freed 40 million peasants from serfdom.
Therefore, in Russian history, he came to be known as ' Tsar the
Liberator'. But this was illusory, as the peasants were bound to the village
(Commune), which they could not live wi thout the police permission.
3. Heavy Rates of Taxes and Land - Revenue :
The village, the province, and the state collected heavy land revenue, and
imposed crushing direct and indirect taxes which made "the Russian
village a spectacle of poverty, hunger, d isease and deaths."
4. Unequal distribution of Land and Wealth :
About 60 percent of Russia's agricultural land was owned by the big
landlords, the imperial family, and the monasteries, who represented
hardly 10 percent of the Russian population. About 70 p ercent of her
peasants owned less than 10 acres of land. In 1913, there were 17 million
harrows and 10 million wooden archaic ploughs for 17 million farms. Poor
agricultural production and unjust distribution of land resulted in unfair
distribution of weal th, which caused great discontent among the peasants.
Soon, violent revolts of the peasants began in the rural areas.
5. Russian Industry :
Before the Emancipation Decree of 1861, Russian industrial progress was
hampered by the feudal structure of economy. But after Emancipation
industry was marked by the "creéping character of development, and its
‘sudden flashes of activity ’. After 1890 Russia outstripped many Western
countries in the rate of growth of the most important basic industries, viz.,
iron, stee l and coal. Even then, Russia was industrially a highly backward
country. In 1913, the iron production of Russia was 20 per cent of the
French, 19 per cent of the German, 9 per cent of the American production
and her production of coal in comparison to pop ulation was 20 per cent of
the French, 7 per cent of the German, 4 per cent ofthe U.S.A. and 3 per
cent of the British production. In the field of railway construction, there
was only 500 kilometers of railway in the whole of Russia in 1850;
however, in 19 14, great progress was registered, and the number shot up
to 73,000 kilometres. Even then it was 25 per cent of the U.S.A. and 8 per
cent of the British and the German railways.
6. Penetration of foreign capital :
Further, the Russian economy was characteri sed by the penetration of
foreign capital to very great extent. In 1914, one -third of the total capital
of Russia represented foreign investment which controlled 45 per cent of
her oil production, 54 per cent of her iron, 50 per cent of her chemical
indust ry and 74 per cent of her coal production. Further, as much as 60 per
cent of the capital of the 6 prominent banks, which controlled nearly 72 munotes.in

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54 The Russian Revolution per cent of all banking capital and 50 per cent of all bank deposits in
Russia, was foreign investment. Thus, the Russian economy was
fundamentally dependent on foreign capital, and it was highly feudal and
agrarian in character with a very low technical level.
7. Exploitation of Factory workers :
With the growth of transport in industries in Russia, the number of the
proletariat went on increasing. There was a need to introduce labour -
welfare legislations. But this was not done. The Tsarist government did
not take necessary steps to prevent the exploitation of workers. The
position of the workers was very pathetic. Th ey had to work on low
salaries and live in unhygienic conditions. These urban workers were
receptive to a growing variety of new social and cultural influences. The
disgruntled workers established trade unions and agitated for getting their
grievances redr essed. But the Tsars tried to ruthlessly suppress the trade -
union movement. The political parties like the RSDLP championed the
cause of the workers. From 1903, strikes, demonstration, slogans and
violent clashes with the police became frequent. The worker s played the
most vital role in the 1917 revolution in Russia.
Check your progress
Q.1 Examine the economic causes of the Russian Revolution.
4.3.2 Social Causes of the Revolution :
1. Ill -balanced social structur e:
The economic conditions created an ill -balanced social structur e. The
Russian social structure, in respect of education, medical relief, public
health and morality, was "full of tensions and therefore tended to
disintegrate". In 1914, there were hardly 20,000 doctors for a population
of 17 cro res, and more than 27 per cent of children died before attaining
the age of 5 years. In the field of edcation, the Tsars purposely followed a
negative policy in the belief that ignorance and illiteracy would hinder the
course of revolt and revolution; and, therefore, in 1913, only 23 per cent of
the school age children were at school, and expenditure on education per
head was not more than one -sixth to one -eighth of that in Germany,
Britain or France. About 75 per cent of the total population was illiterate .
2. Cruel and inhumane system of flogging :
Finally the Russian social life became unspeakably miserable, cruel,
inhumane, and wretched by the system of flogging that prevailed there.
According to Baron Hauxthansen: "Amongst the Russians, all social
powe r makes itself respected by blows which do not change either
affection or friendship. Every one deals blows, the father beats his son, the
husband beats his wife, the territorial lord or his attendent the peasant,
without their resulting from it any bitter ness or revenge. The backs of the
Russi ans are ever accustomed to blows."
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55 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) 3. Barbarous punishments :
The cruelties and barbarous punishments that were infl icted upon them
made them totally indifferent and cold to human dignity. According to Dr.
Damodaran K urup, they were born in inhuman conditions, grew up under
the shadow of a barbarous tyranny and faced the world knowing nothing
about the human side of life. Even the Orthodox Church was an easy tool
in the hands of the Tsars.
4.3.3 Political Causes of t he Revolution :
1. Russia -A Politically Enslaved State :
Against such economic anaemia and an ill -balanced social structure,
coupled with bottomless poverty, the people had no legal right of redress.
In a parliamentary form of government, if the people are suppressed and
oppressed by the government, the government can be overthrown by
constitutional means through the ballot box. (However in the absence of
such a government, the only course of action left is popular uprising and
revolt) This is exactly what h appened in Russia because the Tsarist
government was autocratic and barbarous to its very core. In 1902, Lenin
characterised Russia as "politically enslaved state in which 999 out of
1,000 of the population are corrupted to the marrow of their bones by
political subservience." The practice of slitting the nostrils and running the
gauntlet were the chief barbarous methods of punishment for the Tsar's
disobedient subjects. Every serious political offender was exiled to Siberia
or Caucasus. Commenting on the T sarist terror after 1905, Masaryk thus
remarked :
"It may be said without fear of exaggeration that during the white terror,
the fear of death ceased to exist. It had been driven away by pogroms
(tortures and liquidation), by the death sentences of the cou rt-martials and
field court -martials, by arrests and martyrisations in the prison and on the
road to Siberia, by the extremities of cruelty and torture, by the frequency
of suicide in the prisons, by illness, epidemic disease and famine."
2. Peasants' and Workers' Revolts :
All this resulted in the peasants' and workers' uprisings and revolts whose
number multiplied from 248 in 1858 -60 to 7,000 in 1905 and 13,000 in
1910 -14, accompanied with terrorist activities of the revolutionaries such
as throwing of th e bombs, and retaliation of the government by using
bullets without stint against the assassins and other revolutionaries.
Between 1900 and 1914, strikes by industrial workers became the order of
the day, although they were illegal and were treated as muti ny, and the
strikers were shot dead. The Tsarist government was ruthless, autocratic
and repressive.
Although Tsar Nicholas II had granted his people a Parliament, known as
the Duma, with limited powers, it was reactionary, irresponsible, and an
instrument of the Tsars. The nobles had enjoyed unlimited powers. Russia, munotes.in

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56 The Russian Revolution in the world of Lenin, was a military despotism embellished with
parliamentary forms.
Check your progress
Q.1 Analyse the social and political causes of the Russian Revolution.
4.3.4 The Gro wing Dissatisfaction and Infiltration of the Marxist
Ideas :
1. Ever increasing hatred for the Tsarist Regime :
The signs and symptoms of revolution were becoming manifest on all
sides. The Tsarist governments terrors in the shape of imprisonment, exile,
censorship, spying and torture, and also the industrial workers grievances
of low wages, long hours of work, horrible working and living conditions,
generated in the minds of the people an ever increasing hatred for the
Tsarist regime.
2. Lack of Bourgeois an Intellectual classes
The Russian society failed to produce the bourgeois or the capitalist class
or the class intellectuals strong enough to lead the people to overthrow the
Tsarist autocratic regime and thus to perform the historic duty. The
growing diss atisfaction in the masses, therefore, made them highly
receptive to the Marxist ideas that were infiltrating into Russia. Foreign
troops can be stopped, but not ideas.
3. Infiltration of Marxist ideas :
Despite the best and continuous efforts of the Tsars "to save the minds of
their subjects from being "polluted" by ideas of liberalism,
constitutionalism, nationalism, democracy, liberty, equ ality and fraternity,
revolutionary Marxist ideas fired the imagination of the Russian people,
and fully prepared them for a revolutionary march against their ruthless
and autocratic Tsarist regime.
4. Russian Social Democratic Labour Party.
In 1898, the Marxist socialists founded the Russian Social Democratic
Labour Party. In 1903, at its second congress held in London , the Russian
Social Democratic Party split into two groups; the Bolsheviks and the
Measheviks.
The following were two fundamental points of difference between the
Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks:
a. Mensheviks Bourgeois Democratic Republic versus Proletari ate
Dictatorship Bolsheviks :
i. The Mensheviks firmly believed in, and upheld, the doctrine of George
Plekhanow, that is, the overthrow of the Tsarist monarchy must be
followed by the establishment of a bourgeois democratic republic as a
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57 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) ii. The Bolsheviks, under the brilliant leadership of Lenin, out right
rejected the transitory stage of Bourgeois democratic republic; instead
of that, they strongly advocated that the overthrow of the Tsarist
monarchy must be succeeded immediately by the proletariat
dictatorship, without the transitory stage of a home rule or a democratic
republic. They assailed the democratic republic as an "implacable
enemy".
iii. The Mensheviks were, thus, evolutionary and we re led by Martov,
whereas th e Bolsheviks were revolutionary, radical and violent and
were led by Lenin, supported by Stalin.
b. Democratic Method :
Another significant point of distinction between the two parties was in the
matter of party administration.
i The Mensheviks advocated the democratic method, that is, the right of
the rank and file to take active part in the task of framing policies.
ii. The Bolsheviks, on the other hand, favoured authoritarian centralism.
However, the entire course of the Ru ssian revolution of 1917, was
hard hit by the nature of the Bolshevik doctrine, which ultimately
determined the shape and character of the Soviet State.
In 1905, the industrial workers of St. Petersburg and Moscow formed the
Soviet -a Council of Workers' De puties representing the factories of the
given city. It were these Soviets which played a pivotal role in the
February and October revolutions of 1917 in Russia.
4.3.5 Defeat and Disgrace in the Russo -Japanese War(1904 -1905) :
The Russo -Japanese war (1904 -1905) added fuel to the fire. It was a war
between Russia, a giant occidental country and Japana dwarf oriental
State, in which the latter inflicted a crushing defeat upon the former. This
aroused the passions of the masses in Russia against the Tsarist re gime.
The people ascribed Russia's utter defeat and national disgrace on the
battleground to the Tsarist regime, which failed to have a well -trained
well-drilled, and well armed troops and fleet against Japanese. They,
therefore, demanded an immediate over throw of the Tsarist autocratic
regime.
4.3.6 Experience from the Revolution of 1905 :
Although the Revolution of 1905 failed to realise its objective, it was
significant in the sense that it taught the people of Russia the art of
organising themselves aga inst rotten, stubborn, wholly corrupt and
incorrigible Tsarist regime, which for centuries together had been treating
most cruelly and mercilessly the people of the Russian empire. The
Revolution of 1905 gave to the people a lot of experience in the field of
popular uprisings against the Tsarist government. As a result of it, the Tsar
was forced to agree to call a Duma (or Parliament) to advi se the
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58 The Russian Revolution 4.3.7 Demoralisation of Russia in the First World War (1914 -1917)
The First World War set the bal l of revolution rolling. Although the
country was wholly ill -prepared, even then the Tsar entered the war on the
side of the Allies. As Louis XVI was under the complete influence of
Queen Marie Antoinette, Tsar Nicholas II was under the villainous
influenc e of the Tsarina Alexandra Feodorovia Nicholas, who, in turn,
was under the complet e sway of the notorious so -called monk, Rasputin.
Lack of ammunition and equipment, poor transport facilities incompetent
leadership, administrative corruption, exces sive interference of the
Tsarina, treason in high ranks -all of them created crisis after crisis. Prices
of all kinds of commodities, articles, and goods shot up. Foreign loans,
taxes, and inflation provided further impetus to rising prices, and caused
general di scontent. Everything became scarce. In 1915, Russia had to
import 100 per cent of her cars and lorries, 70 per cent of her guns and
shells, and 60 per cent of the rifles. "The shortage of rifles was so great
that a considerate percentage of men had to wait unarmed until they could
pick the rifles of their fallen comrades."
4.3.8 Persecution of National Minorities
1. National Minorities ’ Alliance.
Disaffection had developed among national minorities in Tsarist Russia.
As early as September, 1904, represent atives of six organizations of
national minorities viz. Finland, Poland, Georgia, Armenia, and Latvia
entered into an alliance with the Union of Liberation and the Socialist
Revolutionaries against absolutism of Tsar. The alliance bound the
member orgnizat ions:
a. to work for the overthrow of the autocracy of the Tsar;
b. to establish a representative government; and
c. to safeguard the interests and rights of national minorities.
2. Demand for National Autonomy :
There were sixty to seventy represent atives of national minorities like
Polish, Ukrainian, Latvian, and others in the first Duma which was called
after the Revolution of 1905. They worked together for national autonomy
and were inclined towards political and economic radicalism.The law of
June 3, 1907, substantially reduced the representation of national
minorities both in the Third and Fourth Dumas. This naturally caused
great resentment among national minorities.
3. Act of 1911 in favour of Russian Nationalities :
In 1911, an Act was passed; which not only disfranchised the Jews but
also separated voters into electoral colleges based on nationalities so as to
assure the predominance of the Russian nationality.
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59 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) 4. The Policy of Russification and Administrative Centralization :
The government of the Tsar followed the policy of Russification and
administrative centralization among national minorities. Instruction in
Ukrainian schools was imparted in Russian and the Tsar's government was
hostile towards the Ukrainian national movement. The same w as the case
with Polish provinces. The law of June 17, 1910, in violation of the
Finnish Constitution, was enacted and promulgated without the approval
of the Finns. These incursions upon the liberties of Finns embit tered and
antagonized the law -abiding an d freedom -loving Finns.
5. Disaffection and Separatist Tendencies among the National
Minorities :
Thus, the persecution of national minorities like Finns, Poles,Ukrainians,
and others caused great disaffection and bred separatist tendencies among
them, whic h prepared a fertile ground for subversive propaganda and let
loose disruptive forces.All these factors were jointly responsible for an all -
round corruption, disorder, and incompetence at home, accompanied with
great military setback and demoralisation at the front.
"Thus Russia was a heap of dry match -sticks and the fire was to be lighted
by a mere rub which was there." The Revolution began with
demonstrations and general strikes by the workers, and attack of the
Kulaks by the peasants in February, 1917.
Check your progress
Q.1 Write a note on The Growing Dissatisfaction and Infiltration of the
Marxist Ideas.

4.4 COURSE OF THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION 4.4. 1. February -March Revolution of 1917 :
I. It began in Petrograd :
Street demonstrations, strikes, peasant rev olts, and mutinies had been
taking place sporadically throughout the autumn and winter of 1916 -17,
but it is generally accepted that the February Revolution of 1917 began on
International Women's Day, February 23, 1917. That day was marked by
serious bread riots that broke out among the Petrograd workers.
The revolutionary drama began on February 24, when the huge crowds of
workers in Vyborg attacked the police while the regiment of Cossacks
observed a neutrality. February 25th witnessed a general strike in
Petrograd. This was followed by the Tsar's orders to General Khabalov,
commander of the Petrograd garrison, to suppress the disorders by the use
of force. On February 26, a Sunday, General Khabalov ordered the police
to fire on the workers and reported to the Tsar that the situation was under
control. However, to the great astonishment of General Khabalov and the munotes.in

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60 The Russian Revolution Tsar,by the evening of 28th February, the Petrograd garrison had already
joined the workers in the Revolution; and by the morning of February 28,
Petrograd was entirely in revolutionary hands.
4.4.2 Leadership of the Revolution:
i. Provisional committee of Duma and petrogral Soviet :
The February Revolution was the spontaneous outbreak of a multitude of
workers and peasants. The revolutionary part ies did not play direct role in
the making of the Revolution. In fact, the evolution looked to leadership
from the bodies which existence almost simultaneously on February,
27th." The first of these was a Provisional committee of the Duma ( i.e.
Parliament) which represented all the parties in the fourth Duma barring
the extreme right -wing and the Bolsheviks: The second body was the
Provisional Executive Committee of the Betrogral Soviet (i.e.committee)
of Workers' Duputies. It was organised in the Tauride P alace on the
pattern of the Petersburg Soviet, which had played a glorious role in the
Revolution of 1905 was like its predecessor, ‘a non -party organisation ’
elected by factory workers. Social -Revolutionaries, Mensheviks and
Bolsheviks being all represent ed in it. The real power of the Revolution, in
guiding the armed workers and soldiers came to be vested on the second
body which was renamed the "Soviet of Workers and Soldiers Deputie" on
March 2, 1917.
ii. Abdication of Nicholas II, and Death of Tsarism (March 2, 1917) :
February 28 th witnessed the arrest of the Tsarist Ministers and the
appointment of Commissars in their place by the Duma Committee. To the
great astonishment of the Tsar, the troops, on arriving are the capital,
mutin ied on March 1, 1917. There was, now great demand from every
quarter for Tsar's abdication.
The Tsar, finally , in consultation with his generals, signed on March 3,
1917, a document of abdication in favour of his son with Grand Duke
Michael as his regent. However, the document of abdication served as a
death warrant of Tsarism. To put in Tro tsky's words: "The country had so
radically vomit ted up the monarchy that it could never crawl down the
people's throat again". On March 4, when the Duma Committee
approached Grand Dutch M ichael to accept the Crown, he refused saying
that he would accept the Crown only from a Constituent Assembly. Thus,
ended the Russian monarchical tradition. All the members of the imperial
family remained under house arrest at Tsaskoye Selo until they we re
removed first to Tobolsk and then to Yekaterinburg, where they were
assassinated on July 16, 1918.
II.
Check your progress
Q.1 Explain the course of the Russian Revolution
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61 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) 4.5 NATURE OF THE OCTOBER REVOLUTION (1917) 4.5.1 Dictatorship of Bolsheviks :
The term "Proletariat" is here used to mean the working class and
particularly the urban working class. The term "Bourgeoisie" refers to the
capitalist class, while "Petty Bourgeoisie" refers to the middle classes,
such as small merchants, clerks, profes sionals, etc.
The Provisional Government of Kerensky was overthrown by the October
Revolution, engineered by the Bolsheviks or Communists under the
leadership of Lenin and Trotsky. The October Revolution claimed to be
essentially "proletarian" in nature. I t liquidated the power of the nobles,
the clergy and the bourgeoisie, and on the ruins of which it established the
dictatorship of the Proletariat. Although the Bolsheviks claimed to invest
power into the hands of the proletariat, the power actually came t o be
monopolised by a few astute leaders of the Bolshevik's Party in Russia
like Trotsky, Lenin and Stalin. They acted for all practical purposes as iron
dictators of Russia. No political party, except the Bolshevik's Party, was
allowed to function in the country. All opposition was most ruthlessly and
savagely repressed and eliminated. Soviet Russia became a one -party
totalitarian state.
According to Prof. Lousil L. Synder, "the new political structure of the
Soviet Union was rigidly oriented around despot ism, mass discipline,
fanaticism, terror and propaganda all distingushed by a bitter, implacable
hatred of the capitalist world. Leninist -Stalinist ideology erased the slate
of the past, and introduced a new idea of man and society, denouncing the
cultural humanism of the West is an outmoded expression of a decadent
bourgeois world."
Lenin claimed that "Soviet power was a million times more democratic
than the most democratic bourgeois republic." He was dead against the
monstrous individual liberty, "that p recious ideal which it has been the
aim of Western democracies to preserve by never allowing exclusive and
unconditional power to accrue for an unlimited period to any one party or
section of the population."
Western democracy no doubt is bourgeois -capita list, according to
communist standards, but it at least curbs political power, guarantees the
free, unhampered expression of responsible political opinion, which is
unthinkable in the communist society, wherein all power is concentrated
in the hands of the Communist Party in the name of the proletariat.
4.5.2 Its International Character :
Once the Revolution was solidified in Russia, it threw a powerful bait and
drew millions of inhabitants of Eastern Europe in to its orbit, overwhelmed
China and is attractin g millions in Sout h East Asia and the Middle East. It
believes in the unity of workers of the world and world -revolutionary
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62 The Russian Revolution According to Dr. M. G. Gupta, "other revolutions (like the American, or
the French) had come to terms with their environ ment; the Russian
Revolution has not, for it is still going on and continues to display the
dynamics that has converted a feudal, backward and decade state into a
major centre of world power......The motor that drives it may have slowed
a little, but the m echanism still churns up the living body of society in a
manner unheard of in earlier revoltions."
The Russian Revolution of October 1917, observes Dr. M. G Gupta, "is
perhaps the most important single event of world history, incomparable in
its scope, di mensions, its fundamenalism, dynamism, and its immediate
repercussions with any revolutions preceding or following it. It threw out a
powerful challenge to the manifold aspects of the Western values, the
principles of trade, the theories of Government, the framework of
institution, the rules of international conduct and the technique of
diplomacy , believed in the unity of workers of the world and world -
revolutionary communism.

4.6 PROBLEMS OF THE PROVISIONAL GOVERNMENT 4.6.1. Coalition Provisional Governme nt:
By March 3, 1917 a Coalition Government under the premier eship of
Prince George Lvov, came into being. Milyukov was placed in charge of
foreign affairs. Guchkov of the War Ministry and Kerenshy, a member of
the Executive Committee of the Petrograd Soci ety, became the new
Minister of Justice. Thus, it was the Mensheviks who, at first, profited
most by the February Revolution. This Provisional Government, which
became the "legal successor" of the Tsarist government, soon came to be
recognised by the outsi de world including the Allied Powers, and
continued the First World War in accordanc e with the agreements and
pacts made by the Tsarist Government with the Allied Powers.
4.6.2 Soviets of Workers and Soldier's Deputies :
However, the writ of the self -const ituted Soviet of Workers and Soldiers ’
Deputies came to be recognised by an ever increasing number of workers
and soldiers. This fact which gave it a position of authority, no one could
ignore; and "this was the -practical and almost accidental basis of the so
called dual powers set by the February Revolution"
The example of the Petrograd Soviet of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies
was followed by the setting up of the Soviets in Moscow and in other big
cities and later on, in country districts. This, later o n, led to the
summoning of the first All -Russian Congress of Soviets at the end of
March, 1917.
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63 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) 4.6.3 Bolsheviks in Minority and in the State of Confusion :
The Boslsheviks were in a minority in the Soviets and were in a state of
confusion, for, all thei r chief leaders were in exile abroad or in Siberia.
On March 11, 1917, they issued a manifesto, demanding "Down with , the
Czarist Monarchy" and "Long live the Democratic Republic". Pravda, the
Bolsheiks literary mouthpiece, which was repressed at the begin ning of
the War, resumed publication on March 18, 191 7 in Petrograd. Its editors
condemed the Provisional. Government as "a government of the capitalists
and landlords," and repeated the slogan "Turn the imperialist war into civil
war for the liberation of the people from the yoke of the ruling classes."
Soon thereafter, the senior leaders of he Bolsheviks, viz, Kamenev,
Sverdlow, Stalin and Muranov, returned from Siberia to Petrograd and
gave the right direction to the party.
Check your progress
Q.1 Discus s the working of the Provisional Government.

4.7 THE BOLSHEVIK REVOLUTION OF 25TH OCTOBER (7TH NOVEMBER) 1917 The February Revolution was local in character. It took place only in
Petrograd and the whole country was not affected by it. It was mainly a
bourgeois revolution of the Mensheviks. The failure of the provisional
government in fulfilling the demands and aspirations of majority people
led to the Bolshevik Revolution under the leadership of Lenin.
4.7.1 Causes of the Bolshevik Revolution:
(1) The Pr ovisional Government was weak and unstable.
(2) The exploitation of the masses continued.
(3) The Provisional Government was not in touch with the common
people.
(4) Growing conflict between the Provisional Government and the
Petrograd Soviet.
(5) Cont inued participation of Russia in the First World War caused great
sufferings to soldiers in particular and the people of Russia in general.
The war made the Provisional Government unpopular among the
people. The Bolsheviks condemned it as an imperialist wa r.
(6) Provisional Government lost control on the army.
(7) Two reforms introduced by the Provisional government proved to be a
boon for the Bolsheviks and a curse for the Provisional Government.
Firstly, they released all the political prisoners from jai l and
deportation. As a result, different Bolshevik leaders like Lenin, Stalin, munotes.in

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64 The Russian Revolution Kamenev, Bukharin etc., reappeared in Petrograd. Secondly, they
granted the freedom of expression to all the citizens of Russia. As a
result, "Pravda", the mouthpiece of the Bo lshevik party, which was
banned during the Tsarist Period, now started reappearing from March
18 1917 from Petrograd. Its editors denounced the Provisional
Government, criticized it to be the government of the capitalists and
landlords, and appealed the pe ople to turn the World War into a Civil
War to liberate the nation from the yoke of the Provisional
Government. Naturally, the popularity and strength of the Bolshevik
Party went on mounting.
Check your progress :
Q.1 Discuss the causes of the Bolshevik Rev olution.
4.7.2 Role of Lenin in the Bolshevik Revolution :
Lenin (1870 -1924) :
Lenin was born on 22 April 1870 in the Volga Valley at Simbirsk (Now
Ulyanovsk). His original name was Vladimir Ilich Ulyanov. He was the
third of six children born to Ilya Nik olayevich Ulyanov and Maria
Alexandrovna Blank. His father was a schoolmaster, who ultimately rose
to the position of Director of Schools for the whole of Simbrisk. When
Lenin was 17, his elder brother Alexander, while a university student,
joined the Popu list group and took part in a plot to assassinate Tsar
Alexander II. Therefore, he was executed in 1887 during the time of Tsar
Alexander III. This event inculcated revolutionary ideas on Lenin's mind.
In the same year, Lenin joined the university of Kazan as a law student,
where he accepted Marxism as his guide and in December 1887, he w as
expelled from the university and a little later from the city of Kazan itself
for his active participation in the student gathering. However, he obtained
his degree in l aw in 1891 as external student from the university of St.
Petersburg. By 1893, he came to be recognized as an authority on
Marxism. In 1895, he went to Switzerland to meet G.V. Plekhanov, the
most illustrious Marxist in Geneva, who had founded there an ins titution
to teach Marxism to Russian revolutionaries. On returning to Russia,
Lenin organized the league of struggle for the liberation of the Working
Class. However, while he was distributing revolutionary leaflets to factory
workers on the night of 20 De cember 1895, he was arrested and
imprisoned for about 14 months; and later on in 1897, he was exiled to
Siberia for three years. There he was joined by Nadezhda Krupskaya, who
became his life partner on 22 July 1898. Having completed his term of
exile in 1 900, he started a weekly called "Iskra" i.e. (The Spark) and a
theoretical journal named "Zarya" i.e. (The Dawn). These periodicals were
to be published abroad and smuggled into Russia. In 1902, he wrote a
book called "What is to be done" in which he stron gly advocated
revolutionary doctrine and revolutionary organization , ‘The World in
Transition ’ (1914 -1919) .
He further advocated the need of a party of professional revolutionaries
who must be bound together by military discipline to prove a match to the munotes.in

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65 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) police. He believed that with such a party, one could turn the whole of
Russia upside down. He brought about the combination of the proletariat
and the peasantry against the capitalists and landlords. The Russian
Revolution of 1905, failed to offer Lenin a chance for translating his
revolutionary plans into reality. From 1905 to 1917, he travelled at
Finland, Stockholm, London, Switzerland, Paris and Austria. In 1916, he
wrote a book titled "Imperialism, The Highest Stage of Capitalism".
When the Menshevik R evolution broke out in February 1917, Lenin was
in Switzerland, He was unable to return to Russia without crossing the
enemy territory. Therefore, he requested the German Government to reach
him to Russia. The Germans reached him safely to Petrograd on 16 April
1917 in a sealed train along with other Russian socialists. The motive of
Germany behind this was to create chaos in Russia, so that she may
withdraw from the First World War. Once Lenin reached Petrograd, he
took the charge of the revolutionary move ment. He reorganized his
Bolshevik Party and denounced the bourgeois Provisional Government.
He saw in that government an obstacle to his cherished desire of
converting Russia into a Socialist country. Hence he told the people that
the country did not requ ire a parliamentary Republic or a Bourgeois
Democracy, what the country needed the most was the government of the
Soviet of Workers', soldiers' and farmhands deputies. The Bolshevik
Revolution of October 1917 was engineered under the able and brilliant
leadership of Lenin.
The very next day of his returning to Petrograd, Lenin placed his famous
April Theses before the conference of the Soviets. It was fully based on
Marxism.
Lenin's April Theses was so radical that even staunch Bolshevik leaders
like Stalin and Kamenev opposed it. They charged Lenin of being an
anarchist and out of touch with the realities in Russia. However, Lenin
was fully convinced that his programme was right and only it could save
Russia. Through public meetings and speeches, Lenin bega n to present his
programme before the workers and peasants. The programme offering
food to the hungry, land to the peasants and peace to the nation , greatly
appealed to the hearts of the Russian people and they spontaneously
supported Lenin. Naturally, the Bolshevik Party also had to ultimately
approve it. Thenceforth, all the programmes of the Bolshevik Party were
drawn on the basis of Lenin's April Theses.
Leon Trotsky, who was in exile at New York, returned to Petrograd in
May 1917. The strength and popu larity of the Bolshevik Party began to
increase when Lenin's ability was supplemented by Trotsky's oratory. As
Lenin became the main leader of the Bolshevik Party, the position of the
Provisional Government became shaky. People openly opposed
government's policy of continuing Russian participation in the First World
War. Denouncing the government, the workers and soldiers started
demonstrations against the government in the streets of Petrograd. So, the
Provisional Government became panicky. Owing to the fa ilure in the
Galician Campaign, Prince George Lvov's Government resigned on July 8 munotes.in

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66 The Russian Revolution 21st 1917. Alexander Kerensky became the new Prime Minister. His
cabinet had 11 members of the Socialist Party and 7 others.
In the mean time, peasants uprisings reached th eir climax during
September and October, and soldiers deserted the war front in great
numbers. The German troops defeated Russia and marched towards
Petrograd. Therefore, Kerensky decided to shift the Russian capital from
Petrograd to Moscow. But the Bolsh eviks opposed this decision. They
demanded that the government should either withdraw from the War and
should immediately start negotiations with Germany or should step down
and let the Bolsheviks rule. The Central Committee of the Bolshevik Party
had been making all the required preparations for an armed insurrection
against the Kerensky Government. It formed the Military Revolutionary
Committee under the leadership of Leon Trotsky. Kerensky's
Government's attempts to suppress the military preparations of the
Bolsheviks for an armed insurrection came t o naught.
On October 24, the sailors of cruiser "aurora", anchored in the Neva
opposite the Winter Palace, refused to obey the orders of the Government
and instead put themselves at the disposal of the MRC. In the night of
October 24, under the orders of Lenin and Trotsky, the Red Guards
occupied railway stations, bridges, the State Bank, the telephone
exchange, the central Post and telegraph Office, and other public
buildings, without any opposition and bloods hed, because most of the
were at the disposal of the insurgents. The city's electric power plant was
occupied and power supply to government buildings was cut off. On
October 24, Kerensky declared a state of emergency in the state. On
October 25, the emerg ency meeting of the troops of the coalition cabinet
was held into the Winter Palace. The Red Guards besieged the Winter
Palace at six p.m. and issued an ultimatum to the government to surrender
within half an hour, failing which the Winter Palace would be bombarded.
The Bolsheviks waited till 9.00 p.m. Finally, when two bombshells hit the
palace, all the ministers surrendered and Kerensky fled to USA. On
October 26, all ministers were arrested in the Winter Palace and were
marched to the fortress of Peter a nd Paul, where they were put to death.
Thus, the October Revolution was successful without much bloodshed.
Check your progress
Q.1 Evaluate the role of Lenin in the Bolshevik Revolution
4.7.3 Establishment of the Soviet Government:
The second session of t he all Russian Congress of Soviets was convened
on October 25, 1917 at Smolny at 10.45 P.M. It was composed of 650
deputies, of whom 390 were Bolsheviks. All power was transferred to the
Soviets. The Congress passed three important decrees. Namely, (1) to start
immediate efforts for the termination of the War and to make peace. (2)
Introducing radical land -reforms, which would nationalize all agricultural
land and authorized the Russian peasantry to forcibly confiscate privately
owned lands, and (3) setting up the council of People's Commissars, i.e.
"Sovanarkom". Accordingly, the Congress elected a fifteen member munotes.in

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67 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) cabinet under the chairmanship of Lenin. In it, Trotsky became the
Commissar for foreign affairs and Stalin became the Commissar for the
National Minorities. The Congress also elected the Central Executive
Committee consisting of 101 members. More over, there was the Politburo
of the Bolshevik Party. Thus, came into existence the first Soviet
Government in Russia under Proletarian Dictatorship.
Although in theory the Proletarian Dictatorship was established, in actual
practice all the power was concentrated in the hands of few Bolshevik
leaders. Although superficially the Bolsheviks created a show that the
October Revolution is engaged as per the ord ers of the Petrograd Soviet,
actually the Bolsheviks were using the soviet only as a shield and the
Revolution was launched keeping in view the interests of the Bolshevik
Party. Since the October Revolution was staged with the help of the Soviet
and since the Soviet comprised of the representatives of various parties,
many people were of the opinion that the new government should be
coalition government. But the Bolsheviks did not want a coalition
government. They wanted only a One Party Government of the B olshevik
Party and they wanted the Soviet to be a mere puppet in their hands.

4.8 EFFECTS AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE 1917 RUSSIAN REVOLUTION The 1917 Russian Revolution was an epoch making event. It radically
transtormed the human life not only in Russia but also all over the world.
The Revolution had far reaching and long lasting effects both on Russia as
well as on the world. It threw a powerful challenge to the existing norms
of diplomacy, socio economic institutions and values in the Western
world.
The ma in effects of the Revolution are as follows:
4.8.1 Practical Demonstration of the Marxian Philosophy :
Till 1917, Marxism was regarded only as a philosophy, ideology or theory.
Nobody expected that it would be implemented into real life. But, the
1917 rev olution showed that Marxism was not merely a philosophy, but it
could be the way of living. For the first time in history, the Scientific
Socialist ideology of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, as interpreted by
Lenin, were applied to the Russian Government and socio -economic
policies. A New Soviet man and society were sought to be created bidding
good -bye to centuries old and anachronistic feudal social system.
4.8.2 A Powerful Challenge to the Western Culture :
The Bolsheviks repudiated the traditional fra mework as well as the
traditional standards of internal and international policies. The Bolshevik
Revolution had thrown out a powerful challenge to the various values and
ideals of Western culture, the fundamental principles of trade and industry,
the esta blished systems of government, the social, economic, and political munotes.in

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68 The Russian Revolution institutions," and the methods of diplomacy. It offered an alternative to
capitalism. It set up standards for a new way of living and thinking.
4.8.3 Great Progress :
The Revolution pulled Russia out of her backwardness and put her on the
road to modernity and dynamic progress. It not only overthrew the
outdated, autocratic and ruthless old Tsarist Regime, but it also liquidated
the power of the clergy, nobility and the bourgeoisie. It also brought about
great social, political and economic changes, and thereby provided the
basic conditions for the emergence of Soviet Russia as a great power.
4.8.4 Workers of the World , ‘Unite ’:
The 1917 revolution created a new awakening and sensation am ong the
Industrial workers all over the world. "The Proletarians have nothing to
lose but their chains, but they have the world to win." The establishment
of the Third Communist International (Comintern) further encouraged the
labouring people all over the world to stand united against the capitalist
class. The concept that the working classes had no fatherland or
motherland and that the problems of depressed people all over the world
were the same, resulted in extra -territorial loyalties all over the world . In
order to keep away Communism from their countries, many capitalist
governments awarded a number of concessions and brought legislations,
which benefited the industrial workers. Thus, the Russian Revolution
indirectly helped the betterment of workers a ll over the world.
Establishment of the dignity of labour was an important achievement of
the Revolution. Work became an essential requirement tor every man, as
there was no unearned income to live on. The idea spread by the Russian
Revolution "He who does not work shall not eat" became widespread
adding a new dignity to labour.
4.8.5 Forced the Imperialist Countries to part with Colonies :
The Revolution has virtually shaken and awakened the colonial peoples
from ignorance, and injected into their blood a new consciousness of their
political rights and the principle of self determination of the people. The
rapid spread of Communism created great fear in the minds of the
imperialist powers in the Western countries. They suspected that
Communism might cover t he whole world. So, they granted independence
to countries like India, Indonesia and Indochina. According to Marx, a
nation, which enslaves another nation, can never be free. Along with
political independence, they demanded social and economic justice.
4.8.6. International Significance :
Even the countries, which had capitalist systems of economy, also began
to recognize that for democracy to be real, political equality is not enough
without social and economic equality. The idea of economic planning by
the state to improve the conditions of the people was accepted. The
growing popularity of socialism also helped to mitigate discriminations
based on race, colour and sex. The spread of socialist ideas also helped in munotes.in

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69 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) promoting internationalism. The nations, at least in theory, began to accept
the idea that their relations with other nations should go farther than
merely promoting their narrow self -interest. Many problems, which were
considered national, began to be looked upon as concerns of the world as a
whol e.
4.8.7 Other Countries inspired by the Communist Revolution :
The Third Communist International (Comintern) was established in 1919
to spread Communism throughout the world. A number of countries from
Asia, Europe and Latin America, which were weak, bac kward, exploited
or ruled by autocratic rulers, were greatly impressed by the success of the
Communist Revolution. Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Albania, Bulgaria,
Rumania, Hungary, Poland and East Germany in Europe, Mongolia, North
Korea, China and Vietnam in Asia, and Cuba, Chile and Peru in Latin
America were inspired by the Communist Revolution in Russia. In several
other countries, Communist parties were established and were affiliated to
the Comintern. The Third Communist International was the forum for
promoting revolutions on an international scale. Common questions of
interest were discussed and common policies were suggested from this
forum ‘The World’ in Transition ’ (1914 - 1919) .
4.8.8 Economic Impact :
The 1917 Russian Revolution was not merely a p olitical revolution, but it
was mainly a socio -economic revolution. It brought about fundamental
changes in the social and economic life of Russia. The weak, backward,
agrarian, feudal Russid economy was transtormed into an advanced, sel -
suficient industri alized economy Agricultural and industrial production
went up, foreign trade flourished, standard o living improved, labour -
productivity increased, the gross national income increased,
unemployment was practically eliminated, class distinctions were wiped
out and ciety became more homogeneous. Stalin's Economic Planning
provided a model of development not only for the underdeveloped and
developing countries but also for the advanced countries.
4.8.9 Russia emerged as a Super Power :
Till 1917, Russia was a weak and backward country. But the Bolshevik
Revolution of 1917, transformed a poverty -stricken, feudal Tsarist Russia
into a super World Power under the brilliant leadership and guidance of
Lenin and Stalin. Russia, which had been defeated in the Crimean war,
Russo -Japanese war and the First World War, emerged victorious in the
Second World War. Russia played the most vital role in defeating
Germany and liberating the East European countries from the clutches of
Nazi Germany. After the Second World War, th e Victorious Russia
emerged as a Super Power just next to the USA.
4.8.10 Beginning of the Cold War :
With the rise and success of Communism in Russia and its spread in other
countries, a conflict started between Capitalism and Communism. This munotes.in

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70 The Russian Revolution ideological conflict between Communism and Capitalism is called the
Cold War. Both Communist Russia on one side, and Capitalist England
and America on the other side were trying their best to spread their
respective ideology and trying to win over maximum countries t o their
side.
4.8.11 Totalitarian Dictatorship :
Although, the Bolsheviks claimed to invest power into the hands of the
proletariat, actually the power was monopolized by few leaders of the
Bolshevik Farty such as Vladimir Lenin, Joseph Stalin and Leon Tr otsky.
They acted as Iron Dictators of Russia. No political party except the
Bolshevik party was allowed to function in the country. All opposition
was ruthlessly crushed. Soviet Russia became a One Party Totalitarian
State.
4.8.12 Suppression of Religiou s Freedom :
The Russians were religious minded people and were the followers of the
Great Eastern Church. But Marxism preached, "Religion is opium".
Therefore, the Bolsheviks ruthlessly su ppressed all religious freedom.
4.8.13 An Endless Revolution :
The Ru ssian Revolutionaries argued that the Glorious Revolution in
England of 1688, the American Revolution of 1776 and the French
Revolution of 1789 continued to have their effect only for a particular
period of time. But, the Bolshevik revolution is a continuo us everlasting
process , as long as exploitation, , backwardness , torture , capitalism and
autocracy prevail in any part of the world.
Check your progress
Q.1 Asses the Effects and significance of the 1917 Russian Revolution.

4.9 SUMMARY Before World War I, Russia was not only one of the largest countries in
the world, but also one of the so -called Powers. Nearly 4/5 of the
population consisted of peasants and the people were economically and
culturally backward. Economic conditions were unsatisfactory, be cause
industrial development was slow and in agriculture farmers still used
traditional methods of cultivation. Taxes were very high. The military had
become weak due to corruption and inefficient management.
Politically, Russia had a monarchical system of government and was ruled
by the Romonov Tsars. They were despotic rulers and the people had no
rights. After the defeat of Russia by the Japanese in 1904. The Russians
revolted but they were ruthlessly put down. Though the Duma was
summoned, in practice i t had no power, the conditions prevailing in the munotes.in

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71 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) country inspired revolutionary movements of which the Social Democrats
and the Social Revolutionaries were important.
The Tsar and his advisors, the bureaucracy, the military officers and the
feudal elements were opposed to reforms. So, when the country involved
itself in World War I, the weak autocracy collapsed. Two Revolutions
broke out -the February Revolution and October Revolution of 1917,
The February revolution saw the Mensheviks the leader of the provisional
Government. The October revolution saw the Bolsheviks in power with
Lenin as the leader. The Bolsheviks introduced a Socialism system of
government. Lenin dealt with the Civil War effectively and also withdrew
from the first World War. However, his initial economic reforms were not
so successful. He then introduced the New Economic Policy with a partial
return to capitalism.
The Revolution had a deep impact on many countries of the world. It
challenged the traditional economic, political and social systems.

4.10 QUESTIONS 1. Examine the causes of the February Revolution, 1917 in Russia.
2. Analyse the social, political and economic causes of the Russian
Revolution.
3. Discuss the working of the Provisional Government. Why did it fail?
4. Describe the role played by Lenin in the Bolshevik Revolution, 1917.
5. Assess the significance and results of the Russian Revolution.
6. Write short notes on the following:
(a) Economic causes of the Russian Revolution.
(b) Political causes of the Russian Revol ution
(c) Social causes of the Revolution
(d) Revolution of 1905
(e) Russia and World War I
(g) The Provisional Govemment.

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72 The Russian Revolution 4.11 ADDITIONAL READINGS  Beik, Paul H. & Lavouvre, L., Modern Europe: A History Since 1815,
New York, Henry Holt & Co., 1959.
 Benns Lee, Europe 1870 -1914, Appleton tan Century Grafts, New
York, 1965.
 Breace, Richard M, The Making of the Modern World, New York,
Reinehart & Co., Inc. 1956.
 Comwell R. D., World History In the Twentieth Century, Longman
Group Ltd., London, 1977.
 Croc e Bendetto , History of Europe in the Nineteenth Century, Unwin
University Books, England, 1965.
 Freetorn Richard , A short history of Modern Russia.
 Garraty, J., and Gay, Peter(Ed.), A History of the World, New York,
Harper & Row, 1972.
 Gressy Eduard, A n Outline of Industrial History, Macmillan & Co.
London, 1929.
 Gupta M. G. , International Relations Since 1919.
 Ketelbey C.D.M., A Brief History of Modern Times from 1789, Oxford
University Press, Calcutta, 1984.
 Lipson E., Europe in the 19 and 20 Centuri es, English Language Book
Society, London, 1960.
 Masaryk T. G. , The Spirit of Russia, Vol. I.
 Palmer, R.R., and Colton, Joel, A History of the Modern World, New
York, Alfred A. Knopf, 1957.
 Synder Louis L. , The world in the Twentieth Century.
 Weech W. N.- History of the World, Asia Publishing House, Bombay,
1961.
 Westwood, J.N, Endurance and Endeavour: Russian History, 1812 -
1980, London, Oxford University Press, 1982.

*****
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73
5
EARLY COLONIAL EXPANSIONS –
EXPLORATIONS AND MOTIVES
Unit Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Background
5.3 Early Colonial Expansions
5.4 Colonial Explorations
5.5 Summary
5.6 Questions
5.7 Additional Readings

5.0 OBJECTIVES  To introduce stu dents to Colonialism.
 To understand Imperialism.
 To orient learners about the early Colonial Expansions.

5.1 INTRODUCTION Colonialism is a practice of domination, which involves the suppression
by one people to another. One of the difficulties in definin g colonialism is
that it is hard to distinguish it from imperialism. Frequently the two
concepts are treated as synonym ous. Like colonialism, imperialism also
involves political and economic control over a dependent territory. The
etymology of the two term s, however, provides some clues about how
they differ. The term colony comes from the Latin word colonus , meaning
farmer. This root reminds us that the practice of colonialism usually
involved the transfer of population to a new territory, where the arriva ls
lived as permanent settlers while maintaining political allegiance to their
country of origin. Imperialism, on the other hand, comes from the Latin
term imperium , meaning to command. Thus, the term imperialism draws
attention to the way that one country exercises power over another,
whether through settlement, sovereignty, or indirect mechanisms of
control.
Colonialism is not a modern phenomenon. World history is full of
examples of one society gradually expanding by incorporating adjacent munotes.in

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74 Early Colonial Expansions – Explorations And Motives territory and settling its people on newly conquered territory. The ancient
Greeks set up colonies as did the Romans, the Moors, and the Ottomans,
to name just a few of the most famous examples. Colonialism, then, is not
restricted to a specific time or place. Neverthel ess, in the sixteenth
century, colonialism changed decisively because of technological
developments in navigation that began to connect more remote parts of the
world. Fast sailing ships made it possible to reach distant ports and to
sustain close ties bet ween the center and colonies. Thus, the modern
European colonial project emerged when it became possible to move large
numbers of people across the ocean and to maintain political sovereignty
in spite of geographical dispersion. This entry uses the term co lonialism to
describe the process of European settlement and political control over the
rest of the world, including the Americas, Australia, and parts of Africa
and Asia.
The difficulty of defining colonialism stems from the fact that the term is
often us ed as a synonym for imperialism. Both colonialism and
imperialism were forms of conquest that were expected to benefit Europe
economically and strategically. The term colonialism is frequently used to
describe the settlement of North America, Australia, Ne w Zealand,
Algeria, and Brazil, places that were controlled by a large population of
permanent European residents. The term imperialism often describes cases
in which a foreign government administers a territory without significant
settlement; typical exam ples include the scramble for Africa in the late
nineteenth century and the American domination of the Philippines and
Puerto Rico. The distinction between the two, however, is not entirely
consistent in the literature. Some scholars distinguish between co lonies for
settlement and colonies for economic exploitation. Others use the term
colonialism to describe dependencies that are directly governed by a
foreign nation and contrast this with imperialism, which involves indirect
forms of domination.
The confu sion about the meaning of the term imperialism reflects the way
that the concept has changed over time. Although the English word
imperialism was not commonly used before the nineteenth century,
Elizabethans already described the United Kingdom as ―the Bri tish
Empire.‖ As Britain began to acquire overseas dependencies, the concept
of empire was employed more frequently. Imperialism was understood as
a system of military domination and sovereignty over territories. The day -
to-day work of government might be exercised indirectly through local
assemblies or indigenous rulers who paid tribute, but sovereignty rested
with the British. The shift away from this traditional understanding of
empire was influenced by the Leninist analysis of imperialism as a system
oriented towards economic exploitation. According to Lenin, imperialism
was the necessary and inevitable result of the logic of accumulation in late
capitalism. Thus, for Lenin and subsequent Marxists, imperialism
described a historical stage of capitalism r ather than a trans -historical
practice of political and military domination. The lasting impact of the
Marxist approach is apparent in contemporary debates about American munotes.in

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75 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) imperialism, a term which usually means American economic hegemony,
regardless of whe ther such power is exercised directly or indirectly.
Check your progress:
1. Define Colonialism.
2. Explain Imperialism.

5.2 BACKGROUND Colonialism is a political -economic phenomenon whereby various
European nations explored, conquered, settled, and explo ited large areas
of the world. The age of modern colonialism began about 1500, following
the European discoveries of a sea route around Africa’s southern coast
(1488) and of America (1492). With these events sea power shifted from
the Mediterranean to the Atlantic and to the emerging nation -states of
Portugal, Spain, the Dutch Republic, France, and England. By discovery,
conquest, and settlement, these nations expanded and colonized
throughout the world, spreading European institutions and culture.
The hist orical phenomenon of colonization is one that stretches around the
globe and across time. Ancient and medieval colonialism was practiced by
the Phoenicians, the Greeks, the Turks, the Arabs and the crusaders,
among other non -white people. Colonialism in th e modern sense began
with the "Age of Discovery", led by Portuguese, and then by the Spanish
exploration of the Americas, the coasts of Africa, Southwest Asia which is
also known as the Middle East, India, and East Asia. The Portuguese and
Spanish empires were the first global empires because they were the first
to stretch across different continents, covering vast territories around the
globe. Between 1580 and 1640, the two empires were both ruled by the
Spanish monarchs in personal union. During the late 16th and 17th
centuries, England, France and the Dutch Republic also established their
own overseas empires, in direct competition with one another.
The end of the 18th and mid 19th century saw the first era of
decolonization, when most of the European col onies in the Americas,
notably those of Spain, New France and the 13 colonies, gained their
independence from their metropole. The Kingdom of Great Britain
(uniting Scotland and England), France, Portugal, and the Dutch turned
their attention to the Old Wo rld, particularly South Africa, India and South
East Asia, where coastal enclaves had already been established. The
second industrial revolution, in the 19th century, led to what has been
termed the era of New Imperialism, when the pace of colonization rap idly
accelerated, the height of which was the Scramble for Africa, in which
Belgium, Germany and Italy were also participants.
There were deadly battles between colonizing states and revolutions from
colonized areas shaping areas of control and establishin g independent
nations. During the 20th century, the colonies of the defeated central
powers in World War I were distributed amongst the victors as mandates, munotes.in

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76 Early Colonial Expansions – Explorations And Motives but it was not until the end of World War II that the second phase of
decolonization began in earne st.
Some commentators identify three waves of European colonialism. The
three main countries in the first wave of European colonialism were
Portugal, Spain and the early Ottoman Empire. The Portuguese started the
long age of European colonisation with the conquest of Ceuta, Morocco in
1415, and the conquest and discovery of other African territories and
islands, this would also start the movement known as the Age of
Discoveries. The Ottomans conquered South Eastern Europe, the Middle
East and much of Northe rn and Eastern Africa between 1359 and 1653 -
with the latter territories subjected to colonial occupation, rather than
traditional territorial conquest. The Spanish and Portuguese launched the
colonisation of the Americas, basing their territorial claims on the Treaty
of Tordesillas of 1494. This treaty demarcated the respective spheres of
influence of Spain and Portugal.
The expansion achieved by Spain and Portugal caught the attention of
Britain, France and the Netherlands. The arrival of these three pow ers into
the Caribbean and North America spread European colonialism in these
regions.
The second wave of European colonialism commenced with Britain's
involvement in Asia in support of the British East India Company; other
countries such as France, Portug al and Netherlands also had involvement
in European expansion in Asia.
The third wave consisted of the scramble for Africa regulated by the terms
of the Berlin Conference of 1884 –1885. The conference effectively
divided Africa among the European powers. Va st regions of Africa came
under the sway of Britain, France, Germany, Portugal, Belgium, Italy and
Spain.
Gilmartin argues that these three waves of colonialism were linked to
capitalism. The first wave of European expansion involved exploring the
world to find new revenue and perpetuating European feudalism. The
second wave focused on developing the mercantile capitalism system and
the manufacturing industry in Europe. The last wave of European
colonialism established all capitalistic activities by providi ng new markets
and raw materials.
Check your progress:
1. Describe the historical phenomenon of colonialism.
2. Describe the three waves of European colonialism.

5.3 EARLY COLONIAL EXPANSIONS European colonization of both Eastern and Western Hemispheres ha s its
roots in Portuguese exploration. There were financial and religious munotes.in

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77 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) motives behind this exploration. By finding the source of the lucrative
spice trade, the Portuguese could reap its profits for themselves. They
would also be able to probe the existe nce of the fabled Christian kingdom
of Prester John, with an eye to encircling the Islamic Ottoman Empire,
itself gaining territories and colonies in Eastern Europe. The first foothold
outside of Europe was gained with the conquest of Ceuta in 1415. During
the 15th century, Portuguese sailors discovered the Atlantic islands of
Madeira, Azores, and Cape Verde, which were duly populated, and
pressed progressively further along the west African coast until
Bartolomeu Dias demonstrated it was possible to sail a round Africa by
rounding the Cape of Good Hope in 1488, paving the way for Vasco da
Gama to reach India in 1498.
Portuguese successes led to Spanish financing of a mission by Christopher
Columbus in 1492 to explore an alternative route to Asia, by sailing west.
When Columbus eventually made landfall in the Caribbean Antilles he
believed he had reached the coast of India, and that the people he
encountered there were Indians with red skin. This is why Native
Americans have been called Indians or Red-Indians. In truth, Columbus
had arrived on a continent that was new to the Europeans and the
America ns. After Columbus' first trips, competing Spanish and Portuguese
claims to new territories and sea routes were solved with the Treaty of
Tordesillas in 1494, which divided the world outside of Europe in two
areas of trade and exploration, between the Liberian kingdoms of Castile
and Portugal along a north –south meridian, 370 leagues west of Cape
Verde. According to this international agreement, the larger part of th e
Americas and the Pacific Ocean were open to Spanish exploration and
colonization, while Africa, the Indian Ocean and most of Asia were
assigned to Portugal.
The boundaries specified by the Treaty of Tordesillas were put to the test
in 1521 when Ferdinand Magellan and his Spanish sailors (among other
Europeans), sailing for the Spanish Crown became the first European to
cross the Pacific Ocean, reaching Guam and the Philippines, parts of
which the Portuguese had already explored, sailing from the Indian Oc ean.
The two by now global empires, which had set out from opposing
directions, had finally met on the other side of the world. The conflicts
that arose between both powers were finally solved with the Treaty of
Zaragoza in 1529, which defined the areas of Spanish and Portuguese
influence in Asia, establishing the anti meridian, or line of demarcation on
the other side of the world.
During the 16th century the Portuguese continued to press both eastwards
and westwards into the Oceans. Towards Asia they made the first direct
contact between Europeans and the peoples inhabiting present day
countries such as Mozambique, Madagascar, Sri Lanka, Malaysia,
Indonesia, East Timor (1512), China, and finally Japan. In the opposite
direction, the Portuguese colonized th e huge territory that eventually
became Brazil, and the Spanish conquistadores established the vast
Viceroyalties of New Spain and Peru, and later of Río de la Plata
(Argentina) and New Granada (Colombia). In Asia, the Portuguese munotes.in

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78 Early Colonial Expansions – Explorations And Motives encountered ancient and we ll populated societies, and established a
seaborne empire consisting of armed coastal trading posts along their trade
routes (such as Goa, Malacca and Macau), so they had relatively little
cultural impact on the societies they engaged. In the Western Hemis phere,
the European colonization involved the emigration of large numbers of
settlers, soldiers and administrators intent on owning land and exploiting
the apparently primitive (as perceived by Old World standards) indigenous
peoples of the Americas. The r esult was that the colonization of the New
World was catastrophic: native peoples were no match for European
technology, ruthlessness, or their diseases which decimated the indigenous
population.
Spanish treatment of the indigenous populations caused a fie rce debate,
the Valladolid Controversy, over whether Indians possessed souls and if
so, whether they were entitled to the basic rights of mankind. Bartolomé
de Las Casas, author of A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies,
championed the cause of t he native peoples, and was opposed by
Sepúlveda, who claimed Amerindians were "natural slaves".
The Roman Catholic Church played a large role in Spanish and
Portuguese overseas activities. The Dominicans, Jesuits, and Franciscans,
notably Francis Xavier in Asia and Junípero Serra in North America, were
particularly active in this endeavour. Many buildings erected by the Jesuits
still stand, such as the Cathedral of Saint Paul in Macau and the Santisima
Trinidad de Paraná in Paraguay, the latter an example o f the Jesuit
Reductions. The Dominican and Franciscan buildings of California's
missions and New Mexico's missions stand restored, such as Mission
Santa Barbara in Santa Barbara, California and San Francisco de Asis
Mission Church in Ranchos de Taos, New M exico.
As characteristically happens in any colonialism, European or not,
previous or subsequent, both Spain and Portugal profited handsomely
from their newfound overseas colonies: the Spanish from gold and silver
from mines such as Potosí and Zacatecas in New Spain, the Portuguese
from the huge markups they enjoyed as trade intermediaries, particularly
during the Nanban Japan trade period. The influx of precious metals to the
Spanish monarchy's coffers allowed it to finance costly religious wars in
Europe which ultimately proved its economic undoing: the supply of
metals was not infinite and the large inflow caused inflation and debt, and
subsequently affected the rest of Europe.
Check your progress:
1. Describe the early colonial expansions.
2. Examine the countries which benefited from early colonial expansion.

5.4 COLONIAL EXPLORATIONS In the 100 years from the mid -15th to the mid -16th century, a combination
of circumstances stimulated men to seek new routes, and it was new routes munotes.in

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79 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) rather than new lands th at filled the minds of kings and commoners,
scholars and seamen. First, toward the end of the 14th century, the vast
empire of the Mongols was breaking up; thus, Western merchants could
no longer be assured of safe -conduct along the land routes. Second, th e
Ottoman Turks and the Venetians controlled commercial access to the
Mediterranean and the ancient sea routes from the East. Third, new
nations on the Atlantic shores of Europe were now ready to seek overseas
trade and adventure.
Henry the Navigator, prin ce of Portugal, initiated the first great enterprise
of the Age of Discovery —the search for a sea route east by south to
Cathay. His motives were mixed. He was curious about the world; he was
interested in new navigational aids and better ship design and w as eager to
test them; he was also a Crusader and hoped that, by sailing south and then
east along the coast of Africa, Arab power in North Africa could be
attacked from the back. The promotion of profitable trade was yet another
motive; he aimed to divert the Guinea trade in gold and ivory via the sea
route to Portugal.
Expedition after expedition was sent forth throughout the 15th century to
explore the coast of Africa. In 1445 the Portuguese navigator Dinís Dias
reached the mouth of the Sénégal . Once the desert coast had been passed,
the sailors pushed on: in 1455 and 1456 Alvise Ca’ da Mosto made
voyages to Gambia and the Cape Verde Islands. Prince Henry died in
1460 after a career that had brought the colonization of the Madeira
Islands and the Azores a nd the traversal of the African coast to Sierra
Leone. Henry’s captain, Diogo Cão, discovered the Congo River in 1482.
All seemed promising; trade was good with the riverine peoples, and the
coast was trending hopefully eastward. Then the disappointing fac t was
realized: the head of a great gulf had been reached, and, beyond, the coast
seemed to stretch endlessly southward. Yet, when Columbus sought
backing for his plan to sail westward across the Atlantic to the Indies, he
was refused —―seeing that King Joh n II [of Portugal] ordered the coast of
Africa to be explored with the intention of going by that route to India.‖
King John II sought to establish two routes: the first, a land and sea route
through Egypt and Ethiopia to the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean a nd, the
second, a sea route around the southern shores of Africa . In 1487, a
Portuguese emissary, Pêro da Covilhã, successfully followed the first
route . In the same year, another Portuguese navigator, Bartolomeu Dias,
found encouraging evidence. In 1487 he rounded the Cape of Storms in
such bad weather that he did not see it . Before turning back, he reached
the Great Fish River, in what is now South Africa. On the return voyage,
he sighted the Cape and set up a pillar upon it to mark its discovery.
The s eaway was now open, but eight years were to elapse before it was
exploited. In 1492 Columbus had apparently reached the East by a much
easier route. By the end of the decade, however, doubts of the validity of
Columbus’s claim were current. Interest was th erefore renewed in
establishing the sea route south by east to the known riches of India. In
1497 a Portuguese captain, Vasco da Gama, sailed in command of a fleet munotes.in

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80 Early Colonial Expansions – Explorations And Motives under instructions to reach Calicut (Kozhikode), on India’s west coast.
This he did after a magnificent voyage around the Cape of Storms (which
he renamed the Cape of Good Hope) and along the unknown coast of East
Africa. Yet another Portuguese fleet set out in 1500, this one being under
the command of Pedro Álvarez Cabral; on the advice of da Ga ma, Cabral
steered southwestward to avoid the calms of the Guinea coast; thus, en
route for Calicut, Brazil was discovered. Soon trading depots, known as
factories, were built along the African coast, at the strategic entrances to
the Red Sea and the Persi an Gulf, and along the shores of the Indian
peninsula. In 1511 the Portuguese established a base at Malacca (now
Melaka, Malaysia), commanding the straits into the China Sea; in 1511
and 1512, the Moluccas, or Spice Islands, and Java were reached; in 1557
the trading port of Macau was founded at the mouth of the Canton River.
Europe had arrived in the East. It was in the end the Portuguese, not the
Turks, who destroyed the commercial supremacy of the Italian cities,
which had been based on a monopoly of Eur ope’s trade with the East by
land. But Portugal was soon overextended; it was therefore the Dutch, the
English, and the French who in the long run reaped the harvest of
Portuguese enterprise.
Some idea of the knowledge that these trading explorers brought to the
common store may be gained by a study of contemporary maps. The map
of the German Henricus Martellus, published in 1492, shows the shores of
North Africa and of the Gulf of Guinea more or less correctly and was
probably taken from numerous seamen’s charts. The delineation of the
west coast of southern Africa from the Guinea Gulf to the Cape suggests a
knowledge of the charts of the expedition of Bartolomeu Dias. The
coastlines of the Indian Ocean are largely Ptolemaic with two exceptions:
first, the Indian Ocean is no longer landlocked; and second, the Malay
Peninsula is shown twice —once according to Ptolemy and once again,
presumably, according to Marco Polo. The Contarini map of 1506 shows
further advances; the shape of Africa is generally accurate, and there is
new knowledge of the Indian Ocean, although it is curiously treated.
Peninsular India (on which Cananor and Calicut are named) is shown;
although too small, it is, however, recognizable. There is even an
indication to the east of it of the Ba y of Bengal, with a great river running
into it. Eastward of this is Ptolemy’s India, with the huge island of
Taprobane —a muddled representation of the Indian peninsula and Ceylon
(now Sri Lanka). East again, as on the map of Henricus Martellus, the
Malay Peninsula appears twice. Ptolemy’s bonds were hard to break.
It is not known when the idea originated of sailing westward in order to
reach Cathay. Many sailors set forth searching for islands in the west; and
it was a common place among scientists that th e east could be reached by
sailing west, but to believe this a practicable voyage was an entirely
different matter. Christopher Columbus, a Genoese who had settled in
Lisbon about 1476, argued that Cipango lay a mere 2,500 nautical miles
west of the Canary Islands in the eastern Atlantic. He took 45 instead of
60 nautical miles as the value of a degree; he accepted Ptolemy’s
exaggerated west –east extent of Asia and then added to it the lands munotes.in

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81 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) described by Marco Polo, thus reducing the true distance between t he
Canaries and Cipango by about one -third. He could not convince the
Portuguese scientists nor the merchants of Lisbon that his idea was worth
backing; but eventually he obtained the support of King Ferdinand and
Queen Isabella of Spain. The sovereigns pr obably argued that the cost of
equipping the expedition would not be very great; the loss, if it failed,
could be borne; the gain, should it succeed, was incalculable —indeed, it
might divert to Spain all the wealth of Asia.
On August 3, 1492, Columbus sail ed from Palos, Spain, with three small
ships manned by Spaniards. From the Canaries he sailed westward, for, on
the evidence of the globes and maps in which he had faith, Japan was on
the same latitude. If Japan should be missed, Columbus thought that the
route adopted would land him, only a little further on, on the coast of
China itself. Fair winds favoured him, the sea was calm, and, on October
12, landfall was made on the Bahama island of Guanahaní, which he
renamed San Salvador (also called Watling Isl and, though Samana Cay
and other islands have been identified as Guanahaní). With the help of the
local Indians, the ships reached Cuba and then Haiti. Although there was
no sign of the wealth of the lands of Kublai Khan, Columbus nevertheless
seemed convi nced that he had reached China, since, according to his
reckoning, he was beyond Japan. A second voyage in 1493 and 1494,
searching fruitlessly for the court of Kublai Khan, further explored the
islands of ―the Indies.‖ Doubts seem to have arisen among the would -be
colonists as to the identity of the islands since Columbus demanded that
all take an oath that Cuba was the southeast promontory of Asia —the
Golden Chersonese. On his third voyage, in 1498, Columbus sighted
Trinidad, entered the Gulf of Paria, on the coast of what is now Venezuela,
and annexed for Spain ―a very great continent…until today unknown.‖ On
a fourth voyage, from 1502 to 1504, he explored the coast of Central
America from Honduras to Darien on the Isthmus of Panama, seeking a
navigable p assage to the west. What passage he had in mind is obscure; if
at this point he still believed he had reached Asia, it is conceivable that he
sought a way through Ptolemy’s Golden Chersonese into the Indian
Ocean.
Columbus’s tenacity, courage, and skill in navigation make him stand out
among the few explorers who have changed substantially ideas about the
world. At the time, however, his efforts must have seemed ill -rewarded: he
found no emperor’s court rich in spices, silks, gold, or precious stones but
had to contend with mutinous sailors, dissident colonists, and disappointed
sovereigns. He died at Valladolid in 1506. Did he believe to the end that
he indeed had reached Cathay, or did he, however dimly, perceive that he
had found a New World?
Whatever Col umbus thought, it was clear to others that there was much to
be investigated, and probably much to be gained, by exploration
westward. Not only in Lisbon and Cádiz but also in other Atlantic ports,
groups of men congregated in hopes of joining in the searc h. In England,
Bristol, with its western outlook and Icelandic trade, was the port best
placed to nurture adventurous seamen. In the latter part of the 15th munotes.in

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82 Early Colonial Expansions – Explorations And Motives century, John Cabot, with his wife and three sons, came to Bristol from
Genoa or Venice. His projec t to sail west gained support, and with one
small ship, the Matthew, he set out in May 1497, taking a course due west
from Dursey Head, Ireland. His landfall on the other side of the ocean was
probably on the northern peninsula of what is now known as
Newf oundland. From there, Cabot explored southward, perhaps
encouraged to do so, even if seeking a westward passage, by ice in the
Strait of Belle Isle. Little is known of John Cabot’s first voyage, and
almost nothing of his second, in 1498, from which he did not return, but
his voyages in high latitudes represented almost as great a navigational
feat as those of Columbus.
The coasts between the landfalls of Columbus and of John Cabot were
charted in the first quarter of the 16th century by Italian, French, Spa nish,
and Portuguese sailors. Sebastian Cabot, son of John, gained a great
reputation as a navigator and promoter of Atlantic exploration, but
whether this was based primarily on his own experience or on the
achievements of his father is uncertain. In 1499 Amerigo Vespucci, an
Italian merchant living in Sevilla (Seville), together with the Spanish
explorer Alonso de Ojeda, explored the north coast of South America from
Suriname to the Golfo de Venezuela. His lively and embellished
description of these lands became popular, and Waldseemüller, on his map
of 1507, gave the name America to the southern part of the continent.
The 1506 map of Contarini represented a brave attempt to collate the mass
of new information, true and false, that accrued from these weste rn
voyages. The land explored by Columbus on his third voyage and by
Vespucci and de Ojeda in 1499 is shown at the bottom left of the map as a
promontory of a great northern bulge of a continent extending far to the
south. The northeast coast of Asia at th e top left is pulled out into a great
peninsula on which is shown a big river and some mountains representing
Contarini’s concept of Newfoundland and the lands found by the Cabots
and others. In the wide sea that separates these northern lands from South
America, the West Indies are shown. Halfway between the Indies and the
coast of Asia, Japan is drawn. A legend placed between Japan and China
reveals the state of opinion among at least some contemporary
geographers; it presumably refers to the fourth voyag e of Columbus in
1502 and may be an addition to the map. It runs:
Christopher Columbus, Viceroy of Spain, sailing westwards, reached the
Spanish islands after many hardships and dangers. Weighing anchor
thence he sailed to the province called Ciambra [a pr ovince which then
adjoined Cochinchina].
Others did not agree with Contarini’s interpretation. To more and more
people it was becoming plain that a New World had been found, although
for a long time there was little inclination to explore it but instead a great
determination to find a way past it to the wealth of Asia. The voyage of
the Portuguese navigator Ferdinand Magellan, from 1519 to 1521,
dispelled two long -cherished illusions: first, that there was an easy way munotes.in

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83 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) through the barrier and, second, that, once the barrier was passed, Cathay
was near at hand.
Ferdinand Magellan had served in the East Indies as a young man.
Familiar with the long sea route to Asia eastward from Europe via the
Cape of Good Hope, he was convinced that there must be an easier se a
route westward. His plan was in accord with Spanish hopes; five Spanish
ships were fitted out in Sevilla, and in August 1519 they sailed under his
command first to the Cape Verde Islands and thence to Brazil. Standing
offshore, they then sailed southward along the east coast of South
America; the estuary of the Río de la Plata was explored in the vain hope
that it might prove to be a strait leading to the Pacific. Magellan’s ships
then sailed south along the coast of Patagonia. The Gulf of St. George, and
doubtless many more small embayments, raised hopes th at a strait had
been found, only to dash them; at last at Port Julian, at 49°15′ S, winter
quarters were established. In September 1520 a southward course was set
once more, until, finally, on October 21, Magellan found a strait leading
westward. It proved to be an extremely difficult one: it was long, deep,
tortuous, rock -walled, and bedevilled by icy squalls and dense fogs. It was
a miracle that three of the five ships got through its 325 -mile (525 -km)
length. After 38 days, they sailed out into the open ocean. Once away from
land, the ocean seemed calm enough; Magellan consequently named it the
Pacific. The Pacific, however, proved to be of vast extent, and for 14
weeks the little ships sailed on a northwesterly course without
encountering land. Short of food and water, the sailors ate sawdust mixed
with ship’s biscuits and chewed the leather parts of their gear to keep
themselves alive. At last, on March 6, 1521, exhausted and scurvy -ridden,
they landed at the island of Guam. Ten days later they reached t he
Philippines, where Magellan was killed in a local quarrel. The survivors,
in two ships, sailed on to the Moluccas; thus, sailing westward, they
arrived at last in territory already known to the Portuguese sailing
eastward. One ship attempted, but failed , to return across the Pacific. The
remaining ship, the Vittoria, laden with spices, under the command of the
Spanish navigator Juan Sebastián del Cano, sailed alone across the Indian
Ocean, rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and arrived at Sevilla on
Septembe r 9, 1522, with a crew of four Indians and only 17 survivors of
the 239 Europeans who had set sail with the expedition three years earlier.
Cano, not having allowed for the fact that his circumnavigation had caused
him to lose a day, was greatly puzzled to find that his carefully kept log
was one day out; he was, however, delighted to discover that the cargo
that he had brought back more than paid for the expenses of the voyage.
It is fitting to consider this first circumnavigation as marking the close of
the Age of Discovery. Magellan and his men had demonstrated that
Columbus had discovered a New World and not the route to China and
that Columbus’s ―Indies‖ —the West Indies —were separated from the East
Indies by a vast ocean. Not all the major problems of w orld geography
were, however, now solved. Two great questions still remained
unanswered. Were there ―northern passages‖ between the Atlantic and
Pacific oceans more easily navigable than the dangerous Strait of
Magellan to the south? Was there a great land mass somewhere in the munotes.in

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84 Early Colonial Expansions – Explorations And Motives vastness of the southern oceans —a Terra Australis (―southern land‖) that
would balance the northern continents?
The centuries that have elapsed since the Age of Discovery have seen the
end of dreams of easy routes to the East by the n orth, the discovery of
Australasia and Antarctica in place of Terra Australis Incognita, and the
identification of the major features of the continental interiors.
While, as in earlier centuries, traders and missionaries often proved
themselves also to be intrepid explorers, in this period of geographical
discovery the seeker after knowledge for its own sake played a greater part
than ever before.
The concept of a Northeast Passage was at first favoured by the English: it
was thought that, although its entr y was in high latitudes, it ―turning itself,
trendeth towards the southeast…and stretcheth directly to Cathay.‖ It was
also argued that the cold lands bordering this route would provide a much
needed market for English cloth. In 1553 a trading company, lat er known
as the Muscovy Company, was formed with Sebastian Cabot as its
governor. Under its auspices numerous expeditions were sent out. In 1553
an expedition set sail under the command of Sir Hugh Willoughby;
Willoughby’s ship was lost, but the exploratio n continued under the
leadership of its pilot general, Richard Chancellor. Chancellor and his men
wintered in the White Sea, and next spring ―after much adoe at last came
to Mosco.‖ Between 1557 and 1560, another English voyager, Anthony
Jenkinson, followi ng up this opening, traveled from the White Sea to
Moscow, then to the Caspian, and so on to Bukhara, thus reaching the old
east–west trade routes by a new way. Soon, attempts to find a passage to
Cathay were replaced by efforts to divert the trade of the ancient silk
routes from their traditional outlets on the Black Sea to new northern
outlets on the White Sea.
The Dutch next took up the search for the passage. The Dutch navigator
William Barents made three expeditions between 1594 and 1597 (when he
died in Novaya Zemlya, modern Russia). The English navigator Henry
Hudson, in the employ of the Dutch, discovered between 1605 and 1607
that ice blocked the way both east and west of Svalbard (Spitsbergen).
Between 1725 and 1729 and from 1734 to 1743, a series of expeditions
inspired by the Danish -Russian explorer Vitus Bering attempted the
passage from the eastern end, but it was not until 1878 –79 that Baron
Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld, the Finnish -Swedish scientist and explorer,
sailed through it.
The Northwest Pa ssage, on the other hand, also had its strong supporters.
In 1576 Humphrey Gilbert, the English soldier and navigator, argued that
―Mangia [South China], Quinzay [Hangzhou] and the Moluccas are nearer
to us by the North West than by the North East,‖ while John Dee in 1577
set out the view that the Strait of Anian, separating America from Asia,
led southwest ―along the backeside of Newfoundland.‖ In 1534 Jacques
Cartier, the French navigator, explored the St. Lawrence estuary. In 1576
the English explorer Si r Martin Frobisher found the bay named after him. munotes.in

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85 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) Between 1585 and 1587, the English navigator John Davis explored
Cumberland Sound and the western shore of Greenland to 73° N; although
he met ―a mighty block of ice,‖ he reported that ―the passage is most
probable and the execution easy.‖ In 1610 Henry Hudson sailed through
Hudson Strait to Hudson Bay, confident, before he was set adrift by a
mutinous crew, that success was at hand. Between 1612 and 1615, three
English voyagers —Robert Bylot, Sir Thomas Butt on, and William
Baffin —thoroughly explored the bay, returning convinced that there was
no strait out of it leading westward. As in the quest for a Northeast
Passage, interest turned from the search for a route leading to the riches of
the East to the explo itation of local resources. Englishmen of the Hudson’s
Bay Company, founded in 1670 to trade in furs, explored the wide
hinterlands of the St. Lawrence estuary and Hudson Bay. Further search
for the passage itself did not take place until the 19th century: expeditions
led by Sir William Parry (1819 –25) and Sir John Franklin (1819 –45), as
well as more than 40 expeditions sent out to search for Franklin and his
party, failed to find the passage. It was left to the Norwegian explorer
Roald Amundsen to be the f irst to sail through the passage, which he did
in 1903 –05.
By the end of the 16th century, Portugal in the East held only the ports of
Goa and Diu, in India, and Macau, in China. The English dominated the
trade of India, and the Dutch that of the East Indi es. It was the Dutch,
trading on the fringes of the known world, who were the explorers.
Victualing their ships at the Cape, they soon learned that, by sailing east
for some 3,000 miles (5,000 km) before turning north, they would
encounter favourable winds in setting a course toward the Spice Islands
(now the Moluccas). Before long, reports were received of landfalls made
on an unknown coast; as early as 1618, a Dutch skipper suggested that
―this land is a fit point to be made by ships…in order to get a fix ed course
for Java.‖ Thereafter, the west coast of Australia was gradually charted: it
was identified by some as the coast of the great southern continent shown
on Mercator’s map and, by others, as the continent of Loach or Beach
mentioned by Marco Polo, i nterpreted as lying to the south of Malacca
(Melaka); Polo, however, was probably describing the Malay Peninsula.
In 1642 a farsighted governor general of the Dutch East India Company,
Anthony van Diemen, sent out the Dutch navigator Abel Tasman for the
immediate purpose of making an exploratory voyage, but with the ultimate
aim of developing trade. Sailing first south then east from Mauritius,
Tasman landed on the coast of Tasmania, after which he coasted round the
island to the south and, sailing east, di scovered the South Island of New
Zealand; ―We trust that this is the mainland coast of the unknown South
land,‖ he wrote. He sailed north without finding Cook Strait, and, making
a sweeping arc on his voyage back to the Dutch port of Batavia (now
Jakarta, Indonesia), he discovered the Tonga and the Fiji Islands. In 1644,
on a second voyage, he traced the north coast of Australia from Cape York
(which he thought to be a part of New Guinea) to the North West Cape.
The earlier European explorers in the Pacific were primarily in search of
trade or booty; the later ones were primarily in search of information. The munotes.in

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86 Early Colonial Expansions – Explorations And Motives traders, for the most part Spaniards, established land portages from
harbours on the Caribbean to harbours on the west coast of Central and
South Ameri ca; from the Pacific coast ports of the Americas, they then set
a course westward to the Philippines. Many of their ships crossed and
recrossed the Pacific without making a landfall; many islands were found,
named, and lost, only to be found again without recognition, renamed, and
perhaps lost yet again. In the days before longitude could be accurately
fixed, such uncertainty was not surprising.

Check your progress:
1. Discuss the early colonial explorations.
2. Examine the countries that were involved in early colonial explorations.
3. Discuss the meaning of Colonialism.
4. State the examples of colonialism .

5.5 SUMMARY Colonialism is a practice of domination, which involves the suppression of
one people to another. One of the difficulties in defining colo nialism is
that it is hard to distinguish it from imperialism. Frequently the two
concepts are treated as synonym ous. Like colonialism, imperialism also
involves political and economic control over a dependent territory. The
etymology of the two terms, how ever, provides some clues about how
they differ. The term colony comes from the Latin word colonus, meaning
farmer. This root reminds us that the practice of colonialism usually
involved the transfer of population to a new territory, where the arrivals
lived as permanent settlers while maintaining political allegiance to their
country of origin. Imperialism, on the other hand, comes from the Latin
term imperium, meaning to command. Thus, the term imperialism draws
attention to the way that one country exerc ises power over another,
whether through settlement, sovereignty, or indirect mechanisms of
control.
Colonialism is not a modern phenomenon. World history is full of
examples of one society gradually expanding by incorporating adjacent
territory and settli ng its people on newly conquered territory. The ancient
Greeks set up colonies as did the Romans, the Moors, and the Ottomans,
to name just a few of the most famous examples. Colonialism, then, is not
restricted to a specific time or place. Nevertheless, i n the sixteenth
century, colonialism changed decisively because of technological
developments in navigation that began to connect more remote parts of the
world. Fast sailing ships made it possible to reach distant ports and to
sustain close ties between t he center and colonies. Thus, the modern
European colonial project emerged when it became possible to move large
numbers of people across the ocean and to maintain political sovereignty
in spite of geographical dispersion. This entry uses the term colonial ism to munotes.in

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87 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) describe the process of European settlement and political control over the
rest of the world, including the Americas, Australia, and parts of Africa
and Asia.

5.6 QUESTIONS 1. Analyse the phenomenon of Colonialism and Imperialism .
2. Discuss the e arly colonial expansions.
3. Examine the development of the initial colonial explorations.

5.7 ADDITIONAL READINGS  Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy ,
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/colonialism/
 Tignor, Roger (2005). Preface to Colonialism: a theore tical overview.
Markus Weiner Publishers
 Philip T. Hoffman (2015). Why Did Europe Conquer the World?.
Princeton University Press.
 Walter Rodney (1972). How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. East
African Publishers.
 Webster's Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary of the English
Language, 1989 .

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6
NATURE OF COLONIAL
CONTROL – AFRICA AND ASIA
Unit Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Background
6.3 Nature of Colonial Control in Africa
6.4 Nature of Colonial Control in A sia
6.5 Summary
6.6 Questions
6.7 Additional Readings

6.0 OBJ ECTIVES  To introduce students to Colonialism.
 To understand the development of Colonial Control.
 To orient learners about the Colonial control in Asia and Africa.

6.1 INTRODUCTION Having understood the meaning of Colonialism, now let us shift our focus
to the nature of colonial control in Asia and Africa . European expansion
during the 1600s and 1700s was often motivated by economic and
technological forces. To understand the impact of these forces, we need to
compare the different ways that European nat ions developed political and
economic influences, including trade and settlement patterns, on the
continents of Asia, and Africa . Mother countries such as Portugal, Spain,
Great Britain, France and the Netherlands were driven by money and
power and enabled by advanced weapons and technology to expand and
develop political and economic influences in Asia, and Africa.
The political quarrel among different nations of Europe of the Eighteenth
and Nineteenth Centuries crossed its barrier and found expression out side.
The impact of such quarrel were heard in Asia and Africa. This quarrel
took place due to Colonialism. The ghost of Colonialism haunted most of
the countries of Europe. The net result of this was disastrous which gave
birth to a giant like First World War. munotes.in

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87 The meaning of Colonialism is very simple. When a country conquers
another country and imposes its supremacy on that conquered country, it is
known as colonialism. In Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries several
countries of Europe like France, Engla nd, and Portugal etc. established
their colonies are different countries of Asia and Africa. This thirst of
imperial expansion was known as Colonialism.

6.2 BACKGROUND Many countries of Europe had established their colonies outside. Many
reasons were respo nsible for that. At first, with the Discovery of New Sea -
Route, new places and countries were discovered. After Columbus had
discovered America, the countries like Spain and Portugal established
Colonies in that country. When Vasco da Gama discovered the sea-route
to India, Portugal had to establish its colonies in that country.
Subsequently, France and England came to establish their colonies in
India.
Another major factor was economy. Economic Consideration encouraged
colonialism. The countries like Engla nd, France, Spain and Portugal
established their colonies and wanted to be rich by bringing money from
those colonies. We should also remember that the Industrial Revolution
prompted the countries of Europe to procure raw -materials from outside
for their f actories. Since, they had no huge quantity of raw -materials for
their factories; they had no alternative to bring the same from their
colonies. This gave rise to Colonialism. There was also the issue of
overpopulation. S ome European countries having imperi al tendency
wanted to send their Surplus Population outside their countries . That is
why they wanted to have their colonies for absorbing surplus population.
Another major factor was that due to the Industrial Revolution, the
Capitalists became richer. The y decided to invest their surplus money
outside. This also gave rise to Colonialism. Sixthly, many European
countries wanted to educate the backward countries of Asia and Europe.
Rudyard Kipling , a famous poet of England propounded the theory of
‘White men ’s burden’. He said that it is the White man’s responsibility to
civilize the uncivilized people of Africa and Asia and teach them
sophisticated habits. This prompted England to establish overseas empire.
In every sense, this view prompted colonialism.
There was also the idea of national glory. M any countries of Europe felt
that Colonies are the Pride of a Country. Mainly England, France,
Germany and Portugal championed this cause. This gave rise to unhealthy
competition among the European countries for hav ing more and more
colonies. There was a kind of race for colonies. Finally, the unstable
political condition of some of the countries of Asia and Africa gave scope
for the rise of Colonialism. Taking chance of such weakness, the European
countries tried to establish their colonies in these countries and thus
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88 Nature of Colonial Control – Asia And Africa Many factors led to the e stablishment of Colonies in Asia . The European
countries established their colonies in many Asian countries. One of t hose
countries w as India . After the discovery of sea -route to India in 1498 by
Vasco da Gama, the European Countries tried to establish their colonies in
India. The Portuguese first entered into India and established their
colonies in Goa, Daman and Diu. After that the Dutch, French and English
had their colonies in India. At last in the game of power politics, the
English became successful and ruled India about two hundred years.
Several colonies were established in South -East Asia . The Portuguese first
established their colonies in South -East Asia. They had first occupied
Malacca. In 1640, the Dutch occupied it by defeating the Portuguese.
After that, the Dutch established their colonies in Java, Sumatra, Borneo
and Bali. The Dutch also occupied Ceylon but during the Napoleonic
Wars , the English occupied it from the Dutch. The English also occupied
Burma. They got Hongkong from China in 1819. The French received
Sigan from China. They also established their authority over Tonking. In a
similar vein, Russia occupied Arthur harbour and a large portion of
Manchuria. Germany occupied Kiachou. Japan occupied Korea and
Formosa.
Colonies were established in Central Asia . In Central Asia, Russia and
England established their colonies. Russia occupied Tas hkent, Samarkand
and Bokhara. As per an agreement, the northern part of Persia was
retained by Russia and its southern part came under the sway of England.
Germany could not establish a single colony in this area. In this way,
colonialism had its impact in many parts of Asia.
There was the e stablishment of Colo nies in Africa as well. Like the Asian
Countries, the continent of Africa also experienced colonialism. Several
countries of Africa came under the sway of Colonialism. Togoland and
Cameroon came under colonial control. David Livingstone ha d discovered
Africa. After that, the European countries got an idea about the wealth of
that continent. In due course of time, Leopold II, the ruler of Belgium sent
soldiers and created a free Congo state. However, in 1907 Belgium
brought it under his cont rol. After unification, Germany concentrated on
colonial empire. So, Germany occupied Togoland and Cameroon in 1884.
No doubt after the defeat in the World War I, Germany had to surrender
these colonies. Till that time Germany had her sway on East and Sout h
Africa.
Algeria, Tunis, Madagascar were also colonized. France also tried her
level best to establish her colony in Africa. France occupied Algeria and
sent 11,000 people from Alsace and Lorraine to live there. After that,
Tunis came under France. With t he gradual passage of time, Madagascar,
Ivory Coast, Dahomi, Morocco, Senegal and Sahara Desert came under
the colonial possession of France.
Angola, Mozambique, Tripoli, Abyssinia were colonized as well. Spain,
Portugal and Italy also wanted to have their colon ies in Africa. Portugal
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89 She also occupied Mozambique. Italy occupied Eretria and Somali land. It
also established colonies in Libya and Tripoli, situated in North Africa.
Abys sinia also come under its sway. Spain occupied Caeri Islands situated
on Guena Coast and also other islands.
East, West , North and South Africa were all colonized. The English
established her colonies in East, West, North and South Africa. Cecili
Rhodes he lped a lot in the establishment of England’s colonies in Africa.
He helped England to occupy Rhodesia, Nyasaland and Cape Colony. In
1855, England declared that the Bechuana Land was under h er control.
In 1886 she occupied Gold Coast and extended its help to Uganda, Kenya
and Nigeria. England also occupied Sudan and Somali Land in 1898. After
her victory, in the ‘Boer War’ England occupied Transvaal and Orange
free State. England only occupied five hundred lakhs square miles of land
in Africa and exerted he r influence over ninety lakhs people of that
Continent there by establishing her supremacy.
Check your progress:
1. Describe the colonization of Asia.
2. Describe the colonization of Africa.

6.3 NATURE OF COLONIAL CONTROL IN AFRICA The main powers involved in the modern colonization of Africa are
Britain, France, Germany, Portugal, Spain and Italy. In almost all African
countries today, the language used is the one imposed by the colonial
power . North Africa experienced colonisation from Europe and Western
Asia in the early historical period, particularly Greeks and Phoenicians.
Under Egypt's Pharaoh Amasis (570 –526 BC) a Greek mercantile colony
was established at Naucratis, some 50 miles from the later Alexandria.
Alexander the Great (356 –323 BC) founded Al exandria during his
conquest of Egypt. This became one of the major cities of Hellenistic and
Roman times, a trading and cultural centre as well as a military
headquarters and communications hub.
Initial European expeditions by the Portuguese focused on co lonizing
earlier uninhabited islands such as the Cape Verde Islands and S ao Tom e
Island, or founding coastal forts as a base for trade. The Spanish also
established properties of the Canary Islands off the West African Coast,
and Equatorial Guinea, Ceuta a nd Melilla on the African mainland before
1830. Established empires like Britain, France, Spain and Portugal were
already controlling coastal areas but they had not entered deeply inland.
Europeans controlled one tenth of Africa, primarily along the
Medite rranean and in the far South. A n important initial advocate of
colonising inland Africa was King Leopold of Belgium . He treated Congo
as his own private area until 1908. The 1885 Berlin Conference was
initiated by Otto von Bismarck . This was to establish i nternational
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90 Nature of Colonial Control – Asia And Africa conference , the theme of "New Imperialism" took shape . This allowed
the imperialists to move inland, with comparatively few disputes among
themselves. Between 1870 and 191 4 Europe acquired almost 23,000,000
sq. km —one-fifth of the land area of the globe —to its overseas colonial
possessions.
Imperialism produced self -confidence across Europe. The Allies of World
War I and World War II made widespread use of African work and
soldiers during the wars. In terms of administrative styles, the French, the
Portuguese, the Germans and the Belgians exercised a highly centralized
type of administration called 'direct rule ’. The British were different. They
wanted to rule by identifyin g local power holders and encouraging or
forcing them to administer for the British Empire. This was indirect rule.
France ruled from Paris, appointing chiefs who used to show loyalty to
France. France established two large colonial federations in Africa, French
West Africa and French Equatorial Africa. France appointed the state
officials, passed laws and had to approve any measures passed by colonial
assemblies.
Local groups in German East Africa resisted German enforced labour and
taxation. In the Abushi ri revolt, the Germans were almost driven out of the
area in 1888. In 1905, the Germans were astonished by the widely
supported Maji Maji Rebellion. This resistance was at first successful.
However, within a year, the insurrection was suppressed by reinfor cing
troops armed with machine guns. German attempts to seize control in
Southwest Africa also produced ardent resistance, which was very
forcefully repressed leading to the Herero and Namaqua Genocide . King
Leopold II of Belgium called his vast private co lony the Congo Free State.
His barbaric treatment of the Africans sparked a strong international
protest and the European powers forced him to relinquish control of the
colony to the Belgian Parliament.
Colonial powers had their techniques of colonization. This included
procurement of land, frequently enforced labour, the introduction of cash
crops, the neglect of food crops, changing inter -African trading patterns of
pre-colonial times, the introduction of labourers from India, etc. and the
continuation of Africa as a source of raw materials for European industry.
The European scramble for Africa concluded in the Berlin West African
Conference of 1884 -85. The conference was called by German Chancellor
Bismarck and would set up the limits for the eventual p artition of Africa.
European nations were summoned to discuss issues of free navigation
along the Niger and Congo rivers and the African coasts. In the end, the
European powers signed The Berlin Act (Treaty). This treaty set up rules
for European occupatio n of African territories. The treaty stated that any
European claim to any part of Africa, would only be recognized if it was
successfully occupied. The Berlin Conference led to the ultimate European
military attack and conquest of African continent. With the exclusion of
Ethiopia and Liberia, the whole mainland came under European colonial
rule. The major colonial powers were Britain, France, Germany, Belgium,
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91 Effective Occupation was a clause in the Berlin Treaty which gave Europe
a blank ch eck to use military force to occupy African territories. 1885 -
1914 were the years of European conquest and mergers of pre -colonial
states and societies into new states. European imperialists continued to
pursue their earlier treaty making processes whereby African territories
became European protectorates. Because protectorate treaties posed
serious challenges to African independence most African rulers naturally
rejected them. African rulers adopted many approaches to prevent
European occupation such as diplomacy, alliance, and finally military
confrontation.
European Colonial Policies in Africa:
The British :
The 19th century British colonial policy in Africa was a policy of
assimilation and integration . Their grand strategy was to have Africans
integrate into European civilization and culture. The policy created a
western class of black Englishmen who were supposedly British partners
in religion, trade and administration. These African “British men,”
especially Creoles, rose in colonies of Freetown, Bath urst, southern Ghana
and Lagos to important positions in the church, commercial firms and the
colonial government. However, with the growth of European racism,
western educated Africans found that they were increasingly discriminated
against in administra tion. The British now imported European
administrators to fill positions previously held by Africans. Western
educated Africans like the Creoles were even forced out of the civil
service.
In 1910, the British colonial office expressed the opinion that Eng lishmen
naturally expected to enjoy fruits of their conquests, therefore they should
be preferred over Africans in senior positions. The problem however was
that there were not enough Englishmen prepared to serve as colonial
administrators in Africa. Ther efore, the British soon adopted the policy of
Indirect Rule. Indirect Rule was the brain child of Lord Lugard. He
presented the principles of the system in his book The Dual Mandate in
Tropical Africa. In it, he identified the two most important administra tive
principles to employ in ruling alien people. The first was the principle of
decentralization, in which he stressed importance of recognizing and
ruling people through their indigenous authorities. He argued that the role
of the British officers, exce pt in critical areas such as taxation, military
forces and the alienation of land, was to advise, not demand. The second
principle, was the principle of continuity. Lugard argued that the British
should utilize indigenous institutions and authorities, ther eby preserving
“continuity” with the past, while laying foundations for what he saw as the
progressive improvement of indigenous society.
Indirect Rule which begun as administrative expedient in Northern
Nigeria, would eventually be imposed throughout thei r territories of
British Africa.
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92 Nature of Colonial Control – Asia And Africa The French :
The French had a policy of assimilation which sought to “civilize” natives
and gradually turn them into petits Français or junior Frenchmen. The
highest -ranking of these juniors were the evolues, or evolved one s. They
were colonial subjects trained to work in administrative positions. Evolues
served two purposes. First, to cut down on costs by replacing French
manpower. Second, to create an impression that colonials were profiting
from their becoming “civilized. ” Both the junior Frenchmen or petits
Français and the evolved ones or evolues were to serve the grandeur of
France and in the far, far, future, they would become “civilized” enough to
be considered fully French. This would never really happen however.
Whe n independence came, these well -positioned evolues often ended up
running their countries.
In French West Africa, the colonies were integral parts of the urban
country, and were also considered foreign provinces. Africans were
regarded as subjects of Franc e, and like children were expected to have
patriotic duties to their mother country. The French believed that the first
duty of civilization to the savage was to give them “a taste for work” on
the grounds that as beneficiaries of civilization, they should contribute to
expenses of the country which brings them benefits. In keeping with this
philosophy, the primary role of the “native” therefore was to fight and
produce for mother country. The French believed that the “native” will
unavoidably be refined by this process, so that in helping France, the
“native,” in fact, helps him self or herself.
Africans that were deemed civilized were rewarded by conferring the
privileged status of French citizen on them. To become a French citizen,
the African would have to have been born in one of the four communes or
municipalities in Senegal: Saint -Louis, Gorée, Rufisque, and Dakar. They
must also have a merited a position in the French service for at least ten
years; and have evidence of good character and possess a means of
existence. They must also have been decorated with the Legion of Honor,
a military award.
The advantages of French citizenship were many. Once a n African
became a Frenchman, they were subject to French law and access to
French courts. The black Frenchman was exempted from indigénat, which
is a legal system which enabled a French administrative officer to sentence
any African for up to two years forced labour without a trial. A West
African Frenchman could commute compulsory labor for a monetary
payment. The person could be appointed to any post in France and in
colony. For example, Blaise Diagne of Senegal was the first black African
elected to French National Assembly and Mayor of Dakar, which was the
capital of the Federation of French West Af rica.
However, the assimilation policy was abandoned as impractical. Thus, in
the 1920s, the policy was changed to the policy of association, which was
advocated as the most appropriate for French Africa. On paper, association
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93 the French and the African. In practice however, scholars have argued
that this policy was like the association of a horse and its rider, since the
French would at all times dictate the direction that the develop ment should
take and determine what would be of mutual benefit to themselves and
West Africans. The colonial belief in the superiority of French civilization
was reflected in the judicial system, their attitude toward indigenous law,
indigenous authorities , indigenous rights to land, and the educational
program. They condemned everything African as primitive and barbaric.
The Portuguese :
Portugal, one of the poorest of the European colonist nations in Africa
operated what amounted to a closed economic syst em in their African
colonies. They created a system which welded their African colonies to
mother country, Portugal, both politically and economically. As such, their
territories in Africa were considered overseas provinces and integral part
of Portugal. One fundamental connection of all African Portuguese
colonies was the presence of relatively large numbers of Portuguese in the
colonies, especially after 1945 when there was a full -scale emigration
program from Portugal, especially to Angola. The Portugues e operated a
very authoritarian and centralized system of government. At the top of
government was the Prime Minister. Under him were the Council of
Ministers and the Overseas Ministry, which was made up of the Overseas
Advisory Council, and the General Ov erseas Agency. Then there was the
Governor General, a Secretariat and Legislative Council. All of these
offices were in Portugal. There were also Governors of Districts,
Administrators and at the very bottom of the governmental hierarchy, the
African Chief s.
As in the British case, the Portuguese corrupted the systems of
chieftaincies. They sacked chiefs who resisted colonial rule, and replaced
them with more flexible chiefs. Thus, the historical authority of chiefs and
their relationships with subjects was corrupted to one of authoritarianism
which reproduced the authoritarian system of government . Real authority
was held by the Portuguese council of ministers, which was controlled by
the prime minister. The direction of colonial policy was determined by th e
overseas ministry, aided by the advisory overseas council and two
subsidiary agencies. The governor -general appointed the chief official
resident for the colony. The chief official of the resident for the colony had
far reaching executive and legislative power. He headed the colonial
bureaucracy, directed the native authority system, and was responsible for
the colonies’ finances.
The Circumscricoes and Chefes de posto roughly corresponded to the
British provincial and district officers. They collected t axes, were judges
and finance officers. African chiefs were subordinate to the European
officers with little power to act on their own. Moreover, they could be
replaced at any time by a higher Portuguese power. The political policy
adopted in Guinea Bissau , São Tomé, Principe, and Cape Verdes,
Portugal’s West African territories was a system of assimilado. The
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94 Nature of Colonial Control – Asia And Africa accorded this status if they met the specific qualifications. Similar to the
French policy of assimilation, the Portuguese West African had to adopt a
European mode of life; speak and read Portuguese fluently; be a Christian;
compete military service; and have a trade or profession. However, only a
small number Portuguese West Afri cans became assimilados because of
the difficulty in achieving this position.
Moreover, the Portuguese did not support education in their colonies.
They built few secondary schools, and almost entirely neglected
elementary education. Most of their emphasis was given to rudimentary
levels of training where Portuguese African students were taught moral
principles and basic Portuguese; making it almost impossible for the
Portuguese African, even if she or he wanted to, to achieve the status of
assimilado.
The Germans :
German African colonial experience was characterized by bloody African
rebellions. However, their harsh treatment resulted in intervention and
direct rule by German government. The German colonialists envisioned a
“New Germany” in Africa in which colonialists would be projected as
members of a superior and enlightened race; while Africans were
projected as inferior, indolent, and destined to be permanent subjects of
Germans. The Germans had a highly centralized administration. At the top
of govern ment was the Emperor. The Emperor was assisted by the
Chancellor, who was assisted by Colonial Officers, who supervised the
administration. At the bottom were the jumbes or subordinate African
staff. These men had been placed in the stead of recognized lea dership.
European Economic and Social Policies in Africa :
The basic principles of the European colonial economic relationship in
Africa were to:
(1) inspire the production and export of African cash crops including
palm produce, groundnuts, cotton, rubbe r, cocoa, coffee and timber;
(2) boost the consumption and increase the import of European
manufactured goods;
(3) ensure that the African colony’s trade, both imports and exports, were
conducted with the metropolitan European country concerned. The
colonialists thus instituted the Colonial Pact which ensured that
African colonies must provide agricultural export products for their
imperial country and buy its manufactured goods in return, even when
they could get better deals elsewhere. This was similar to the
Navigation Acts where the British forced the 13 American colonies to
use only British ships and first trade with the mother country.
To facilitate this process, the colonialists therefore forced Africans to
participate in a monetized market economy. They introduced new
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95 replace the local currencies and barter trade. Railroads were a dominant
component in the imposition of the colonial economic and political
structures. Colonial railways did not link African economies and
production together. They did not link African communities together
either, rather they served the purpose of linking West African producers to
international trade and market place; and also connecting productio n areas
to the African coast. Moreover, railroads meant that larger amounts of
African produced crops could be sent to coast. All equipment used to build
and operate the railroads were manufactured in Europe, and brought little
to no economic growth to Afr ica. It was only used for the production of
African cash crops for the external market. What was more, thousands of
African men were forced to construct these railroads; and many died doing
so.
The key to the development of colonial economies in Africa, wa s the need
to control labor. In the colonies, this labor was forced. There were
basically two types of forced labor in Africa. The first, was peasant labor.
This occurred in most parts of Africa where agriculture was already
mainstay. In East, Central, and South Africa, Africans performed migrant
wage labor on European owned and managed mines and plantations. The
colonial masters also imposed taxation in Africa. By taxing rural produce,
the colonial state could force Africans to farm cash crops. Africans ha d to
sell sustenance crops on the market for cash. Then use cash to pay taxes.
Taxes could be imposed on land, produce, and homes (hut tax). The
requirement to pay tax forced Africans into the colonial labour market.
Check your progress:
1. Describe the na ture of colonial control in Africa.
2. Examine the major countries who colonized Africa.

6.4 NATURE OF COLONIAL CONTROL IN ASIA Several different Western European powers established colonies in Asia
during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Each of t he imperial
powers had its own style of administration, and colonial officers from the
different nations also displayed various attitudes towards their imperial
subjects.
Great Britain :
The British Empire was the largest in the world prior to World War II and
included a number of places in Asia. Those territories include what is now
Oman, Yemen, the United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, Iraq, Jordan, Palestine,
Myanmar (Burma), Sri Lanka (Ceylon), the Maldives, Singapore,
Malaysia (Malaya), Brunei, Sarawak and Nort h Borneo (now part of
Indonesia), Papua New Guinea, and Hong Kong. The crown jewel of all of
Britain's overseas possessions around the world, of course, was India. It
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96 Nature of Colonial Control – Asia And Africa British colonial officers and Brit ish colonists, in general, saw themselves
as exemplars of "fair play," and in theory, at least, all of the crown's
subjects were supposed to be equal before the law, regardless of their race,
religion, or ethnicity. Nonetheless, British colonials held them selves apart
from local people more than other Europeans did, hiring locals as
domestic help, but rarely intermarrying with them. In part, this may have
been due to a transfer of British ideas about the separation of classes to
their overseas colonies.
The British took a paternalistic view of their colonial subjects, feeling a
duty — the "white man's burden," as Rudyard Kipling put it — to
Christianize and civilize the peoples of Asia, Africa, and the New World.
They felt that they had to teach sophisticate d and cultured habits to the
uncivilized people of Asia. In Asia, the story goes, Britain built roads,
railways, and governments, and acquired a national obsession with tea.
This coating of gentility and humanitarianism quickly crumbled, however,
if a conq uered people rose up. Britain ruthlessly put down the Indian
Revolt of 1857 and brutally tortured accused participants in Kenya's Mau
Mau Rebellion (1952 - 1960). Kallie Szczepanski mentions that w hen
famine struck Bengal in 1943, Winston Churchill's gover nment not only
did nothing to feed Bengalis, it actually turned down food aid from the US
and Canada meant for India.
France :
Although France sought an extensive colonial empire in Asia, its defeat in
the Napoleonic Wars left it with just a handful of Asia n territories. Those
included the 20th -century mandates of Lebanon and Syria, and more
especially the key colony of French Indochina — what is now Vietnam,
Laos, and Cambodia.
French attitudes about colonial subjects were, in some ways, quite
different fro m those of their British rivals. Some idealistic French sought
not just to dominate their colonial holdings, but to create a "Greater
France" in which all French subjects around the world truly would be
equal. For example, the North African colony of Alger ia became a
department, or a province, of France, complete with parliamentary
representation. This difference in attitude may be due to France's embrace
of Enlightenment thinking, and to the French Revolution, which had
broken down some of the class barrie rs that still ordered society in Britain.
Nonetheless, French colonizers also felt the "White man's burden" of
bringing so -called civilization and Christianity to barbaric subject peoples.
On a personal level, French colonials were more apt than the Britis h to
marry local women and create a cultural fusion in their colonial societies.
Some French racial theorists such as Gustave Le Bon and Arthur
Gobineau, however, decried this tendency as a corruption of Frenchmen's
innate genetic superiority. As time went on, social pressure increased for
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97 In French Indochina, unlike Algeria, the colonial rulers did not establish
large settlements. French Indochina was an economic colony, meant to
produce a pro fit for the home country. Despite the lack of settlers to
protect, however, France was quick to jump into a bloody war with the
Vietnamese when they resisted a French return after World War II. Today,
small Catholic communities, and some pretty colonial ar chitecture are all
that remains of visible French influence in Southeast Asia according to
Kallie Szczepanski .
The Netherlands :
The Dutch competed and fought for control of the Indian Ocean trade
routes and spice production with the British, through their respective East
India Companies. In the end, the Netherlands lost Sri Lanka to the British,
and in 1662, lost Taiwan (Formosa) to the Chinese, but retained control
over most of the rich spice islands that now make up Indonesia.
For the Dutch, this colonia l enterprise was all about money. There was a
very little pretense of cultural improvement or Christianization of the
heathens — the Dutch wanted profits, plain and simple. As a result, they
showed no qualms about ruthlessly capturing locals and using them as
enslaved laborer on the plantations, or even carrying out a massacre of all
the inhabitants of the Banda Islands to protect their monopoly on the
nutmeg and mace trade.
Portugal :
After Vasco da Gama rounded the southern end of Africa in 1497,
Portugal became the first European power to gain sea access to Asia.
Although the Portuguese were quick to explore and lay claim to various
coastal parts of India, Indonesia, Southeast Asia, and China, its power
faded in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the British , Dutch, and French
were able to push Portugal out of most of its Asian claims. By the 20th
century, what remained was Goa, on the southwest coast of India; East
Timor; and the southern Chinese port at Macau.
Although Portugal was not the most intimidating European imperial
power, it had the most staying power. Goa remained Portuguese until
India annexed it by force in 1961; Macau was Portuguese until 1999 when
the Europeans finally handed it back to China, and East Timor or Timor -
Leste formally became inde pendent only in 2002.
Portuguese rule in Asia was by turns ruthless . One example is when they
began capturing Chinese children to sell into enslavement in Portugal .
They were also careless, and did not spend much for the welfare of the
colonies. Like the French, Portuguese colonists were not opposed to
mixing with local peoples and creating creole populations. Perhaps the
most important characteristic of the Portuguese imperial attitude, however,
was Portugal's stubbornness and refusal to withdraw, even af ter the other
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98 Nature of Colonial Control – Asia And Africa Portuguese imperialism was driven by a sincere desire to spread
Catholicism and make lots of money. It was also inspired by nationalism;
originally, a desire to prove the country's might as it came out from under
Moorish rule, and in later centuries, the proud persistence on holding onto
the colonies as a symbol of past majestic glory.
Check your progress:
1. Discuss the nature of colonial control in Asia.
2. Examine the various colonial powers in Asia.

6.5 SUMMARY Colonialism is the direct and overall domination of one country by another
on the basis of state power being in the hands of a foreign power . The first
objective of colonialism is political domination. Its second objective is to
make possible the e xploitation of the colonized country . Many countries
of Europe had established their colonies outside. Many reasons were
responsible for that. At first, with the Discovery of New Sea -Route, new
places and countries were discovered. After Columbus had disco vered
America, the countries like Spain and Portugal established Colonies in that
country. When Vasco da Gama discovered the sea -route to India, Portugal
had to establish its colonies in that country. Subsequently, France and
England came to establish thei r colonies in India.
Another major factor was economy. Economic Consideration encouraged
colonialism. The countries like England, France, Spain and Portugal
established their colonies and wanted to be rich by bringing money from
those colonies. We should a lso remember that the Industrial Revolution
prompted the countries of Europe to procure raw -materials from outside
for their factories. Since, they had no huge quantity of raw -materials for
their factories; they had no alternative to bring the same from th eir
colonies. This gave rise to Colonialism. There was also the issue of
overpopulation. Some European countries having imperial tendency
wanted to send their Surplus Population outside their countries. That is
why they wanted to have their colonies for a bsorbing surplus population.

6.6 QUESTIONS 1. Analyse the reasons for the growth of Colonialism.
2. Discuss the nature of colonial control in Africa.
3. Examine the features of Colonial control in Asia.
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99 6.7 ADDITIONAL READINGS John King Fairbank (1978). The Cambridge History of China: Late
Ch»ing, 1800 -1911 Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978 -0-521-
22029 -3.
M. Weisner -Hanks, Early Modern Europe 1450 –1789 (Cambridge,
2006)
Barbara Watson Andaya; Leonard Y. Andaya (19 February 2015). A
History of Early Modern Southeast Asia, 1400 -1830. Cambridge
University Press
Comparative Colonization in Asia By Kallie Szczepanski, in
https://www.thoughtco.com/comparative -colonization -in-asia-195268
http://www.wpmss.weebly.com/uploads/4/0/1/9/40195199/715_1.pdf
https://www.historydiscussion.net/world -history/colonialism -in-
different -countries -causes -establishment -and-end-of-colonialism/1866
https://wasscehistorytextbook.com/8 -colonial -rule-in-west-africa/

*****
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100
7
THEORIES AND MECHANISMS OF
IMPERIALISM
Unit Structure
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Background
7.3 Theories of Imperialism
7.4 Phases of I mperialism
7.5 Mechanisms of Imperialism
7.6 Summary
7.7 Questions
7.8 Additional Readings

7.0 OBJEC TIVES  To introduce students to Colonialism and Imperialism.
 To understand the theories of Imperialism.
 To orient learners about the Mechanisms of Imperialism.

7.1 INTRODUCTION When a big country dominates a smaller country, it is known as
Imperialism. Wh en one country controls another country, it is identified as
Imperialism. There is no one standard definition of Imperialism. Some of
the definitions of Imperialism are as follows:
1) Imperialism refers to the process of capitalist development which
leads th e capitalist countries to conquer and dominate pre -capitalist
countries of the world.
2) Imperialism is the system of political control exercised by the
metropolis over the domestic and foreign policy and over the
domestic politics of another polity, which we shall call the periphery
(countries at the margins of the economic hierarchy).
3) The term Imperialism is used to designate the international practices
and relations of the capitalist world during the distinct stage of mature
capitalism that begins in the la st quarter of the 19th century . munotes.in

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101 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) Imperialism is a modern phenomenon and distinctly different from pre -
modern forms of conquests and political domination. In this context four
important characteristic features of Imperialism are:
a) sharp increase in intern ational flow of commodities, men and capital,
b) interdependent set of relations between countries at different levels of
industrial development,
c) advanced and superior technology in imperialist countries, and
competition between advanced capitalist co untries
Check your progress
1. Define Imperialism.
2. Examine some of the features of Imperialism.

7.2 BACKGROUND It is important to distinguish between empires and imperialism. There
were many empires in history but empire in the era of capitalism is
imperialism. What was new about imperialism in the modern era? What
made it different from earlier expansions of empire? In earlier eras the
motive was exaction of tribute. Under capitalism the economies and
societies of the conquered or dominated areas were transformed, adapted
and manipulated to serve the imperatives of capital accumulation in the
imperialist countries placed at the center of the economic hierarchy.
Imperialism can be both formal and informal. Formal imperialism
involves annexation and direc t rule while informal empire means indirect
rule by local elites who are independent legally but politically dependent
on the metropolis. Similarly, there are three broad types of empires which
have either existed in a linear chronology, one succeeding the other, or
also co -existed with each other at a particular historical juncture.
These types are:
1) Trading empires which took the initiative in early conquests but
eventually lost out in the era of industrial capitalism, such as Portugal
and Spain
2) Industrial empires with full -fledged colonies, such as Britain and
France
3) Industrial empires without, or with few, formal colonies, such as
Germany
At the same time, it is important to remember different historical stages
through which capitalist expansi on took place leading to the formation of
empires. The changing nature of imperialism was dependent upon the
stages of capitalist development. Broadly speaking capitalism may be said
to have gone through five stages, mentioned below: munotes.in

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102 Theories And Mechanisms of Imperialism 1) end of 15th to mid 17th Century — rise of commercial capital and
rapid growth of world commerce
2) mid 17th to latter 18th Century — commercial capital ripens into a
dominant economic force
3) late 18th Century to 1870s — the era of industrial capital
4) 1880 to World Wa r I — rise of monopoly capital, division of globe,
etc.
5) Post World War I — socialism, decolonization, rise of multinational
corporations
In this sense stages of imperialism coincide with stages of capitalism
Stage of capitalism Imperial Powers
1) Me rchant capitalism Portugal and Spain
2) Industrial capitalism Britain, France and Netherlands
3) Finance capitalism Britain, USA and Germany
The history of the European colonial empires falls into two overlapping
cycles. The first began in the 15th Century and ended soon after 1800, the
second in the late 18th Century lasting into the twentieth. During the first
cycle America was important as a colony —in the second Africa and Asia
Check your progress
1. Describe the period of Imperialism.
2. Describ e the types of Imperialism.

7.3 THEORIES OF IMPERIALISM The theories of imperialism can be grouped into two broad types,
economic and political. J.A.Hobson, Hilferding, Rosa Luxembourg and
Lenin were the economic proponents and Schumpeter, Fieldhouse,
Gallagher and Robinson were the political proponents.
The Economic Theories:
The economic explanations offered by Hobson, Hilferding, Rosa
Luxembourg and Lenin had a common feature — a political agenda.
Hobson’s purpose was to alert the British public to “the new plutocratic
phenomenon that was hijacking British foreign policy” — to the
expansionist agenda that was extracting a heavy price from the ordinary
people merely to satisfy the financial capitalists who cared for nothing
except maximizing returns on th eir investments. Hilferding was a German
Social Democrat who was Finance Minister and paid with his life for
being anti Nazi. Rosa Luxembourg, born in Poland, was a fiery munotes.in

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103 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) revolutionary Social Democrat leader in Germany. Vladimir Lenin, the
prominent Bolshe vik leader and maker of the Revolution in Russia in
1917, wished to convince the Russian people that World War I was an
imperialist war which they would do best to stay out of.
In Imperialism (1902) Hobson explains imperialism as an outcome of the
capitali st system. The key concept used is underconsumption. Industry
looked for foreign markets as it cannot find domestic markets for its
goods, wages being low. With major industrial powers competing for
foreign markets there was a race for colonies which would serve as captive
markets. Underconsumption also leads to oversaving as domestic
investment does not make sound economic sense when there is little
purchasing power. Here again colonies serve as channels for investment.
Thus Hobson concluded that “..the d ominant directive motive” behind
imperialism “was the demand for markets and for profitable investment by
the exporting and financial classes within each imperialist regime.” He
dismissed other motives as secondary, be it power, pride and prestige or
“trade follows the flag” or the mission of civilizing the natives.
Rudolf Hilferding, in his work, Das Finanzkapital, (Finance Capital)
published in 1910, demonstrated how big banks and financial institutions
in fact control industrial houses in this last stage of capitalism, better
known as finance capitalism. Monopoly capitalists looked to imperialist
expansion as a way of ensuring secure supplies of raw materials, markets
for industrial goods and avenues for investment. As each big European
power was a monopo ly capitalist, economic competition soon became
political rivalry, which in turn escalated into war.
Rosa Luxembourg’s study titled Accumulation of Capital (1913)
highlighted the unequal relationship between the imperial powers and the
colonies. The Europe an powers gained captive markets and secured
profitable avenues for investment. In contrast, the colonies were merely
suppliers of raw materials and foodstuffs.
In Imperialism, The Highest Stage of Capitalism (1916) Lenin argued that
advanced capitalist co untries invest in backward countries because the
limits of profitable domestic investment have been reached. To invest at
home would require development of the economy and better standard of
living for workers, neither of which was in the interest of the c apitalists.
Lenin’s argument was that imperialist interests lay behind the rivalries
between European powers that culminated in World War I. His intention
was overtly political – to expose the capitalist designs and convince the
people of Russia that they should not participate in the War.
Non-economic theories :
Schumpeter’s Imperialism and the Social Classes (1931) broke away from
the leftist paradigm which located imperialism and capitalism on the same
grid. In his scheme, imperialism and capitalism were seen as clearly
separate phenomena. Imperialism was ancient, generated by pre -capitalist
forces which were pre-modern in spirit. In contrast, capitalism was
modern, innovative and productive and did not need control on a territory munotes.in

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104 Theories And Mechanisms of Imperialism in order to prosper. Wher eas the writers on the left saw imperialism as an
economic system, for Schumpeter, “Imperialism is the objectless
disposition on the part of a state to unlimited forcible expansion.”
However, the problem with the usage of a conceptual attribute like
‘disposition’ is that it can not be empirically tested and can, therefore,
never be proved or disproved.
Gallagher and Robinson (Africa and the Victorians) questioned the
common interpretations of modern imperialism on two counts. They
understood the distinctio n between pre 1870 and post 1870 imperialism to
be invalid. Also, imperialism of free trade or informal imperialism was
seen to be as important as formal imperialism. Political expansion was a
function of commercial expansion - “trade with informal control if
possible; trade with rule when necessary.” Gallagher and Robinson’s
explanation of imperialism was different . In their view imperialism was a
process driven by pressures from the peripheries - Asia, Africa and Latin
Africa. The scramble for colonies wa s a preemptive move by European
powers to occupy whatever territory they could in Asia and Africa so as to
keep out rival nations. This view questioned the traditional Eurocentric
explanation of the scramble for colonies in terms of the great conflicts of
European diplomacy or the great thrusts of expansionary financial
capitalism.
Fieldhouse advanced a political explanation for imperialism. The new
imperialism was the extension into the periphery of the political struggle
in Europe. At the centre the balan ce was so nicely adjusted that no major
change in the status or territory of any side was possible. Colonies became
a means out of this impasse. For the British this “impulse” meant
protecting the route to India through Egypt and the Suez Canal which
neces sitated control over the headwaters of the Nile and a predominant
position in North Africa. For the French and Germans the impulse meant
acquiring “places in the sun” to demonstrate national prestige. Fieldhouse
concluded: “In short, the modern empires lac ked rationality and purpose:
they were the chance products of complex historical forces operating over
several centuries and more particularly during the period after 1815.”
Colonialism, according to AJP Taylor, became a “move” in the European
game of balance of power. Doyle uses the term ‘colonialization of the
diplomatic system’ to describe the developments between 1879 and 1890.
Bismarck acquired colonies in the early 1880s in the hope that a colonial
quarrel with England would establish German credibili ty in France. France
had to be compensated with colonies and overseas adventures in lieu of
her loss of Alsace & Lorraine. Competition for colonies led to a rift
between England and Italy and Italy went over to the side of Germany.
To sum up, a whole varie ty of theories and descriptions have been offered
for imperialism and are now accessible with us. These can broadly be
classified into economic and non -economic explanations. The economic
explanation includes the factors pertaining to overproduction and
underconsumption as stated by Hobson, requirements of finance
capitalism as stated by Hilferding, unequal exchange between the imperial munotes.in

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105 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) powers and the colonies as stated by Rosa Luxembourg, and the highest
stage of capitalism which has been described by Lenin. The non -economic
explanations have looked at imperialism as a pre -modern ancient force
according to Schumpeter; or have offered a pericentric view concentrating
on the developments in the colonies rather than the metropolis according
to Gallaghar and Ro binson; or have seen it merely as an expression of
political struggles within Europe as stated by Fieldhouse.
Check your progress
1. Describe the Economic theories of Imperialism.
2. Examine the Non -Economic theories of Imperialism.

7.4 PHASES OF IMPERALI SM Let us examine the development of imperialism through various stages.
Mercantilism :
In 1500 , the Ottoman Empire, China under the Mings and India under the
Mughals were at the same stage of development. They suffered from one
major drawback, however, a nd that was their domination by a centralized
authority which did not provide conditions conducive to intellectual
growth. In contrast, the competition between different European powers
encouraged the introduction of new military techniques. For example, t he
long range armed sailing ship helped the naval powers of the West to
control the sea routes. This increased military power combined with
economic progress to push Europe forward and ahead of other continents.
The growth of trans - Atlantic trade was spe ctacular. It increased eightfold
between 1510 and 1550 and threefold between 1550 and 1610. Trade was
followed by the establishment of the empires and churches and
administrative systems. The Spanish and Portuguese clearly intended their
empires in America to be permanent.
The goods obtained from America were gold, silver, precious metals and
spices as well as ordinary goods like oil, sugar, indigo, tobacco, rice, furs,
timber and new plants like potato and maize. Shipbuilding industry
developed around the major ports of London and Bristol in Britain,
Antwerp in Belgium and Amsterdam in the Netherlands. The Dutch,
French and English soon became keen rivals of the Spanish and
Portuguese. This competition encouraged the progress of the science of
navigation. Improved cartography, navigational tables, the telescope and
the barometer made travel by sea safer. This strengthened Europe’s
technological advantage further.
The discovery of America and of the route to the Indies via the Cape of
Good Hope had great co nsequences for Europe. It liberated Europe from a
confined geographic and mental cell. The medieval horizon was widened
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106 Theories And Mechanisms of Imperialism Discoveries, trade and conquests, which followed them, had practic al
consequences. Every colony or trading centre was a new economic
stimulus. America was a market and American bullion increased the
supply of money circulating in Europe and intensified existing economic
and social developments. The volume of trade with A merica increased.
For four centuries America satisfied the hunger for land among
Europeans. Gold and silver stimulated exploration and conquest and
attracted immigrants, who were followed close on their heels by
missionaries. American colonies were set up by individuals; the state,
patriotism and missionary impulse played little part.
Before 1815 Spain and Portugal were the pre -eminent imperial powers.
Their primacy lay not only in the fact that they were the first discoverers
but that they worked out four of the five models for effective colonization
which were typical of the first colonial empires. Both made huge profits
from their colonies. Portugal had a huge empire in Asia and then in
America and Brazil. Colonial revenues brought in the equivalent of 72 ,000
pound sterling in 1711. This was almost equal to metropolitan taxes. One
special feature of the Portuguese empire was that she made no distinction
between her colonies and the metropolis. No separate colonial department
was set up till 1604.
France, l ike Spain and Portugal, carried out expansion in the Americas –
in the regions of Canada and Latin America. This was undertaken by
individual Frenchmen supported by the Crown with the aim of ensuring
supplies of groceries and increasing naval power. The ta sk of setting up
the empire was carried out by the chartered companies. This worked to the
advantage of the state as it was at a minimum cost. After 1660s the
colonies became royal possessions and royal agents headed the
government. French colonial governm ent was as authoritarian as that of
Spain. France was then an absolute monarchy and ruled colonies without
giving them any constitutional rights. Local administration and law in the
colonies were modeled on those prevailing in France. Her colonial empire
suffered from too much state interference. France made no fiscal profits on
her colonies, in sharp contrast to Portugal. This was despite the fact that
more than two fifths French exports in 1788 were to colonial governments.
By 1789 France lost most of her colonial possessions in America and India
to Britain. The crucial weakness was her inferior naval power.
Some of the Western states developed their colonies in the tropics, in
India, Africa, Latin America and Australia. The Europeans did not settle in
Africa, they were content with slaves, gold dust and ivory. The colonies
were crucial to the British economy, they supplied raw materials and were
markets for metropolitan products. The French minister, Choiseul,
regretted that ‘in the present state of Europe it is colonies, trade and in
consequence sea power, which must determine the balance of power upon
the continent.” Of the five big European powers, France, Britain, Austria,
Russia and Prussia, Britain soon emerged as the leader. She had many
advantages — the first was a developed banking and financial system. Her
geographical location at the westward flank of Europe helped her to
maintain a distance from the continent when she wished. The most munotes.in

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107 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) important factor, which gave Britain an edge, was that it was the first
country to undergo the Industrial Revolution. This enabled it to dominate
Europe and to acquire colonies.
In Bernard Porter’s words, she (Britain) was the first frog to hop out of the
pond. The first empires represented European ambition, determ ination and
ingenuity in using limited resources rather than European predominance
throughout the world. Gradually there was a d ecline . The old colonialism
had its natural limits. Flow of precious metals declined. By the late 18th
Century Spanish and Portu guese power declined and they lost their
colonies. Dutch monopoly on shipping ended. Colonial rivalry between
France and Britain ended in Britain’s preeminence. Britain was now the
world leader in empire, finance and trade. Europe’s conquest of America,
Africa and Asia from the sixteenth century was possible only because of
her mastery of the seas. In this the countries on the Atlantic seaboard,
Portugal, Spain, France, Britain and Holland, had an obvious advantage
because of their geographical location. Eu rope’s domination was
disastrous for other peoples: the indigenous populations in the Americas
were wiped out and twelve million Africans were made slaves between
1500 and 1860. Europe benefited vastly in this era when merchant capital
controlled the world economy. Institutions such as the modern state and
bureaucracy and the scientific revolution in knowledge laid the
foundations of the modern world .
2. Industrial capitalism :
Hobsbawm describes the Industrial Revolution in Britain as that unusual
moment in world history when the world’s economy was built around
Britain; when she was the only world power, the only imperialist, the only
importer, exporter and foreign investor. The description of Britain as the
workshop of the world was literally true in the m iddle of the nineteenth
century when she produced most of its coal, iron and steel. The Industrial
Revolution was followed by the single liberal world economy and the final
penetration of the undeveloped world by capitalism. The early British
industrial ec onomy relied for its expansion on foreign trade. Overseas
markets for products and overseas outlets for capital were crucial. The
cotton industry exported eighty per cent of its output at the end of the
nineteenth century. The iron and steel industry expor ted forty per cent of
its output in the mid nineteenth century.
In return Britain bought specialized local products such as cotton from the
US, wool from Australia, wheat from Argentina, etc. Britain’s trade also
increasingly became greater with the empir e. In cotton Latin America
accounted for thirty five percent of British exports in 1840. After 1873 the
East absorbed over sixty per cent of British cotton exports. Thus there
were sound economic reasons for Britain opposing these areas being
opened up to others. By 1815 Britain had already become the preeminent
world power, combining naval mastery, financial credit, commercial
enterprise and alliance diplomacy. The following decades of British
economic hegemony were accompanied by large -scale improvements in
transport and communications, by the increasingly rapid transfer of munotes.in

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108 Theories And Mechanisms of Imperialism industrial technology from one region to another, and by an immense
increase in manufacturing output, which in turn stimulated the opening of
new areas of agricultural land and raw mate rial sources. The age of
mercantilism was over and with it tariff barriers stood dismantled.
Europe’s military superiority continued. The improvements in the muzzle
loading gun, the introduction of the breechloader, the Gatling guns,
Maxims and light fiel d artillery constituted a veritable firepower
revolution, which the traditional societies could not withstand. The
decisive new technology was the gun, the symbol of European superiority
in the armament factory. As Hilaire Belloc said, “Whatever happens, w e
have got the Maxim gun, and they have not.” In the field of colonial
empires, Britain tolerated no rivals. The empire grew at an average annual
rate of 100,000 square miles between 1815 and 1865. One group of
colonies comprised those acquired for strateg ic and commercial reasons
like Singapore, Aden, Falkland Islands, Hong Kong and Lagos.
A second group was that of settler colonies, such as South Africa, Canada
and Australia. With the spread of industrial capitalism the need grew for
colonies as markets for manufactured goods especially textiles and
suppliers of raw materials such as cotton and foodgrains. The colony
emerged as a subordinate trading partner whose economic surplus was
appropriated through trade based on unequal exchange. This international
division of labour condemned the colony to producing goods of low value
using backward techniques. By the 1860s the other countries like
Germany and United States, were catching up with Britain in
industrialization. In 1870 the figures for share of world industrial
production were 13 percent for Germany and 23 per cent for the United
States.
3. Finance Capitalism :
Stages of capitalism and imperialism could overlap, as in the case of
industrial capitalism and financial capitalism, where one did not replace
the other, it was superimposed on it. The informal empire of trade and
finance was added to the empire of industrial capital. Many major changes
took place in the world economy after 1860. Industrialization spread to
several countries of Europe, the US an d Japan with the result that Britain’s
industrial supremacy in the world came to an end. For Britain this was a
setback. The application of scientific knowledge to industries led to an
intensification of industrialization. Modern chemical industries, the u se of
petroleum as fuel for the internal combustion engine and the use of
electricity for industrial purposes developed during this period. Moreover,
there was further unification of the world market because of revolution in
the means of international tran sport. Capital accumulation on a large scale
took place because of the development of trade and industry at home and
extended exploitation of colonies and semicolonies. This capital was
concentrated in a few hands.
Trusts and cartels emerged and banking c apital merged with industrial
capital. Outlets had to be found for this capital abroad. Significant export munotes.in

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109 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) of capital had been there even before the stage of predominance of finance
capital. By 1850 Britain’s capital exports were 30 million pounds a year.
In 1870 -75 this was 75 million pounds. The income from this came to 50
million pounds, which was reinvested overseas. This financed the trade
with the colonies, wherein huge quantities of raw materials were procured
and equally vast quantities of industria l goods sent out.
By 1914 European nations controlled over 84.4 per cent of the world.
Capital which was concentrated in and channeled through first, the City of
London and then New York, the centres of the international network of
trade and finance.
The metropolitan country also used empire for political and ideological
ends. Jingoistic nationalism and glorification of empire acted to reduce
social divisions in the metropolis. Bipan Chandra notes that the slogan —
‘the sun never sets on the British empire ’ – generated pride among British
workers . Each country justified its empire in different ways – for
example, the “civilizing mission” of the French and the pan – Asianism of
Japan. Between 1870 and 1913 London was the financial and trading hub
of the wor ld. By 1913 Britain had 4000 million pounds worth abroad.
Most international trade was routed through British ships at the turn of the
twentieth century. After World War I , Britain lost this position to the US.
The US became the major dominant capitalist e conomy. She was now the
world’s largest manufacturer, foreign investor, trader and banker and the
US $ became the standard international currency. From the mid -twentieth
century onwards, decolonization gathered pace, as did the rise of
multinational compan ies, international donor agencies and the entire
gamut of mechanisms of international economic influence. This process is
generally known as neo -colonialism
Check your progress
1. Discuss the phase of Mercantilism.
2. Discuss the phase of Finance Capitali sm.

7.5 MECHANISMS OF IMPERIALISM The mechanisms and forms of imperialism are as follows:
1. Conquest and Annexation :
In the early modern times, the Spaniards, the Frenchmen and the British
used to send soldiers to distant lands. They overpowered the native chiefs,
annexed the conquered lands and made them a colony. Outright conquest
and annexation proved to be expensive and burdensome.
2. Spheres of Influence :
With a sphere of influence, a more powerful country will use its power to
develop exclusive rights to resources or other benefits. Spheres of
influence were most often established by a treaty. This was usually munotes.in

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110 Theories And Mechanisms of Imperialism between two controlling nations who agreed not to interfere with the
other’s territory or between a controlling nation and a representative of the
territory. This was usually the precursor to the establishment of a colony
or protectorate.
3. Colonization :
Both Colonialism and Imperialism mean economic and political
domination of the other. As a result, both are hard to differentiate at times.
Yet they ar e two words with totally different meanings. Colonialism is
where one country physically exerts complete control over another
country and Imperialism is formal or informal economic and political
domination of one country over the other. In a nutshell, colo nialism can be
thought of as the practice of domination and imperialism as an idea behind
the practice.
4. Protectorate :
The next type of imperialism is protectorate imperialism. With this type,
the country or a territory will have its own government, but the
government of the country is not making all the decisions. There is
another outside government (a stronger, more powerful one) which is
making decisions for them. Essentially, with protectorate imperialism, you
lose control over your own country, but you are still responsible for
running it. This is different than colony imperialism because, with colony
imperialism, you have no need for your own government. Everything is
managed and handled by the ruling country. Protectorate Imperialism has
happened many times in history. One example would be when Britain
established a protectorate over the Niger River delta. The people in this
area had their own government, but it was controlled by Britain.
5. Concession or Franchise :
When a powerful, ambitious and aggressiv e agency, acquired an exclusive
right to exploit some economic resources, in a "background" region, it was
called a concession or franchise. A group of German bankers and
engineers got a concession to build a long railroad, which later came to be
known as the Bagdad Railway in Turkey.
6. Leasehold :
When the exclusive right to exploit some economic resources was
accompanied with the grant of lease of a stretch of territory and the actual
exercise of political control over it, it was called a leasehold. The Germ an
Empire acquired such leasehold of ninety -nine years over a part of the
Shantung Peninsula in China.
7. Financial or Tariff Control :
Economic imperialism could assume the form of financial or tariff control.
Thus, the powerful nation could take over the com plete charge of the
finances of a weak and backward region, or its tariff system. Before World
War I, the Turkish finances was actually run by the Ottoman Public Debt
Administration, an organization composed of mainly European officials.
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111 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) 8. Extra -territoriali ty:
The right of extra -territoriality was a privilege whereby the Europeans
were subjected the Western law and Western courts of law, even if they
committed crimes in non -European jurisdictions. Thus if a Frenchman
committed an offence in Constantinople, h e was tried by a French or a
European official under French law .
9. The Mandate System :
This was the last form of the new imperialism. It emerged at the Paris
Peace Conference, at the suggestion of General Jan Smut of South Africa.
Most of the former colonie s and other weak and backward regions were
assigned to the League of Nations. The League delegated its authority,
subject to some restrictions, to various states as its agents or
"mandatories." The mandatories had to submit to a League body called the
’Permanent Mandates Commission’ which were annual reports about the
moral and material progress in regions under their control.
Check your progress
1. Define the system of Leasehold.
2. Examine the system of Protectorate.

7.6 SUMMARY Political imperialism ref ers to building of an empire under a powerful
empire through conquest of other countries by military force. Thus a
country, which is militarily, politically and economically powerful,
conquers a less powerful, weaker country. This annexes the weaker one
and makes it a colony. Political control is then established upon her colony
by the mother country, which attempts to impose her political ideologies
and institution upon it. An outstanding example of this kind of imperialism
is of British imperialism in Ind ia.
The Industrial Revolution led to economic imperialism or ’neo -
imperialism.’ In this case, the industrially advanced countries
economically exploit the regions that were rich in raw materials. These
regions are also used as markets for their finished pr oducts and for
investment of surplus capital. This kind of economic imperialism was
imposed by England, France, Italy, Germany, and the U.S.A. upon China.
Though China was politically independent and sovereign under the
Manchu rule, it was economically dom inated by these European and
American countries.

7.7 QUESTIONS 1. Analyse the theories of Imperialism.
2. Discuss the phases of Imperialism.
3. Examine the mechanisms of Imperialism.
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112 Theories And Mechanisms of Imperialism 7.8 ADDITIONAL READINGS  M. Weisner -Hanks, Early Modern Europe 1450 –1789 ( Cambridge,
2006)
 Imperialism - eGyanKoshhttp://egyankosh.ac.in › bitstream › Unit -
17PDF
 Barbara Watson Andaya; Leonard Y. Andaya A History of Early
Modern Southeast Asia, 1400 -1830. Cambridge University Press
 Edward W. Said. Culture and Imperialism. Vintag e Publishers, 1994.
 British Empire" British Empire | historical state, United Kingdom |
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
*****
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113
8
UNIFICATION OF GERMANY AND ITALY
Unit Structure
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Unification of Germany
8.3 Unification of Italy
8.4 Summary
8.5 Questions
8.6 Additional Readings

8.0 OBJECTIVES  To understand the background of unification of Ger many and Italy
 To trace the events leading to the unification of Germany and Italy
 To grasp the role of Bismarck in unification of Germany
 To grasp the role of cavour in unification of Italy

8.1 INTRODUCTION Germany and Italy were in a bad shape s in the first quarter of the
nineteenth century. These nationalities were divided into many petty
states, each under a despot. Most of the kings were controlled by Austria.
Austrian Prime Minister, Metternich mercilessly crushed all attempts at
liberalism and r eform. Besides Austria, England and Denmark had some
impact on German states. The Diet was a body which consisted
representatives from all states. The Diet never worked for the interests of
the masses. The rulers preferred to maintain status -quo. They did not
bother about the unification. The German patriots tried for the unity, but
could not succeed . Prussia was the strongest of the states and patriots
hoped that she would take the reins of unification movement.



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114 Unification of Germany and Italy 8.2 UNIFICATION OF GERMANY 8.2.1 Effects of Napoleon’s Conquest on German States :
Napoleon’s administrative unity, encouraged the forces of nationalism and
unity. He eliminated feudalism and serfdom. However, Napoleon’s defeat
crushed all hopes of patriots. The Peace Settlement at Vienna, turned
Germany into a loose confederation of 39 states, with the Diet. It was
presided over by Austria. All the 39 rulers reintroduced despotism. For a
generation, the states remained stagnant. Sacrifices made by patriots were
forgotten. The reasons were Lack of Un ity among nationalists and
superiority of Austria n military might . The University of Jena served as
the center of radical thought. Austria protested that the university
encouraged revolutionary tendencies. In spite of it, the students formed
secret societi es. To put down the youth, Austria passed the Carlsbad
Decrees in 1819. Committees were appointed to control student and
teacher activities. The press was censored. Suspicious persons were taken
into custody.
8.2.2 The Revolution of 1848 in France :
Growin g displeasure with the political and social order imposed by the
Congress of Vienna led to the outbreak in 1848 of the March Revolution
in the German states. The revolutions of 1848 in the German states, the
opening phase of which was also called the March Revolution, were
primarily part of the Revolutions of 1848 that broke out in many European
countries. They were a series of loosely coordinated political disputes and
rebellions in the states of the German Confederation, including the
Austrian Empire. The revolutions, which aimed German unity,
demonstrated popular discontent with the traditional, largely autocratic
political structure of the 39 independent states of the Confederation that
inherited the German territory of the former Holy Roman Empire. They
demonstrated the common desire for the Zollverein movement.
Frankfurt Parliament 1848 -49:
A national assembly summoned at Frankfurt on May 18, 1848, as a result
of the liberal revolution that swept the German states early in 1848. The
parliament was calle d by a introductory assembly of German liberals in
1848, and its members were elected by direct manhood suffrage. They
represented the entire political spectrum and included the notable German
figures of the time. The president of this parliament was Heinr ich von
Gaggers. Its purpose was to plan political unification of Germany.
Frederick William attempted to substitute a union scheme of his own, but
his efforts were smothered by Austria through the Treaty of Olmutz
(1850), which restored the German Confede ration. The constitution
drafted by the Frankfurt Parliament influenced the North German
Confederation in 1866 .

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115 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) 8.2.3 The Zollverein or Custom s Union:
Different German states had different regulations for trade. Tax collection
posts were set up at borders and interstate trade was taxable. This
arrangement was detrimental to trade. Prussia provided lead ership in
bringing economic unification of German states. Prussia was linked to
foreign countries for trade and commercial activities . These developments
brought in prosperity. It gave rise to a new traders and capitalist class,
which wanted to widen markets. This could be come possible only by a
strong and stable government. This new economic class was ready to
strengthen the governing class. There was also a great intellectual
awakening, which aroused a wave of nationalism and patriotism. People
realized that a strong army was needed to defeat Aust ria. In this task the
king got help from Otto V on Bismarck, the foremost leader of the German
unification.
8.2.4 The Rise of Bismarck:
He was born in 1815 in a noble family of Prussia. After completing
education he joined the civil service, but was dismi ssed due to lack of
discipline. He was no sympath etic to liberals and supported monarchy.
Due to his timely support the king took him into diplomatic service. First
he served in the Diet. There he studied the administration of Austria. Later
he was Prussia n ambassador to Russia and France. He was able to
calculate the weaknesses and strengths of both countries. He made use of
this knowledge and experience in his later career. A majority of the
members of the Parliament were Liberals who favored democratic
republic. They opposed the king and despotism , when he tried to increase
his military strength. Bismarck supported the king wholeheartedly and
assured him that he would put the king’s plan into action. The king
supported all moves of Bismarck in the process of unification.
Bismarck’s Policy of Blood and Iron :
Bismarck had two aims. 1) Prussia should assume the leadership of
German unification. 2) Prussia should not merge her identity into
Germany. Instead Prussia should conquer Germany and propagate
Prussian culture and civilization. He knew that his aims could not be
achieved by peaceful means. Consequently , he initiated the policy of
blood and iron. The policy required that first Prussia should build a strong
army. Secondly all danger of foreign interferenc e in the German question
should be eliminated. Bismarck did not want France, England or Russia to
help Austria. His aim was to isolate Austria. For this purpose he played his
cards tactfully. He offered Prussian help to Russia in 1863 at the Polish
revolt and earned the Czar’s appreciation and assurance of neutrality in
case of a conflict between Austria and Prussia, in future. He then built up
the army, ignoring the opposition. He set about to achieve the aim of
achieving German unification. It could not b e achieved without the
elimination of Austria. But before challenging mighty Austria ’s he fought
a war with Denmark.
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116 Unification of Germany and Italy 8.2.5 War with Denmark 1864:
Bismarck fought a war with Denmark for two motives. He wanted to test
might of Prussian military. Secondly, he wanted to find an opportunity to
wage war against Austria, in the provinces of Schelswig and Holstein.
Both provinces were German, but were governed by the ruler of Denmark.
People of Holstein were German descendants , but in Schelswig there were
many Da nes. According to the treaty signed in 1852, the provinces could
not be annexed by Denmark. lnspite of it, the Danish king declared the
annexation of Schelswig province . At the same time Austria took Holstein.
Bismarck declared war on Denmark. The Danes we re defeated. Prussia
captured Schelswig. Next Bismarck made prepa ration for the war with
Austria.
8.2.6 Austro - Prussian War 1866 (Seven Week War):
The war that followed in 1866 was a resounding Prussian triumph which
radically changed a European politi cal landscape which had remained
virtually the same since the defeat of Napoleon. Many of Prussia’s rival
states had joined Austria and been defeated, and the Empire then turned its
attentions away from Germany in order to restore some of its severely
battered prestige. The ethnic tensions that this move created also became
one of the responsible cause of the World War I. Following are the causes
of this war.
1) The Zollv erein proved beneficial. Austria desired to join it, but
Bismarck refused to let Austria in it.
2) The ruler of a German state Hessel gave a new Constitution, but
people opposed because it was not liberal. Austria supported the
people, while Bismarck sid ed with the ruler of Hessel.
3) Diplomacy of Bismarck brought the war. He wanted to isolate Austria
diplomatically and, built an opposition against it. England favoured
Prussia’s free trade and despised Austria’s reactionary policies.
Bismarck sought the Czar’s admiration by helping him in Polish
revolt. The Czar was already angry on Austria, because she did not
help the Czar during the Crimean war. Napoleon I II the king of
France wanted a war between Austria and Prussia, so that both
countries would bec ome weak and he would get a chance to extend
his empire. Bismarck secured his neutrality. Then he made an
agreement with Italy and promised to support Italians capture Venetia
in return of military aid to Prussia. Thus Bismarck diplomatically
isolated Aust ria.
4) The immediate cause of the war was provided by the dutchy of
Holstein which was under Austria. Bismarck alleged that Austria did
not govern the area properly. The Germans in dutchy had to be
protected and so Bismarck declared war on Austria.
The war lasted for seven weeks. Some provinces helped Austria, but no
European state came to her help. Italian participation divided Austria’s munotes.in

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117 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) forces into two. Within first three days Prussia defeated the provinces and
annexed North Germany. Moltke then moved further. The main battle was
fought at Sadowa on July 3, 1866. Austria fought valiantly, but finally lost
the battle. She lost nearly 40,000 soldiers in the campaign. In France,
Napoleon I II was criticized for not helping Austria. A strong and powerful
Prussia was created after the war.
The Treaty of Prague :
It was the master diplomacy of Bismarck. He kept the terms lenient, or
else France was likely to intervene. The terms of the treaty were –
1. Confederation of German states was abolished; thus endi ng Austria’s
influence in Germany.
2. Austria had to pay war indemnity.
3. Austria had to cede Venetia to Italy and Holstein to Prussia.
4. Prussia annexed German provinces which helped Austria and combined
them into a union.
5. Other states were ke pt independent.
Out of the treaty the North German Confederation was created. Prussian
king became its President. Accordingly , half of the unification process was
done. The war was highly beneficial to Prussia. Her international prestige
increased. Her mi litary supremacy was acknowledged in Europe.
8.2.7 The Franco Prussian War , 1870 -71:
France was ruled at this point by Napoleon III nephew of Napoleon, who
did not have his uncle’s brilliance or military skill. Through a series of
shrewd diplomatic tacti cs Bismarck was able to provoke Napoleo n into
declaring war on Prussia and this seemingly aggressive move on France’s
part kept the other European powers including Britain from joining her
side. It also created a furious anti -French feeling across Germany and
when Bismarck moved Prussia’s armies into position, they were joined
for the first time in history by men from every other German state. The
war was devastating for the French. The large and well trained German
armies won many victories most notably a t Sedan in September 1870 , a
defeat which persuaded Napoleon to quit and live out the last dejected
year of his life in exile in England. The war did not end there nevertheless,
and the French fought on without their Emperor. A war with France was
essential for the unification.
Causes of the war :
1) German states were out of the unification. They had to be persuaded
or conquered. In either effort, there was danger of French
intervention. Bismarck’s diplomacy worked once again. He got
English neutrality by creating bitterness between England and France.
Bismarck persuaded Russia and Italy to remain neutral. Austria had munotes.in

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118 Unification of Germany and Italy become weak and would not help France. These developments
angered Napoleon Ill.
2) Napoleon Ill had failed in his Mexico campaign of 1864. He had lost
his prestige and wanted to revive it by a war against Prussia. He was
frustrated after the Austria Prussia battle, because Prussia had become
strong, against his e xpectations. This created hostility between the
two countries.
3) Napoleon Ill was ambitious. Bismarck had promised him some 88
territory during Austro Prussian war. But he did not keep his word.
The French wanted war to settle the dispute .
4) The imm ediate cause was given by Spain. Both countries interfered in
the Spanish succession issue. In both countries there was public
hatred against each other. Finally war was declared in July 1870.
During the war the 16 states helped Prussia.
The army invaded France. Prussia won many battles and gained large
areas in France. The main battle at Sedan was commanded by Napoleon
III. He was defeated and forced to surrender. The people in Paris
continued to fight for four months. Then they surrendered to Prussia.
Reasons for the defeat of France :
1) The French were over -confident and felt that they would have little
difficulty defeating Prussia. Usually , she was regarded as Europe’s
strongest military power.
2) The French counted on the technical superiority of th eir chassepot rifles
but this advantage was cancelled by Prussian superiority in artillery.
3) The speed of the Prussian mobilization organized brilliantly by von
Moltke caught the French by surprise.
4) The catastrophic defeat at Sedan was as much a psy chological defeat as
a military one. Napoleon III was captured and a French army was
completely defeated. French morale never recovered.
5) France was diplomatically isolated. Bismarck had cleverly made France
appear the aggressor and she received no hel p from any of the other
major powers.
The treaty of Frankfurt was signed according to which France had to
surrender the rich provinces of Alsace and Lorraine. France agreed to pay
a huge war indemnity. A part of German army had to occupy France till
the mo ney was paid. France was declared a republic. The Southern
German States joined Prussia during the war. A compromise was made
and the states agreed to join the German union. Before the end of the
Franco - Prussian war the task of German unification was com pleted on
January 18, 1871. A German empire came into being. The King of Prussia
was declared the king of Germany. The federal government was munotes.in

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119 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) announced. Berlin was made the capital. It was the shrewd diplomacy of
Bismarck which brought about the unificatio n of Germany.

8.3 UNIFICATION OF ITALY A new epoch began, when Napole on Bona parte conquered the kingdoms
of Austrian and French princes. He even annexed the Papal State. He
brought together the city states. Napoleon gave Italy a uniform system of
administ ration. The Italians were influenced by the French ideas of
Liberty, Equality and Fraternity. They were introduced to concepts like
self government and freedom of press. This intensified their sense of
patriotism. After Napoleon’s defeat, the Congress of V ienna was called in
1815 to reorganize the map of Europe. The national sentiments of Italians
were ignored and ‘status quo’ was maintained. Italy was once again
divided as she was before the annexation of Napoleon. Austrian and
French kings captured Italia n states again .
The division of Italy was done accordingly
1) Kingdom of Naples and Sicily under French prince.
2) Lombardy and Venetia which were parts of Austria.
3) Parma, Tuscany, Madena remained under relatives of Austrian King.
4) Papal State under Pope.
5) Piedmont, Sardinia and Savoy, under only Italian dynasty called
House of Savoy.
8.3.1 Events on Piedmont:
The patriots of Italy founded and joined secret societies, to revolt against
despotic kings. Their aim was unity. The most well -known of these was
the Carbonari or charcoal burners. Its origin was in Naples. All
discontented elements joined, it. They wanted to expel foreigners from
Italy. The revolutionary society Carbonari led a revolt in Naples in 1820
against the king Ferdinand I . People asked for a liberal constitution. The
king agreed, but then secretly asked help from Austria. The Austrian army
arrived and suppressed the revolt. While one revolt was put down, another
arose in Piedmont. The king of Piedmont abdicated the throne in favour of
his brother Charles Albert. Again Austria intervened and suppressed the
revolt. The French revolution of 1830 influenced Italian states. There were
revolts in Modena, Papal State and Parma, but Austria crushed all the
uprisings. This convinced the patriots a lesson - that the common enemy in
all states was Austria. It was therefore necessary to get rid off Austria n
influence and suppression .

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120 Unification of Germany and Italy 8.3.2 The Revolutions of 1848 in France :
The revolution of 1848 paved way for rise of nationalist senti ment
throughout the Italian peninsula. There were widespread rebellions in
several Italian cities that year, mostly by the professional classes (such as
doctors, lawyers, shopkeepers) as well as students. Lombardy -Venetia and
Milan tried to rise up against Austrian rule. Although the Kingdom of
Piedmont -Sardinia sent troops to support the revolt, it was crushed by the
Austrians at Custoza in July 1848. The Italian rebellions were
unsuccessful and by 1849 the old regimes were once again in place.
8.3.3 Risor gimento:
There were many revolts in Italy against the prevailing conditions and
thousands of persons were sent to prisons or in exile. They inspired the
deep and wide movement of thought and feeling which became so
important in Italian history that they w ere given the title of II
Risorgimento, the revival or resurrection. The Risorgimento movement
was based on the ideal of a free and united Italy. It got strength from the
Romantic Movement. It reminded the Italians of their greatness in the
past. Political ly, the revival was patriotic and national. It was a protest
against Austrian dominance and a demand for unity. It was liberal and
democratic. There was a demand for parliamentary form of government,
freedom of press and expression , reduction of powers of the church, and
the establishment of a republic. It presented the desires of the middle
classes of Italy to develop themselves economically. It was linked up with
the growth of scientific knowledge . Such a broad movement could not be
assimilated in one sin gle programme. The vision and efforts of persons
like Mazzini came within its scope.
8.3.4 Joseph Mazzini:
He was born in 1805 in Genoa. His father was a professor at the
University of Genoa. In his young days Mazzini became member of the
Carbonari. He vi gorously participated in the revolt of 1830, for which he
was exiled. After his release in 1831, he founded a Society called “Young
Italy”. His aim was to organize the youth to the national movement. He
had immense faith in youth power. He told the young m en to speak to
artisans, labour, workers and farmers, and make them aware of their
rights. He wanted to make Italy a nation. He lost faith in Carbonari way of
action, which led to weak revolts. He aimed at a strong national action.
His nationalistic propag anda broadened the political horizon of the
Italians. The other schools of thought were - Federalists who believed that
Pope should take the leadership.
8.3.5 Count Cavour’s Diplomacy:
An innovative agriculturalist and civil servant in Piedmont (Kingdom of
Sardinia), Cavour (1810 -1861) played a central role in the unification of
Italy. Cavour was liberal and believed in free trade , freedom of opinion,
and secular rule, but he was an enemy of republicans and revolutionaries,
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121 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) Cavour participated in in Parliament debate but is criticized for the
controversial methods he used while Prime Minister, including excessiv e
use of emergency powers, employing friends, bribing some newspapers
while suppressing others, and rigging elections, though these were fairly
common practices for the time. The national debt soared by a factor of six
because of his heavy spending on mode rnizing projects, especially
railways, and building up the army and navy. When Cavour became Prime
Minister Piedmont had just suffered a major defeat by Austria, but when
he died, Victor Immanuel II ruled a state ranked among Europe's great
powers.
8.3.6 Crimean War (1853 -56):
The allied powers of Britain and France asked Piedmont Kingdom to enter
the Crimean war , partially to encourage Austria to enter, which it would
not do unless it was certain that Piedmont ’s troops were not available to
attack Austr ian positions in Italy. Cavour, who hoped that the allies would
support Piedmont's initiative of unification Italy, agreed as soon as his
colleagues' support would allow and entered the war on 10 January 1855.
This was quite late to truly distinguish thems elves militarily, but the
18,000 man contingent earned Piedmont a position at the congress of Paris
that ended the war. Cavour understood the most powerful nation in
northern Italy in the mid -19th century was Austria , who possessed the
large and rich terri tory of Lombardy. Knowing Piedmont -Sardinia could
not defeat the Austrians by themselves, Cavour tried to position Sardinia
in a politically advantageous position by entering the Crimean War on the
side of France, England , and the Ottoman Empire in the mid -1850s.
Meanwhile, Cavour continued to strengthen Piedmont -Sardinia and its
territories from within, building railroads and improving the military .
Cavour grasped the condition of his success cleverly. Piedmont needed
strong allies, to match Austria. He de cided to seek alliance with France.
The French King Napoleon III was a member of Carbonari earlier and was
supposed to be sympathetic toward Italian states. He took a diplomatic
step in 1855 by aiding England and France in the Crimean war . He had no
enmity with Russia, but he wanted to take some interest in international
politics. When Italian troops raised complain ts about the war, he said “out
of this mud of Crimea, a new Italy will be made”. After the war, Cavour
was called to the Paris Peace Conference. He went there and put forward
the problems of Italian states. Napoleon III agreed to help Italy. He met
Cavour and discussed the details. He assured to help Piedmont to drive
Austria from Lombardy and Venetia. In return France would get provinces
Savoy an d Nice. France would continue to hold Naples.
8.3.7 War Against Austria , 1859:
After striking coalition with Napoleon III’s France, Piedmont -Sardinia
provoked Austria to declare war in 1859 . To antagonize Austria, Cavour
deployed troops along the border of Lombardy. Austria asked Piedmont to
withdraw army but Cavour refused. Austria therefore declared war.
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122 Unification of Germany and Italy army to the war to help Cavour. Lombardy was occupied by Sardinia.
When it became clear that Austria would lose Venetia, Napoleon III halted
suddenly and retreated. He signed treaty of Villafranca with Austria.
Cavour was disappointed and resigned. Italians rejected the rulers of
Parma, Modena and Tuscany. In this task they got moral su pport from
England. The British Prime Minister declared that the people had the right
to change their kings. People from the three kingdoms desired to join
Piedmont. This was an important step. Sardinia - Piedmont became a large
and predominant state.
8.3.8 Garibaldi:
Giuseppe Garibaldi was born in Nice in 1807. He was a supporter of
Mazzini and became a member of Young Italy. He participated in a n
unsuccessful revolt against Piedmont . He organized a movement of his
followers called Red Shirts. He returne d back and helped Mazzini, to
abolish the authority of the Pope. French forces came to Pope’s rescue.
Garibaldi lost the battle and fled again to America. He returned to Italy
and spent a farmer’s life in a small island. In 1854 Cavour called him
seeking h is help to complete the unification under the leadership of Victor
Emmanuel, the king of Piedmont. Garibaldi supported republicanism .
Nonetheless, he accepted Emmanuel’s leadership, for the sake of his
country’s unification. The Northern Italian states conducted elections in
1859 and 1860 and voted to join the Kingdom of Piedmont -Sardinia, a
major step towards unification, while Piedmont -Sardinia ceded Savoy and
Nice to France. Giuseppi Garibaldi was instrumental in bringing the
southern Italian states into the unification process. In early 1861 a national
parliament summoned and proclaimed the Kingdom of Italy, with Victor
Emmanuel II as its king .
He led his followers to fight the war against Austria in 1859. In 1860 the
patriots of Sicily rebelled against the French king Francis I. They
requested for Garibaldi’s help. He sailed to the shores of Marsala with
thousand of followers. He occupied the whole of Sicily, in the name of
Victor Emmanuel. After the victory, he entered the main land of Italy, and
reache d Naples. Garibaldi, captured Naples in 1860. He began preparation
for a march on Rome. To Cavour, the situation seemed full of danger.
Rome was under the Pope. It was occupied by a French garrison.
Napoleon III was a Catholic and did not want the Pope to be disturbed.
Cavour understood that an attack on Rome would mean a war with France.
Cavour decided to check Garibaldi’s advance. He wanted to keep
Garibaldi away. He assured to Napoleon III that Rome would not be
attacked, but other areas of Papal st ate w ould be captured by Victor . He
marched on the Papal areas and captured those. People accepted him as
their king. Garibaldi saluted the king, gave him all the areas under him and
retired to his home town. He refused the gifts, Victor offered him. He took
only a bag of potato seeds with him.

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123 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) 8.3.9 Victor Emmanuel Completes the Unification:
Vector Emmanuel was the son of Charles Albert the king of Sardinia -
Piedmont. He was fortunate to get the services of Count Cavour in the task
of unification . He gave fu ll authority to Cavour to direct the course of the
unification. By 1861, all areas except Venetia and Rome were out of the
unification. Venetia was held by Austria and Rome by the Pope, with the
help of French army, Cavour thought that without Rome, there was no
Italy. Over work and extra stress brought his death in 1861. Victor decided
to wait for an appropriate opportunity to conquer the two areas. In 1866, a
war took place between Austria and Prussia. Victor made an alliance with
Prussia that Italy would fight against Austria and in return Prussia would
help Victor to capture Venetia. Prussia won the war and forced Austria to
surrender Venetia to Italy. Rome alone was out of Italy. In 1870 a war
broke between France and Prussia. Napoleon III was compelled to
withdraw French troops, from Rome, to be sent for the war. Victor seized
the opportunity. Italian troops marched towards Rome in September 1870.
Pope retreated into the Vatican. The citizens of, Rome voted for joining
the unification.

8.4 SUMMARY Bismarck dominated German and European affairs from the 18 60s until
1890. In the 1860s he engineered a series of wars that unified the German
states, significantly and deliberately excluding Austria, into a powerful
German Empire under Prussian leadership. On December 10, 1870, the
North German Confederation Reichstag renamed the Confederation as the
German Empire and offered the title of German Emperor to William I, the
King of Prussia. Following the unification of Germany, Bismarck’s
foreign policy as Chance llor of Germany under Emperor William I
secured Germany’s position as a great nation by making alliances,
isolating France by diplomatic means, and avoiding war. The uni fication
of Italy was complete with the acceptance of Victor Emmanuel as the
king. It was due to extensive efforts of Italian patriots. Rome was declared
the capital of United Italy. The long cherished dream realized due to
nationalism of Mazzini, diplomacy of Cavour, sacrifice of Garibaldi and
wisdom of Kong Immanuel.

8.5 QUESTIONS 1) Describe the Austro Prussian war of 1866 and The Franco Prussian
war of 1870 -71.
2) Discuss the process of unification of Germany.
3) Access the role of Bismarck in the unification of Germany.
4) Discuss the events leading to the unification of Italy. munotes.in

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124 Unification of Germany and Italy 5) Describe the background and outcomes of w ar against Austria 1859 in
Italian unification.
6) Explain the role of Cavour in the unification of Germany.

8.6 ADDITIONAL READINGS  Carrie Albrecht. R.A. Diplomatic History of European Since the
congress of Vienna - New York, Harper 1958.
 Hazen Charles, Modern Europe since 1789, S. Chand, 1992.
 Cornell R.D. World History in the Twentieth Century - Longman,
Essex 1999.
 Fay S.B. Origins of the World War 1930 New York - Second Ed. New
York Free Press 1999.
 Grant and Temperley : Europe in 19th & 20th Centuries 19405th Ed.
New York Longman 2005.
 Hayes C.J. H. Contemporary Europe Since 1870 -1955 NewYork
Macmillan
 Lipson E. Europe in the 19th and 20th Centuries – 1916 London.A.H.
Black.
 Lipton Joseph M. The History of Modern Iran: An Interpretation
Harvard University Press 1975.
 Lowe Norman, Mastering Modern World History -4th Ed. 2005 ,
Palgrane Macmillan.
 Taylor’s A.J.P. The struggle for Mastery in Europe (1848 -1918) –
1954 . Oxford.
 Thomson David: Europe Since Napolea n - 1962, Longman.(Indian Ed.
Jain Pushpak Mandir Jaipur 1977)


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125
9
FORMATION OF NATIONAL
IDENTITIES : IRELAND AND BALKANS
Unit Structure
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Causes of the rise of Irish Nationalism
9.3 Rise of Balkan Nation States
9.4 Summary
9.5 Questions
9.6 Additional Readings

9.0 OBJECTIVES  To understand the rise of Irish Nationalism .
 To trace the Formation of National Identities in Ireland .
 To trace the Formation of National Identities in Balkans region .
 To study the role of England, Russia, Austria in the Formation of
National Identities in I reland and Balkans.

9.1 INTRODUCTION The essential cause of the Irish question lay in the fact that Ireland was a
subjugated country, that the Irish were a subject race. Irish uprisings have
been ruthlessly punished, and race hatred has been the consumin g emotion
in Ireland for centuries. The contest has been unequal, owing to the far
greater resources of England during all this time. The result of this stormy
history was that the Irish were a subject people in their own land. It was a
hate-laden atmosphe re which they breathed.

9.2 CAUSES OF THE RISE OF IRISH NATIONALISM The Agricultural issues :
The marks of Irish subjugation were several. As Charles Hazes records,
the Irish did not own the land of Ireland, which had once belonged to their munotes.in

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126 Formation of National Identities: Ireland And Balkans ancestors. The various subjugations by English rulers had been followed
by widespread seizures of the land. These lands were given to the
Englishmen. The Irish became mere tenants that now belonged to others.
The Irish have always regarded themselves as the rightful own ers of the
land in Ireland, have regarded the English landlords as usurpers, and have
wished to recover possession for themselves. Henceforth there has arisen
the agricultural question, a part of the general Irish problem.
The Religious Problems :
The Iris h had long been the sufferers of religious prejudices. At the time of
the Reformation they remained Catholic, while the English separated from
Rome. Attempts to force the Anglican Church upon them only hardened
their hostility. Nonetheless, at the opening of the nineteenth century they
were paying tithes to the Anglican Church Ireland, though they were
themselves ardent Catholics, never entered a Protestant church, and were
supporting their own churches by intentional favors.
The Political status :
The Ir ish did not make the laws which governed them. In 1800 their
separate Parliament in Dublin was abolished, and from 1801 there was
only one Parliament in Great Britain, that in London. While Ireland
henceforth had its quota of representatives in the House o f Commons, it
was never consulted in important decisions. The Irish famine of 1845 -
1847 was a tragic disaster, far -reaching in its effects. The anguish
continued for several years.
The Home Rule Movement :
Irish were demanding Home Rule, an Irish Parliame nt for the managing of
the internal affairs of Ireland. They detested the rule of an English
Parliament and an alien people. They did not wish the separation of
Ireland from England, but they did wish a separate parliament for Irish
affairs. The Bill, thus introduced, provided for an Irish Parliament to sit in
Dublin, controlling a ministry of its own, and legislating on Irish, as
distinguished from imperial affairs. The bill was beaten by 343 votes to
Gladstone dissolved Parliament and appealed to the peop le.
The Third Salisbury Ministry :
In the elections of 1895 the Unionists secured a majority of a hundred and
fifty. They were to remain uninterruptedly in power until December, 1905.
Lord Salisbury became prime minister for the third time. For many years
the Home Rule question dropped into the back ground, the party now in
power being resolutely opposed to the idea of an independent parliament
in Ireland. Q ueen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee, the sixtieth anniversary of
Queen Victoria's accession occurring in 1897 was the occasion of a
remarkable demonstration of the loyalty of the colonies to the Empire, as
well as of the universal respect and affection in which the sovereign was
held. This diamond jubilee was an imposing demonstration of the strength
of the s entiment of union that bound the various sections of the Empire munotes.in

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127 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) together, the advantages accruing to each from the connection with the
others, of the pride of power. Advantage was taken, too, of the presence of
the prime ministers of the various colonies i n London to discuss methods
of drawing the various parts of the Empire more closely together. All these
circumstances gave expression to that "imperialism" which was becoming
an increasing factor in British politics.
The last years of the nineteenth centur y saw a great flowering of the Irish
literature.
Dublin saw the emergence of a brilliant group of poets, playwrights and
novelists like George Moore, J.M. Synge, W.B. Yeats, George Russell and
James Joyce. Meanwhile the Gaelic League (1893) tried to resto re Gaelic
as the first language of the Irish nation and the Gaelic Athletic Association
tried to popularize traditional Irish sports in place of the British. Sinn Fein
played importance after the Easter Rising in Dublin (1916), thereafter it
became the ral lying point for extreme nationalist sentiments, referred to as
Republicanism. The unambiguous demand by Sinn Fein’s leader, Eamon
de Valera, for a united and independent Ireland won the party 73 of the
105 Irish seats in the British Parliament in 1918. Sin n Fein members of
Parliament met in Dublin in January 1919 and declared themselves the
parliament of an Irish republic, setting up a provisional government to
rival.
Thus, t he creation of the Nationalist party Sinn Fein (1905), the spread of
the Home Rule Movement, and the popular nationalist risings (1891 -1921)
under the Irish Republican Army led to the partition of Ireland. Northern
Ireland retained its loyalty to the British crown while the rest of Ireland
declared itself a Republic with a separate const itution.

9.3 RISE OF BALKAN NATION STATES There was a lot of restlessness and discontentment among the Christian
nationalities of the Balkan Peninsula. There was a strong nationalist
movement among the Balkan people encouraged by Russia. Being
defeated in the Crimean War, Tsar Alexander II could only make Russia‘s
influence felt by propagandist policies and by a general support of the Slav
peoples outside Russia. In this way Tsar Alexander II desired to turn the
Slav peoples of the Balkans into satellites of the Russian Empire. The
Austro -Hungarian Empire also began to aspire to expand to the Aegean
Sea through the Balkan Peninsula. Thus, a conflict between Russia and
Austria became inevitable. The Sultan of Turkey did not carry out his
promises of politica l and religious reforms in the interests of his Christian
subjects and the oppression by the Turks on their Christian subjects
increased. These factors led to the rising of the Balkan Christian
nationalities against the oppressive rule of the Ottoman Empir e.
The rising of Balkan nationalities against Turkey were encouraged by rival
powers, Austria and Russia. Austrian interest in the Balkan Peninsula was munotes.in

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128 Formation of National Identities: Ireland And Balkans chiefly due to her desire to recover territories and prestige which she had
lost to Italy and Germany i n the course of their unification. Russia had a
venerable interest in the Balkan Peninsula, which was intensified due to
Austrian interests. The revolts in different regions of the Balkan Peninsula
and the Bulgarian areas south of the Danube attracted the attention of
Austria and Russia.
In 1858, Montenegro , which had already shown strong sympathy for
Russia, had beaten the Turks at Grahovo. However, during the next few
years, her very existence was threatened by Turkey, and Russia came to
the rescue of M ontenegro. R omania, though not a Slav state, was assisted
by Russia to complete her unity in 1861. In 1867 Russia intervened to
remove the Turkish garrison from Belgrade and other Serbian fortresses,
and thus renewed her intimate connection with Serbia. In 1870 Russia
abrogated the Black Sea clauses of the Treaty of Paris (1856), and
announced the restoration of the fortress of Sebastopol and rebuilding of
her navy on the shores of the Black Sea. These factors demonstrated the
revival of the Russian power a nd encouraged the Slav population of the
Balkans to rise against the Turks.
Bosnia and Herzegovina :
The first signs of revolt against the Turks began among the people of
Bosnia and Herzegovina. A bad harvest in 1874 led to the risings in both
Bosnia and H erzegovina, which became formidable in 1875. They were
helped by the people of Serbia and Montenegro. The movement began to
spread and there was the danger of a general conflagration. The Great
Powers were anxious to localize the rising and to remove the c auses of the
rising. A proposal of Count Andrassy, the Foreign Minister of Austria -
Hungary was circulated on 30 December 1875, in which the Turkish rule
in the Balkans was condemned and its shortcomings were pointed out. The
Sultan once again expressed his willingness to introduce reforms.
Nevertheless, the Christian rebel nationalities had no faith in the promises
of the Sultan.
Greece :
The Greeks were the first to rebel against the Ottoman multi -national
empire. The Greek nationalist idea had been disse minated by the end of
the eighteenth century by scholarly and literary groups. Rhigas Pheraios
was earlier nationalist poet who propagated the nationalistic ideas.
‘Society of Friends’ established by Greek in the Crimea in 1814 for
independence movement. I nternational publicity came in the form of the
great European enthusiasm nonetheless the actual support for their
nationalism was provided by Russia. As early as 1770 Russia helped a
rising in the Peloponnese, and by the treaty of Kucuk Kainarca in 1774,
Russia acquired a comprehensive right to represent Orthodox Christians of
the Empire to the Sultan. Further rebellions occurred, but the decisive one
was in 1821, which rapidly spread through the Morea, the Aegean Islands,
Athens, Corinth, Thessaly, and Mac edonia. Independently, an Ottoman
governor, Ali Pasha of Janina was in rebellion against the Sultan and munotes.in

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129 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) extending his control southward into Greece. The Greek nationalists and
Ali Pasha now momentarily collaborated against Turks. The Ottoman
government fir st confronted the dangerously independent Ali Pasha and
executed him in 1822; but they had unwittingly removed the single
political force that could have held the Greek nationalists in check. Its
further attempts at repression of the Greeks provoked a viol ent anti -
Islamic hysteria throughout Europe, and Greek independence was declared
in 1822. The Sultan now summoned the help of his powerful governor of
Egypt, Muhammad (Mehmet) Ali, another of Albanian origin, who was
keen to extend his domain into Greece. Now a typical Balkan situation
developed. Russia put pressure on the Sultan to concede. Britain and
France feared the growth of Russia n influence, independently made war
on Muhammad Ali, and destroyed hls great fleet at the Battle of Navarino
Bay in 1827. The Russian Mediterranean Fleet supplied the Greeks, and
Russia invaded the Ottoman Empire through the Danubian Principalities
(modern Romania) and the Caucasus. Following the Ottoman defeat and
the treaty of Edirne (Adrianople) in 1829, Greek independence was finally
accepted. A Greek kingdom was set up in 1832, but, in order to restrain
Russia, under a German prince who was not Greek Orthodox but Roman
Catholic by religion. In effect, Russia, Austria, Britain, France, the Sultan,
Ali Pasha, and Muhammad A li, all acted simultaneously on Greece.
Austria passively approved of British and French action. They finally
created a Greece which was much smaller than the nationalist dream or
modern Greece, chiefly for fear of Russian influence. For the same reason,
a complete foreigner by religion and nationality was placed on the throne.
Thereafter, in a series of Balkan crises during the next century and a half,
Greece was permitted to expand to her present dimensions. As it
happened, each national state was started off with a minimum territory; it
then expanded or contracted as reward or punishment for the positions
taken in great power conflicts.
Serbia :
The Serbian situation can be compared with other rising states in Balkan
region such as deterioration of Otto man state, regional conflicts between
local rulers and nationalists, Russian patronage. The years 1804 to 1813
witnessed a rising under the leadership of a Karageorge against local
Janissery rule. Typically, the Sultan was not displeased as he himself had
lost control of the Janisseries. The movement itself was minimally
nationalist; and while Karageorge sought help from the great powers, only
Russia came forward with some funding and troops and urged restraint on
the Sultan. Much of the success of the rebe llion was due to the Janissery
revolts and succession crises at Istanbul. In 1813 however, the Ottomans
revived and defeated Karageorge who fled to Hungary, where he was
murdered by his fellow Serbian Milos Obrenovic. In 1815, Milos launched
another revolt , declared himself a Christian Pasha of the Sultan, and in
1817 had himself elected hereditary prince by an assembly of notables.
The Sultan accepted him as a subordinate prince within the Empire. The
beginnings of the Serbian state, later to expand into Y ugoslavia, was due
largely to the collapse of Ottoman rule; the nationalist mobilization and
great power intervention followed. Thus, the inevitable "national munotes.in

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130 Formation of National Identities: Ireland And Balkans awakening" occurred between 1820 and 1870 with the usual historical
researches into past greatnes s, the folklore cult, and Vuk Karadzic's
reform of the literary language and his composition of a Serbian grammar
and dictionary. In the subsequent great power moves, Russia expressed the
keenest interest in a powerful Serbia as a Russian client in the Bal kans. In
the precise context of Serbia, it was Habsburg policy to shore up the
Ottoman Empire even while hoping to detach Croatia, Bosnia, and
Herzegovina. Serbia's own interest was to expand eastward into
Macedonia and southward into Albania, for which r ulers periodically
attempted a Serb -Greek -Bulgarian alliance against the Ottomans. Serbia,
like Greece, was territorially unsatisfied; but unlike Greece, she at least
had a native dynasty, the Obrenovic. The Ottoman power inevitably
receded from Serbia, su ch that by 1867 nothing Ottoman remained there
except the flag in Belgrade. After the Ottoman defeat in the Russo -Turkish
War of 1877 -1878, and by decisions of the Congress of Berlin in 1878,
Serbia finally became independent.
Romania :
Romania was a very important province of the Ottoman Empire. It
consisted of two main segments, Moldavia and Wallachia, also known as
the Danubian Principalities, which were united as Romania only in 1859.
The local religious belief, and taxes continued to rule subject to O ttoman
control. Between 1634 and 1711, a series of Greek princely dynasties
ruled the provinces. During the eighteenth century, the Phanariot Greeks
(wealthy Greeks from the Phanar region of Istanbul) administered the
country after purchasing their office at auctions in Istanbul. But, with the
steady decline of the ottoman center and the advance of Russian power
throughout the eighteenth century, the Principalities effectively passed
under Russian protection, especially from the Russian occupation of 1769.
Now, the usual combination of local nationalism, Russian penetration,
Austrian attempts to check it, and Ottoman balancing of both, provided the
background to the emergence of the Romanian nation. The "national
renaissance" followed in the first half of th e nineteenth century. Romanian
national history was composed by Mihail Kogalniceanu (1840), the editor
of the literary journal Dacia Literara; the romantic literary personality was
Grigore Alexandrescu; the first Romanian newspaper appeared in
Wallachia in 1833, just as the National Theatre in Bucharest . The process
of translating the Holy Scriptures and liturgical texts into Romanian began
in the seventeenth century and was completed in the nineteenth. The
independent Romanina Orthodox Church with its own Patriarch was
created in 1865 with authority over Romanian Orthodox Christian even in
the Austro -Hungaria Empire. As in Bulgaria, this was anti -Greek measure.
The cultural foundations for a political national movement had been laid;
these would now be used by the great powers. Russian influence grew
sharply after the treaty of Kainarca in 1774. The Principalities were under
Russian occupation between 1828 and 1834 when the foundations for a
modern state were laid by the Russian governor, Pave l Kiselev.
Ther eafter, it remained nominally Ottoman territory, but effectively
controlled by Russia. Russia now faced the typical problem with munotes.in

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131 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) promoting a nationalism which was useful against Istanbul but dangerous
to itself. France under Napoleon III supported national movements
everywhere hoping to weaken multi -national empires and gain some
influence in the bargain. After the Crimean setback Russia urged on by
France, and accepted the unification of the Principalities into the new state
of Romania under Alexander Cuza . The aristocracy, deposed him in 1866
and elected a German prince Carol of the Hohenzollern dynasty, as king.
In 1878, after the Congress of Berlin, Romania was declared independent.
Bulgaria :
During the first half of the eighteenth century, there was no movement for
independence. After the Crimean War (1854 -1856), the demands for
independence gathered momentum. G. S. Rakovskii and Lyuben
Karavelov took a lead in this. Russia supported Slavic nationalism; and
Turks also encouraged such nationalism opport unistically against the
Greek. Russia had looked to Serbia as the base for her influence in the
Balkans; hut when Serbia under Prince Milan was roundly defeated by the
Ottomans in a war in 1876, Russia turned in disappointment to Bulgaria.
Russian Panslavi sm whipped up feeling in Russia for the liberation of the
Balkans under Russian leadership; and British public opinion was likewise
instigated by William Gladstone, the liberal politician and prime minister
at various times, against Turkish atrocities duri ng a repression of a
Bulgarian rising in 1875. The result was the Russo -Turkish War of 1877 -
1878 and the creation of an independent Bulgaria. But as in the case of
Greece, suspicion of Russia led to the Congress of Berlin in 1878 creating
a divided Bulgari a, a Bulgaria proper, and a new state with the name of
Eastern Rumelia. And again, they foisted a German prince, Alexander of
Battenberg, on Bulgaria. As always, nationalism had been used but not
fulfilled by the great powers. Indeed it had been deliberate ly perverted by
the creation of an obviously unstable state like Eastern Rumelia. Russia
now demanded concessions in the running of Bulgaria; and, despite her
initial sponsorship of Bulgarian nationalism, objected to the union of
Bulgaria and Eastern Rumel ia. Almost inevitably, Britain supported such a
union, realizing what Russians had always feared, that national states tend
to assert their newly won independence rather than become clients.
Bulgaria expanded and contracted through the Balkan Wars of 1912 -1913;
but during World War I she became ally of Germany and as a
consequence by the treaty of Neuilly, she was reduced in size.

9.4 SUMMARY Ireland was a conquered country by the British. The various subjugations
by English rulers had been followed by wide spread seizures of the land.
They had long been the sufferers of religious prejudices. They detested the
rule of an English Parliament and an alien people. They did not wish the
separation of Ireland from England in earlier phase , but they did wish a
separ ate parliament for Irish affairs . The creation of the Nationalist party
Sinn Fein (1905), the spread of the Home Rule Movement, and the munotes.in

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132 Formation of National Identities: Ireland And Balkans popular nationalist risings (1891 -1921) under the Irish Republican Army
led to independence of Ireland at the cost of partition of the country. There
was a strong nationalist movement among the Balkan people encouraged
by Russia. Tsar Alexander II desired to turn the Slav peoples of the
Balkans into satellites of the Russian Empire . Nonetheless, Balkan
countries achieved in dependence with the pace of time.

9.5 QUESTIONS 1) Examine the Course of formation of national identity of Ireland
2) Trace the course of events that led to the Irelands independence.
3) Review the background of the rising nationalism among the Balkan
region.
4) Describe the formation of the Balkan nations.

9.6 ADDITIONAL READINGS  Hazen Charles, Modern Europe since 1789, S. Chand, 1992.
 Cornell R.D. World History in the Twentieth Century - Longman,
Essex 1999.
 Fay S.B. Origins of the World War 1930 New York - Second Ed. New
York Free Press 1999.
 Grant and Temperley : Europe in 19th & 20th Centuries 19405th Ed.
New York Longman 2005.
 Taylor’s A.J.P. The struggle for Mastery in Europe (1848 -1918) –
1954 . Oxford.
 Thomson David: Europe Since Napolean - 1962, Longman. (Indi an
Ed. Jain Pushpak Mandir Jaipur 1977) .


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10
ARAB NATIONALISM: ZIONIST
MOVEMENT
Unit Structure
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Emergence of Arabs Nations
10.3 The Suez War (1956): Manifestation of Arab Nationalism
10.4 Zionist Movements
10.5 Balfour Declaration
10.6 The Arab -Israeli War (1948)
10.7 Summary
10.8 Questions
10.9 Additional Reading s

10.0 OBJECTIVES  To understand the rise of Arab Nationalism.
 To trace the Zionist Movement.
 To study the background of the Arab -Israeli conflict.
 Complexities of the West Asian politics in re lation to the Arab -Israeli
conflict.

10.1 INTRODUCTION The establishment of a religious community sharing common history in
place of the tribal or blood group had given the great clans of Arabia
effective political and military cohesion. Egypt is the only Arabic -
speaking country in the Middle East which has been effective in inspiring
a local patriotism. A large part of the explanation for this lies in the fact of
having unique national tradition and because of the expedition of
Napoleon; and after the wit hdrawal of the French she remained a
distinguishable political entity, first under the Turks and then under the
British.

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134 Arab Nationalism; Zionist Movement 10.2 EMERGENCE OF ARABS NATIONS After the Treaty of Versailles and the confirmation of mandate over the
territories of the erstwhile Ottomans, the Arabs in various areas resisted
against the British and French which resulted in the formation of Arab
nations in Iraq, Jordon, Syria, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia and Egypt. The
British put down the discontent of Arabs in Iraq in 1920 and announce d
that the British would complete the process in 1932 and declare Iraq as an
independent nation under the kingship of Faisal. In the same way
Abdullah, the son of Hussein ruled Transjordan first as a prince in 1922
and declared independence of Jordon in 19 46. Syria and Lebanon were
under the mandate of France, they began to resist the French rule but
France suppressed them ruthlessly. Syria and Lebanon became
independent after the Second World War In 1932, the British acknowledge
the independence of Saudi A rabia under the kingship of Ibn Saudi. Thus,
all west Asian Arabs including Egypt became independent as Arab nations
There were several stages of Arab nationalism but some the important
stages were as under –
1. During the first phase of the Arab nationa lism it was an idealist
movement because there were only intellectuals involved in it and
they favoured the establishment of constitutional Government for
Arabs. They had liberty and equality as its ideals of the movement.
2. The second phase of the Arab movement was realistic. They put forth
the demands like decentralization and autonomy as the nationalist
approaches of the Arab movement.
3. During the third phase the Arab nationalist movement became
revolutionary. The Arabs prepared themselves to fight for their rights
against the Ottoman rulers. This was the direct result of the Young
Turk Revolution of 1908. Because these Young Turks only
encouraged the Arabs to fight for their rights

10.3 THE SUEZ WAR (1956): MANIFESTATION OF ARAB NATIONALISM As th e Cold War was in progress both the West and the Communist bloc
tried to woo Nasser, the President of Egypt into their respective side.
However, Nasser, who wanted to have best of both worlds decided to keep
equidistance from both and tried to extract maxi mum benefit for his
country. However, in September 1955, when Egypt announced an arms
deal with Czechoslovakia, the West became apprehensive of the
possibility of Egypt aligning with the Communist bloc. Meanwhile in
December 1955, it was announced that the World Bank would provide a
loan of $20 million towards the building of the Aswan High Dam, to add
to an American loan of $56 million and a British contribution of $14
million. The Western loan was conditional, as the West demanded that munotes.in

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135 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) Nasser should break his ties with the communists, a condition that he was
not prepared to meet. This led to the withdrawal of the promised aid by the
United States. The American example was followed by Britain. Crisis
point was reached at climax when Nasser immediately retal iated by
nationalizing the Suez Canal, intending to use the income from it to
finance the dam. Shareholders in the canal, the majority of whom were
British and French, were promised compensation by Nasser. Thus, in one
stroke, Nasser was furthering Egyptia n socialism, Arab nationalism and
the independence of his foreign policy. At the same time, his action was
seen by Britain as an illegal and irresponsible threat to a vital international
waterway and a move of great strategic danger. Nasser, emboldened by his
success and by tacit Russian support, increased his attacks on Israel and in
October formed a joint military command with Syria and Jordan. He also
blocked the Straits of Tiran, thus completing an Egyptian stranglehold on
the northern end of the Red Se a. At this point the French, further angered
by Egyptian support for rebels in Algeria, proposed a plan, whereby Israel
should counter attack in the Sinai peninsula, thus giving the British and
French a reason to reoccupy the Canal zone on the pretext of p rotecting
international waters. The British and the French believed that such an
action would restore the Anglo -French control over the Suez Canal, and
the defeat of Egypt would result in the overthrow of Nasser from power.
The war began with the planned I sraeli invasion of Egypt on 29 October
1956. This was a dazzling success, and within a week the Israelis had
captured the entire Sinai Peninsula. Meanwhile the British and French
dropped bombs on Egyptian airfields and landed troops at Port Said at the
northern end of the canal. The attacks caused criticism from the rest of the
world, and the Americans, who were afraid of upsetting all the Arabs and
forcing them into closer ties with the Soviet Union, refused to support
Britain, although they had earlier hi nted that support would be
forthcoming. At the United Nations, Americans and Russians for once
agreed: they demanded an immediate end of hostilities, and prepared to
send a UN force. With the pressure of world opinion against them, Britain,
France and Isra el agreed to withdraw and end war, while UN troops
moved in to police the frontier between Egypt and Israel. The Suez War
was a complete humiliation for Britain and France, who achieved none of
their aims, and it was a triumph for Nasser. However, the war was not
without success for Israel. Although she had been obliged to hand back all
territory captured from Egypt, she had inflicted heavy losses on the
Egyptians in men and equipment, which would take years to make good.
For the time being the fedayeen rai ds ceased and Israel had a breathing
space to consolidate her victories
Role of PLO:
The bitterness between Israel and her neighbours continued. In 1964 the
Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) was established. Another secret
organization Al Fatah (t he Conquest) was also setup and guerilla groups
made increasing numbers of attacks on Jewish settlements. In Syria
political disturbances brought the Ba'ath party to power in 1966. It
supported al Fatah, the Palestinian Liberation Movement, a more effectiv e
guerrilla force than the fedayeen. In late 1966 the Syrian border became munotes.in

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136 Arab Nationalism; Zionist Movement the scene of bombardments and reprisal raids, and Nasser pledged his
support to Syria in the event of an Israeli invasion. In May 1967, Cairo
Radio announced, “All Egypt is now prep ared to plunge into total war
which will put an end to Israel.” This stirred the Arab nationalism into a
state of high excitement. Nasser called for the withdrawal of the UN
Emergency Force, received promises of support from Saudi Arabia,
Algeria and Iraq, and made a treaty with King Hussein of Jordan. He also
closed the Straits of Tiran. The Arab world followed Nasser’s lead,
expecting to arrive at the end of Arab -Israeli conflict by means of the
eradication of the Jewish homeland. Following these developm ents, Arab
troops massed on the frontiers of Israel.
The Six -Day War of 1967: Test of Arab Unity:
The Arab states had not signed a peace treaty at the end of the 1948 -49
war and were still refusing to give Israel official recognition. In 1967 they
joined together again in a determined attempt to destroy Israel as
independent state. The lead was taken by Iraq, Syria and Egypt in this
venture. Levi Eshkol, the Prime Minister of Israel appointed General
Moshe Dayan, hero of the 1956 Sinai campaign, as Ministe r of Defense.
Preferring attack to defense, Moshe Dayan ordered a surprise attack on the
Egyptian Air Force while it was on the ground, followed by an immediate
assault on all fronts. Deprived of air cover, the Arab forces were rolled
back on all fronts. I n six days, the Israelis occupied the Gaza Strip and the
whole of Sinai Peninsula up to the east bank of the Suez Canal, the rest of
Jerusalem and the West Bank from Jordan, and the Golan Heights from
Syria. By the time that the UN Security Council could a rrange a cease -fire,
the Arabs had suffered a major psychological and military defeat, and the
Israelis were in a position from which they would not retreat without a
guarantee of permanent recognition and security. For the Israelis the Six
Day War was a g reat success. This time they had ignored a UN order to
return the captured territory from the neighbouring Arab states. This
represented as a series of buffer zones between Israel and the Arab states,
and meant that it would be much easier to defend Israel . However, it did
bring a new problem of dealing about a million extra Arabs who now
found themselves under Israeli rule. Many of them were living in the
refugee camps set up in 1948 on the West Bank and in the Gaza Strip.

10.4 ZIONIST MOVEMENTS West Asia consists of Egypt, the Sudan, Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, Iraq,
Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iran, Turkey, the Yemen republics, the United Arab
Emirates and Oman. The population of most of these states, except Turkey
and Iran is made up of Arabs; Iran, though not an Arab state, contains
many Arabs living in the area around the northern end of the Persian Gulf.
The West Asia also contains the small Jewish state of Israel, which was set
up by the United Nations in 1948 in Palestine. The formation of Israel in
Palestine , an area belonging to the Palestinian Arabs, outraged Arab
opinion throughout the world. The Arabs exclusively blamed Britain who, munotes.in

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137 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) they felt, had been more sympathetic to the Jews than to the Arabs.
Besides, they blamed the United States, which had suppor ted the idea of a
Jewish state very strongly. The Arab states refused to recognize Israel as a
independent state and they vowed to destroy it. Although there were four
short wars between Israel and the various Arab states (1948 -9, 1956, 1967
and 1973), Ara b attacks failed, and Israel survived. The Arab wish to
destroy Israel tended for much of the time to overshadow all other
concerns. However, two other themes, which ran through the West Asian
affairs, got mixed up with the anti -Israel struggle: (1) The de sire of some
Arabs to achieve political and economic unity among the Arab states and
(2) The desire of many Arabs to put an end to foreign intervention in their
countries.
West Asia had been the dangerous hotbed of crises and conflicts ever
since the end o f the Second World War. The four wars between Israel and
Arab countries, the direct armed intervention and the continuous
interference of the United States and its NATO allies, the drawn -out Iran -
Iraq war, the aggravation of relations between individual Ar ab countries,
civil wars and sectarian violence all contributed in making the region one
of the world’s bloodiest and most tense areas.
Creation of the State of Israel:
The sources of the Arab -Israeli conflict can be traced to a complex of
interrelated cau ses. The most important of these causes was the creation of
the state of Israel in 1948. The origin of the Arab -Israeli problem goes
back to almost 2000 years. In 71 AD, the Romans had driven out the Jews
from Palestine, which was then their homeland. In f act, small groups of
Jews stayed behind in Palestine, and over the following 1700 years there
was a gradual trickle of Jews returning from exile. Until the end of the
nineteenth century the number of Jews inhabiting Palestine did not make
the Arabs threate ned, who considered Palestine as their homeland, feel
threatened.
Jewish Immigration to Palestine:
1897 some Jews living in Europe established the World Zionist
Organization at Basel in Switzerland. Zionists were people who believed
that Jews ought to be a ble to go back to Palestine and have what they
called 'a national homeland'; in other words, a Jewish state. Jews had been
facing persecution in Russia, France and Germany, and a Jewish state
would provide a safe refuge for Jews from all over the world. Th e problem
was that Palestine was occupied by Arabs, who were alarmed at the
prospect of losing their land to the Jews.

10.5 BALFOUR DECLARATION It was the British who facilitated the creation of a Jewish state in Palestine.
The British Foreign Minister, Arthur Balfour announced in 1917 that
Britain supported the idea of a Jewish national home in Palestine. After munotes.in

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138 Arab Nationalism; Zionist Movement 1919, when Palestine became a British mandate, large numbers of Jews
started to settle in Palestine. The Arabs protested bitterly to the British
plan of creating a national home for the Jews in Palestine. They demanded
an independent Palestine for the Arabs, and an end to the immigration of
Jews into Palestine. Thus, the clash between Zionism’s aims and the
national interests of the Arab people of Palestine was the original cause of
the Arab -Israeli conflict, which remains to this day at its core. The British
did not visualize that their generous offer to create conditions for the
Jewish State in Palestine would embroil West Asia in one of the longe st
conflicts of modern times. The British government stated in 1922 that
there was no intention that the Jews should occupy the whole of Palestine
and that there would be no interference with the rights of the Palestinian
Arabs. The British hoped to encour age Jews and Arabs to live together
peacefully in the same state. However, the British failed to understand the
deep religious gulf between the two.
Proposal for the Division of Palestine :
The immigration of Jews into Palestine greatly increased following the
Nazi persecution of Jews in Germany after 1933. Around, 1940 about half
the population of Palestine was Jewish. As the protest from the Arabs to
the Jewish immigration into Palestine increased, the Peel Commission
appointed by the British government pr oposed the division of Palestine
into two separate states, one Arab and one Jewish. However, the Arabs,
who did not want the presence of Jews in Palestine, rejected the idea. The
British tried again in 1939, offering an independent Arab state within ten
years, and Jewish immigration limited to 10,000 a year. The Jews rejected
this proposal. The Second World War made the condition much worse.
There were thousands of Jewish refugees from Hitler's Europe desperately
looking for somewhere to go. In 1945 the Uni ted States pressurized
Britain to allow 100,000 Jews into Palestine. David Ben Gurion, one of
the Jewish leaders, supported this demand. However, the British refused to
yield to the US pressure, as they did not want to offend the Arabs.
Jewish Attacks agai nst Arabs and the British:
The Jews, who had suffered at the hands of the Nazis, were determined to
fight for their 'national home'. They began a terrorist activities against both
Arabs and British. One of the most remarkable incidents was the blowing
up of the King David Hotel in Jerusalem, which the British were using as
their headquarters. In this terrorist act ninety -one people were killed and
many more injured. The British responded quickly by arresting Jewish
leaders and by turning back ships such as the Exodus, crammed with Jews
intending to enter Palestine.
Declaration of Independent Jewish State:
The British, weakened by the strain of the Second World War, felt unable
to bring about a settlement to the Arab -Jewish conflict in Palestine. Ernest
Bevin, the Labour Foreign Secretary, questioned the United Nations to
deal with the problem, and in November 1947 the UN voted to divide munotes.in

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139 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) Palestine, setting aside roughly half of it to form an independent Jewish
state. Early in 1948 the British decided to wit hdraw from Palestine and let
the UN carry out its own plan. Although fighting was already going on
between Jews and Arabs, the British withdrew all their troops from
Palestine. In May 1948 Ben Gurian declared the independence of the new
state of Israel.

10.6 THE ARAB -ISRAELI WAR (1948) When the formidable coalition of the Arab states declared war on the
newly born state of Israel, most people expected the Arabs to win easily.
However, in spite of overwhelming odds, the Israelis defeated them and
even cap tured more of Palestinian land than the UN partition had given
them. They gained about three -quarters of Palestine plus the Egyptian port
of Eilat on the Red Sea. The Israelis won partly because they fought
desperately, and partly because of lack of unity of Arab states. They were
also divided among themselves and poorly equipped. King Abdullah of
Jordan was more interested in seizing the area of Palestine west of the
River Jordan known as the West Bank, so that he could make it part of his
own state, than in giving it to the Palestinian Arabs. The most tragic
consequence of the war was that the Palestinian Arabs became the
innocent victims who found themselves without a state or a homeland.
Some were in the new Jewish state of Israel, others who lived in th e area
grabbed by King Abdullah, found themselves living in Jordan. Nearly a
million Arabs fled into Egypt, Lebanon, Jordan and Syria where they had
to live in refugee camps in miserable conditions. Jerusalem was divided
between Israel and Jordan. The Unit ed States, Britain and France
guaranteed Israel's frontiers, but the Arab states did not regard the
ceasefire as permanent. They refused to recognize the legality and
independence of Israel, and they regarded this war as only the first round
in the struggl e to destroy Israel and liberate Palestine.

10.4 SUMMARY There was the manifestation of the rise of Arab nationalism. After the
Treaty of Versailles and the confirmation of mandate over the territories of
the erstwhile Ottomans. West Asia had been the dang erous hotbed of
crises and conflicts ever since the end of the Second World War. The
sources of the Arab -Israeli conflict can be traced to a complex of
interrelated causes. The most important of these causes was the creation of
the state of Israel in 1948. The United States, Britain and France
guaranteed Israel's frontiers, but the Arab states did not regard the
ceasefire as permanent. They refused to recognize the legality and
independence of Israel.
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140 Arab Nationalism; Zionist Movement 10.5 QUESTIONS 1. Trace the growth of Arab nationalism .
2. Give an account of the Arab -Israeli wars from 1948 to 1973.
3. Examine the peace process between Egypt and Israel.
4. Discuss the various attempts made towards peace between the Israelis
and Palestinians.

10.6 ADDITIONAL READING S  Story Richard Jap an and The De cline of the West in Asia 1894 -1943,
1979New York City, St. Martin Press. Kirk S.E. A Short History of
the Middle East. New York 1959
 Hayes C.J. H. Contemporary Europe Since 1870 -1955 New York
Macmillan
 Hazen Charles, Modern Europe since 1789, S. Chand, 1992.
 Hayes C.J. H. Contemporary Europe Since 1870 -1955 NewYork
Macmillan
 Lipson E. Europe in the 19th and 20th Centuries – 1916 London.A.H.
Black.
*****
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141
11
NAZISM, FASCISM AND MILITARISM
Unit Structure
11.0 Objectives
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Causes for the rise of Nazism
11.3 Foreign Policy under Nazi rule of Hitler
11.4 Rise of Fascism in Italy
11.5 Foreign Policy under Fascist Rule
11.6 Factors Responsi ble for the rise of Militarism in Japan
11.7 Summary
11.8 Questions
11.9 Additional Reading s

11.0 OBJECTIVES After studying the module the student will be able to
 Understand the factors responsible for the rise of Fascism in Italy .
 Describe the domestic policy of Mussolini .
 The causes for the rise of Nazism in Germany.
 Hitler’s domestic policy.
 Hitler’s foreign policy .
 Rise of Militarism in japan .

11.1 INTRODUCTION After the First World War the democratic government in Europe could not
work properly exc ept Britain and France. The war had devastated these
countries. The European democracies, were based on coalitions with
narrow majorities. This weakened the democratic governments. They were
unable to solve the post war economic problems and provide strong and
stable government. Thus, the post -war Europe witnessed the rise of
dictatorships in various countries. Nazism was a political movement - and
later on a form of government - that developed in Germany in the
1920’s.The Nazis led by the dictator Adolf Hi tler, controlled Germany
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142 Nazism, Fascism And Militarism
11.2 CAUSES FOR THE RISE OF NAZISM The Treaty of Versailles:
The defeat of Germany in World War I and the humiliation that she later
faced, made her want her revenge. The Treaty of Versailles caused a deep
woun d on the minds of the Germans. It was not a matter of choice for
them. Their delegates were not even allowed to participate in the drafting
of the treaty, but were forced to sign it. The entire burden of the war guilt
was placed on her, branding her an agg ressor.
War Indemnity:
By the treaty she was practically stripped of everything she had, and had
to agree to pay a ridiculously high war indemnity. The coal mines of Saar
were given to France for fifteen yews. Germany lost 1/ 6 of her arable
land, 2/5 of h er coal, 2/3 of iron, and 7/10 of her zinc. The war indemnity
was fixed at $33 billion. The Allies knew that she would not be able to pay
this amount even if she borrowed from friendly nations. The Germans not
being in a position to meet all the demands we re only waiting for an
opportunity to revoke the treaty.
Territorial Losses:
The Germany was forced to give up territory. They surrendered Alsace
and Lorraine to France, Malmedy to Belgium northern Schleswig to
Denmark, Posen to Poland, Upper Silesia to C zechoslovakia, and Danzig
was made a free city. All her colonies were taken away and her position in
China she surrendered to Japan.
Incapable Weimar Republic government:
The Germans were not willing to accept the Weimar Republic, which the
Allies had set up for her. The new government was not able to cope with
the problems of inflation, rising prices and unemployment. There were
severe food shortages also. After the Depression of 1929, the Germans lost
their faith in the democratic government and were loo king for someone to
pull them out of their problems.
Economic Conditions:
The economic problems seemed uncontrollable. Inflation was very high
and the German Mark lost all its value. In 1923, France occupied the Rhur
valley because Germany had failed to p ay its indemnity. The value of the
Mark dropped to 40,000 for a dollar. By November 1923, it was quoted as
4,200,000,000,000 marks per dollar.
Limitation on Armed Forces and Armaments:
In their determination to keep Germany down, the Allies had limited
Germany’s armed forces. She was not permitted an Air Force at all. Her munotes.in

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143 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) army was cut down to 100,000 men and the navy to 15,000 men. Factories
producing war materials had to be destroyed. The Rhineland was
demilitarised. Germany complied with all these require ments, but around
her the other countries continued with the production of war materials. It
was but natural that Germany would be upset. The League of Nations
failed to check the race for armaments. The disarmament Conference held
at Washington was not su ccessful. So , Germany secretly started
manufacturing weapons and small battleships. In 1935, Britain permitted
Germany to increase the strength of her navy. It was a typical case of
guilty conscience, since the Allies had not kept to their word of disarmin g
themselves after the war. This gave Hitler an excuse to defy the Treaty of
Versailles.
Policy of Appeasement:
One of the key factors, which gave rise to Hitler’s aggressive nationalism,
was the policy of appeasement, followed by Britain and France. While
Hitler was breaking the Treaty of Versailles clause by clause these
countries did not have the courage to stop him. A joint armed intervention
on their part would have been sufficient but they preferred to remain quiet.
Hitler’s acts of aggression, namely the invasion and annexation of Austria,
Sudetenland and Czechoslovakia remained unchecked.
Growth of Communism:
The German businessmen were worried about the steady growth of
Communism in the country. The number of Communists in the Reichstag
(Parliament ) increased. Hitler had strong anti -Communist views and he
spoke of Germany as a ‘bulwark against a world socialist revolution’. The
German industrialists and businessmen supported him with money, so that
the Nazi troops might help to destroy the trade uni ons etc.
Role of Hitler’s Personality in growth of Nazism:
Hitler was a great orator and he exploited the psychological state of the
Germans to win them over. Through his speeches he played upon the deep
discontent of the people. He promised food, employme nt to thousands
who were unemployed, to fight inflation and so on. His speeches against
the Jews, Germany’s foreign oppressors and the harsh Treaty of
Versailles, secured millions of votes for the Nazi party
Adolf Hitler was born on 20th April 1889, in Aus tria. He developed hatred
towards the Jews as they controlled the financial institutions. He went to
Munich (Germany) in 1912, and when the war broke out in 1914, he
joined the army. He was wounded in the war, and for his bravery he was
given the Iron Cros s. The defeat of Germany and the hardships she faced
caused him great distress. He remained unemployed. I t was at this time his
political career began. In 1919, he formed the German workers party. He
was able to gather around him men like Herman Goering an d Joseph
Goebbels, who became his strong supporters.
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144 Nazism, Fascism And Militarism Mein Kampf: The Propagation of Nazism:
During his prison days he wrote his memoirs called Mein Kampf. This
book contained his deep -rooted prejudices on many issues and it outlined
the programme of the National Socialist Party. It included: (1) Plans for
expanding the German Empire (2) Plans for terminating the Treaty of
Versailles, (3) Equality on armaments. (4) Regaining of colonies. (5) Anti -
Semetism or anti -Jewish Policy. (6) Superiority of the Arya n race, (7)
Removal of German war guilt, (8) Land reforms, (9) Better conditions for
workers, (10) Nationalization of trusts and the like .
Hitler was freed within a ye ar and he turned to reviving his party. The
party was converted into the National Sociali st Party (Nazi Party). The
party adopted the brown shirt as its uniform and the ‘Swastika ’ as its
emblem. Hitler was called the ‘Fuhrer ’. The strength of the party kept
increasing from 7 members in 1919, to 27, 117 in 1925, and to 176, 426 in
1929. In the 1924 general elections, the Nazi Party secured 32 seats and in
1932 230 seats. In January 1933, President Hindenburg invited Hitler to
act as the Chancellor even though the Nazi Party did not have a clear
majority in Parliament. Hitler used his powers to c rush all opposition. On
April 1, the Reichstag voted to give its powers to the Hitler government
for a period of four years. Thus the democratic German Republic formally
came to an end, and was succeeded by the THIRD REICH (Third German
Empire.) This new g overnment was inaugurated with great pomp and
popular support. The press, radio and cinema were used to stir up patriotic
emotions. Hitler used the supreme power given to him in organizing
campaigns against the Jews and Communists.
Taking advantage of the popular enthusiasm for the ‘ New Germany,’
Hitler and his Nazi lieutenants decided to get rid of all possible opposition.
All parties were suppressed and Hitler declared that Germany would have
only a single political party, the Nazi Party. In 1934, Presid ent
Hindenburg died and Hitler took charge of two offices: the President and
the Chancellor. At last by popular will, Adolf Hitler became the sole and
supreme ruler of Germany.
Manifestation of Nazism through Foreign Policy:
Briefly the three goals of Hit ler’s foreign policy were: (1) The union of all
people of German race by the right of self -determination in one great
Germany. (2) The cancellation of the Treaty of Versailles (3) The
acquisition of more territory for the support and settlement of the surp lus
population.
Hitler left the League of Nations and openly sent troops to remilitarize the
Rhineland. Britain was not willing to take action against Germany for her
violation of the treaty of Versailles. France dared not take action against
Germany witho ut the co -operation and collaboration of Britain. This
policy of appeasement only encouraged Hitler to take larger risks .
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145 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) Annexation of Austria:
During the Spanish Civil War, Hitler had learnt all he needed about the
weakness of the Allies. He had found t hat his intervention in the Spanish
problem, had not met with any resistance from the Great Powers. So he
found the courage to embark upon a policy of naked aggression. He turned
his attention to Austria whose union with Germany was prohibited by the
treaty of Versailles. He encouraged Nazi agitation, bullied the Austrian
Chancellor to appoint a Nazi minister in his cabinet. In 1934, when Nazi
agents started a revolt and the Chancellor Dr. Dolfuss was murdered. The
Austrian government was unable to contain the trouble, so Hitler sent the
German army into that country and brought about the ANSCHLUSS
(Union with Germany.)
Annexation of Sudetenland:
After Austria, Hitler turned his attention to Sudetenland where a large
number of Germans were living. He accuse d the Czech government of
oppressing the German minority. The Czech government denied this and
said they had given the Germans all privileges. Hitler refused to accept the
explanation and demanded that Sudetenland be ceded (given) to Germany,
or he would t ake it by force if peaceful means failed. At this point Britain
and France were very concerned. To check the growing ambition of Hitler,
the leaders of France, Britain and Italy signed the MUNICH PACT with
Germany on 8th September 1938. Hitler was allowed to annex
Sudetenland to Germany. This policy of appeasement exposed the
weakness of France and Britain. They were not prepared for another war.
Non-Aggression Pact with U.S.S.R.:
Hitler concluded a non -aggression pact with U.S.S.R. 23rd August 1939
and sec ured Russia’s neutrality. Stalin was angry with Britain and France
because he was ignored at the Munich Pact. He accused western
democracies for encouraging Germany to attack Russia.
Attack on Poland:
Knowing that Hitler would turn his attention to Poland , Britain and France
gave her a guarantee of protection. Hitler put pressure on Poland to return
the city of Danzig. The whole world was shocked at the bullying tactics of
Hitler and his war -mania. Having the backing of Britain and France,
Poland refused H itler’s demands. Hitler then attacked Poland on 1st
September 1939. Britain and France hono ured their promise to protect and
thus the world was drawn into another war.
Fascism:
Rise of Fascism in Italy:
The spirit of national pride and prestige was another factor driving
European nations. People happily bore the burden of maintaining overseas
empires by paying more taxes. Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany followed a
expansionist policy to promote national glory. Democracy could not munotes.in

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146 Nazism, Fascism And Militarism survive for long and it rece ived its first blow in Italy, where Fascism under
Benito Mussolini emerged.
Political causes:
In spite of being a member of the Triple Alliance, Italy had remained
neutral in the first year of the war. Italy changed sides and fought against
Germany and Aus tria-Hungary. But she regretted her actions. She suffered
defeats and hardships during the war. But she did not withdraw from the
war, because she hoped that she would gain territory after it ended. At the
Paris Peace Conference, she was handed over Trenti no and Trieste as
promised. But Italy felt that she deserved more and also asked for German
colonies in Africa and the port of Flume on the Adriatic Sea. Her extra
demands were rejected. There was a general sense of disappointment at
the treatment given to Italy at the Paris Peace Conference. Most felt the
Italy had not been sufficiently compensated for her efforts and sacrifices
during the war. The people wanted the government to make a stronger
demand, and when the delegation returned to Italy, it was jee red at by the
crowds.
Economic Problems:
The post -war conditions in Italy had turned from bad to worse. Poor
before, she was poorer now because of war expenditure. Industry and
trade were disorganized, agriculture was stagnant and in the cities
unemploymen t was increasing. The value of her currency had depreciated
so much that the people were unable to buy the necessities of life. Public
debt had increased due to the war and post -war budgets showed even
bigger deficits. In some of the industrial regions of the north, there were
serious labour strikes.
Failure of the Democratic Government:
Due to so much misery people lost their faith in the democratic
government. Political instability was a common feature. Between 1919
and 1922, there were as many as six c oalition governments. Politicians
were corrupt and the administration was inefficient.
Benito Mussolini: Propagator of Fascism:
Mussolini started as a teacher, then turned into a socialist, and finally
became an Editor of a Socialist newspaper. Because of his revolutionary
activities, he was asked to leave the country. He returned to Italy for
required military training but was soon arrested for revolutionary
activities. Later he became Editor of AVANTI, a newspaper of the Italian
Socialist Party. Mussolin i’s break with the Socialist Party began over the
question of participation in the war. The majority opposed while
Mussolini was in favour of joining. He joined the Italian army and fought
on the battlefront. His army career was cut short because he was wo unded.
He used it to attack the Socialist party, as well as the existing government
for being unable to control the economic unrest and violence. He got the munotes.in

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147 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) support of a large number of ex -soldiers, property owners and young
intellectuals for the new movem ent, which he called FASCISM
Fascist party:
Between 1921 -1922, there was a rapid rise of the Fascist Party and the
opposition groups weakened. Mussolini strongly fought the Communists.
It was this fight together with militant nationalism, which won the hea rts
of the bourgeoisie class, the ex -soldiers, peasants and workers. All these
people were disgusted with the Government and the Communist take -over
of the factories. The Fascist Party had two aims. The first was to restore
the full authority of the govern ment. The second was to encourage Italian
Nationalism.
On October 27 the Prime Minister resigned, and the Fascist army moved
from Naples to Rome. The regular army did not stop them, and King
Victor Emmanuel Ill, without a government had no option but to se nd for
Mussolini and ask him to form the government. Mussolini had hardly
expected that his bluff would bring down a government, but that explains
his popularity with the people.
Fascism: Totalitarian State:
Mussolini realized that his opponents were wait ing to overthrow his
government. So he demanded dictatorial powers for a year to end the
disorder and violence in the country. He then proceeded to extend and
consolidate the Fascist organization throughout the country. (1) Since he
had the power Mussolini began to appoint his loyal supporters to
important positions in the administration. (2) He then concentrated on
establishing his supreme control over the legislature. He passed a new
election law, according to which the party that secured the largest numb er
of votes, automatically got 2/3 of the seats in the Chamber of Deputies
(lower house.) In the 1924 elections the Fascists got a majority of votes
and so they got 2/3 of the seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The
opposition parties were threatened, some o f their leaders were kidnapped
or murdered. By 1928, there was hardly any opposition worth mentioning.
He took other steps to maintain his control over the country. (3) The
municipalities of towns and cities lost their local autonomy. (4) The press
was cen sored. (5) Mussolini became the Supreme Commander of all the
armed forces and he was responsible only to the King. (6) He ruled over
the country with the help of a GRAND COUNCIL. The members of this
Council were all Fascist Party members. They occupied min isterial
positions, drafted laws and discussed national and international issues. (7)
All educational institutions were controlled by the state. The textbooks
glorified the state and preached loyalty to II Duce. Fascist teachers and
professors dominated th e educational institutions. (8) A secret police force
was formed and the death penalty was revived. Thus in all respects Italy
became a totalitarian state.
The machinery of the Fascist Party and that of the Italian State were
closely inter -linked and the supreme manipulator of both was Mussolini.
He was Chairman of the Grand Council and through its military he was munotes.in

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148 Nazism, Fascism And Militarism master of the entire country. He was also Prime Minister of the State
appointing officers, advising the King, drafting laws and much more. Very
few statesmen had exercised such wide and dictatorial powers.

11.5 FOREIGN POLICY UNDER FASCIST RULE The Fascists encouraged population growth, through early marriages and
large families. The purpose of increasing the population was to make Italy
a strong country. All children above the age of six were given military
training. The army and navy were expanded. Mussolini declared the soon
Italy would become a world power and the Mediterranean Sea would
become an Italian lake (Mare Nostrum.) An ever - increasin g population
brought its own problems. Food production was less. Italy was left with no
other option but to establish colonies. Mussolini adopted a vigorous policy
of expansion.
Conquest of Abyssinia (Ethiopia):
But the most spectacular of Mussolini’s achi evements was the conquest of
Ethiopia. He wanted to wipe off the humiliation of Italy’s defeat in 1896.
But the real cause was that Italy needed colonies to improve her prestige
and to find more room and food for her growing population. Mussolini
attacked Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in 1935. The King Haile Selassie appealed
to the League of Nations. The League immediately declared Italy to be the
aggressor. Mussolini however, defied the League, conquered Abyssinia
and proclaimed King Victor Emmanuel III as the Emp eror of Ethiopia in
1936 .
Support to General Military Regime of Franco:
When the Spanish Civil War broke out in 1936, Mussolini looked upon it
as a struggle between Communism and Fascism. He decided to support
General Franco and sent Italian troops to Spai n. He also had selfish
reasons to support General Franco. He realised that a friendly Spain would
be of great help in checking French and British influence over the
Mediterranean region. Then it would be so much easier for Italy to control
that region.
Rom e-Berlin -Tokyo Axis:
After this war Italy drew closer to Germany and further away from France
and Britain. Mussolini came to an understanding with Hitler and they
formed the Rome -Berlin -Tokyo axis in October 1936. A month later
Germany and Japan entered in to the Anti -Commintern Pact against
Russia. Italy also joined this Pact and this gave rise to the Rome -Berlin -
Tokyo Axis.

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149 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) 11.6 MILITARISM IN JAPAN Factors Responsible for the Rise of Militarism in Japan:
There were several factors responsible for the ri se of militarism in Japan.
Some of the important factors were as below.
Military Tradition in Japan:
Japan had strong tradition of militarism with the Emperor as its head of
honour and authority. During the regions of the Heian and the Kamakura
dynasties, the Japanese army occupied the position of importance in the
socio -Political set up of the country. The Emperor conferred the title of
Shogun on Yoritimo, the head of a influential clan. Naturally, the Shoguns
became the supreme commanders in the army of J apanese Emperor, who
dominated politics and administration from sixteenth century to the
twentieth century Japan. Consequently, it helped rise militarism in Japan
to some extent.
Rise and Fall of Party System in Japan:
During the First World War, Germany a nd Russia were defeated and
apparently weaker democratic nations became victorious. This situation
captivated Japanese and led them towards the foundation of Liberal and
party government. The expansionist policies were manifested by the
Twenty one demands and Siberian campaign of Japan were criticized
strongly everywhere. The lowering of military leadership in the war
contributed much to the rise of party system in Japanese politics. In 1918,
Hara Takashi, the leader of political party secured a seat in the lower
House and made him to be Prime Minister of Japan. He selected all
members of his cabinet from his own party and announced several reforms
in the country. But his rule could not last long, because he was
assassinated in 1921and brought two more gover nments to power which
were non -party Cabinets and headed by naval officers namely Admiral
Kato and Viscount Kiyoura. These cabinet generated social and economic
unrest which led Japanese to introduce universal manhood suffrage and
bring to power one more p arty government. The Japanese working class
began to engage itself in forming political parties and trade unions,
consequently, the communist party of Japan came into existence in 1922.
This resulted in the establishment of several proletarian and peasants
parties in Japan.
Political Influence of the Zaibatsu:
In 1920, the political influence of the Zaibatsu class gave birth to large
firms Like Mitsui, Mitsubishi and Yasuda Sumitamo. These firms
controlled one fourth capital of Japan such as finance, bank, insurance
business and enabled them to corrupt members of the ‘Diet’ and political
parties. Due to their influence Japanese politics they always influenced
cabinet decisions in their favours and scrapped the anti -trust Laws and the
Laws regarding the growt h of trade unions. Both politicians and
bureaucrats began to receive donations and bribes from the Zaibatsus munotes.in

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150 Nazism, Fascism And Militarism which obstructed the creation of sound economic foundation for political
and social democratic set up. Due to favourable policies of the successive
governments towards the business interest of the Zaibatsu, the welfare of
common Japanese was totally neglected. This situation created the
following as 1. Hatred of conservative nationalists against the Zaibatsus
support to political parties. 2. Intense struggle between the young military
officers and Zaibatsus. 3. Feeling in the military class that Zaibatsu
prevented the expansion of army and navy. 4. Dislike in radical army
officers about Zaibasus economic independence and aristocratic status. 5.
Public opinion extremely hostile towards the politicians, bureaucrats and
the Zaibatsus. Therefore, the Japanese favoured the military to control the
government in Japan and it speeded the rise of militarism in Japan.
Rise of Ultra - Nationalist Groups:
After the Washington Conference of 1921 -22, there emerged several ultra -
nationalist groups, radical societies and terrorist organizations in Japan,
which paved the way for the rise of militarism in Japan. Some of the
important groups were as 1. Gen Yosha 2. The Bl ack Dragon Society. 3.
The Japan National Socialist Party. 4. The State Shintoists 5. The
Sakurakai. Among these groups the first group Gen Yosha was popularly
known as the Sea of Genkai that was founded in 1881 and had three aims
as crossing the sea of Ge nkai means adopting the policy of expansion,
nationalistic dedication to the emperor and the support for the movement
popular rights. Thus, this group favoured the rise of militarism in Japan.
The other groups like the Black Dragon Society and the Japanese
Production Party emphasized on the attainment of national economic self -
sufficiency and equitable distribution of sources of income. They
advocated the expansion in the Japanese empire in the Amur River region
and realization of its empire in the Greater East Asia.
The Manchurian Crisis:
This crisis also contributed to the rise of militarism in Japan. In 1931,
there was a clear split between the Liberal Government in Tokyo and the
military classes. This was further divided into armed clashes by an
explosi on of bomb on the Southern Railroad near Mukden, on the night
18-19 September, 1931. This incident provoked the Japanese armed forces
to control Mukden, the Capital of Manchuria and Later whole Manchuria
on the basis of protecting Japanese people and their property. So,
Manchurian incidence brought military leadership to the forefront in Japan
and led her to enter the age of militarism, giving whole Japanese
administration in the hands armed personnel
Rome -Berlin -Tokyo Axis:
After this war Italy drew closer to Germany and further away from France
and Britain. Mussolini came to an understanding with Hitler and they
formed the Rome -Berlin -Tokyo in October 1936. Within a month
Germany and Japan entered into the Anti -Commintern Pact against
Russia. Italy also jo ined this Pact and this gave rise to the Rome -Berlin -
Tokyo Axis. munotes.in

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151 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) In the Second World War Japan was defeated eventually and Until 1952
she was occupied by allied troops, mostly Americans, under the command
of General MacArthur. For the first three years th e Americans aimed to
make sure that Japan could never again start a war. She was forbidden to
have armed forces and was given a democratic constitution under which
ministers had to be members of the Diet (parliament).

11.7 SUMMARY The defeat of Germany in World I and the humiliation that she later faced,
made her want her revenge. The Treaty of Versailles caused a deep wound
on the minds of the Germans. People saw emancipation in Hitler. He
promised food, employment to thousands who were unemployed, to fig ht
inflation. Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany followed a expansionist policy
to promote national glory. They were soon joined by japan. They formed
the Rome -Berlin -Tokyo in October 1936. It was only after the defeat of
Nazism, Fascism and Militarism that de mocracy emerged in Germany,
Italy and Japan respectively.

11.8 QUESTIONS 1. Analyze the domestic and foreign policy of Mussolini.
2. How and why did Fascism emerge in Italy?
3. Bring out the salient features of Mussolini’s dictatorship.
4. Discuss the reasons fo r the rise of Nazism in Germany. What was the
policy of the Nazi Party ?
5. Describe the rise of Hitler to power in Germany.
6. Examine the domestic and foreign policy that Hitler followed.
Account for the rise of militarism in Japan.
7. Explain the role of the Z aibatsu in the rise of militarism in Japan.

11.9 ADDITIONAL READINGS  Carrie Albrecht. R.A. Diplomatic History of European Since the
congress of Vienna - New York, Harper 1958.
 Hazen Charles, Modern Europe since 1789, S. Chand, 1992.
 Cornell R.D. World His tory in the Twentieth Century - Longman,
Essex 1999.
 Lowe Norman, Mastering Modern World History -4th Ed. 2005,
Palgrane Macmillan. munotes.in

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152 Nazism, Fascism And Militarism  Taylor’s A.J.P. The struggle for Mastery in Europe (1848 -1918) –
1954. Oxford.
 Kennedy MA, A Short History of Japan, North A merican Library
Press 1965
 David M.D. Rise and Growth of Modern Japan - Himalaya Publication
House, Mumbai 1999 .








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12
HUMAN TRAGEDY AND EXISTENTIALISM
Unit Structure
12.0 Objectives
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Loss of Human Lives and Destruction
12.3 Changes in the European Society
12.4 Existentialism
12.5 Tracing Existentialism
12.6 Summary
12.7 Questions
12.8 Additional Readings

12.0 OBJECTIVES After studying the module the student will be able to
 Understand the Loss of Human Lives and Destruction in world war .
 Changes in the European Society .
 The philosophy of Existentialism .
 The contribution of philosophers in Exist entialism .

12.1 INTRODUCTION The World War I had far reaching consequences on the subsequent history
of Europe in particular and world in general. The World War I produced
disastrous consequences in the field of politics, economy and society.
There was gre ater political instability in the war ravaged countries as their
governments were unable to solve the post -war economic and social
problems. This consequently led to the rise of dictatorships in different
countries of Europe. The dictators were to shape th e future course of the
European history leading the world to another major catastrophe. The
chief results of the World War I are the following:


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154 Human Tragedy And Existentialism 12.2 LOSS OF HUMAN LIVES AND DESTRUCTION The World War I caused immeasurable destruction. Approximately ten
million soldiers died as a result of the war - far more than had died in all
the wars during the previous 100 years. About twenty one million men
were wounded. No one knows how many civilians perished of disease,
starvation and other war related causes. Some historians acknowledge that
as many civilians died as soldiers. Belligerent governments had spent
more than £ 40,000,000,000 in pursuit of victory. The cost of devastation
was incalculable. Property destruction in the World War I was greatest in
France an d Belgium. Armies devastated farms and villages as they passed
through them. The war resulted in the destruction of factories, bridges and
railroad tracks. Artillery shells, trenches and chemicals made the land
unproductive along the Western Front.
Damage to European Industry and Trade :
The real issue for the European nations in the post -war years was to
restore Europe to its pre -war position in world trade and industrial
production. For four years Europe had been shut out of world markets and
new competit ors, the United States, Japan and South America had taken
over her markets. The war was followed by a boom in production caused
by the need to rebuild industry and towns, to replace basic consumer
goods which were in short supply. The boom broke in 1921, a nd though
there was a slow improvement up to 1929, the World Trade depression of
1929 -31 hit trade and industry not only in Europe, but all over the world.
In this way , Europe was unable to regain her earlier position in the
international trade and industr ial production which she had enjoyed in the
years before the war. The burden of war debts, the growth of tariffs, the
fall in the prices of raw materials and foodstuffs which hindered the less
developed countries from buying industrial goods, the weakness of
national currencies, the lack of a steady system of international finance,
the decline in demand for the basic industrial products of Europe such as
coal, iron and steel, textile and ships, all these factors kept European
exports of the commodities low and unemployment high. The European
countries had changed from creditor nations to debtor nations. Nations
involved in the war raised amount of the money to pay for the war through
income taxes and other taxes. But large portion of money came from
borrowin g, which created huge debts. Governments borrowed from
citizens by marketing and selling war bonds. The Allies also borrowed
heavily from the United States of America . Additionally, most
governments printed extra money to meet their needs. Nonetheless , the
increased money supply caused severe inflation after the war. The Allies
tried to reduce their debts by demanding compensations from the Central
Powers, especially Germany. Compensations worsened the economic
problems of the defeated countries and did not solve the problems of the
victors.
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155 Human Tragedy And Existentialism 12.3 CHANGES IN THE EUROPEAN SOCIETY The World War I brought huge changes in society. Europe‘s rising
population was checked only briefly by the War, by the influenza
epidemic which followed it and by the further upheav als such as those in
Russia. The rate of increase in population nevertheless slowed down in the
twentieth century. Developing technology, improved nutrition and
advance in medicine facilitated in increasing the standards of living and
better quality of lif e. Many people chose not to continue their old ways of
life after the War. Urban areas developed as peasants settled in cities
instead of returning to farms. Women employed in offices and factories
after men went to war, and they were reluctant to give up their new
independence. Many countries acknowledged the right of vote to women.
In England women over thirty were given the right to give vote in 1918.
The difference between social classes began to blur as a result of the
World War I and society became mo re democratic. The upper classes,
which had customarily governed, lost some of their power and privileges
after the war. Men of all classes had experienced the same danger and
horror in the trenches. Those who had bled and suffered for their country
came t o demand a say to administration of it .
The Second World War like the First, conveyed economic, social and
political changes. In 1945 the most severe economic and social changes
came in central and Eastern Europe, and where many countries underwent
a compl ete economic reorganization under Communist control. The
greatest political changes came in the Asiatic countries of China, India,
Burma, Malaya and Indonesia. World War II produces disastrous results,
unparalleled in the history of mankind.
1) During the five years and ten months of war, it was estimated that
twelve million soldiers were killed in action. Another twenty five
million died due to starvation and disease. About 1,60,000 people died
in Japan because of the atom bombs. Even today the children o f those
who survived the holocaust, suffer from skin diseases and cancer. The
numbers will never be accurate, but this time women and children
figured very high on the death roll.
2) The USA spent nearly 350 billion dollars. The other countries also
spent something like a trillion dollars (i.e. 1,000 billion.) At the end of
the war Europe found itself completely ruined and devastated . Almost
every European State had witnessed heavy bombing. Industries were
destroyed, ports, railways, bridges were destroyed and civilian homes
as well. Every country found itself bankrupt and this affected political
life. European nations came to be influenced by socialist and leftist
ideas due to the capitalistic role world wars . E.g. the Labour
Government came to power in Br itain soon after the war.
3) The war caused sufferings to millions of people all over the world.
Everything was in short supply. There was shortage of foodstuff,
kerosene, building materials etc. Prices shot up and the standard of
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156 Human Tragedy And Existentialism 4) The people of the world were horrified at the moral degeneration of all
humanity. The worst possible cruelties and atrocities on other innocent
human beings were committed in the wars . The Nazi regime had
massacred millions of Jews in the most terrible way. The dropping of
the atom bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki proved that man was
prepared to wipe out his own species. Acts like these showed the depth
of moral degradation.
5) The three great Axis Powers i.e. Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy and
militarist J apan were completely crumpled. Germany was divided into
four zones, and each zone was put under the control of USA, Britain,
France and Soviet Russia respectively. The capital city of Berlin was
also divided into four zones. These zones were placed under f oreign
military control between 1945 -1948. Italy lost all her colonial
possessions. Germany had to pat a war indemnity and Russia got a
hundred million dollars as reparation from Italy . She collapsed
economically and the Marshall Plan helped her to recover . Japan also
lost her entire colonial empire including Korea, Manchuria and Taiwan.
The Allied Forces (SCAP) under General Eisenhower of the USA
occupied her to bring back normalcy . Due to aid of America, all these
three countries under democratic governme nts have staged an
economic recovery.

12.4 EXISTENTIALISM The Second World War had deep impact on the existing philosophical
discourse. The thought that the universe is not a rational and coherent
place, and that human reason is subordinate to emotion bec ame more
dominant. This belief or assumption came to be known as Existentialism.
It refers to the philosophical and literary movement . Jean-Paul Sartre
(1905 –1980) and Albert Camus (1913 –1960) first promoted teen the term
emerged with these and other twent ieth century philosophers such as
Martin Heidegger (1889 -1976) and Simone de Beauvoir (1908 -1986), we
can trace its roots to the religious thinkers, Blaise Pascal (1623 -1662) and
Soren Kierkegaard (1813 -1855). While these "proto -existentialists" did
not us e the term, their philosophical concerns were direct precursors to the
existentialist movement that took shape after World War II. Unlike many
of the other complex viewpoints, existentialism derives from ordinary and
everyday human experiences. Existentia lism basically seeks to explore
the fundamental problems that human beings face during the course of
their lives. Existentialism forces us to ask ourselves life's fundamental
questions: What is base of existence? Why am I here? What does my life
mean? Some thinkers described existentialism as almost difficult to define
as a philosophical process .

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157 Human Tragedy And Existentialism 12.5 TRACING EXISTENTIALISM Existentialism is a movement or trend involving philosophical themes
rather than a comprehensible system of philosophy. Oxford Diction ary
describes it as the theory that humans are free and responsible for their
own actions in a world without meaning. Merriam -Webster describes it as
a chiefly twentieth century philosophical movement embracing diverse
doctrines but centering on analysis o f individual existence in an
unfathomable universe and the plight of the individual who must assume
ultimate responsibility for acts of free will without any certain knowledge
of what is right or wrong or good or bad.
It is possible to trace through the past a number of predecessors who were
not existentialists, but did explore existentialist themes and thereby paved
the way for the creation of existentialism in the twentieth century. Fyodor
Dostoyevsky (1821 -1881), Russian novelists, is also important precursor
of twentieth -century existentialism . The idea that there is no coherent
pattern in life that we can rely upon is prominent theme in it. The third
predecessor was Franz Kafka (1883 -1924), author of Metamorphosis. In
this work , Kafka carries the notion of being born or thrown into a precise
time and place. This is the story of protagonist Gregor Samsa, in his novel
published in 1915. Gregor is isolated from everyone carrying the guilt that
he can no longer work to support his family. He is abused and starved .
She wrote two novels - ‘The Trial ’ and ‘The Castle ’. Most of his works are
highly ambiguous and all his major novels were left uncompleted.
Existentialism found a particular appli cability in World War II, when
Europe was threatened consecutively by material and spiritual devastation.
Kierkegaard (1813 -1855) is Denmark‘s greatest philosopher and a key
figure in the creation of existentialism. He was a philosopher, religious
writer, satirist, psychologist and a literary critic. He was born in wealthy
family in Copenhagen . That permitted him to dedicate his life to the
pursuits of his scholarly interests, distancing himself from everyday man
of his times. Kierkegaard, like many other p hilosophers, questioned the
idea of progress in general, not because it makes people depressed but
because it could make life too stress -free. According to him the technical
progress threatens our life as it distracts us from the real existential issue s.
Kierkegaard surveyed the theme of nervousness in several short books
written under various fictitious name . The Concept of Anxiety, Stages on
Life’s Way and Sickness unto Death. He drew how the Christian must
move from the attitude of atheist to the religio us person, ready to make
any sacrifice for God.
A German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche (1844 -1900) challenged the
foundations of Christianity and traditional morality. His writings on truth,
morality, language, aesthetics, cultural theory, nihilism, powe r,
consciousness and the meaning of existence have exercised a massive
influence on western philosophy and intellectual history. Key existentialist
philosophers after Nietzsche were Martin Heidegger, Jean Paul Sartre,
Simone de Beauvoir and Albert Camus. M artin Heidegger (1889 -1976) is
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158 Human Tragedy And Existentialism century . His thinking contributed to different fields as phenomenology,
existentialism, hermeneutics, political theory, psychology and theology.
Heidegge r‘s existential concerns were questions about how to live
realistically, that is with reliability in a dangerous world.
Heidegger understood that the best opening point for a broad
understanding of being was to consider it from the point of view the
human being; not in an intellectual sense, but a person engaged with his or
her living world. He also explored the implication of our morality, our
place in the world and among other people an individual. He begins his
philosophy with a profound anti -Cartesians that rejects any dualism
regarding mind and body, the distinction between subject and object and
the very language of consciousness, experience and mind.
‘Existentialism and Humanism ’ is a 1946 philosophical contribution by
Sartre. He states that the key d efining concept of existentialism is that the
existence precedes essence. Then he claims that individual must take
responsibili ty for behavior. He defines agony which is related with his
concept of depression. Sartre inscribed his thoughts successfully in
number of literary modes. His plays are richly figurative and serve as a
means of conveying his philosophy. The best known is No Exit (1944).
His first great novel Nausea (1938) describes about the absurdity of
human life. The major fiction written by him is- The Roads to Freedom
trilogy. He composed numerous short stories from an early age one of it
was renowned as a masterwork. Set during the Spanish Civil War, his
story t he Wall focuses on the psychology of three prisoners convicted to
death without tria l and awaiting execution at dawn.
Simone de Beauvoir (1908 -1986) was a French writer, feminist, existential
philosopher, political activist and social theorist. She significant ly
influence d both feminist existentialism and feminist theory. She is well
known for her well -known book, The Second Sex (1949). The book deals
with the treatment of women throughout history and is often regarded as a
major work of feminist philosophy and the starting point of second wave
of feminism. She traced the way women have b een seen. The Ethics of
Ambiguity is her philosophical essay in which she developed existential
ethics that condemned the spirit of seriousnessǁ in which people too
readily identify with certain abstractions at the cost of individual freedom
and responsibi lity.
Albert Camus (1913 -1960) was a French Nobel prize winning author and
philosopher. Although he separated himself from existentialism, Camus
posed one of the twentieth century‘s best known existential questions in
his ‘The Myth of Sisyphus: ’ ―There is only one really serious
philosophical question and that is suicideǁ. In it Sisyphus had to push a
rock up a mountain; upon reaching the top, the rock would roll down
again, leaving Sisyphus to start again. Camus sees Sisyphus as the absurd
hero who lives l ife to the full, hates death and is condemned to a
meaningless task. Thus, Camus introduces his philosophy of absurd ity in
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159 Human Tragedy And Existentialism Maurice Merleau -Ponty (1908 -1961) is another significant and often
unnoticed French existentialist of the period. He bears stro ng influence of
Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger. The constitution of meaning in
human experience was his foremost interest, and he wrote on perception,
art and politics. He articulated his philosophical understandings in writings
on art, literature, li nguistics and politics. He was a major phenomenologist
of the first half of the twentieth century to get involve d extensively with
the sciences and especially with descriptive psychology.
Existentialism in contemporary world :
The message of existentialism, unlike that of obscures and theoretic
philosophical movements, is as simple as can be. It is that every one of us,
as an individual, is responsible - responsible for what we do, responsible
for who we are, and responsible for the way we face and deal accor dingly
with the world, accountable eventually, for the way the world is. It is the
philosophy of no justification. We cannot shift that burden onto God, or
nature, or the ways of the world Existentialism has continued to play an
important role in contempor ary thought in both the continental and
analytical traditions. It introduced a new norm and authenticity for
understanding what it means to be human. The society for phenomenology
and existential philosophy, as well as societies dedicated to Heidegger,
Sartre, Merleau -Ponty, Beauvoir and other existential philosophers,
provides a forum for ongoing work that derives from classical
existentialism, often bringing it into fight with more modern movements
such as structuralism, deconstruction, hermeneutics and f eminism.
Existential ideas have once again become important in the works of
prominent thinkers. The books by Cooper and Alan Schrift advocate that
re-appraisal of existentialism is important in contemporary philosophy. Dr.
Reynolds points out in introducti on to existentialism with a consideration
of how post -structuralists such as Foucault and Derrida extend certain
reflections found in Sartre, Camus and Heidegger.

12.6 SUMMARY The World War I caused immeasurable destruction. Europe was unable to
regain he r earlier position in the international trade and industrial
production which she had enjoyed in the years before the war. Many
people chose not to continue their old ways of life after the War. Urban
areas developed as peasants settled in cities instead o f returning to farms.
Women employed in offices and factories after men went to war, and they
were reluctant to give up their new independence. The dropping of the
atom bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki proved that man was prepared to
wipe out his own specie s. Acts like these showed the depth of moral
degradation. Existentialism is a movement or trend involving
philosophical themes rather than a comprehensible system of philosophy .
The message of existentialism, unlike that of obscures and theoretic
philosoph ical movements, is as simple as can be. It is that every one of us, munotes.in

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160 Human Tragedy And Existentialism as an individual, is responsible - responsible for what we do . It is the
philosophy of no justification .

12.7 QUESTIONS 1. Discuss the Important effects of World War I and II.
2. Elaborate: World wars responsible for great Human Tragedy
3. Describe existentialism and its phase
4. Trace the contribution philosophers in existentialism

12.8 ADDITIONAL READINGS  Hazen Charles, Modern Europe since 1789, S. Chand, 1992.
 Fay S.B. Origins of the World War 1930 New York - Second Ed. New
York Free Press 1999.
 Hayes C.J. H. Contemporary Europe Since 1870 -1955 NewYork
Macmillan
 Lipson E. Europe in the 19th and 20th Centuries – 1916 London.A.H.
Black.
 Lowe Norman, Mastering Modern World History -4th Ed. 2005 ,
Palgran e Macmillan.
 Taylor’s A.J.P. The struggle for Mastery in Europe (1848 -1918) –
1954 . Oxford.
 https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/existentialism/ https://www.merriam -
webster.com/dictionary/existentialism



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161
13
PROCESS OF DECOLONIZATION
AND COLD WAR
Unit Structure
13.0 Objectives
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Factors responsible for decolonization
13.3 British Decolonization
13.4 French Decolonization
13.5 Dutch Decolonization
13.6 Spanish Decolonization
13.7 Cold War: Vietnam, East Timor and Angola
13.8 Summary
13.9 Questions
13.10 Additional Readings

13.0 OBJECTIVES 1. To study the process of decolonization.
2. To understand the various factors that led to the development of free
nations.
3. To study the beg inning of the cold war in decolonized countries.

13.1 INTRODUCTION Decolonization was a process by which the non -self-governing territories
including colonies and protectorates of Western imperial powers gained
independence. The term decolonization came to be used for the emergence
of independence states after the end of the Second World War. At the end
of the Second World War in 1945, the nations of Europe claimed
ownership of vast areas of the rest of the world, particularly in Asia and
Africa. Britain's empire was the largest in area, consisting of India, Burma,
Ceylon, Malaya, enormous tracts of Africa, and many assorted islands and
other territories such as Cyprus, Hong Kong, the West Indies, the
Falklands and Gibraltar.
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162 Process Of Decolonization And Cold War 13.2 FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR DECOLONIZATION Nationalism :
Organized opposition to colonial rule, often referred to as nationalist
movements, emerged at different times and took different forms in
different colonies. Nationalists were people who had a natural desire to get
rid of their f oreign rulers so that they could have a government run by
people of their own nationality. Although the European powers claimed to
have brought the benefits of western civilization to their colonies, there
was a general feeling among colonial peoples that the Europeans, who
took most of the profits from their partnership, were exploiting them. The
development and prosperity of the colonies were being held back in the
interests of Europe and most of the colonial peoples continued to live in
poverty.
Impact o f the Second World War :
The Second World War gave a great stimulus to nationalist movements in
a number of ways. Before the Second World War, colonial peoples
believed it would be impossible to defeat the militarily superior Europeans
by force of arms. How ever, Japanese successes in the early part of the war
showed that it was possible for non -Europeans to defeat European armies.
Japanese forces captured the British territories of Malaya, Singapore,
Hong Kong and Burma, the Dutch East Indies and French Indo -China.
The Second World War weakened the European states, so that in the end,
they were not militarily strong enough to hold on to their empires in the
face of determined struggle for independence. The British were the first to
recognize this, and they re sponded by giving independence to India
(1947). After that, British policy was to delay independence as long as
possible, but to give way when the pressure became irresistible. It was a
further ten years before the Gold Coast became the first British terri tory in
Africa to win independence. As lain Macleod, the British Colonial
Secretary later put it: “We could not possibly have held by force our
territories in Africa; the march of men towards freedom cannot be halted;
it can only be guided.” The French, Du tch, Spanish and Portuguese
reacted differently and seemed determined to hold on to their empires. But
this involved them in costly military campaigns, and eventually they all
had to admit defeat.
International Pressure :
There were international pressures on the colonial powers to initiate the
process of decolonization. The United States being the earliest part of the
British Empire to declare independence as early as in 1776 was hostile to
imperialism. During the Second World War, President Roosevelt made it
clear that he took the Atlantic Charter to apply to all peoples, not just
those taken over by the Germans, He and his successor, Truman,
pressurized the British government to speed up independence for India.
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163 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) decolonization and of the European colonial empires was that any delay in
granting independence to European colonies in Asia and Africa would
encourage the development of communism in those areas. Another
important factor was that t he Americans looked on the newly independent
nations as potential markets into which they could step and establish both
economic and political influence. The United Nations Organization, under
influence of the United States, came out firmly against imperia lism and
demanded a step -by-step programme for decolonization. The Soviet Union
also prompted the process of decolonization by constantly denouncing
imperialism. While putting the European states under pressure, this
encouraged nationalists all over the wo rld to intensify their struggle for
independence.

13.3 BRITISH DECOLONIZATION India :
Indian national movement had begun in an organized manner with the
establishment of the Indian National Congress in 1885. The national
movement proceeded on moderate lines up to 1905 and militant lines up to
1920. From 1920, Mahatma Gandhi became the supreme leader of the
Indian freedom struggle. He used the methods of Satyagraha, non -
cooperation and civil disobedience as weapons of the national movement.
The civil disobedi ence movement in the form of Quit India movement was
resumed in August 1942. Gandhi, Nehru, and thousands of their
supporters were rounded up and imprisoned, and the Indian National
Congress was outlawed. With the help of Subhas Chandra Bose, who had
organ ized a ‘provisional Indian government’ in Burma, the Japanese
promptly intensified military operations along the Burmese -Indian
frontier. Under the provisions of the Indian Independence Act, which
became effective on 15 August 1947, India and Pakistan were established
as independent states within the Commonwealth of Nations, with the right
to withdraw from or remain within the Commonwealth.
Burma :
After establishing full control over Burma by 1885, the British moved the
capital from royal Mandalay to the po rt city of Rangoon in 1886,and
developed it as a sub -station of the British Empire in India. After the end
of the war, the returning British found the AFPFL, led by Aung San, had
nearly monopolized indigenous political power. The AFPFL (Anti -Fascist
People ’s Freedom League) negotiated with Britain to gain Burma’s
independence by 1948.
Ceylon (Sri Lanka):
Ceylon (Sri Lanka) had been a British colony since the last decade of the
eighteenth century. In the nineteenth century Ceylonese nationalist
consciousnes s began to manifest in the social, religious, and educational
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164 Process Of Decolonization And Cold War gathered momentum. Civil disturbances in 1915 and subsequent political
repercussions helped the growth of national political c onsciousness. In
1919 the Ceylon National Congress was formed, uniting Sinhalese and
Tamil organizations. In response to Ceylonese nationalist leaders, who
exerted pressure behind the scenes while cooperating with the war effort --
the British in 1945 appoi nted the Soulbury Constitutional Commission,
which drafted a constitution that gave Ceylon internal self -government,
retaining some imperial safeguards in defense and external affairs. In 1947
the Ceylon Independence Act conferred dominion status on the co lony.
The British granted complete independence to Ceylon on 4 February 1948.
West Indies, Malaya and Cyprus :
Britain's West Indian possessions consisted of a large assortment of
islands in the Caribbean Sea. The largest among them were Jamaica and
Trinida d, and others included Grenada, St Vincent, Barbados, St Lucia,
Antigua, the Seychelles and the Bahamas. In 1962 Britain decided to grant
independence separately to all those islands, which desired to be
independent. Thus, by 1983 all parts of the British West Indies, except a
few tiny islands, had become independent. Jamaica , Trinidad and Tobago
were first to gain independence in 1962, and the islands of St Kitts and
Nevis were the last in 1983. British Guiana became known as Guyana
(1966) and British Hond uras took the name Belize (1981). All of them
became members of the British Commonwealth.
Malaya:
Malaya was liberated from Japanese occupation in 1945, but there were
two problems to be faced before the British were prepared to withdraw.
Malaya was a comp lex area, which was difficult to organize. It consisted
of nine states each ruled by a sultan, two British settlements, Malacca and
Penang, and Singapore, a small island less than a mile from the mainland.
The population of Malaya was multi -racial. The mov e towards
independence was accelerated when the Malay party, under their able
leader Tunku Abdul Rahman, joined forces with the main Chinese and
Indian groups to form the Alliance Party, which won 51 out of the 52 seats
in the 1955 elections. This seemed t o suggest stability and the British were
persuaded to grant full independence in 1957 when Malaya was admitted
to the Commonwealth. Malaya was running well under the leadership of
Tunku Abdul Rahman, and its economy, based on exports of rubber and
tin, was the most prosperous in Southeast Asia. In 1961 when Tunku
Abdul Rahman proposed that Singapore and three other British colonies,
North Borneo (Sabah), Brunei and Sarawak, should join Malaya to form
the Federation of Malaysia, Britain agreed. After a Unite d Nations
investigation team reported that a large majority of the populations
concerned was in favour of the union, the Federation of Malaysia was
officially proclaimed in September 1963. Brunei decided not to join the
proposed federation, and eventually became an independent state within
the Commonwealth (1984). Although Singapore decided to leave the
federation to become an independent republic in 1965, the rest of the
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165 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) The Gold Coast :
The Gold Coast was the first black African state south of the Sahara to win
independence after the Second World War with the new name Ghana
(1957). The nationalist leader, Kwame Nkrumah, who was educated in
London and the USA became the leader of the Convention of People's
Party (CPP) in 1 949 and organized the campaign for independence. There
were boycotts of European goods, violent demonstrations and a general
strike (1950), and Nkrumah and other leaders were imprisoned for a time.
But the British, realizing that he had mass support, soon released him and
agreed to allow a new constitution, which included adult franchise, and an
elected assembly. In the 1951 elections, the first under the new
constitution, the CPP won 34 seats out of 38. Nkrumah was released from
prison, invited to form a g overnment and became Prime Minister in 1952.
This was self -government but not yet full independence. In 1957 Ghana,
as it became known, received full independence.
Nigeria :
Nigeria was the largest of Britain's African colonies, with a population of
over 6 0 million. The leading Nigerian nationalist was Nnamdi Azikiwe,
popularly known to his supporters as 'Zik'. After his return to Nigeria in
1937 he soon gained enormous popular support and prestige. To press for
the independence of Nigeria in 1945 Nnamdi Az ikiwe organized a general
strike. In 1954 a new constitution introduced local assemblies for the three
regions with a federal government in Lagos, the capital. The regions
assumed self -government first and the country as a whole became
independent in 1960.
Tanganyika :
In Tanganyika the nationalist movement was led by the Tanganyika
African National Union (TANU) led by Dr. Julius Nyerere. Harold
Macmillan's government, impressed by Nyerere's ability and sincerity,
granted independence to Tanganyika with blac k majority rule (1961). The
island of Zanzibar was later united with Tanganyika, and the country came
to be known as Tanzania (1964). Nyerere was the President of Tanzania
until his retirement in 1985.
Uganda :
In Uganda independence was delayed for a time by tribal conflicts. The
ruler, known as the Kabaka of the Buganda area objected to the
introduction of democracy. Eventually a solution was found in a federal
constitution, which allowed the Kabaka to retain some powers in Buganda.
Uganda itself became in dependent in 1962 with Dr Milton Obote as Prime
Minister.
Kenya :
Kenya was the most difficult area to deal with because the 66,000 white
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166 Process Of Decolonization And Cold War negotiate with the African nationalist leaders. African impatience burst out
in a campaign of terrorist attacks on European owned farms and on black
workers. It was organized by the Mau Mau secret society, whose members
were mainly from the Kikuyu tribe, who had been deprived of much of
their best land by the white settlers. n Kenya became independent in 1963.
Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesia:
The British introduced new constitutions in Nyasaland and Northern
Rhodesia, which in effect allowed the Africans their own parliaments
(1961 - 62). Both wanted to leave the Federation, which was therefore
terminated in December 1963. This was considered to be a defeat for the
white settlers. The following year Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesia
became fully independent, taking the names Malawi and Zambia.

13.4 FRENCH DECOLONIZATION After England, France had the second largest empire, with territories in
Africa, Indo -China and the West Indies. In addition, Britain and France
still held land in the Middle East taken from Turkey at the end of the First
World War. Britain held Transjordan and Palestine, and France held Syria
Indo -China:
Indo-China was one of the most cherished possessions of the French
empire from 1884 until 1940. Indo -China was into the five territories -
Cochin -China, Tonkin, Annam (these three making up modern Vietnam),
Cambodia and Laos, under a French Governor -General, the colony was
ruled almost entirely for the benefit of the French economy, and to the
advantage of French settlers and a small class of native collaborators.
Resistance to the French sta rted in the 1880’s, but ruthless suppression
crippled all attempts to set up a successful opposition movement until
1930, when Ho Chi Minh formed the Indo -China Communist Party and
provoked widespread uprisings. During the war, the Japanese occupied the
whole area, and resistance to the Japanese was organized by Ho Chi Minh
through the League for Vietnamese Independence (Vietminh). When the
Japanese withdrew in 1945, Ho Chi Minh declared Vietnam independent.
This was unacceptable to the French, and an eight -year armed struggle
began which culminated in the French defeat at Dien Bien Phu in May
1954. The defeat was a humiliating blow for the French and it caused a
political crisis. The government resigned and the new and more liberal
premier Pierre Mendes -France, realizing that public opinion was turning
against the war, decided to withdraw from Indo China.
Tunisia :
In Tunisia the main nationalist group was the New Destour led by Habib
Bourghiba. They had widespread support among both rural and
townspeople who believed independence would improve their living
standards. Bourghiba and other moderate leaders being in prison, the munotes.in

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167 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) guerrilla movement was becoming more left wing and less willing to
negotiate. Being under pressure at the same time in Indo -China and
Morocco, the French realized that they would have to compromise. Under
these circumstances Bourghiba was released from prison and Mendes -
France allowed him to form a government. In March 1956 Tunisia became
fully independent under Bourghiba's leadership.
Moro cco:
The Moroccan case was not very different than that of Tunisia. The
pattern of events in Morocco was remarkably similar. The principal
difference between the Moroccan and Tunisian cases lay in the temper of
the ruler. Muhammad V had shown signs of ally ing himself with the
Istiqlal (Independence) Party at the end of the war. The new trade unions
also played an important role in the Moroccan freedom struggle. The
French deposed Sultan Muhammad V in 1953, and placed the exiled
sultan’s uncle, Muhammad ben Arafa on the throne. This action of the
French provoked violent demonstrations and a guerrilla campaign. Faced
with the prospect of yet another long and expensive anti guerrilla war, the
French decided to relent. In 1955, following the settlement with Tuni sia,
Sultan Muhammad V was brought back and before the end of the year
France had agreed to concede full independence. It took effect on 2 March
1956. Both Tunisia and Morocco became full members of the Arab league
in 1958.
Algeria :
There were over a milli on French settlers, known as colons that controlled
nearly one -third of all the most fertile land in Algeria, taken from the
original Algerian owners during the century before 1940. Encouraged by
the French defeat in Indo -China, a more militant nationalist group was
formed in Algeria. The National Liberation Front (NLF), led by Ben Bella,
launched a guerrilla war towards the end of 1954. The war gradually
escalated as the French sent more troops to Algeria in order to suppress
the guerilla activities of the National Liberation Front. By 1960 the French
had around 700,000 troops engaged in a massive anti -terrorist operation in
Algeria. The war was having profound effects in France itself. In 1958 the
war in Algeria caused the downfall of the French government and brought
an end to the Fourth Republic in France. Unsuccessful talks took place in
Paris, followed by renewed attacks in Algiers, forcing de Gaulle to state
more clearly in November 1960 his eventual intention to emancipate
Algeria. The Evian Accords a lso provided for a referendum, which was
held on 1 July 1962. In this referendum the majority of Algerians voted for
independence. Over the next few months, French settlers emigrated in
large numbers, leaving Algeria under its first independent president,
Ahmed Ben Bella.

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168 Process Of Decolonization And Cold War 13.5 DUTCH DECOLONIZATION Before the second world war , Holland had a huge empire in the East
Indies including the large islands of Sumatra, Java and Celebes, West Irian
(part of the island of New Guinea) and about two -thirds of the island of
Borneo. They also owned some islands in the West Indies, and Surinam on
the mainland of South America, between British and French Guiana.
When the Japanese attacked in 1942, they released Sukarno and others and
allowed them to play a part in the adminis tration of the country, promising
independence when the war was over. After the defeat of Japan in 1945,
Sukarno declared an independent republic of Indonesia. Dutch were under
strong pressure from the UN to reach an agreement with the Indonesian
nationali sts.
Belgian Decolonization :
Belgian control led Congo and Ruanda -Burundi, ended in chaos, violence
and civil war. Increasingly oppressive exploitation of the people of the
Congo Free State caused continued unrest and finally led, early in the
twentieth ce ntury, to international protest. On December 8, 1957, the
Africans participated for the first time in voting for elective places on the
township councils, winning 130 of 170 seats. The Belgians seemed taken
by surprise when widespread rioting broke out in January 1959 in the
capital of the Congo. Belgium then agreed to relinquish the colony. Congo
became independent on 30 June 1960 with Lumumba as Prime Minister
and Joseph Kasavubu, the leader of a rival nationalist group, as President.
Unfortunately after independence the country was plunged into a
disastrous civil war.
Ruanda -Burundi :
The other Belgian territory of Ruanda -Burundi was given independence in
1962 and divided into two states - Rwanda and Burundi, both governed by
members of the Tutsi tribe, as they had been throughout the colonial
period. After independence, both had a very unsettled history of bitter
rivalry and violence between the Tutsis and the Hutus.
Spanish decolonization :
The largest colony of Spain was Spanish Sahara, and there were als o the
small colonies of Spanish Morocco, and Spanish Guinea. A dictator ,
General Franco who ruled Spain from 1939 until 1975, showed little
interest in the colonies. When nationalist movements developed in the
Spanish colonies, General Franco did not resis t long in the case of Spanish
Morocco. Guinea became independent as Equatorial Guinea in 1968. In
the case of Spanish Sahara Franco was reluctant to consider granting
independence because it was an important source of phosphates. Only
after Franco's death in 1975 did the new Spanish government agree to
grant independence to Sahara.
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169 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) Portuguese Decolonization :
Angola and Mozambique: The main Portuguese possessions were in
Africa: the two large areas of Angola and Mozambique, and the small
West African colony of Portuguese Guinea. However, by 1960 the
situation in the Portuguese colonies had considerably changed. The
nationalists were greatly encouraged by the large number of other African
states winning independence. Fighting broke out first in Angola (1961)
where Agostinho Neto's, People's Movement for Angolan Liberation
(MPLA) was the main nationalist movement. Still the Portuguese
government refused to abandon its policy of suppressing nationalist
movements in its colonies. However, the public opinion and ma ny army
officers were sick of the wars, and in 1974 the Salazar dictatorship was
overthrown by a military coup. Soon all three colonies were granted
independence. Guinea, which became independent in September 1974
took the name Guinea -Bissau. Mozambique an d Angola became
independent the following year.
Cold War: Vietnam , East Timor and Angola:
At the Geneva Conference held in July 1954, it was agreed that Vietnam,
Laos and Cambodia should become independent. Unfortunately this was
not the end of the trouble s. Although the French had withdrawn, the
Americans were unwilling to allow the whole of Vietnam to come under
the rule of the communist Ho Chi Minh, and an even bloodier struggle
developed. Vietnam became the victim of a bitter Cold War and the
struggle b etween the communist dominated North Vietnam supported by
the Soviet Union and China and South Vietnam supported by the United
States lasted up to 1976.
Vietnam :
Indo-China, which consisted of three areas, Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia,
was part of the French colonial empire in Southeast Asia. It was the scene
of almost non -stop conflict from the end of the Second World War. In the
first phase of the conflict the peoples of these areas fought for and won
independence from the French. The second phase (1961 -75) began with
civil war in South Vietnam. The United States intervened in this conflict
to prevent the further spread of communism, but eventually had to admit
failure and withdraw from Vietnam. Thus, Vietnam became the victim of
Cold War. In pursuing the po licy of containment, the United States not
only assisted the non -communist government in South Vietnam against
the communist North Vietnam through financial and military assistance,
but also eventually was dragged into conflict that caused death and
destru ction in Vietnam and humiliation to the United States.
Ho Chi Minh’s Leadership :
From 1946 until 1954, the Vietnamese were fighting for independence
from France. The Japanese occupied indo -China during the Second World
War. Resistance to both Japanese and French was organized by the League
for Vietnamese Independence (Vietminh), led by the communist Ho Chi munotes.in

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170 Process Of Decolonization And Cold War Minh, who had spent many years in Russia learning how to organize
revolutions. Despite its broad nationalist leanings the Vietminh was
communist controll ed and its ultimate aim was the establishment of a
communist regime in Vietnam. By 1945 the Viet Minh had consolidated
their position in the North. In August 1945, following the surrender of the
Japanese, Ho Chi Minh declared the whole of Vietnam as the in dependent
Republic of Vietnam in September 1945, before the arrival of Allied
soldiers in the North. After the withdrawal of the British forces of
occupation the French returned not only to the South but also to the North
The Geneva Agreement :
By the Gene va Agreement (1954), Laos and Cambodia were to be
independent, and Vietnam was temporarily divided into two states at the
17th parallel. Ho Chi Minh’s government was recognized in North
Vietnam. South Vietnam was to have a separate non -communist
government for the time being, but elections were to be held by 1956 for
the whole country, which would then become united. Ho Chi Minh was
disappointed at the partition, but was confident that the communists would
win the national elections. As it turned out, the e lections were never held,
and a repeat performance of the Korean situation seemed likely. A civil
war gradually developed in South Vietnam, which eventually involved the
north, and the United States.
The South Vietnamese government under President Ng Dinh Diem
refused to make preparations for the elections for the whole of Vietnam.
The United States, which was backing his regime, did not press him for
fear of a communist victory if the elections were held for the entire
country. The President of the United States, Eisenhower (1953 -61) was
just as worried as Truman had been about the spread of communism.
The National Liberation Front:
The news of the success of the insurgents, and the consequent
embarrassment of Diem, was observed with considerable satisfacti on by
the North Vietnamese government, which now proceeded to build on these
foundations. In December 1960 the National Liberation Front (NLF) for
the South, closely resembling the former Viet Minh, was formed. The
NLF demanded a democratic national coalit ion government, which would
introduce reforms and negotiate peacefully for a united Vietnam. The
Buddhist monks had their own special brand of protest - committing
suicide in public by setting fire to themselves. Diem's credibility declined
further when he dismissed all criticism, however reasonable, and all
opposition as communist inspired. In fact the communists were only one
section of the NLF. Diem also introduced harsh security measures. He was
overthrown and murdered in an army coup (1963), after whic h the country
was ruled by a succession of generals, of whom President Nguyen Van
Thieu lasted the longest (1967 -75). The removal of Diem left the basic
situation unchanged and the guerrilla war continued.
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171 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) America n Involvement in South Vietnam:
As the situ ation in the South deteriorated the United States increased its
military aid and sent more military advisers. By 1963 there were 20,000
advisers in South Vietnam. Having failed to defeat communism in North
Korea and Cuba, the United States felt a strong st and against communism
should be taken in Vietnam. Both Kennedy and his successor, Lyndon
Johnson, were prepared to go further than just economic aid and advisers.
In public the Americans said their intervention was to protect the
independence of the Vietna mese people, but the real reason was to keep
the country securely in the non -communist bloc.
Soviet Interest in Vietnam :
In 1964 there was a year of chaos in which order was barely preserved by
the South Vietnamese army. The Viet Cong acquired control of
increasingly large areas, and began to launch attacks on South Vietnamese
airfields. Elements of the North Vietnamese army entered South Vietnam
and the Americans were faced with the choice of abandoning South
Vietnam to its fate or intervening with air su pport and US Marine
garrisons to guard American bases. President Kosygin of the Soviet Union
visited Hanoi, seeking Russian involvement in the impending takeover of
South Vietnam, while President Johnson (1963 -69) of the United States,
having taken the dec ision to employ American troops, had to ensure that
they were effectively used.
US Bombardment of North Vietnam :
President Johnson was not deterred by reports from American advisers in
1964 that the Vietcong and the NLF controlled about forty per cent of
South Vietnamese villages and that the peasant population seemed to
support them. He assumed that the Vietcong were controlled by Ho Chi
Minh and decided to bomb North Vietnam (1965) in the hope that he
would call off the campaign. Over the next seven years a greater tonnage
of bombs was dropped on North Vietnamese cities than fell on Germany
during the Second World War. In addition, over half a million American
troops arrived in the south.
End of the Vietnam War :
All these American tactics and strategies ha d no success. At the end of
1972, the Vietcong controlled the entire western half of the country. By
this time Nixon was under pressure both at home and from world opinion
to withdraw from Vietnam. Several factors caused revulsion of feeling
against the Vi etnamese war. The terrible bombing of North Vietnam, Laos
and Cambodia caused death of numerous innocent people. In desperation
to win the war against the communists, the United States used of
chemicals to destroy jungle foliage and inflammable napalm jell y, which
burned people alive. Thousands of innocent civilians lost their lives and
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172 Process Of Decolonization And Cold War East Timor :
East Timor was half of the small island in the East Indies; the western half
belonged to Ho lland and became part of Indonesia in 1949. In 1975, East
Timor's nationalist movement (FRETILIN) won a short civil war against
the ruling group, which wanted to stay with Portugal. The USA denounced
the new government as Marxist, which was not entirely tr ue. After only a
few weeks, Indonesian troops invaded East Timor, overthrew the
government and incorporated it into Indonesia. The USA continued to
supply military goods to the Indonesians, who were guilty of various
atrocities both during and after the wa r. It is estimated that about 100,000
people were killed, which was nearly one -sixth of the population, while
another 300,000 were put into detention camps. Resistance was still
continuing in the early 1990s, but although the UN condemned Indonesia's
actio n, East Timor was too small and, unlike Kuwait, too unimportant to
warrant any sanctions being applied against Indonesia
Angola and Mozambique :
The main Portuguese possessions were Angola and Mozambique, and the
small West African colony of Portuguese Guin ea. They also still owned
the eastern half of the island of Timor in the East Indies. The right -wing
Portuguese government of Salazar ignored nationalist developments in the
rest of Africa, and for many years after 1945 the Portuguese colonies
seemed quiet and resigned to their position. They were mainly agricultural
colonies. In 1956 there were few people in the whole of Mozambique who
had received any secondary education. Though nationalist groups were
formed in all three colonies in 1956, they were insig nificant. However, by
1960 the situation in the Portuguese colonies had considerably changed.
The nationalists were greatly encouraged by the large number of other
African states winning independence. The Salazar regime, having learned
nothing from the exp eriences of the other colonial powers, stepped up its
repressive policies, but this only made the nationalists in the colonies more
determined to win independence. Fighting broke out first in Angola (1961)
where Agostinho Neto's, People's Movement for Ango lan Liberation
(MPLA) was the main nationalist movement. Violence soon spread to
Guinea where Amilcar Cabral led the resistance, and to Mozambique,
where Eduardo Mondlane organized the FRELIMO guerrillas. These
nationalists, who had strong Marxist connecti ons, received economic and
military aid from the communist bloc. The Portuguese army found it
impossible to suppress the nationalist guerrillas. The Portuguese troops
became demoralized and the cost of fighting the colonial guerillas
escalated. Until by 19 73 the government was spending forty per cent of its
budget fighting three colonial wars simultaneously. Still the Portuguese
government refused to abandon its policy of suppressing nationalist
movements in its colonies. However, the public opinion and man y army
officers were sick of the wars, and in 1974 the Salazar dictatorship was
overthrown by a military coup. Soon all three colonies were granted
independence. Guinea, which became independent in September 1974
took the name Guinea -Bissau. Mozambique and Angola became munotes.in

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173 Milestones In World History (1750 CE-1960 CE) independent the subsequent year. This caused a serious crisis for Rhodesia
and South Africa. They were now the only states left in Africa ruled by
white minorities, and their governments felt increasingly threatened.

13.8 SUMMARY Decoloniza tion and emergence of independent nations in Asia and Africa
following the Second World War was an important chapter in the history
of contemporary world. Although some states, particularly Britain,
handled decolonization better than others, in general the decolonization
was a painful process that led to violence, and terrorism on the part of the
colonists and repression and violation of human rights on the part of the
European colonial powers. Especially, the decolonization process was
accompanied by long drawn wars in the African continent. With lack of
infrastructural facilities, poor education and health services and shortage
of trained political and administrative personnel, the newly emerged
independent African nations became victims of chronic power s truggle
and civil wars. Though there were some gains for the new states, which
had much more control over their internal affairs, and there were some
gains for ordinary people, such as advances in education and social
services, the new nations had to face a number of new problems. Soon
some of the nation became victim of cold war.

13.9 QUESTIONS 1) Describe the factors responsible for the decolonization process.
2) Examine the process of decolonization in the French colonial empire.
3) Give an account of the deco lonization process in the Dutch and
Belgian colonies.
4) Trace the development of cold war in decolonized nation

13.10 ADDITIONAL READINGS  Hazen Charles, Modern Europe since 1789, S. Chand, 1992.
 Grant and Temperley : Europe in 19th & 20th Centuries 19405th Ed.
New York Longman 2005.
 Hayes C.J. H. Contemporary Europe Since 1870 -1955 NewYork
Macmillan
 Lipson E. Europe in the 19th and 20th Centuries – 1916 London.A.H.
Black. munotes.in

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174 Process Of Decolonization And Cold War  Lowe Norman, Mastering Modern World History -4th Ed. 2005 ,
Palgrane Macmillan.
 Taylor’s A.J.P. The struggle for Mastery in Europe (1848 -1918) –
1954. Oxford.






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