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1 1
ECOLOGY: CONCEPTS AND
APPLICATIONS
Unit Stucture :
After reading this chapter you will be able to understand the following:
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Subject discussion
1.4 Introduction to ecology: overview
1.5 Nutrient Cycling: Phosphor us, Nitrogen and Carbon.
1.6 Energy flows - trophic levels - energy pyramids.
1.7 Life on land and water
1.8 Summary
1.9 Check your Progress/Exercise
1.10 Answers to Self -Learning Questions
1.11 Technical words and their meaning
1.12 Task
1.13 References for further study
1.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you will be able to:
Know the concept of ecology and its various components.
Understand the cyclic process of circulation of nutrients viz.,
phosphorus, nitrogen and carbon.
Learn the flow of energy, trophic levels and energy pyramids.
Study l ife on land and in water through the example of a land -based
and water -based ecosystem.
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2 1.2 INTRODUCTION
Planet ‘Earth’ is indeed a very unique planet. This uniqueness is not just
because of the fact that it is the only planet where life evolved some 3 -4
billion years back, but also because of the diversity which exists among
the living organisms in the form of microorganisms, vegetation, animals,
birds, insects, etc. This diversity is extensive and distinctive too. This
diversity evolved and has sustaine d because of the different non -living
features which form the interior of the earth, lithosphere, hydrosphere and
atmosphere. The interactions and the interdependence between the non -
living and the living world are necessary for the evolution and sustenanc e
of life on the earth’s surface. Life underwent various stages of evolution
and can be seen living and working on the planet in the form of different
species and organisms. Human beings are the most dominant species
present today on the planet in two ways – in the form of numbers (the total
population of human beings as of today on earth is around 7 billion) and in
the form of impact on the planet through the use of their intelligence,
wisdom, knowledge and skills. Throughout the development of human
civilisation on this planet, it is evident that human species has had a more
profound impact on planet earth in terms of modifications and alterations
done to the surroundings with the help of technology.
1.3 SUBJECT DISCUSSION
The surroundings or the environm ent which are present around any
organism play an important role in the growth and development of that
organism. There exists a give and take relationship between the organism
and the environment. The environment provides food, water, shelter and
other res ources to the organism necessary for its survival. Similarly, the
organism also influences the environment in various ways. For example,
human species has maximum impact on environment because of use of
technology and their skills for construction of settl ements, industries,
transport lines, etc. Ecology is a science that helps us to understand the
relationship between the environment and various living organisms.
1.4 INTRODUCTION TO ECOLOGY AN OVERVIEW
Ecology as a science got its separate identity becaus e of the efforts of
German biologist, Ernst Haeckel in 1869 who coined the term ‘ oecology’.
It has its origin in two Greek words, ‘ Oikos’ which means ‘a house or a
dwelling as a habitat’ and ‘ Logos’ which means ‘the study of’. Thus,
ecology means a study w hich understands the relationship between living
organisms and their surroundings or environment. E. P. Odum later in
1960s proposed that with changing times there has been a need to widen
the traditional definition of ecology. Odum said that ecology is th e study
of the structure and function of ecosystems. The definition focussed on the
fact that ecology not only studies the inter -relationship between nature, the
living and non -living components of the environment but also the
individual functioning of the se components in an orderly manner in the
form of a system. munotes.in
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Ecology: Concepts and
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3 Initially the scope of ecology was focusing on the interactions between the
biotic and abiotic components of the environment. But over a period of
time the scope of ecology has undergone a drasti c change. As human
civilisation has made progress in terms of humans understanding about
nature, use of skills, knowledge and technology by human beings to
extract resources from the environment the scope of ecology has
expanded. Human population has been increasing and this increasing
population has been demanding various resources for their survival on the
planet and also to modify their lifestyle. Thus, the relationship between
humans and environment has undergone a drastic change. With this
changing rel ationship new terms and concepts have been introduced in
ecological studies and therefore ecology as a subject has been dynamic in
nature. The aims, objectives, scope and approaches with reference to
ecology can be divided into following four phases:
Phase - I which am considered upto World War I. During this phase the
studies were focussed on understanding the evolution and history of
flora and fauna and the inter -dependent relationship between plants
and animals with reference to their habitats, etc.
Phas e – II lies between World War I and World War II. During this
period more emphasis was given on laboratory -based experiments and
analysis like pollen analysis, etc. and use of statistical techniques in
the field of ecological studies.
Phase – III was from the end of World War II (approximately 1945) to
1960. This period saw the use of systems analysis in research related
to ecology. The relationship between various organisms and their
surrounding were studied through more practical experiments. Major
proce sses related to ecological science were studied during this phase.
Phase – IV started from 1960 onwards. This phase has been
responsible for focusing more on the application of ecology in
conservation of nature and management of environmental problems.
As a science, studies and research in ecology has been done since the
beginning of 19th century. Scientists from various fields of knowledge like
Ernst Haeckel, Isodore Geoffrey, St. George Jackson Mivart, E. P. Odum
and many more have contributed towards t he development of various
concepts in ecology. The conventional view point of the studies done in
this subject was to understand the relationship between living organisms
and the environment but gradually it has been extended to the following
areas of rese arch:
Relationship between the living and the non -living components of
environment.
The relationship between the living, non -living components of the
environment and their surroundings.
Impact of humans on their environment. munotes.in
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Ecology and Environment
4 Changing relationship between humans and environment during
various phases of human evolution and civilisation.
Problems like increasing human population, depletion of natural
resources, role of technology, accelerated economic development,
change in life styles, etc. and degradations of environment.
Application of technology to understand the ecological problems and
suggest solutions to these problems.
Thus, over a period of time, this subject has undergone a drastic change
and has extended research in the areas of plant and animal ecology,
agricultural ecology, rural ecology, industrial ecology and so on.
Key concepts in ecology:
Ecosystem is a basic unit of study which is a combination of the living
organisms, non -living factorsand energy. It is a functional unit which
is run by solar energy. This energy from the sun is taken up by the
green plants thatprepare food by undergoing the process of
photosynthesis and use other elements from the environment. This
food energy is then circulated among the biological communities.
Ecosyste m functions at different spatial and temporal scales. Starting
from a micro -level like a pond ecosystem towards the entire earth’s
surface functioning as an ecosystem. It also functions with reference to
time. Thus, both spatially and temporally the ecosys tem keeps on
changing making it a dynamic entity.
An ecosystem is an open system where there is exchange of energy
and matter.
Ecosystem tries to maintain stability and equilibrium but can be
affected by certain disturbances.
An ecosystem is a reservoir w hich provides the human civilisation
with various natural resources like rocks, minerals, soils, energy
resources etc.
1.5 NUTRIENT CYCLING : PHOSPHORUS, NITROGEN
AND CARBON
An ecosystem being an open system, there exists an exchange and
circulation of en ergy and nutrients from one component to another one.
This cyclic movement consists of creation, maintenance and destruction of
matter. It is a process which goes on and on. Hence inspite of the fact that
some resources are available on a limited quantity on the earth’s surface,
these resources are made available because of their cyclic circulation in
the environment.However due to misuse of technology by human beings
many renewable resources today are becoming scarce and these resources
are likely to vanis h from the earth’s surface. munotes.in
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5 This cyclic movement of biological, geological and chemical resources is
termed as the biogeochemical cycle. There are several sub cycles that
function on the earth’s surface and circulate the nutrients and energy.
These cycles are circulating elements from the abiotic components to the
biotic world and then back to the abiotic components.
Among these elements water is a very significant resource because it helps
in the circulation of various organic and inorganic components in the
earth -atmosphere system and without water life would not have evolved
and sustained on the earth’s surface.
Phosphorus Cycle: The second most important element is phosphorus.
Availability of phosphorus is mostly in the form of phosphate rocks (in
solid form) and in a very small quantity in the gaseous form. But still, it is
necessary for the growth of living organisms. Phosphorus cycle is very
slow and most of the phosphorus is circulated from land to the oceans.
Phosphorus is stored in sedimentary ro cks and when these rocks undergo
the process of weathering phosphorus is available in the soil. In the soil it
mixes with calcium, magnesium, potassium and iron. As phosphorus does
not easily dissolve in water only ten percent of phosphorus circulates in
the cyclic path.
Inorganic phosphorus is available to plants from the soil through the
process of absorption. It is converted into organic form by the plants.
From the plants then phosphorus is circulated to the other trophic levels in
the food chain. Pho sphorus is returned back to the environment after the
plants and other living organisms die through the processes of
decomposition and mineralisation of organic forms of phosphate.
Phosphorus is also made available to the crops and plants in the form of
fertilisers.
Nitrogen Cycle: Nitrogen is another important element which is necessary
for the development of living organisms and is available to the living
world in the form of amino acids and proteins. It occupies about 78% of
the gaseous composition of t he atmosphere. Nitrogen is present in various
forms of oxides and compounds on the earth’s surface. Although it is
present in abundance, living organisms cannot take it directly from the
atmosphere. They have to depend on some other source for having acces s
to nitrogen compounds.
Following are the steps involved in the nitrogen cycle:
Lightning : Nitrogen and oxygen from the atmosphere combine due to
lightning and form nitric oxide. Nitric oxide further oxidises to form
nitrogen peroxide which reacts with water to form Nitric acid. This
Nitric acid from the atmosphere combines with rain water and falls on
the soil. These nitrogen compounds present in the soil are then used by
plants for their growth and development.
Nitrogen fixation through biological ac tivity : This is also a natural
process of fixing nitrogen. There are two types of organisms that fix
nitrogen. The first group consists of free -living bacteria and algae and munotes.in
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6 the second group consists of some autotrophic blue green algae and
bacteria which live in a symbiotic relationship with the green plants.
Similarly on the root nodules of leguminous plants (like green peas,
soya bean, gram, peanuts, etc.)the bacteria which are present help in
the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen and supply the nitrogen
compounds in the form of amino acids to the plants. Even in the
oceanic surface, nitrogen fixation is done by blue green algae and
bacteria.
Artificial fixation : In this process chemical fertilisers containing
nitrogen compounds like ammonium sulphate, nitrates, etc. are
manufactured and used in agricultural operations in order to make the
soil rich in nitrogen.
Organic nitrogen compounds are converted into inorganic form as
ammonia or ammonium which is further converted into nitrites and/or
nitrates. This process is called as nitrification. Plants take up nitrogen from
the soil and use it for their own growth and development. Subsequently,
this nitrogen which is in the form of proteins is transferred to different
organisms present at different trophic levels in the food chain. The protein
present in the organisms will disintegrate into amino acids, urea, etc.
Denitrification : It is the process opposite to nitrification. The body waste
of various organisms and the dead remains of plants and other livin g
organisms contain amino acids, urea, etc. these nitrogen compounds are
released back to the environment by another set of bacteria called as the
denitrifying bacteria. So,the balance of nitrogen on the earth’s surface is
the combined efforts of the two p rocesses – nitrification and
denitrification. Thus, the nitrogen cycle gets completed.
However, in the present times the natural functioning of the nitrogen cycle
has been disturbed due to human intervention. This is because of excess
application of nitro gen rich fertilisers to the soil; agricultural lands all over
the world are heavily polluted. The excess fertiliser mixes with rainwater
and gets leached into nearby water bodies. The nitrogen fertiliser present
in the water body results into eutrophicatio n. Eutrophication is a process
by which due to the presence of excess chemical fertilisers the growth of
water weeds like water hyacinth is enhanced which uses the dissolved
oxygen present in the water bodies for decomposition of the dead
organisms in the water bodies and this process makes the water body dead
for living organisms.
Carbon Cycle : Carbon is present in three different forms on the earth’s
surface. In the gaseous form it is available as carbon monoxide, carbon
dioxide etc. In the liquid form it is available as carbon dioxide dissolved in
water and in the solid form it is available as fossil fuels, carbon stored in
sediments and as organic matter.
Carbon cycle functions at different levels. It enters the biotic world
through the process of pho tosynthesis. Wherein, plants take up carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere and along with sunlight, water, chlorophyll munotes.in
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7 and other nutrients from the soil, they prepare food. This carbon is stored
in the green plants as woody tissues and is present in a large q uantity in
the form of different types of forests present on the earth’s surface. The
carbohydrates generated by vegetation at trophic level one is passed on to
the other organisms and consumed by them through the food chains.
Living organisms undergo the process of respiration through which carbon
is released. Similarly, the process of decomposition of dead organic
matter like fallen leaves, dead remains of plants and animals, body waste
of animals, etc. also releases carbon dioxide back to the environme nt. The
process of combustion or burning of fossil fuels like coal, petroleum,
natural gas, etc. also releases carbon dioxide.
Some carbon is also stored in the form of sediments (like shells, bones,
etc.) on the earth’s surface. Similarly, the organic ma tter present in
vegetation, animals, etc. is buried underground and remains there for a
very long geological time. This energy present in the living organisms
gives rise to the formation of fossils. Sedimentary carbon is released
through the processes of w eathering and erosion of rocksand also through
volcanic eruptions.
A huge amount of carbon dioxide is absorbed by the marine plants that are
present in seas, oceans and other marine ecosystems. Hence oceans are
considered as carbon sinks. This carbon abso rbed the planktons (aquatic
vegetation) is used by them for photosynthesis and then the carbohydrates
are passed on to the other organisms in the aquatic food chain. A huge
amount of carbon sediments are also deposited and stored on the ocean
floor giving rise to the formation of coral reefs, sedimentary rocks, hydro
carbons, etc.
A huge amount of carbon is released due to heavy deforestation,
increasing population, increasing industrialisation, urbanisation,
transportation, etc. The disturbances caused in the natural functioning of
the carbon cycle has resulted in Green House Effect – Global Warming
and Climate Change resulting into melting of glaciers, rise in sea level,
heat and cold waves and so on.
1.6 ENERGY FLOWS - TROPHIC LEVELS - ENERGY
PYRAMIDS
Energy plays a very vital role in the functioning of the earth -atmosphere
system. The major source of energy is the sun and some other sources of
energy consist of the geo -thermal energy, cosmic radiation, energy from
fossil fuels and so on.
The solar energ y is absorbed by the green plants and then converted into
food energy through the process of photosynthesis. Part of this energy is
used by the plants themselves for their growth and development and
remaining part of the energy is passed on to the other or ganisms. Hence it
is said that the flow of energy on the earth -atmosphere system is
unidirectional. This circulation of energy occurs through various trophic munotes.in
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Ecology and Environment
8 levels giving rise to the formation of different food chains and food webs
that function in a vari ety of ecosystems that are present on the earth’s
surface. The process of conversion of light energy into food or chemical
energy resulting in the formation of biological matter or tissues in
organisms is called as biosynthesis. The process by which biolog ical
matter degrades and decomposes and the energy stored in it is sent back to
the environment is known as biodegradation.
The law related to energy that energy can neither be created nor be
destroyed but it changes its formis applicable to the ecosystem s too.
Food chain : A food chain refers to the sequential transfer of food energy
from the autotrophs (green plants) to heterotrophs (herbivores, carnivores
and omnivores) and the detritivores in an ecosystem. For example, grass is
eaten by a grasshopper that is further eaten by a frog and frog can be eaten
by a snake.
Food web : A complex combination of different food chains gives rise to
a food web. In case of a food web various organisms can be a prey or a
predator of other organisms. For example, a he n can be eaten by a snake, a
fox or even by human beings. Similarly human beings can eat fish, meat
and vegetables.
Trophic Levels : The term trophic level refers to the level of nutrition or
nourishment in a food chain. In other words, it is the movement of food
energy from one level of organisms to another level. This concept was put
forward by R. L. Lindman (1942). The green plants are located at trophic
level onebecause they initiate the process of energy conversion and
transfer through the process of photosynthesis. Hence green plants are also
called as autotrophs or self -nourishing organisms as they can prepare their
own food. About 90% of energy is used by the plants for their respiration
and development and only 10% of energy is passed on to the nex t level of
organisms.The herbivores or the grass eating organisms (hens,
grasshoppers, elephants, etc.) are located at trophic level two who
consume green plants and thus obtain energy from them. This energy from
the herbivores is passed on to the carnivor es (frogs, snakes, tigers, etc.) or
the flesh -eating animals that form trophic level three when they eat the
herbivores. The omnivores for example, human beings are located at
trophic level four who can feed on both the green plants as well as the
flesh of organisms.
At different trophic levels some amount of energy is released in the form
of waste (urine, dung, excreta, etc.) and when organisms die the process of
releasing the energy locked up in the waste products and dead bodies of
plants and animals is done by the decomposers or the detritivores who are
responsible for the release of energy back to the environment.
Ecological Pyramids : An ecological pyramid can be defined as a
pyramid in which there is decline in the total number of species, the total
biomass and the available energy from lower trophic levels to higher ones.
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9 Following are the three types of ecological pyramids:
1. Number Pyramids : This type of pyramid includes the total number
of species of organisms at different trophic levels. It do es not include
the size of the organisms. A huge variety of species are found at
trophic level one (among green plants) as compared to trophic levels
three or four. For example, if a deer (a herbivore at trophic level 2) is
eating grass (autotroph at troph ic level 1) then large number of grasses
should be available to feed the organisms at trophic level 2.
2. Biomass Pyramid : Biomass refers to the biological matter present on
the earth’s surface. The biomass pyramid represents the total
biological matter pr esent at each trophic level in an ecosystem.
3. Energy Pyramids : The energy pyramid represents the total amount
of energy transferred from one trophic level to another. The energy
pyramid helps in understanding the productivity of an ecosystem.
1.7 LIFE O N LAND AND WATER
It is a known fact that planet earth is the only known planet so far which
consists of life supporting elements and because of which life has evolved
on this planet and it sustains here. Lithosphere or the land area present on
the planet o ccupies about 29% of the earth’s surface whereas the
Hydrosphere or the water bodies occupy about 71% of the area. Both land
and water support life in various ways.
Land areas can be further divided into various physiographic features like
mountains, plat eau, plains, coastal plains, islands, etc. These are further
made up of rocks, soil, minerals and other elements. Various types of
plants, animals, birds, insects, human beings need the support of the land
surface for living on this planet. Hence planet ea rth is characterised by
various land -based ecosystems which are rich in diverse living organisms.
For example, forest ecosystem, desert ecosystem, and so on. Forests cover
about 30% of the land area on the earth’s surface. They play a significant
role in m aintaining the oxygen -carbon balance, provision of food and
various other ecological and economic services.
Due to the advancement made by human civilisation in the present times
land is under heavy pressure because of various human activities like
agricu lture, industrialisation, urbanisation, etc. Land is also getting
degraded because of pollution, dumping of waste, etc.
Water is necessary for life to sustain on the planet because it is the element
through which various nutrients are circulated on the ea rth’s surface and
also it helps in the circulation of nutrients in the living organisms. Water
surface differ in features in various parts of the earth’s surface based on
temperature conditions, salinity, density and so on. Like land surface,
water surface s also support different types of ecosystems like marine
ecosystems, mangrove ecosystems and so on. munotes.in
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10 Because of human interference, water surfaces are also affected by
pollution, climate change and other problems of environmental
degradation.
Importance o f Solar energy and Ocean water :
Solar energy : Sun is the centre of our galaxy (Milky Way) and also the
closest star to the earth located at a distance of 150 million kilometres.The
gravitational force exerted by the sun keeps the planets at their defined
positions and this force is important in maintaining the balance in our
planetary system. Being a star, sun emits radiation which is the principal
source of heat and light. Solar energy is necessary for the living as well as
the non -living world. It was b ecause of the availability of solar energy that
life evolved and has sustained on the earth’s surface. Sunlight is necessary
for plants to undergo the process of photosynthesis by which plants
prepare food. This food is then circulated among the other livi ng
organisms in various ecosystems. Solar energy is also necessary for
circulation of other elements in nature like the functioning of water cycle
where water evaporates because of sun’s heat followed by condensation
and precipitation. Solar energy is nece ssary for cloud formation,
circulation of winds and many such climatic phenomena which are
directly or indirectly necessary for life on the earth’s surface. Solar energy
is also a source of light as today with advanced technology sunlight can be
trapped an d used in generation of electricity. Thus solar energy is
significant in helping the development of agriculture, industry, transport,
communication and other sectors of the economy.
Ocean water : 71 percent of the earth is covered by hydrosphere and
about 97 percent of water is saline present in seas and oceans. Therefore
ocean water like sunlight also plays a pivotal role in sustenance of life on
planet earth. Ocean water provides moisture for cloud formation; it acts as
a carbon sink, absorbs solar radia tion forms ocean currents and maintains
the heat balance on the earth; preserve a variety of organisms through the
marine ecosystems, coral reefs and so on. Ocean water is also a source of
numerous salts and minerals like chlorine, sodium, magnesium, etc.
Hot desert ecosystem (Terrestrial) : Geographically a desert can be
defined as an area which experiences dry or arid type of climate with very
negligible rainfall and a poor, immature soil profile. A desert area may
receive rainfall which can be less tha n 50cms annually and experiences
extreme temperature conditions that is very high temperature during the
day (45 -50 degrees Celsius) and very cold temperature during night (5 -10
degrees Celsius). Deserts can be of two types: Hot desert and Cold desert.
Because of very less precipitation and poor soil profile, the number of
producers (vegetation) found in a desert is very limited but yet it supports
various organisms in the higher trophic levels. The organisms found in the
deserts have adapted to very extrem e climatic conditions.
Hot and dry desert ecosystem exists in South Asia (Thar desert), North
America, Africa (Sahara and Kalahari Desert), etc. Desert ecosystems are
fragile in nature. But inspite of very extreme climatic conditions, the munotes.in
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11 desert ecosystem s have an elaborate food chain where all the organisms
have very well developed adaptation mechanism to the harsh
environments. These different organisms found in a desert ecosystem are
explained below:
Producers : Cacti and thorny plants (acacia variety) which are covered by
thorns and can store water in the fleshy mass present on the plant body.
Herbivores : Camels, deer, antelopes, sheep and goats.
Carnivores : Wolves, jackals, scorpions, snakes, etc.
Decomposers : Millipedes, termites, earthworms, pro tozoa and bacteria.
Polar ecosystem (Aquatic) : These ecosystems are located between the
Arctic and Antarctic circles and the poles. These ecosystems occupy about
ten percent of the earth’s surface and belong to the permafrost category.
The Arctic Region : The Arctic region experiences only two seasons:
summer and winter. The average temperature ranges between -40 degrees
Celsius in winter to 10 degrees Celsius in summer along with extreme
winds. This region experiences six months of day and six months of night
and hence is also known as the ‘land of midnight sun’. The growing
season is very short and hence most of the Arctic region is devoid of trees
and only short plants grow.
Inspite of limited vegetation, this region is a very productive ecosystem
with a huge variety of fishes and migratory birds.
Producers : The summer months in the Arctic region are from March to
September when the sun is present in the skies throughout the summer.
Constant availability of sunlight allows the growth of microscopic
phytoplankton and ice algae. The food produced by these autotrophs
supports an elaborate ecosystem.
Consumers : Jellies and shrimps form the primary consumers
(herbivores). Blue whales, Bowhead whales, seals, walruses, sea lions etc.
form the secondary con sumers (carnivores).
Scavengers and Decomposers : Sharks, crabs, marine worms and some
forms of algae complete this marine food chain by cleaning the organic
waste (body waste and dead remains of plants and animals).
The Antarctic Region : Antarctica con tinent is present on the South Pole
and is a continent without permanent human settlement. It is coldest, driest
and windiest compared to other continents. A major part of the continent
is covered with ice and lacks growth of any vegetation species. The
temperature ranges between -10 degrees Celsius to -60 degrees Celsius.
During the summer months the temperature can be 10 degrees Celsius
along the coast. Summer prevails from October to March and winter from
March to October. Most of the precipitation in th is region is in the form of
snow and ice. The Antarctic ecosystem is comparatively a simpler
ecosystem but a productive one. munotes.in
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12 Producers : A few land plants and phytoplanktons (uni -cellular plants)
which float on the sea surface and can also grow at a depth of 100 metres
in the sea.
Consumers : Krills are small shrimp like creatures which are the primary
consumers who feed on the phytoplanktons. One blue whale can consume
around three to four tonnes of krill for one meal. Squids, penguins, leopard
seals, ele phant seals, baleen whales, etc. form the secondary consumers.
Scavengers and Decomposers : Lobsters, sea cucumbers, shrimps, crabs,
prawns, sea slugs, worms, fungi and algae play the role as scavengers and
decomposers.
1.8 SUMMARY
Various concepts in t he subject Ecology are important to study because
these concepts help in widening the understanding of a learner. Basic
concepts like food chain, food web, trophic levels, biogeochemical cycles,
etc. explain about how various elements present in the enviro nment
whether living or non -living are interdependent. Their functioning in the
environment is responsible for making this system dynamic.
1.9 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS/EXERCISE
I. State whether the following statement is ‘True’ or ‘False’:
a) An ecosystem is a closed system.
b) Scavengers help in keeping the environment clean.
c) Food web refers to a complex combination of different food chains.
d) The concept of Ecology was put forward by Charles Darwin.
e) 71 percent of the earth’s surface is covered by land masses.
II. Fill in the blanks:
a. An ecosystem is a _______ unit.
(functional, temporary, casual, mechanical)
b. ________ are primary consumers in the Antarctic ecosystem.
(Krills, Lobsters, Blue whales, Polar bears)
c. _______ are producers in a hot desert ecosystem.
(Cacti, Grasses, Trees, Mangroves)
d. The ________helps in understanding the productivity of an ecosystem.
(Energy pyramid, Pyramid of number, Biomass pyramid,
Biogas pyramid)
e. The natural functioning of the nitrogen cycle is disturbed by ______ _. (Eutrophication, Magnification, Calcification, Oxidation) munotes.in
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13 III. Multiple Choice Questions:
a) a.In the term ‘ecology’ what does the word ‘oikos’ mean?
(Dwelling, cave , shade, canopy)
b) Name the process by which plants prepare food?
(Photosynthesis, Eutrophication, Bio mass, Saturation)
c) Name the most abundant gas present in the atmosphere.
(Nitrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorus, Carbon di oxide)
d) Name the geographical region which experiences very high
temperature with less or no rainfall.
(Desert, Rain Forest, Grassland, River valley)
e) Name the continent which does not have permanent human population.
(Antarctica, Australia, Patagonia, Arctic)
1.10 ANSWERS TO SELF -LEARNING QUESTIONS
I. State whether the following statement is ‘True’ or ‘False’:
a. False.
b. True.
c. True.
d. False.
e. False.
II. Fill in the blanks:
a. Functional.
b. Krills.
c. Cacti.
d. Energ y pyramid.
e. Eutrophication.
III. Multiple Choice Questions:
a. Dwelling.
b. Photosynthesis.
c. Nitrogen.
d. Desert.
e. Antarctica.
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14 1.11 TECHNICAL WORDS AND THEIR MEANING
Food Chain : A food chain refers to the sequential transfer of food energy
from the autotrophs (gr een plants) to heterotrophs (herbivores, carnivores
and omnivores) and the detritivores in an ecosystem.
Food Web : A complex combination of different food chains gives rise to
a food web.
Trophic Levels : The term trophic level refers to the level of nutr ition or
nourishment in a food chain.
Biogeochemical Cycle : The cyclic movement of biological, geological
and chemical resources on the earth’s surface is termed as the
biogeochemical cycle.
1.12 TASK
Plan a visit to a nearby Nature Park to study and und erstand the various
components of the natural ecosystem present in the park.
1.13 REFERENCES FOR FURTHER STUDY
The Arctic and The Antarctic | Smithsonian Ocean (si.edu)
polar ecosystem - Biota of tundra and polar barrens | Britannica
The Arctic | Nat ional Wildlife Federation (nwf.org)
Arctic Ecosystem: Description, Food Chain, and Animals
(earthreminder.com)
Antarctica: Life in Antarctica (marinebio.net)
Desert Ecosystem: Definition, Types and Characteristics | Earth
Reminder
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15 2
ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION
Unit Structure :
After going through this chapter, you will be able to understand the
following features
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Introduction
2.3 Subject Discussion
2.4 Factors responsible and consequences nature induced (one example
from each related to tectonic /atmospheric/ oceanic)
2.5 Factors responsible and consequences - human -induced
primary/secondary/tertiary activities (any one example from each
activity)
2.6 Global environmental pro blems
2.7 Local environmental problems with special reference to Mumbai
Metropolitan Region
2.8 Summary
2.9 Check Your Progress or Exercise
2.10 Answers to the Self -learning questions
2.11 Technical Words and their meaning
2.12 Task
2.13 References for further study
2.1 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you will be able to –
Understand the factors responsible for nature -induced environmental
degradation and its consequences.
Know about the factors responsible for human -induced environmental
degradation and its consequences.
Get an overview of the significant environmental problems globally .
Elucidate the l ocal environmental problems with particular reference
to Mumbai Metropolitan Region (MMR) . munotes.in
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16 2.2 INTRODUCTION
Enviro nmental degradation is an umbrella concept because it includes
diverse issues like loss of biodiversity, pollution, deforestation, and many
more. This concept reflects on the problems causing the deterioration of
the natural environment and depletion of biological diversity. The
worsening of the general health of the environment can be either natural,
human -made, or both at the same time. This chapter will separately focus
on how nature and humans are responsible for e nvironmental degradation .
It will further discuss the major global environmental problems . Lastly,
the chapter will discuss some local environmental issues with particular
reference to MMR.
2.3 SUBJECT DISCUSSION
Environmental degradation is a severe problem globally. It refers to the
deterioration of the environment through depletion of resources which
includes all the biotic and abiotic element s that form our surrounding s,
that is , air, water, soil, pant animals, and all other living and non -living
element of the planet of the earth(Bourque et al., 2005; Malcolm and
Pitelka, 2000). The degradation of the environment is also a result of the
dynami c interplay amongst socioeconomic, institutional , and technological
activities. The damage or reduction in quality of environmental features is
influenced directly or indirectly by two significant factors – natural (flood,
drought, earthquakes, typhoons, hurricanes, fires , etc.) and human
(overpopulation, urbanization, industrialization, deforestation , etc.).
Continued environmental degradation can destroy the various aspects of
the environment - biodiversity, ecosystems, natural resources, and
habitats. For instance, air pollution can lead to acid rain , reducing the
quality of natural water systems by making t hem acidic.
There are mainly four types of environmental degradation –
Water degradation – This includes the degradation of water due to
illegal dumping, disposal of large amounts of industrial waste into
nearby rivers or lakes , etc.
Land degradation - Often known as soil degradation, this degrades
soil quality because of poor farming practices, excessive use of
fertilizers and pesticides, leakage from landfills , etc.
Atmospheric degradation - This includes air particle pollution and
the depletion of the ozone layer.
Thus, it is essential to understand this concept asit touches on major
paramount topics, such as deforestation, biodiversity loss, desertification,
global warming, animal extinction, pollution, and many more.
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17 2.4 FACTORS RESPONSIBLE AND CONSEQUENCES
NATURE INDUCED (ONE EXAMPLE FROM EACH
RELATED TO TECTONIC/ATMOSPHERIC/
OCEANIC)
Physical factors such as earthquakes, hurricanes, floods, drought,
volcano es, etc., accelerate the decline in environmental resources.
Earthquakes are one of the most devastating geological processes with
destructive effects on nature and humans. The effects caused by an
earthquake on its surrounding environment are known asE arthquake
environmental effects (EEE) . EEE includes surface faulting, tectonic u plift
and subsidence, tsunamis, soil liquefaction, ground resonance, landslides ,
and dust clouds. These effects can be directly connected to the earthquake
(primary effects) or indirectly incited by the ground shaking (secondary
effects) . EEEs can be observ ed near the earthquake's epicenter or, at times,
far away from the center.
Direct impacts or primary effects will be felt immediately .It will direct ly
cause damage toinfrastructures, and land, including ground failure and
landslides. Observations from som e after -effects of earthquakes suggest
that the liquefaction of sand can trigger soil subsidence . Liquefaction is a
phenomenon in which the stiffness and strength of soil reduce by ground
shaking. In other words,liquefaction makes soil behave more like a l iquid
than a solid during an earthquake. The phenomenon occurs in saturated
soils.In saturated soils ,the space between individual particles is filled with
water. The water is responsible for exerting pressure on the soil particles
that press the particles tightly together. Before an earthquake, the water
pressure is relatively low. However, the earthquake shaking rearranges the
sand and silt grains in wet soil underground and squeezes the water
between the grains by increasing the water pressure . Due to str ess, the
water is forced to the surface, causing cracks in the ground or
concrete. Thus, w hen liquefaction occurs, the s oil's strength decreases, and
a soil deposit's ability to support foundations for buildings and bridges is
reduced .
Worldwide,l iquefacti on ha s been responsible for tremendous amounts of
damage in earthquakes. Especially liquefaction occurring beneath
buildings and other structures can cause significant damage during
earthquakes. For example, the 1964 Niigata earthquake caused widespread
liquefaction in Niigata, Japan . Part of Niigata city was built on deltaic
deposits from the two rivers. The shaking during the earth quake sourced
liquefaction , causing subsidence of up to 140 cm , thus destroying
thousands of buildings.
Volcanic eruptions often follow earthquake s. These explos ions damage
the environment due to the release of numerous toxic gases. Water vapour
is the most abundant volcanic gas , followed by carbon dioxide and sulfur
dioxide. Other principal gases are hydrogen chloride, hydroge n fluoride,
and hydrogen sul fide. Gases like carbon dioxide promote global warming ,
while sulfur dioxide emission cause s global cooling, ozone destruction, munotes.in
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18 and polluted air , known as volcanic smog. Voluntary gas emissions
aredirectly harm ful to humans and the surrounding environment . Usually,
the severity of hazards from volcanic gases is high in the areas
immediately surrounding volcanoes . But these hazards canpersist for long
distances also.
The volcanic ash fallout from large -scale explosive eruptions ismade of
tiny fragments of jagged rock and minerals, iscomplex , abrasive, and does
not dissolve in water.These rock fragments generally mix with the
solidified lava in the air and create an ash cloud. Wind s carry small
volcanic ash particles to great distan ces because the smaller the particle,
the further the wind carries it . When Mount St. Helens, in Washington,
erupted in 1980, a column of ash fro m the volcano rose 19 km into the air.
Ashes have been found thousands of kilometers away from an eruption
site. As eruptions produce features like pyroclastic flows, mudflows ,
etc.,they cause significant loss of life and property. For example, t he 2008
eruption of Chaitén in Chile produced an ash cloud that blew 1,000
kilometers across Patagonia to Argentina, reach ing both the Pacific and
Atlantic coasts.
Plumes of volcanic ash cause enormous clouds , often accompanied by
lightning and thunder . The ash and gases can so metimes reach the
stratosphere, reflecting incoming solar radiation and absorbing outgoing
land radiation, leading to the Earth’s temperature cooling . In extreme
cases, th iscooling , known as “volcanic winters ,” can affect weather
patterns across the globe. The Mount Tambora eruption in Indonesia in
1815 (one of the largest eruption s in history ) ejected an estimated 150
cubic kilometers of debris into the air. The average global temperature
cooled by 3° C, causing extreme weather worldwide for three years. As a
result of its volcanic ash, North America and Europe experienced the
“Year without a summer ” in 1816. The same year was characterized by
widespread famine, crop failure , and disease s.
Fig. 1. Volcanic injection
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Volcanic_injection.svg munotes.in
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Environmental Degradation
19 Volcanic gases can severely damage human health, vegetation , and
wildlife. Exposure to acid gases can damage the eyes and respiratory
system and , under extreme conditions , can lead to death. For example, In
October 1902, Santa Maria, a stratovolcano eruption in Guatemala ,killed
about 1,500 people. At lea st 350 people from one village died from deadly
fumes .1In another instance, at least 1,200 people were killed and 300
hospitalized when an underwater volcanic explosion unleashed poisonous
gases at Lake Nios in a remote area of northern Cameroon . 2Direct and
long-term exposure to volcanic gas is lethal to most types of foliage.
Mammoth Mountain, a significant volcanic d epression in eastern
California, has been active for about 4 million years. Numerous ‘ persistent
swarm s of small earthquakes in the 1990s occurred beneath the volcano,
making the U.S. Fore st Service rangers first notice the areas of tree kill.
When U.S. Geological Survey scientists investigated, they discovered that
the trees were killed by high concentrations of carbon dioxide gas in the
soil.From 1990 to 2000 , areas of dying forest around Mammoth Mountain
occupy more than 100 acres.3
Similarly, the release of sulphur dioxide gas cause acid rain when it gets
converted to sulphuric acid in the stratosphere . Acid rains cause ecological
imbalance , most ly in aquatic environments, such as streams, lakes, and
marshes . These can be harmful to fish and other wildlife. While it flows
through the soil, acid rainwater can leach aluminum from soil clay
particles .Recently, Tonga’sHunga Tonga - Hung aHa'apai massive
underwater volcanic eruption in January 2022 is feared to deliver long -
lasting damage to coral reefs, erode coastlines , and disrupt fisheries. One
can be through acid rain, as the volcano has released sulfur dioxide and
nitrogen oxide sinc e its initial eruption. These two gases create acid rain
when interacting with water and oxygen in the atmosphere . As acid rain
causes widespread crop damage, thefearof Tongan staples like taro,
bananas , corn , and garden vegetables getting ruined is gripping the
population. The toxic volcanic ash discharge in ocean water can harm
marine life more because Tonga has an exclusive economic zone of nearly
700,000 mar ine square kilomet ers, which is 1,000 times larg er than its
land area. A nd the majority of its population get s their food and livelihood
from the ocean.Falling ash is also expectedto smother coral reefs , thus
affecting Tonga's ability to cope with rising waters and storm surges.
Rising wateris a concern for Tonga, as climate c hange is driving the sea
level to rise by about 6 millimeters per year ,double the global average.
Tsunami often follows earthquakes in coastal areas. In addition to
destroying human construction, tsunamis destroy vegetation, resulting in
landslides and coastal vegetation . The waves that enter inland fill fresh
water sources with saltwater and cause contamination of soil. The s alt
inhibits plant growth and renderssoil fertility in coastal farmland for many
years. The base of a tsunami wave can change the topography of the sea
floor by eroding seafloor sediments .It devastates the sea bottom
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20 ecosystems by transport ingvast amounts of sand, which reshapes beaches
and creates miles of underwater dunes. For example, the tsunami that
struck Japan in March 20 11 tore up the rocky seabed. Later , researchers
found that large rocks had been overturned along the coast, destroying
whole communities of some sea species thatwere vital as fishery
resources.
The 2004 Indian Ocean t sunami was undoubtedly one of the worst the
world has ever seen. An estimated 2 ,50,000 persons perished in the
tsunami . Millions more were displaced or rendered homeless.
Environmental assets such as water, land, forest, agricultural and fisheries
areas, and coral reefs had been brutally damaged. The affected countries'
most critical e cologic al problems were solid waste and disaster debris.
They were c ombined with the issue of waste , hazardous materials , and
toxic substances like asbestos, oil fuel, and other industrial raw materials
and chemicals.Contamination of water and soil was the second critical
environmental impact of the tsunami. This caused the s alination of
fresh water bodies from rivers to groundwater aquifers. It also affected the
soil fertility of agricultural lands due to salination and debris
contamination, which affected medium and long -term yields . Indonesia's
Sumatra island lost around 20 percent of sea -grass beds, 30 percent of
coral reefs, 25 -35 percent of wetlands, and 50 percent of sandy be aches on
the west coast due to the receding waters of the tsunami.The debris
generated by the tsunami not only mixed different types of wastes, but the
backwash carried these wastes and deposited them in the ocean. In
Thailand, along the Andaman coast,a bout 15 to 20 percent of the coral
reefs were affected by the tsunami - due to siltation and sand infiltration .
In Sri Lanka, around 62,000 groundwater wells were contaminated by
seawater, wastewater, and sewage, thus, rendering them useless.Tsunamis
also endanger the local environment by releasing radiation from damaged
nuclear facilities.In 2011, a tsunami and earthquake in Japan caused the
Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster . The nuclear plant released radioactive
material that required the contaminated w ater into the Pacific Ocean and
evacuation of the nearby area . It was the largest nuclear disaster since
Chernobyl because it caused many issues in the ecosystem and
surrounding waters, spreading radioactive material through far -ranging
ocean currents.
Even tropical cyclones often cause environmental changes far beyond
where they make landfall. Fast w inds rip trees from the ground , erode soil,
and flatten buildings . It often results in the loss of animal habitats,
interrupting and changing ecosystems.
Tsunamis, cyclones, or incessant rain, cause floods. F looding leads to
devastation at personal and regional scales. Loss of life and damage to
property and infrastructure are the immediate effects of a flood. It also
brings many long -term challenges, inclu ding environmental impacts,
deterioration of human health in affected areas, and economic hardship.
The 2013 North India flood, often labeled as a mega -disaster, became one
of the worst disasters in living memory, causing widespread damage and
destruction, besides heavy casualties. Uttarakhand was hit byheavy rains, munotes.in
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Environmental Degradation
21 which resulted in flash floods in all the major river vall eys in the State.
Torrential rains triggered major landslide s at numerous locations. The
2004 Indian Ocean tsunami resulted in an extensive surge in coastal areas
and a few kilometers of inland areas.
Hurricane Harvey, one of the most devastating hurricanes in recent years,
caused catastrophic flooding in Texas and Louisiana in 2017. Water
quality, air quality, and energy supply we re the three areas significantly
impacted by the hurricane. Because flood waters carry enormous amounts
of debris and sediments, tons of residue s were dragg ed along and
deposited downstream in water bodies and city streets , causing health
concerns. Water f rom flooded refineries, industries, storage tanks,
grounded vessels, and household garbage w as swept up and spread with
the flood waters leading to toxic releases. Millions of gallons of untrea ted
sewage overflowed the region of hurricane landfall. The eco system also
faced direct loss. The hurricane resulted in vast amounts of freshwater
inflows the bay, consequently decreasing salinity levels to near zero .Even
though freshw ater inflows are an essential component of the bay s ystem,
such long -term decreases in salinity can kill oysters. It has been estimated
that it might take more than two years for oysters torepopulate bay areas .
Along with these,catastrophic flood s also result in changes toand loss of
nesting and feeding habitat s for bird, reptile , and mammal species.
2.5 FACTORS RESPONSIBLE A ND CONSEQUENCES
- HUMAN -INDUCED RIMARY/ SECONDARY/
TERTIARY ACTIVITIES (ANY ONE EXAMPLE
FROM EACH ACTIVITY)
Human beings have the most significan t ecological footprint. The
increasing human population is negatively affecting the environment due
to human activities .
Primary activities mainly include farming, fishing , and mining. These
activities directly depend on the environment a s these refer to the
utilization of the earth’s natural resources .Agriculture uses “more inputs of
natural resources per unit of value added than any other sector of the
economy, including manufacturing, construction, and
transportation .”4Agriculture contributes to a larger number of
environmental issues depending upon t he farmers' practices and the scale
of their practice. Farming cause environmental degradation such as -
Deforestation - According to the Food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO), “the expansion of agriculture caused nearly 80 percent of
global deforestation, with the construction of infrastructures making
up the remaining causes of deforestation. ”5Worldwide, more than half
of forest loss is due to the conversion of forest into cropland for
commercial or industrial agriculture .Livestoc k grazing is responsible
for almost 40 percent of forest los s globally. From 2000 to 2018, most
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Ecology and Environment
22 deforestation occurred in tropical biomes. Conversion of forest land to
cropland dominates in South America, Africa , and Asia.In South
America, almost three -quarters of deforestation is due to livestock
grazing.
Climate change - Agriculture significantly contributes to
anthropogenic global warming , generating 19–29 percent of total
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This happens for usingfossil fuels,
also due to land cle aring for grazing and cropping , methane emissions
from livestock, rice cultivationand burning of manure and biomass ,
and nitrous oxide emissions to the atmosphere for using fertilizers .
Without action, that percentage could rise substantially.
Biodiversity loss - Biodiversity is “the number, variety , and variability
of living organisms and howthese change from one location to another
and over time .” Agricultural biodiversity refers to “all ecosystems and
life forms directly related tofarming. ” Farmed crops interact with
various organisms in the natural ecosystems and depend on them for
their output production . This vast chain of interdependence makes
agriculture the largest contributor to biodiversity loss.
Genetic engineering - “Genetically Mod ified Organisms (GMOs)”
was introduced with promises of better and more foo d. Through
genetic engineering6, desirable7 genes were moved from one plant or
animal to another or from a plant to an animal or vice versa. Despite
many advantages, the genetic engineering of plants and animals today
looms as one of the present century's most significant and intractable
environmental challenges . The movement of genes from GMO plants
into conventional crops causes an indirect effect on foo d safety and
food security. Generally, the pollen or seeds from genetically
engineered (GE) crops contaminates traditional crops .Contamination
of corn is the biggest concern as it is both used in human food and is
also used to feed livestock . According to GMO critic Greenpeace
International , there were 39 cases of crop contamination in 23
countries in 2007 and more than 200 in 57 countries over the next
decade.
Irrigation problems - Globally, agriculture accounts for around 70
percent of freshwater consump tion. As per the experts, to feed the
growing population, water extraction may increase by an additional 15
percent or more by 2050. This diversion of freshwater and depletion of
aquifers through over -drafting is undoubted ly alarming for farmers and
researchers.
Soil degradation - According to recent report sfrom the United
Nations, almost one -third of the world’s farmable land has disappeared
in the last four decades due to soil degradation . It contributes to 36 –75
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Environmental Degradation
23 billion tons of land depletion yearly , and freshwater shortages threaten
the global food supply. Soil degradation is the loss of soil's intrinsic
physical, chemical, and biological qualities by natural or anthropic
processes, which result in the diminution or destruc tion of essential
ecosystem functions. T he main threats to its ecological functions are -
erosion, organic matter decline, loss of biodiversity, compaction,
sealing, point -source and diffused contamination, pollution, and
salinization .
Terrestrial mining causes deforestation and releases toxic amounts of fly
ash and smoke laden with greenhouse gases and chemicals like methane.
The effects of mining coal persist for years after the coal is
removed. Different types of mining destroy landscapes, forests, and
wildlife habitats at the mine sit e, thus causing soil erosion and destruction
of agricultural land. One of the worst ecological disasters caused by
humans caused severe harm to the environment along the Ok Tedi River
and the Fly River in the Western Provin ce of Papua New Guinea between
about 1984 and 2013. Since the mid -1980s, the large copper and gold
mine has released millions of tons of untreated mining waste into the Ok
Tedi tributary of the Fly River every year. This mining pollution, caused
by the col lapse of the Ok Tedi tailings dam system in 1984 and the
consequent switch to riverine disposal for several decades , caused the
death of fish, the disappearance of turtles, the destruction of food gardens ,
and killed thousands of trees.
Similarly, deep -sea mining affects ocean biodiversity and ecosystems.
Deep -sea mining refers to retrieving mineral deposits from the deep
seabed of the ocean below 200m. Depletion of terrestrial deposits and
rising demand for metals initiated deep -sea mini ng. However, machines
can alter or destroy marine habitats by digging and gauging the ocean
floor. Also, pelagic species such as whales, tuna , and sharks could be
affected by noise, vibrations , and light pollution caused by mining
equipment and surface vessels, as well as potential leaks and spills of fuel
and toxic products.
Fishing is one of the most significant drivers of declines in ocean wildlife
populations. The fishing industry affects m arine conservation issues,
including fish populations, water pollution, and habitat degradation.
According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations, the number of overfished stocks globally has tripled in half a
century . At present, o ne-third of the world's assessed fisheries are pushed
beyond thei r biological limits. This is closely followed by bycatch , i.e.,the
capture of unwanted sea life while fishing fo r a different species ha sa
severe marine threat that causes the needless loss o f billions of fish and
hundreds of thousands of other marine species .
Factories have majorly contributed to environmental damage —air
pollution, toxic waste, and water contamination. Industrial factories are
significant contributors to air pollution. Pollu tants like gas, smoke, or
particulate matter reduce air quality and lead to adverse living conditions
for plants, animals , and humans. Carbon dioxide and methane emitted munotes.in
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Ecology and Environment
24 from factories absorb radiation from the sun and, therefore, affect the
planet's tempe rature directly. Industrial waste, pesticides, chemical
fertilizers, and oil spills pollute the soil. This , in turn , affects the growth of
crops and can damage natural environments.
Industrial accidents harm the environment. A serious contaminant that
may be seen after an industrial accident is acid -rain.Water contamination
was caused by the BP oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico, the largest marine oil
spill in history. After an oil platform exploded, large amounts of oil spilled
out into the ocean, ravagi ng the aquatic water life in the area and
consequently impacting the local community and food chain. The
Chernobyl disaster, an accident in 1986 at the Chernobyl nuclear power
station in the Soviet Union, was the worst in the history of nuclear power
genera tion.Belarus, Russia , and Ukraine were the most affected. Millions
of forest s, farmland and freshwater bodies were contaminated, and
thousands of p eople were evacuated. In addition, in subsequent years ,
many livestock were born deformed, and among humans , several thousand
radiation -induced illnesses and cancer deaths were expected in the long
term.The impacts on wildlife in the vicinity of the Chernobyl plant are
disputed. The Bhopal Gas tragedy in 1984 was one of the tragic disasters in
India that resulted in thousands of deaths and continue s to have serious
ramifications decades later. Even the environmental disaster impact was
huge.
Fig. 2. Potential impacts from deep -sea mining
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Environmental Degradation
25 [Source: Drazen, J. C., Smith, C. R., Gjerde , K. M., Haddock, S. H.,
Carter, G. S., Choy, C. A., ... & Yamamoto, H. (2020). Midwater
ecosystems must be considered when evaluating environmental risks of
deep -sea mining. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,
117(30), 17455 -17460. ]
2.6 GLOBAL ENVI RONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Burning fossil fuels, expanding agriculture , and exploit ing fresh water for
irrigation and industrial waste disposal are major human activities
interfering with the global ecosystem. Natural Environment
Degradation refers to “the destruction and loss of native species and natural
processes such that only certain components of the original biodiversity
and ecological functions persist, often with significantly altered natural
communities.” It is expected that by the end of t his century, humans will
have transformed almost every inhabitable stretch of the planet. The
degradation of natural resources results from the cumulative activities of
farmers, households , and industries. The significant ways by which
humans alter the natu ral environment are –
Deforestation - Biodiversity is threatened by the degradation and
destruction of forests resulting in the reduction or fragmentation of the
natural ecosystem. Factors like timber production, cutting trees for
firewood, clear ing fores ts for agriculture, mining, cyclones, droughts ,
etc., causes deforestation. The remaining forests are threatened by –
climate change, fire, increasing population, acidification , and diseases.
Tropical forests are the most important surviving forest lands, which
contain about two -thirds of all plant and animal species. At the present
rate of deforestation, an estimated 15 percent of all forest species could
disappear within the ne xt two decades.
Deforestation expedites erosion and changes local hydrological cy cles and
precipitation patterns.This results in decreased land's ability to re tain water
during rainy periods, flash floods that destroy irrigation systems ,and many
more.The underlying forces behind deforestation are - poverty, population
growth, economic growth, urbanization , and expansion of agricultur al
lands. In the past, the introduction of agriculture led to losses of forests in
temperate zones (Europe, Asia , and North A merica) . Recent years have
witnessed the rapid disappearance of tropical forests (Latin America, Asia ,
and Africa). Between 1970 and 2002, forest cover decreased by 12 percent.
Developing countries have a higher rate of deforestation. Around 16
percent of t he world's forests are in the Asia/Pacific.
The mountain forests are vulnerable to se vere losses because of logging
operations, local farmers, and charcoal producers. The Himalayan
watershed covering Nepal, Bangladesh, and Northern India, had lost 40
percent of its forest by 1980 . Logging and clearing rainforests and
mangroves are rapid i n the Philippines and Indonesia to establish exotic
plantations. The slash and burn agriculture , known as Jhum cultivation in
India, is also responsible for deforestat ion in the practi ced region s. munotes.in
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26 Desertification - occurs when “the natural vegetation cover is
reduced, and the topsoil becomes susceptible to erosion.”
Consequently, leading to increased surface runoff, stream discharge,
reduction of water infiltration and groundwater recharge, and
reduction in native plants. Climate change results in the gradual
depletion of vegetation structure and cover, species diversity, mineral
content, and soil structure. Thus eventually leading to the formation of
deserts. Human act ions like overgrazing, over -cultivation,
deforestation, irrigation, and soil erosion produce desert and semi -
desert conditions.
Mismanagement of agriculture and continuous population growth has
resulted in desertification worldwide. Desertification is a s ignificant threat
to the world's arid, semiarid and dry sub -humid regions. In 2015, about
500 million people lived in areas that experienced desertification between
the 1990s and 2000s. By 2050, an estimated 4 billion people will live in
drylands. As two -thirds of Africa is arid or semi -arid, it is most seriously
affected by desertification.
Land Degradation - This umbrella term covers problems like - wind
and water erosion and soil pollution by urban wastes. It disrupts five
essential ecosystem functions - food production, water retention, fiber
provision, microclimate regulation, and carbon storage. Degradation
of land impacts includes loss of soil fertility, destruction of the habitat
of species, soil erosion, and excessive nutrient runoff. It also cau ses
malnutrition, diseases, forced migration, etc. According to the
Intergovernmental Science -Policy Platform on Biodiversity and
Ecosystem Services (IPBES), in 2018, “worsening land degradation
caused by human activities is undermining the well -being of t wo-fifths
of humanity, driving species extinctions and intensifying climate
change. It also contributes significantly to mass human migration and
increased conflict.” The significant direct causes of land degradation
are –
a. theconversion of native vegetati on into crop and grazing lands and
unsustain able land -management practices.
b. theeffects of climate change and loss of land to rapid urbani zation,
infrastructure , and mining.
The IPBES (2018) reports that 43% of the world 's population live s in
regions affected by land degradation. Sub-Saharan Africa, Asia , and South
and Central America are witnessing rapid land degradation .
Erosion of Biological Diversity - Human activity endangers habitats,
species , and genepools. The loss of biodiversit y is majorly driven by
economic systems that fail to value the environment and its resources.
Some species are under direct threat due to hunting and poaching.
Changes in landuse followed by alteration, fragmentation , and
destruction of habitats are the primary threats. Tropical forests are
significant biodiversity stocks . These stocks are declining worldwide munotes.in
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27 as half of their original cover has vanished. For example, the Atlantic
forest is home to 35 percent of South America’s population. Atlantic
forests are one of the world's most fragmented tropical/subtropical
forests. This might happen in the future with other tropical forests
worldwide.
Destruction of Natural Barriers and threat to coral reef
ecosystem - Destruction of natural barriers may result in ecological
disasters. For example - The Gulf of Mannar in the Indian Ocean is
bestowed with three distinct coastal ecosystems - coral reef, sea grass
bed, and mangroves. It is considered an ecological paradise for its
unique biological wealth . The Gulf is under severe threat due to over -
harvesting of fishery resources, destruction of habitats , industrial
pollution , destruction of breeding grounds of fish, trade -in of highly
endangered marine organisms, dynamite fishing , and use of prohibited
fishing gears by fisher folk .
Detrimental changes in ocean characteristics - The constant
complex processes in the sea can destroy sea life. Man-made events
like nuclear explosions can trigger these processe s. Lowering
temperature due to climate change , lowering of salinity because of
river discharge, and displac ing ocean current s (El Nino ) are some of
the advers e effects.
Persistently rising temperature s of water cause coral bleaching, which in
turn im pacts coral reef ecosystems. Warmer waters also c ause mass
migration of marine species as they search for the right conditions for
spawning and feeding. For example, Conservation International research
revealed that increasing ocean water temperature alters tuna habitats . The
warming is causing them to mo ve significantly to the east of the Pacific
Islands. This mass ex it could be catastrophic for the economies of many
Pacific Island countries , such as Fiji and the Cook Islands.
Global Warming - An increase in average global temperature leads to
changes in rainfall patterns, rises in sea levels, melting of the ice caps ,
and widespread flooding. The IPCC has forecast that the level of
carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere will double by 2050, and the
global average temperatures will rise between 1.4 to 5.8oC by 2100.
According to researchers, Antarctica is shrinking underwater, as
submerged ice is melting rapidly. The production of algae depends on
the presence of sea ice. As sea ice diminishes, algae diminish too,
causing a ripple effect on species like pol ar bears, seals, and whales.
The sea -level rise iscausing the melting of polar ice and glaciers from
Greenland and Antarctic a at a rapid rate. Per the 2019 UN report, the
melting of polar ice is resulting in an unprecedented rise of sea levels that
can displace more than 680 million people living across low-lying coastal
communities.
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28 Ocean currents play a significant role in maintaining Earth’s climate. The
warming of oceans alters currents. For example, The Gulf Stream , which
maintains Europe’s mild climate , is experiencing an unprecedented
slowdown. These will have significant implications worldwide, including
changes in rainfall pattern s. To explain broadly, the deceleratio n of the
current might lead to more rain in some areas and much less in others ,
along with fluctuating air temperatures. These changes have drastic
implications for both species and humans.
Overpopulation, poverty, urbanization, rapid industrialization , and various
other factors exert ever -increasing pressure on the carrying capaci ty of
land and resources , causing environmental degradation.
2.7 LOCAL ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS WITH
SPECIAL REFERENCE TO MUMBAI
METROPOLITAN REGION
Mumbai, the city of paradoxes, has pollution and a growing population as
significant problems. As Mumbai was carved out of seven islands, t he
pressing environmental issues of the city emerged during its creation. The
filling up of the river that ran through the city ha sdepleted the areas of
dissipation.
Mangroves form an integral part of the landscape of Mumbai and are
disappearing fast because of encroachments, aquaculture ponds , and
infrastructure development . Mangrove ecosystems serve as a buffer
between land and sea; theyprevent soil erosion and protect shorelines
agains t cyclones and ecological disasters. The mangrove swamps of greater
Mumbai spread over various areas like Mahim, Madh, Versova, Gorai,
Thane creek, and Ghodbunder. However, the city is losing stretches of
mangroves to the reclamati on of land for constructio n and developmental
projects. For example, hundreds of acres of mangrove stretches
were sanctioned to buil d the Essel World amusement park in the Gorai
creek at Boriv ali.The loss of mangrove cover due to urbanization projects
has increased the frequency of flooding . Similarly, the construction of sea
links or bridges to ease traffic congestion poses an environmental danger
tothe habitats of various species and is wiping out once -thriving wildlife
breeding grounds.
Mumbai’s marine population is declining due to pollution caused by the
industrial waste discharg e. Carbon monoxide levels and particulate matter
emissions have risen owing to t raffic congestion. Illegal construction,
encroachment by slums , and quarrying threaten the national park's green
space .
Along with these, various other environmental issues are likely to threaten
Mumbai. Even though the city has al ways had its share of dedicated
NGOs and environmentalists who have fought tirelessly to secure the
const ant environmental suicide , it still has a long way to go.
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Environmental Degradation
29
2.8 SUMMARY
As Homo sapiens first walked the earth, there have been several
modifications on the planet through the development of infrastructure,
travel, and the incorporation of urbanization and other commercial
networks. However, the change has been both positive and negative,
physically or human -induced .
2.9 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS OR EXERCISE
1. True or False
a. As per IPCC, the global average temperatures will rise by between 1.4
to 5.8oC by 2100 .
b. Hurricane Harvey caused catastrophic flooding in Texas and Louisiana
in 2017 .
c. Niigata earthquake caused a volcanic eruption in Niigata .
d. Gulf Stream maintains Europe’s mild climate.
e. Desertification refers to the conversion of native vegetation into crop
and grazing lands
2. Fill in the blanks
a. The phenomenon in which the stiffness and strength o f soil reduce by
ground shaking is known as __________.
b. IPBES stands for _____________ _.
c. _________ caused the collapse of Ok Tedi.
d. The capture of unwanted sea life while fishing for a different species is
called _________ _.
e. __________ refers to retrieving mineral deposits from the deep seabed
of the ocean below 200m.
3. Multiple Choice Questions
1. Ok Tedi river incident occurred in the ________ province of
________ _
a. Eastern, Papua New Guinea
b. Northern, West Indies
c. Western, Philippines
d. Western, Papua New Guinea
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30 2. According to the Food and A griculture Organization (FAO), the
expansion of agriculture caused nearly ________ of global
deforestation .
a. 75 percent
b. 80 percent
c. 60 percent
d. 85 percent
3. The Chernob yl disaster occurred in ______ at the Chernob yl nuclear
power station in the _______
a. 1986, South Korea
b. 1986, Soviet Union
c. 1987, Soviet Union
d. 1987, Seoul
4. Mammoth Mountain incident took place in ________
a. USA
b. Canada
c. Indonesia
d. South Africa
5. North America and Europe experienced the “Year without a summer”
in _______
a. 1816
b. 1820
c. 1813
d. 1821
4. Answer the following questions
a. How does volcanic activityaffect a community? How do t hey affect
the natural environment? How does a volcanic eruption fit into the
natural cycle of environmental changes?
b. Betweennature and hu mans, who has more impa ct on the
environment? Why does one have more impact? What are both
nature's and humans' negative and positive effects on the environment?
c. Discuss in detail the environmental problems faced by the Mumbai
Metropolitan Region .
d. Explain the global environmental problems with examples.
e. Write about any five major recent time disasters in India and their
impact on the environment. munotes.in
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Environmental Degradation
31 2.10 ANSWERS TO THE SELF -LEARNING QUESTIONS
1.a. True
1.b. True
1.c. False
1.d. True
1.e. False
2.a.Liquefaction
2.b. Intergovernmental Science -Policy Platform on Biodiversity and
Ecosystem Services
2.c. Mining pollution
2.d. Bycatch
2.e. Deep -sea mining
3.1. d
3.2. b
3.3. b
3.4. a
3.5. a
2.11 TECHNICAL WORDS AND THEIR MEANING
Liquefaction – It occurswhen loosely packed, water -logged sediments
at or near the ground surface lose their strength in response to firm
ground shaking.
Overdraft - Overdraft occurs when, over the years, more water is
pumped from a groundwater basin than is replaced fro m all sources –
such as rainfall, irrigation water, streams fed by mountain runoff , and
intentional recharge.
Pyroclastic Flow – Along with shooting volcanic ash into the
atmosphere, an explosive eruption can create an avalanche of ash,
volcanic gases, and rock called a pyroclastic flow. These incredibly
fast volcanic debris avalanche s can be impossible for humans to
outrun. Pyroclastic flows are capable of razing buildings and uprooting
trees.
Soil degradation - is the loss of land’s production capacity in terms of
loss of soil fertility, biodiversity, and degradation. Soil degradation
causes include agricultural, industrial, and commercial pollution; loss
of arable land due to urban expansion ; overgrazing, unsu stainable
farming practices; and long -term climatic changes.
Subsidence - The movement of the earth's surface from a higher to a
lower position concerning a particular datum, such as the mean sea
level, is known as subsidence of the earth’s crust. It is me asured in
units of length. munotes.in
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32 2.12 TASK
Are there other large -scale natural occurrences that affect communities on
such large scales than the ones you read in this chapter? What are they?
What are the differences and similarities among these occurrences ?
2.13 REFERENCES FOR FURTHER STUDY
1. ADB, 2005, "An Initial Assessment of the Impact of the Earthquake
and Tsunami of December 2004." Manila: Asian Development Bank
2. Dickie, G. (2022, January 18) Explainer: Tonga’s volcanic eruption
may harm environment for years, scientists say. Reuters.
https://www.reuters.com/business/environment/tongas -volcanic -
eruption -may-harm -environment -years -scientists -say-2022 -01-18/
3. FAO. 2022. FRA 2020 Remote Sensing Survey. FAO Forestry Paper,
No. 186. Rome.
4. Hansen, M. C., Potapov, P. V., Moore, R., Hancher, M., Turubanova,
S. A., Tyukavina, A., ...& Townshend, J. (2013). High -resolution
global maps of 21st -century forest cover change. science , 342(6160),
850-853.
5. Ribeiro, M. C., Metzger, J. P., Martensen, A. C., Ponzoni, F. J., &
Hirota, M. M. (200 9). The Brazilian Atlantic Forest: How much is left,
and how is the remaining forest distributed? Implications for
conservation. Biological conservation, 142(6), 1141 -1153.
6. Simkin, T., & Siebert, L. (1994). Volcanoes of the World. Geoscience
Presss . Inc. Tusson. Arizona.
7. United States Geological Survey. (2000). U.S. Geological Survey –
Reducing the risk from Volcano Hazards, Invisible CO2 Gas Killing
trees at Mammoth Mountain, California [Fact sheet].
https://pubs.usgs.gov/dds/dds -81/Intro/facts -sheet/fs172 -96.pdf
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33 3
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION
AND SUSTAINABILITY
(CONTAC T HOURS 15)
Unit Structure :
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Introduction
3.3 Subject Discussion
3.4 Need for ecological equilibrium, stability and environmental
sustainability
3.5 Principles of Environmental conservation
3.6 Global efforts for Environmental conservation
3.7 Role of Indian government towards Environmental conservation
3.8 Summary
3.9 Check your Progress/ Exercise
3.10 Answers to Self -Learning Questions
3.11 Technical words and their meaning
3.12 Task
3.13 References for further study
3.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you will able to understand:
The concept of ecological equilibrium environmental sustainability
The Principles of environmental conservation
Efforts taken towards environmental conservation at global level
Role of Indian government towards Environmental conservation
3.2 INTRODUCTION
Ecology is scientific study of the interactions between o rganisms and their
environments (Ernst Haeckel, 1866 ).All living things are interrelated,
interlinked and interdependent upon each other for growth and survival.
Transfer of energy and cycling of nutrients through various bio-geo-munotes.in
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Ecology and Environment
34 chemical cycles of the environment are responsible for supporting life in
different habitats. Depending upon the physical environment various
terrestrial ecosystem ( grassland, shrub -land, marshland, sparse forest,
dense forest, hot -desert, cold desert, hig hland eco systems) and aquatic
ecosystem ( marine ecosystem, lake ecosys tem, fresh water ecosystem etc .)
function through its diverse biotic and abiotic factors. However any
disturbance in these factors has a cascading effect in the entire ecosystem
function s and ultimately causes ecological disequilibrium and instability.
These disturbances in present times occur largely due to irrational human
interference in the natural processes threatening the entire life forms and
ecosystem vitality. It is therefore ess ential to understand the fundamental
principles of ecosystem, so that human activities are managed in a way
that maintain s ecological equilibrium by practicing environmental
sustainability.
3.3 SUBJECT DISCUSSION
The various escalating environmental issues has brought serious debates
about the development activities and associated socio -economic outcomes.
The patterns of resource availability and its utilization has resulted in large
scale environmental degradation leading to the countries all over the world
to reckon the sustainability approach in the current times. To achieve a
balance between environmental and socio -economic needs, the practice of
conservation and management of natural resources has been seen as a key
instrument and is therefore accepted as an integral part of global and
national policies and governance. The present chapter explains these
aspects at length and thus highlights the importance of environmental
conservation and sustainability and the efforts taken at international and
national level.
3.4 NEED FOR ECOLOGICAL EQUILIBRIUM,
STABILITY AND ENVIRONME NTAL
SUSTAINABILITY
Ecological equilibrium or ecosystem stability i n simplest terms refers to
the balance between the ecosystem functions of resource creation and our
consumption of the resources i.e. demands from it. For ecosystem to
remain in balance, the conditions of diversity and functional vibrancy need
to be present through the ecosystem dynami cs. The carrying capacity of
ecosystems hence needs to be respected and maintained. Environmental
sustainability as an approach focuses upon maintaining the restorative
capacities of the nature which provide us with abundant resources for
survival, liveli hood and development. Environmental sustainability refers
to the ability to maintain the qualities that are valued in the physical
environment (Sutton, 2004). In simplest terms it refers to maintenance of
natural capital so that the ecosystems remain diverse function and produce
resources infinitely. The need for environmental sustainability arises as
global demand for finite natural resources is increasing and is becoming
beyond the natural capacity of our ecosystems to replenish the same. This
population pressure has started to raise concerns over the future of entire munotes.in
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Environmental Conservation And Sustainability (Contact Hours 15)
35 human civilization and its development, making it necessary to bring in
line our activities in tandem with environmental conservation and resource
management. This makes it clear that the only way forward is through
understanding the fundamental principles on which our environmental
systems function and incorporating the elements of sustainability to foster
long term socio -economic development from local to global levels.
Various attempts from local to global efforts have been devised to bring in
ecological stability by promoting and practicing sustainability.
Sustainability focuses on balancing th is fine line between competing needs
driven by technological and economic advancement and the needs to
protect our environments in which we and other organi sms live (C.T
Emejuru and Dike, 2019). Environmental sustainability as a practice thus
is a means to improve human welfare by protecting the natural capital as a
source of raw materials for human needs and ensuring that the wastes
created are assimilated in the natural sinks .It entails the maintenance of
natural capital by holding the scale of human economic subsystem within
the biophysical limits of the overall e cosystem on which it depends.
Environmental sustainability can be ensured through sustainable
production and sustain able consumption. It thus needs the conservation
efforts to maintain traditional value and measure of income to natural
capital now that it is no longer a free good but instead a more and more
limiting factor in development. Environmental sustainability th us adds
consideration of physical inputs into production, emphasizing
environmental life -support systems without which neither production nor
humanity could exist. These systems include atmosphere, water, soil,
biodiversity all of which need to be healthy meaning that their
environmental service capacity must be maintained. (C.T Emejuru and
Dike, 2019).
3.5 PRINCIPLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION
The term conservation finds it origin in the La tin word ‘conservare’
meaning “to keep, preserve, guard” from. In its simplest notion
environmental conservation includes all activities towards protection,
preservation, enhancement of the state of natural resources. It thus refers
to the management and judicious utilization of natural resources in a
planned way so that the biodiversity is maintained and so is the ecological
balance. It integrates the idea of sustainability as it seeks to safeguard the
resources for present as well as future generations to meet their needs. The
key concept of conservation thus lies in optimum utilizati on of resources
without wastages. Thus th e scope of environmental conservation includes
resource management, pollution control, climate studies, disaster
management, environmental engineering, ecosystem management, habitat
protection etc. conservation is this involved with studying all kinds of
damages, understanding the factors responsible, developing techniques to
prevent losses and restoring the biodiversity (Encyclopedia of Britannica).
The Principles of Environmental Conservation have been put forth in
various ways. The Earth Charter's ethica l vision proposes
that environmental protection , human rights , equitable human
development , and peace are interdependent and indivisible. The Earth munotes.in
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Ecology and Environment
36 Charter which serves as an international declaration of fundamental values
and principles to build a just, sustainable, and peaceful global society in
the 21st century, puts forth the following principles which provide
guidelines for environmental conservati on, sustainability and
development.6
I . RESPEC T AND CARE FOR THE COMMUNITY O F LIFE :
1. Respect Earth and life in all its diversity.
a. Recognize that all beings are interdependent and every form of life
has value regardless of its worth to human beings.
b. Affirm faith in the inherent dignity of all human beings and in the
intellectual, artistic, ethical, and spiritual potential of humanity.
2. Care for the community of life with understanding, compassion,
and love.
a. Accept that with the right to own , manage, and use natural
resources comes the duty to prevent environmental harm and to
protect the rights of people.
b. Affirm that with increased freedom, knowledge, and power comes
increased responsibility to promote the common good.
3. Build democrati c societies that are just, participatory, sustainable,
and peaceful.
a. Ensure that communities at all levels guarantee human rights and
fundamental freedoms and provide everyone an opportunity to
realize his or her full potential.
b. Promote social and economic justice, enabling all to achieve a
secure and meaningful livelihood that is ecologically responsible.
4. Secure Earth's bounty and beauty for present and future
generations.
a. Recognize that the freedom of action of each generation is
qualified by the needs of future generations.
b. Transmit to future generations values, traditions, and institutions
that support the long -term flourishing of Earth's human and
ecological communities.
In order to fulfill these four broad commitments, it is neces sary to:
I I . ECOLOGICAL INTEGRITY
5. Protect and restore the integrity of Earth's ecological systems, with
special concern for biological diversity and the natural processes that
sustain life. munotes.in
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Environmental Conservation And Sustainability (Contact Hours 15)
37 a. Adopt at all levels sustainable development plans and regulations
that make environmental conservation and rehabilitation integral to
all development initiatives.
b. Establish and safeguard viable nature and biosphere reserves,
including wild lands and marine areas, to protect Earth's life
support systems, maintain biodiversity, and preserve our natural
heritage.
c. Promote the recovery of endangered species and ecosystems.
d. Control and eradicate non -native or genetically modified
organisms harmful t o native species and the environment, and
prevent introduction of such harmful organisms.
e. Manage the use of renewable resources such as water, soil, forest
products, and marine life in ways that do not exceed rates of
regeneration and that protect the health of ecosystems.
f. Manage the extraction and use of non -renewable resources such as
minerals and fossil fuels in ways that minimize depletion and
cause no serious environmental damage.
6. Prevent harm as the best method of environmental protection and,
when knowledge is limited, apply a precautionary approach.
a. Take action to avoid the possibility of serious or irreversible
environmental harm even when scientific knowledge is incomplete
or inconclusive.
b. Place the burden of proof on those who argue that a proposed
activity will not cause significant harm, and make the responsible
parties liable for environmental harm.
c. Ensure that decision making addresses the cumulative, long -term,
indirect, long distance, and global consequences of human
activities.
d. Prevent pollution of any part of the environment and allow no
build -up of radioactive, toxic, or other hazardous substances.
e. Avoid military activities damaging to the environment.
7. Adopt patterns of production, consumption, and repro duction that
safeguard Earth's regenerative capacities, human rights, and
community well -being .
a. Reduce, reuse, and recycle the materials used in production and
consumption systems, and ensure that residual waste can be
assimilated by ecological systems .
b. Act with restraint and efficiency when using energy, and rely
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Ecology and Environment
38 c. Promote the development, adoption, and equitable transfer of
environmentally sound technologies.
d. Internalize the ful l environmental and social costs of goods and
services in the selling price, and enable consumers to identify
products that meet the highest social and environmental standards.
e. Ensure universal access to health care that fosters reproductive
health and responsible reproduction.
f. Adopt lifestyles that emphasize the quality of life and material
sufficiency in a finite world.
8. Advance the study of ecological sustainability and promote the open
exchange and wide application of the knowledge acquired .
a. Support international scientific and technical cooperation on
sustainability, with special attention to the needs of developing
nations.
b. Recognize and preserve the traditional knowledge and spiritual
wisdom in all cultures that contribute to enviro nmental protection
and human well -being.
c. Ensure that information of vital importance to human health and
environmental protection, including genetic information, remains
available in the public domain.
I I I . SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC JUSTICE
9. Eradicate poverty as an ethical, social, and environmental
imperative.
a. Guarantee the right to potable water, clean air, food security,
uncontaminated soil, shelter, and safe sanitation, allocating the
national and international resources required.
b. Empower ev ery human being with the education and resources to
secure a sustainable livelihood, and provide social security and
safety nets for those who are unable to support themselves.
c. Recognize the ignored, protect the vulnerable, serve those who
suffer, and enable them to develop their capacities and to pursue
their aspirations.
10. Ensure that economic activities and institutions at all levels
promote human development in an equitable and sustainable manner.
a. Promote the equitable distribution of wealth within nations and
among nations.
b. Enhance the intellectual, financial, technical, and social resources
of developing nations, and relieve them of onerous international
debt. munotes.in
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Environmental Conservation And Sustainability (Contact Hours 15)
39 c. Ensure that all trade supports sustainable resource use,
environmental pr otection, and progressive labor standards.
d. Require multinational corporations and international financial
organizations to act transparently in the public good, and hold
them accountable for the consequences of their activities.
11. Affirm gender equ ality and equity as prerequisites to sustainable
development and ensure universal access to education, health care,
and economic opportunity.
a. Secure the human rights of women and girls and end all violence
against them.
b. Promote the active participat ion of women in all aspects of
economic, political, civil, social, and cultural life as full and equal
partners, decision makers, leaders, and beneficiaries.
c. Strengthen families and ensure the safety and loving nurture of all
family members.
12. Upho ld the right of all, without discrimination, to a natural and
social environment supportive of human dignity, bodily health, and
spiritual well -being, with special attention to the rights of indigenous
peoples and minorities.
a. Eliminate discrimination in all its forms, such as that based on
race, color, sex, sexual orientation, religion, language, and
national, ethnic or social origin.
b. Affirm the right of indigenous peoples to their spirituality,
knowledge, lands and reso urces and to their related practice of
sustainable livelihoods.
c. Honor and support the young people of our communities, enabling
them to fulfill their essential role in creating sustainable societies.
d. Protect and restore outstanding places of cultur al and spiritual
significance.
IV. DEMOCRACY, NON -VIOLENCE, AND PEACE
13. Strengthen democratic institutions at all levels, and provide
transparency and accountability in governance, inclusive
participation in decision making, and access to justice.
a. Uphold the right of everyone to receive clear and timely
information on environmental matters and all development plans
and activities which are likely to affect them or in which they have
an interest.
b. Support local, regional and global civil societ y, and promote the
meaningful participation of all interested individuals and
organizations in decision making. munotes.in
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Ecology and Environment
40 c. Protect the rights to freedom of opinion, expression, peaceful
assembly, association, and dissent.
d. Institute effective and efficient acc ess to administrative and
independent judicial procedures, including remedies and redress
for environmental harm and the threat of such harm.
e. Eliminate corruption in all public and private institutions.
f. Strengthen local communities, enabling them t o care for their
environments, and assign environmental responsibilities to the
levels of government where they can be carried out most
effectively.
14. Integrate into formal education and life -long learning the
knowledge, values, and skills needed for a sustainable way of life.
a. Provide all, especially children and youth, with educational
opportunities that empower them to contribute actively to
sustainable development.
b. Promote the contribution of the arts and humanities as well as the
sciences in sustainability education.
c. Enhance the role of the mass media in raising awareness of
ecological and social challenges.
d. Recognize the importance of moral and spiritual education for
sustainable living.
15. Treat all living beings with respect and co nsideration .
a. Prevent cruelty to animals kept in human societies and protect
them from suffering.
b. Protect wild animals from methods of hunting, trapping, and
fishing that cause extreme, prolonged, or avoidable suffering.
c. Avoid or eliminate to the full extent possible the taking or
destruction of non -targeted species.
16. Promote a culture of tolerance, nonviolence, and peace .
a. Encourage and support mutual understanding, solidarity, and
cooperation among all peoples and within and among nations.
b. Implement comprehensive strategies to prevent violent conflict and
use collaborative problem solving to manage and resolve
enviro nmental conflicts and other disputes.
c. Demilitarize national security systems to the level of a non -
provocative defense posture, and convert military resources to
peaceful purposes, including ecological restoration. munotes.in
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Environmental Conservation And Sustainability (Contact Hours 15)
41 d. Eliminate nuclear, biological, an d toxic weapons and other
weapons of mass destruction.
e. Ensure that the use of orbital and outer space supports
environmental protection and peace.
f. Recognize that peace is the wholeness created by right
relationships with oneself, other persons, oth er cultures, other life,
Earth, and the larger whole of which all are a part.
3.6 GLOBAL EFFORTS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL
CONSERVATION
Various efforts towards Environmental Conservation can be traced to the
origin of the concept of Sustainability as an approach with started gaining
popularity among several environmentalists, scientists, sc holars and alike
who argued over the notions of growth and the limited resources resulting
into environmental degradation and global implications. Serious debates
began with th e publication of the book “Limits to Growth” and later The
“Silent Spring” by Rachael Carson in 1962 aroused public awareness
related to the harmful effects of use of chemicals in form of pesticides and
insecticides , also the release of the image known as Earthrise, taken by
astronaut William Anders in 1968 during the Apollo 8 mission.15Since
then global attention focused on various environmental issues throughout
the 1960’ s. In the United Nations Conference on Human Environment,
1972 the Stockholm declara tion was concluded on the Human
Environment from which the concept of Sustainable development became
popular at the global forum. The declaration was the first international
document to recognize the right to a healthy environment through 26
principles. Th e conference was marked as a watershed in the history of
international relations as it discussed about the protection and
conservation of biosphere which was of the utmost importance worldwide.
The initial approach focused on the control to human actions w hich would
include control on pollution and conservation of the natural environment10.
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) got established at
Stockholm as the central body in charge of environmental affairs by The
UN General Assembly.
Since 1980’s the discussions were directed from limits to growth towards
the idea of sustainable development. First mention of this term is in 1980
by the International Un ion for the Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources . In 1983, the UN created the World Commission on
Environment and Development, known as the Brundtland Commission. Its
work, which focused on the difficult relationship between environment
and development, resulted in the report Our Common Future (1987).15
This document coined the concept of sustainable development - defined as
"meeting the needs of the present generation without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs" - which is the basis
for the evolution of Internati onal Environmental Law.15The Commission
recommended to the United Nations the creation of new c harter or
Universal Declaration on Environmental Protect ion and Sustainable munotes.in
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42 Development to set “new norms” that would guide the way to sustainable
development.4The idea of the Earth Charter originated in 1987,
by Maurice Strong and Mikhail Gorbachev as members of The Club of
Rome , when the United Nations World Commission on Environment and
Development called for a new charter to guide the transition to sustainable
development . It thus paved way for The Earth Charter as proposed by the
Secretariat of the UNCED. After a series of discussion a New Earth
Charter Project was formally initiated in 1994 and the first interna tional
workshop on the Earth Charter was held at the Peace Palace, The Hague in
Netherlands.4 The year 1987 also marked signing of The Montreal
Protocol as an international effort to combat the depletion of the ozone
layer. The first international Earth Summit was held in Rio de Janeiro
from 3 June to 14 June 1992. This global conference, held on the occasion
of the 20th anniversary of the f irst Human Environment Conference in
Stockholm, Sweden, in 1972 , brought together political leaders, diplomats,
scientists, representatives of the media and non -governmental
organizations (NGOs) from 179 countries for a massive effort to focus on
the impact of human socio -economic activities on the environment and
address issues of environmental conservation. 14It was held with the
motive of Reaffirming the declaration of the United Nations Conference
on the Human Environment, adopted at Stockholm on 16th June 1972, and
seeking to build upon it. The Rio Declaration on Environment and
Developmentwas yet another important Declaration in t he history of
Environmental Law. The conference highlighted how different social,
economic and environmental factors are interdependent and evolve
together, and how success in one sector requires action in other sectors to
be sustained over time. The primary objective of the Rio 'Earth
Summit' was to produce a broad agenda and a new blueprint for
international action on environmental and development issues that would
help guide internatio nal cooperation and development policy in the
twenty -first century. 14Two principles of the Rio Declaration deserve
special consideration: the Precautionary Principle, the most advanced form
of prevention and important to the formation of modern IEL; and Principle
10, which recognizes the right to information, participation, and justice in
environmental matters.15
One of the major results of the UNCED Conference was Agenda 21 .This
declaration consists of 27 principles which guide the behaviour of the
country towards an environmentally sustainable pattern of development. It
is called as Agenda 21 because it is a comprehensive blue -print for local,
national, regional, and global actions to affect the transition to sustainable
development in the 21st Century. The declaration sought to achieve the
goal of establishing a new and equitable global partnership by bringing in
cooperation among the nations and their people. Its recommendations
ranged from new methods of education, to new ways of preserving natural
resources and new ways of participating in a sustainable economy.
According to Maurice Strong, Secretary General of UNCED, "Agenda 21
constitutes the most comprehensive and far reaching programme of action
ever approved by the world community". Thus the agenda lays emphasis munotes.in
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43 on the International co -operation for achieving the g oal of sustainable
development. 7
The 'Earth Summit' had many great achievements: the Rio Declaration and
its 27 universal principles, the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC) , the Convention on Biological Diversity ; and
the Declaration on the principles of forest management . The 'Earth
Summit' also led to the creation of the Commission o n Sustainable
Development , the holding of first world conference on the sustainable
development of small island developing States in 1994, and negotiations
for the establishment of the agree ment on straddling stocks and highly
migratory fish stocks.7“Following Rio Declaration, all major economic
treaties sought to include environmental protection. One such is
the Marrakesh A greement, which created the World Trade Organization in
1994 and was the first economic treaty to recognize the goals of
sustainable development and environmental protection. The
Convention on Climate Change of 1995 deserves special mention, since its
signatories have met every year at the so -called Conference of the Parties
(COP). Within this framework, in 1997 , the Kyoto Protocol was presented.
Despite not having been successful in mitigating greenhouse gas
emissions, it was the first international agreement to establish legally
binding obligations for developed countries. In Sept. 2000, 189 countries
adopted the Millennium Declaration at the UN headquarters in New York,
which reemphasized the principles of sustainable development by
recognizing the need for sustainable economic growth with a focus on the
poor and respect for human rights. The declaration was a commitment of
the nations t owards achieving a global partnership to reduce extreme
poverty and hunger and it set out time bound series of eight targets with 21
goals to be achieved in the next fifteen years thus from 2000 to 2015. This
came to be known as the Millenium Development G oals. (MDGs). Two
years later, in 2002, representatives from 190 countries attended the UN
World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg to follow up
on the commitments of the Rio Summit. On that occasion, they adopted
the Declaration on Sustainable Development, which focused on
development and poverty eradication with a legal -economic approach on
"public -private partnerships”. And in 2012, the UN organized the third
Conference on Sustainable Development, known as Rio + 20 , in Rio de
Janerio which brought together 192 Member States, private sector
companies, NGOs, and other org anizations. The result was a non -binding
document called ‘The Future We Want ’ in which the new agenda for the
post 2015 era was presented in the form of the Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs). SDGs contain 17 goals with 169 targets and 304 indicators
as proposed by the United Nations General Assembly’s Open Working
Group to be achieved by 2030. The agenda titled “Transforming our
World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development” was formally
adopted at the summit.4 munotes.in
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44
Source : https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment
A substantial development which took in the mid -twentieth century place
at global level backed by legal acceptance was the formulation of various
International environmental law s, a body of international law concerned
with protecting the environment, primarily through bilateral and
multilateral international agreements. The Kyoto Protocol to address
climate change gave way to the Paris Agreement (2015 ). In this
agreement, the signatory countries committed themselves to doing
everything possible to prevent the average temperature of the plane t from
rising by 2°C. It aimed to accelerate global action on climate change
mitigation, adaptation and finance. The preamble highlighted the
relationship between human rights and climate change. A contemporary
landmark of great relevance, especially for Latin America, is Advisory
Opinion 23 (2017 ) on the environment and human rights of the Inter -
American Court of Human Rights. In it, the Court recognized for the first
time the right to a healthy environment as fundamental to human
existence, as well as the impacts of environmental degradation and cli mate
change on human rights. 15The Kigali Amendment to the Montreal
Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, which had come
into force in 2019, aimed to phase down the production and consumption
of hydro -fluorocarbons , potent greenhouse gases. The Stockholm+50, an
international meeting convened by the United Nations General Assembly
was held in Stockholm, Sweden -June 2022 to commemorate the 50 years
since the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment .
Some 122 countries attended, and participants called for accelerated action
on existing internationally agreed objectives, including the targets of the
2030 Agenda and the Paris Agreement. In terms o f areas for priority
action carbon neutrality was mentioned as an important goal for their
country through reduced forest and land degradation, enhanced
reforestation, a move towards renewable energy, energy efficiency in the
built infrastructure, and reso urce efficiency in key sectors such as
agriculture. The recognition of the right of every human being to a healthy
environment; and on a recognition of “ecocide” as an international crime
has been of mention in its report. (Stockholm +50 Report, 2022).
munotes.in
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45 Some other major instrumental legal initiatives include :
1. Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, 1985
2. Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, 1987
3. Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movement s of
Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal, 1989
4. Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in
Decision -Making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters,
1998
5. Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for
Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade,
1998
6. Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, 2001
7. Compilation of key documents of the Antarctic Treaty system, Second
edition (Buenos Aires : Secretariat of the Antarctic Tr eaty) 2014
3.7 ROLE OF INDIAN GOVERNMENT TOWARDS
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION
The role of the state is of prime significance in bringing about long term
positive environmental changes by influencing the civilian and industrial
practices of resource use and management for achieving ultimate aim of
sustainability. National implementation of environmental governance is
the key, both to the efficacy of environmental governance system and to
meaningful environmental improvements. ( C.T Emejuru and Dike, 2019).
Various provisions of Article 48A of the Indian constitution upheld the
importance of environmental resources and quality as fundamental right to
life and personal li berty of the citizens. The facilitation of public interest
litigation has empowered the public to ensure a check on private and
government actions affecting the environmental resources and easing out
the process of individuals in seeking judic ial redress . To bring about civic
awareness and invoke environmental responsibility environmental
education has been included as an essential component at all levels of
schooling and higher education. In February 1971, the University Grants
Commission (India), in colla boration with other organizations, launched a
symposium on the development of environmental studies in the Indian
Universities. The consensus that emerged at the symposium was that
ecology and environmental issues should form part of the courses of study
at all levels.
The role of Indian government in environmental conservation is evident
through the following paragraphs.
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46 I. CONSTITUTION OF INDIA AND THE PROTECTION OF
ENVIRONMENT: To protect and improve the environment is a
constitutional mandate. It is a commitment for a country wedded to
the ideas of a welfare State. The Indian Constitution contains
specific provisions for environment protection under the chapters
of Directive Pri nciples of State Policy and Fundamental Duties.
The following provisions of Constitution of India well elucidate
the states conviction in the protection of environment –
a. The Preamble of the Indian Constitution - The "Socialistic" pattern
denotes the inclu sion of "decent standard of living", which relates to
the basic things, such as water, air, shelter and education. Such a type
of environment would essentially mean pollution free environment to
achieve a decent quality of life. India being a “Democratic Republic”
the people can exercise their right to clean environment and discuss,
oppose, support and show affirmative action in response to the policies
made by the state which is essential for the success of environmental
policies . 7
b. Federal System of the Government and Environmental jurisdiction -
To ensure appropriate allocation of legislative authority India has
adopted a quasi federal system in which the governmental powers are
shared between the Central Government, the State Government and the
local level governments. The matters of environment are dealt by
various statutes. Part XI of the Constitution (Article 245 to 263)
regulates the legislative and administrative relations between the
Union and the State. The subjects are divided among three li sts, which
are the Union List, State List and the Concurrent List. The subjects
mentioned in the concurrent list pertaining to environmental protection
and conservation include forests, protection of Wild animals and birds,
population control and family p lanning. Those which have a larger
national interest are left to be tackled by the Centre as well as the
State.
The Constitution of India has made a double provision:
(i) A directive to the State for protection and improvement of
environment.
(ii) (ii) Imposing on every citizen in the form of fundamental duty to
help in the preservation of natural environment.
II. Fundamental Duties of Indian Citizens - The Constitution (Forty
Second Amendment) Act, 1976, added a new part IV -A dealing
with the Fundamental Duties in t he Constitution of India.42 Article
51-A of this part enlists t he ten Fundamental Duties.
a. Article 51 -A(g) specifically deals with the fundamental duty towards
the environment. It provides : It shall be the duty of every citizen of
India to protect and imp rove the natural environment including forests,
lakes, rivers and wildlife, and to have compassion for living creatures.
The fundamental duties are intended to promote peoples' participation munotes.in
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47 in restructuring and building a welfare society. The protection o f
environment is matter of constitutional priority. While Article 48
provides for cows and calves and other milch and drought cattle',
Article 51 -A(g) enjoins it as a fundamental duty of every citizen "to
have compassion for living creatures", which is in wider fold embraces
the category of cattle spoken of specifically in Article 48.
III. Directive Principles of State Policy - Part IV of the Indian
Constitution deals with directive principles of State policy. They
represent the socio economic goals which the nation is expected to
achieve. These principles are designed to guide the destiny of the
nation by obligating three wings of the State, i.e., legislature,
judicature and executive to implement these principles. Article 47
of the Constitution is one of the Directive Principles of the State
policy and it provides that the State shall regard the raising of the
level of nutrition and standard of living of its people and the
improvement of public health as among its primary duties. The
improvement of public health also includes the protection and
improvement of the environment without which public health
cannot be assured.
a. Articl e 14 deals with the PROTECTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT .
It lays down the role of the government and the contractor regarding
the necessary guidelines to be followed while undertaking a project so
that the environment remains unharmed. The studies mentioned in
Article 14.5 above shall contain proposed environmental guidelines to
be followed in order to minimize Environmental Damage and shall
include, but not be limited to, the following, :
(a) proposed access cutting; (b) clearing and timber salvage; (c)
wildlif e and habitat protection; (d) fuel storage and handling: (e) use of
explosives; (f) camps and staging; (g) liquid and solid waste disposal;
(h) cultural and archaeological sites; (i) selection of drilling sites; (j)
terrain stabilization; (k) protection of freshwater horizons; (I) blowout
prevention plan; (m) flaring during completion and testing of Gas and
Oil Wells; (n) abandonment of Wells; (o) rig dismantling and site
completion; (p) reclamation for abandonment; (q) noise control; (r)
debris disposal; a nd (s) protection of natural drainage and water flow.
(a) Government shall convey its decision regarding any proposal for
environmental clearances submitted by the Contractor pursuant to the
provisions of this Article or Contract or required under any laws of
India within one hundred and twenty (120) days from the date of
submission of application by Contractor seeking such clearance.
b. Article 48 -A -Global consciousness for the protection of environment
in the seventies, Stockholm Conference and increasing awareness of
the environmental crisis prompted the Indian Government to enact
42nd Amendment to the Constitution in 1976. The Constitution was
amen ded to introduce direct provisions for protection of environment.
This 42nd Amendment added Article 48 -A to the Directive Principles munotes.in
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Ecology and Environment
48 of State Policy. This new directive principle in Article 48 - A dealing
specifically with protection and improvement of envi ronment. It
provides: The State shall endeavour to protect and improve the
environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country.
Thus, Indian Constitution became one of the rare constitutions of the
world where specific provisions were inco rporated in the Supreme
Law putting obligations on the State as well as the Citizens to protect
and improve the environment. The State cannot treat the obligations of
protecting and improving the environment as mere pious obligation.
They are fundamental i n the governance of the country and they being
part of the Supreme Law of the land, have to be implemented. The
Directive principles serve the courts as a code of interpretation. Part III
dealing with Fundamental Rights and Part IV dealing with the
directi ve principles are complementary and supplementary to each
other.
c. Article49 -A: states: “The State shall endeavour to protect and improve
the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the
country.” The said amendment imposed a responsibility on every
citizen in the form of Fundamental Duty.
d. Article 51 -A (g) – the protection and improvement of natural
environment is the duty of the State (Article 48 -A) and every citizen
(Article 51 - A (g)). It employs the expression "the natural
environment" a nd includes therein "forests, lakes, rivers and wild life".
While Article 48 provides for "cows and calves and other milch and
draught cattle", Article 51 -A(g) enjoins it as a fundamental duty of
every citizen "to have compassion for living creatures", whi ch in its
wider fold embraces the category of cattle spoken of specifically in
Article 48.
e. Article 253: Article 253 states that ‘Parliament has power to make any
law for the whole or any part of the country for implementing any
treaty, agreement or convent ion with any other country. In simple
words this Article suggests that in the wake of Stockholm Conference
of 1972, Parliament has the power to legislate on all matters linked to
the preservation of natural environment. Parliament’s use of Article
253 to e nact Air Act and Environment Act confirms this view.
IV. Fundamental Rights - Principle 1 of t he Stockholm declaration finds
reflection in Articles 14,19 and 21 of the Constitution of India
dealing with the right to equality, freedom of expression and right
to life and personal liberty respectively. Fundamental Rights are
means to achieve the goals indicated in part IV of the Indian
Constitution and thus m ust be construed in the light of the
Directive Principles i.e. the Part IV. Articles 21, 39(e), 41, 43 and
48-A of the Constitution of India substantiate that social security,
just and humane conditions of work and leisure to workmen are
part of his meanin gful right to life. munotes.in
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49 a. Right to Life and Right to Healthy Environment Article 21 of the
Constitution states that every individual has the right to life and
personal liberty except according to the procedure established by law.
So, it guarantees all people "Ri ght to life and Personal Liberty". With
the development of law and pronouncement of judgments by the
Supreme Court of India, Article 21 of the Constitution has been
expanded to take within its ambit the right to a clean and decent
environment. Article 21 i s the heart and soul of fundamental rights .
For healthy existence and preservation of th e essential ingredients of
life, stable ecological balance is required. Article 21 guara ntees a
fundamental right to li fe - a life of dignity , to be lived in a proper
environment, free of danger of disease or infection. The expression
'life' enshrined in Article 21 of the Constitution does not connote mere
animal existence or continued drudgery through life. It has a much
wider meaning which includes right to livelihood , better standard of
living, hygienic conditions in the workplace and leisure.
b. Right to Livelihood - The judicial grammar of interpretation has
further broadened the scope and ambit of Article 21 and now "Right to
Life" includes the" right to livelihood". This broad interpretation of the
right to life is very helpful in checking the governmental action which
has an environmental impact that threatens the poor people of their
livelihood by dislocating them from their place of living or otherwise
depriving them of their livelihood.
c. Right to Freedom of Speech and Expression - Article 19(1)(a)
guarantees ev ery citizen a fundamental freedom of speech and
expression. In India most of the environmental cases are dealt and
filed with the help of Public Interest Litigations so that people have a
right to express their concerns about the environment and exercise
their right to freedom of speech and expression, sometimes even by
writing letters to the Court or otherwise filing petitions before it,
highlighting the violation of rights of the people to live in healthy
environment in one way or the other. From time t o time it is evident
that the judiciary has treated the condition of protection and
preservation of environment and wildlife as a reasonable restriction in
the public interest on the fundamental freedom under Article 19(1)(g)
of the Constitution.
d. Right to Equality - Article 14 of the Constitution provides: The state
shall not deny to any person equality before the law or equal protection
of the laws within the territory of India. The principle for non
arbitrariness pervades article 14 like a brooding omnipr esence.
Whenever there is arbitrariness in State Action, whether of the
legislative or of the executive or of an authority under article 12,
article 14 immediately springs into action and strikes down such
action.
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50 V. ENACTMENT OF VARIOUS ENVIRONMENTAL
LEGIS LATIONS -
There exist a host of legislation in India aimed at protecting the
environment from pollution and maintaining the ecological balance.
Indian environmental law concerns the law and policy of India
concerning the protection of the environment , The detailed and
developed framework for environmental protection came after the UN
conference on Human En vironment in Stockholm, in 1972. This led to
the formation of the National Council for Environmental Policy and
Planning in 1972 within the science and technology department. This
was set up to establish a regulatory body for the overview of the
environmen tal-related issues and concerns. This council was later
converted to the Ministry of Environment and Forests. The
government of India has made numerous laws and acts to protect th e
environment and biodiversity . These can be broadly categorized into
four distinct but overlapping phases as below:
FIRST PHASE – 1972 -1983: There were numerous legislations
following the 1972 Stockholm declaration and India’s commitment
towards it. Con stitutional provisions as explained earlier such as
Article 226, Article 21, Article 32. Article 48 -A, Article 51A(g)
ensured state obligation, fundamental rights and duties and Directive
Principles of State Policy towards environmental protection. Several
Acts such as the Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972,the Water
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1974, the Forest
Conservation Act of 1980 and the Air (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act of 1981 were enacted pertaining to environmental
protection and conservation.
SECOND PHASE - (1984 -1997) This period focused on ensuring
social equity and justice. In response to the ‘Bhopal Gas Disaster’ in
1984, there was a growth in ‘judicial activism’ which led to a
reinterpretation of existing laws and legislations. The Air (Prevention
and Control of Polluti on) Act of 1981 underwent a major modification
in 1987. In 1991 the Public Liability Insurance Act, was enacted to
provide for immediate relief to persons affected by accidents from
handling of notified hazardous substance, on a ‘no fault basis’. In
respon se to the ‘Rio Declaration’ that called upon Nations to develop
laws regarding liabilities and compensation to victims of pollution and
other environmental damages two Acts were formulated the National
Environment Tribunal Act, 1995 (Repealed) and the Nati onal
Environment Appellate Authority Act. These have been subsequently
repealed and replaced by the new National Green Tribunal Act of
2010. The Environment (Protection) Act (EPA) was enacted in 1986.
Under the EPA, Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) No tification
was introduced in 1994, it was modified in 2006 and the latest
amendment was in 2009. Other legislations that have been introduced
for the protection of the environment and prevention of pollution are
the Motor Vehicles Act, 1988, to control air pollution due to vehicles. munotes.in
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51 THIRD PHASE – (1984 -2004) The third phase coincides with India’s
membership of the WTO in 1998. The focus is on combining
economic development with social and environmental issues.
Legislations and amendments to the existing l egislations have been
done to achieve compliance with the Agreement on Trade -Related
Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) keeping in mind the
principles of the ‘Convention on Biological Diversity’ (CBD). The
Biological Diversity Act 2002 was fra med keeping in mind the
principles of CBD. The legislations are directed towards ensuring the
sovereign rights of countries over their genetic and biological
resources and the acceptance of the need to share benefits flowing
from the commercial utilization of biological resources with holders of
indigenous knowledge. The Patents (Amendment) Act of 2005 has a
provision to prevent misappropriation of indigenous knowledge of
communities by making it nonpatentable. The Geographical
Indications of Goods (Registr ation and Protection) Act, 1999
facilitates protection of the collective rights of the rural and indigenous
communitiesin their unique products. the EPA several secondary
legislations dealing with waste management and recycling of
substances such as:
Munic ipal Solid Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000;
Recycled Plastics Manufacture and Usage Rules,1999; Manufacture,
Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemical (Amendment) Rules,
2000; Batteries (Management and Handling) Rules, 2001; Ozone
Depleting Sub stances (Regulation and Control) Rules,2000; A series
of notifications delegating power to State, River Conservation
Authorities to deal with water pollution; and The Noise Pollution
(Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000. The emphasis in this phase was
also on energy conservation and use of renewable sources of energy.
Consequently the Energy Conservation Act, 2001 was enacted, which
also set up the Bureau of Energy Efficiency. The Electricity Act of
2003 has tried to ensure better development in the power s ector and
also emphasise the use of renewable energy. Under the orders of the
Supreme Court, Compensatory Afforestation Management and
Planning Agency (CAMPA), was set up in 2004, to compensate for
deforestation for development work through afforestation.
FOURTH PHASE (2005 AND BEYOND) : This phase is marked by
a proactive rights based approach. A rights based approach is one in
which the focus is on ensuring the rights of all sections of community
particularly the marginalised . These include legislations like the
Human Rights Act 1993 with Amendment Act, 2006; The Right of
Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009 and
Commission for the Protection of Child Rights Act, 2005;
Maintenance and Welfare of Parents and Senio r Citizens Act, 2007;
People with Disabilities Act, 1995. For instance the rights of the
traditional forest dwellers have been codified in the Forest Rights Act,
2006. The Act seeks to reconcile the needs of the forest dwellers with
the need to conserve wi ldlife and forests. The Wildlife (Protection)
Act of 1972 was amended in, 2002 and it seeks to provide for munotes.in
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52 participatory management of the buffers around the National Parks and
Sanctuaries and introduces the concept of ‘Community Reserves’. This
phase also continued to focus on the environment through the
Environment Impact Assessment Notification of 2006 and the
Hazardous was notified Wastes (Management, Handling and
Transboundary Movement)Rules, 2008. In 2011, the E -Waste
(Management and Handling)Rules, f or environmentally sound
practices for management of electronic waste were notified. The
National Green Tribunal Act of 2010 seeks to give effect to the
promise made at Rio and to provide for the effective and expeditious
disposal of cases related to envir onmental protection, forests and
natural resourcesand provide relief and compensation for damages.
VI. ENVIRONMENTAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA
To address the diverse environmental issues a number of
environment related institutions and organization have been setup at
national level. The state plays a vital role in environmental pollution
control, conservation and improvement of environment for
promoting sustainable development. In 1972 the National Committee
on Environmental Planning and Coordination (NCEPC) w as formed
which gradually evolved as a separate department of environment
and reached the full -fledged stage of Ministry of Environment and
Forests in 1985. The Ministry of Environment and Forest, Central
Pollution Control Board, Indian Board for Wildlife are the main
national environmental agencies.
a. The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) is the nodal agency
in the administrative structure of the Central Government, for
planning, promoting, coordinating and overseeing the implementation
of environm ental and forestry programmes in the country. The main
activities undertaken by the ministry include conservation and survey
of the flora and fauna of India, forests and other wilderness areas;
prevention and control of pollution; afforestation and reducin g land
degradation. It is responsible for the administration of the national
parks of India. The main tools utilized for this include surveys,
environmental impact assessment, control of pollution, regeneration
programmes, support to organizations, researc h to find solutions and
training to augment the requisite manpower, collection and
dissemination of environmental information and creation of
environmental awareness among all sectors of the country’s
population.The Ministry is also the nodal agency in the country for the
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
b. Central Pollution Control Board The Central Pollution Control Board
(CPCB), is statutory organisation, was constituted in September, 1974
under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) A ct, 1974.
Further, CPCB was entrusted with the powers and functions under the
Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981. It serves as a field
formation and also provides technical services to the Ministry of
Environment and Forests of the provisi ons of the Environment munotes.in
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53 (Protection) Act, 1986. Air Quality Monitoring is an important part of
the air quality management. The National Ambient Air Quality
Monitoring (NAAQM) Programme has been established with the
objectives to determine the present status of air quality, for controlling
and regulating emission of air pollutants from industries and other
sources to meet the air quality standards.
c. Indian Board for Wildlife (IBWL) The IBWL was constituted in 1952
as an apex advisory body in the field of Wildl ife Conservation in the
country. It was replaced by National Board for Wildlife (NBWL)
which is a statutory body constituted under Section 5A of the Wildlife
(Protection) Act, 1972 (WLPA). It is primarily responsible for
the promotion of wildlife conservation and the development of wildlife
and forests. It approves projects (including government projects) in
and around the protected areas (national parks, wildlife sanctuaries,
etc.). It is an advisory board and advises the central government on
policy matters concerned with wildlife conservation in the country.
VII. COMPULSORY ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION –
The Supreme Court (writ petition (Civil) No. 860 of 1991) has directed the
Unive rsity Grants Commission to prescribe a course on ‘Man and
Environment’. In the light of this directive, the UGC issued a circular to
various universities to introduce the course on ‘Environmental Education’.
3.8 SUMMARY
The need for environmental sustainability has arisen as the global demand
on natural resources and ecosystems have escalated beyond the nature’s
carrying capacity. Environmental degradation risks economic growth and
human development. In the wake of present environmental crisis resulting
from impact of human activities, it is essential to understand the
fundamental principles of ecological conservation . Human activities need
to be conducted in a way that maintains ecological equilibrium . This can
be achieved by practicing environmental sustainability which is centered
on human well -being and environmental interface. There needs to be a
balance between resource availability and its utilization following the
sustainability approach. To achieve this fine balance between
environmental protection and socio -economic development, the principles
of environmental conservation have been seen as a key instrument and are
therefore accepted as an integral part of global and national policies and
governance.
3.9 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS/EXERCISE
A. True or False
i. The Supreme Court directed the University Grants Commission to
prescribe a course on ‘Man and Environment’
ii. Ecological integrity is least concerned with the biodiversity aspects of
the environment. munotes.in
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54 iii. Eradication of poverty helps in ensuring social and economic justice.
iv. Article 10 of Indian Constitution deals with protection of environment.
v. The Wildlife (Protection) Act in India was passed in 1972 following
India’s commitment to Stockholm declar ation
B. Fill in the blanks
i. ________ is scientific study of the interactions between organisms
and their environments.
ii. The term ________ finds it origin in the Latin word ‘conservare’
meaning “to keep, preserve, guard” from.
iii. Reduce, Reuse and _________ ensure that production and
consumption patterns are maintained within the ecological systems.
iv. The Declaration on Sustainable Development was adopted a t the UN
World in _________ to follow up on the commitments of the Rio
Summit.
v. Article 21 of Indian Constitution deals with the right to healthy __________ .
C. Multiple Choice Questions
i. The ____________ as an international effort to combat the depletion
of the ozone layer.
a. Montreal Protocol
b. Kyoto Protocol
c. Earth Chater
d. Agenda 21
ii. The UN organized the third Conference on Sustainable Development,
known as ____________.
a. Earth Summit
b. Rio + 20
c. Stockholm Declaration
d. Vienna Convention
iii. Vienna Convention was adopted for th e Protection of the ________ __.
a. biodiversity
b. wildlife
c. Ozone Layer
d. amazon forests munotes.in
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55 iv. Article of Indian Constitution specifically deals with the fundamenta l
duty of citizens towar ds the environment.
a. 51-A(g)
b. 10
c. 13
d. 5
v. Article __________ lays down the role of the government and the
contractor regarding the necessary guidelines to be followed while
undertaking a project for environmental protection.
a. 14
b. 10
c. 13
d. 5
D. Answer the following questions
i. What is meant by the term ecological equilibrium?
ii. Write a note on environmental conservation. Explain its
significance.
iii. Write about the various environmental legislations in India.
iv. Discuss the various global initiatives for environmental
conservation since 1960’s.
v. Briefly explain the principles of environmental conservation.
3.10 ANSWERS TO SELF LEARNING QUESTIONS
A. True or False
i. True
ii. False
iii. True
iv. False
v. True
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56 B. Fill in the blanks
i. Ecology
ii. conservation
iii. Recycle
iv. iv Johannesburg.
v. environment.
C. Multiple Choice Questions
i. Montreal Protocol
ii. ii.Rio + 20
iii. Ozone layer
iv. iv.51-A(g)
v. 14
3.11 TECHNICAL WORDS AND THEIR MEANING
a. Ecosystem equilibrium - refers to the balance between the ecosystem
functions of resource creation and our consumption of the resources .
b. Conservation – refers to the act of Conservation is the act of
safeguarding or protecting Earth's natural resources for current and
future generat ions.
c. Environmental sustainability - refers to the ability to maintain the
qualities of the physical environment in a way that ecosystem diversity
and productivity is carried out infinitely.
d. Sustainable development is defined as the development "meeting the
needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs"
3.12 TASK
Analyse the progress achieved by India towards fulfilling its commitment
towards the Sustainable Development Goals. Com ment on the challenges
and measures needed to achieve its goal.
3.13 REFERENCES FOR FURTHER STUDY
Textbook of Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses, Erach
Bharucha , 2021 , Universities Press (India) Pvt. Limited.
Ecology and Environment - P. D. Shar ma, R. K. Rastogi Publications munotes.in
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Environmental Conservation And Sustainability (Contact Hours 15)
57 Harper, C.L. (2001): Environment and Society, Human Perspectives on
Environmental Issues, Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
Fundamentals of Ecology - Eugene P. Odum and Grey W. Barrett, Brook
Cole/ Cengage learning India Pvt. Ltd.
Odum, E.P. 1971. Fundamentals of Ecology. W.B. Saunders Co. USA.
Funda mentals of Ecology - M. C. Dash , Tata McGraw Hill company Ltd,
New Delhi
Ecology - Mohan P. Arora , Himalaya Publishing House
Ecology And Environment , 2012 - P. D. Sharma , Sharma P.D , Rastogi
Publications
Jadhav, H & Bhosale, V.M. 1995. Environmental Protection and Laws.
Himalaya Pub. House, Delhi.
REFERENCES and BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/331530076_Environmental_
Sustainability_Conservation_and_233_ENVIRONMENTAL_SUSTAI
NABILITY_CONSERVATION_AND_NATURAL_RESOURCES_
MANAGEMENT/link/5c7e8360a6fdcc4715b0f607/download
2. Sutton 2004, A Perspective on environmental sustainability? https://
www.donboscogozo.org/images/pdfs/energy/A -Perspective -on-
Environmental -Sustainability.pdf
3. Steven C Rockfeller, 1996, Principles of Environmental Co nservation
and Sustainable Development : Summary and Survey,
https://earthcharter.org/library/principles -of-environmental -
conservation -and-sustainable -development -summary -and-survey -
1996/
4. Mishra, Prabuddh Kumar, Unit-12 Environmental Conservation and
Mana gement. Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi
https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/74464/3/Unit -12%20.pdf
5. Earth Charter Commission. “The Earth Charter.” San José: Earth
Charter International Secretariat, 2000.
http://www.environmentandsociety.org/node/2795.
6. Earth Charter, Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_Charter
7. Indian Approach to Environ mental Conservation Mayank Vats and
Leepakshi Rajpal, International Journal of Humanities and Social
Science Invention ISSN (Online): 2319 – 7722, I,
http://www.ijhssi.org/papers/v6(4)/H06040 16480.pdf
munotes.in
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58 8. INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL LAW - https:// legal.
un.org/ avl/ studymaterials/rcil -laac/2017/book3_1.pdf
9. International Law - https:// www. encyclopedia. com/ environment/
energy -government -and-defense -magazines/international -
environmental -law#:
10. Environmental Laws in India; https:// www. clearias. com/
environmental -laws-india/
11. List of legislations on environment and ecology in India -
https://www.jagranjosh.com/general -knowledge/list -of-legislations -on-
environment -and-ecology -in-india -1506588350 -1
12. Matthew A.Cole, Limits to Growt h, Sustainable Development and
Environmental Kuznets Curves: an examination of the environmental
impact of economic development; Sustainable Development, 7, 87 -97
(1999).
13. United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil, 3 -14 June 1992, https:// www. un. Org/ en/
conferences/environment/rio1992
14. FLORENCIA ORTÚZAR GREENE, International Environmental
Law: History and milestones https://aida -americas . org/ en/ blog/
international -environmental -law-history -and-milestones
15. environmental law and sustainable development, https:// www. nios.
ac.in/media/documents/SrSec338new/338_Book2_New.pdf
16. Dr C.T. Emejuru and Dr S.C. Dike, 2019, Environment al
Sustainability, Conservation and Natural Resources Management.
17. Environment Related Institutions And Organisations https:// nios.
ac.in/media/documents/333courseE/25.pdf
18. Stockholm+50: a healthy planet for the prosperity of all – our
responsibility, our op portunity Stockholm, 2 and 3 June 2022 , United
Nations.
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59 4
ENVIRONM ENTAL RESEARCH
Unit Structure :
After going through this chapter, you will be able to understand the
following features:
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Introduction
4.3 Subject Discussion
4.4 Concept, objectives and scope
4.5 Review of literatu re and research methodology
4.6 Findings, limitations, suggestions
4.7 Example Research: Conduct pilot research on that with respect to
all environmental factors and its degradation point.
4.8 Summary
4.9 Check your Progress/Exercise
4.10 Answers to the Self-learning Questions
4.11 Technical words and their meaning
4.12 Task
4.13 References for further study
4.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you will be able to:
Understand how to write the concept, objectives and scope in a
research report
Compil e a review of literature suitable for a good research
Present the findings, limitations and suggestions of a research study
4.2 INTRODUCTION
Presenting a research takes equal efforts just as put in conducting the
research. A research is a systematic process which needs to be followed
appropriately and presented systematically. There is a systematic sequence
of writing the parts of the research that help to follow the process without munotes.in
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60 losing out on any component. The present chapter highlights the impor tant
parts of a research report whether it is an article, a paper, a dissertation or
a thesis.
4.3 SUBJECT DISCUSSION
Research is finding new facts in an existing aspect or concept. It can be
undertaken in each and every field including environment as a d iscipline.
Research plays a crucial role in assessing the potential risks posed by an
ever-increasing variety of environmental pollutants. Environmental
research in its most scientific way
4.4 CONCEPT, OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE
4.4.1 Concept
The first step in the research process is to define the concepts we are
studying. Researchers generate concepts by generalizing from particular
facts. Concepts can be based on real phenomena and are a generalized
idea of something of meaning. Examples of concepts include common
demographic measures: Income, Age, Education Level, and Number of
Siblings.
We can measure concepts through direct and indirect observations:
Direct Observation: We can measure someone's weight or height.
And, we can record the color of their hair or eyes.
Indirect Observation: We can use a questionnaire in which
respondents provide answers to our questions about gender, income,
age, attitudes, and behaviors.
In other words concept can be defined as variables under study. The
researcher needs to cle arly enlist the concepts focused in the research.
He/she needs to define each concept in detail so that the reader can
understand the meaning and applicability of each concept in the study.
The concepts must be written as points with their respective mean ings
and definitions at the beginning of the research report. At times, some
concepts have a formula associated with their measurement or
calculation which must also be added to the explanation.
4.4.2 Aims/ Objectives
A very useful and practical approach is considering your research
questions in terms of aim(s) and objectives. The aim of the work, i.e. the
overall purpose of the study, should be clearly and curtly defined .
In general, research objectives describe what we expect to achieve by a
project. Research objectives may be linked with a hypothesis or used as a
statement of purpose in a study that does not have a hypothesis. munotes.in
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61 Even if the nature of the research has not been clear to the layperson
from the hypotheses, s/he should be able to under stand the research from
the objectives.
A statement of research objectives can serve to guide the activities of
research. Consider the following examples.
Objective: To describe what factors farmers take into account in
making such decisions as whether to adopt a new technology or what
crops to grow.
Objective: To develop a budget for reducing pollution by a particular
enterprise.
Objective: To describe the habitat of the giant panda in China.
In the above examples the intent of the research is largely desc riptive.
In the case of the first example, the research will end the study by being
able to specify factors which emerged in household decisions.
In the second, the result will be the specification of a pollution reduction
budget.
In the third, creating a picture of the habitat of the giant panda in China.
These observations might prompt researchers to formulate hypotheses
which could be tested in another piece of research. So long as the aim of
the research is exploratory, i.e., to describe what is, rather than to test an
explanation for what is, a research objective will provide an adequate
guide to the research.
4.4.3 Scope
The scope of a study explains the extent to which the research area will
be explored in the work and specifies the parameters within the study
will be operating.
Basically, this means that you will have to define what the study is going
to cover and what it is focusing on. Similarly, you also have to define
what the study is not going to cover. This will come under the
limitations. Gen erally, the scope of a research paper is followed by its
limitations.
As a researcher, you have to be careful when you define your scope or
area of focus. Remember that if you broaden the scope too much, you
might not be able to do justice to the work or it might take a very long
time to complete. Consider the feasibility of your work before you write
down the scope. Again, if the scope is too narrow, the findings might not
be generalizable.
Typically, the information that you need to include in the scope would
cover the following: munotes.in
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62 1. General purpose of the study
2. The population or sample that you are studying
3. The duration of the study
4. The topics or theories that you will discuss
5. The geographical location covered in the study
4.5 REVIEW OF LITERATU RE AND RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
4.5.1. Review of Literature
A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources that provides an
overview of a particular topic.
The basic components of a literature review include:
a description of the publication/ sou rces;
an organizational pattern that combines summary & synthesis; - A
summary is the recap of the important information of the source and
synthesis is a re -organization , or a reshuffling of that information. It
might give a new interpretation of old material or combine new with
old interpretations or it might trace the intellectual progression of the
field.
a discussion of gaps in research;
It is a critical and analytical account of the existing research on a
particular topic.
One of the essential preliminary tasks when you undertake a research
study is to go through the existing literature in order to acquaint yourself
with the available body of knowledge in your area of interest.
Reviewing the literature can be time consuming , daunting and frustrating,
but it is also rewarding. The literature review is an integral part of the
research process and makes a valuable contribution to almost every
operational step.
It has value even before the first step; that is, when you are mere ly
thinking about a research question that you may want to find answers to
through your research journey. In the initial stages of research it helps you
to establish the theoretical roots of your study, clarify your ideas and
develop your research methodol ogy. Later in the process, the literature
review serves to enhance and consolidate your own knowledge base and
helps you to integrate your findings with the existing body of knowledge.
Since an important responsibility in research is to compare your findi ngs
with those of others, it is here that the literature review plays an extremely
important role. During the write -up of your report it helps you to integrate munotes.in
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63 your findings with existing knowledge – that is, to either support or
contradict earlier researc h. The higher the academic level of your research,
the more important a thorough integration of your findings with existing
literature becomes.
The aim of undertaking a review of literature is:
To provide an organized overview of existing research on a spe cific
topic
To take a critical and evaluative perspective toward published research
To summarize , synthesize and analyses the arguments of other authors
To uncover similarities and differences or consistencies and
inconsistencies within existing research
To identify a gap within the body or research
To help you generate and justify your research question and
hypotheses
4.5.1.1. Creation of a literature review
The length and depth of the literature review depends on the length of the
project. If we are writing a 10 -page argument paper, we may have room to
include 5 -6 sources to review, because we will also be establishing your
argument as well, but there’s no hard equation for how many or how
much. We should use our judgment.
4.5.1.2. Types of Literature Review
There are many types of literature review and the following types of
literature review are the most popular in business studies:
1. Narrative literature review critiques the literature and summarizes the
body of a literature. The primary purpose of a traditional or narrative
literature review is to analyse and summarise a body of literature. Th is
is achieved by presenting a comprehensive background of the IS NOT IS
A descriptive summary of
existing literature A critical , analytical account
A presentation of your own
argument A synthesis of the arguments of
others
Organised by source or written
as an annotated bibliography Organised around ideas or
arguments
An account of every existing
piece of research related to your
topic An account of a selection of
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64 literature as well as highlight new research streams, identify gaps or
recognize inconsistencies. This type of literature review can help in
refining, focusing and shaping research questions as well as in
developing theoretical and conceptual frameworks.
2. Systematic literature review requires more rigorous and well -defined
approach compared to most other types of literature review.
Systematic literature review is comprehensive and details the
timeframe within which the literature was selected. It focus on very
specific empirical questions – often in cause and effect form - To what
extend does A contribute to B.
Systematic literature review can be divided into two categories: meta -
analysis and meta -synthesis.
When you conduct meta -analysis you take findings from several
studies on the same subject and analyze these using standardized
statistical procedures. In meta -analysis patterns and relationships are
detected and conclusions are drawn. Meta -analysis is associated with
deductive research approach.
Meta -synthesis , on the other hand, is based on non -statistical
techniques. This technique integrates, evaluates and interprets findings
of multiple qualitative research studies. Meta -synthesis literature
review is conducted usually when following inductive research
approach.
3. Argumentative literature review , as the name implies, examines
literature selectively in order to support or refute an argument, deeply
imbedded assumption, or philosophical problem a lready established in
the literature. The purpose is to develop a body of literature that
establishes a contrarian viewpoint. It should be noted that a potential
for bias is a major shortcoming associated with argumentative
literature review.
4. Integrative literature review reviews , critiques, and synthesizes
secondary data about research topic in an integrated way such that new
frameworks and perspectives on the topic are generated. If your
research does not involve primary data collection and data analysis,
then using integrative literature review will be yo ur only option.
4.5.1.3. Steps in conducting Literature Review
The first step is to plan. Before starting to write identify a research topic.
When choosing the topic make sure it is specific. Narrowed topic is better
so that you can find the most relevant sources o f literature review. There
are hundreds or even thousands of books on most areas of study.
Narrowing your topic will help to limit the number of sources you need to
read in order to get a good survey of material.
If the topic is broad, the researcher will have to go through several
material which is time consuming and would result in nothing. munotes.in
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65 For helping narrowing your topic use the table like this ---
General
Topic Specific
Topic Narrowed Topic
Anxiety Social
Anxiety Impact of Social Anxiety on the Learning
of the Students
Anxiety Separation
Anxiety Role of Parenting Style on Childhood
Separation Anxiety
Anxiety Generalized
Anxiety Impact of Generalized Anxiety on Voting
Behaviour of College Students
The second step is to conduct your research. First find the most relevant
scholarly resource on the topic.
The third step is to organize the reviews that are collected in
chronological, temporal, thematic, methodological and theoretical order.
4.5.2 Research Methodology
A research methodology gives research legitimacy and provides
scientifically sound findings. It also provides a detailed plan that helps to
keep researchers on track, making the process smooth, effective and
manageable. A researcher's methodology allows the reader to understand
the approach and methods used to reach conclusions.
Advantages of a good research methodology are as follows:
Other researchers who want to replicate the research have enough
information to do so.
Researchers who receive criticism can refer to the methodology and
explain their approach.
It can help provide researchers with a specific plan to follow
throughout their research.
The methodology design process helps researchers select the correct
methods for the objectives.
It allows researchers to docum ent what they intend to achieve with the
research from the outset.
4.5.2.1. Types of Research Methodology
1. Qualitative
Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing written or spoken
words and textual data. It may also focus on body language or vis ual
elements and help to create a detailed description of a researcher's munotes.in
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66 observations. Researchers usually gather qualitative data through
interviews, observation and focus groups using a few carefully chosen
participants.
This research methodology is subj ective and more time -consuming than
using quantitative data. Researchers often use a qualitative methodology
when the aims and objectives of the research are exploratory. For
example, when they perform research to understand human perceptions
regarding an event, person or product.
2. Quantitative
Researchers usually use a quantitative methodology when the objective of
the research is to confirm something. It focuses on collecting, testing and
measuring numerical data, usually from a large sample of participant s.
They then analyze the data using statistical analysis and comparisons.
Popular methods used to gather quantitative data are:
Surveys
Questionnaires
Test
Databases
Organizational records
This research methodology is objective and is often quicker as researchers
use software programs when analyzing the data. An example of how
researchers could use a quantitative methodology is to measure the
relationship between two variables or test a set of hypotheses.
3. Mixed -method
This contemporary research methodol ogy combines quantitative and
qualitative approaches to provide additional perspectives, create a richer
picture and present multiple findings. The quantitative methodology
provides definitive facts and figures, while the qualitative provides a
human aspec t. This methodology can produce interesting results as it
presents exact data while also being exploratory.
4.6 FINDINGS, LIMITATIONS, SUGGESTIONS
4.6.1. Findings
Findings are basically the key outcome of the investigation. It is
basically a key fact which you can discover during an investigation.
Research findings are facts and phrases, observations, and experimental
data resulting from research.
It’s important to note here that “finding” does not always mean “factual
information” because conductive r esearch relies on results and
implications rather than measurable facts.
For example, A researcher is conducting research for measuring the
extent up to which globalization impacts the business activities of firms. munotes.in
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67 The findings of the research reveal that there has been a great increase in
the profitability of companies after globalization. An important fact
which researcher has discovered is that it is globalization which has
enabled firms to expand their business operations at the international
level.
Objectives of finding section in the research paper
The main objective of the finding section in a research paper is to
display or showcase the outcome in a logical manner by utilizing,
tables, graphs, and charts.
The objective of research findings is to prov ide a holistic view of the
latest research findings in related areas.
Research findings also aim at providing novel concepts and
innovative findings that can be utilized for further research,
development of new products or services, implementation of bette r
business strategies, etc.
For example, an academic paper on “the use of product life cycle theory
with reference to various product categories” will not only discuss
different dimensions of the product life cycle but would also present a
detailed case st udy analysis on how the concept was applied using
several contemporary case studies from diverse industries.
Importance of findings in the research paper
The finding section in the research paper has great importance as
It is the section in a research paper or dissertation that will help you
in developing an in -depth understanding of the research problems.
This is the section where the theories where you can accept or reject
theories.
The findings section helps you in demonstrating the significance of
the problem on which you are performing research.
It is through analysis of the finding section you can easily address the
correlational research between the different types of variables in the
study.
Steps in writing research findings
Review the guidelines or instructions of the instructor
Focus on the results of the experiment and other findings
Design effective visual presentations
Write findings section
Review draft of findings section munotes.in
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68 4.6.2 Limitations
The limitations of a study are its flaws or shortc omings. Study
limitations can exist due to constraints on research design, methodology,
materials, etc., and these factors may impact the findings of your study.
However, researchers are often reluctant to discuss the limitations of
their study in their pa pers, feeling that bringing up limitations may
undermine its research value in the eyes of readers and reviewers.
In spite of the impact it might have (and perhaps because of it) you
should clearly acknowledge any limitations in your research paper in
order to show readers —whether journal editors, other researchers, or the
general public —that you are aware of these limitations and to explain
how they affect the conclusions that can be drawn from the research.
Although limitations address the potential weakn esses of a study, writing
about them towards the end of your paper actually strengthens your study
by identifying any problems before other researchers or reviewers find
them.
Furthermore, pointing out study limitations shows that you’ve considered
the imp act of research weakness thoroughly and have an in -depth
understanding of your research topic. Since all studies face limitations,
being honest and detailing these limitations will impress researchers and
reviewers more than ignoring them.
Some limitations might be evident to researchers before the start of the
study, while others might become clear while you are conducting the
research. Whether these limitations are anticipated or not, and whether
they are due to research design or to methodology, they sho uld be clearly
identified and discussed in the discussion section —the final section of
your paper. Most journals now require you to include a discussion of
potential limitations of your work, and many journals now ask you to
place this “limitations section ” at the very end of your article.
Common Limitations of the Researchers:
Common Methodological Limitations of Studies
Issues with research samples and selection
Insufficient sample size for statistical measurements
Lack of previous research studies on the topic
Methods/instruments/techniques used to collect the data
Limited access to data
Time constraints
Conflicts arising from cultural bias and other personal issues
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69 4.6.3. Suggestions / Recommendations
Recommendations are arguably the most important part o f the analysis
phase —this is where you’ll suggest specific interventions or strategies to
address the issues and constraints identified in the assessment.
Recommendations should directly respond to key findings arrived at
through data collection and analys is. A process of prioritization is
essential to narrowing down findings, and once this is done,
recommendations should be developed that align with the most important
findings.
Recommendations should be one -sentence, succinct, and start with an
action verb (create, establish, fund, facilitate, coordinate, etc.). They
should use a “SMART” format (Specific, Measurable, Attainable,
Realistic, Timely). Each recommendation should be followed by a few
sentences of explanatory text.
In addition to being “SMART,” r ecommendations should be feasible.
Both operational feasibility and political feasibility (i.e., political will)
should be considered when developing recommendations. Experience
has demonstrated that gauging potential public sector receptivity to
proposed private health sector initiatives is essential.
A final consideration for recommendations is timing. Often solutions to
identified problems are sequential, building upon intermediate steps.
Teams sometimes frame recommendations as near -term (e.g., 6 to 12
months) and longer term (e.g., one to three years).
Recommendations are typically summarized in the Executive Summary,
and presented in full within specific technical sections, usually as a short
list of bullets following the findings summary. In some repo rts, there
may be a section at the end of the document that consolidates
recommendations and highlights the linkages across core areas (e.g.,
service delivery and health financing) prior to the conclusion section.
Recommendations stem from the findings. Li nk each of your
recommendations to the finding that supports it, to highlight the direct
connection between assessment and action. You can show this link
visually by using a two -columned table: the first column lists the finding,
and the respective recomme ndation is listed adjacently in the second
column.
Sources of recommendations in a research paper
Recommendations in the research paper should be the objective of
the research. Therefore at least one of your objectives of the paper is
to provide recommenda tions to the parties associated or the parties
that will benefit from your research.
Recommendations in the research paper should come from your
review and analysis munotes.in
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70 Recommendations in the research paper should also come from the
data you have analyzed .
Recommendations in the research paper should also come from
observation.
Recommendations in the research paper should be written in the
order of priority.
Recommendations in a research paper if associated with different
categories then you should categoriz e them.
Recommendations in the research paper should come purely from
your research.
4.7 EXAMPLE RESEARCH: CONDUCT PI LOT
RESEARCH ON THAT WIT H RESPECT TO ALL
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR S AND ITS
DEGRADATION POINT
APPRAISAL OF TOURISM IN SANJAY GANDHI NATIONAL
PARK
Introduction
WTO defined the term tourism in 1993, “Tourism encompasses the
activities of persons traveling and staying in places outside their usual
environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business,
and other purposes.” Touris m has been identified as the major exp ort
industry in the world (Gosh, 1998). Tourism has a unique contribution
towards the national economy and generated the various kind of
employment opportunities in tourism activities. Economic, social and
physical developments are major and essential part of tourism. The
development is based on proper planning and controlling the tourism
industry. Tourism development is dependent on four basic elements, they
are accommodation, attractio n, supporting facilities and appropriate
infrastructure. In this study, tourist’s point of view with respect to the
development of tourism in Sanjay Gandhi National Park is analyzed.
Concepts
Appraisal : a judgement about the value or quality of somebody/
something
Sanjay Gandhi National Park : Sanjay Gandhi National park (SGNP) is
located in Mumbai City of Maharashtra, previously known as
Krishnagiri National park.
Review of Literature
(Thathang 2005) in their study, “Tourism in Nepal Since, 1980: Impact o n
the Economy, Society and Environment” have tried to study the tourism munotes.in
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71 development in Nepal and have concluded that the number of tourists have
increased between 1960 and 1990. (Sigala, 2020) “Tourism and COVID -
19: Impacts and Implications for Advancing and Resetting Industry and
Research”. In this paper, the focus is on impacts of COVID -19 tourism
which brought not only soc io cultural and economic impact, but
psychological impact s too. (Chavda, 2019) In the study titled“Eco nomics
of tourism sector A: case study of development of tourism sector in
Gujarat”, the researcher has studied the problems of tourist, employees
(who worked in tourist places of Gujarat) and infrastructure development
in Gujarat for tourism purpose. The study was based on primary data and
brought to light many facts related to tourism in Gujarat.
Research O bjectives
To understand tourism scenario in the study area.
To ex amine the perspective of tourists in the study area.
To give recommendation for the problem.
Research M ethodology
Coverage
Sanjay Gandhi National Park (SGNP) is the
part of Borivali taluka which falls within the
Mumbai region of Maharashtra and located in
Western Ghats region of India. The latitudinal
extension of SGNP is between 19o 08’20’’ to
19o 20’44’’ North and longitudinal extension
is between 72o 51’49’’ to 72o 58’32’’East.
SGNP covers 104 sq.km. area. This area has
green forest patches along mountainous range.
It was recognized by the government as
national park in the year of 1969 and
headquarter of SGNP is located in Borivali.
Mumbai covers 10% greenery of SGNP. Two
lakes i.e., Vihar and Tulsi Lake are found
inside the park. These lakes are still providing
drinking water to habitants of Mumbai city;
therefore both lakes have t heir great history in
Mumbai. This national park has existence of
historical place (Kanheri cave) shows the
history of Buddhism of 4th century BCE, rich
in flora and fauna, Biodiversity and wildlife,
are the attraction of tourist. Every year above
2 milli on people visited in a year and in Asia
it is considered as one of the most visited
national parks.
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72 Data Collection and Analysis
Secondary data from online and offline sources have been referred to for
compiling the review of literature. The study is base d on primary data
collection of 105 respondents using a mixed type of questionnaire
prepared in Google Forms. The data has been analyzed using MS -Excel.
Results, Analysis and D iscussion
From the above graphs, it is observed that maximum tourists in the
national park face issues like traffic congestion, lack of infrastructure,
healthcare and pollution. Only a few do not face any issues. This implies
that there needs to be stricter traffic management rules in the park.
Most of the tourists visit the pa rk for its historical heritage followed by
boating activities, enjoying the greenery and for trekking. This indicates
that the park is not only an animal gazing point but it serves the local
people in a variety of ways. Educational field trips are most com mon in
the park alongwith people who practice running, jogging and cycling.
Hence, the park has daily visitors and occasional tourists also.
It is observed that 25.7% are highly satisfied with tourism management in
the study area i.e., they have rated it 9 on a 10 point scale followed by 22.9
% rating it as 7, 21.9% rated 8 and others. This signifies that the tourist are
highly satisfied with the management of tourism related activities in the
park.
It is observed that most of the tourists find sightseeing , public sanitation,
safety and security and cleanliness to be excellent to be good. However
drinking water facility is marked good to average. Shopping which is a
major attraction is found poor as the park does not have anything to offer
for shopping. Thi s is primarily to keep it away from unwanted shops and
crowd.
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Environm ental Research
73 Major Findings
In SGNP, more than two million people visit every year and the daily
average is 300 -350 visitors which is higher on weekends (Saturday and
Sunday).
Many tourists who stay near t he park, visit it daily for walks and
exercise.
SGNP has more than 50% tribal population.
SGNP provides cycling facilities to the visitors.
Water facilities inside the park is not appropriate.
Most tourists find the tourism management excellent to good .
Conclusion
Tourism is an important economic activity for the residents of SGNP. The
park receives domestic and international tourists both as the park is
considered Asia’s largest visiting park. The study shows that the tourists
are satisfied with the park’s manageme nt and therefore it attracts larger
number of people every day and every year. However certain facilities like
sanitation, drinking water and traffic management need to be improved.
Recommendations
Washrooms must be renovated and highly maintained
There must be development of food eateries and safe d rinking water
must be provided
Plastic and vehicles must be banned inside the park
There should be provision of electric or CNG vehicles inside the park
with properly planned routes and fixed charges. This wil l help reduce
pollution and decongest the park as well.
References
Chavda, R. 2019. Economics of tourism sector: A case study of
development of tourism sector in Gujarat.
Sigala, M. 2020. Tourism and COVID -19: Impacts and implications
for advancing and resetting industry and research. Retrieved at:
https://scholar.google.com.au/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=en
&user=8YD24sgAAAAJ&citation_for_view=8YD24sgAAAAJ:pQT
OvowfQioC
Thathang, V. 2005. Tourism in Nepal since 1980: Impact on the
economy, society and environment. munotes.in
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Ecology and Environment
74 4.8 SUMMARY
The chapter has presented the entire process of research report writing in
a sequential format . Each part of the report is equally important and
needs to be given fair justice. The concept in a research paper explains
the technical words and concepts that will be covered in the report,
objectives explain the concepts that need to be understood through the
research, scope covers the related aspects that could be included in the
research. The review of literature is a compile d presentation of the
existing literature and research methodology helps to follow the methods
of data collection and analysis in an appropriate way. The findings help
to understand the main conclusions at once , limitations show the
researcher’s realizatio n of the loopholes in the research and
recommendations are a list of constructive solutions by the researcher.
4.9 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS/ EXERCISE
4.9.1. Fill in the Blanks
a. ____________ literature review reviews , critiques, and synthesizes
secondary data .
(Integrative , Argumentative, Narrative, Systematic )
b. ____________ is based on non -statistical techniques.
(Integrative , Argumentative, Narrative , Meta -synthesis)
c. In ____________ we can measure someone's weight or height.
(Indirect observation, Direct o bservation , Survey, Schedule)
d. In _________________w e can use a questionnaire in which
respondents provide answers to our questions about gender, income,
age, attitudes, and behaviours.
(Indirect observation, Direct observation, Survey, Schedule)
e. A ________________ gives research legitimacy and provides
scientifically sound findings.
(research methodology, d irect observation, objectives, scope )
4.9.2. State True of False
a. The concept in a research paper explains the technical words and
concepts that will be covered in the report
b. Objectives explain the concepts that need to be understood through
the research
c. Scope covers the related aspects that could be included in the
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Environm ental Research
75 d. The review of literature is a compiled presenta tion of the existing
literature
e. The findings help to understand the main conclusions at once
4.9.3. Chose the Correct Alternative
a. This organisation defined tourism in 1993
(UNICEF, WTO, UNESCO, SAARC)
b. This in a research study are its flaws or shortcomings.
(findings, scope, limitations, objectives)
c. This aims at providing novel concepts
(findings, scope, limitations, objectives)
d. This contemporary research methodology combines quantitative and
qualitative approaches to provide additional perspectives, create a
richer picture an d present multiple findings
(organizational records, mixed method, quantitative, qualitative)
e. Researchers usually use a this methodology when the objective of the
research is to confirm something
(organizational records, mixed method, quantitative, qualita tive)
4.10 ANSWERS TO THE SELF -LEARNING QUESTIONS
4.9.1.a. Integrative
4.9.1.b . Meta synthesis
4.9.1.c . Direct observation
4.9.1.d . Indirect observation
4.9.1.e . Research methodology
4.9.2 .a. True
4.9.2.b . True
4.9.2.c . True
4.9.2.d . True
4.9.2.e . True
4.9.3 .a. WTO munotes.in
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Ecology and Environment
76 4.9.3.b . Limitations
4.9.3.c . Findings
4.9.3.d . Mixed method
4.9.3.e . Quantitative
4.11 TECHNICAL WORDS AND THEIR MEANING
Research: a detailed and careful study of something to find out more
information about it
Limitations: The limitations of a study are its flaws or shortcomings
which could be the result of unavailability of resources, small sample
size, flawed methodology, etc. No study is completely flawless or
inclusive of all possible aspects.
Recommendations: Recommendations are based on the results of
your research and indicate the specific measures or directions that
can be taken.
4.12 Task
The learners must attempt to make a research paper on any one
environmental issue in the same flow as shown here.
4.13 REFERENCES FOR FURTHER STUDY
Kumar, R. (2010). Research Methodology: A Step -by-Step Guide for
Beginners. United Kingdom: SAGE Publications.
Lester, J. D. (2014). Writing Research Papers: A Complete
Guide. United States: Pearson Education.
Research Methodology for Social Sciences. (2019). United
Kingdom: Routledge.
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