MA-English-Semester-IV-Political-Reading-of-Literature-Interdisciplinary-Course-munotes

Page 1

1 1
ELIZABETHAN AGE - THE RISE AND
CONSOLIDATION OF MONARCHIC
IDEOLOGY
Unit Structure:
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Elizabethan Age: The Rise of Consolidation of Monarchic Ideology
1.2 Summing up
1.3 Important Questions
1.4 References
1.0 OBJECTIVES
Dear learner, t his chapter will familiarise you with the brief history of the
English throne. From the ‘Hundred Years' War’ to the age of Elizabeth.
You will develop a basic understanding of the Elizabethan age and its
development. The chapter will also acquaint you with the political and
monarchic situation and religious tensions during these periods. Also, the
literature produced during this era and its contributions to the history of
the English throne. Besides, you will develop an understanding of politics
and its rel ation to religion and monarchy. And will also see how literature
is an institution embedded in cultural politics and literary texts, mediating
dominant ideologies of their times, with the examples of literary texts
indirectly functioning as an instrument o f power.
1.1 ELIZABETHAN AGE: THE RISE OF
CONSOLIDATION OF MONARCHIC IDEOLOGY
To begin with, Elizabethan Age: The Rise of Consolidation of Monarchic
Ideology, we need to understand a brief history of the English Throne and
how power was shifting from one hand to another and the political and
religious interference in the government. Also, the role of religion matters
a lot as far as the history of the English throne is considered. And then the
Renaissance thought or spirit changed the entire structure of t he nation.
After the Hundred Years' War, a war with France over control of the
French throne, the Renaissance spirit reached England in the fifteenth
century. The Hundred Years' War was not a single, one -hundred -year
conflict. Instead, it was a series of warfare interspersed with intervals of
peace that lasted from 1337 to 1453. The Hundred Years' War arose from
disagreements between England's and France's reigning dynasties, the
Plantagenets in England and the Capetians in France. munotes.in

Page 2

Political Reading of
Literature
2 The English were weakene d as a result of their defeat by the French
during the Hundred Years' War. The stability of England was soon
jeopardised by complex internal arguments over who should be king. York
and Lancaster, two rival houses (royal families), each claimed the right to
the throne. Each house used a rose to represent itself, with Lancaster using
a red rose and York using a white rose. As a result, the war became known
as the War of the Roses. Tensions erupted in 1455, when Richard, Duke of
York, attempted to depose the w eak and mentally disturbed King Henry
VI.
At the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485, Henry's army beat Richard's
armies. Richard was killed in the battle, and Henry became King Henry
VII. He was a member of the House of Lancaster, but the War of the
Roses en ded when he married Elizabeth of York. With this marriage, a
new royal house, the Tudors, was established. Beginning with Henry VII,
Tudor kings played an essential influence in the English Renaissance.
Humanist concepts connected with the English Renaissa nce had begun to
permeate England prior to Henry's accession to the throne, but they were
firmly established only during his reign. For these reasons, Henry VII was
once regarded as England's first Renaissance king, and the English
Renaissance was frequent ly associated with the start of his reign in 1485.
In the 1530s, during the reign of King Henry VIII, Renaissance concepts
grew prevalent in England, and Henry is now regarded as the true English
Renaissance prince. He was handsome and dashing, well -educat ed in
classical Latin and theology (religious philosophy), and eager to spend
money on education and the arts. The closure of monasteries was a
significant event during Henry VIII's reign. Religious establishments
owned up to one -fourth of all land in Engl and. Most chose to renounce
their vows. In the following years, the big abbeys (churches associated
with monasteries) were suppressed one by one. In 1540, a second statute
authorised these closures and required the seizure of all remaining
property. Former monastery properties were overseen by the Court of
Augmentations, a new financial agency. Former monks and nuns received
small pensions, whereas former abbots and priors (leaders of monasteries)
received bigger incomes for their cooperation in the closure of their
places. Most of the monastic territory had been sold to noblemen and
members of the gentry by the time Henry VIII died in 1547. Thus, the
continuation of the Reformation would benefit these people.
In his will, Henry indicated that any of his thr ee children —Edward, Mary,
and Elizabeth —could succeed him to the throne, despite the fact that his
daughters had previously been ruled illegitimate when he divorced their
mothers. At the age of ten, Edward was crowned King Edward VI,
although he was too yo ung to inherit the throne. Henry had appointed a
huge council of regents to oversee England until Edward reached the age
of majority. During Edward's final days, several of his counsellors wanted
to hand the kingdom to Jane Grey (1537 -1554), the king's dis tant relative
and a supporter of Protestant ideals. They were confident that Mary Tudor,
Edward's sister, would revive the Catholic faith because she had always
been a Catholic. Jane was crowned queen in 1553, but she was imprisoned munotes.in

Page 3

Elizabethan Age - The Rise
And Consolidation Of
Monarchic Ideology
3 for high treason after just nine days due to the scheme to make her queen.
In 1554, she and her husband, Guildford Dudley, were beheaded.
After Jane Grey's nine -day reign, Mary Tudor (1516 -1558; reigned 1553 -
58) ascended to the throne as Queen Mary I in 1553. Mary, like her
moth er Catherine of Aragon, was pro -Spain and Catholic. She married
Philip of Spain (later King Philip II) shortly after being crowned, but
Parliament blocked him from assuming the English throne with his bride.
Because of her persecution of Protestants, Mary is known as "Bloody
Mary." Almost 300 people were burnt at the stake during her brief five -
year rule. Many people who refused to forsake Protestant principles
continued to worship in underground churches or fled to European
countries. Others were drawn int o a series of conspiracies against Mary's
rule. Protestant leaders considered Elizabeth, the queen's half -sister, as a
prospective Protestant replacement. Mary then had Elizabeth arrested and
imprisoned in the Tower of London (a royal and aristocracy jail) , and
afterwards in Woodstock. Five years later, Mary, who was nearing the end
of her life, nominated Elizabeth as her successor. Thus, the last Tudor
ruler of England assumed the throne on March 17, 1558.
The reign of Queen Elizabeth I (1533 -1603; reigned 1558 -1603) is known
as the Golden Age of England. Elizabeth reinstated the Anglican Church
in 1559, assuming the title of Supreme Governor of the Church. She did
not refer to herself as Supreme Head, presumably because it was thought
that a woman could no t lead a church. Nonetheless, she adhered to her
father's and brother's religious beliefs. The Elizabethan Book of Common
Prayer was based on Cranmer's second version, although it was altered to
allow individual worshipers to hold differing opinions on iss ues such as
communion. Elizabeth had a good education. She was fluent in Greek and
Latin, and she occasionally surprised foreign ambassadors by
understanding statements they made in their own tongues. Elizabeth was a
skilled player on the virginal, a keybo ard instrument named after her role
as the Virgin Queen —Elizabeth refused to marry since she had dedicated
her life to her kingdom. Renaissance ideas dominated literature during her
lengthy reign. For example, the English playwright William Shakespeare
(1564-1616) created some of the world's greatest masterpieces by basing
his themes and characters on ancient history and humanism. Members of
the governing classes and the clergy were given classical educations,
while intellectuals actively studied ancient hi story.
Following Mary's death, Philip II proposed to marry Elizabeth. When
Elizabeth turned down his proposal, he recognised England could never be
a Catholic country. For the remainder of the century, England and other
Protestant powers were at odds with Spain and the papacy. Protestants in
the Low Countries battled against Spanish power and Catholic persecution
during the Dutch Revolt. Initially hesitant to get involved, Elizabeth
eventually accepted the notion that England, as the dominant Protestant
power in Europe, owed it to Protestants elsewhere.
Various conspiracies related to Mary Stuart (1542 -1587), Queen of Scots,
posed a significant threat to Elizabeth's security (ruled Scotland, 1542 –munotes.in

Page 4

Political Reading of
Literature
4 67). Mary was a Catholic who had fled Scotland after being per secuted by
Protestants. For many years, Elizabeth provided Mary with safety in
England, despite the fact that Mary was a descendant of King James IV
(1473 -1513; reigned 1488 -1513) of Scotland and Margaret Tudor (1489 –
1514). However, the uncovering of an as sassination plot against Elizabeth
in 1586 led to Mary's execution at Fotheringhay Castle in 1587.
The execution of the Catholic queen signalled to Philip that he needed to
grab the English throne. He began planning an attack on England with the
famed "Inv incible Armada," a force of 130 strongly armoured ships with
30,000 troops (see "Spain" section later in this chapter). Even before the
Armada could leave, the English sailor Francis Drake (c. 1540 -1596)
conducted a surprise attack on the Spanish ships sta tioned in Cádiz, Spain,
in 1587. The devastation was so severe that the invasion was postponed
for a year. The Spanish Armada set sail from Lisbon in May 1588, but
storms forced the fleet to dock in La Corua, northwest Spain. The ships
did not re -sail unti l July. Pandemonium had broken out in England at this
point, and Elizabeth's counsellors encouraged her to prepare for the
approaching onslaught. English fishermen raced home from all around the
world to defend their beloved Gloriana (the nickname given to Elizabeth).
Drake, John Hawkins (1532 -1595), and Martin Frobisher were among
them (c. 1535 –1594). Elizabeth evaluated her little land army in Tilbury,
which was clearly insufficient to take on the Spanish forces. She inspired
the warriors by claiming to h ave "the heart and stomach of a King" despite
having "the physique of a weak and feeble woman."
When the Armada began advancing into the English Channel in early
August, the English main fleet used a favourable wind to launch three
assaults on the Spanish ships. They did not cause substantial damage, so
the Armada stopped at Calais (a French port on the Channel's Dover
Strait) on August 6 to await reinforcements. The Spanish fleet
commander, Alonso Pérez de Guzmán, duke of Medina -Sidonia,
committed a critic al error the following night. He illegally anchored the
fleet, allowing a squadron of English fireships to set fire to the Armada.
As the lighter English warships pursued the heavier Spanish ships, they
headed for the open sea. The Armada was defeated when a violent storm,
dubbed the "Great Protestant Wind" by the English, rushed through the
Channel. Medina -Sidonia withdrew, sailing north around the British Isles.
Many Spanish ships sank off the west coast of Ireland, and barely half of
the Armada made it b ack to Spain.
Despite the stunning destruction of the Spanish Armada, which confirmed
English dominance over the seas, Elizabeth faced difficulties in the latter
years of her reign. She battled to preserve her administration from falling
bankrupt in the 15 90s. Nonetheless, she lavished money on the "Cult of
Gloriana," creating great pageants and spectacles to enchant the English
people. Her later years were marked by a conflict involving one of her
favourite courtiers, Robert Devereux (1566 -1601), Earl of E ssex. Essex
clashed frequently with two of the queen's most capable ministers,
William Cecil (1520 -1598) and his son, Robert Cecil (1563 –1612). When
William Cecil died in 1598, Elizabeth ignored Essex and appointed Robert munotes.in

Page 5

Elizabethan Age - The Rise
And Consolidation Of
Monarchic Ideology
5 Cecil to her top council position. Then, in 1599, Queen appointed Essex as
commander of a military force and dispatched him to Ireland to put down
Tyrone's Rebellion. Hugh O'Neill (c. 1540 -1616), Earl of Tyrone, led this
drive to obtain Irish independence from England. Essex, on the other hand,
failed badly. He not only refused to obey Elizabeth's orders, but he also
made an unlawful truce with the insurgents.
Elizabeth reluctantly withdrew her patronage from Essex when he
returned to England. In 1601 he sought to arrange a coup (government
overthrow) to depose Cecil's party and install his own party in authority
around the queen. He sought assistance from the Irish troops and King
James VI of Scotland. The plot, however, failed, and Essex was
apprehended. He was tried and sentenced to death . Essex was executed
after Elizabeth grudgingly signed the death warrant. Two years later, the
queen died. The Tudor dynasty ended because she had no heirs. Despite
her many troubles over her long reign, Elizabeth demonstrated an
incredible capacity to kee p her people's love.
Following Elizabeth was James VI of Scotland, who became King James I
of England (ruled 1603 –25). He was the son of Mary, Queen of Scots,
and Henry Stewart (1545 -1567), Henry VII's grandson. Anne of Denmark
was James's wife. He enjoye d giving historical and political lectures.
However, James' court was less joyful than Elizabeth's since he faced
financial issues and his favoured aides were unpopular with political
leaders.
James also had to deal with religious strife. He was met by a g roup of
Puritans while riding from Edinburgh to London in 1603, shortly after
becoming king (members of the Anglican Church who advocated strict
reforms). They were particularly critical of the Anglican Church's
"popish," or Catholic, traits. The Puritans presented him with the
Millenary Petition, a change request allegedly signed by a thousand of the
king's people. They advocated reforms such as simplified rituals, less
complex church music, simpler vestments (clergy garments), and more
preaching. They als o intended to ban wedding rings, which were thought
to be papal because Catholics wore them. James convened the Hampton
Court Conference in 1604 in order to react to reasonable requests. Puritan
leaders met with the king and some Anglican Church executives here.
However, hopes for cooperation and compromise were dashed when the
Puritans demanded that the church remove bishops (leaders of church
districts), whom they saw as popish impediments to true reform. James
called the gathering to a halt because he be lieved bishops were required.
The meeting's only surviving legacy was a new translation of the Bible
made by both Anglican and Puritan experts and published in 1611. Despite
the fact that it was called the King James Bible, James himself had little to
do w ith it.
The executions of Elizabeth I's cousin Mary Stuart (Mary, Queen of Scots)
and her favourite courtier, Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex, tainted her
forty -five-year reign. Elizabeth, on the other hand, is primarily
remembered for her achievements, suc h as expanding the Anglican munotes.in

Page 6

Political Reading of
Literature
6 Church and keeping government finances stable. Most importantly, she
exemplified the spirit of her people —a drive to endure and thrive in the
face of overwhelming challenges. Elizabeth's court became the cultural
centre of its p eriod, and her reign was characterised by unparalleled
literary brilliance. The epic poem The Faerie Queen, dedicated by Edmund
Spenser to Elizabeth, and tragedies by William Shakespeare and his
contemporaries rank among the greatest works of the Elizabeth an period.
During Elizabeth's reign, England also began to emerge as a strong sea
power, which eventually led to the British Empire's expansion over the
next three centuries. English exploration and discovery began in the
preceding century, during Henry VI I's reign, with John Cabot's trip from
Bristol to Nova Scotia (now Canada) in 1497. Later, his son Sebastian led
sea excursions for both England and Spain. Elizabethan seamen John
Hawkins and Francis Drake were responsible for the most legendary
expedition s. Hawkins established English trade with the Caribbean Sea
islands in the New World, and Drake circumnavigated the world between
1577 and 1580. Attempts were made to settle Virginia, the North
American area named in Elizabeth's honour (she was called the "Virgin
Queen"). Three unsuccessful attempts by English settlers to establish a
colony on Roanoke, an island off the coast of Virginia, were made. The
final group of colonists unexpectedly vanished. Jamestown, Virginia, was
the first successful English col ony in North America, founded in 1607
under the reign of Elizabeth's successor, James I. Later, Anglican settlers
were drawn to adjacent territories in Virginia, and Puritan colonists (a
Protestant faction) sought religious freedom by establishing settleme nts in
New England in the 1620s. The Elizabethan period was a pivotal period in
England's long history. It was active from 1558 to 1603. The name derives
from the fact that England was ruled by Queen Elizabeth I at the time. The
period was known as the "Go lden Age" in English history because it was
characterised by peace and wealth, as well as the flourishing of art. Unlike
many other eras in Europe that saw many battles and struggles for control,
this one was comparatively tranquil. There were numerous war s between
the Catholic Church and the Protestants prior to the Elizabethan period.
They were courteous with one another at this point in history, which made
everything go much more smoothly, with greater concentration on other
areas for the nation as a who le. Furthermore, the wars between the crown
and parliament had halted. England was a wonderful location to live at the
time.
The Spanish Armada entered English territory in August 1588 with the
purpose of conquering England by Catholic King Philip II of Sp ain. If
they were successful in their aim, Protestantism and Queen Elizabeth
would be defeated. As a result, the English were battling them with all
their might for their lives and independence.
As a result, the so -called Invincible Spanish Armada was defe ated. Sir
Francis Drake, Sir Walter Raleigh, Admiral Hawkins, and Sir Humphrey
Gilbert were among the great noblemen and seamen who made significant
contributions and played important roles throughout this period. The munotes.in

Page 7

Elizabethan Age - The Rise
And Consolidation Of
Monarchic Ideology
7 Elizabethan Era's Golden Age survived thanks to them and a few more
brave men.
The Elizabethan era was also an age of exploration, as it saw the
emergence of the English Navy following the defeat of the Spanish
Armada. Many advances were made in the field of navigation. Sir Francis
Drake's suc cessful circuit of the world emphasised those achievements.
The names William Shakespeare and Elizabethan Theatre are inextricably
linked. However, there were other well -known playwrights, such as
Christopher Marlowe, whose contemporary works were superior to
Shakespeare's.
Initially, plays were performed in the courtyards of inns or in the homes of
noblemen until the first theatre, known as "The Theatre," was established
in Shoreditch in 1576. Later, more playhouses in London appeared,
including Rose and t he Hope. The most popular playhouse, however, was
The Globe Theatre, which was established in 1599 by the Company of
Shakespeare. The theatre was used until 1613, when it was closed due to a
cannon that was fired during one of King Henry VII's performances
gaining control of the roof and causing the structure to burn to the ground.
During the Elizabethan period, people blamed incomprehensible
happenings on witches, ghosts, and witchcraft. In the majority of cases,
women were accused of witchcraft. Then, wit h the invention of press
printing, new concepts and thinking evolved, which became the most
powerful tool for increasing one's learning and understanding. New ideas
and thinking, as well as information and knowledge about technology,
astrology, and science , sparked a renewed interest in supernatural forces,
which included witches and ghosts.
During the Elizabethan period, the English Renaissance was at its peak. In
truth, many of history's most prominent writers, including Shakespeare,
wrote during the Eliz abethan period. Other poets and artists created many
wonderful masterpieces that we still value today. The Elizabethan era was
the most glorious period in English history literature, with many writers
such as Edmund Spenser, Sir Philip Sidney, Richard Hoop er, Roger
Ascham, and Christopher Marlowe flourishing. Poetry, in addition to
writing, evolved as a new form of art during this period. Many schools
around the world continue to read and view the artists' work,
understanding it as a bright time in history for most of the world, but
especially England.
The prosperity that came to England during the Elizabethan period was
another shining spot in the Elizabethan period. Many of the previous
kings' reforms resulted in a lot of trading going on across the Atlant ic
Ocean. The country of England benefited greatly from this. It was so rich
that many people refer to the Elizabethan period as the Utopian period.
Utopia was a mythical place that was said to be highly prosperous and a
symbol of people's perfection. munotes.in

Page 8

Political Reading of
Literature
8 Unfo rtunately, at the end of the Elizabethan period, there were certain
issues. Despite the fact that the country had been affluent for many years,
Spain persisted in starting a war with England between 1585 and 1604.
The war is now known as the Anglo -Spanish War. The conflict has
depleted England's economy. England did not recover until after the
decline of Queen Elizabeth I. Queen Elizabeth was a firm believer in
Protestantism. She was constantly afraid of being slain by Catholics who
wanted to replace her wi th Mary, Queen of Scots. Queen Elizabeth was
dubbed the "Virgin Queen" because she never married. She regards herself
as married to her country. She was also the last Tudor because she had no
children and left no heir.
How would you like to live under some one who told you what you had to
do and when you had to do it? This is how a monarchy functions. The
Elizabethan age had full of strange rules and practises that were mostly
influenced by Queen Elizabeth I's goals and habits.
For example, because Elizabeth was a devout Christian, everyone else in
England was forced by law to attend church as well. Several other laws of
a similar nature were also enacted. This originates from the form of
governance in which everyone's perspectives are ignored while making
laws.
In comparison to today, Elizabethan politics and the general treatment of
life were quite cruel. In fact, if you were accused of a serious offence, you
may face a variety of forms of torture. Many people were tortured in order
to learn other people's n ames if they believed they had the relevant
information. For example, one woman, the sole woman subjected to this
sort of torture, was placed on a rack. It would stretch you to the point that
joints would frequently shatter and dislocate. She was later mur dered. She
was simply accused of defying the Church of England. A law that would
be meaningless in today's court.
The Queen possessed supreme power in Elizabethan times, according to
law, heredity, and the belief in the divine right; she was the principal
source of patronage and had the final say on all state policy. The
monarch's private business was considered the government, and its
success was consequently heavily reliant on the ruler's character and
political aptitude. Elizabeth I was especially effect ive because she valued
her subjects' goodwill above all else; the abuse of royal prerogative under
James and Charles I showed much animosity and led to increased
restrictions on royal power. The Elizabethan administration structure was
highly centralised, with most decisions being made by the Privy Council,
which was selected directly by the monarch.
1. 2 SUMMING UP
Dear learner, let us sum up what we have learned in this chapter. We
discussed the brief history of the English throne and how power shifted
from one to another. Also, we have discussed the political and monarchic
changes in history and how the religious aspect mattered in the munotes.in

Page 9

Elizabethan Age - The Rise
And Consolidation Of
Monarchic Ideology
9 government. We have arrived at a basic understanding of the Elizabethan
era and the legacy of Queen Elizabeth. Political ups and downs in the era
with the social and political development, literature produced during the
era and the major author from the same age. We then took a cursory look
at politics and The Rise of Consolidation of Monarchic Ideology.
1. 3 IMPORTANT QUES TIONS
Consider working on the following concepts with the help of notes and the
references given at the end of the chapter.
 The History of the English throne.
 Renaissance in England.
 What makes the Elizabethan age The Golden era in the History of
English literature?
 Comment on the emergence of monarchy in England.
 Write an essay on the role of Queen Elizabeth in the history of
England.
 Write a critical analysis of Elizabethan literature and its relation to
current politics and religion.
1. 4 REFERENCES
 Albert, Edward, and James Alfred Stone. A history of English
literature. Harrap, 1979.
 Alexander, Michael. A history of English literature. Macmillan, 2000.
 Blamires, Harry. A short history of English literature. Routledge,
2020.
 Daiches, David. Critical Hi story of English Literature. Vol. 1. Allied
Publishers, 1969.
 Fox, Adam. "Rumour, news and popular political opinion in
Elizabethan and early Stuart England." The Historical Journal 40.3
(1997): 597 -620.
 Montrose, Louis. The purpose of playing: Shakespeare and the
cultural politics of the Elizabethan theatre. University of Chicago
Press, 1996.
 Sanders, Andrew. The short Oxford history of English literature.
Published in the United States by Oxford University Press Inc., New
York, 1994. munotes.in

Page 10

Political Reading of
Literature
10  Scaff, Lawrence A., a nd Richard C. McCoy. The rites of knighthood:
the literature and politics of Elizabethan chivalry. Vol. 7. Univ of
California Press, 1989.
 Younger, Neil. "War and politics in the Elizabethan counties." War
and politics in the Elizabethan counties (2017): 1 -288.
Web Sources:
 https://www.enotes.com/topics/william -shakespeare/critical -
essays/kingship
 https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias -almanacs -
transcripts -and-maps/rise -monarchies -france -england -and-spain
 https://schoolshistory.org.uk/topics/british -history/elizabethan -era/
 https://goodstudy.org/elizabethan -age-1558 -1603/#.Y4ZXTnZBxEY
 https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zwmr7hv/revision/1
 https://englishsummary.com/elizabethan -age/
 https://www.britannica.com/place/United -Kingdom/Elizabethan -
society


munotes.in

Page 11

11 2
HOW SHAKESPEARE’S TEXTS UPHOLD
AND AUTHENTICATE ABSOLUTIST
MONARCHIC IDEOLOGY
Unit Structure:
2.0 Objectives
2.1 How Shakespeare’s Texts uphold and Authenticate Absolute
Monarchic Ideology
2.2 Summing up
2.3 Important Questions
2.4 References
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Dear learner, in this chapter, we will discuss ‘How Shakespeare’s Texts
uphold and Authenticate Absolute Monarchic Ideology’. You will develop
a basic understanding of the literature produced by William Shakespeare.
The chapter will also acqua int you with the politics of literature and how
literary texts are the mirror of contemporary society. Besides, you will
develop an understanding of Monarchic Ideolog. And the relationship
between authors and the governing authorities. This chapter examine s the
connection between literature and politics. It focuses on the idea that
literary form is political in and of itself, and it analyses ideas that literature
can criticise and change political beliefs by being experienced in terms of
its style.
2.1 HOW SHAKESPEARE’S TEXTS UPHOLD AND
AUTHENTICATE ABSOLUTE MONARCHIC
IDEOLOGY
Shakespeare, also known as the Bard of Avon or the Swan of Avon, was
an English poet, dramatist, and actor who was born in Stratford -upon -
Avon, Warwickshire, England on April 23, 156 4, and died on April 23,
1616. He is widely regarded as the greatest dramatist of all time.
Shakespeare holds a unique position in international literature. Other
poets, such as Homer and Dante, have transcended national boundaries,
but no living writer's reputation can compare to Shakespeare's, whose
plays, written in the late 16th and early 17th centuries for a small repertory
theatre, are now performed and read more frequently and in more
countries than ever before. Shakespeare's famous contemporary, the poet
and dramatist Ben Jonson, prophesied that he "was not of an era, but for
all time," and his prophecy has been fulfilled. Shakespeare lived during a munotes.in

Page 12

12 Political Reading of
Literature period when Middle Ages concepts and social structures continued to
influence the human mind and behav iour. Queen Elizabeth I was God's
representative on earth, and lords and commoners had their proper roles in
society beneath her, with responsibilities to God flowing up via her and
down to those of lower status. The order of things, on the other hand, was
called into doubt. Atheism remained a threat to the majority of
Elizabethans' beliefs and way of life, but the Christian faith was no longer
monolithic. Martin Luther, John Calvin, a slew of small religious sects,
and even the English church itself had qu estioned Rome's authority. The
parliamentary sovereignty was questioned in Parliament; the emergence of
capitalism, the redistribution of monastery estates under Henry VIII, the
spread of education, and the influx of fresh money from the discovery of
new t erritories all disrupted the economic and social orders.
Official homilies exhorted the people to obedience; the Italian political
theorist Niccol Machiavelli was placing emphasis on a new, practical code
of politics that caused Englishmen to fear the Ital ian "Machiavillain" while
prompting them to ask what men do, instead of what they should do.
Disquisitions in Hamlet —on man, belief, a "rotten" state, and times "out
of joint" —clearly show an increasing unease and doubt. The translation of
Montaigne's Essa ys in 1603 offered such philosophy further currency,
range, and elegance, and Shakespeare was among many who studied them,
making direct and major references in The Tempest. Instead of Aristotle's
typical "Why?" question, the question "How?" became the dri ving force in
philosophical investigation. The so -called Gunpowder Plot (1605)
demonstrated a determined challenge by a small minority in the nation;
James' battles with the House of Commons in succeeding Parliaments,
while revealing the might of the "new men," also revealed the
administration's shortcomings. Italo Calvino, in his work The Uses of
Literature , says that "Literature is vital to politics above all when it
provides a voice to the voiceless when it gives a name to the nameless,
and especially to all that political discourse excludes or threatens to
exclude... Literature is like an ear that can hear beyond the chromatic scale
to which Politics is sensitive; Literature is like an eye that can see beyond
the chromatic scale to which Politics is susc eptible."
Shakespeare was able to witness two monarchs up close as one of the
heads of the most prominent theatre companies of the day. Both Elizabeth
I and James I appreciated plays, and they were staged in royal residences.
Following Queen Elizabeth's de ath in March 1603, James 1 travelled from
Scotland to London . In May, he granted a patent for a new King's
Company, which included Shakespeare, Burbage, Hemmings, and
Condell, to perform as well for the recreation of our beloved Subjects, as
for our Solace and delight when we should think good to see them.
Shakespeare's chronicle history plays are centred on the battle to become
king and the issue of a ruler's proper characteristics. Recent critical
attention has been drawn to Shakespeare's first historical tetralogy, the
Henriad, which includes the plays Richard II, Henry IV Part 1 and 2, and
Henry V. Contemporary academics have also investigated the issue of
kingship in Shakespeare's later works, particularly Hamlet, Macbeth, and munotes.in

Page 13

How Shakespeare’s Texts
Uphold And Authenticate
Absolutist Monarchic
Ideology
13 King Lear. Two of Shakespe are's primary concerns about kingship have
emerged from their investigations: the question of the nature and
legitimacy of political authority, and the search for an ideal king, one who
embodies both mediaeval Christian piety and a more contemporary
concep tion of the monarch as outlined by the Renaissance political
philosopher Niccol Machiavelli. Besides these two overarching concerns,
contemporary scholars are interested in the monarch's role as the object of
both sacred and secular ritual, as well as the study of the disastrous effects
of malign rulership —particularly the negative consequences of
monarchical absolutism and royal abdication on individuals and nations.
Critics of historical plays commonly note the Renaissance ideal of
kingship and the signif icance of legitimate rule as they investigate the
personal, spiritual, and political components of these works. Shakespeare's
political theory as it appears in the chronicle history plays and in
Elizabethan thought, emphasising the monarch's duty as the pr otector and
benefactor of his or her subjects —the cornerstone of Shakespeare's kingly
ideal —has been noticed by George W. Keeton. Leonard Tennenhouse has
proceeded in the same vein by explaining the political subtexts of
Shakespeare's historical plays, whi ch he sees as a prolonged attempt by
the dramatist to construct and legitimise a new sort of ideal ruling
authority. Sukanta Chaudhuri has written about the same subject, focused
on Henry V. For Chaudhuri, Henry exemplifies this new Renaissance ideal
by co mbining Machiavellian virtù —personal force, strength, and bravery,
as well as cunning and duplicity —with Christian compassion and a strong
connection to humanity. Barbara Traister provides a counterexample to
Shakespeare's image of King John, an individual lacking in the
charismatic and sympathetic features of the Lancasterian monarch and
hence without a king's so -called "second body" —the aura of majesty that
connects the body politic.
Another prevalent critical perspective to Shakespeare's chronicle histor y
plays and some other dramas, most notably King Lear, is to see them as a
critique of kingship gone wrong. In order to face the topic of extravagant
ceremony in relation to the Renaissance monarchy, Richard F. Hardin
described Elizabeth I's coronation, in which the new monarch attempted to
elevate her position as a secular ruler above the sacramental role of the
Church.
Hardin has observed that in Shakespeare's play Richard II, the ceremonial
grandeur and useless self -worship of Richard II serve to contras t this
inadequate king with Henry V, whose disdain for the ceremony is matched
by his enormous religiosity. The ceremony, in the words of Richard C.
McCoy, becomes a "secular pageant" —a garish exhibition that exists in
place of actual royal virtue. Other o bservers have followed suit, pointing
out Shakespeare's representation of the monarch's worst traits. Graham
Holderness interprets Richard II's appeal to the concept of divine right as a
symptom of weakness that leads to his disastrous reign and later self -
deposition. Furthermore, Eva Figes has investigated Shakespeare's critique
of royal irresponsibility in non -historical plays through the character of munotes.in

Page 14

14 Political Reading of
Literature King Lear, whose selfish abandonment of the crown precipitated a horrific
civil war.
To explain the polit ics of Shakespeare's historical plays, we must draw
two sorts of comparisons: one compares this particular dramatic form to
others that we deem literary: romantic comedy, tragedy, and the court
masque. Our goal here is to establish which figures allow the elements of
chronicle history to authorise the state in distinctively Elizabethan ways.
But this necessitates another form of comparison, one that sees aesthetic
methods as political strategies.
To illustrate those theatrical spectacles reflected state po wer, we shall
understand how the people organising materials for the stage also dictated
official policies. Let’s use Henry VIII and Hamlet as examples to
demonstrate this concept. In addition to isolating the political techniques
shared by big chronicle h istory plays and romantic comedies, one may
discern why Henry VIII is a different kind of play despite drawing on
chronicle history materials. By the same token, Hamlet must be associated
with chronicle histories in terms of representational tactics rather than the
Jacobean tragedies with which literary tradition has associated it.
Let’s not be preoccupied with the progression of literature on the one hand
or the history of state institutions on the other. Let’s focus in this chapter
on the representation o f power, specifically the cultural logic or general
economy of meaning within which the monarch's body was inscribed and
attained worth. The theatre that exalted state power did not follow its own
logic or the evolution of any specific author. On the contr ary, as the
monarch's inherited prerogatives were challenged, first by a fighting group
within the aristocracy, and then by dissenting voices outside the oligarchy,
literature was forced to utilise radically discontinuous aesthetic tactics in
order to stay politically consistent. Indeed, with the accession of James I, a
whole set of literary genres fell out of favour, and new forms gave the
right means of establishing oneself close to political authority. The
chronicle history drama, together with romantic comedy, Petrarchan
poetry, prose romance, and other genres, had unparalleled popularity in
the 1590s. And, just as obviously as it shared their popularity, the
chronicle history play had a role in the extinction of many of these
Elizabethan genres; with fe w exceptions, such plays ceased to be produced
after Henry V (1599), with Henry VIII being the most noteworthy
exception.
To explain why history plays became essentially unwritable after 1600,
let’s take a look at what this dramatic form had in common with romantic
comedy and Petrarchan poetry, which allowed these genres to target the
same audience and ultimately fade away together. Despite their
differences, chronicle history employs the same approach to create
political order from political strife as roma ntic comedy used to establish
dominant kinship rules. Both depict patriarchal systems in disarray,
resulting in two bases for authority and hence two conflicting hierarchies
of power, which only the monarch can keep in harmonious discord. munotes.in

Page 15

How Shakespeare’s Texts
Uphold And Authenticate
Absolutist Monarchic
Ideology
15 If we consider A Midsummer Night's Dream, a play that is unmistakably
typical of Shakespeare's romantic comedies, we can see that the problem
that authority must solve is a problem with authority itself. It is an issue of
authority that has become outdated. At first glance , the law appears
arbitrary in that it appears to serve just the father's will. A comic
resolution does not necessitate that the law is less arbitrary, because
arbitrariness might be an entirely appropriate element of monarchical
power. A comedic resolutio n, on the other hand, necessitates either the
independence of the law or the benevolence of the parent. In other words,
a more inclusionary order is required. Oberon represents the traditional
alternative to patriarchal law, with carnival aspects. As if Ti tania's
portrayal of an unruly lady wasn't enough to establish her as a Fairie, Puck
employs this concept of disorder among the Athenians —both lovers and
mechanicals who have wandered into the woods. Gender, age, rank, and
even species inversions break all of the categories that organised the
Elizabethan social order. As a result, relationships take on the horrific
proportions of Renaissance lunacy, which arises whenever violations of
patriarchal law exist in utter contradiction to governmental authority.
However, the romantic comedies show that festival breaks down the
hierarchical distinctions that organised Elizabethan society, only to be
taken within the social order where it authorises a new type of political
authority.
As evidenced by "the story of the night told o'er,"Bottom's "dream," and
the mechanicals' production of Pyramus and Thisbe, this approach of
double inversion contains political instability within the framework of the
festival where it can be further aestheticized. When Theseus and his
comp anions come across the sleeping couples lying together on the
ground, the duke speculates, "No doubt they rose early to observe / The
rite of May... " (IV.i.132 -3). By labelling the lovers as revellers, Theseus
does more than simply legitimise their disobe dience of the law; he
associates their disorder with the order of art. "I know you two are rival
adversaries," he continues to the young men, "but how come there is such
lovely harmony in the world...?" (IV. i.142 -3) In addition hand,
Shakespeare has alter ed the structure of political power by placing filial
disobedience within a range of permitted illegalities. What was once a
violation of the father's law is now a scene of peace. When Egeus presses
Theseus to punish the young criminals, the duke overrules the father in
what many regards as an arbitrary move. While both Egeus and the Duke
have been arbitrary in their exercise of authority, the power of legitimate
authority is separated from patriarchal rule by the monarch's ability to
freely pardon where Eg eus, despite the lovers' show of respect, would be
penurious and severe.
If Theseus allows some power distortions to exist within the frame works
of festival and art, it is also true that the entrance of disorder into the play
eventually validates governme ntal authority. When Theseus brings the
May rites into the realm of the permissible, the revellers fall to their knees
before him. Together, revellers and dukes form a harmonic political entity
in which the monarch's power exists independently of the Patri arch's. The
duke's equating of juridical power with patriarchal power creates a new set munotes.in

Page 16

16 Political Reading of
Literature of political conditions in which opposing bases of authority are held in
balance. This type of authority is preferable to the punitive power he
threatened to use at the start of the play. As a result, the entire final act of
the play theorises the process of inversion by which art and politics form
this mutually authorising relationship. This process is recreated on stage in
the guise of an Elizabethan tragedy —Pyramus an d Thisbe —that has been
turned into a comedy, with crude mechanicals playing a variety of roles
ranging from noble lovers to creatures and elements of the natural world.
The popularity of inversions that put the law in conflict with patriarchal
authority ca nnot be properly comprehended unless one considers how
Elizabeth employed these forms of authority against one another. It is
insufficient to suggest that the transfiguration of power in romantic
comedy mirrors Elizabeth's actual way of wielding monarchy a nd power.
To be sure, she used her patronage power to limit the power of ruling
dynasties and establish economic authority in opposition to blood
authority. However, the data suggest that this method was more than just
her own creativity. They show that he r distinctive tactics for conveying
power were as much influenced by the political climate of the moment as
the structure of a comedy like A Midsummer Night's Dream.
Henry VIII was given the power to determine succession by Acts of
Parliament in 1536 and 1 543. His will not only stated that the crown
would be passed to Edward, Mary, and Elizabeth in that order, but it also
stated that if his children died without issue, the crown would be passed to
his younger sister's children in the Suffolk line rather tha n her older sister's
children in the superior hereditary Stuart line.As a result, Henry
considered the crown as a piece of property, subject to the same common -
law laws against alien inheritance as any other piece of English property.
Henry used the civic authority of a property owner to define the monarchy
as such a juridical form by utilising his legal prerogative to authorise this
line of descent. This tautology pitted the prevalent genealogy principle
against the one later used by supporters of Mary Que en of Scots and her
dynasty. During Elizabeth's reign, both Catholic and Stuart advocates
insisted on the traditional idea of the monarch as two bodies in one, a
natural and a supernatural body. Theirs was a monolithic conception of
power that regarded the body politic as the perpetual corporate body of the
crown. The mystical body cleansed the natural body of attainder; it united
the king with his royal forefathers to form them as one and the same
corporate person; and the metaphysical body was connected t o the king's
natural body, they said, like an affair of the heart in a royal marital pre -
contract.
Similar reasoning is at work in A Midsummer Night's Dream, where the
law and the father temporarily clash in the play's final act. However, in
this case, the division of one kind of authority into two opposing voices is
hardly a dramatic issue. It is the humorous answer to a problem that arises
when authority takes on an absolute and monolithic shape. Because
Elizabeth's rise could be justified by both her fat her's will and
primogeniture, her own presence momentarily united the opposing
opinions formed during the succession arguments. Elizabeth was a munotes.in

Page 17

How Shakespeare’s Texts
Uphold And Authenticate
Absolutist Monarchic
Ideology
17 conundrum, in other words, because her ascension had resulted in
contradicting definitions of monarchical author ity. The divergence of
Theseus' authority from that of Egeus ends the dramatic struggle of A
Midsummer Night's Dream in much the same way.
Indeed, when we return to courtly poetry, we see the same approach for
idealising power at work, as the patron is gi fted with the characteristics of
the reluctant lover. Even though the two modalities of depicting power are
brought together in one figure of speech, the puns that characterise the
Petrarchan manner of poetry effectively establish a gulf between the
power of property and that of blood (via marriage into the aristocracy).
There are many more examples in Shakespeare's writing about
contemporary politics, be it his tragedies, comedies, histories, tragi -
comedies or poetry etc. To understand the political readin g of Shakespeare
in a deeper manner, the learners are advised to read the suggested texts in
the references below.
2. 2 SUMMING UP
Dear learner, let us sum up what we have learned in this chapter. We
discussed in brief Shakespeare and his writing career. His stand in world
literature and his contribution to the history of English Literature. We have
arrived at a basic understanding of the Elizabethan age and the politics of
the same age and the relation of Shakespeare's literature with
contemporary polit ics. In this chapter, we also discussed Shakespeare’s
tragedies and comedies to understand the relationship between politics and
literature. And lastly, we studied how Shakespeare’s Texts uphold and
Authenticate Absolute Monarchic Ideology with the importa nce of
Shakespearean texts with illustrations.
2. 3 IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
Consider working on the following concepts with the help of notes and the
references given at the end of the chapter.
 The role of Shakespeare in Elizabethan literature.
 Write a detail ed note on the Politics in the writings of Shakespeare.
 What is the essence of Shakespearian Comedies in the Elizabethan
age and the depiction of politics in the same?
 Comment on the use of political references in Shakespeare’s
tragedies.
 Write an essay on Shakespeare and Politics.
 Write a political analysis of Shakespeare’s writings.

munotes.in

Page 18

18 Political Reading of
Literature 2. 4 REFERENCES
● Cohen, Walter. "Political criticism of Shakespeare." Shakespeare
Reproduced. Routledge, 2013. 26 -54.
● Dollimore, Jonathan, and Alan Sinfield, eds. Political Shakespeare:
essays in cultural materialism. Manchester University Press, 1994.
● McMullan, Gordon, and Jonathan Hope, eds. The Politics of
Tragicomedy: Shakespeare and After. Routledge, 2021.
● Tennenhouse, Leonard. Power on display: The politics of
Shakespea re's genres. Routledge, 2013.
● Hadfield, Andrew, ed. Shakespeare and Renaissance politics. A&C
Black, 2014.
● Hillman, Richard. Shakespeare, Marlow and the Politics of France.
Springer, 2002.
● Sinfield, Alan. Cultural politics -queer reading. Routledge, 2004.
● Hawkes, Terence. Shakespeare in the Present. Routledge, 2003.
● Norbrook, David. "The Emperor's new body? Richard II, Ernst
Kantorowicz, and the politics of Shakespeare criticism." Textual
Practice 10.2 (1996): 329 -357.
● Charnes, Linda. Hamlet's heirs: Shakesp eare and the politics of a new
millennium. Routledge, 2006.
● Boose, Lynda E. "The Family in Shakespeare Studies; or —Studies in
the Family o/Shakespeareans; or —The Politics of Politics."
Renaissance Quarterly 40.4 (1987): 707 -742.
● Berger, Harry. Imaginary au dition: Shakespeare on stage and page.
Univ of California Press, 1989.
● Lupton, Julia Reinhard. Citizen -saints: Shakespeare and political
theology. University of Chicago Press, 2014.
● Shuger, Debora Kuller. "Political Theologies in Shakespeare’s
England." NY : Palgrave (2001).
● Taylor, Antony. "Shakespeare and Radicalism: the uses and abuses of
Shakespeare in nineteenth -century popular politics." The Historical
Journal 45.2 (2002): 357 -379.
Web Sources:
● https://www.3ammagazine.com/3am/literature -and-politics/
● https://www.britannica.com/biography/William -
Shakespeare/Understanding -Shakespeare munotes.in

Page 19

How Shakespeare’s Texts
Uphold And Authenticate
Absolutist Monarchic
Ideology
19 ● https://medium.com/arc -digital/just -what -is-political -literature -
c65c9d4813d7
● https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279742552_Political_Practi
ce_of_Literary_Analysis_How_to_Read_Literature_more_Closely
● https:// bookriot.com/reading -political -act/
● https://www.thoughtco.com/top -classic -political -novels -3368080
● https://gulfnews.com/general/literature -is-the-mirror -of-society -
1.86134
● https://keralaliteraturefestival.com/news_more.aspx?id=NDcwNw==
&year=2023


munotes.in

Page 20

20 3
EMERGENCE AND SPREAD OF
COLONIALISM AND IMPERIALISM -
HOW COLONIAL IDEOLOGY IS
EMBEDDED IN AND TRA NSMITTED BY
THE CANONICAL TEXTS
Unit structure :
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Emergence and Spread of Colonialism and Imperialism - How
colonial ideology is embedded in and transmitted by the canonical
texts.
3.1.1. What is Colonialism and how did it arise?
3.1.2. Causes for the rise of Colonialism.
3.1.3. How did colonialism emerge?
3.1.4. Causes for the rise of Imperialism.
3.1.5. What caused the emergence of Impe rialism?
3.1.6. Orientalism by Edward Said
3.1.7. Canonical text ‘Passage to India’ by
3.2 Important Questions
3.3 Reference
3.0 OBJECTIVES
 To historicize literature as an institution embedded in cultural politics.
 To highlight how literary texts, med iate dominant ideologies of their
times.
 To examine how literary texts indirectly function as an instrument of
power.
3.1 EMERGENCE AND SPREAD OF COLONIALISM
AND IMPERIALISM - HOW COLONIAL
IDEOLOGY IS EMBEDDED IN AND
TRANSMITTED BY THE CANONICAL TEXT S.
3.1.1. What is Colonialism and how did it arise?
It was in the late seventeenth century when the Mughal Empire controlled
nearly all of the Indian subcontinent. European visitors marveled at the
empire’s affluence, magnificence and grandeur. Antonio Mon serrate, a
Portuguese Jesuit missionary, called its cities “second to none either in munotes.in

Page 21

Emergence And Spread Of
Colonialism And
Imperialism - How Colonial
Ideology Is Embedded In
And Transmitted By The
Canonical Texts
21 Asia or in Europe with regards either to size, population, or wealth.” For
centuries, merchants all over the world had traveled to India, keen and
impatient to trade for c oveted silk, spices, and textiles. And in 1700,
India’s economy was larger than all of Western Europe’s put together,
making up nearly 25 percent of the global economy. However, by the year
1973, that number had dropped to just 3 percent.
 How did this hap pen?
It involves centuries of war , technological innovation, change, novelty
and global trade that sent some economies lofty and brought others
crashing down. However, central to this story for India and for so many
countries around the world, is the history of colonialism, the practice of
controlling another country or area and exploitin g and subordinating its
people and resources .
In the midst of the late fifteenth century and the years after the World War
II, predominantly European empires colonized the huge and immense
majority of the world. The French Empire, for example, ruled over
territory greater than the size of Europe. Though, the largest of these
domains was the British Empire, which, at its pinnacle, covered a quarter
of the world. The sun was said to never set on the British Empire, as at
least one of its colonies was always i n daylight. While, Britain’s most
significant colony was India, the borders of which stretched and enlarged
from modern -day Afghanistan to Myanmar. So important and beneficial
was the colony that it accounted for half of the British Empire’s gross
domestic product in 1870.
 What drove colonialism?
Empires have existed and remained for thousands of years. In the second
century, the Romans controlled territory from Western Europe to the
Middle East. Whereas, in the thirteenth century, the Mongols ruled an
empire several times larger, which spanned Eurasia. however, the 1500s
brought about a new age of empires as progressive and advanced naval
technology that allowed countries to enlarge and augment their borders
across oceans. Spain and Portugal hastily establ ished colonies around the
world. Other European powers for instance, England, France, and the
Netherlands, launched and started their own empires by the seventeenth
century. And by the end of the twentieth century, both the United States
and Japan had clai med overseas lands.
3.1.2. Cau ses for the rise of Colonialism
 Industrial Consequences :
Colonialism ultimately was a result of the Industrial Revolution.
Production increased exceedingly because of the new machines.
Nevertheless, the rate of local consum ption was much lesser as compared
to the surplus rate of production. Therefore, the instantaneous need of the
European was to search and find the new marketplaces for selling their
products. Additionally, it was also important and essential that those munotes.in

Page 22

22 Political Reading of
Literature mark etplaces be dependable and easy to rule and dominate. The Industrial
Revolution, now is also called as the First Industrial Revolution, led to an
unprecedented advancement and rise in the rate of population growth.
 Requirements of Raw Material :
It is imp ortant and essential to sustain low costs of production compared to
rival and competing nations in the market. The craving and yearning to
construct and create a monopoly in the market and the need to acquire and
obtain raw material at cheaper rates were t wo important and determining
factor which made it significant for the European nations to establish clear
supremacy and dominance.
 Investing Surplus Capital :
The Industrial Revolution added to the wealth of the European capitalist,
who were already wealth y and affluent. They began searching and seeking
for secure markets to invest their surplus funds. The markets which were
in the less developed countries were quite secure from this outlook and
viewpoint. Hence, the availability of surplus capital facilit ated the rise
and growth of colonialism. The history of capitalism is diverse and distinct
and has many debated lineages, however, the fully -fledged capitalism is in
most cases thought by scholar to have emerged and emanate in
Northwestern Europe, particul arly in Great Britain and Netherlands, in the
16th to 17th centuries. Over the 16th to 17th centuries, capital accumulated
and aggregated by a variety of methods at a variety of scales, and
connected with many alterations in the concentration of wealth and
economic power. Colonialism gradually and evenly became the
controlling and dominant economic system all through the world.
 Sources of Minerals :
The countries in Asia and Africa had rich and affluent sources of minerals
such as gold, silver, diamonds, and coal etc. All these sources attracted
and enamored the European merchants to different regions of Asia and
Africa.
 Geographic Importance :
European Nations had realized and substantiated that the geographic
location of some regions in Asia and Africa are advantageous and
beneficial for trade. Singapore, Andaman and Nicobar, Aden, Gibraltar
and Malta were some such regions where the British established and
entrenched their hold.
 Availability of Labour :
European merchants required a considerable number of labourers at a very
low and cheap rate. The colonies fulfilled and accomplished this need.
Thereafter, it contributed to the boom in the slave trade.
munotes.in

Page 23

Emergence And Spread Of
Colonialism And
Imperialism - How Colonial
Ideology Is Embedded In
And Transmitted By The
Canonical Texts
23  The Feeling of Racial Superiority :
The European colonists claimed it to be their responsibility and
accountability to civilize the people in both Asia and Africa. This assumed
and pretended role of the Europeans resulted and emanated in the
conversion of many Asian and African people to Christianity. This
eventually also abetted in the development, progr ess, advancement and
growth of colonialism.
3.1.3. How did colonialism emerge?
Western colonialism, a political -economic phenomenon, through which
various European nations explored, scrutinized, conquered, settled,
oppressed and exploited large areas of t he world. The age of modern
colonialism began in around 1500, following the European discoveries of
a sea route around Africa's southern coast in 1488 and of America in
around 1492.
3.1.4. Causes for the rise of Imperialism:
The following are the main cau ses and factors responsible for the rise of
Imperialism.
Industrial revolution :
The main reason for the rise of Imperialism was Industrial revolution.
Industrial revolution in European countries resulted in an immense
increase in production. They could no t find market in Europe as they
followed "Protective Trade Policy". However, due to capitalism, the
purchasing power of the people was also low. It also brought in a huge
progress and development in the means of transport and communication.
The telegraph s ystem connected the whole world and reduced huge
distances. The development or railways speeded up the movement of
goods among colonies and the mother country, hence it was easier to bring
raw materials and to take the finished goods to the markets in the interior
parts of the colonies in Asia and Africa.
 National Security :
The sense of National Security and self -sufficiency among the European
political groups abetted and fomented colonial imperialism. The
Presidents or Prime Ministers worked towards the c olonial imperialism
owing to the influence of business or some other interest.
 Nationalism :
Subsequently, the later part of the 19th Century saw acute and intense
nationalistic ideals in Europe. Many nations developed pride and self -
esteem over their race , culture and language and thereby, started feeling
greater and superior to other countries. They felt that acquisition and
procurement of colonies would improve and embellish the prestige of their
nations. Imperialism became the fashion of the age. The Eu ropeans felt munotes.in

Page 24

24 Political Reading of
Literature that it was 'white man's burden' to civilise the backward and uncivilised
native people of African and Asia.
 Balance of Power :
The idea and notion of Balance of power was one of the prime force accountable
for the rise of imperialism. Europea n Nations were compelled to acquire and
obtain new colonies to achieve and attain a balance with their neighbours and
competitors.
 Discovery of New Routes :
The discovery of new routes of African and Asian continents promoted the
courage, enthusiasm and spirit of imperialism. The discovery of sea routes
preceded the way for the traders and soldiers to take advantage and exploit the
ample and sufficient wealth of the countries.
 State of Anarchy :
There was no international organisation to enact and enforce laws for nations to
maintain and uphold peace, harmony, reconciliation and security among
countries before the First World War. Hence, this state of anarchy supported the
colonial race.
3.1.5. What caused the emergence of Imperialism ?
The term imperialism means the policy of extending the rule or authority
of an empire or nation over foreign countries, or of acquiring and holding
colonies and dependencies and reliance. Imperialism results from an
intricate cause in which in varying degrees economic pressure s, human
anger, aggression, selfishness, greed, the search for security, the drive for
power and prestige, nationalist emotions, humanitarianism, and many
other factors are responsible for the emergence of imperialism.
Imperialism , State policy, practice, or advocacy of extending power and
dominion, especially by direct territorial acquisition or by gaining political
and economic control of other areas.
3.1.6. Orientalism by Edward Said :
Edward Said’s ‘Orientalism’ , is a Western scholarly discipline of the 18th
and 19th centuries that encompassed and bounded the study of
the languages , literatures , religions , philosophies ,histories, art, and laws of
Asian societies, remarkably ancient ones. More recently, for the most part,
through the work of the Palestinian American scholar and Professor of
literature, Edward Said , the term has been used disparagingly and
unfavourably to refer and point out to the allegedly and purportedly
simplistic, stereotyped , degrading and demeaning notions of Arab and
Asian cultures mainly held by Western scholars.
Palestinian American scholar and Professor of literature Edward Said's
notion of orientalism has been engaged by geographers to exhibit
that colonialism is not o nly a particular set of political -economic practices
but also a system of power –knowledge, situated in such a way as to munotes.in

Page 25

Emergence And Spread Of
Colonialism And
Imperialism - How Colonial
Ideology Is Embedded In
And Transmitted By The
Canonical Texts
25 deploy a set of deeply and profoundly strong, effective and powerful
excursive formations, or metanarratives, through which the “Orient ” has
emerged as a place. That place lies beyond the everyday knowledge
grasped in the West, though is broadly implicated and embroiled in the
ways in which the West imagines both itself and the other, the oriental.
The term Orientalism as power –knowledge has been carried forward to the
present, resituated in present -day relationships and connections among the
West and the other, as expressed in an extremely large, boundless and
intricate array of cultural practices, socioeconomic relations, and political
realities. Most significantly, the present -day construction of the “Middle
East,” as a product of Orientalism and a site of violence and savagery, can
be mapped and outlined through a geography of difference produced under
an orientalist gaze from colonial times until the present. Orientalism has
merged itself with the power of Imperialism. Eventually, in the end it
became a tool for the politics and used to imperialize Eastern societies.
According to the American scholar Edward Said, orientalism is a meth od
of achieving the power of imperialist societies in colonized countries by
researching about their culture and history in the account of the Post -
Colonialism Era. The scope of Said's scholarship appointed Orientalism as
a basement framework and circumst ances in the field of Post -Colonialism
culture studies and elucidating the relationship and alliance between
Orientalism and Imperialism.
3.1.7. Canonical text ‘Passage to India’ by E.M. Forster :
A Passage to India written by the English author E.M. Forst er in the year
1924 is a scorching depiction of the English mismanagement of India, as
well as an accusing missal towards many of the racist attitudes the English
colonial administration held. The novel by E.M. Forster scrutinizes the
many rights and wrong s of Empire and the way in which the native Indian
population was oppressed, persecuted and exploited by the English
administration. With the exception of Fielding, none of the English believe
in Aziz's innocence. The head of the police believes that the Indian
character is innately flawed by an intrinsic and deep -rooted criminality.
There seems to be little doubt that Aziz will be found guilty for the fact,
the word of an English woman is believed over the word of an Indian.
Beyond his consideration for British colonization, Forster is even more
worried and disturbed with the right and wrong of human interactions. A
Passage to India by E.M. Forster is about friendship . The friendship
between Aziz and his English friend, Mrs. Moore, begins in almost
mystical circumstances. Both Aziz and Mrs. Moore meet at a Mosque as
the light is fading, and hence, they discover a common bond. Such
friendships cannot last in the heat of the Indian sun nor under the aegis and
support of the British Empire. Edward Morgan Forster escorts us into the
minds of the characters with his stream -of-consciousness style. With the
passage of time, we begin to comprehend and perceive the missed
meanin gs, the failure to connect. Eventually, we begin to see how these
characters are kept apart. E.M. Forster’s novel A Passage to India, munotes.in

Page 26

26 Political Reading of
Literature emotively and naturally recreates the Raj in India and presents insight into
how the Empire was run. Eventually, though, i t's a tale of powerlessness,
frailty, disaffection and alienation.
3.1.8. Conclusion :
Imperialism adversely and unfavourably affected the colonies. Under
foreign rule, native culture and industry were ruined and ravaged.
Imported goods wiped out local cr aft industries. By using colonies as
sources of raw materials and markets for manufactured goods, colonial
powers held back the colonies from developing industries. Both
Imperialism and Colonialism share some similarities –they mean political
and economic oppression and domination of the others; howbeit,
colonialism shows the great movement of people to the new territory and
living as permanent settlers while imperialism is just exercising power and
dominance over the conquered regions either through sovere ignty or
indirect.
3.2 IMPORTANT QUESTIONS :
 What were the main causes of Colonialism and Imperialism?
 What were the main reason behind the rise of imperialism and
colonialism?
 What caused the emergence of imperialism?
 What were the main reasons for the ra pid spread of colonialism and
imperialism?
 What are the effects of colonization?
 How did imperialism lead to colonialism?
3.3 REFERENCES
 toppr.com
 world101.cfr.org
 www.google.com
 shaalaa.com
 sciencedirect.com
 thoughtc o.com





munotes.in

Page 27

27 4
GENDERING THE SUBJECT AND SOCIAL
CONSTRUCTION OF WOMAN
Unit structure:
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Gendering the Subject and Social Construction of Woman
4.1.1. What is Social Constructionism and Social construction of
gender?
4.1.2. Judith Butler’s Gende r performativity theory.
4.1.3. The Sex/Gender Distinction and the Social Construction of
Reality.
4.1.4. Gender as Socially constructed Phenomenon
4.1.5. Is Sex socially determined, too?
4.1.6. Conclusion
4.2. Let’s Sum up
4.3. Important Ques tions
4.0 OBJECTIVE

 To historicize literature as an institution embedded in cultural politics
 To highlight how literary texts, mediate dominant ideologies of their
times
 To examine how literary texts indirectly function as an instrument of
power
4.1 GENDERING THE SUBJECT AND SOCIAL
CONSTRUCTION OF WOMAN
4.1.1. What is Social Constructionism and Social construction of
gender?
Social Constructionism signifies that our realities are based on our
experiences, communication, co -operation and interactions with other
people. We experience the world through our own opinions, assumptions
and point of views. These opinions, assumptions and pint of views are
constructed through a number of things for instance, culture, mores,
tradition, beliefs and values. So, f or example, one person might consider a
dishwasher as his/her necessity while the other might consider it a luxury.
Social constructionism is a theory of knowledge which characterize the munotes.in

Page 28

28 Political Reading of
Literature alliance and association between the objectivity of reality and the c apacity
of human senses, awareness, understanding and cognition. Particularly it
affirms that reality exists as the recapitulation of social perceptions,
viewpoint and expression; and that the reality which is perceived and
discerned is the only reality wo rth consideration. This is abetted by the
corollaries and upshot that any perceived reality is valid, which means,
that reality is subject to manipulation via restraint over social perceptions
and expressions.
Whereas the social construction of gender is a theory in feminism and
sociology which discusses about the representation and embodiment of
cultural origins, mechanisms, consequences and outcomes of gender
viewpoint and expression in the context and background of interpersonal
and group social interact ion. Precisely, the social construction of gender
lays down that gender roles are an achieved "status" in a social
environment and background, which inevitably and unquestionably
categorize people and thus, motivate social behaviours. A related matter in
feminist theory is the association among the ascribed and attributed status
of assigned sex (male or female ) and their achieved status counterparts in
gender ( masculine and feminine ).
4.1.2. Judith Butler’s Gender performativity theory :
American philosopher and gender theorist Judith Pamela Butler’s book
Gender Trouble (1990) made a deep and profound contribution to the
field. Butler argued that gender is socially constructed. Therefore, male
and female behaviours are constructed and reinforced and strengthened by
media and culture. Gender performativity theory by Judith Butler also
suggests and puts forward that sexuality is not ascribed to one orientation
or predilection. Sexual identity is fluid, it indicates that a person can be
heterosexual at one time and bisexual at another.
Essential features of Judith Butler’s theory :
 According to Butler o ur identity is not fixed (male, female,
heterosexual).
 Our identity is made up of a heap of (social and cultural) things which
we have earlier conveyed, or which have been said about us. Our
identity is made of certain expectations, belief and prospect fro m us.
 There is not really an inner self in Our identity.
 Gender, unlike other facets of identity, is a performance. For instance,
if you perform the needs and requirements of one gender than you are
ascribed that gender.
 People can as a result change if they perform the aspects of another
gender. (For instance, if a heterosexual female starts performing
activities and adopts aspects and attributes of a heterosexual male then
her identity changes.)
 The binary divide between masculinity and femininity is a social
construct which is built on the binary divide between men and women
- which is also a social construction. munotes.in

Page 29

Gendering The Subject And Social Construction Of
Woman
29  We should challenge the traditional views and outlook of
masculinity, femininity and sexuality by instigating gender trouble,
annoyance, conc ern and worry.
4.1.3. The Sex/Gender Distinction and the Social Construction of
Reality.
On the account of social construction there are various distinct senses in
which race, gender and like are socially constructed. The very first being
the conceptual f ramework that we take as just "common sense" about
gender is only one way of understanding the world. There are, and have
been, other ways, in fact there are more better and appropriate ways.
Furthermore, there are ideas related and linked with gender that are
"merely and simply" constructions. For instance, fictions regarding
biological essences and genetic determination are used to strengthen and
augment belief in the rightness and certainty of the classifications. This is
not to say, howbeit, that gender is not "real." Despite the fact, some ideas
about gender are fictions, and these fictional ideas have functioned to
create, strengthen and augment gender reality. These categories of people
are not just ideas, but are social entities. Such entities are so cially
constructed in the sense that they are caused by social forces, likewise, for
the reason that the conditions for membership in a gender group are social
(as opposed to, say, merely physical or anatomical) conditions.
4.1.4. Gender as Socially cons tructed Phenomenon :
It is since birth, girls and boys , women and men, are expected
by society to play certain roles and behave in certain ways based on
traditions, religion, etc . They are shaped by society but continue to follow
their roles because of soc ietal pressures of being a woman, Differentiation
of roles in the way that men and women speak and employ language, the
ways that women are considered and treated in the media and advertising
as nurturing, passivity, subordination and submissive or as sexu al objects
for men’s pleasure, and the way that young girls are marketed as
sexualized products to fulfil men’s cravings and desires, from young age
affirms that men and women are different. Women are more often present
in ads promoting kitchenware, cookin g, cleaning, feminine or childcare -
related products. Whereas , masculine roles are usually associated with
strength, aggression and dominance. Howbeit, this distinction and
variation is a direct result and consequence of being socialized into
permeating sep arate roles, a phenomenon that has created a restrictive and
limited interpretation of gender.
Gender role socialization begins at birth and continues throughout the life
course and hence it can be said that women and men have been
consistently socialized into the spaces that they occupy and the stereotypes
that have been assigned to them . As the French existentialist philosopher,
Simone de Beauvoir in her 1949 book, ‘The Second Sex’, mentions that
“One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman,” revealing and unmasking
this formation of gender roles and also the phenomenon of gender itself as
a social construct. It symbolizes and represents the logical continuation of munotes.in

Page 30

30 Political Reading of
Literature the proofs Beauvoir offers that femininity does not ensue and come into
being from differe nces in biology, psychology, or intellect. Rather,
femininity is a construction of civilization, a reflection not of “essential”
differences in men and women but of differences in their situation.
Situation determines and ascertains character, not the othe r way around.
However, woman is not born fully formed; she is gradually and
moderately shaped by her upbringing. Biology does not determine what
makes a woman a woman, in fact a woman learns her role from man and
others in society. Woman is not born passiv e, inferior, subordinate,
secondary, and nonessential, but it was all the forces in the external world
that have conspired to make her so.
The way that women present themselves and the roles they are destined to
play is a direct result of societal expectat ions, prejudice and attitudes that
are placed on them since the time they are born. This eventually is based
on a conception and idea that people have believed throughout history, the
connection of sex and gender. From the minute a child is born and his/he r
sex is identified, everything is changed, from how the child is treated to
how they are observed by the family members as well as the society . It
starts with the most artificial of means ; colour -coding, society is quick to
outfit male infants in blue an d girls in pink, even applying these color -
coded gender labels while a baby is in the womb. It would be not be
wrong to say that Family is the first agent of socialization. There is
substantial evidence that parents socialize sons and daughters differently .
For instance, as children grow, girls are supposed to play house, they are
given barbies and dolls, whereas boys are supposed to play things like
construction, hot wheels or war. Boys were made fun if they play with
barbies and doll. But, the social cons truction of gender is not just
performing gendered actions or wearing gendered colours as children; it
extends into adulthood. It includes and involves the way women are
watched and presented in their day -to-day lives.
The moment children are born they ar e ascribed a gender based on their
sex, and since then they become socialized into their roles, however, these
roles continue to change for them based on age and society. Admittedly,
women now act very different than women twenty years ago. With
consistent societal pressures apparent, both women and men exhibit the
way they interact in their language and communication, with women being
expected to be and treated and considered as passive, decent and polite
instead being assertive. The gender binary endeavou rs to lock men and
women into their respective roles, and permits for no exploration,
consideration and shows its stereotypes in everything from advertisements
to hope and expectations. As a whole if we see gender is a social construct
that comes into bein g when we are born and serves to change, alter or
transform our behaviour to conform; nevertheless, acknowledging that this
is the case can lead people to augment, expand and break their
expectations. Stereotypes and categories can be unlearned and opened up
to new possibilities and capabilities. As a result, to use French
philosopher, Michel Foucault’s analogy, when we figure out and unravel
that the guard is no longer there and watching, hence, we can be freed of
appearing and we can finally act. munotes.in

Page 31

Gendering The Subject And Social Construction Of
Woman
31 4.1.5. Is Sex socially determined, too?
 Sex is defined as the biological differences between men and women
whereas gender is the fashion in which the society accentuates the
sexual differences between both groups.
 When talking about Sex, Anatomical aspects and at tributes are
considered. They possess six basic components such as
chromosome make -up, external genitalia, internal genitalia, gonads
hormonal states and secondary sex characteristics. The addition of all
of these qualities forms the basis of which the sex category
most people fall under i.e. male or female. While in Gender masculine
and feminine qualities, behaviour patterns, associated roles and
responsibility, etc are considered.
 Sex in general refers to male or female whereas gender refers to
masculinit y and femininity.
 Sex is a universal term while gender is changeable it alters under the
leverage of time, and geographical and socio -cultural settings.
4.1.6. Conclusion :
Discrimination and exploitation against women have been going on since
decades, it is not a new phenomenon. The women play the role as
caretakers, life givers, nurturers and still they have to face the challenges
such as female foeticide, dowry, domestic violence, tortures, physical and
mental abuse, rape, sale etc. The gender role also called as sex role of
woman has historically been defined and which for the most part implies a
degrading, disparaging and negative position of woman. Whereas men and
women are biologically and anatomically different, and hence, their social
roles are con structed based on this biological differences. Men must share
the concern because it is a battle against the socio -economic exploitation.
There is so much gender backlog, there is so much gender discrimination,
injustice and enmity which is to be solved. M uch sex obscurantism to be
combated. Hence, in order to end this domination and exploitation meted
out towards women, men should come forward and start taking the
initiative to examine and change the ways in which their own behaviour
might contribute to en able, ignore, or excuse all such forms because
women alone cannot stop or resolve the problem of violence and
exploitation meted out towards them.
4.2 LET’S SUM UP
The unit extensively discusses about Gendering the Subject and Social
Construction of Woma n. Social constructionism affirms that gender is a
category that people assess as omnirelevant to social life. Gender as
omnirelevant signifies that people can always be judged by whatever they
do as a man or as a woman. The gender role of woman has histor ically
been defined and elucidated and which for the most part implies a
defamatory, degrading and negative position of woman. Whereas men and
women are biologically different, their social roles are constructed based
on this biological differences. munotes.in

Page 32

32 Political Reading of
Literature 4.3 IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

 How does Social Construction affect gender?
 What is the social construct of women?
 What is an example of social construction of gender?
 What are the main gender roles? Explain in detail.
 What is social construction?
 What makes gender a social construct?
 What influences gender roles in today’s society?
 What is Social Constructionism and Social construction of gender?
 Discuss about Judith Butler’s Gender performativity theory.
References
 empowerwomen.org
 www.google.com
 www.wikipedia.com
 Social construction of gender web source.
 Gender as a socially constructed phenomenon web source.
 Haslanger, Sally. "The Sex/Gender Distinction and the Social
Construction of Reality ." The Routledge Companion to Feminist
Philosophy. Ed. Ann Garry, Serene J. Khader, and Alison Stone,
Basingstoke: Taylor & Francis Ltd., 2017.
 Sparknotes.com




munotes.in

Page 33

33 5
PATRIARCHAL IDEOLOGY AND POWER
– HOW IT IS OPERATIONAL IN FAMILY
RELATIONSHIP
Unit Structure:
5.0 Objective
5.1 Introduction.
5.2 Understanding the word “Patriarchy” and its Definition.
5.3 Locating Patriarchy in History.
5.4 Patriarchy and power
5.5 Victims of patriarchal power
5.6 How patriarchy is operational in family and affects the familial
relationship
5.7 Let’s Sum -up.
5.8 Questions.
5.9 References
5.10 Web Sources
5.0 OBJECTIVE
1. To understand the concept of Patriarchy
2. Who is responsi ble to promote patriarchy? Is there any role of women
in promoting patriarchy?
3. Historical background of patriarchy
4. How does patriarchy decide gender roles?
5. Who are the victims of Patriarchy?
6. How an Indian family responds to patriarchy?
7. Role of the marriage institution in promoting patriarchy.
5.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we will introduce you to the concept of patriarchy and how it
works as an ideology of domination. The unit will also focus on the impact munotes.in

Page 34

34 Political Reading of
Literature of patriarchy on society and family and how this p ower structure affects
the relationship in the family.
From the ancient days to the present men are considered physically
stronger than women and this sense of superiority resulted in the
subordination of women at various levels like family, work, society , etc.
This sense of superiority has provided an unrecorded power to the men to
discriminate against women, children, and those who are dependent on
them and weaker than him. Though we cannot say this for every person,
most of them are either victims of it or victimizers who use this power to
subordinate women or families.
___________________________________________________________
5.2 UNDERSTANDING WORD “PATRIARCHY” AND
ITS DEFINITION
Patriarchy means "the rule of the father" and comes from the Greek
πατρ ιάρχης (patriarkh ēs)," father or chief of a race "which is a compound
of πατριά (Patria), "lineage, descent, family, fatherland" (from πατήρ
patēr, "father") and ρχή (arkh ē), "domination, authority, sovereignty"
(https://en.wikipedia.org/)
The origin of the word patriarchy indicates that the rule of a father in the
family is supreme, the father has been always considered as a chief of a
race, and a family who holds domination over all the family members and
possesses fatherland, sovereignty, and authority .
The sociologist Sylvia Walby defines patriarchy as "a system of social
structures and practices in which men dominate, oppress, and exploit
women". Social stratification along gender lines, with power
predominantly held by men, has been observed in most societies.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/)
A famous critic and philosopher Bell Hooks also provided her views about
patriarchy. She said, “Patriarchy is a political -social system that insists
that males are inherently dominating, superior to everything and ev eryone
deemed weak, especially females, and endowed with the right to dominate
and rule over the weak and to maintain that dominance through various
forms of psychological terrorism and violence.” (Bell Hooks,
“Understanding Patriarchy”)
In most of all soc ieties of the world, this domination is visible. It seems
that every aspect of society has accepted it unanimously and
unconditionally. Because of this unanimous acceptance of patriarchy by
society, men started to consider that they are in control and this control
resulted in domestic violence, abuse, and various kind of cruelty. A
famous reporter Jess Hill from The guardian has thrown light on this
condition, in one of his articles He says “ Men don’t abuse women
because society tells them it’s OK. They do it because society tells them
they are entitled to be in control” munotes.in

Page 35

Patriarchal Ideology And
Power – How It Is
Operational In Family Relationship
35 From the birth of a male child, his family nurtures him to be a man, they
tell him that a male should be manly, his behavior should be manly he is
not entitled to cry in the public sphere, he cannot make the display of his
weaker side in the public sphere. Society has decided on a typical role for
a man, and he has always been told to perform that role without raising a
voice against it or without questioning the legitimacy of that action. They
have been told to act within the limits of these unrecorded rules. If they
start to act beyond these rules or they try to bend these rules they will be
considered either weak or womanly. They will carry the same label all
over their lives. The symbols will be nothing but the presentation of the
hypocrisy of society.
5.3 LOCATING PATRIARCHY IN HISTORY
The creation of the concept of patriarchy and the discussion over the
formulation of this ideology would be interesting too. Gelda Lerner, an
American pro fessor and historian attempted to find out the history of the
concept of “Patriarchy”. In her book The creation of Patriarchy which was
published in 1986 she has attempted to throw light on this concept. This
work was the result of many years of hard work by the author. In this
work, she has discussed how traditionally the concept of patriarchy got
developed and nourished. The research is related to the region of Iraq
Western Asia Gerda Lerner's aim behind this was to learn and understand
the emergence of t he concept of “Patriarchy” and its history, development,
and its effects on society. She wanted to learn everything about this age -
old ideology that developed million years ago. She believed that men and
women are equally responsible for the development of this ideology. In
her view, this age -old ideology has been developed by men and women
jointly. At the beginning of her research work, she explained, how she
started to study the history of this ideology from the Neolithic society
which used to gather thei r food by hunting animals. According to her in
this age, labor was divided in an equal manner among men and women.
But women always used to get typical work which was related to
household, nourishing children, mothering, and economic work of the
house, on the other hand, men were always busy hunting and wandering in
search of the animal for hunting (food). Lerner has particularly focused on
those aspects which became the main reasons for the change in the
relationship between men and women, because of the d evelopment of the
technic of cultivation of land, changing social norms, and the emergence
of the tradition of the small structured families.
After some years of evolution of the human race agriculture production
became a prominent source of living and gra dually men started to feel the
need for more labor systematically they started to see women as a source
of reproduction and they started to produce more children to increase more
hands in labor. Children became an advantage because they started to
contribu te to agriculture. Their labor became an asset for more agricultural
production. In this way because of such kind of assistance, men started to
get more leisure time in comparison to women and they started to manage
surpluses, and bit by bit they began to boost their physical power. In this munotes.in

Page 36

36 Political Reading of
Literature process, they started to collect more wealth and wanted to establish power.
To establish power they started warfare with other groups. Many people
used to die in this warfare and women have been captured by other groups.
They used to treat these captured women as slaves or most of the time they
used to treat them as their private property and used to control their
sexuality by using power and suppression. In this way, Gerda Lerner has
established her view about the beginn ing of the concept of “Patriarchy”.
Another author and historian Uma Chakravarty also commented on the
beginning of “Patriarchy” in history. While talking about the patriarchy in
history Uma Chakravarty is mainly focusing on the study of various books
like Dharmashastras, Mahabharata, and Manusmriti and she analyzed that,
for thousands of years the social system is running according to the rules
given in these books which had placed women at a lower level. Also, she
has provided a concept which is known as “Brahminical Patriarchy” which
is the result of a society that is based on the class and caste system. In this
way, we can find references to patriarchy in history and its traces in many
religious books. Women from lower castes have always been exploited by
higher -class men and even their voices have been suppressed.
We can cite many examples from the various religious scriptures. Like
Sita from Ramayana, Draupadi from Mahabharata, Mandodari Ravana’s
wife from Ramayana, Ahilya, and Shurpanakha all these c haracters are
examples of subordination of women or they can be considered as the
victims of the patriarchal attitude of men and society. They all are the
victims of this double standard society, which praises them as goddesses
on the one hand, and on the other hand, the same society suppresses them
too.
5.4 PATRIARCHAL IDEOLOGY AND POWER
Ideology and power are two sides of a coin. There are many definitions
and interpretations of the word Ideology have been provided by thinkers.
A famous Author and thinker Louis Althusser has defined Ideology in his
essay “Ideology and ideological state apparatus” he said, “Ideology does
not exist in the ‘world of ideas’ conceived as a ‘spiritual world,’” he
writes. “Ideology exists in institutions and the practices specifi c to them.
We are even tempted to say, more precisely: ideology exists in
apparatuses and the practices specific to them.” Althusser prominently
describes the number of these apparatuses mainly he talks about the
school, the church, and the family. Accordi ng to him, these are the
prominent places from which ideology can be spread. These are the
institutions through which ideology gets spread. These institutions are the
main sources of knowledge and discourse creation.Various fashions,
discourses, trends, an d styles always get spread through these institutions.
They can be considered the birthplace of all ideologies.
The above -mentioned institutions can create knowledge and hence they
can create power According to Foucault’s understanding, “Power is based
on knowledge and makes use of knowledge; on the other hand, power
reproduces knowledge by shaping it by its anonymous intentions. Power munotes.in

Page 37

Patriarchal Ideology And
Power – How It Is
Operational In Family Relationship
37 creates its field of exercise through knowledge.” Through above
mentioned definitions of ideology and power, we can underst and that both
ideology and power are substitutes for each other.
Patriarchal ideology is also the systematic creation of this discursive
structure this ideology also has been instilled in society through this
systematic creation of knowledge and discourse .
5.5 VICTIMS OF PATRIARCHAL POWER
While understanding patriarchy it is important to understand who the
victims of this ideology ar?. Only women or men are suffering from the
same? While discussing the historical background of the concept “of
patriarchy” we have seen that men and women both have an equal share in
the creation of this ideology in the same manner both men and women are
suffering because of it. Famous author Bell Hooks in her essay says that
“Patriarchy is the single most life -threatening soc ial disease assaulting the
male body and spirit in our nation. yet most men do not use the word
patriarchy in everyday life” (Understanding patriarchy, Bell Hooks) the
above -mentioned comment is the real proof of victimhood of men too. In
the family women to promotes patriarchy on various levels if her boy is
not behaving like other boys in the society she too pushes him to behave
like other boys and not to behave too much weak in front of them
5.6 HOW PATRIARCHY IS OPERATIONAL IN
FAMILY AND AFFECTS THE FAMILIAL
RELATIONSHIP
Family always has a great influence on the personality of every person. A
person learns everything from family first and after that he/she starts to
learn from society. The process of this initial learning in the family always
influences the person. But this influence always varies according to gender
because of the existence of patriarchal ideology in the family. Males
always being taught by their families to remain hard -hearted, emotionless,
and strong on the other hand female hav e always been taught by their
families to remain soft -hearted, and lean and they should display their
emotions and they should take care of everyone by playing the role of a
caretaker. These roles for gender have always been decided by the
patriarchal ideo logy in the family. There are some important factors that
we need to discuss regarding how Patriarchy affects human life on various
levels and how it is operational in the family and affects the relationship.
Decision making :
In every family, there is an unwritten rule which gives the upper hand in
power to a male and subordinates women and other members of that
family. The decision maker of every family is always that ‘father figure’
who takes every decision related to the education of children, marriages in
the family, decisions related to family planning, decisions related to
cultural beliefs of the family so on and so forth. munotes.in

Page 38

38 Political Reading of
Literature In many families, women don’t have any right to take decisions even if
they want to make decisions they need to consult the head of their family,
on the other hand, the head of the family can take any decision even
without consulting any member of the family. A famous author C.S Laxmi
who writes with Pseudonym “Ambai” rightly pointed out this condition in
her famous short story “Kit chen in the corner of the house”
In this short story, the author pointed out how women don’t get agency in
a male -dominated society they don’t get to present their opinion in front of
the head of their family. In this short story, the author has used the kitchen
as a metaphor for oppression. This metaphor of the kitchen hovers around
the head of readers in their reading journey of this story.
On one occasion the main character of this story Minakshi the daughter -
in-law of the house asks
‘Papaji, why don’t you extend the verandah outside the kitchen? If you
widen it, we could have some chairs out there. If you then build a wash
place to the left, you could have a really wide basin for cleaning the
vessels. And then beyond that, you could put up some aluminum wire for
drying the clothes
Papaji looked for a moment as if he had been assaulted by the words
expressing this opinion. Jiji in her turn looked at him, shocked. Daughters -
in-law had yet to thus far offer their view in that house. Radha Bhabiji
stared fi xedly at her plate. Kusuma straightened her veil to hide her
agitation. Papaji turned to Kishen. Kishen continued to eat calmly. At last,
Papaji cleared his throat and asked, ‘Why?’
The basin in the kitchen is extremely small. And the drainage is poor. If
the servant woman washes the vessels there, the whole kitchen gets
flooded. And, Papaji, if you hang the clothes outside the window, the
mountain is hidden.’
Again he looked at Kishan. And that skilled architect agreed with his wife.
What she says is righ t, Papaji why don’t we do it?’
‘And when did you go near the kitchen?’
Above mentioned discussion can be considered a typical example of a
display of patriarchal power and denial of agency to women. Even the
victimization doesn’t limit to women only here male character Minakshi’s
husband Kishan is also getting sidelined because he is supporting his wife
he is standing for her. This is not only a picture of only one family
A French author Simone de Beauvoir rightly said that “If the "question of
women" is so trivial, it is because masculine arrogance turned it into a
"quarrel"; when people quarrel, they no longer reason well.”

munotes.in

Page 39

Patriarchal Ideology And
Power – How It Is
Operational In Family Relationship
39 Marriage :
In India marriage is considered one of the holy customs in human life. In
Vedas and Puranas, this custom has given gre at value. Even it has been
included in the sixteen sanskaras. The practical aim of the marriage system
is to produce children and to extend the human race. But as an institution,
this system also became the main tool of suppression and denial of agency
to women. From the beginning of a marriage, a girl has to leave her
maternal home and she has to enter into a new family in a fully new
atmosphere. There are many examples of suppression of women. A
woman who is in a bad marriage can be considered a caged ani mal. In
many Bollywood movies, the representation of women's suppression has
been presented. In Anubhav Sinha’s movie “Thappad” There is a
presentation of marital violence. The protagonist of the movie has been
shown as a great model of a typical Indian wi fe in the beginning, who
finds happiness in the happiness and well -being of her husband and
performs all the duties of a typical Indian wife but after one slap
(Thappad) everything changes. That one slap was like a slap on her very
existence.
It doesn’t en d here, there are many examples of marital rape, child abuse,
and sexual abuse which are happening under the umbrella of marriage.
The institution of marriage is a great example of the suppression of
women from the ages. Women are being oppressed under the name of
marriage, tradition and culture. They have been exploited time to time
with the help of this institution.
Favoritism :
Favoritism is one of the important aspects of the patriarchy which affects
the familial relationship negatively. Even from the birth of a child a male
child gets more love and care than a female child. There are multiple
examples in society of female foeticide which indicates favoritism towards
the male child. Bell hooks a famous feminist critic has shared her own
experiences in h er essay “understanding Patriarchy” which indicates how
this favoritism affects the family relationship and it creates psychological
divides among the members of the family.
She says, “When My older brother and I were born with a year separating
us in ag e, patriarchy determined how we would each be regarded by our
parents. Both our parents believed in patriarchy. They have been taught
patriarchal thinking through religion.
Through the above sentence, we can understand how patriarchy has taken
over the co ntrol of the human mind and how it got instilled in society with
the help of religion.
She further says “as their daughter, I was taught that it was my role to
serve, to be weak, to be free from the burden of thinking, to care take and
nurture others. My brother was taught that it was his role to be served; to
provide; to be strong; to think, strategize, and plan; and to refuse to care
take or nurture others. munotes.in

Page 40

40 Political Reading of
Literature In this manner from the earlier days of childhood, the ideology of
patriarchy works in societ y and it creates a gender divide and affects
human life. It gives more agency to the male gender and denies agency to
the female gender. Unquestioned acceptance of the patriarchy by society is
one of the harmful customs which affects human life at various levels.
Agency :
Agency for women in the family is also another subject that we need to
explore here. Though women possess the same qualities as men still they
have been denied in many areas they have been restricted in kitchen and
household activities. Even in many advertisements, this difference can be
seen. In every advertisement which is related to a household product or
beauty product, a woman gets the opportunity to act in such
advertisements but in advertisements related to the drink or any energy
product, they always denied to promote those products. In the movie based
on Munshi Premachand’s short story “The Chess Players,” (Shatranj Ke
Khiladi) this difference has been pointed out. In this movie, it has been
shown that the spaces have been decided for men and women. Women
don’t allow to enter Devankhana or the front side of the home. The film
delineates that women are far more intelligent than men but still their
spaces have been limited they are being restricted to enter devankhana and
being warne d to not to speak in the middle of a Chess game. Even they
have said that they don’t need to disturb their husbands while the chess
game is going on. If we look at this from a feminist perspective it clearly
indicates that women have been denied agency. Th ough they have been
shown more intellectual and active than men.
5.7 LET’S SUM -UP
This unit we have dedicated to a very important and burning topic of these
days, we haven’t only studied patriarchy as a concept but we have seen
how patriarchy is operationa l as a means of domination in every family
and in a broader sense how it is controlling the narrative of power in the
process of subordination of women and every member who is on the lower
position in the ladder of the family.
5.8 QUESTIONS
The question in this unit will be asked in long questions format and will be
conceptual therefore readers need to understand every concept in detail.
Following are some of the sample questions through which readers can get
the idea.
1. What is patriarchy ?
2. Patriarchy and power
3. Role of patriarchy in controlling familial Relationships.
4. The historical context of patriarchy
5. Patriarchy as an ideology of domination
6. Subordination of women munotes.in

Page 41

Patriarchal Ideology And
Power – How It Is
Operational In Family Relationship
41 5.9 REFERENCES
1. Beauvoir, Simone de. The Second Sex. Vintage Classics, 2015.
2. Chakravarti, U ma, “Conceptualising Brahmanical Patriarchy in Early
India: Gender, Caste, Class and State” in Manoranjan Mohanty, (ed).
Class, Caste, Gender. Sage Publications, New Delhi, 2004.
3. Lerner, Gerda, The Creation of Patriarchy, Oxford University Press,
Oxford an d New York, 1986.
4. https://imaginenoborders.org/pdf/zines/UnderstandingPatriarchy.pdf
5. "Patriarchy." Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 15 Sept.
2022, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarchy. Accessed 26 Sept. 2022.
5.10 WEB SOURCES
1. https://www.theguardian.com/soci ety/2020/mar/08/patriarchy -and-
power -how-gender -inequality -underpins -abusive -behaviour
2. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/321207230_The_Role_of_P
atriarchy_in_Family_Settings_and_its_Implications_to_Girls_and_W
omen.
3. https://isreview.org/issue/99/althu ssers -theory -ideology/index.html
4. https://www.primevideo.com/detail/Thappad/0OO5G0JC9V73V3YO
Z3230ONZTN
5. https://www.primevideo.com/detail/Shatranj -Ke-
Khilari/0SKU2OI1ZB16ZQH6LBPN0X1OP7


munotes.in

Page 42

42 6
REPRESENTING THE ORIENTAL OTHER
AND THE LEGITIMATION OF COLONIAL
IDEOLOGY
Unit Structure:
6.0 Objective
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Process of Othering and representation of Oriental Other
6.3 Colonial Legitimation
6.4 Let’s Sum –Up
6.5 Important Questions
6.6 References
6.7 Web Links.
6.0 OBJECTIVES
1. To introduce students to various concepts related to orientalism.
2. To enable them to study the concept of orientalism and its impact on
Indian society.
3. To make them understand the concept of othering and how colonize rs
have carried it out.
4. To make them aware of the concept of colonization and its impact on
colonized countries.
5. To introduce students to various tactics used by Colonizers in order to
legitimize colonization.
6. To make students aware of various aspects of c olonial legitimation.
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The world has a history of the display of power, those who were powerful
and owned strength ruled over the others. Ruling over the other by using
power was not a healthy and smooth process. People were exploited,
discriminated against, and marginalized they were killed and suffered
because of the whimsical attitude of those who owned power. Britishers
were the prominent community who ruled over the world. Nearly one -
third of the population in this world was under Briti sh rule. Many Asian
countries were also colonized by British people, and India is one of them. munotes.in

Page 43

Representing The
Oriental Other And The
Legitimation Of Colonial Ideology
43 In the year 1608, the British people first landed in India for the purpose of
trade. But after seeing the wealth of India their purpose has been changed
and they started to acquire control over India. The process of the
colonization of India happened step by step. First, they entered India for
the purpose of trade and gradually they started to legitimize their rule in
India. The process of legitimation of colonial ideology was a long process.
First, they started the process of othering of natives. After that they started
to spread their own ideology in order to legitimize their rule for instance,
introducing British Education in India, making the English language a
mode of education and learning, introducing missionary culture in India,
the spread of Christianity in India, etc. In this unit, we will be looking at
the process of legitimation of colonial ideology and the process of
othering of native people.
Orientali sm :
Edward Said a famous philosopher and thinker in his work “Orientalism”
talked about what is orientalism and its various features too. Edward Said
has given different definitions of Orientalism in his book, firstly
“Orientalism is a style of thought ba sed upon an ontological and
epistemological distinction made between ‘the orient’ and (most of the
time) ‘the occident’.” Said argued that his distinction emphasized the
supremacy of the occident versus the process of othering.
Further Edward Said says,
“Orientalism can be discussed and analyzed as the corporate institution for
dealing with the Orient – dealing with it by making a statement about it,
authorizing views of it, describing it, by teaching it, settling it, ruling over
it: in short orientalism as a western style for dominating, restructuring, and
having authority over the orient. (Edward Said)
The above -mentioned definition provides us with the idea of the concept
of “Orientalism”. Even the definition is decoding the features of the
concept. Ed ward Said called it an institution that controls various factors
of the lives of the orient. It is a western style that has been used for
domination and restructuring or having authority over the orient.
6.2 PROCESS OF OTHERING AND
REPRESENTATION OF ORIEN TAL OTHER
I think the process of othering is nothing but the political and societal
alienation of a man, caste, race, creed or group of people on the basis of
their color, religion, region, or place of birth
The process of othering is a systematic politica l and psychological
process. In history, many examples of othering can be found. The
othering of native people by the colonizers can be considered a common
example.
When colonizers entered another country, they started to consider
themselves superior to t he colonized. Even though they decided that their munotes.in

Page 44

44 Political Reading of
Literatur e culture is more superior to native culture even they started to compare
natives with savages. The colonizers divided the world in two parts their
own world which was superior and the world of natives which was inferior
or savage. “othering involves two concepts. 1) The Exotic Other – Exotic
other represents a fascination with the inherent dignity and the beauty of
the primitive/ undeveloped other, as delineated in Yeats’s poem
Byzantium poems. 2) Demonic oth er – Demonic other is represented as
inferior, negative, savage, and evil as is described in the novels like “Heart
of Darkness and Passage to India”.
In simple words “Othering is a pattern of exclusion and marginalization
based on having identities that are different from the norm.”
In the above definition, we can get the idea of the process of othering in
other words othering is a particular pattern of marginalization. This
marginalization can be found in many novels written by famous authors
like E.M. Forster, Rudyard Kipling, Joseph Conrad, etc.
In The Heart of Darkness Africans have been presented as barbarians or
exotic others, slaves or working -class people they are savages in the eyes
of colonizers. On the contrary, colonizers have been shown more
sophisticated and cultured. Conrad is presenting Africa as a center point of
Darkness as a Heart of Darkness. It shows the attitude of Conrad toward
the colonized country. He has presented African natives as uncultured and
cannibals. The native men presen ted in the work have presented as
frenzied and black. The setting of “Heart of Darkness” is in the jungle
which indicates the backwardness and wilderness of the people who leaves
there it indicated how the history of Africa is Dark and uncivilized in the
eyes of the author and colonizers.
A similar representation can be found in “Kim” a novel written by
Rudyard Kipling “Othering” of the orient is also a central theme of this
novel though the author seems a little bit sensitive towards Indian society
but tha t sensitivity is not real. Somehow author is trying to boast the
superiority of the English through the central character “Kim”. Kim has
been presented as the symbol of British authority. His behavior and his
language always show that difference in his att itude. Kim’s attitude was
totally British though he was not been nourished by Britishers.
The representation of oriental other can also be found in “A Passage to
India” by E.M. Forster. The central theme of the novel suggests to us that
eastern and wester n cannot be friends. For westerners, colonized countries
and their people will always remain other.
Forster’s creation of India and its people was doubtful. He has shown that
Indian People are mysterious and secretive and even the landscape has
been shown as bleak. Chandrapore the city caricatured by Forster is not
presented as a clean and sophisticated city he is presenting it as a city
where there are various caves that make a unique sound. In this way,
Forster is presenting the whole country as another b y presenting it
backward and mysterious. On the other hand, people from Britain are munotes.in

Page 45

Representing The
Oriental Other And The
Legitimation Of Colonial Ideology
45 shown more sophisticated their manners and habits have been shown
better in comparison with Indians.
Even Ms. Adela Quested’s attitude toward Dr. Aziz shows the prejudiced
attitude of colonizers toward colonized. Ms. Adela Quested’s accusation
and the whole trial against Dr.Aziz is the presentation of the never -
changing gap between the colonizers and colonized.
Chinua Achebe in his famous work an Image of Africa comme nts on the
“Heart of Darkness” Achebe Says,
“A Conrad student informed me in Scotland that Africa is merely a setting
for the disintegration of the mind of Mr. Kurtz. Which is partly the point.
Africa as the setting and backdrop which eliminates the Afric an as human
factor. Africa as a metaphysical battlefield devoid of all recognizable
humanity, into which the wandering European enters at his peril. Can
nobody see the preposterous and perverse arrogance in thus reducing
Africa to the role of props for the break -up of one petty European mind?
But that is not even the point. The real question is the dehumanization of
Africa and Africans which this age -long attitude has fostered and
continues to foster in the world. And the question is whether a novel
which c elebrates this dehumanization, which deperson alizes a portion of
the human race, can be called a great work of art.”― Chinua Achebe, An
Image of Africa.
6.3 COLONIAL LEGITIMATION
After having entered into the host countries Britishers started to take over
the control of those countries by draining t heir natural resources and
wealth. After that their purpose got changed. They started to see those
countries as the future investment and started to control the politics,
Economy, and culture of the colonized countries. They started the process
of colonial legitimation through various techniques. Like, as legitimation
through education, language, legitimation through culture, and religion,
and even used oppression and power to legitimize their rule. The process
of this legitimation happened step by step. In this chapter, we are going to
understand this process of colonial legitimation in detail.
Legitimation Through Education :
Legitimation of colonization through education was a prominent move of
the colonizers. In order to make their existence more legitim ized in the
host country they started to take the control of the education of that
particular country. In India also British introduced English education to
produce a well -educated group who will work for them as clerks.
Britisher's decision to introduce E nglish education in India was to
introduce Indian people to English language and take over the control of
their minds and also create a language divide between natives.
Legitimation of colonization through education was a prominent move of
the colonizers. In order to make their existence more legitimized in the
host country they started to take the control of the education of that munotes.in

Page 46

46 Political Reading of
Literatur e particular country. In India also British introduced English education to
produce a well -educated group who will work for them a s clerks.
Britisher's decision to introduce English education in India was to
introduce Indian people to English language and take over the control of
their minds and also create a language divide between natives.
The medium of their education was in Engli sh and it created a burden on
the mind of those who were very new to this language. Though the
English language proved useful at the University level it became an
unnecessary burden among the students of lower classes. In this journey of
implementation of English education, other native languages became the
scapegoats of the English language. Also, English education created a
huge difference between the uneducated and educated people and also the
new and the old.
Another serious defect of the implementation of English education in India
was that British people never understood the social, economic, and
political scenario between the two countries, and without understanding it
they implemented the education system in India as they implemented it in
Britain, b ut its consequences were not healthy it created a divide between
the people who were educated in English language and those who were
educated in the native language.
No doubt English education also brought some positive changes with it.
Though their aim wa s to create a class of clerks through English
education. But it didn’t get full filled rather it backfired to them because
English education produced an intellectual group as well, who contributed
to bringing social changes in India. Among these thinkers, some of them
are very prominent like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Debendra Nath Tagore,
Keshab Chandra Sen, RamkrishnaParamhansa, Swami Dayananda
Saraswati, etc.But the main aim of introducing English education in India
remained the same. Their object to introducin g it in India was to keep this
country in their own clutches and destroy the ancient traditional glory of
the country.
Legitimation through Language :
Introducing the English language in India was another powerful and
strategic instrument that was designed to help the British Empire to
oppress colonized masses. The decision made by East India Company was
very strategic. By introducing the English language in India they wanted
to create a class of Indians “Babus” who could act as mediators between
the uneduc ated masses and the British government and help the British
government to control millions of people who were unaware of this
“Alien” language. Secretory to the board of control Lord Macaulay, in a
nasty 1935 “Minute on Education”, urged the Governor Gener al to teach
English to a minority of Indians reasoning we must do our best to form a
class who may be interpreters between us and the millions whom we
govern; a class of persons, Indians in blood and color but English in test in
opinions, in morals and in intellects. munotes.in

Page 47

Representing The
Oriental Other And The
Legitimation Of Colonial Ideology
47 Macaulay was undoubtedly a colonial propagandist and xenophobe who
strongly assume that there was no ‘culture’ in advance of Europe. This is
confirmed even from his ‘minutes of 2nd Feb 1835’ where he said, “…a
single shelf of a good European li brary was worth the whole native
literature of India and Arabia…’’ and
“… I certainly never met with any orientalist who ventured to maintain
that the Arabic and Sanscrit poetry could be compared to that of the great
European nations. But when we pass from works of imagination to works
in which facts are recorded and general principles investigated, the
superiority of the Europeans becomes absolutely immeasurable. It is, I
believe, no exaggeration to say that all the historical information which
has been co llected from all the books written in the Sanscrit language is
less valuable than what may be found in the most paltry abridgments used
at preparatory schools in England…’’ Is it believable that the same man
would
“… I certainly never met with any oriental ist who ventured to maintain
that the Arabic and Sanscrit poetry could be compared to that of the great
European nations. But when we pass from works of imagination to works
in which facts are recorded and general principles investigated, the
superiority o f the Europeans becomes absolutely immeasurable. It is, I
believe, no exaggeration to say that all the historical information which
has been collected from all the books written in the Sanscrit language is
less valuable than what may be found in the most p altry abridgments used
at preparatory schools in England…’’ Is it believable that the same man
would utterly contradict himself in the same speech by saying, “…we
break the very backbone of this nation which is her spiritual and cultural
heritage….”
Furthe rmore, it was from his misguided, yet impudent assessment of
Indian civilization that Macaulay recommended, “…We have to educate a
people who cannot at present be educated by means of their mother
tongue. We must teach them some foreign languages. The clai ms of our
own language it is hardly necessary to recapitulate… Whoever knows that
language has ready access to all the vast intellectual wealth which all the
wisest nations of the earth have created… we shall see the strongest reason
to think that, of all foreign tongues, the English tongue is that which
would be the most useful to our native subjects…”
Legitimation through Culture and Reli gion :
Legitimation through culture was a well -planned and brilliant move of the
British government in order to legitim ize their rule in India. Britishers
started to introduce their culture in various ways. The first attempt to start
cultural legitimation in India was to introduce Christianity and spread
Christian ideology among the natives of the colonized country. In or der to
spread Christian ideology in India British people started various
movements like the Conversion of native people to Christianity. They
started to provide various facilities to those native people who were ready
to accept Christianity by leaving thei r own religion. In order to spread munotes.in

Page 48

48 Political Reading of
Literatur e their literature and ideology among natives they started to build churches
and libraries all over the country and started to organize various sermons
which were wholly focused on the teaching of Jesus Christ and
Christian ity. The major aim of those sermons was to establish the
centrality of Christianity and Jesus Christ in the mind of the natives.
Another move was to celebrate various religious programs to make the
show off of their culture and religion in front of the nat ives and to attract
them through the representation of the false glory of their religion.
In this way, Britisher’s high -jacked the whole cultural and religious sphere
in India and in other colonized countries by spreading their own religion
and culture.
Legitimation through power and oppression :
There were many strategies used by the modern colonial powers in order
to take control over the colonized countries. Among these various
strategies colonization through suppression is one of them. In Indian
histor y and in the history of many colonized countries we can site the
many examples of colonial suppression. “The first war of Indian
Independence 1857 can be considered as a prominent example of the
same. Another strategy used by colonizers was to “divide and rule”
Richard Morrock, a research scholar talked about the four tactics of Divide
and rule, which are as follows, “The four basic tactics of “Divide and rule”
practiced by western colonialists are: 1) The creation of differences within
the conquered popula tion; 2) The augmentation of existing differences; 3)
The channeling or exploitation of existing differences; 4) The
politicization of these differences so that they carry over into the post –
colonial period. While these tactics tend to overlap, and several or all of
them are often used simultaneously, it is nonetheless possible to
distinguish among them.
Above mentioned four tactics can be considered as the main strategies
used by Britishers to use power and suppress colonized people.
In Passage to India by E.M. Forster Britisher's racial attitude reflects much
time, following quotation from Passage to India helps us to understand the
attitude of Britishers towards the orient.
Forster says, “ "Suspicion in the Oriental is a sort of malignant tumor, a
mental malady, that makes him self -conscious and unfriendly suddenly; he
trusts and mistrusts at the same time in a way the Westerner cannot
comprehend. It is his demon, as the Westerner's is hypocrisy." ( - E.M.
Forster, A Passage to India, Ch. 32)
Legiti mation through Judiciary System:
The introduction of the British judiciary system in India was one of the
great masterstrokes of British rulers which legitimized their rule over
India. The British judicial system in India was introduced in five
systematic phases. First, it was introduced in the province of Surat which munotes.in

Page 49

Representing The
Oriental Other And The
Legitimation Of Colonial Ideology
49 was the first city where English people established their colony. After that,
it was introduced in Madras and Bombay. The officers who were making
decisions related to various disputes among the peop le were told to resolve
every matter according to the British law system but they themselves were
not very proficient in British laws so they started to give decisions
according to their whims and their own interests. The second phase of the
history of the judicial system was the establishment of the Supreme Court
at Calcutta under the regulating act, of 1773. It was a landmark in legal
developments in India. The third phase in the development of the judicial
system or Anglo – Indian legal history was the c ontrol of East India
Company over India and the introduction of the “Adalat System”
The fourth phase of the colonial judicial system in India was the
establishment of the high court in 1861 under the high court act. The fifth
phase of the development of t he British judiciary in India was the
establishment of “The Privy Council” as the highest place for appeal in
India. The way this system was established in India. They have taken
control of this country. Even after independence, we couldn’t change the
whol e judiciary system we are still in the clutches of the old judiciary
system which was introduced by colonizers. Obscenity trials on many
authors like, Saadat Hasan Manto, 1964 judgment of the supreme court of
India regarding the ban on D.H the language use d by the protagonist and
the presentation of nudity in the feature film. All these things are the
reflection of the old colonial law introduced by the British. This system of
British law is still hovering over us and interfering in the judgments. Even
the laws related to L.G.B.T.Q have not been getting changed because of
the rigid laws introduced by colonizers.
6.4 LET'S SUM UP
In this chapter, we have studied how colonizers first started the process of
othering and then expanded their rule step by step in colonized countries.
The process of othering was totally psychological it made native people
look demonic in their own native land and this psychological trauma
resulted in the subsequent likeness towards western culture because of this
likeness towards t he culture of English people, natives started to follow
English culture. It was like they were carrying the white mask over their
black skin. After this process of othering, they started to legitimize their
rule in India and other colonized countries. Firs t, they had taken the
control of the most prominent area which is education, and after they
started to expand their control in other areas through means of power and
oppression. The other areas which they controlled were also prominent.
Like, Judiciary, re ligion, culture, Language, etc. The whole process of
legitimation of their rule in colonized countries was nothing but the
elimination of the native culture, tradition, mythology, education, and
native sensibility towards native culture.
6.5 IMPORTANT Q UESTIONS
1) What was the process of othering?
2) Describe the process of legitimation of British rule in India munotes.in

Page 50

50 Political Reading of
Literatur e 3) Describe the steps of Judicial Legitimation of British rule in India
4) Describe the Legitimation of British rule through education.
5) Describe the various step of colonial legitimation.
6.6 REFERENCES
 SAID, Edward. (1978) Orientalism. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
 Conrad, J. Heart of Darkness. R. C. Murfin, (Ed). (1996). Boston MA
& New York, NY:
 Bedford/St. Martin s.
 Conrad, J. Lord Jim. T. Moser. (ed.). (1968). New York NY: Norton.
 Morrock, Richard. “Heritage of Strife: The Effects of Colonialist
‘Divide and Rule’ Strategy upon the Colonized Peoples.” Science &
Society, vol. 37, no. 2, 1973, pp. 129–51. JSTOR,
http://www.jstor.org/stable/40401707. Accessed 12 Jan. 2023
 http://www.eajournals.org/wp -content/uploads/Othering -of-Africans -
In-European -Literature -A-Postcolonial -Analysis -of-Conrad ---s----
Heart -of-Darkness ---.pdf
 Mushtaq, Hammad. (2010). O thering, Stereotyping and Hybridity in
Fiction: A Post -Colonial Analysis of Conrad’s Heart of Darkness
(1899) and Coetzee’s Waiting for the Barbarians (1980).
6.7 WEB LINKS
 https://nios.ac.in/media/documents/SrSec338New/338_Introduction_T
o_Law_Eng/338_Int roduction_To_Law_Eng_L13.pdf
 https://eskalera.com/what -is-othering/#:~:text=Othering can be as
subtle,Failing to share important information
 https://www.preservearticles.com/education/two -shortcomings -of-
british -education -system -in-india/23136
 https://thew ire.in/history/macaulays -speech -never -delivered
 http://home.iitk.ac.in/~hcverma/Article/Macaulay -Minutes.pdf
 https://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/engl210jj/postcolonial.htm#:~:text=
Exotic Other: The view th at,undeveloped, natural state of
being.&text=Demonic Other: The view that,backward and savage,
even evil.
 https://ijels.com/upload_document/issue_files/13 -IJELS -FEB-2019 -
52-TheColonial.pdf

munotes.in

Page 51

51 7
CRITICAL STUDY OF WILLIAM
SHAKESPEARE’S MACBETH
PART I
Unit Structure:
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 The universal appeal of Shakespeare and his works
7.3 The supreme characterisation of Shakespeare
7.4 Summary Of Macbeth
7.0 OBJECTIVES
1. To study the universality of W illiam Shakespeare
2. The characterisation of Macbeth
3. To trace the political background during Shakespeare’s time
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The extent, variety and richness of Shakespeare's plays are quite
bewildering as one approaches them. Yet he never took the trou ble to be
original. He is one of the greatest of literary plagiarists. According to the
custom of the times, he borrowed freely from plays already in existence
and often simply re -shaped order plays. Few of his plots are his own
invention. Most of them are based upon Plutarch's Lives, Holinshed's
Chronicles, or other popular classical translations. Still, he shines to us
through the intervening darkness of over three centuries with a dazzling
light. What is the secret of his superiority which is so universa lly
recognized today?
First of all, his superiority lies in the combination of all the gifts, which
were scattered or isolated in the works of others, in the extreme diversity
of his talents. He could not surpass the pathos and sublimity of the last
scenes of Marlowe's Dr Faustus, he created no atmosphere of grief and
terror so poignant and terrible as that of Webster's Duchess of Malfi. None
of his plays is as solidly constructed as Jonson's The Alchemist: and
Fletcher and Dekker often equal him in lyrical intensity. His greatness, his
superiority over his contemporaries lies in the combination of all these
gifts. While they tended to be stale and sterotyped, Shakespeare is ever -
changing; ever -becoming different from what he was before. Says
Legouis, "His f lexibility was marvellous. He adapted himself to the most
diverse material and seemed to use all with equal ardour and joy." His munotes.in

Page 52

52 Political Reading of
Literature dramas are so astonishingly various in kind that no one theory fits them
and each of them must be studied separately. He is nev er found twice at
the same point. "He shows equal aptitude for the tragic and the comic, the
sentimental and the burlesque, lyrical fantasy and character study, portraits
of men and women." This diversity exists everywhere in his dramas.
7.2 THE UNIVERSAL APPEAL OF SHAKESPEARE
AND HIS WORKS
Ben Jonson was right when he said that, "he was not of an age, but of all
ages, not of one country but of all countries." He is world's immortal poet.
He wrote for the Elizabethan stage and audience; but he is read and
enjoyed even today not only by Englishmen but by the English speaking
people all over the world. His works have been translated into all the
important languages of the world; and the films based upon his dramas
continue to draw
packed houses. His freshnes s and appeal seem to grow the more he is read:
the mystery of his own Cleopatra seems to belong to him. Shakespearean
drama is like an ever -flowing river of life and beauty, all who thirst for art
or truth can have their fill from it.
How does he achieve t his universality? Aristotle defined universality as
the idealising power in art, i.e. the capacity to lift the narrow world of the
story to a higher, wider and vaster world. Shakespeare has this power, for
in his works he is constantly generalising, consta ntly moving from the
particular to the general. Thus the particular story of a play becomes a part
of the general story of mankind and his men and women a part of the
panorama of humanity which continues "unbroken from generation to
generation." He deals w ith powerful elemental passions, with joys and
sorrows common to all humanity, so that each one of us shares vicariously
in the fate of his characters. As human nature, in its essentials, is the same
in all ages and climes his works have a universal appeal . Moreover, as his
powers matured the conflict became more and more internalised in his art,
till he could lay bare before his readers the very soul of his characters. He
could pierce to the hidden centres, the secret sources of impulse and
passion, out of which arise the issues of life. He has absolute command
over the complexities of thought and emotion that prompt action. "He
sweeps with the hand of a master the whole gamut of human experience,
from the lowest note to the very top of its compass, from th e sportive
childish treble of Mamilius, and the pleading boyish tones of Prince
Arthur to the spectre -haunted terrors of Macbeth, the tropical passion of
Othello, the agonised sense and tortured spirit of Hamlet, the sustained
elemental grandeur, the Titan ic force, the utterly tragic pathos, of King
Lear."
His characters have the complexity, the fullness, the variety of humanity
itself: hence his works are of interest to all humanity. Their appeal remains
unimpaired even after the lapse of centuries. In thi s way, his works
provide clever Psycho -analysis of human nature and are of immense help
to man in understanding his own nature and actions. Moreover, throughout munotes.in

Page 53

Critical Study of William
Shakespeare’s Macbeth
Part I
53 his works we find gems of practical wisdom and philosophical truth,
which are as true and valua ble today as when they were penned. We go to
him not only for countless passages of poetic beauty -passages which
generation after generation have loved to read and memorise but also for
moral truth and practical guidance in day -to-day affairs of life.
Gene ralised reflections on human life are scattered all over his works. His
works are mines of Beauty, Wisdom and Truth, and hence can never grow
stale.
A Shakespearean play, especially his tragedy, reaches beyond the facts of
human life and suggests the strug gle of man against some mysterious
powerful forces lurking beyond the world of the senses; his characters
often appear to be helpless puppets in the hands of some malignant power
driving them to their doom. Universality is achieved by connecting the
Dramat ic personae with the universe at large. His works thus acquire a
cosmic significance, and his personages become the symbol of mankind
struggling against the forces of evil. Commenting on this element of
universality in his tragedies, A.C. Bradley writes, " The immense scope of
his work; the mass and variety of intense experience which it contains...
The vagueness of the convulsion both of nature and of human passion: the
vastness of the scene where the action takes place, and of the movements
of the figures which cross the scene; the strange atmosphere cold and dark,
which strikes on us as we enter the scene, enfolding these figures and
magnifying their dim outlines like a winter mist; the half realised
suggestions of vast universal powers working in the worl d of individual
fates and passions," all these, and much else, contribute to the universality
of his plays. His characters, highly individualised though they be, also
symbolise the everlasting types and classes of humanity,
7.3 THE SUPREME CHARACTERISATION OF
SHAKESPEARE
"It is principally in this respect that Shakespeare surpasses all his rivals
and is Shakespeare" (Legouis). He could endow historical and imaginary,
beings with life, intermittently and by flashes, but constantly. They are all
alive, they grow, change and evolve before the very eyes of the readers.
"In sheer prodigality of output," says E. Albert, "Shakespeare is unrivalled
in literature. From king to clown, from lunatic and semi -devil to saint and
seer, from lover to misanthrope, all are r evealed with the hand of a
master." He is entirely objective and impartial and paints the good and the
evil, the wicked, and the virtuous with the same loving care. He is like the
proverbial sun in this respect, which shines on the just and the unjust alik e.
Hence follows the vital force that resides in his creations. They live, move
and utter speech; they are rounded, entire and capable. His characters are
not lifeless and wooden like those of his contemporaries, but living,
breathing realities. They have an. unfailing humanity which keeps them
within the orbit of our sympathy.
Another feature of Shakespeare's art, one which has made him 30 great, is
his knowledge of stagecraft. His art takes realities into account and is not
based merely on abstract 'princ iples or theories, He cheerfully accepted the munotes.in

Page 54

54 Political Reading of
Literature limitations of his stage and made a virtue of necessity. The scenery which
his stage lacked is provided in the text of his plays, with the result that
nowhere else do we get more of the picturesque poetry of na ture, than in
his plays. The tastes of the people were coarse and unrefined and they
wanted to have a good laugh at the tricks of the clown. Shakespeare did
not reject the clown like Marlowe and others but refined and ennobled
him. He made of him a popular philosopher and critic and humanised him.
Similarly, he refined the super - natural and brought it into the closest
relation with character and action.
7.4 SUMMARY OF MACBETH
The Heroism of Macbeth
King Duncan of Scotland has been kind and considerate tow ards his
subjects and has earned wide popularity and acclaim. But now he has
grown old, and two of his nobles are in revolt against him. These two
nobles are The Thane of Cawdor and Macdonwald. In their revolt they are
aided and abetted by the king of Norw ay. However, Macbeth, a noted
general and a relative of king Duncan, and Banquo, another General noted
for his courage and loyalty, fought so bravely that the rebels were soon
routed, leaving thousands dead on the battlefield. When King Duncan
came to know of their heroism he was highly pleased. He immediately
ordered the beheading of the defeated Thane of Cawdor and at once sent
messengers to greet Macbeth with this title. He was already Thane of
Glamis and he is now also the Thane of Cawdor.
The Witches: Their Prophecy
As soon as the battle is over Macbeth and Banquo return to the king, to tell
him of their success in the battle, and to get further instructions. On the
way they have to cross a heath where three witches greet them. They greet
the two, and a ddress Macbeth as 'the Thane of Cawdor', and prophecy that
he would soon be much greater, i.e. the king himself. They also prophecy
that though Banquo himself would not be a king, he would be the father of
kings. The first prophecy of the witches is fulfil led shortly afterwards, for
soon messengers of the king arrive to greet him with his new title. This
leads Macbeth to hope that he would also be the king in the near future.
He was ambitious and had already discussed the question with his wife. So
he now w rites an account of the prophecy of the witches to her, so that she
may know all before he reaches home.
King Duncan: His Kindness
On their arrival, the old king affectionately greets and embraces
Macbethand Banquo, and in order to honour Macbeth, declare s that he
would be hisguest for the night at his castle in Inverness. He also
announces that his eldestson Malcolm would be his heir and successor.
Thus he drives another nail inhis own coffin, for it is obvious that if
Macbeth is to become the King ofScot land, he must act promptly.
munotes.in

Page 55

Critical Study of William
Shakespeare’s Macbeth
Part I
55
The Murder
Therefore, he hurries home to Inverness, pretending that he is going there
in order to make proper arrangements for the reception of the king. Lady
Macbeth has already received his letter, and though Macbeth hesitat es and
vacilates, it is decided Duncan would be murdered that very night while
sound sleep, the two attendants asleep in his room would first be made
drunk and then smeared with blood, and their blood -smeared daggers near
them. The deed is accordingly done , and Macbeth also kills the two
attendants as if in anger. As Malcolm and Donalbain very prudently run
away they are blamed for the murder. They must have bribed the two
attendants. However, all this sounds so very unnatural that there are
people who are not convinced, and who look at the whole affair with
doubts and suspicions.
The Ghost
Macbeth is duly crowned at Sconce. He gives a feast to celebrate the
occasion and Banquo is to be the chief guest on the occasion. But Banquo
knew of the prophecy of the witches and Macbeth knows that he must
suspect that he has played most fouly for it. Moreover, he cannot endure
the idea of his sons' becoming the future kings. So Macbeth has him
murdered that very night as he is coming for the feast. But his son Fleance
escapes. During the feast, Macbeth has hallucinations and he sees the
ghost of Banquo seated in the empty chair meant for himself. He would
have betrayed everything had not Lady Macbeth come to his rescue, and
saved the situation by her tact and self -contr ol. But the doubts of the
nobles are further aroused.
Macbeth and the Witches
Macbeth decides to meet the witches again and know more from them.
They answer his question with a show of apparitions which they raise by
their magic powers. The first is of an armed head, which warns Macbeth
to beware of Macduff, the second is of a bloody child, which promises that
"none of woman born shall harm Macbeth": The third is of a child
crowned with a tree in his hand, which promises him safety until Birnam
Wood shall m ove against him. By these visions his fears are allayed, but
his eye -balls are then scared by a show of eight kings and the smiling
ghost of Banquo, who points to them as his descendants.
Forces Against Him
Macbeth at once decides to follow their advice an d be bloody and bold.
Macduff had not come at his invitation to Sconce and so now his wife and
children are brutally murdered. This sends a wave of horror through the
country and increasingly Macbeth is seen to be the blood -thirsty tyrant
into which he has degenerated. Macduff runs away to England to join
Malcolm who is already there and to whom the friendly king of England
has alreadypromised to help with ten thousand soldiers. Soon they are on munotes.in

Page 56

56 Political Reading of
Literature the road to Scotland and as they near their homeland, they are joined with
large numbers of Macbeth's subjects who are no longer able to endure his
tyranny.
Lady Macbeth: Her Death
Macbeth's downfall has begun and he is beset with troubles all around.
Lady Macbeth, unable to face the strain, suffers from deep spiritu al
anguish and sleep -walks in a powerful scene in which she reveals their
secrets to the watching maidservant and the Doctor. She dies soon after
when her husband needs most her help and support. Macbeth retains some
measure of self - control, till he is to ld by his attendant that Birnam wood
was moving towards Dunsinane. In reality, the marching English army had
cut down tree -branches and were using them to cover their numbers.
The Last Fight
Entirely unnerved by the news, Macbeth decides to come out of his fort,
and fight the enemy, face to face. He has still some hopes left, for he
cannot be killed by any man born of woman. A fierce fight rages for a
long time, and there is death and destruction all around. Macbeth fights,
most ferociously, till he comes a cross Macduff. Macduff tells him that he
was the man not born of woman, for he was taken out of his mother's
womb through a Ceasarian operation. Macbeth now realises that the
witches were "equivocating fiends" and their lies are seeming truths. They
deceiv e by a show of truth.
The New King
Macduff kills Macbeth soon after and carries his head to Malcolm who is
now unanimously elected as the future King of Scotland. He invites all
those present for his coronation at Sconce, and promises to reward them
all su itably for their services. The nation heaves a sigh of relief for the
tyrant was no more and now their life, their honour, and their property
were all safe. Scotland would again be herself after the aberration of
Macbeth's short -lived tyranny. Disorder rep resented by Macbeth has been
put down and now order would be established once again by the legitimate
king of the land.
Important Characters:
Duncan, King of Scotland
Duncan is the King of Scotland, an old, gracious, pious and gentle man,
who resembles Lad y Macbeth’s father in his sleep. He is somewhat too
trusting, and will be betrayed twice by Thanes of Cawdor he trusted in the
space of a very few days. He does not fight on the front line himself, but
leaves this duty to others. He is nevertheless quite p repared to pronounce
sentence of death on traitors. He promises to improve the fortunes of his
victorious generals Banquo and Macbeth just before announcing Malcolm
as his heir. He is stabbed to death in his sleep by Macbeth. munotes.in

Page 57

Critical Study of William
Shakespeare’s Macbeth
Part I
57 Malcolm
Malcolm is Duncan’s el dest son. Almost captured in the battle that rages
at the beginning of the play, he is rescued by the captain. He is named
Prince of Cumberland and heir to the throne by Duncan once all the
fighting is done. On his father’s death, he flees to England, unwi lling to
trust the Scottish nobles. This allows Macbeth to frame him as the
murderer. In time he becomes the rallying point of opposition to Macbeth,
and with the English king’s help assembles a massive army to recover his
throne. To test Macduff’s loyalty to Scotland, Malcolm pretends to be a
thoroughly vile human being to him; he is reassured that Macduff works
for his country and not simply out of hatred when Macduff turns from
him. He conceives the idea of camouflaging his army’s advance with the
trees of Birnam Forest. On his victory, he re -titles the thanes as earls, an
English title rather than a Scottish one.
Donalbain
Donalbain is Duncan’s second son. After his father’s murder, he suggests
to Malcolm that they quickly leave. He flees to Ireland, arg uing that by
going to separate places he and his brother will be safer. He is not returned
to join in the battle against Macbeth.
Macbeth
Macbeth is Thane of Glamis. A superb general, he is a physically powerful
man, able in a fight to eviscerate a man wit h an upward stroke. The
predictions of the witches make a great impression on him; though he
insists on reasons for being called Thane of Cawdor, the moment it is
confirmed the thought of becoming king lodges in his mind. Very close to
his wife, he writes to her of the prediction as soon as he can. Though at
first he seems willing to let Fortune take care of bringing him to the
throne, the thought of murder cannot be hid, and his wife soon pushes him
to it. He still over -thinks the matter, finding out all t he moral objections to
the act, but he cannot adequately answer his wife’s incitements to
committing it. He is possessed of a powerful imagination that is able to
conjure a dagger before his eyes. As he leaves after killing Duncan, he
hears a voice predict ing that he will never sleep again, a prediction that
comes true. He is quick -witted enough to kill Duncan’s grooms as his
supposed murderers before they can protest their innocence. Deeply
insecure, he is a paranoid king, keeping spies in the household of every
nobleman. He plans to have Banquo and Fleance killed in the hopes of
undoing the witches’ prophecy that Banquo’s descendants would take the
throne. Once king, he becomes far more manipulative than he was, able to
convince the murderers that their co mplaints against him are actually
Banquo’s responsibility. He hides the murder plot from his Queen,
signaling an end to the closeness of their relationship. Courageous though
he may be in battle, he is not proof against the supernatural, as evidenced
by th e apparition of Banquo’s ghost. To explain his fit, he explains to his
assembled noblemen that he is subject to an epileptic -type condition, but
whether this is true or not is uncertain. By this stage an insomniac, he has munotes.in

Page 58

58 Political Reading of
Literature lost all hope of redemption, and i s determined to do anything that he must
to keep himself safe. To this end he visits the witches. He is reassured by
the three apparitions they conjure for him, but fails to note the warnings in
their shapes which offer a hint of the loopholes in their pro mises. Hearing
of Macduff’s flight, he resolves to now act on his first impulses, and he
sends his men to sack Fife and murder all of Macduff’s family. The
reassurances of the witches lead him to discount the desertions in his
ranks, but he is nevertheless grown to a state of despair, thinking that his
life has gone on long enough. Still, he arms himself, and swears that he
will not simply give up. He cares about his wife in her illness, though his
concern for her state of mind may apply as much to his own. By the time
Malcolm’s army begins its approach, he has lost all touch of the fear that
afflicted him in the lead -up to his killing Duncan. He alternates between
wild rage and deep, nihilistic depression as his wife commits suicide and
his enemies arrive a t his gate. He is brought to doubt the witches’
promises by the moving forest of Birnam, and in his last moments
convinced of their falseness when Macduff reveals the circumstances of
his birth. He still pulls up his courage, however, and dies fighting.
Banquo
Banquo is a Scottish Thane, Macbeth’s co -general in the wars. He spots
the witches before Macbeth does, and is not afraid to question them,
wishing for a prediction as to his future as well. When the first prediction
comes true, he is startled, and wo rried that it may make Macbeth covet the
crown. He is wary of the dark powers’ wiliness. The witches and their
prophecies remain on his mind, but he reaffirms his loyalty to Duncan
when Macbeth subtly tests it. He suspects Macbeth of Duncan’s murder,
and h is accession to king leaves Banquo in hope that his children may yet
take the throne. On being attacked by three murderers, his thoughts are for
his son Fleance’s safety. After his death, he reappears as a ghost and as an
apparition.
Macduff
Macduff is the Thane of Fife. Commanded by Duncan to visit him early in
the morning at Macbeth’s castle, he discovers the King’s body. Though he
accepts the explanation that Duncan’s attendants committed the murder at
his sons’ instigation, he refuses to attend Macbeth’ s coronation. Having
refused to attend a feast of Macbeth’s, he is cast into disgrace, and travels
to England to beg King Edward to help Malcolm overthrow the usurper.
His wife accuses him of lacking natural human feeling and of being a
coward for having f led. A noble and ethical idealist, he is horrified by
Malcolm’s listing of his own vices, and finally must conclude that the
young man is no more worthy of the throne than Macbeth. The revelation
that Malcolm was merely testing him leaves him a touch off -kilter.
Though he left them in Scotland, he remains fond of his wife and children,
and is devastated when he learns that they have been slaughtered on his
account. This grief becomes his chief spur against Macbeth. He leads a
part of Malcolm’s army, but at the battle of Dunsinane soon abandons
them while on a single -minded quest to find and kill Macbeth himself. munotes.in

Page 59

Critical Study of William
Shakespeare’s Macbeth
Part I
59 Finding him, he wastes little time in dialogue, preferring to trust to his
sword. He tears Macbeth’s last hope from him by revealing that he was the
issue of a Caesarean birth, and threatens him with abject humiliation. In
the end, he succeeds in beheading him.
Lady Macbeth
Lady Macbeth is a ruthless woman. More openly ambitious than her
husband, she does not shy from murder, and pushes Macbeth towar ds
it. She is worried that his kinder side may keep him from going as far as
he may. She calls on the powers of darkness to steel her against remorse or
misgiving, and concocts he whole plan of how to kill Duncan. When
Macbeth backs out of the thought, she brings him around by a
combination of mockery, belittling of his manhood, and accusations of
cowardice. She drugs the king’s attendants herself, and leaves their
daggers when Macbeth will see them. She considers committing the
murder herself, but she is t roubled by Duncan’s resemblance to her father,
and forbears. Though frightened while waiting for Macbeth to emerge
from Duncan’s chamber, she is controlled enough to erase all the evidence
afterwards. Once Queen, her closeness with her husband begins to fr ay as
he draws away from her, now hiding his plots. She is at first able to stop
the feast from disintegrating into chaos when Macbeth sees Banquo’s
ghost, but in the end realizes that she must rid the room of witnesses.
Consciously she does not suffer the remorse that affects Macbeth; but
while he can no longer sleep, she begins to sleepwalk, admitting to her
guilt and begging for some way to wash away her sins. In the end she is
guilt-ridden enough that she commits suicide.
References:
https://www.playsha kespeare.com/macbeth/characters


munotes.in

Page 60

60 8
CRITICAL STUDY OF WILLIAM
SHAKESPEARE’S MACBETH
PART II
Unit Structure:
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Macbeth expresses the Elizabethan concern with political stability
and order
8.2 Distortion of values in the play – “Fair is foul and foul is fair”
8.0 OBJECTIV ES
1. The unit studies political stability and order during the time of the
staging of the play.
2. The unit also focuses on the power politics in the play.
8.1 MACBETH EXPRESSES THE ELIZABETHAN
CONCERN WIT H POLITICAL STABILITY AND
ORDER
At the time when the p lay was written political stability and order were the
prime needs of the hour, and the people were horrified at the very thought
of a civil war and political disorder. These burning concerns of the day are
reflected in the play and they colour the dramati st's treatment of his
sources. Order was the crying need of the hour, and the play begins with
order but soon there is disorder. Ultimately this disorder is suppressed,
though at the cost of much suffering to the people, and a new order is once
again impos ed by the new King Malcolm. Thus we have the rhythm order -
disorder -order.
Political theory stressed the importance of order in the state, and from the
Middle Ages it was assumed that this order should be hierarchical,
reflecting the hierarchy of heaven, in which it was thought, the various
ranks of spiritual beings were placed one above the other, ascending to
God himself. The natural structure of society, therefore, was the hierarchy
of different social classes with the king at its appex -God's representati ve
on earth. The same principle of order was to be seen in the natural world,
rising from the lowest of material substance through the vegetable and
animal kingdoms to man as their natural ruler. Animals, plants and even
inanimate things were ranked accord ing to their status. The sun was the
monarch of the physical heavens, the lion of animals, the eagle of birds.
Because all these hierarchies mirrored each other there was thought to be a
sympathetic relationship, or 'correspondence', between them so that
disturbances in the one were reflected by disturbances in the others. Thus munotes.in

Page 61

Critical Study of William
Shakespeare’s Macbeth
Part II
61 when king Duncan is murdered it is appropriate that there are sympathetic
disturbances in the elements, that the sun is darkened, a falcon is killed by
a mousing owl, and Duncan's ho rses turn not only on each other but
against their natural superior, men. As the old man says,
'Tis unnatural,
Even like the deed that's done.
When the play opens there is perfect order in the state. It is disturbed by
the revolt of the Thane of Cawdor, bu t it is soon put down and order is
again imposed. Says A.D.F. Macrae, "In Act I, Scene 4 we have a scene of
royal order when King Duncan, pleased with his success in the battle,
distributes justice and rewards. Great emphasis is placed on the ties that
bind a subject to his king. At the end of the scene, Duncan says (of
Macbeth):
And in his commendations I am fed
It is a banquet to me. Let's after him
Whose care is gone before to bid us welcome.
It is a peerless kinsman,
Gradually we come to recognise that banquets are an image of order. In
Act III, Scene i, Macbeth issues a special invitation to Banquo to a solemn
supper and when the supper begins in Scene iv the new king is careful
about the formal arrangements and the guests sit according to their
'degree . An intimation of disorder comes in the form of the murderer with
blood on his face, hardly a suitable guest, and when Macbeth rebukes the
absent Banquo he brings disorder to the table. The supper is broken up by
Lady Macbeth's command:
Stand not upon the order of your going,
But go at once
The unnamed Lord in Act III scene vi prays that
we may again
Give to our tables meat, sleep to our nights.
Free from our feasts and banquets bloody knives.
Do faithful homage and receive free honours.
Throughout the p lay there occur images of disorder and sickness. From the
'hurly -burly' of the first scene, through the 'revolt' and 'broil' of the battle,
to the scene of hallucination, with the witches we are presented with
disturbances of a calm and established social order. Macbeth has a 'heat'
oppressed brain and is brain -sickly'. In Act III, Scene i, Macbeth tells the
murderers that "we wear our health but sickly in his (Banquo's) life" and munotes.in

Page 62

62 Political Reading of
Literature in the following scene his wife tries to comfort him, saying "things
without all remedy should be without regard." His mind is 'full of
scorpions' and he is determined to bring ruin on the universe,
Ere we will eat our meal in fear, and sleep
In the affliction of these terrible dreams
That shakes us nightly.
Two scenes later his l ack of inner control becomes public in his 'solemn
That shake us nightly. Supper' when his vision of Banquo's ghost reduces
him to a nervous wreck so
that he breaks the 'good meeting'. Such symptoms continue throughout the
remainder of the play and are sha red by Lady Macbeth whose repressed
conscience gives way in her sleepwalking scene.
Macbeth's personal condition is reflected in the disorder in nature on the
night of Duncan's murder and subsequently in a sickness in the kingdom
of Scotland described to L ady Macduff by Ross and to Malcolm by
Macduff. The Doctor says in Act V, Scene i, 'unnatural deeds/Do breed
unnatural troubles' and his diagnosis describes accurately the situation
where the personal disorder of the king who cannot buckle his
distempered c ause/ within the belt of rule' is reflected in his country and in
the world of nature. The evil and disorder represented by Macbeth is
destroyed by retributive justice and order is once again imposed. This
emergence of order out of disorder is symbolised b y the victory of the new
king Malcolm.
8.2 DISTORTION OF VALUES IN THE PLAY – “FAIR IS
FOUL AND FOUL IS FAIR”
(A) The Witches :
In Macbeth as in some other plays, the dramatist has introduced the ghost
of Banquo, as well as unnatural, ominous events like t hose which take
place on the night after the murder of Duncan. But, Macbeth is the only
play of our dramatist in which he has introduced the witches. There are
three witches in the play. They have their Queen Hecate as well as their
familiars (attendant sp irits) a toad, a cat, etc. They appear and disappear
like bubbles of water. They have their cauldron which they use to cast
their spells. They are unnatural creatures -neither men nor women -and they
symbolise all that is evil in Nature. Indeed, they provide the antithesis to
the divinely ordained order of the universe. They meet in storms and can
raise tempests; they are unnatural themselves -women with beards -and they
work their spells with fragments torn from organic creatures -the thumb of
a pilot and the o rgans of men and animals that make up their charm: they
symbolise sterility and death by their 'withered' appearance, with 'choppy'
fingers and 'skinny lips' and they reduce their victims to the same
condition -as the First Witch plans to revenge the insult done to her by the
sailor's wife: munotes.in

Page 63

Critical Study of William
Shakespeare’s Macbeth
Part II
63 I'll drain him dry as hay.......
Weary sev'n nights nine times nine
Shall he dwindle, peak and pine.
In Holinshed the three women who accost Macbeth and Banquo are
described as 'the weird sisters' and identified with the goddesses of
'destinie -weird' meaning 'fatal', in the sense of foreseeing or controlling
fate. Shakespeare retains the name but transfoms them into the
familiarwitches of the English, or Scottish, countryside, to whose malice:
unexplained disease in their neighbours, or their neighbours' livestock was
often attributed. Witches were not thought to be supernatural beings
disappear into it themselves, but supposedly gained their powers by selling
their souls to Satan, and were then instructed and controlled b y familiar
spirits, minor devils which often took the form of birds and animals like
the familiars who summon Shakespeare's witches at the end of Act I,
scene i. It was their (Liii. 79 -82); to raise storms and to foretell the future,
as do the apparitions, familiars who enabled them to ride in the air (IV.
1.138), or whom the witches also call their "masters".
Two different attitudes or approaches to the witches are superstitious and
the sceptical. In Macbeth the Witches owe their fascination and
effective ness to a skiful combination of both these attitudes. They have all
the reality and vividness of actul belief, but there are also suggestions that
they are the products of the excited imagination, and so hallucinatory in
nature, vivid, external presentatio n of these forces of evil, combined with a
study of their psychological sources and effects on the human mind. They
have been brought into close connection with both character and action.
As D.R. Elloway points out, "Macbeth is a study of Evil and this stu dy is
generalised by the way in which it is interwoven with the supernatural
structure of the play. It has been suggested that the trance -like state of
Macbeth and Lady Macbeth, and Macbeth's "raptness" when the witches
first tempt him and he sees Banquo's ghost, would have indicated to a
Jacobean audience that they were the victims of demonic posession. They
behave compulsively, as if they were controlled by evil spirits rather than
by their own conscious minds. Macbeth's inability to pray is another
sympt om of this condition and Lady Macbeth's damned spot might have
suggested the devil's mark that was to be found on a witch. She actually
assumes the role of a witch when she summons the 'spirits that tend on
mortal thoughts' to possess her body, and the Doc tor's comment that she
needs the divine more than the physician might mean that she is in need of
exorcism as well as spiritual healing." 'Fiendlike' certainly seems a more
apt description of her than 'butcher' does of Macbeth.
The very first words uttere d by the witches, "Fair is foul and foul is fair,"
strike the key -note of the play, in which the values are all topsy -turvy, and
in which the chief protagonist, like Milton's Satan, make evil their goal.
This perversion of values and ideals is apparent in their own deformity -
they should be women but their beards deny it —and in the mutilated
fragments of animals and men from which their charms are brewed, and munotes.in

Page 64

64 Political Reading of
Literature its sterility in their withered forms and in the blasted heath on which they
meet. Their doctrine re verses the natural order of things: "Fair is foul and
foul is fair" is the Satanic principle of 'Evil be thou my good'. It echoes in
Macbeth's firstwords, he goes on to adopt it in order to gain the throne,
and then finds that he cannot escape from it.
The confusion of 'fair' with 'foul' is the play's constant theme; it is
emphasised by the heavy irony of Duncan's misjudgment of the two
Thanes of Cawdor and, in contrast, by his son's elaborate testing of
Macduff. The play is full of false appearances. The w orld of this play is
the world of false values in which Macbeth is guided by deceptive
apparitions and hallucinations. His moral sense becomes as confused as
are his physical senses when he cannot distinguish the real from the unreal
dagger, and it is the latter that directs him to the murder -he follows
unreality. After the murder Lady Macbeth attempts to reassure him with
the illusory resemblance between the sleeping and the dead, a recurrent
idea in the play, but shortly Macduff will summon them from the
'counterfeit' to 'look on death itself. There is repeated reference to the
murderer's need for deception and the false appearance that Macbeth
thinks to assume temporarily will become a settled practice; by the time he
is planning the murder of Banquo it h as become a burden:
Unsafe the while that we
Must.......make our faces vizards to our hearts,
Disguising what they are.
He has condemned himself to living a lie. The same moral is suggested by
the numerous images of clothing in the play, which are general ly
connected with the adoption of a new or false role. By the final scenes, the
royal robes have become another burden to Macbeth. His title hangs about
him 'like a giant's robe/Upon a dwarfish thief.
The witches' doctrine is in fact a self -deceiving one. 'Foul' is not fair, it
only appears so; but the first half of their jingle is true, for what should
have been 'fair' kingship 'foul', polluted by the means by which it was
obtained. The witches equivocate with Macbeth in their initial promise to
him of thi ngs that do sound so fair, as well as in the prophecies of the
apparitions. He achieves the title of king, but finds that he has sold his
soul- his 'external jewel' for something that proves worthless. They keep
the word of promise to his ear, but break it to his hope. Banquo does not
believe in them and he seems not to care for their prophecy at the time, but
their poison works on him also and there are suggestions that he too is
lured by their prophecy that he would be the founder of a dynasty of kings.
In the case of Macbeth the influence of these instruments of malevolent
forces is much more profound. This is seen in the fact that on his very first
appearance on the stage, he closely echoes them when he says, "So foul
and fair a I have not seen." They te mpt him and lead him away from
goodness. Macbeth is peculiarly vulnerable to their influence because he
hears them voice the desires of his heart and after his initial fear at being munotes.in

Page 65

Critical Study of William
Shakespeare’s Macbeth
Part II
65 caught out (Act 1, Scene 3, lines 50 -51) his mind moves easily along the
route they indicate towards "the imperial theme." Nature is continually
invoked in speeches by Macbeth and Lady Macbeth and their very
sexlessness (Act 1, Scene 3, lines 44 -46) seems to correspond with Lady
Macbeth's against her own nature: prayer
Come, you Spirits
That tend on mortal thoughts, unsex me here,
And fill me, from the crown to the toe, top full
Of direst cruelty
Macbeth is able to find them when he chooses later on but he wants to
hear only what favours himself. Too late he comes to realise tha t the
Witches have their own purposes into which men fit and which men can
serve. The equivocation theme which is central to the play operates most
obviously through the Witches and they are the most striking voices of
unnaturalness and disorder. Lady Macb eth offers no comment on the
Witches, the 'metaphysical, aid'. It is Macbeth who needs the Witches to
tell him what is in his own mind but is afraid to acknowledge it as his
own. The witches utter riddles, which Macbeth in his weakness interprets
in his ow n apparent interest. He is, therefore, deceived not by the witches
but by his ill -founded reliance on his own interpretations:
He shall spurn fate, scorn death and bear
His hopes, 'bove wisdom, grace and fear
And you all know security
Is mortal's chiefest enemy
However, the witches cannot be dismissed as mere hallucinations, as
products of Macbeth's heated imagination, like the bloody dagger which
he sees in the next Act, for Banquo also sees and hears them, is surprised
by their unnatural appearance, and, though at the time, he does not start as
does Macbeth, later on it is seen that he too is affected by their prophecy.
(B) The Ghost :
Unlike the witches, the ghost of Banquo which appears in the 'Banquet
scene' is entirely hallucinatory in character. It is purely a subjective
phenomenon. It is an objectfication or externalisation of the subjective
stale of Macbeth. It is a creation of his guilt -obsessed imagination and as
Lady Macbeth reminds him very much like the dagger he sees just before
the murder of D uncan. That is why none else of the characters sees him It
does not speak and it vanishes as soon as Macbeth takes heart and
exclaims:
Hence, horrible shadow
Unreal mockery, hence. munotes.in

Page 66

66 Political Reading of
Literature Thus Macbeth himself regards it as 'unreal mockery', a shadow, a mere
creation of his heated imagination. Shakespeare thus clearly intends the
judicious among the audience to take it to be an illusion, a mental
hallucination of Macbeth.
Macbeth sees the ghost just after the murder of Banquo. It is a product of
his guilt -obsessed imagination, an instrument of divine punishment and
justice. According to D F. Macrae, "Macbeth newly established as king,
holds a lavish feast to show his authority and at the beginning of the scene
we have the ceremony of guests and hosts and civilised order interrupted
by the sly appearance of Macbeth's hired killer. The facade of decency has
a murderous heart and the appearance of Banquo's ghost is the harsh
reminder of Macbeth's wickedness. The ghost is the externalised form of
Macbeth's guilt and fea r of discovery, invisible to the others but a
terrifying reality to Macbeth himself. His wife loyally and resourcefully
tries to protect him and shake him out of his obsession but, as she says,
Macbeth is quite "unmanned in folly." Macbeth, a man celebrate d for his
courage in battle, cringes before the creation of his troubled conscience,
and almost betrays himself to the assembled guests. Henceforth they are
suspicious, and their supicion goes on increasing as Macbeth marches
ahead on his bloody career.
The supernatural in the play has been closely integrated both with
character and action. It is not merely a horrible, crude blood -curdling
phenomenon which it is in the works of his lesser contemporaries.
Shakespeare has given to his audiences what they want ed, but in a much
purified and exalted form.


munotes.in

Page 67

67 9
A CRITICAL STUDY OF MANSFIELD
PARKBY JANE AUSTEN
PART I

Unit Structure:
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Mansfield Park: An Introduction
9.2 Style in Mansfield Park
9.3 Money vs Morality in Mansfield Park
9.4 Conclusion
9.0 OBJECTIVES
In the two units that follow, we will examine Jane Austen’s critically
acclaimed but controversial novel, Mansfield Park (1814). The first unit
will provide a brief introduction to the plot, genre, and style of the novel
and then proceed to discuss one of its important themes, namely, th e
dialectic between money and morality. In the second unit, we will first
consider how the theme of love and marriage is outlined in the novel, and
then discusswhat Mansfield Park represents and the role it plays in
shaping the destinies of the Bertrams wh ose family home it is, but also of
the Crawfords, whose lives and fates closely intertwine with that of the
Bertrams.Taken together, the two units will provide a comprehensive
overview of the distinguishing features of the novel and a detailed analysis
of Austen’s treatment of the main themes in the book.
9.1 MANSFIELD PARK: ANINTRODUCTION
Mansfield Park made its appearance in three volumes in May 1814. It was
preceded by Jane Austen’s other reputed works, namely Sense and
Sensibility (1811) andPride and Pr ejudice (1813). Mansfield Park,
whichapparently it took 28 months to write, not only went largely
unnoticed on publication but its reception has been problematic ever since
it was published. Critical commentary on the novel has been varied mostly
because t here has been little consensus about what Austen’ s real objective
in writing this novel was. In 1917, for example, the critic Reginald
Farrer(in the Quarterly Review) praised the novel but commented that in
Mansfield Park, Austen had succumbed to her ‘cle rical relations’ and
conventional moral values; that her didactic concerns had overshadowed
her other talents as a writer; and that it was therefore the only one of her
books that revealed“a radical dishonesty” (Wiltshire lxiii). Similarly, in munotes.in

Page 68

68 Political Reading of
Literature 1952, anothe r critic, Marvin Mudrick concluded that in Mansfield Park
Austen had betrayed herself because where her other novels revealed her
attitude to life to be ironic and playful, in this novelshe had attacked irony
and playfulness and thrown in her lot with the dreary and conventional
Fanny and Edmund (lxvi -lxvii).These are just two examples that illustrate
how Mansfield Park has evoked reactions that have not been flattering to
Austen’s reputation as an accomplished satirist. The litany of complaints
against Man sfield Park has included factors such as
the dullness of the heroine, the pomposity of the hero, the ponderous
handling of the "ordination" theme, the ambivalent and humourless
treatment of the theatrical, the novel's clumsy and rather viperish satire, it s
essential conservatism, its unusual and heavy -handed didacticism, the
coldness of its comic irony.(Halperin 6)
The most severe criticism of the novel has been with regard to Austen’s
representation of its heroine Fanny Price. Farrer,for example remarked
that there was no fictional heroine who was “more repulsive in her cast -
iron self -righteousness and steely rigidity of prejudice’ than
Fanny”(Wiltshire lxiii). The American critic Lionel Trilling echoed this
sentiment when he made this comment about her: “ Nobody, I believe, has
ever found it possible to like the heroine of Mansfield Park”(lxvi).
These comments make it clear that while have critics may not have
denouncedMansfield Parkas a failure, it has certainly not received the kind
of praise and apprecia tion that Austen’s other novels have received on the
whole. The following discussion on Mansfield Parkwill provide some idea
of what has been responsible for the novel’s uneasy reception over the
years.
9.2 STYLE IN MANSFIELD PARK
Mansfield Park begins wi th a discussion about taking Fanny into the
Bertram household (consisting of Sir Thomas Bertram, Lady Bertram,
their sons Edmund and Tom and daughters Maria and Julia) so as to
lighten the economic burden on her poor parents who have more children
than the y can afford to provide for. Although willingly adopted by the
Bertrams at the age of ten, Fanny is nevertheless reminded (especially by
her aunt Mrs. Norris) at every turn that she is the poorer cousin and hence
not deserving of the same treatment as the Bertram children. With the
exception of Edmund, who becomes her confidant and eventually her
husband, Fanny is treated with condescension by almost everyone because
of her humble background. Given her placid temperament and her acute
awareness of her low s ocial status, Fanny accepts the inferior treatment
and strives to prove herself worthy of everyone’s approval. The
plotthickens with the arrival of the Crawfords (who come to live with their
half sister and her husband, the Grants), especially with the rom antic
entanglements that emerge after their interactions with the Bertrams.
Edmund is attracted to Mary Crawford while both of the Betram sisters are
attracted to her brother Henry Crawford. Fanny remains a distant observer,
though not entirely disinterest ed since she has strong feelings for Edmund munotes.in

Page 69

A Critical Study of
Mansfield Parkby Jane
Austen Part I
69 which she never expresses. She tells no onehow little she thinks of Maryas
a prospective wife for Edmund or about the inappropriateness of Henry
Crawford’s simultaneous encouragement of Julia and Maria’s attracti on to
him. Fanny’s strong moral code disapproves of everything that goes
against her rather rigid ideas of right and wrong, such as the developing
romances between Edmund and Mary, Henry’s behaviour towards the
sisters, or the match between Maria and James Rushworth. She is
especially appalled at all those who take advantage of Sir Bertram’s
absence to consider putting up a play, that too, a romantic one like Lovers’
Vows, even if for a small and private family audience.
As the novel progresses, the conflic t between Mary and Edmund begins to
get more complicated with Edmund’s decision to become a clergyman,
and for Fanny, tension heightens when Henry Crawford makes obvious his
desire for her. Knowing what she knows of him, she rejects his proposal to
the utt er surprise and consternation of everyone, especially Sir Bertram.
Given her humble background, Fanny’s rejection of a man like Henry is
seen as evidence of her ingratitude and arrogance. Fanny is forced to
return to her parental home at Portsmouth for a w hile because Sir Bertram
thinks she needs to be taught a lesson.He hopes that she will reconsider
Henry’s proposal once she realises how lucky she is to have someone like
him want her as his wife. To her surprise, Fanny finds herself missing the
quiet, cal m, anddignified life at Mansfield Park. However, just when she
was beginning to have a change of heart about Henry, his affair with the
married Maria becomes public.Maria’s subsequent divorce from
Rushworth is a grave embarrassment for the Bertram family. The novel
ends with a victory for Fanny on both counts: on the one hand, her
judgement about Henry’s character is vindicated while on the other,
Edmund finally realises that she, not Mary, will make him the perfect
wife. This happy ending, however, has bee n seen as forced and
unconvincing by readers and critics alike. Moreover, Austenhas been
criticised for turning her back on her usual ironic authorial stance by in the
last part of the book:
The pointed irony of the first two and a half volumes of the nove l, the
generally effective satirical treatment of Mansfield's vapidity, disintegrates
in the novel's last eleven chapters and is metamorphosized instead into an
idealization of Mansfield at the expense of Portsmouth. Jane Austen
knows how vacuous Mansfield really is, but in the last sections of the
novel she seems to have ignored or forgotten it. (Halperin 12)
Like most novels of its time, Mansfield Parkis written in the realistic
tradition. It, therefore,pays close attention to details inmatters of speech,
dress, and behaviour is it records the minutiae of the daily lives of its
many intriguing characters. In addition to realism, the novel also
incorporates the epistolary genre at certain junctures through the exchange
of letters between some of its princip al characters. These letters, such as
the ones Edmund and Mary write to Fanny, make not only their respective
recipients but also the reader privy to the innermost thoughts and emotions
of both, the letter -writer and the one reading the letter. It is in th e letters
written by Edmund and Mary, for example, that we learn of the conflict in munotes.in

Page 70

70 Political Reading of
Literature their minds with regard to their relationship even as we get to know what
Fanny thinks of their dilemmas.
While the use of letters allows the third person omniscient narra tor to give
readers a direct and intimate peek into the minds of some of her
characters, the episodic nature of the plot fulfils a similar purpose.
Examples of some of the important episodes in the novel are the ones that
deal with the preparations for the performance of the play Lovers’ Vows,
Mary Crawford’s presentation of the gold chain Henry had gifted her to
Fanny, the visit to Sotherton, and Fanny’s visit to her family home in
Portsmouth. The plot dwellson each episode for a length of time before it
moves on to another, and for a while, the action comes to a standstillas the
characters express their opinions about the subject at hand. These episodes
are important because they allow for a steady unveiling of the ideologies
of the novel’s characters. The dialogues, however, are often lacking in
Austen’s trademark humour and wit. Not only does this make a dent in her
reputation as a master satirist, but also makes it difficult to pinpoint
exactly who is being mocked, who is not, and for what exactly. The
difficulty in identifying with certainty whose worldview the author
supports and whose she doesnot is one of the reasons for the widely
contrasting and not so commendatory reviews ofMansfield Park.
More often than not, critics’ disappointment with Austen’s novel has had
to do with hertreatment of the novel’s themes, not with the themes
themselves.Thus, if a novel like Pride and Prejudiceseems so different
from Mansfield Park despite its similar focus on love and marriage, it is
because the treatmentof these themesdiffers so much in the two novels.
Mansfield Parksorely lacks what Pride and Prejudicehas in abundance —
humour, wit,irony, and satire — Austen’s mostcelebrated qualities.Few
would disagree with Germaine Paulo Walsh’s observation that in
Mansfield Park, “Austen turned her back on this style of writing, and
taking on a more sober and excessively moralistic style, wrote her least
pleasing, most overtly rationalistic tome, in which irony has no place”
(17). Instead of her usual playful humour, what one find s in Mansfield
Parkis “a humour that is increasingly corrective and reproofs that are
increasingly pervasive. Wisdom is preferred to wit” (Draffan 372). The
result is that the novel is often weighed down by a style of writing that is
heavy and almost pedan tic, especially in the lengthy sections devoted to
discussions on the morality of matters such as career and marriage.
9.3 MORALITY VS MONEY IN MANSFIELD PARK
The importance of morality and virtue is perhaps highlightedmost
insistently inthe representation of the novel’s heroine, Fanny Price, a
woman who doggedly holds on to her ideals no matter what.Some critics
contend that Austen’s true intention was to offer Fanny Price not as a
model of virtue to be admired and imitated but as an anti -heroine or as a
parody of the kind of virtuous heroines typically found in the pages of the
instructive novels popular in those days (Walsh 18). Walsh, however,
takes the middle ground in arguing that although there could be some truth
to the theory that Mansfield Park sub verts the novels of instruction written munotes.in

Page 71

A Critical Study of
Mansfield Parkby Jane
Austen Part I
71 to be used as handbooks of moral conduct for young women, Fanny Price
is not quite the anti -heroine or as unappetising a character as she has been
thought to be since “as the book progresses, the reader comes to
symp athize more and more with Fanny, to admire her strength of will,
purity of heart, and good judgment” (18). In a similar vein, Halperin
commendsFanny Price for being so markedly different from the other
characters in Mansfield Park:
its leading people are l ocked into patterns of heartlessness (Sir Thomas
Bertram), insipidity (Lady Bertram), avarice (Mrs. Norris), sensuality
(Tom Bertram), shallow priggishness (Edmund Bertram), promiscuity
(Maria Bertram), jealousy (Julia Bertram), and gluttony (Dr. Grant), t o
mention but a few of the things wrong with it. Most of these people think
and talk almost exclusively of money and feel little beyond their own
selfish desires. (6 -7)
Certainly, there issome credence to the view that Fanny is not as insipid as
she appear s to be. Even if she rarely speaks up, she has strong views on
everything.When called upon to express herself, sheexhibits the moral
courage to speak out and act on her convictions at the risk of displeasing
others. Perhaps the most significant of such ins tances is when she stands
up tonone other than Sir Bertram, her benefactor and a man not easily
crossed, steadfastly refusing to change her mind about Henry’s proposal.
According to Halperin,
Fanny’s moral strength is tied to her religious convictions. On several
occasions, Austen indicates that Fanny’s character, her ability to
understand and act in ways that conform with her “duty,” is the result of
deep and sustained reflection about moral and religious principles. (19)
Fanny’s rejection of Henry Crawfo rd despite his ardent attentions and his
status as an eligible bachelor brings to mind the kind of courage that
Elizabeth, the heroine of Pride and Prejudice shows in refusing first Mr.
Collins despite his privileged social status as a clergymanand later, even
Darcy, the richest and most eligible bachelor in town. In both instances,
Elizabeth stands her ground againstthose who think her selfish and silly
for turning down such valuable offers of marriage. Like Elizabeth, who
willingly jeopardises her future by turning down men who donot conform
to her ideals,Fanny exhibits a similar strength of character and integrity in
rejecting Henry Crawford because she cannot condone his cavalier
treatment of Maria Bertram’s feelings for him.
Other than the emphasis on F anny as a virtuous heroine, the religious
element inMansfield Parkis also found in those parts that focus on
Edmund’s decision to become a clergyman, something that Fanny
supports but which jeopardises his relationship with Mary Crawford.
Austen had appare ntly confided to her sister in a letter that in Mansfield
Park she was going to deal with a new subject, namely ordination
(Wiltshire lxvi). At the time that Austen was writing Mansfield Park, the
‘fathers of the Victorians’ were vociferously debating mora lity and the
church in a mood of “Anglican seriousness” (li). Mansfield Park was munotes.in

Page 72

72 Political Reading of
Literature written against the backdrop of this “project of national renewal that
depended upon reforming the ‘manners’ of the leisured and governing
classes” (li). However, while some b elieve that the novel shows that
Austen was more sympathetic of Evangelicalism than she had earlier been,
others argue that the novel is actually a critique of Evangelicalism rather
than an endorsement of it.
It is indeed strange that a novel whose main pr eoccupation was supposed
to be ordination shows itself to be more obsessed with money. With the
exception of those like Fanny and Edmund, we see that financial matters
are of primary importance to most other characters in the novel. Mary
Crawford, in parti cular, is conflicted about marrying Edmund because she
knows that the life of clergyman’s will not be economically rewarding.
Whether marriage or career, it is their anticipatedeconomic advantages and
disadvantages thatfeatureprominently in the debates tha t the novel’s
characters engage in.Lady Bertram, for example, tells her niece: "I could
do very well without you, if you were married to a man of such good
estate as Mr. Crawford. ... it is every young woman's duty to accept such a
very unexceptionable off er as this." (Austen 384). Similarly, Sir Bertram’s
primary objective in sending Fanny back to her parental home for two
months is because he thinks her years at Mansfield Park have spoilt her.
He hopes that some time at Portsmouth will remind her of the v alue of
wealthand prosperity: “A residence of eight or nine years in the abode of
wealth and plenty had a little disordered her powers of comparing and
judging. Her Father's house would, in all probability, teach her the value
of a good income”(426). These are just some examples of the ways in
which Mansfield Parkrepeatedly and insistently dramatizes the conflict
between those who value material prosperity above moral integrity and
those who do not.
For those who have money, class consciousness naturally we ighs heavily
on their minds, and both men and women exhibit an equal determination
to ensure that class distinctions are maintained. We see how Mrs. Norris
and Lady Bertramtreat Fanny, with the overt approval of Sir Bertram
despite his benevolence towards her on many occasions. Fanny thus finds
herself in a Cinderella -like position, always reminded that she cannot
expect to be treated the same as her cousins Maria and Julia. She is less a
daughter than a handmaid to Lady Bertram, given how she is expected t o
be at her beck and call for every little thing. She is allowed to use the East
Room only because no one else wants it.She is supposed to be on her feet
all day long, and is rarely allowed to rest or participate in any festivities. It
is only Edmund who i s sensitive to her plight, and intervenes on her
behalf. When the topic of a visit to Sotherton is broached and Mrs. Norris
suggests it is best that Fanny stay back, she is only allowed to go because
Edmund offers to stay back with his mother. The extent t o which class
consciousness pervades the upper echelons of society is also hinted at
when Fanny’s brother William confesses to her that going to the Assembly
might be a futile exercise since
The Portsmouth girls turn up their noses at anybody who has not a
commission. One might as well be nothing as a midshipman. One is munotes.in

Page 73

A Critical Study of
Mansfield Parkby Jane
Austen Part I
73 nothing indeed. You remember the Gregorys; they are grown up amazing
fine girls, but they will hardly speak to me, because Lucy is courted by a
lieutenant. (290)
Fanny assures him that once he becomes a lieutenant, he will not have to
be ashamed about such things anymore. If for men, like William, opening
the door to privileged social circles is through a respectable career with a
high income, for women, upward mobility can only take place t hrough
marriage. Thus Henry, for all his other faults, is not insensible of how he
can catapult Fanny into a higher social stratum by marrying her,
something that the Bertram family cannot do: “What can Sir Thomas and
Edmund together do, what do they do fo r her happiness, comfort, honour,
and dignity in the world to what I shall do?” (344).When Henry makes a
concerted effort to ensure that William becomes a lieutenant, he is well
aware of its social and monetary implications for himself and his family.
The impact of Henry’s gesture is not lost on Fanny either, who find herself
even more conflicted about refusing a man who has helped her brother
move up the social ladder. This is the reality of Mansfield Park, and
although the author does not dwell too much o n the darker side of such a
class conscious -ridden society, such instanceshint at theserious economic
and psychological consequences for those only allowed to look in from the
outside.
9.4 CONCLUSION
In this unit we have derived some understanding of the r eception of
Mansfield Park and why it has been viewed as problematicdespite the
general consensus that it is one of Austen’s most complex and intriguing
novels. We have also understood the interplay of socio -cultural and
economic factors and how the confli ct between the value that the
characters assign to money and moral character determines who they are,
the choices they make, and the happy or unhappy consequences those
choices lead to.


munotes.in

Page 74

74 10
A CRITICAL STUDY OF MANSFIELD
PARKBY JANE AUSTEN
PART II

Unit Structure:
10.1 Love and Marriage in Mansfield Park
10.2 Mansfield Park
10.3 Conclusion
10.1 LOVE AND MARRIAGE IN MANSFIELD PARK
The importance of social and economic factorsin Mansfield Pa rkis amply
evident in matters related to love and marriage. We are told, for example,
thatwhenmarrying Lady Bertram,all that mattered to Sir Bertram was
herbeauty,while she was only concerned with his wealth and prosperity:
“She likes the look of the estab lishment and he likes the look of her. They
are both pompous fools” (Draffan 373).When it comes to his daughter’s
marriage, even though Sir Bertram sees Maria’s indifference and coldness
towards her fiancé and offers to break off the impending marriage bec ause
he does not want her to be unhappy, he does not protest too much when
Maria insists on marrying Rushworth because he understands that the
match would be advantageous for everyone concerned. Later, when it
comes to Fanny, Sir Bertram is furious to know that she has refused Henry
partly because he was convinced that Henry was genuinely in love with
her but more because he fails to understand why any woman would refuse
a man of Henry’s wealth and social status. Readers of Mansfield Park are
never allowed to forget the role that money plays in the lives of its
characters. Nearly every time a character is introduced, we are informed
about what exactly they are worth financially. In fact, the opening lines of
the novel underscore the significance of income w hen we are told that
Lady Bertram, with an income of only 7000 pounds, was fortunate to have
married a man like Sir Bertram. Further, we are given to understand
thatthis match made it easier for her sisters to find similarly rich men to
marry but that they did not fare as well as Lady Bertram because on
married a man with “scarcely any private fortune” and the other (Fanny’s
mother) fared even worse because she married someone “without
education, fortune, or connections” (Austen 4).In these examples, there
seems to bea clear connection between economic prosperity and marital
bliss.
Such an emphasis on wealth and status as the primary considerations for
marriagesis also foundamongst some of the younger characters. Maria
chooses Rushworth despite her awareness that he is not the right man for
her because she feels obliged to marry someone of an equal or superior munotes.in

Page 75

A critical Study of
Mansfield Parkby Jane
Austen Part II
75 economic status than her own. Like with the Bertram’s, money matters
above all else for Mary Crawford too. The only reason she hesitates to
marry Edmun d despite her love for him is because she knows he will not
earn much in his chosen profession as a clergyman.The importance of
money for Mary is evident in many statements she makes, such as this
comment about Maria’s impending marriage to Rushworth: “Suc h a match
as Miss Bertram has made is a public blessing. . . A large income is the
best recipe for happiness I ever heard of” (Austen 248). In fact, before she
turned her attentions to Edmund, Mary had thought Tom a suitable match
because he had in his fav our the following things:
a park, a real park five miles round, a spacious modern -built house, so
well placed and well screened as to deserve to be in any collection of
engravings of gentlemen’s seats in the kingdom, and wanting only to be
completely new furnished —pleasant sisters, a quiet mother, and an
agreeable man himself —with the advantage of being tied up from much
gaming at present, by a promise to his father, and of being Sir Thomas
hereafter. (Austen 55)
After a calculative assessment of these ben efits, Mary concludes, “It might
do very well; she believed she should accept him” (Austen 55). Marriage,
then, is a transaction that has nearly everything to do with the monetary
advantages it can accrue, and very little to do with love, if at all.
As a s taunch realist, Mary’s views on marriage are not only cold and
rational but also quite cynical. She is convincednot only that marriage is a
“manoeuvring business,” but that “of all transactions, the one in which
people expect most from others, and are leas t honest themselves.”
(Austen 53). Mary’s idea of marriage as a contract that is rooted in
deception is the result of her observations of marriages she has witnessed:
I know so many who have married in the full expectation and confidence
of some one part icular advantage in the connection, or accomplishment or
good quality in the person, who have found themselves entirely deceived,
and been obliged to put up with exactly the reverse! What is this, but a
take in? (53 -54)
Mary’s opinion of marriage is duly countered by Mrs. Grant who claims
that the partners involved must keep their expectations in check: “There
will be little rubs and disappointments everywhere, and we are all apt to
expect too much” (54). On the subject of marriage, Sir Bertrambelieves
that men should get married by the age of 24, especially if he has the
means for it. It is for this reason that he appreciates Henry’s readiness to
get married and feels disappointed in Tom’s lack of inclination towards
marriage. Mansfield Parkthusmakes reade rs privy todiverse opinions about
marriage, and more often than not, the author rarely intervenes to sanctity
the legitimacy of any particular characters’ point of view. Yet, there are
moments when Austen makes clear where she stands. About the budding
romance between Edmund and Mary, Austen satirises the ‘love at first
sight’ phenomenon in her characteristic ironic style:
A young woman, pretty, lively, with a harp as elegant as herself; and both
placed near a window, cut down to the ground, and opening on a little munotes.in

Page 76

76 Political Reading of
Literature lawn, surrounded by shrubs in the rich foliage of summer, was enough to
catch any man’s heart. The season, the scene, the air, were all favourable
to tenderness and sentiment. (76)
All you need to fall in love is the right ambience, or so the au thor
mockingly implies. Not surprisingly, Edmund finds himself deeply
attracted to Mary within a week of hearing and watching her play the harp.
Such refreshing instances of irony prevent Mansfield Park from
descending into a dreary sermon delivered by a l esser author.
What is interesting, however, is that because marriage is considered a
necessary obligation by everyone, the younger characters seem to
acceptthat love is required for a happy marriage,at least in principle if no
in actual practice. Youngster s like Edmund, Mary, Maria, Julia, Henry,
and Rushworth for example, struggle to understand what love truly is and
who they are in love with, if at all, and why. Often, they convince
themselves that they are in love even when they are not.Austen tells us, for
instance, that Rushworth, although attracted to Miss Bertram from the
moment he sees her, “soon fancied himself in love” because he was
already “inclined to marry” (Austen 44). The 21year -old Maria, on her
part, “was beginning to think matrimony a duty ” and a “moral obligation,”
and it is for this reason that she is quick to accept Rushworth as a
“conquest” (44). For Maria, Rushworth’s qualifications include that “there
was nothing disagreeable in his figure or address,” that his income was
greater than her father’s, and that he has a house in town (44).As
Edmundthinks to himself, “If this man had not twelve thousand a year, he
would be a very stupid fellow” (46).Yet, Maria and Rushworth delude
themselves into believing they are marrying for love, not co nvenience.
Then we have Henry who thinks that love is a game and something that
can be easily manufactured. He confides in Mary about his plan to make
Fanny fall in love with him, to make “a small hole in her heart” (267).
However, even when he begins to d evelop genuine love and respect for
her, his determination to have her consent is mostly because she does not
care for him:
He was in love, very much in love; and it was a love which, operating on
an active, sanguine spirit, of more warmth than delicacy, made her
affection appear of greater consequence, because it was withheld, and
determined him to have the glory, as well as the felicity, of forcing her to
love him. (Austen 376)
To be fair to Henry, he sympathises with the patronising treatment Fanny
is subjected to at Mansfield Park better than anyone else. About his
decision to marry her, he says to Mary — “And they will now see their
cousin treated as she ought to be, and I wish they may be heartily ashamed
of their own abominable neglect and unkindness ” (Austen 344). But
despite having Fanny’s best interests at heart, his affair with Maria cannot
be condoned, least of all by Fanny herself. That he does not succeed is a
triumph for Fanny, who shows her maturity in wondering how anyone,
especially Henry’s siters, can expect her to instantly reciprocate his
feelings for her: munotes.in

Page 77

A critical Study of
Mansfield Parkby Jane
Austen Part II
77 How then was I to be —to be in love with him the moment he said he was
with me? How was I to have an attachment at his service, as soon as it was
asked for? His sisters should consider m e as well as him. The higher his
deserts, the more improper for me ever to have thought of him. And,
and—we think very differently of the nature of women, if they can
imagine a woman so very soon capable of returning an affection as this
seems to imply. (4 08)
Edmund too echoes Fanny’s feelings even if he doesn’t otherwise object
to Henry as a suitable husband for Fanny. As he puts it to Fanny, “Let him
have all the perfections in the world, I think it ought not to be set down as
certain, that a man must be acceptable to every woman he may happen to
like himself” (408). Both Edmund and Fanny assert a woman’s right to
accept or reject a man as she sees fit. In Mansfield Park, one findsmany
such instances that highlight the various facets and dimensions of roma ntic
love, whether as an infatuation, as a forced emotion, or as the product of a
mature and realistic assessment of a potential lover’s character.
The last kind is the one that we find in Edmund and Fanny, the only two
characters in Mansfield Park whovalu echaracter more than social and
economic advantages.Fanny’s instant dismissal of Henry, and Edmund’s
eventual rejection of Mary occur because they find their respective suitors
morally flawed. It is perhaps fitting then that Edmund and Fanny
eventually mar ry each other, however unconvincing it might seem given
that Edmund turns to Fanny so soon after he parts ways with Mary, the
woman he was ardently in love with the whole time.Edmund was well
aware that Mary was highly influenced by the “fashionable world” and by
“the habits of wealth,” but as he confessed in a letter to Fanny, “I cannot
give her up” (Austen 489). That Edmund turns away from Mary to Fanny
at the end only illustrates, according to Walsh, thatwhat Austenwas trying
“to show that real love, the kind of love that can remain strong over the
course of one’s lifetime, is not based fundamentally in passion or emotion
but in the partners’ recognition of their respective virtues and their mutual
esteem” (21).
10.2 MANSFIELD PARK
Mansfield Park, someti mes described as a country novel, is as much about
the house as it is about anything else, and the fate of its principal
characters is inextricably linked to it. As Draffan remarks, “There exists at
the house a set of values inculcated by Sir Thomas and ac cepted, albeit
passively, by Lady Bertram” (372).Mansfield Park is intimidating; its
towering presence overshadows everyone, most of all, the timid Fanny:
“Mansfield, in its treatment of Fanny, betrays how appallingly inward -
looking and insensitive a milie u it is” (374).Yet, even as Mansfield Park
representsestablished values that the members of its family and Fanny
abide by, it fails in making outsiders like the Grants and especially the
Crawfords conform to its moral codes. Even someone like Fanny, for al l
her desperate efforts to fit in, turns her back on Mansfield Park when
sherefuses to give in to the pressure to marry Henry Crawford. For that
matter, even the members of Bertram family openly flout its norms, like
when they decide to take advantage of t he absence of its arch patriarch Sir munotes.in

Page 78

78 Political Reading of
Literature Thomas to perform Lover’s Vows. The debates over the play and the
stance the characters assume with regard to acting in it take up a few
pages, but clearly reflect how the different characters, whether insiders or
outsi ders to Mansfield Park,are not always in harmony with its code of
ethics.
The struggle of the Bertram children to find love and success, raises
questions about whether it is Mansfield Park itself that has bred the seeds
of their dissent and failure. The Be rtrams, especially the Bertram sisters,
pride themselves on their social and economic standing, believing
themselves to be genteel, cultured, and sophisticated. According to
Draffan, it is for this very reason that Henry Crawford finds it possible to
charm his way into their hearts: “When Henry flirts with them he confirms
them in their belief that they are 'the finest young women in the country
and so they are willing victims” (376).For all their father’s efforts to
maintain their superiority and status, n either Maria nor Julia find the
happy marriages they were thought they were destined for.
IN stark contrast to the austere magnificence of Mansfield Park is Fanny’s
home at Portsmouth. The difference between the two places is highlighted
through the eyes o f Fanny herself when she returns to her childhood home
after her long absence.To her own surprise, Mansfield Park gains
substantially in stature and affection in Fanny’s eyes, while her own
parents correspondingly diminish in worth. Fanny sees that her fat her was
“He did not want abilities; but he had no curiosity, and no information
beyond his profession; he read only the newspaper and the navy -list; he
talked only of the dockyard, the harbour, Spithead, and the Motherbank;
he swore and he drank, he was di rty and gross” (Austen 450). Her mother
is a greater disappointment; she wasa woman “who had no talent, no
conversation, no affection towards herself; no curiosity to know her better,
no desire of her friendship, and no inclination for her company that cou ld
lessen her sense of such feelings” (451 -52). It is not just the members of
her family but the extended community that also comes in for criticism:
“The men appeared to her all coarse, the women all pert, everybody under -
bred; and she gave as little cont entment as she received from introductions
either to old or new acquaintance” (457). Seen from Fanny’s point of
view, Mansfield Park, not Portsmouth, is now home. Its dour environment
notwithstanding, Fanny now sees it as a place that represents a far more
desirable set of values than Portsmouth can ever hope to aspire to: “The
elegance, propriety, regularity, harmony —and perhaps, above all, the
peace and tranquillity of Mansfield, were brought to her remembrance
every hour of the day, by the prevalence of everything opposite to them
here” (453).
The truth, however, is that Mansfield Park, though elegant and peaceful, it
is also dry and stuffy just like its owner Sir Thomas and his wife Lady
Bertram, whoembody “the depersonalisation and deanimation that the
place encourages” (Draffan381). The result is that “stability, tranquillity,
and conformity are nourished to such a degree that animation and
informality are regarded as undermining forces” (378).Halperin claims
that in choosing to shift the action to Port smouth in the last section of the
novel, Austen made a mistake because it showed beyond doubt how munotes.in

Page 79

A critical Study of
Mansfield Parkby Jane
Austen Part II
79 “vacuous” a place Mansfield Park was(12).Fanny’s longing to return to
the “superficial allure” of Mansfield Park then,is not a sign of herhaving
moved up in l ife but a sign of “Mansfield's corrosion” (Draffan 377).
Further, because Mansfield Park represents “vapidity” and Portsmouth,
whatever its other failings, represents “life,” Fanny’s discomfort at her
family home and her pining for Mansfield Park reveals a regression in her
character. Fanny,“who was apparently happy at Portsmouth during the
first ten years of her life, has been bred up at Mansfield to appreciate only
decorum and restraint. She cannot deal with life, with "noise, disorder, and
impropriety” ( 6,13).What’s more, that Fanny worries about what Henry
Crawford, the man who she rejected on account of his doubtful moral
character, will think of her family reveals the extent of Mansfield Park has
influenced her: “When Crawford comes to call upon her, F anny's chief
feeling is shame for her home and family. . . . Fanny knows Crawford's
moral nature, yet elevates him in her mind's eye over the Portsmouth
household” (Halperin 16). If Fanny now judges her family as vastly
inferior to a man she holds in cinte mot, it only shows that “She has indeed
become a worthy ambassadress of Mansfield Park” (16).
Not just Fanny, but even Edmund, etched as possessing as strong a moral
code as Fanny, who is tainted by Mansfield Park. This is evident in the
letters he writes to Fanny and in which he confides how he still longs for
Mary despite everything but especially when he claims that he would
rather lose Mary for being poor than because of his decision to become a
clergyman. This confession reveals a “shallowness” in his character that
Fanny is unable to see because“Mansfield has blinded both of them”
(Halperin 17).The moral corruption of Mansfield Park, as some critics
have called it,also shows itself in the fate of the daughters of the Bertram
family. Maria and Julia Ber tram, who are brought up to be vain and
selfish. Not surprisingly, Maria runs off with Crawfordand Julia with Mr.
Yates. Although the novel ends well for most of the characters, Sir
Bertram finally recognises that something has gone wrong in Mansfield
Park, and that he was perhaps responsible for the lack of character in some
of his children.
One could argue that Mansfield Park is simply a reflection of the larger
social structure it is embedded in. Consider, for example, the rather
regressive and facile id eologies about women that inform the broader
society that it is situated in.We see how much is made of Mary
Crawfordbecause of her beauty, her ability to play the harp, and her
strength in riding a horse. In Volume I, chapter 5, Mary, Edmund, and
Tom discu ss the custom of girls ‘coming out’ at the appropriate age.
While Mary waxes eloquent on the subject of how easy it is to identify
which young girl was out and who was not, Edmund refuses to tell her
whether Fanny was out or not get claiming he does not un derstand the
system: “My cousin is grown up. She has the age and sense of a woman,
but the outs and not outs are beyond me” (Austen 56). Tom then narrates
the social gaffe he had committed when he mistakenly gave his attention
to the youngest of the Miss S yneds who was not yet out and in so doing,
had offended the elder sister. The debate between the three young people
allows the author to underscore the fickleness of such cultural norms munotes.in

Page 80

80 Political Reading of
Literature without seeming to be overtly critical of them. In many such cases, th e
omniscient narrator stays in the background, letting her characters speak
for themselves, rarely intruding to reveal her own position on these
matters. Austen’s satire, to the extent that it intrudes in the rendition of her
characters’ dialogues, is gene rally understated and not always easy to
identify, another reason why this novel has earned a motley of critical
reviews over the years.
10.3 CONCLUSION
The brief analysis of Mansfield Parkprovided in the two units illustrates
how it is a dense and complex novel that one cannot arrive at easy
conclusions about. We see how its characters struggle to make sense of
their world and determine the course of their own destiny even if its
consequences are not always advantageous to themselves, or pleasing to
their family and the society they belong to. The novel takes on themes
such as love, marriage, career, religion, and morality, and explores its
discrete significations for its different characters. While the novel seems to
privilege the values that its heroine F anny embodies, it also complicates
notions of virtue and moral integrity as they are rooted in the social class
and culture of the era in which Austen produced her works of fiction.
Spatial contexts play a vital role in Mansfield Park;its characters cannot
remain immune to the influences of the households they belong to or
become a part of. Whether they uphold or defy the ideologies of the home
and socio -economic classes they are born into, the characters in Mansfield
Park are presented in sharp contrast an d conflict with each other, thereby
complicating the novel’s presentation of its primary themes. Variously
described as radical, revolutionary, uneasy, controversial, unconventional,
and subversive —Mansfield Park remains one of Jane Austen’s most
discusse d novels for its complex rendition of class, gender, sexuality, and
morality as constructs that individuals must negotiate in their questfor
meaningful relationships and personal fulfilment and happiness.
Works Cited:
Austen, Jane. Mansfield Park. Edited b y John Wiltshire, Cambridge UP,
2005. www.cambridge.org/9780521827652.
Draffan, R.A. “Mansfield Park: Jane Austen’s Bleak House.” Essays in
Criticism, vol. XIX, no.4, 1969, pp. 371 -384, doi: 10/1093/eic/xix.4.371.
Halperin, John. “The Trouble with ‘Mansfie ld Park.’” Studies in the
Novel, vol. 7, No. 1, 1975, pp. 6 -23. www.jstor.org/stable/29531700.
Walsh, Germaine.P. “Is Jane Austen Politically Correct? Interpreting
Mansfield Park.” Perspectives on Political Science, vol.31, no.1, 2002, pp.
15-26, doi: 10.1 080/10457090209602381.
Wiltshire, John, editor. The Cambridge Edition of the Works of Jane
Austen: Mansfield Park. Introduction. Cambridge UP, 2005, pp. xxv -
lxxxiv. www.cambridge.org/9780521827652.

 munotes.in

Page 81

81 11
CRITICAL STUDY OF EMILY BRONTE ’S
WUTHERING HEIGHTS

Unit Structure :
11.0 Objectives
11.1 Introduction - Emily Brontë
11.2 Plot Overview - Wuthering Heights
11.3 Characters
11.4 Themes
11.5 Symbols
11.6 Critical Assessment of the novel
11.7 Summ ing up
11.8 Suggested Reading
11.9 Self-check exercises - Questions
11.10 References
11.0 OBJECTIVES
In this chapter, the learner is provided with a brief introduction of the
author Emily Brontë and shares some snippets from her life. The learner
will be introduced concisely to the one and only work in prose by the
author Wuthering Heights as prescribed in the syllabus. The novel is
summarized and analyzed critically. By the end of the chapter, the learner
will be advanced to understanding the themes used in this famous work
and understand the work critically. At the end of the chapter, all the
learnings will be summed up in short for the learner, followed by a self -
check exercise.
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Brontë was one of the six children born to Maria Bran well Brontë and the
Reverend Patrick Brontë. On July 30, 1818, she was born in Thornton,
Yorkshire, England. She had six siblings: Maria, Elizabeth, Charlotte,
Anne, and Branwell. She first encountered the moors, a section of the
Pennine Chain of mountains , when her family relocated to Haworth when
she was two years old. She remained in this location until her death. munotes.in

Page 82

82 Political Reading of
Literature Her life was shaped by a number of different factors. Even though Emily
Bronte lived a life that was almost absolutely isolated, she had acces s to
literature. Her cleric father, an Irish -born, was also renowned for his
poetry and creative mind. Since Emily's mother, a devoted Protestant,
passed away when she was just three years old, everything she knew about
her came from her siblings and her a unt Elizabeth (Maria's sister), who
took care of the kids following Maria's passing. Maria's sister Elizabeth
introduced a desire for religion to the family that Brontë immediately
rejected.
The surroundings of Bronte's life and work influenced her. Emily read a
lot of books. She and the other family members were familiar with both
classic writers like Shakespeare, as well as modern romanticists like Scott,
Wordsworth, and Byron. Emily Bronte enjoyed reading the articles,
reviews, and stories that appeared in Blackwood's Magazine, particularly
those that had a Gothic feel to her. The Brontë sisters experienced
significant romantic influences as children and from an early age started to
imagine a fantasy world. Even as young children, they had a keen sense o f
imagination and enjoyed writing creatively. When Emily was only a little
girl of twelve, she created the mysterious and fantastical Gondal world in
a collection of poetry. She also wrote a number of little poems, which
Charlotte later discovered by mista ke in the fall of 1845. Charlotte
recognized in the poems a strange sound that was wild, melancholic, and
elevating. At that time, Anne hesitantly wrote some of her own poetry,
which had a unique brand of gentle genuine melancholy. The three sisters
then m ade the decision to release a short book of their poems. Poems by
Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell appeared in a small collection in May 1846.
It was published by Aylott and Jones. However, the book only generated
sales of two.
Now the three sisters started to work on novels. Although she might have
had the idea earlier, Emily Brontë began writing Wuthering Heights most
likely toward the end of 1845. Thomas Cautley Newby agreed to publish
Wuthering Heights and Anne's Agnes Grey together in the summer of
1847. In December 1847, Newby published the two books in three
volumes, with Wuthering Heights by Ellis Bell (Emily Brontë) taking up
two volumes. The only environment she knew and lived in provided the
background for her only novel since the village of Hawort h was secluded
and surrounded by moors. She created motherless characters in Wuthering
Heights to reflect her own experience. Due to the extremely inventive
novel of love and hatred by the modern world, the novel, however, did not
gain much praise and atte ntion. Brontë's career came to an abrupt end
when she passed away on December 19, 1848.
11.2 PLOT OVERVIEW
Let's see a quick synopsis of Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë.
England in the early 19th century appears to be the setting for the novel
Wuthering Heights. The tenant, Mr. Lockwood, resides in the Thrushcross
Grange estate. He went twice to his landlord, Mr. Heathcliff's house at
Wuthering Heights, a neighboring mansion. During his second visit, munotes.in

Page 83

Critical Study Of Emily
Bronte’s Wuthering
Heights
83 Lockwood asks questions about Heathcliff and Wuthering Heights from
the housekeeper, Nelly. Nelly then recalls a complex storyline involving
the Earnshaw and Linton families.
Mr. Earnshaw owned Wuthering Heights. He had three children: Hindley,
Catherine, and Heathcliff, whom he had adopted. Hindley is extreme ly
envious of Heathcliff, while his father and sister are very fond of
Heathcliff. Hindley is sent to university by Mr. Earnshaw, and in the
meantime, Catherine and Heathcliff develop feelings for one another.
After Mr. Earnshaw passes away, Hindley and hi s wife take over as the
new owners. Heathcliff is made to live as a servant by Hindley. After
giving birth to a son, Hareton, Hindley's wife passes away. During this
time, Heathcliff and Catherine begin to take an interest in the Lintons
living at Thrushcr oss Grange. Edgar and Isabella are the two children of
the Lintons. During his five -week stay with the Lintons, Catherine and
Edgar get close. Despite her continued devotion for Heathcliff, she is more
drawn to Edgar's money and attractiveness. Heathcliff, conscious of this
fact, flees Wuthering Heights the very same night. While Heathcliff is
away, Catherine gets married to Edgar Linton and moves to Thrushcross
Grange. Heathcliff returns just a year later, immensely wealthy and
admirable but also mysteriou s and violent. Despite her husband's
objections, Catherine is eager to see Heathcliff and does so anyhow.
Wuthering Heights is now home to Heathcliff. Since Hindley has turned
into a gambler and lost all his wealth, he invites Heathcliff to his home
after seeing his wealth.
Soon later, it becomes noticeable that Heathcliff and Isabella are
infatuated with each other. But as their relationship progresses, Edgar and
Heathcliff become at odds. Edgar opposes each of these. Catherine decides
not to eat anything, which causes her to get sick. On the other side, one
night, Heathcliff and Isabella elope. Catherine is looked after by Edgar for
two months. Catherine is carrying a baby. Just after the wedding,
Heathcliff treats Isabella horribly at Wuthering Heights. E dgar is adamant
that he will have no kind of relationship with Isabella because he is
convinced that Heathcliff married Isabella for the sole purpose of
acquiring Thrushcross Grange from the Lintons. Heathcliff visits
Thrushcross Grange while Edgar is away because he is worried about
Catherine's health. Catherine and Heathcliff profess their undying love for
each other. Catherine gives birth to a girl that night, named Cathy, but she
passes away a brief time later.
Two days later, Isabella manages to get aw ay from the Wuthering Heights
and makes her way out of London. She gives birth to Linton, Heathcliff's
son, there. In six months, Hindley passes away. Heathcliff obtains
ownership of Wuthering Heights after paying off all of Hindley's debts.
Hareton is mai ntained by Heathcliff in the same state of service that
Hindley had previously forced him to.
After a period of twelve years, Cathy has developed into a stunning young
woman, but Hareton has become a troubled young adult. Heathcliff insists
that Linton mov e in with him at Wuthering Heights, but Edgar brings him munotes.in

Page 84

84 Political Reading of
Literature back to Thrushcross Grange after Isabella's passing. Later, Heathcliff
works to bring Linton and Cathy together on purpose. Edgar permits
Cathy to meet with Linton at Thrushcross Grange due to his po or health.
On a certain day, Heathcliff convinces Cathy and Nelly into moving back
to Wuthering Heights with him and Linton. There, Linton and Cathy are
wed. Cathy then flees Wuthering Heights to take care of her father. But
Heathcliff brings her back to W uthering Heights following the passing of
her father. Alongside her spouse Catherine, Edgar is buried. Soon after
Linton passes away, Heathcliff gains ownership of Thrushcross Grange as
well as Wuthering Heights. At Wuthering Heights, Cathy lives forcibly
with Heathcliff and Hareton.
The narrative has now returned to the present, when Lockwood has rented
Thrushcross Grange. Lockwood returns to London. Everyone is taken
aback by the fact that Cathy and Hareton have developed romantic
feelings for one another . Heathcliff no longer feels the desire for revenge
since he recognises how similar Hareton and Cathy are to the characters in
his own love tale. Heathcliff passes away and is buried next to Catherine,
on Edgar's opposite side. Finally free of interfering adults, Cathy and
Hareton intend to wed and relocate to Thrushcross Grange.
11.3 CHARACTERS
Mr. Lockwood - A man Heathcliff rents Thrushcross Grange from. He
serves as the narrative's narrator; Nelly Dean informs him of each of the
other characters, which he then conveys to the reader. He is an
emotionally detached and slightly self - absorbed young man from the city
who is not really interested in the action.
Nelly Dean - Housekeeper to the Earnshaws and Lintons homes. Every
character (apart from Lockwood) is seen through her eyes because the
entire book is written from her point of view. She works at both
Wuthering Heights and Thrushcross Grange while growing up with
Hindley, Catherine, and Heathcliff. Many people, including Catherine,
Isabella, Cathy and even Heathcliff, confide in Nelly. She looks after
Hareton as a baby and acts as a mother figure for younger Cathy. Despite
being a servant, she is intelligent and insightful. She frequently does more
than just witness; she gets deeply involved with the li ves of her employers.
Many of the characters are so at ease with her that they hold private talks
in front of her, which some people may describe her as interfering.
Heathcliff - Foster child of Mr. Earnshaw, foster brother of Hindley and
Catherine; husband of Isabella, and father of Linton. The ambivalent
protagonist of the book is Heathcliff. He is discovered on the street by Mr.
Earnshaw, who brings him to Wuthering Heights, where he meets
Catherine and they fall in love. With his obscure past and gloomy "gypsy"
appearance, he epitomises the outsider. Even if he eventually acquires
Wuthering Heights, he never appears to be as at ease there as he is on the
moors. Although his love for Catherine is immense, uncontrollable, and
precious to him more than anyth ing else, but it is never simple and quite munotes.in

Page 85

Critical Study Of Emily
Bronte’s Wuthering
Heights
85 often causes him to exert control over, degrade, and manipulate practically
everyone in his vicinity. Heathcliff is not an obviously evil person despite
the numerous terrible things he does; rather, he is a destit ute orphan who
achieves monetary prosperity but not what he truly desires —the affection
of Catherine.
Catherine Earnshaw - Daughter of Mr. Earnshaw, Hindley's sister and
Heathcliff's real love and foster sister, Edgar's wife, and the mother of
Cathy. Cather ine, a stunning and fiery woman with dark hair and intense
eyes, is a woman torn between a desire for the comfort, stability, and
tranquilly of ultra -civilized Edgar and a desire to run through the moors
with untidy Heathcliff. She has a strong and intense passion for Heathcliff.
She can be impulsive, rude, and proud.
Hindley Earnshaw - Son of Mr. Earnshaw, foster brother of Heathcliff,
Catherine's brother, father of Hareton, and Frances' spouse. His father dies
and Hindle inherits Wuthering Heights. He is a n obsessive drinker and
gambler who collapses following the passing of his wife. He transforms
from a playful, kind -hearted boy to an enraged, vengeful, jealous, and
destructive man.
Frances Earnshaw - Mother of Hareton and the wife of Hindley. A m inor
character Frances meets Hindley outside of Wuthering Heights. Despite
her joyful presence in Wuthering Heights, she passes away shortly after
giving birth to her son.
Hareton Earnshaw - Hindley and Frances's son and young Cathy's
husband. Hareton is a shy, reb ellious, illiterate, hard -working, and
neglected man who lives and works at Wuthering Heights, where
Heathcliff tolerates him and his father neglects him. He should be a
gentleman from birth, yet his caregivers deliberately ignore his education.
His tough exterior hides a clever, sympathetic, and sensitive spirit.
Cathy Linton - Wife and cousins of both Linton Heathcliff and Hareton
Earnshaw, and the daughter of Edgar and Catherine. Cathy is a young,
beautiful girl with a kind heart. She possesses the courag e and passion of
her mother and the grace and blonde beauty of her father. She is a
complex adolescent who often demonstrates kindness and compassion as
well as frequent selfishness and carelessness. She ultimately demonstrates
the ability to see through t he surface to the purity and beauty underlying,
which was a quality her mother lacked.
Edgar Linton - Isabella's brother, Catherine's spouse, and Cathy's father.
Edgar is the personification of a sweet, caring, and kind country
gentleman; he is quite handso me and adores both his daughter and wife.
He seems vulnerable at first, but he is actually incredibly strong in a quiet,
inward way. He may be harsh and hates Heathcliff, so he's not perfect
goodness.
Isabella Linton - Mother of Linton, Heathcliff's wife, a nd Edgar's sister.
She is brought up to be a delicate, elegant lady and is beautiful and fair. munotes.in

Page 86

86 Political Reading of
Literature She is no equal for Heathcliff, who ultimately marries her for her claim
over Thrushcross Grange instead of out of love for her.
Linton Heathcliff - Husband of Ca thy and the son of Heathcliff and
Isabella. Linton is weak, immature, and frail despite his attractive
appearance.
Mr. Earnshaw - An elegant farmer. Hindley and Catherine are his
children. He adopts orphan Heathcliff out of kindness m. Because of his
fascin ation in Heathcliff, he isolates his biological son. He has little
authority over any of his children by the time of his death.
11.4 THEMES
Let us discuss the themes that are clearly evident in the novel.
Revenge:
Wuthering Heights' action is largely drive n by one or more characters'
need for revenge. As a result, circles of revenge appear to go on
constantly. By restricting Heathcliff of an education as revenge for taking
his position at Wuthering Heights, Hindley distances Heathcliff from
Catherine. After that, Heathcliff exacts revenge on Hindley by expelling
him from Wuthering Heights and depriving his son Hareton of an
education. By weding Cathy to Linton, Heathcliff also plans to exact
revenge on Edgar for marrying Catherine.
Heathcliff's revenge is su ccessful, but it doesn't appear to make him really
happy. Cathy realises this toward the end of the book and informs
Heathcliff that, no matter how unhappy he makes her, her revenge on him
is to know that he, Heathcliff, is far more unhappy. It is also int eresting
that Heathcliff can only ultimately reunite with Catherine in death and
allow Cathy and Hareton, who are so similar to Heathcliff and Catherine,
to fall in love and get married once he lets go of his need for revenge.
Class:
Understanding Wutherin g Heights requires knowledge of the significance
of class in eighteenth and nineteenth -century Britain. People at the time
typically entered into a class upon birth and remained there: if your
parents were wealthy and well -respected like Edgar's, you would likely
fall into that class as well; if your parents were servants like Nelly Dean's,
you most likely would as well. The concept of social flexibility —the
possibility of improving your class status —was not widely accepted.
However, class differences ar e frequently switching in Bronte 's book,
which causes the characters a hard time. This is best illustrated by
Heathcliff and Hareton, respectively. Everyone treats Heathcliff
differently because no one is aware of his past. He is adopted by Mr.
Earnshaw, who raises him as a son, but the elite Lintons reject him. When
he disappears for a while and returns wealthy, the other characters have a
harder time figuring out how to interact with him as now he has land and munotes.in

Page 87

Critical Study Of Emily
Bronte’s Wuthering
Heights
87 wealth, many of them still think of him as a sim ple country boy. In a
similar vein, Hareton struggles to get respect from his others. Hareton,
Hindley's son, deserves to be the one to inherit Wuthering Heights. He
should be a gentleman since he has land and status. But since Heathcliff
won't educate him , and the majority of people ignore him, his manners —a
crucial sign of social class —are rough and harsh. He can only rise to the
class level to which he was born once young Cathy assists him with his
education.
Love and Passion:
Different types of love are examined in Wuthering Heights. The love that
Heathcliff and Catherine have for one another is depicted in the book, and
while it is pure and good, it is also extremely destructive. In reality,
Catherine and Edgar's relationship is sophisticated and courte ous rather
than passionate. Theirs is a peaceful, comfortable love that is accepted in
society, but it cannot prevent Heathcliff and Catherine's deeper bond.
An absurd exaggeration of Catherine and Edgar's romance is the love
between Cathy and Linton. Alth ough Catherine has always seemed a little
bit too tough for Edgar, Cathy and Linton's relationship is built on Linton's
frailty because he uses Cathy's motherly instincts to win her love. The love
between Cathy and Hareton, which appears to balance the cha racteristics
of the other loves on show, comes in last. They possess the desire of
Heathcliff and Catherine without the destructiveness, as well as Edgar and
Catherine's mutual kindness without the monotony or power difference.
11.5 SYMBOLS
Moors -The area has symbolic significance due to Wuthering Heights'
continual attention on the environment. The majority of this region is
made up of moors, which are large, untamed, high, yet rather damp, and
barren. Moorland cannot be farmed, and because to its homogene ity, it is
challenging to navigate. The moors are an excellent representation of
nature's untamed threat as a result. The moorland embodies the love affair
with its symbolic meaning since it served as the starting point of Catherine
and Heathcliff's relat ionship as the two played on the moors as kids.
The Weather - The wind and storms that frequently hit Wuthering Heights
serve as a metaphor for the characters' vulnerability to outside causes.
The weather is used as a symbol for nature, which can be depic ted as a
gloriously powerful force that is capable of overcoming any character.
11.6 CRITICAL ASSESSMENT OF THE NOVEL
The Earnshaw’s and Lintons' relationships with one another across three
generations are the subjects of Wuthering Heights. The story depi cts the
life of Heathcliff, a mysterious figure. His adoptive family degrades
Heathcliff to servant status, and he escapes when the young woman he
loves decides to wed someone else. Later, when he is wealthy and well -
educated, he returns and begins to exac t revenge on the two families he munotes.in

Page 88

88 Political Reading of
Literature believes were responsible for his life's downfall. The narrative is really
about revenge.
In the very first chapters, Lockwood's strange experience at Wuthering
Heights draws us into a world of mystery. Furthermore, as the story
progresses, the moors, the wild terrain, and the terrible weather that
sweeps the moors are constantly brought to the reader's attention
throughout the narrative.
Nelly Dean tells the story for almost the entirety of the book. Nelly Dean
is a good na rrator who alters her expression to fit the scene she's
describing. She controls the speed of her speech effortlessly. The novel's
plot is skillfully crafted. The introduction's first three chapters offer a
poetic account of a brilliantly created horrifyin g circumstance in
Lockwood's nightmares. The next twenty -seven chapters, which comprise
the novel's centre section, are primarily delivered by Nelly Dean and deal
with Heathcliff's unhappiness with love as well as his fury and desire for
revenge. The final four chapters contrast sharply with the first three. We
have sunlight, literacy, and love in place of ghosts and nightmares,
snowstorms, and hatred. With the marriage of Hareton and Cathy, the
Earnshaws and the Lintons are now one. The love between Cathy and
Hareton, reverses the character flaws of the other loves in the narrative.
Self-Check Exercise 1
1. Discuss the underlying message and setting of the novel.
2. Surf the web and read more about the themes in the novel.
11.7 SUMMING UP
Dear learner, let us su m up what we have learned in this chapter. In brief,
we learned about Brontë’s life. To sum up the chapter, those who have not
read Wuthering Heights, believe it to be a simple, yet emotional, love
story. However, this is incorrect, as the story is really one of vengeance. It
traces the life of Heathcliff, a mysterious figure. After rising in his adopted
household, Heathcliff is degraded to the position of a servant and escapes
when the young woman he loves decides to wed someone else. Later,
when he is wea lthy and well -educated, he returns and begins to exact
revenge on the two families he believes were responsible for his life's
downfall. Finally, in the end, the successors, i.e., Cathy and Hareton, bring
goodness, and their love succeeds.
At the end of t he chapter, the learner is given a self -check exercise to help
them think about the topic.
11.8 SUGGESTED READING
https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Wuth ering_Heights/KhMYAAA
AYAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1
munotes.in

Page 89

Critical Study Of Emily
Bronte’s Wuthering
Heights
89 11.9 SELF -CHECK EXERCISES
● Self-Check Exercise 1 Refer to the end of Section 2.5.
References :
Barker, Juliet. The Brontës . London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1994.
Bhattacharya, Jibesh. Emily Brontë Wuthering Height s. Atlantic
Publishers & Distributors (P) Ltd., 2007.
Brontë, Charlotte. “Biographical Notice of Ellis and Acton Bell.”
In Wuthering Heights . Edited by Hilda Marsden and Ian Jack, 435 –441.
Oxford: Clarendon, 1976.
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Emily -Bronte
https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Wuthering_Heights/KhMYAAA
AYAAJ?hl=en&gbpv= 1
https://www.cliffsnotes.com/literature/w/wuthering -heights/book -
summary
https://www.criticalbuzzz.co.in/a -critical -analysis -of-wuthering -heights -
as-a-romantic -novel/
https://www.notesmatic.com/critical -evaluation -of-wutherin g-heights/

❖❖❖❖


munotes.in

Page 90

90 12
CRITICAL STUDY OF A PASSAGE TO
INDIA BY E.M. FORSTER

Unit Structure:
12.0 Objectives
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Main Characters in the novel
12.3 Plot of the novel A Passage to India
12.4 Themes of the novel
12.5 Critical Analysis
12.6 Conclusion
12.0 OBJECTIVES
1. To study the important themes of the novel A Passage to India
2. To analyze the important characters in the play
12.1 INTRODUCTION
A Passage to India is an English -language novel written by the British
author E.M. Forster. The novel was pu blished in 1924. It is set in India
during the British Raj while the Indian independence movement was going
on in the 1920s. The title of the novel was derived from Walt Whitman’s
poem –Passage to India published in his poetry collection called ‘Leaves
of Grass’ in 1870. The novel is based on Forster’s experiences when he
was in India in the early 1920s when he worked for Tukojirao III,
Maharajah of Dewas as his private secretary. Forster visited India twice in
his lifetime. First visit was from 1912 to 191 3. From his experiences in
India derived from both the visits, Forster wrote and published two works
– one a non -fictional account of both the periods called ‘The Hill of Devi.’
The title was inspired from the famous hill -top temple of the Goddess in
Hindu mythology, ‘Devi.’ The book was set in Dewas, a royal countryside
in India and offers useful insight on the internal royal politics of the state
when the Maharaja employed Forster.
The second book published by him is a fictional novel – A Passage to
India . In this text as well, one can find traces of his experiences of the pre -
independence struggling India of the 1920s. The novel depicts the Indian
Freedom Struggle and the Non -Cooperation Movement through the lives munotes.in

Page 91

Critical study of a passage
to India by E.M. Forster
91 of its characters. Racism, Orientalism, C olonialism, Feminism, Casteism,
Marxism, amongst others are some of the many themes of the novel. The
novel is set in a fictional town named ‘Chandrapur’ or ‘Chandrapore’
which was probably inspired from the suburb called ‘Bankipur’ near Patna
in the India n state of Bihar.The novel is narrated by an omnipotent
narrated. This novel was an enormous deviation from the regular
portrayals of Indian in the Literature of that time. Indian were
alwaysshowed as ‘savages’ in most texts. This novel brought the
possibi lity in the Western world that the Orients can be intellectuals and
the Whites can be vicious.
12.2 MAIN CHARACTERS IN THE NOVEL
The novel has four important characters. Dr. Aziz is an Indian Muslim
doctor in a British hospital in Chandrapur, or as it is c alled by the Anglo -
Saxon name, Chandrapore.He is quite emotionally inclined which is also
considered as his weakness by other characters. The character is very
talkative, and he heavily relies on emotions and intuition over logic
despite being a medical pr ofessional. He is a widower, and it can be seen
that he misses his late wife, but he has also moved on from her death. The
next important character is Adela Quested. She is a British headmistress
who travels to India with the intention of getting married t o Ronny
Heaslop. Although she is engaged to him, she is not excited about her
perspective wedding. Her character is brave and intelligent, but her
weakness is her prudishness. Cyril Fielding is another important character.
He is the principal of a governme nt run college for Indian students in
Chandrapur. Later on in the novel, he becomes good friends with Dr. Aziz
despite their cultural differences but in the end of the novel these
differences act on their friendship and divide them. Fielding is one of the
few British characters who is respectful and tolerant towards Indians. He
is a mature gentleman who despises his own people who consider Indians
as ‘savages.’
Next significant character is Mrs. Moore who is the potential mother -in-
law of Adela. She is more thoughtful than other British people and is
shown to be tolerant and respectful towards Indians like Fielding and
unlike her own son, Ronny (Adela’s potential husband, Mrs. Moore’s son
from her first marriage), who is extremely racist and holds derogatory
views of Indians. Despite her respectfulness, she is not courageous and
chooses to run away when her verdict is of utmost importance in Aziz’s
case. Professor Narayan Godbole is another character. He is an eccentric
Brahmin who believes in equanimity. Oth er important characters are the
racists Mr. and Mrs. Turton (they loathe Fielding for his less bigotry
mindset). Major Callendar, another racist and a superior of Aziz, Mr.
McBryde, a superintendent, he dislikes Indians but at least accepts views
of people like Fielding, Miss Derek, a British woman working for a royal
family and has an affair with McBryde, Nawab Bahadur who is accepting
of British but an Indian at heart, Hamidullah, a highly educated uncle of
Aziz who graduated from Cambridge, Amritrao, Azi z’s lawyer who hates
British, Mahmoud Ali, who also hates British, Dr. Panna Lal, Aziz’s rival munotes.in

Page 92

92 Political Reading of
Literature doctor at the hospital, Ralph Moore, the timid second son of Mrs. Moore
from her second marriage and Stella Moore, the young daughter of Mrs.
Moore from her seco nd marriage, a beautiful woman who later becomes
Fielding’s wife.
12.3 PLOT OF THE NOVEL A PASSAGE TO INDIA
The plot revolves around Adela arriving in Indian for her prospective
marriage. She is interested to see the ‘real’ India and hence for her,
Fieldin g arranges a bridge party where she meets Professor Narayan
Godbole. As this party turns out to be quite a disaster due to the Britons’
bigotry and Indian’s loathing for the British, Fielding arranges another tea
party. Before the party, Mrs. Moore and Dr. Aziz meet due to a chance
occurrence. Dr. Aziz and Mrs. Moore part as friends when Aziz realises
that Mrs. Moore is not prejudiced against Brown skinned people.
Mrs.Moore narrates her meeting with Dr.Aziz to Adela who is quite
intrigued with his tolerant personality. Hence, she requests Fielding to
invite Aziz to the tea party as well. At the tea party, Fielding and Aziz
become good friends. Aziz promises the women to give a tour to the
infamous cave complex called Marabar Caves (inspired from Barabar
caves of Bihar) outside the city. When Ronny arrives and sees Adela
unaccompanied with Aziz and Godbole, he rudely breaks up the party.
After a while, Aziz decides to take Mrs. Moore and Adela to the promised
tour. To reach the caves, they have to go on a smal l hike up the mountains.
The women, Aziz and a tour guide explore the caves. In the first cave,
Mrs. Moore feels claustrophobic and decides to discontinue her
exploration. She returns to her taxi -cart down the mountain allowing Aziz
and Adela to explore th e caves alone with the tour guide.
As Adela and Aziz continue exploring the caves, Adela asks Aziz whether
he has more than one wife. Aziz clearly upset by the rude question
explores another cave to have some distance from her. Meanwhile, Adela,
alone in a cave starts to feel uneasy. After Aziz has composed himself and
he comes out, the guide tells him that Adela has left. While looking for
her, he finds her field glasses which he pockets. Aziz sees Adela leave
with Miss Derek who has arrived with Mr. Fiel ding in a car. As Aziz
greets Fielding, Adela, and Miss Derek leave.
Aziz returns to Chandrapur by train. After his arrival, the authorities arrest
him. He is accused ofraping Adela. The case gains a lot of public
spectacles with varied opinions from the m asses. The days until his trial
face a lot of racist tension between the Britishers and Indians, In the first
hearing, Adela says that after Aziz left, he came back, grabbed her, and
she protected herself by swinging her glasses at him. The broken glasses
in Aziz’s possession confirm the story and is the only evidence with the
British against Aziz. Everyone is stunned when Fielding claims for Aziz’s
innocence. He is seen as a traitor by the Whites, but the Indians welcome
him. During the weeks of the trail, Mrs., Moore becomes bitter. It
becomes obvious that she believes Aziz to be innocent and to present her
from giving her verdict at the next hearing Ronny, her son arranges for her munotes.in

Page 93

Critical study of a passage
to India by E.M. Forster
93 to leave for England immediately. Mrs. Moore complies without
objection. Sh e mysteriously dies during the voyage.
At the next hearing when Adela is asked directly if Aziz raped her, her
confusion becomes apparent. It becomes known that just like Mrs. Moore
Adela became anxious due to the claustrophobia and became disturbed
due to the echoes which in turn made her believe that she was assaulted by
Aziz who was upset with her recent remark about polygamy. She admits
her mistake and the trail concludes.
In anger, Ronny breaks off his engagement with her and arranges for her
to leave for England. Until her departure, she stays with Fielding and once
again tells him that the echoes were the cause of her misunderstanding.
She leaves, never to return.
Aziz is upset with Fielding because he befriended Adela after she nearly
ruined his life . Fielding asks Aziz to not ask Adela for monetary
compensation, believing that it is gentlemanly. Afterwards, Fielding also
leaves for England. Aziz believes that he has left to marry Adela. Thinking
of his betrayal, Aziz moves to Mau, Uttar Pradesh, and vows to never
befriend a White.
After two years, Fielding returns with his new wife Stella. Aziz now a
Maharaja’s physician, becomes friend with him again. But in the last few
pages, he explains that although he is friends with Fielding, he still dreams
of a free India and that his and Fielding’s friendship can never become
true until India is freed from external control.
12.4 THEMES OF THE NOVEL
English and Indian Friendship –
The novel constantly brings out the crisis of the possibility of true
friendship between a White and a Brown. The key crisis in the story
emerges due to the White and Brown tensions. Besides, those characters
who are tolerant and becomes friends, like Aziz and Fielding, Mrs. Moore,
and Aziz, etc. have to constantly battle cultural gui lt and community
hatred. The author uses this issue as a way to depict the British control and
colonialism and shows it from a personal level. In the first half of the
novel, Aziz and Fielding represent a liberal humanistic approach. They
believe in human beings, not race. Both the characters treat each other
with respect due to their individuality, not their respective ethnicity and
backgrounds. They trust each other to be frank while having good
intentions for the other.
Unity –
Another obvious theme is u nity. Unity, of not only British and Indians, but
also of Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, etc. Unity of different castes.
Unity of different races and geographical backgrounds, etc. Once again,
the key conflict derives from the lack of unity amongst th e characters.
Even characters from the same race as Fielding and Mrs. Moore have to munotes.in

Page 94

94 Political Reading of
Literature face severe criticism from their own blood.On the other hand, the minor
character of Godbole, yearns for peace of all living things. Through
mysticism of Godbole the author presents a picture f spiritual and political
unity for the characters which is desperately needed to make the lives of
all the different races, better. Mrs. Moore, who is a Christian, realises the
smallness of this domination. She loves all living things just what
Hinduism and Islam preach and hence it is the oneness of India which
affects her so much to make her bitter. Her inferiority as a British might
have affected her health.
India as ‘mysterious’ and as a ‘muddle’ -
Importantly, both Mrs. Moore and A dela are fascinated when they realise
that Indian are not the wild orients, they thought them to be. Even
Fielding, we are told, despite being respectful of Indians, is personally
intrigued by their ‘mysterious’ nature which actually opposes the western
thought. This deliberate attempts at making India mysterious was a way of
painting Indians as savages. All the white characters actually realise that is
not the case. And it becomes a confirmation when Aziz is proven ‘not
guilty.’
What makes India a ‘muddle’ is its geographical and cultural landscape.
Wildlife which cannot be identified, architecture of varied ethnicities,
populations of different linguistics, religions, castes, and class, etc. The
whole of India is difficult for the British to identity with that is why
everyone is labelled as ‘Brown,’ which is wrong because Kashmiri Indians
are known for their fair skin. But the muddle of India is unacceptable for
the West whose identity was never varied. The muddle also affects Aziz’s
and Fielding’s friendsh ip due to the cross -cultural misunderstandings.
By calling India a muddle, it is cleared that all the ancient civilizations, the
rich literature the multi -cultural population and individual identity is
reduced to a molded clay lump which is inferior to a s tate with a single
identity and religion.
Colonialism Vs Orientalism –
The novel is set during the British Raj. The characters are living in a
pyramid where Indians are at the lower level and the British are at the top.
The prevailing attitude of the ‘whit e man’s burden’ (phrase coined by
Rudyard Kipling) which says that Indians needed to be civilized can be
seen in the behaviour of all the characters, including Fielding. He may be
respectful, but he is not stranger to the system. His identification to his
bias is what makes him different. Other British characters do not belive
that their opinions are biased. Fielding identifies his biases and is willing
to work on them. Hence, the British believed that they though they were
doing the ultimate ‘good’ for the uncivilized world they believed India
was. The unequal power dynamics enroot every relationship in the novel,
from friendship to marriage.
munotes.in

Page 95

Critical study of a passage
to India by E.M. Forster
95 Race, Culture and Religion -
Race, culture, and religion are threaded throughout the novel. Godbole’s
Hindu mystici sm, Mrs. Moore’s Christian beliefs and Aziz’s Muslim
identity are essential in making the story what it eventually becomes. The
mental impact of these thought was deeply felt through the characters. The
public reaction of Aziz’s trial is evidence enough ho w these
historicallydeeply rooted cultures and rituals can cause tension. The trial,
any trial, involves two parties against each other. Yet, although it may be
not legally recognized, but the background of the parties can wretch the
involved people, espec ially those who are claimed to be guilty. As
mentioned above, the author tried his best to show that Unity is essential
in a multi -cultural land such as India for accomplishing peace. Ronny who
is otherwise a sympathetic, kind person, immediately changes w hen he
confronts a Brown person. The sheer identity crisis of varying cultures can
threaten humanity, as it becomes evident through the plot. On the other
and, by showing Hinduism and Islam as peaceful religions the author is
outrightly stating that these two religions which are also a part of ‘oriental’
beliefs are actually weaving a massive part of global humanity along with
Christianity. Making Christianity as one of the many religions from the
one supremacist religions it was was his way of showing the importance of
individual morality and beliefs and showing that ethics, truth, justice, love,
faith, justice can be weaved by religions other than Christianity as well.
Gender –
Gender may not be the biggest theme, but it is still essential. And where it
most obvious is with Mrs. Moore’s case. She was sure of Aziz’s innocence
and hence it was planned that she would give her verdict. But Ronny sends
her away. Had she been a man, her power would have been different, and
her verdict would have had more impact t hat Fielding’s verdict because
she was actually a witness. We also constantly see Ronny ill -treat Adela
because of her friendship with Aziz. And most importantly of all, it is
because of Adela’s gender that the trial became the public debacle it
eventually becomes. Her femininity is seen as a negative temptation which
the Whites believe is too strong for a Brown person like Aziz to fight. A
dialogue in the novel says, ‘A Dark -skinned man will always love to
devour a white -skinned woman.’
Justice and Judgeme nt –
Justice and judgement are heavily intertwined with race and culture. There
is no judgement based on evidence here. In fact, although Adela later
admits that Aziz did nothing to hurt her, Aziz is still looked at with
contempt and Adela is criticized fo r ‘supporting’ a Brown man. Justice is
driven by the prejudiced judgement which is turn is driven by deeply
rooted cultural biases and oriental prejudices. Therefore, the whole
judiciary system is made to condemn Indians and rise British.

munotes.in

Page 96

96 Political Reading of
Literature Life, conscious ness, existence –
Every character in the novel is affected by their culture, class, religion,
race, ethnicity, etc. In these multiple battles the question pops up whether
all these characters have a single unified identity? Where do they all stand
as human beings? Mrs. Turton screams at Adela when she admits her
mistake, but can it be forgotten that her White home stand on Indian soil
and her household is overseen by multiple Indian servants whose identity
and freedom she denies? The novel keeps digging up various layers to
every character’s background but at the surface their considerably basic
human identity is lost. At its best, the author tries to save it through
Fielding’s and Aziz’s friendship, which one finds out is already threatened
in Aziz’s eyes u ntil freedom.
12.5 CRITICAL ANALYSIS
Postcolonial Analysis –
A Passage to India, at the time when it was published was a one -of-a-kind
novel for its humanistic depiction of Indians. Forster’s depiction of India
was at first criticized but today scholars lo ok at it as realistic and also
romanticized comparatively with the other texts of the time which were
popular in the mainstream for depicting Indians as wild and savage. It
shows Indians and the cultures in an optimistic and positive light. Most
importantl y, it establishes an individual identity to Indians which others
denied. Moreover, it portrayed the multiple Indian cultures as equally
legitimate as Christianity and Western world. The depiction challenges the
EuropeanCaucasian society while showing India ns as intellectuals. It
amplifies the value of ancient Indian wisdom of mathematics, science,
literature, and the arts through the prejudices of the British. The novel
subverted typical colonial rules of India but it did not portray the Indian
Freedom Stru ggle and the nationalist movements thoroughly, instead
chose to focus on individual identity as opposed to collective identity.
The failed and threatened friendship of Fielding and Aziz as a wider
representation of tensions between the West and Orients, w here despite
the lack of personal prejudices, the community factors always rise crisis.
Their failure at having a true friendship shows the damaged and
fragmented identity created by the West which has limited their
understanding of the powers, truth, and reality of the Orient.
Feminist Analysis –
The novel depicts the traditional Western attitude towards women. Here,
the British administrators and the women in their lives represent the whole
conservativeness of gender biases of the so -called civilized Wes t. The
stereotype is that women need a Knight in shining armor to save them and
for Adela, Aziz becomes the unexpected Knight, but his ethnicity makes
him the villain instead. If Ronny had been in his place near the caves when
Adela became disturbed due to the echo, he would have been hailed as a
hero. The Englishwomen demonstrate the ‘women are weaker than men’
prejudice by not trying to defend themselves and their opinions. The munotes.in

Page 97

Critical study of a passage
to India by E.M. Forster
97 classic example being Mrs. Moore submitting and obliging to her son
Ronny’s wi sh to not give a verdict and leave for England immediately,
despite being the only witness to prove Aziz’s innocence. On the other
hand, the prejudice that women are emotional, and not intellectual is also
furthered in the plot due to Adela’s irresponsible accusation of Aziz (she
did not even think deep enough until Aziz’s lawyer Amritrao asked her in
the second hearing directly about the rape) and the other women
characters being far more racist than men despite the whole truth being
uncovered, like Mrs. T urton who created a public verbal altercation on
Adela after her confession which freed Aziz. The sexual attitudes are quite
conservative unlike the postcolonial attitude in the novel which actually
calls for unity, in fact, it is also debated that the fem ale characters only
function as pawns in the novel to facilitate men’s relationship and to
convey the ultimate message of the author. They are merely sexual objects
known for their physique. Like Adela, whose whole arc revolves around
marriage in the first half and supposed sexual assault in the second half.
In fact, women are far more prejudice than men because at least men have
a strong conviction of creating a civilized society (although that is racist
too, but their intention is to at least makes things better) while women
have no conviction at all. The lack of conviction for women says two
things – Firstly, their lack of professional goals rehabilitates and
strengthen racist views and secondly, it shows the financial dependence
women are forced to have on men. This point can be seen in another way
as well. Adela’s headmistress profession saved her from being conviction -
less and hence her courageous confession which proved that Aziz was
innocent proves that financially independent women and educated women
(Adela was financially independent, a point not taken seriously) are less
racist than others.
Besides, Aziz showing his late wife’s photograph to a stranger as Fielding
is quite sexist. His opinions about his late wife and his violation for his
late wife’ s choice of pardah are prevalent. He may have loved his wife,
but he never respected her privacy. Also, Fielding’s statement that when
all men in the world behave like a brother, pardah will go away. This is
not a statement to liberate Muslim women from Bu rqa but a statement
about men’s viciousness towards women who do not cover themselves in
the way which is considered ideal, who are liberal minded and/or who do
not depend on a man. His statement clearly shows that it is men who are at
fault whenever assau lt happens. But in the novel Aziz was never guilty
and yet Adela’s independence as a headmistress directly pits her in
trouble. She may not have been raped but her courage to choose to do the
right thing and admit her mistake showed her biggest character t rait of
bravery but also put her in trouble. The people around her were happy
when she blamed a Brown man, despite the accusation being false (and
many knew that), because a white woman blaming a Brown man for
assault brings out the most conservative preju dices about the cultures –
That a Brown man is a savage and that a woman is not an intellectual and
weak. Hence, her confession, which proved her intellect earned her hatred.
munotes.in

Page 98

98 Political Reading of
Literature Marxist analysis –
Class consciousness is lacking in the novel. The novel is set in the 1920s.
Therefore, it lacks Gandhi’s views. The novel’s focus on British -Indian
relation somehow omits the class consciousness and poverty. It takes into
account culture, religion, ethnicity, language, background, geography but
not class. Race was a key factor in class differentiation. The view of the
orient being inferior to the West implies their automatic subjugation.
Hence, even the lowest class of British are higher in status than the richest
Indians. The novel presents an imperialistic vision a nd in turns presents
the dominant ideology of the dominant West. This ideology subverted
Indians in their own land. The Western religion, western political system,
western culture is superior to the Indian political system, Indian religions,
Indian politic al system, and Indian culture. Which is ironic and
hypocritical in a way because before British, both England and several
regions in India had the similar rule – Monarchy. In fact, the monarchy of
kings like Ashok, Akbar, amongst others was more liberating and
religiously tolerant than western concepts of monarchy (it can be seen that
the Protestant Vs Catholic battle went on for ages and no one was willing
to accept the other whereas some Indian kings are known for allowing the
practice of multiple religio ns in their kingdoms).
In the novel, Forster takes both the races to present the inequality in
income, the misconception, and the disparity. By portraying the character
of a traditional Hindu professor Godbole, the author is depicting class
consciousness through the Varna system and caste. Whereas, Aziz, a
Muslim who believes that all humans are equal because all are children of
Adam believes that all races are equal also. In doing so, he may be liberal
minded, but his emotional mindset dominates his logic which throws his
status down as the West, again dominates as it believes itself to be the
more intellectual of the two.
Therefore, through the novel we can see that overall, the race creates two
significant classes – Colonizers and Colonized.Hence, the ex ploitation of
the lower classes is deeply interwoven with the concept of race in the
novel. There may be a Varna system and an intellectual vs emotional
system to create a pyramid but the biggest binaries which enable the class
consciousness and exploitati on is through the Colonizer Vs Colonized
relation.
12.6 CONCLUSION
It is obvious that Forster is condemning the racist beliefs of the both the
races about the other. He can be easily called a liberal. The plot is well -
structured as well.The author is tryin g to advocate for ethnic harmony.
The long -extended significances of metaphors, settings, characters,
themes, etc. depicts a story beyond the superficial tones. Godbole’s
peaceful beliefs signifies the most underlyingmoral from the novel – peace
beyond rel igion, race, caste, etc. We can see that the belief in humanity is
apparent through Fielding’s and Aziz’s friendship and the factor it
threatens it is the belief of freedom. That’s where the novel ends – that no munotes.in

Page 99

Critical study of a passage
to India by E.M. Forster
99 amount of friendship can be true unless ther e exists equality and equal
amount of freedom for all. Forster putting two differently racial characters
together was unique and it was one of the first steps in the activism for
peace and brotherhood. Racism still exists today but the only reason two
interracial people can be friends and still live without judgement in the
world was because of Literature like this. This book along with some
others like Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad, became the light in the
dark tunnel of racism.




munotes.in