MA-English-Semester-IV-Paper-I-C-Research-Methodology-munotes

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KEY CONCEPTS -I
Unit Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Investigation
1.3 Exploration
1.4 Examination
1.5 Analysis
1.6 Hypothesis and Problem Statement
1.7 Methods and Modes of Research
1.8 Conclusion and Important Questions
1.9 References
1.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit the researcher will be able to:
1. Understand and use the techniques like investigation, exploration,
examination and analysis to begin the research project and use them
whenever needed in the process of researc h.
2. Formulate a problem statement and hypothesis
3. Understand the methods and modes of research
1.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter aims at an introduction to the basic structure of research.
Irrespective of its volume or quantity, in terms of word count, research
entails investigation, exploration, examination and analysis. After deciding
upon a research project the researcher has to start with the background
research. The cluster of processes mentioned above begins with a research
problem or a research question or to make it simple a question emerging
out of the curiosity of the researcher. This research question has to be
followed with a hypothetical answer/s and the researcher has to arrive at
these hypothetical answers using a method or several methods and modes
of research. What follows in this chapter is an attempt at getting
acquainted with these technical terms and processes of undertaking a
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2 1.2 INVESTIGATION
Research in literary studies particularly depends more on the researcher’s
involv ement in finding out the answers to her/his curiosities or the
research problem. There is no specific method or way in which research
can be undertaken in literary studies. It is like a treasure hunt and one has
to come up with novel ways of finding out an swers to satiate academic
curiosity. Research is undertaken with the purpose of fulfilling curiosity or
acquiring knowledge in a specific field and pursuing investigation for a
well-informed action. As a researcher when one begins to define the
research pr oblem one has to take important decisions at the initial stages
of the research. The first thing the researcher has to do is to investigate the
feasibility of the research problem and the entire research project. Now
this investigation operates at various levels like is it possible to conduct
research in the given material conditions for example the availability of
research material and other resources.
Imagine that a researcher wants to study GirishKarnad’s plays and is
curious about the role of myths in his writings. If the researcher has to
have access to these myths and to be more precise in Kannada language it
becomes a point to be investigated. The researcher has to investigate the
availability of myths in English or has to find a translator who can
translate the myths available in Kannada into English. The feasibility of
the research problem is one more important aspect. The possibility of
finding answers to the research problem has to be there. In fact, it is
possible to say that the formulation of a research problem and the
investigation of the research problem go hand in hand. The research
problem is shaped by the investigation. Once the researcher decides upon
a research project s/he has to do background research. Background
research helps the rese archer to be more familiar with the topic and field
of research. The researcher has to conduct primary research which
involves the study of the subject or field using first -hand observation and
investigation techniques. Observation and investigation would be used
throughout the research process but at the beginning, it is important while
conducting primary research particularly when there isn’t much previously
published material is available.
The investigation at the beginning has to look out for the alrea dy existing
body of research on similar research questions or the topics that come
close to your research question. Again, to explicate this point further let us
have a look at the example cited above. There is ample material available,
already conducted r esearch or research papers and books written, on
GirishKarnad’s writings. Whereas an author as new as MajaLunde who
has written this interesting novel, The History of Bees may not have lot of
already existing body of literature. The possible theoretical fr ameworks
also need to be verified as they become the research project's major
defining aspect. “The History of Bees” for example can be studied from
the point of view of ecocriticism. One also has to investigate the best
possible method or combination of m ethods to be used for undertaking the
research. For example, a student of literature wants to study the film munotes.in

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Key Concepts -I
3 adaptations of William Shakespeare’s plays. While working on this
research project the student has to first investigate the feasibility of this
idea. Shakespeare’s plays have been adapted into various cultures and
languages. The researcher has to focus on one particular culture, language
or country and choose film adaptations from that focused area. The
researcher also has to investigate similar kind s of attempts at writing
research projects, research papers, and theses written for the M.Phil or
Ph.D degrees by other researchers.
This investigation becomes important for the researcher to use an
approach or a theoretical framework to study the film ad aptations and
issues of concern to be addressed in the film texts. For example, it is
possible to study film adaptations of Shakespeare’s plays by the filmmaker
Vishal Bharadwaj. The treatment of female characters in his films can be
studied using feminist literary theory. The adaptation process itself can be
studied using frameworks like translation theory, film theory and linguistic
approaches. This investigation needs to be carried out.
While describing the approach of the book Michael Pickering in the
Introduction to Research Methods for Cultural Studies (2008) states, “Its
general philosophy is pluralist in that it advocates using mixed methods
taking an eclectic approach to research topics rather than confining
research activity to any single avenue o f investigation.” (4). Thus, first -
hand observation and investigation are important for primary research at
the beginning of research project.
1.3 EXPLORATION
Exploratory research or exploration refers to systematic data collection to
maximize the discove ry of generalizations based on the description and
direct understanding of the subject under study. As Robert Stebbins puts
it, for social sciences it is both a special methodological approach that is
distinct from, “…verification or confirmation, and a pe rvasive personal
orientation of the exploratory researcher.” (327).
A researcher has to explore when s/he possesses little or no scientific or
detailed knowledge about the subject of study but believes that it contains
elements that are worth studying. Wh ile exploring the subject the
researcher has to have an open mind and flexibility in looking for the
outcomes. Now, this exploration can be looking for primary sources or
secondary sources in various libraries or it can be focused on close reading
of the t exts and looking for new dimensions of the issues that are central to
the study. For example, the categorization of books according to the
genres in libraries or bookshops can be studied better with the help of
exploration. The first step in exploration wo uld be acquiring an intimate
firsthand understanding of the primary texts, data, or sources. The most
effective approach for this would be to use any ethical method to explore
to reach a certain understanding of the research topic.
The goal of the explor ation is the inductively derived generalizations
about the text or the field of study. These generalizations are then by munotes.in

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4 researcher weaved into theory. The example we brushed upon earlier of
the categorization of genres and books in libraries can be studie d using
inductive methods and the generalizations can be weaved into the theory
of cultural capital and habitus propounded by Pierre Bourdieu. The
reading practices of a certain social group can be analyzed using
exploration where the record of the readers and books they read can be
explored. Such records are easily available with the libraries or the
bookshops from which the books are bought. These readers can be
interviewed for the genres they like to read. The same can be done for a
particular author and the texts s/he has written. A close reading of his/her
literature would reveal a lot about the writing style of that author. The
stylistic analysis of literature too can be an outcome of the exploration.
For literary and language studies exploration can w ork the way it works
for social sciences. The importance of the English language for a certain
social group can be studied using exploration.
1.4 EXAMINATION
The Oxford Learner’s Dictionary defines the word examination as, “the
act of looking at or consid ering something very carefully”. In the research
process, one has to examine many aspects. To begin with, one has to
examine the potential of the research topic the research question; whether
it is possible to conduct research on the given topic. One would also want
to examine the availability of the primary data as well as secondary data
and that would be the availability of books and reading material in the
libraries and online resources. Apart from this, the researcher has to
examine the hypothesis throu ghout the research process. The study's
findings may prove the hypothesis right or go against it.
As far as the study of literature is concerned examination means having a
closer look at the theme, characters, language (literary devices) and
structure of the literary text. One might also want to examine carefully the
socio -economic context of the narrative as well as the time of the
publication of the book. The life of the author is also examined for a better
understanding of the text. Charles Dickens’ nov els for example have been
studied using autobiographical as well as Marxist approach. For the study
of language or in a specialized branch like linguistics and pragmatics
examination would cover many aspects. It is possible to examine the
influence of the first language on the speaker of English as a second or
third language. The methods of language teaching and learning in
classroom situations can be examined. Examination, as an element of
research, is important and has to be used throughout the research p rocess.
1.5 ANALYSIS
The Oxford Learner’s Dictionary defines the word analysis as, “the
detailed study or examination of something in order to understand more
about it; the result of the study”. While conducting the research analysis is
used by a researcher to reach the findings. The methodologies and
methods of research impact the ways of analysis. In the study of literature,
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5 and analysis. While interpretation is more drive n by an individual’s belief
system, an analysis of a literary text can be considered to be a more
scientific way of explicating a text. However, it is possible to say that the
results of the analysis help the researcher to make interpretive statements
that follow the line of the hypothesis or go against it. The results of the
analysis, for example as a result of close reading of a text, can be treated
as data that has to be further analysed using various methodologies or the
methodology that one wants to ad opt to reach the findings.
There are various methodologies and approaches that we can use for the
analysis; Marxist, Feminist, Structuralist, Post -Structuralist to cite a few
examples. However, close reading of the text remains a common method
to undertak e literary research. The novel series Harry Potter can be
analysed using structuralist approach. The binary of good and evil is
manifest in the characters that allow the muggles to enter the world of
magic and the characters that hate the common human bein gs and want the
pure blood magicians to have the world of magic for themselves. Now
there are other binaries that exist in the novel series. Master and slave is
one binary that is prominent through the magical human beings as masters
and house elves as sla ves. Now this analysis can easily be interpreted as a
reference to the racism that exists in the western countries or a country
like United States of America. An interpretative risk can be taken here to
stretch this metaphor to the caste system that exists in India.
1.6 HYPOTHESIS AND PROBLEM STATEMENT
Problem statement is the main idea of the research project a question to
which you look for answers through the process of research. Your research
project attempts to find ways of answering the problem statement.
Usually, the answers to the problem statement would have sub questions
and the answers to all these questions would be stated in the conclusion of
the research project. The problem statement has to be worded carefully
mostly using te chnical terminology. The questions are related specifically
to the research project and include what is to be studied and ways of study.
These ways of study are known as research methods and theories. The
problem statement describes the research problem or research question as
well as entails explanation of the problem.
The research problem operates as a guiding tool for the research process.
The problem statement helps to focus and define the data collection,
primary research and methods to be used. It he lps in focusing on the
essential tasks and saves you from going off the track. There is always a
possibility of revising the problem statement as you may come across new
information that adds new dimension to the research undertaken. There
has to be a cert ain relationship between the problem statement and your
conclusion the answers to the problem statement. Your research between
the problem statement and conclusion is the exercise of looking for the
answers to the problem statement. You have to make sure t hat the answers
to your problem statement should add something to the academic subject
or field. You should make sure that your problem statement is relevant.
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6 Hypothesis
A theoretical explanation of a problem statement is called hypothesis. The
hypothes is is a causal explanation or a tentative and preliminary answer to
the problem statement. It is derived from the preliminary observations of
the already existing literature on problem statements or the field of
research. It can be tested through the preli minary study or analysis and
experiment. The hypothesis can be rejected or confirmed. A hypothesis
can also be treated as a prediction of the findings you would state in the
conclusion of your research. In the case of qualitative research, a
hypothesis is presented when there is prior research available in the same
field or the same topic and it enables you to make predictions. While
developing a hypothesis one should take the following steps:
a. the research question should be the focus of the hypothesis and an
attempt at finding a possible tentative answer should be made.
b. the tentative answer should be based on what is already known about
the topic.
c. you should formulate the hypothesis with some idea of what you
might find.
1.7 METHODS AND MODES OF RESEAR CH
A research method, to put it simply, is how we do what we do and why.
Generally, the term ‘methods’ is used interchangeably with
methodologies. Here we are concerned with “methods” that is strategies,
techniques or processes used for data collection and analysis to unearth
new information or create new ways of comprehending a topic.
Gabriele Griffin states, “Whilst research methods are concerned with how
you conduct a given piece of research, methodologies are concerned with
the perspectives you bring to bear on your work such as a feminist or a
postcolonialist one” (6). He points out the difference between research
skills, research methods and research methodologies. Being able to read
medieval script or the ability to use computers, and being able to co nduct
interviews are important research skills. In this section our focus is on
research methods.
Research Methods are roughly divided into two sections that are
quantitative and qualitative research. Quantitative research deals with
numbers and statistics . Quantitative methods measure variables and test
hypotheses systematically. Qualitative research deals with meanings and
words and allows us to explore experiences and concepts in greater detail.
Quantitative research uses methods from natural sciences th at produce
numerical data and hard facts and establish a logical relationship between
variables. It uses mathematical, computational and statistical methods to
do so. It is also known as empirical research as it can be precisely
measured. With quantitative research tables and graphs can be constructed
of raw data.
Qualitative research on the other hand is unstructured and exploratory and
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7 research methods. However, it can generate id eas for quantitative research
later. It is generally used to get a detailed understanding of human
operations in society, behaviour, experiences, motivations and attitudes to
get insights into the way humans feel and think. The basis for this
understanding is observation and interpretation.
Quantitative Research Qualitative Research  Scientific and empirical
research method
 generates numerical data and
uses logical, statistical and
mathematical technique.  Method of inquiry that helps
to develop an understa nding
of human and social sciences.  Particularistic in nature  Holistic in nature  The researcher is neutral or
less involved and precise
observations and analysis are
expected on the topic.  Uses a subjective approach as
the researcher is intimately
involv ed  Quantitative research is
conclusive  Qualitative research is
exploratory  Uses deduction  Uses induction  Random sampling with a
large representative sample is
chosen to deduce the results  Purposive sampling with a
small sample size to get a
thorough und erstanding

Observation, Participant Observation, Systematic and Structured forms of
observation, Interviews, and multimedia documentation are some of the
other methods that are prominently used in humanities in general.
Antconc
‘Antconc is a freeware cor pus analysis toolkit for concordancing and text
analysis.’ (Lawrence Anthony’s Website). As a tool, Antconccan be used
to find out how many times a certain phrase or a word appears in a literary
text. For example, in J.K. Rawling’sfirst novel, “Harry Potte r and the
Sorcerer’s Stone” the word ‘master’ appears eight times. But the word
‘master’ appears more frequently in the consequent novels in the series. It
is possible to analyse quantitatively with which other words the word
master is associated. Various word clusters and their frequency can be
measured using Antconc and can be further analysed using any other
methodology. It is mostly suggested to use a mixed method approach to
undertake research. As we have seen at the beginning, research is an
evolving process till one reaches the findings. Thus, all the terms that we
have tried to explore in this unit have to be tested by the researcher with munotes.in

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8 their own unique research problems and with an attempt to find answers to
them.
1.8 IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. What is investigation in the research process and what is its
importance?
2. How does exploration helps to shape the research project?
3. Describe why examination and analysis are important to reach the
findings of the research.
4. What care should be taken while f ormulating a hypothesis?
5. Why is hypothesis an important aspect of research?
6. Is it possible to state that problem statement makes the research what
it is?
7. What is a method in the research process?
8. What is the difference between tools, methods and methodolog ies in
the research process?
1.9 REFERENCES
1. Baxter L, Hughes C, and Tight M. How to Research , Open
University Press, London, 2006.
2. Correa, Delia, and W Owens eds. The Handbook of Literary
Research , Routledge, 1998.
3. Dawson, Catherine. Practical Research M ethods , How To Books,
UK, 2002.
4. Denzin, Norman and YvonnaLoncolneds. The Sage Handbook of
Qualitative Research , Sage, Los Angeles, 2018.
5. Gambrell Patricia. “A Practitioner's Guide to Research Methods.”
FOURTH QUARTER NOVEMBER 1992, Vol. 39, No. 4. 1992, p p.
582-591. Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/43090167
6. Given, Lisa ed. The Sage Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research
Methods , Sage, USA, 2008.
7. Griffin, Gabriele. Research Methods for English Studie s. Edinburgh
University Press, Edinburgh, 2005.
8. Pickering, Michael ed. Research Methods for Cultural Studies ,
Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, 2008.
Websites :
 https://eduvoice.in/types -research -methodology/
 https://www.scribbr.com/category/methodology/
 https://guides.lib.vt.edu/researchmethods/design -method
 https://libraryguides.mcgill.ca/text -mining/AntConc
 https://www.laurenceanthony.net/software/antconc/

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KEY CONCEPTS -II
Unit Structure :
2.0 Objectives of the unit
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Data Analysis (Collection and Classification)
2.3 Reference Lists and Footnotes
2.4 Quotations and Citation
2.5 Bibliography / Appendix / Appendices
2.6 To Sum up
2.7 References
2.8 Questions on the Unit
2.0 OBJECTIVES OF THE UNIT
1. To acquaint students to some key concepts in research methodology.
2. To orient them to the skills of data collection and data analysis.
3. To develop their academic reference skills (research skills).
4. To acquaint them to the ways of documenting sources.
5. To develop their academic writing skills.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit - Key Concepts I - you were acquainted to
1. Investigation, exploration, examination, analysis
2. Hypothesis and Problem Statement
3. Methods and Modes of Research.
In this unit we will see the following key concepts.
4. Data Analysis (Collection and Classification)
5. Reference Lists and Footnotes
6. Quotations and Citation
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10 The postgraduate students are new to university libraries which are different from
their college libraries. They visit libraries in search of reference books for their
research projects. The students may have difficulties while using open access
academic libraries. They have to locate books and journals with or without help of
the support staff at the Knowledge Resource Centres (KRCs). The students also
need some training in writing their research projects at the post -graduation level.
The studen ts seeking education through distance mode also need to visit libraries
during and after their post -graduation, if they pursue research degrees. This unit
tries to cater to their present and future needs. The purpose of this unit is to enhance
their academ ic reference skills (or research skills).
The academic reference skills can be broadly divided into two parts, viz. using a
library and giving references in a research work. The skills required in using a
library are understanding classification system in a library and using a library
catalogue (subject and author) and Online Public Access Catalogues (OPAC) to
find out required information quickly. The skill of giving references in a project
report / research paper / thesis includes referencing – citation / acknowledgement of
sources, writing footnotes, writing a bibliography, etc. (also see Jordan, 1997).
2.2 DATA ANALYSIS (COLLECTION AND
CLASSIFICATION)
Data Collection
a) Visit to a library:
The postgraduate student or research scholar needs to collect r elevant data for their
research projects by visiting academic libraries (KRCs). Nowadays the KRCs are
partly or fully automatized. The researchers need to be trained for the retrieval of
information from bibliographical databases and effective use of OPAC .
Fig. 2.1 – Web -OPAC at Osmania University Library

(Source: http://14.139.82.46:8080/newgenlibctxt/ )

In the open access libraries to search physically and find the reference books and
journals requ ired for the research topics, the postgraduate teachers and research
supervisors may guide the students. The director and support staff (knowledge munotes.in

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11 workers) at KRCs also help library users to locate the required references. A user
needs to know how referenc e materials are arranged and cataloged. S/he should try
to understand the classification system used at the KRC like Dewey Decimal
system and the Colon system. Besides, there are different sections in a library –
catalogues, new arrivals, lending section, reference section, periodical section, stack
room. Periodical section and reference section are more useful to a researcher.
These sections of a library generally have reference sources like dictionaries,
thesauruses, glossaries, encyclopedias, compendium s, bibliographies, indexes,
journals, theses and dissertations and other reference books in print forms. Some of
these reference sources are not for home -lending. A researcher has to refer to them
in the reference section of the KRC, read and make notes. T hey should record
author’s surname and first name; title of the book, journal, research paper and
publication details – year and place of publication and the publisher.
Besides films, CDs and DVDs, the above mentioned resources are available in
electronic forms on databases like N -List and DELNET. Apart from soft copies of
books and journals, one may also get Electronic Theses and Dissertations (ETDs)
on web portals like Shodhganga and ProQuest, to name a few. Here it is necessary
to keep the record of d ownloads like date of retrieval and web address.
b) Locating reference books and journals
When the researchers locate the required reference source, they should be aware of
how to search the specific references. For instance, their acquaintance with the parts
of a book like the title page, rear page of the title page with publication details, table
of contents, preface, foreword or introduction, glossary, appendix, index and the
jacket. Here it is essential to know the difference between ‘contents’ and ‘index’ .
The former is in the beginning of a book whereas the latter is at the end of a book.
Self-Check
1. A list of topics arranged in a sequential manner given in the beginning of a book
is ______.
a) index
b) contents
c) appendix
d) glossary
2. State the print refere nce sources you will use to get the following information:
a. To know the frequency of words used in Annual Union Budget
b. To find out the date of Birth Annive rsary of William Wordsworth

c. To know the causes of the French Revolution
d. To know the meani ng of the word ‘style’ in Marathi
e. To know the edition of a book
3. Where would you find the following information about a book?
a) The year of publication of the book
b) The purpose for which the book has been written
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12 d) A list of explanations of words used in a book
e) Extracts of the reviews about the book
Classification of Data
The data collected by visiting a library are from secondary sources. It helps mainly
to review the previous studies on the area of research topic. The data collected and
published by authorities other than the researcher is found in secondary sources like
books, journals, periodicals, theses, newspapers, reports, records, publications, etc.
It helps a researcher to supp ort arguments in the research report. It is known as
secondary data. It is in print and electronic forms. In addition to library visits, data
is also collected through websites, social media and personal communication.
In the researches related to langua ge, based on the secondary sources, a researcher
collects data through classroom observation, pre -tests and post -tests, questionnaires
and structured interviews. This data is known as primary data. In the studies related
to literature, the literary works s elected for the research, autobiography of the
author selected for the study, his / her letters form the primary sources of data
collection. Thus, experimental and survey methods are used for data collection in
language studies.
Data Analysis
The data c ollected through online and offline, primary and secondary sources, is to
be classified and analysed systematically as per the chapters of the project. For the
convenience of research the data can be classified into different groups on the basis
of chronol ogy, geographical location, attributes like gender, major and minor
characters, etc. For instance, the previous studies on the topic are to be reviewed in
the section ‘Literature Review’ can be arranged according to their year of
publication or country of publication.
The analysis of data is the main part of a research report. The results of the research
work are based on analysis of the data. In literary studies, it is interpretation of the
select literary texts. In a research based on language studies, the data collected is to
be presented in a tabular form. It helps researcher to analyze it with the help of
appropriate statistical techniques, if needed. The next stage in research is to write /
present the research report.
2.3 REFERENCE LISTS ANDFOOTNOT ES
Documentation
A researcher uses different print and electronic sources during their research work.
In the support of their argument, they refer to or cite quotations, opinions or
observations of other researchers. The researchers should not present ot hers
thoughts and ideas as their own.
A researcher needs to acknowledge the sources and other researchers they have
referred to in the form of reference list and footnotes. Reference lists and footnotes
are nothing but a faithful rec ord of others’ findings and observations. The
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13 known as documentation. Documentation is a vital component of a research report.
It saves the researcher from plagiarism.
Footnotes
The sources like books, research papers and theses are quoted in the main text of
the research report by the researcher, in support of their arguments. In order to help
the reader of the research report, the details of the reference quoted are provided by
the researcher at the bottom of the same page. It is called as footnote. In the
footnote the full name of the author is given with first name followed by the
surname and year of publication. The title of source, place of publication and page
number(s) are a lso mentioned. If there are more references on the same page these
are numbered and in the footnotes the sources are mentioned sequentially. There is
single spacing used in the footnotes. Some researchers also use endnotes. Endnotes
are given at the end of the research paper or chapter of a thesis. Microsoft word has
provision for the both.
Fig. 2.2 – Difference between Footnote and Endnote


Reference Lists
Some researchers avoid footnotes and prefer to provide full details of the sources
referred to i n the reference list given at the end of the report / paper / thesis.
References are arranged in alphabetical order with the first mention of the surname
of the author followed by the initials or his/her first name and year of publication.
The difference b etween a footnote entry and an entry in a reference list can be seen
in the following table.



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14 Table 2.1 Difference between a footnote entry and an entry in a reference list
Footnote Reference List S. Krishna Bhatta, Indian English Drama: A Critical
Study (New Delhi: Sterling
Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 1987), p. 186. Bhatta, S. K. Indian English Drama: A Critical Study . New
Delhi: Sterling Publishers Pvt.
Ltd., 1987.
Abbreviations used in footnotes and reference lists
A researcher has to use abbreviations in their research project / paper / thesis. Along
with the main text, abbreviations are used in footnotes and references. Two
examples have been given below.
a) ‘Ibid’ is a Latin abbreviation which means ‘the same’. It is used in footnote to
refer to the same work and reference that precedes it.
3 S. Krishna Bhatta, Indian English Drama: A Critical Study (New Delhi: Sterling
Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 1987), p. 186.
6 Ibid. p. 186 (This means the same work and the same page as above i.e. '4').
8 Ibid, p. 189 (This means the work is same as above but the page number is
different).
b) We may see one more Latin abbreviation – ‘Op. cit.’. It means another
reference has been ma de to the same work on the same page but not consecutively.
4 Joseph, Gibaldi. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers . (New Delhi:
East- West Press, 2000), p. 64.
5 S. Krishna Bhatta, Indian English Drama: A Critical Study (New Delhi: Sterling
Publish ers Pvt. Ltd., 1987), p. 186.
7 Gibaldi, op. cit p. 96.
In the second example 7 refers to the same reference as 4, only the page numbers
are different.







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15 Table 2.2 Some Common Abbreviations used in research
Abbreviations Full forms Abbreviations Full forms
Anon
ed.
et al.
ibid
loc. cit.
n.p. anonymous
edited by
and others
in the same place
in the place cited
publication not
known op. cit.
pp.
trans.
sic.
viz.
vol. in the work cited
pages
translation
inaccuracy in the
source work
namely
volume
Here we have seen use of conventions related to references and footnotes in a
research report. We will see what bibliography is in 2.5.
2.4 QUOTATIONS AND CITATION
In-text references and reference list
During and after their library visit, a researche r makes notes to quote the passages /
points that s/he feels relevant to the area of his / her study. While writing the
research report a researcher has to cite the points / views of others to support the
researcher’s argument. These borrowings are mainly of three kinds. Firstly, a
researcher generally reproduces the view of the other researcher and it is kept
within quotes. Secondly, a researcher paraphrases the view of the other researcher.
Thirdly, they make a brief summary of a lengthy passage from a source they come
across.
When the points or quotations are mentioned in the main text of the research report
it is called ‘In -text reference’ and the full details of the source quoted are given at
the end of the research paper / thesis in the form of ‘ref erence list’.
In the main text of the report the surname of the author and the year of publication
of thesource is given in the round brackets, e.g. (Gibaldi, 2021). When few
sentences are quoted from a source, the page number(s) are also noted, e.g. (Bh att,
1987:186). Deshpande (2007) mentions,
when the quotation is less than four typed lines it is usually given in the usual
running matter, but if it is more than four lines it is typed with indent, that means
rather away from the left margin in order to make it distinct to the eye. ... In such a
case the passage is typed double space without quotation marks. The long quotation
is indented ten spaces from the left margin (Deshpande, 2007: 129).
The reference list given at the end of a research report i s arranged alphabetically.
The entries begin with the surname of the authors cited in the main text of the
report. Along with the title of the source, the year and place of publication and the
name of the publisher are given in the list. We will ‘reference s’ in 2.5. munotes.in

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16 Style manuals
There is a system to cite views of others. It is known as referencing. Three style
manuals are mainly preferred for referencing. The first is by Modern Language
Association of America (MLA), the second is by American Psychological
Association (APA) and the third is Chicago Manual of Style (CMS) . These are not
the only style manuals used to cite borrowings of others in research reports. The
styles of citation are subject -specific, university -specific and journal -specific. The
MLA st yle sheet is mostly used in Humanities whereas APA is followed in Social
Sciences. In literary studies MLA style of referencing is used while in language
studies and studies related to education APA style is used. There are differences in
these styles in ‘in-text references’ and ‘reference list’.
‘In-text references’ in these style manuals are given below.
MLA – (Deshpande 129)
APA – (Deshpande, 2007, p. 129)
CMS – (Deshpande 2007, 129)
The following examples are of entries in the ‘References’ of a res earch report.
MLA –
Chindhade, Shirish and Ashok Thorat. An Introduction toResearch: The Rudiments
of Literary Research . New Delhi: Foundation Books, 2009. Print.
APA –
Chindhade, S. and Thorat, A. (2009). An Introduction toResearch: The Rudiments of
Liter ary Research . New Delhi, Foundation Books.
CMS –
Chindhade, Shirish and Ashok Thorat. An Introduction toResearch: The Rudiments
of Literary Research . New Delhi: Foundation Books, 2009.
The researchers may refer to the Purdue OWL citation chart to know the similarities
and differences in style manuals. The web link is given in the references of this unit.
The styles of citations are different for different sources. The way in which books
with single author are cited, same is not the way to cite journal artic les. There are
different ways to cite newspapers, television programmes, personal e -mails and
non-print sources like interviews, to name a few. To know how to cite online
sources also see the ‘References’ of this unit.



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17 Table 2.3 Citing Electronic Sourc es
Article in an online journal An online book Dawe, James. “A Study of Female Characters in Jane
Austen’s Novels.” Literary
Review. 31:2 (1998). 81 -89. 15
May 1998.
awe/ austen.html > Austen, Jane . Pride and Prejudice . http://www.pemberley.com/janeinf
o/ pridprej.html , 1998. Web. 10
Sept. 1998.


However, sometimes there are constraints in citing the sources, if these are not
mentioned in these style manuals, for instance, a postgraduate student may have to
give a thought if they have to cite SLMs or guides ( kunjis in Hindi) as the latter may
not be available in academic libra ries and the year of publication is not printed and
even the names of authors are imaginary / pseudo.
Self-check
4. __________ is not a reference style.
a) APA
b) ABP
c) MLA
d) Turabian
2.5 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND APPENDIX / APPENDICES
In research studies in English langu age and literature ‘Appendices’ and
‘Bibliography’ are the important sections in the final part of a project report /
research paper / thesis.
Appendix / Appendices
At the end of the project report / research paper / thesis the researcher has to
provide da ta / information which is part of the research work but could not be
included in the main text. This section is known as ‘Appendix’. Its plural form is
‘Appendices’. The section is generally placed after the conclusion and it precedes
the bibliography or list of references or works cited.
Appendices includes the information / data that is relevant and supplementary to the
main text. Sometimes the information which is lengthy and not fit in the main part
of the research report, finds a place in the Appendi ces. So as to avoid any
distraction or break in the narrative flow of main text of the research report, it is
necessary to shift non -essential information to the Appendices. The material
included in this section helps to understand the research work proper ly. In case, the
supporting material is removed it doesn’t hinder the comprehension of the research
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18 Appendices include the letters used to seek permission to conduct research project,
emails sent for the purpose of data collection, schedule of visi ts for data collection,
places visited to collect data, notes of visits, tools of data collection like interview
scripts and questionnaires. Supporting materials like figures, diagrams, tables,
graphs, charts, maps, photographs, etc. are presented in the s equence in which they
appear in the main text of the research report but are numbered separately. Each
supporting document is mentioned on a new page. The researcher has to prepare a
table of contents of the appendices. See the example of appendices of a PhD thesis
given on the next page.
Table 2.4 Appendices of a PhD Thesis
APPENDICES
Contents Page No.
Papers offered for BA (Special English) course study
during 1993 -94 to 2007 -08 in the universities
selected for present study 287
Table 4. 1 Papers offered in the University of Mumbai (UoM)
for B.A. English
(Major) during 1993 -94 to 2006 -07) 287
Table 4.2 Papers offered in the University of Pune (UoP) for
B.A. (English
Special) during 1993 -94 to 2007 -08 288
Table 4.3 Papers offered i n Shivaji University, Kolhapur
(SUK) for B.A. English
(Special) during 1996 -97 to 2006 -07) 288
Documents of existing syllabi in the universities selected
for present study 289
Papers offered for BA (Special English) course in other
universities in Ma harashtra, states neighbouring
Maharashtra and in other Indian states 365
Table 4.4 B.A. (English) course in other Universities in
Maharashtra 365
Table 4.5 B.A. (English) course in Universities from the
states neighbouring M.S. 366
Table 4.6 (A) B.A. (English) courses in some Indian
universities 367
Table 4 (A) The frequency of imperative words used in the
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19 offered in the universities selected 368
Table 4 (B) Question patter n of papers IV, VII and VIII
offered in TYBA in the UoM 369
Table 4 (C) (i) Question pattern of papers G -II, S-I and S -II
offered in SYBA (UoP) 370
Table 4 (C) (ii) Question pattern of papers G -II, S-I and S -II
offered in SYBA (UoP) 370
Table 4 (D) Qu estion pattern of papers V, VI and VII offered
in TYBA in SUK 371
Table 4 (E) The questions words used in the ten question
papers of Special English 372
Table 4 (F) The question words used in the question papers
of Special English 373
Questionnaires
1. Questionnaire for Students 374
2. Questionnaire for Teachers of Special English 379
3. Questionnaire for Subject Experts 384
4. Questionnaire for Employers 387
Table 5 (A) Languages known by students 389
Table 5 (B) Students’ observation on teaching methods 390
Table 5 (C) Students’ preferences to career – responses to
any other field 391
Table 5 (D) Classification of suggestions from the students 392
Table 5 (E) Teachers preferences to teaching methods 394
Table 5 (F) Classification of the suggestions by the teachers 395
Table 5 (G) Classification of suggestions by the subject
experts 396
The colleges mentioned in Table 6.1 a) of Chapter VI and
their Code numbers 397
The colleges mentioned in Table 6.1 b) of Chapter VI 398
(Source: Tasildar, 2013)

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20 Bibliography
Any research work ends with ‘References’ or ‘Bibliography’. Though in both
resources are arranged in the alphabetical order, there is difference in ‘References’
and ‘Bibliography’. Microsof t Word can help a researcher to know the difference.
Fig. 2.3 – Difference between References and Bibliography

‘References’ includes only those print and non -print reference sources like books,
research papers, conference presentations, various reports, websites, e -mails, films,
newspaper articles, radio and television programmes, interviews which have been
referred to in the main text of the project report / research paper / thesis. The other
title for ‘References’ is ‘Works Cited’. A ‘bibliography’ is a list of all the published
and unpublished references like books, research papers, conference presentations,
various reports, interviews, websites, e -mails, films, newspaper articles, radio and
television programmes that were consulted for the research wo rk but not cited in the
project report / research paper / thesis. Hence bibliography is also known by titles
like ‘Works Consulted’. When a research includes (not all but) only some of the
works consulted for the study in the list it is known as ‘Select Bibliography’.
A researcher can use Microsoft Word to write a bibliography.
Fig. 2.4 – Writing a Bibliography


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21 Here is an example of a bibliographic entry of a book in MLA style sheet.
Rengachari, S. and SulochanaRangachari. Research Methodology for E nglish
Literature ,
Bareily, Prakash Book Deport, 2001.
Self-check
5. __________ is not included in the ‘Appendix’ section.
a) Letter of permission to collect data for the research
b) Questionnaire used for the research project
c) Bibliography
d) Tests used for the re search work
6. __________ is the section consisting of a list of books consulted for the research
work.
a)
b) Bibliography
c) Compendium
d) References
7. A list of sources on the subject of an article, not just the ones that have been
cited in a
research paper is _________.
a) footnote
b) references
c) bibliography
d) endnote
8. Name the style sheet used in 2.7 References of this unit.
2.6 TO SUM UP
In this unit some key concepts useful for documenting research were discussed.
These included how to use an academic library effectively and how to cite
references in a research work. These concepts are to be used according to the
sections of a research report, e.g. ‘References’ or ‘Bibliography’ should be placed at
the end of the project work/ research paper / thesis. It is be tter to follow the latest
edition of the style sheet. However, it is better to avoid ‘Select Bibliography’ from
the books on research methodology as these books violate the norms mentioned in
the book itself.



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22 2.7 REFERENCES
Deshpande, H.V. (2007). Research in Literature and Language: Philosophy, Areas
and Methodology .Pathan: SukhadaKaurabhPrakashan.
Jordan, R. R. (1997). English for Academic Purposes: A guide and resource book
for teachers .
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Osmania University L ibrary.(n.d.).Web -OPAC. Retrieved from
http://14.139.82.46:8080/newgenlibctxt/ on November 8, 2022.
Purdue University.(n.d.).The Purdue OWL citation chart. Retrieved from
https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/using_research/documents/2
0191212CitationChart.pdf on September 18 , 2022.
Tasildar, Ravindra. (2013). A critical evaluation of the special English papers
offered at UG Level in select universities of Maharashtra State . Unpublished Ph.D.
thesis, SavitribaiPhule Pune University.
The Modern Language Association of America.(2016). MLA Handbook
Papers .Eighth E dition. New York: The Modern Language Association of America.
2.8 QUESTIONS ON THE UNIT
A] Short Answer Questions
i) Bring out the difference between the following.
a) Thesis and dissertation
b) Contents and Index
c) References and Bibliogr aphy
ii) Write a bibliographic entry of a journal article in the MLA and APA styles of
referencing.
B] Tasks
1. Refer to the syllabus document of the paper ‘Research Methodology’ offered
in Semester IV of MA English Part II at the University of Mumbai and ide ntify the
style of referencing used in ‘References’ section of the syllabus document.
Rewrite the list of resources in any other style of referencing of your choice.
2. Identify the style of referencing of the following entry in the ‘References’ and
rewrit e it in at least other two styles of referencing.
Anderson, Jonathan, Berry, Durston and Millicent Poole.(1970). Thesis and
Assignment Writing . New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Limited.
3. Use web OPEC of your university library and find out the books on the sub -
unit – Reference Lists and Footnotes.



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Key Concepts-II
23 Title of the Unit – Key Concepts
Title of the
sub-unit Author /s Title of the book Accession number
of the book Location in the
university library

Reference
Lists and
Footnotes





4. Refer to t he syllabus document of the paper ‘Research Methodology’ offered
in Semester IV of MA English Part II at the University of Mumbai and make a list
of at least five books on the Unit I, sub -unit 7 – Bibliography / Appendix /
Appendices.
Author / s. (Date of publication). Title of the Book . Place of publication:
Publisher.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Answers To Self -Check :
1. (a) Newspaper
(b) Encyclopedia
(c) Encyclopedia
(d) Marathi –English Dictionary
(e) Rear page of the title page
2. (a) Title pa ge / Rear page of the title page
(b) Introduction
(c) Contents
(d) Glossary
(e) Jacket
3. (b) contents
4. (b) ABP
5. (c) Bibliography
6. (b) Bibliography
7. (c) bibliography

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24 3
RESEARCH: TOOLS, LANGUAGE AND
PLAGIARISM
Unit Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Research Tool: Data Collection
3.3 Primary Data
3.4 Secondary Data
3.5 Research Language
3.6 Research Ethics and Plagiarism
3.7 Let us Sum up
3.8 Sugge sted Reading
3.9 Web Resources
3.10 Hints for Self -Check Exercises
3.0 OBJECTIVES
In this unit, we will learn about the three important aspects of research,
namely, the tools, use of language, academic integrity in research and
plagiarism. After readi ng this unit, we should be able to:
 Understand the difference between primary and secondary data
 Identify the modes and sources of primary and secondary data.
 Use research language effectively
 Identify some forms of plagiarism and measures to avoid pla giarism
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapters, we learned to define our research problem and
chalk out a research plan and method. In this chapter, we will learn about
the two main types of data collection, namely Primary and Secondary
Data. We wi ll elaborate on the different modes and/or methods of primary
and secondary data collection and also differentiate between primary and
secondary data and/or sources. Then, we will gain an understanding of the
three elements of research language i.e. clarit y, correctness and coherence.
Finally, we will learn about plagiarism, some forms of plagiarism and
some measures to avoid plagiarism. With the help of the illustrations and
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25 3.2 R ESEARCH TOOL: DATA COLLECTION
In this section, we will learn the three essential questions involved in data
collection – what, why and how in addition to the types of data collection.
Data collection is the process of gathering, measuring and analysing
different kinds of information with the help of standard techniques. The
aim of data collection is to help us to take informed decisions. In the
context of language studies, when we gather information about the number
of speakers of a particular language gro up, such information will help
policy makers. The decision to preserve, disseminate and educate children
in Indian languages is the result of such data collection.
There are two types of data collection – qualitative and quantitative.
Quantitative data i s numerical while qualitative data is descriptive – not
only text or words but also photos, audio and video -recordings etc. We
decide on the method of data collection based on two factors. First, we
must be clear about the nature, objective or purpose and the scope of the
research design or plan. Second, we must consider the time and resources
at our disposal. We can also classify data into primary and secondary data.
3.3 PRIMARY DATA
In this sub -section, we will explain some features of Primary Data and list
the different modes of Primary Data Collection. Primary data refers to data
that is collected for the first time by a researcher. It is considered as an
original source. It can be quantitative (numerical) or qualitative
(descriptive).
3.3.1 Language Studies
At present, the implementation of National Education Policy 2020 is under
way. NEP has called for School Education in Indian Languages and/or
mother -tongues and bilingual mode of Education at under -graduate and
post-graduate levels. If we want to study how children acquire language,
then speech samples can be a means of primary data. We can use the
observational or the experimental method of data collection.
In the observational method i.e. natural speech data collection, we can
collect speech sam ples of a speaker in a natural environment. In the past, a
researcher made notes of the speech samples in his/her diary. Such diary
notes are less reliable for we cannot verify the intonation, pronunciation,
context and structure of language.
Today, we ca n collect speech samples with the help of digital recorders -
an audio or video recording. Note that, we will need to take the
consent/permission of the speaker or the school or parents (in case of
children) to record the speech samples and images of the s peaker in a
video -recording. Audio or video recordings are useful in two ways. First,
this raw data can be preserved. Second, it can be analysed again and
reverified. Video recordings are better than audio recordings but an adult
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Research Methodology
26 In the experimental method, questions are asked to a speaker and his/her
responses are recorded. The aim of experimental method is to understand
how a speaker produces different speech patterns and understands the
principles of the language. In the next section, we will list the modes of
Primary Data in language studies.
3.3.2 Modes of collecting Primary Data
The following mind map captures the different ways of collecting primary
data in language studies:

Figure 1: Modes of Primary Data Collection
3.3.3 Literature
In the context of English Literature, primary sources include original
manuscripts like hand -written notes, records, letters, diaries, documents,
journals, memoirs; literary works/texts i.e. original works, int erviews,
testimony, speeches, numerical data, surveys, official documents, the
video performance of a play, photographs, paintings, transcripts,
government documents, empirical studies and court records etc. Some
more examples of primary data are ephemera like postage stamps, posters,
maps, advertisements, leaflets, trade cards, brochures etc.
Self-Check Exercise 1
1. What is Data Collection?
2. Why are diary notes not reliable?
3. What precautions must one take while taking a video recording of a
child?
4. How do es the observational method differ from the experimental
method?
5. List the different modes of Primary Data Collection.
6. Name any sources of Primary Data in English Literature.





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27 3.4 SECONDARY DATA
Secondary Data is not original but it is second -hand i nformation. It is data
which already exists. A previous researcher may have collected the
primary data for a specific purpose but such data can be reused for another
purpose. Primary Data which has been used once becomes Secondary
Data.
Such secondary dat a is readily available. We, as researchers, can save our
efforts, time and money when we use secondary data. We can use it for
putting forward a hypothesis for more research, and for examining trends
by comparing findings from different research studies. W hen we refer to
secondary data, we can understand the research problems better. We will
also be able to explain the gaps and limitations of previous research and
our current research.
3.4.1 Sources of Secondary Data
The sources of Secondary Data can be p ublished or unpublished data. The
published sources of Secondary Data include international publications by
foreign governments, Central Government, research, commercial and
financial institutions, reports of various committees and commissions,
newspapers and periodicals.
3.4.2 Secondary Data in Language and Literature
In language studies, the collection of audio or video recordings of oral
histories is an instance of Primary Data which is a difficult process but
reusing the audio or video recordings is a n example of Secondary Data
which is readily available.
In literature, if a novel, poem, prose or play is a primary source, then any
critical journal article or study written on that particular literary work is a
secondary source.
Secondary sources in li terature encompass biographies, research articles,
commentaries, websites etc. The summaries given in textbooks,
magazines, journals, newspapers, and blogs can be secondary sources.
Tertiary sources include Encyclopaedias, Guide books, Text Books, index,
bibliography, chronologies and almanacs. Some other secondary sources
in literature consist of textbooks, dictionaries and encyclopaedias,
biographies of famous leaders and authors, political commentaries, critical
articles and/or studies based on any autho r’s literary works.
Do visit websites like the Indian Language Data Centre (ILDC) andthe Ek
Bharat Shresta Bharat and BhashaSangham websites launched by the
Government of India for a better understanding of the initiatives taken to
create cooperation betwe en the multilingual states of India and increase
awareness regarding the 22 official languages of India at School Levels.

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Research Methodology
28 3.4.3 Difference between Primary and Secondary Data
We have listed the characteristics of Primary and Secondary Data in the
previou s sections. We will reinforce the differences in this section.
Primary Data is original. It is collected for the first time for a specific
purpose. Secondary data is data already used by previous researchers and
is drawn from secondary sources like journa ls, books, government
agencies etc. Expertise is needed in collecting Primary Data and the
process is expensive but Primary Data is more accurate. Secondary Data is
generally used for making decisions and doesn’t need much expertise. The
process is less ex pensive and less time -consuming, but Secondary Data is
also less accurate.
When we are writing a research paper, use Primary Data as foundational
materials and use Secondary Data as a supplement to the Primary Data.
Self-Check Exercise 2
1. What is Second ary Data?
2. How is Secondary Data useful to researchers?
3. List some sources which provide Secondary Data.
4. Give two points of differences between Primary and Secondary Data.
3.5 RESEARCH LANGUAGE
In this section, we will learn how to use language effective ly so that we
can easily record or document our research study in the form of a thesis,
dissertation, or research paper in a scholarly journal. We can use language
in a variety of ways. The language can be descriptive, analytical,
persuasive and/or critica l. In the research process, our language must be
precise, objective, explicit, formal and accurate.
As second -language users of English, we face some challenges as Biggs et
al. (1999) has pointed out. As second -language writers, we spend a lot of
time in the mechanics of writing. We pay more attention to sentence
construction, grammar and in findingappropriate words. These aspects are
necessary but we also must focus on meaning -generation at a higher level.
The following discussion on features of research language like clarity,
correctness, and coherence will enable we to use language effectively.
3.5.1 Clarity
Clarity in research language means writing clearly and understandably.
Our writing must inform the reader about the purpose of our research and
they must be able to respond in an understanding manner. Clarity means
writing in an easy manner so that the readers can understand the contents
of our research and not be confused.

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29
The following figure illustrates the varied features of clarity:
Figure 2: Aspects of Clarity in research writing
We can achieve clarity in our research with the following list of dos and
don’ts:
Dos Don’ts
Incorrect spellings Spell the words correctly
Grammatical errors (wrong use of
verbs, nouns, adjectives etc) Use correct grammar
Using jargon (technical or unfamiliar
language) or slang words Use familiar language or define
unfamiliar terms or words
Lack of focus in the topic Know what we want to write
Lack of organization and sequence Organize our ideas in s equence
Too many ideas in a paragraph Tackle one idea in a paragraph

We must take care to put our ideas in a logical order so that the readers
can understand what our ideas through our writing. We will confuse the
reader if we use words that are ambigu ous or if our suddenly insert a new
topic without giving the context or background. Know the rules of
grammar well. Sum up, elaborate or condense ideas without losing their
meaning. Let us ask ourselves – should we use lesser number of words or
should I el aborate further on the topic? Polish our ideas by drafting and re -
drafting and thorough proofreading.
Clarity means communicating clearly and logically. It means not forcing
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Research Methodology
30 the lin es. Writing clearly means making the meanings clear. Let us now
look at the second aspect of research writing – correctness.
3.5.2 Correctness
Correctness refers to the correct use of grammar, punctuation and spelling
in our writing. In other words, our writing must be free from errors in
grammar, punctuation and spelling. Why are these aspects of correctness
important? First, correct punctuation can convey the exact meaning of our
research. Second, accurate grammar will make our writing easier to read
and increase our credibility as a researcher.
We will have to use proper punctuation marks to indicate the pauses and
to highlight the ideas or thoughts that we have discussed in our writing.
We will just highlight some significant punctuation marks that w e must
attend to as follows:
 Use periods / full stops ( .) for statements, conditional sentences and
commands.
 Use question mark ( ?) for interrogative sentences
 Use exclamation mark ( !) for exclamations
 Use commas ( ,) in compound sentences, after introdu ctory phrases, to
set off nonessential words and between equal adjectives.
 Do a spell check and also capitalize the first letter of the first word of
every sentence and capitalize proper nouns (names) etc.
In short, by using correct punctuation we will b e able to strengthen our
arguments in our research thesis/dissertation/paper. By using incorrect
grammar, we can misrepresent our research ideas. So, observe ‘the rules’
of grammar. We must follow basic subject -verb agreement rules while
writing. We should know that a singular subject takes a singular verb and
a plural subject takes a plural verb. For instance –
The President of India plans to speak with the stakeholders of Education.
(President is singular and so the third person singular form of the verb
plan = plans)
But
The stakeholders of Education plan to speak with the President of India.
(Stakeholders is plural and so the third person plural form of the verb plan
= plan)
We must use a plural verb with compound subjects joined by ‘and’. For
instan ce,
Sachin andRohit work during the day.
When compound subjects are joined by ‘or’ thenthe verb should agree
with the subject which is closer to it. For instance,
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31 New employees or the Manager helps during the lunch hour.
We must form the plurals of most nouns by adding s to the singular form.
We must be aware of words that have special plural forms - child =
children or mouse = mice. Do check the use of commonly confused words
such as bring or take; fewer or less; it’s or its; than or then; lay or lie; lend
or borrow; there or their; to or too etc.
Our writing will become reader -friendly when we use correct spelling and
punctuation and the reading becomes faster, easier and smoother. We must
see to it that the sen tences are structured, logically formulated and
connected. By using correct punctuation and grammar, our writing
becomes error -free, objective and reliable. Let us now move on to the third
aspect of research writing i.e. coherence.
3.5.3 Coherence
The f ollowing discussion regarding coherence in language is based on the
ideas of Jack Richard (1985) and David Crystal (2008). Coherence refers
to the links between the meanings of utterance in a discourse or of the
sentences in a text. These links may be base d on the speaker’s shared
knowledge. For example:
A: ‘Could you give me a lift home?’
B: ‘Sorry, I’m visiting my sister.’
We will notice that in the above dialogue, there is no grammatical or
lexical link between A’s question (‘Could you give me a lift hom e?’) and
B’s reply (‘Sorry, I’m visiting my sister.’) but the exchange/conversation
has coherence because both A and B know that B’s sister stays in the
opposite direction to A’s home.
Our paragraph is said to be coherent if it is a series of sentences th at
develop a main idea/argument supported by topic/key sentence and other
supporting sentences which relate to it. According to Crystal David
(2008), coherence refers to the ‘main principle of organization postulated
to account for the underlying functiona l connectedness or identity of a
piece of spoken or written language’. He opines that coherence is related
to factors such as the knowledge of the world of the language user, the
inferences they make, and the assumptions they hold.
We must know that anoth er term related to coherence is ‘cohesion’
(cohesiveness). Cohesion is the syntactic or semantic connectivity of
linguistic forms at a surface -structure level of analysis. Cohesion means
the grammatical and/or lexical relationships between the different
elements of a text. This may be a relationship between sentences or parts
of a sentence. For example:
A: ‘Is Gita coming to the college?’
B: ‘Yes, she is.’ munotes.in

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Research Methodology
32 In the above dialogue, there is a link between ‘Gita’ and ‘she’ and also a
link between ‘is’ and ‘she ’.
We can use cohesion and coherence to show how a discourse/text joins
together to make a unified whole. But the terms cohesion and coherence
are not the same. In the context of research writing, cohesion relates to
the micro level of the text, i.e. the words and sentences and how they join
together while coherence relates to the organization and logical connection
of ideas/arguments. Coherence in research writing is related to the macro -
level features of a text, such as topic sentences, thesis statement, summary,
conclusion and major and minor sections used in writing.
We can increase coherence by employing scheme of chapters with
sections and sub -sections before writing our thesis. We can also check
whether the ideas/arguments are logical and organized systematically. We
can take the help of our research supervisor or fellow researchers to check
if our writing makes sense or is coherent.
Coherence is the logical relationships between words, sentences, and
paragraphs (and in overall text /content of our thesis). It can be achieved
by parallel structure between words, sentences and paragraphs. Parallel
structure is the use of similar grammatical constructions between words in
sentences. For example
Sachin likes walk ing, runn ing, and skat ing.
and NOT
Sach in likes to walk, running, and skate.
We can achieve coherence through parallel structure by using all the verbs
in the gerund form ( ing). We can develop coherence between
sentences/paragraphs through repetition of certain words across sentences
and by us ing transitional words such as 'first', 'later', 'then' or ‘thus’,
‘therefore’, ‘however’, etc.
Coherent writing connects ideas/arguments put forward with the help of
words, sentences and paragraph. So, we must read the sub -section, section
and whole cha pter of our thesis to see if it is consistent (coherent). Further,
we should read/re -read the entire thesis to see if it is consistent, coherent
and meaningful.
Summing up, research language may be considered effective if it is
concrete and not vague, conc ise and not verbose; familiar and not obscure;
precise and not ambiguous; formal and not casual. Our language in the
thesis/dissertation/research paper must accurately represent our thoughts
without confusing the readers. Finally, our writing must have
characteristics such as clarity, correctness, and coherence.

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33 Self-Check Exercise 3
1. How can one achieve clarity in research writing?
2. List down the reasons for lack of clarity in research writing.
3. Explain the concept of ‘correctness’ in research writing.
4. Explain the importance of ‘coherence’ in research writing
5. How can one achieve ‘coherence’ in their research writing?
3.6 RESEARCH ETHICS AND PLAGIARISM
Research Ethics is part of the academic integrity of a researcher. As an
ethical researcher, we can do the following:
 Whenever we are collecting any data, get informed consent from the
participant.
 Assure the participants of the confidentiality of the information
received.
 Avoid any kind of bias or prejudice
 Avoid incorrect reporting of the results and i nappropriate use of
information
 If any agency is sponsoring our research, we must clearly mention
that and not provide any misleading information to the agency.
Plagiarism means using another person’s ideas, words, phrases,
statements, data, reports, fi gures and pictures as one’s own without giving
credit to the actual author. We should discuss with our research supervisor
regarding the detailed guidelines for plagiarism as laid down by our
University.
The most important aspect of research ethics is tak ing the informed
consent of the target audience who are responding to our data collection
methods while using primary data.
3.6.1 Forms of Plagiarism
If we have done any of the following that will mean that we have
plagiarised:
1. We present our research using someone else’s ideas as our own
2. When we download a research paper and submit it as our own paper
3. When we cut, copy and paste from a published or unpublished
primary or secondary source without citing the source
4. When we are summarizing or paraphrasin g scholarly ideas or
arguments or original words without giving credit to the scholar
5. When we pay someone to write our research paper
6. When we try using our own research paper without necessary
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34 Why should we avoid plagiarism? If re searchers detect plagiarism in our
work, it will lead to professional embarrassment, loss of trust and our
credibility as a researcher will suffer. It may also lead to losing our jobs.
3.6.2 How to avoid Plagiarism?
Plagiarism can be intentional or unint entional. In this section, we will
learn how to avoid the general pitfalls of plagiarism. Use the following
steps as a general overview to avoid plagiarism:
1. Begin with the latest edition of the Citation style Handbook (MLA
Handbook for instance) because w e will grasp the essential research
skills with the help of detailed tips on how to cite print and digital
resources and how to maintain a bibliography or works cited list.
2. Use effective note -making skills while reading primary or secondary
sources.
3. Remem ber to note down the details like the name or title of the
chapter, the name of the book, the author/editor, page numbers and
publication details. Otherwise, we may find it difficult to track our
sources.
4. Note down points in a research notebook/diary. Usin g a notebook or
diary will help we in two ways. We will grasp the ideas better.
5. We may also create a word file on our desktop or laptop but avoid the
habit of googling and CCP – cut, copy, paste technique. If we are
techno -savvy we should use apps that h elp us to take notes.
6. We should use quotes that are brief, selective and relevant to the idea
that our wish to discuss. If we are quoting, use original words or
sentences within quotation marks. If we are paraphrasing, we will
have to restate a scholar’s ideas in our own words. If we are
summarizing, we will have to sum up the scholarly ideas in brief. We
may quote, paraphrase or summarise but give credit to the scholars
whose ideas are helping we to build our own research.
7. Give in -text citations (i.e. nam e of the scholar, publication and/or
page numbers) when we are quoting, summarising or paraphrasing.
In-text citations help in two ways. Our research becomes more
reliable. Future researchers can refer to these sources as they get the
exact location of the ideas.
8. We may plagiarise unintentionally if we fail to use citations and
references.
9. Discuss with our research supervisor or guide and our librarian about
plagiarism and the availability of tools to detect plagiarism.
3.6.3 Plagiarism Checker Tools an d websites
Meet the librarian of our College or University and inquire if the
institution has plagiarism checker tools. Institutions value academic
integrity and may invest in the relevant tools.
At the beginning stage, we can use free online plagiarism checker sites
like https://www.quetext.com/plagiarism -checker ,
https://smallseotools.com/plagiarism -checker/ , and
https://www.duplichecker.com/ which will help we to detect if we have munotes.in

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35 unintentionally plagiarised. We can also download the free version of
Grammarly.
Our College or University may also have invested in tools that check
plagiarism lik e Grammarly, Turnitin and Urkund.
Self-Check Exercise 4
1. What is plagiarism?
2. Give any two instances of plagiarism.
3. Who are the two people who can help us avoid plagiarism?
4. Name any two tools available for checking plagiarism.
3.7 LET US SUM UP
In this section, we learnt about data collection and its types. We listed the
characteristics and modes of primary and secondary data. We also
reinforced the differences between primary and secondary data. Then, we
enumerated on the three significant aspects of r esearch language – clarity,
correctness and coherence.
Finally, we explained the importance of research ethics or academic
integrity, plagiarism, some forms and tools. Do go through the web
resources and suggested reading list and refer to them. Remember, skill
development needs a lot of practice. So, the key to mastering the art of
research writing is ‘Practice’.
3.8 SUGGESTED READING
Bhattacharya, Deepak Kumar. Research Methodology. New Delhi: Excel
Books. 2006. 2003.
Biggs, J., Lai, P., Tang, C. and Lavelle, E., 1999, Teaching writing to ESL
graduate students: a model and an illustration, British Journal of
Educational Psychology. Vol. 69: pp-293–306.
Blume, Maria and Lust, C. Barbara.Research Methods in Language
Acquisition.Principles, Procedures and Practices. Washington DC:
American Psychological Association; Berlin/Germany: Walter de Gruyter
GmbH. 2017
Crystal David, 2008, A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics , Sixth
edition, Blackwell Publishing, USA.
Halliday, M. A. K., and Hasan, R., 1976, Cohesion in English , Longman,
London.
Jack Richards et al., 1985, Dictionary of Applied Linguistics , Longman,
London.
Kothari.C.R. Research Methodology.Methods and Techniques. New
Delhi: New Age International (P) limited, Publishers. 2004, 1990, 1985. munotes.in

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36 MLA Ha ndbook. 2021. New York: The Modern Language Association of
America.
Oberoi, Pawan Kumar. Research Methodology. New Delhi: Global
Academic Publishers & Distributors. 2013.
Wayne C. Booth, Gregory G. Colomb and Joseph M. Williams, 2008, The
Craft of Resear ch, Third edition, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
3.9 WEB RESOURCES
https://www.simplilearn.com/data -collection -methods -article > 16
November 2022
https://laverne.libguides.com/c.php?g=34942&p=222059 > 16 November
2022
https://guides.temple.edu/english/primarysources_us > 16 November 2022
https://www.india.gov.in/spotlight/bhasha -sangam -celebrating -linguistic -
diversity -india > 16 November 2022
https://www.india.gov.in/spotlight/ek -bharat -shreshtha -bharat > 16
November 2022
https://www.ed.ac.uk /literatures -languages -cultures/english -
literature/undergraduate/current/academic -matters/plagiarism > 16
November 2022
https://www.bowdoin.edu/dean -of-students/conduct -review -
board/academic -honesty -and-plagiarism/common -types -of-
plagiarism.html > 16 November 2022
https://integrity.mit.edu/handbo ok/academic -integrity -handbook > 16
November 2022
https://nmu.edu/writingcenter/plagiarism > 17 November 2022
3.10 HINTS FOR SELF -CHECK EXERCISES
Self-Check Exercise 1
1. Refer to 3.3
2. See 3.3.1
3. See 3.3. 1
4. See 3.3.1
5. Refer to 3.3.2
6. Refer to 3.3.3.




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37 Self-Check Exercise 2
1. Refer to 3.4
2. See 3.4
3. See 3.4.2
4. See 3.5
Self-Check Exercise 3
1. Refer to 3.5.1
2. See 3.5.1
3. See 3.5.2
4. Refer to 3.5.3
Self-Check Exercise 4
1. Refer to 3.6
2. See 3.6.1
3. See 3.6.2
4. Refer t o 3.6.3


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38 4
METHODS IN LANGUAGE RESEARCH
Unit Structure:
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Research in Language Studies
4.3 Research Methods
4.4 Library Research Methods
4.5 Empirical Research Methods
4.6 Let Us Sum Up
4.7 References
Havin g discussed various tools of conducting research, use of research -
appropriate language and research ethics such as anti -plagiarism, we will
acquaint ourselves with various methods in language research. We
discussed a few concepts related to research in lan guage studies in unit I
(1.7 Methods and Modes of Research ), Unit II ( 2.2 Data Analysis ) and
Unit III ( 3.3.1 Language Studies ). We will expand upon some of these
concepts in the present unit. Before we begin this journey, let us ask
ourselves some questio ns:
 What do we understand by ‘language studies’?
 Is ‘language studies’ a singular field of research or there are different
dimensions to the language studies?
 What does the term ‘method’ mean in research?
 What different methods can help us carry out r esearch in the field of
language with specific reference to English?
While we will address these questions in this unit, you may like to explore
online sources (such as Google search engine) and/or offline sources (such
as a book, an encyclopaedia or a han dbook) so that we have a bet ter
understanding of the topic.
4.0 OBJECTIVES
The purpose of this unit is
1. To familiarize ourselves with the notion of ‘language studies’;
2. To understand various methods used in language research
3. To identify research areas in English language that can be explored
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39 After studying this unit, we will not only have a better understanding of
methods in language research but also be equipped to use the appropriate
methods for the same.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
We alread y know that with the recent curricular changes, research has now
become an integral part of a graduate or post graduate degree programme.
We as students of language and literary studies need to carry out research
projects in one or two areas. This demands that we have a better
understanding of various research methods in language and literary
studies. As the Unit V focuses on research methods in literary studies, we
will concentrate on language studies in this unit.
4.2 RESEARCH IN LANGUAGE STUDIES
‘Languag e studies’ in general and ‘English Language Studies’ in
particular is a broad area which intersects with disciplines such as
Linguistics, Philosophy, Psychology, Pedagogy, Culture studies,
Sociology. There are many dimensions that we may explore when you are
studying English language. This may include but not limited to studying
 the historical development of English as a first or second or foreign
language
 the structural properties of a standard variety of English such as its
phonology, morphology, syntax grammar
 the use and usage of English in different context such as media,
literature, education, administration, or as a lingua franca or contact
language
 learning and teaching of English in a particular context or using a
specific approach
 influence of English on other languages or how other languages
influence English
 position of English in curricular/ administrative policies in a particular
region/country
 This, as mentioned earlier, is not an exhaustive list but helps us
understand the expanse of lan guage studies.

4.3 RESEARCH METHODS
Let us first revisit the basic question: What does the term ‘methods’ in the
context of research methodology mean? A commonly accepted
understanding of ‘methods’ is the particular tools and procedures that are
used to collect and analyse data. This may be achieved by way of
experiments, surveys and/or statistical tests. According to Jankowicz
(2013), Methods are "a systematic and orderly approach taken towards the
collection and analysis of data so that information can be obtained from
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40 When we consider doing research in English language we may be
interested various types of research:
 Library research such as studying specific aspect/s of language in a
text by using books and related published mater ial (print and
electronic) as primary sources of secondary data.
 Theoretical research such as theorising and/or defining underlying
principles of the structural or functional properties of language;
 Empirical research (also known as field research) such as drawing
conclusions about the use of language on the basis of empirical
evidence (using observation, survey, interview or experience)
 Applied research where a specific problem such as learning or
teaching of English is addressed by applying certain
theoretical/conceptual framework of language learning/acquisition.
Some research, for instance action research could be applied as well as
empirical. We will discuss this type of research method later in detail.
Please note that the above mentioned classific ation of research is not
exclusive to only language studies. It is found in other fields of inquiry
like Social Sciences, History, and Economics as well. We will, however,
look at this range of research in the context of English language studies.
Let us ta ke a look at the possible research questions in language studies:
1. What is the nature and frequency of Indian loan -words in a specific
Indian newspaper/literary text in English?
2. Why do Indian speakers of English code -switch/mix in certain speech
situation s and events?
3. What kind of English courses would students be most interested in
studying at the undergraduate level?
4. Do students learn English better with direct method than bilingual
method?
5. What role does a literary canon play in shaping language curricu lum
in primary/secondary education in India?
6. How to bridge the gap between the expected proficiency and the
actual proficiency in English as second language learners in rural
areas?
You must have noticed that research question 1 requires you to refer th e
books and other published material to carry out the research, questions 2-5
need empirical evidence by way of observation or experiment; while
question 6 requires application of a language learning theory to address
problem. Each of these research method s will have a range of tools of data
collection and data analysis. Let us explore these methods in detail.
4.4 LIBRARY RESEARCH METHOD
The term ‘library research method’ (LRM) has been around for quite some
time. It is however not defined by a specific disci pline. George (2008)
defines library research method as a research method that conducted by
computer engine searching or practical books reading to find the
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41 research that relies for its d ata on the sources such as books, manuscripts,
journals, dictionaries, reports, newspapers, audio/video tapes, CDs would
fall under this category. It must be noted that this method is defined as a
method of data collection rather than data analysis. The te xt under
question may be analysed by using various analytical or theoratical
frameworks in Linguistics. For example,
 Stylistic Study of Language in Amul Advertisement
 Study of the Frequency of English loan -words in Select issues of
Maharashtra Times
 Study of Concordance of ‘only’ and ‘itself’ in Select issues of Times
of India
 A Comparative Study of Politeness Principles in
G.B.Shaw’s Pygmalion and P.L Deshpande’s Ti Phulrani
The researcher does not need to engage in field study or collect empirical
evidenc es to draw conclusions. There are different methods of linguistic
analysis that are used by researchers using library method. The following
are some of these:
Discourse Analysis (DA) Method:
It is used to reveal ideologies and social relations of power by studying
language patterns found in the given written/spoken text. Literature (print/
audio visual text) produced by institutions, social groups or individuals
become the primary source in such research. Discourse analysis of
newspaper articles/ advertise ment/films/public speeches/ media posts is an
example of research study that involves this method.
Conversation Analysis (CA) Method :
According to Jack Sidnell, “Conversation analysis is an approach to the
study of social interaction and talk -in-interac tion that, although rooted in
the sociological study of everyday life, has exerted significant influence
across the humanities and social sciences including linguistics”. Though
this method is usually used the empirical studies for the analysis of the
spok en and unscripted text, it may as well be used for the scripted speech
texts. Hence, we have included it under library research.
Let us now take a look at the empirical research methods.
4.5 EMPIRICAL RESEARCH METHODS
The word ‘empirical’ means something that is based on observation and/or
experience. This then makes it easy to understand the definition of
Empirical Research Methods (ERM). ERM can be defined as a way of
gaining knowledge by means of direct and indirect observation or
experience.Like LRM, these methods are also not limited or exclusive to
research in language studies alone. However, we will discuss it only in the
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42 There are two major approaches to ERM, namely deductive and inductive
approach. Let us understand it with the help of the following diagrams.
















Empirical evidence can be analysed quantitatively or qualitatively. Two
major concepts you need to know in doing research in language studies
then are Qualitative research and Quantitative res earch. Though we briefly
discussed these methods in Unit I, let us expand a little more on it. The
well-known English linguist David Nunan in his book Research Methods
in Language Learning (1994) remarks that qualitative and quantitative
research methods a re quite distinct and are guided by two different
conceptions. Let us therefore first understand these two concepts.
 Qualitative Research:
Qualitative research can be defined as the research that uses inductive
method that intends to draw general princip les, theories from an
investigation or documentation. Though this research does not use any
statistical tool, it may use simple tabulation and calculation in the analysis.
It uses qualitative data which is in non -numerical form. The transcript of
an interv iew is an instance of such data.



According to Wilson (2010) a
deductive approach is concerned
with “developing a hypothesis (or
hypotheses) based on existing
theory, and then designing a
research strategy to test the
hypothes is” (7). It follows
reasoning principle of reasoning
from the particular to the general.
According to Goddard, W.
& Melville (2004),
Inductive approach starts
with the observations and
theories are proposed
towards the end o f
the research process as a
result of observations. The
researcher is free change
the direction for the study
after the research process
has begun.
Process in Deductive approach
Process in Inductive approach
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43  Quantitative research
Quantitative research method relies on suitable statistical tools to analyse
the data and make inferences and conclusions about the research question
at hand. Tools such as Chi -Square, T -test, Correl ation and Regression,
Analysis of variance are just a few tools to mention.
David Nunan (1994) provides us with a comprehensive description of
terms commonly associated with quantitative and qualitative research
which he adapted from Reichardt and Cook (1 979).
Qualitative research Quantitative research  Advocates use of
qualitative methods  Advocates use of
quantitative methods  Concerned with
understanding human
behaviour from the
actor's own frame of
reference  Seeks facts or causes of
social phenom ena
without regard to the
subjective states of the
individuals  Naturalistic and
uncontrolled observation  Obtrusive and
controlled measurement  Subjective  Objective  Close to the data: the
'insider' perspective  Removed from the
data: the 'outsider'
perspec tive  Grounded, discovery -
oriented, exploratory.
expansionist,
descriptive, and
inductive  Ungrounded,
verification -oriented.
confirmatory,
reductionist, inferential,
hypothetical, and
deductive  Process -oriented
o Valid: 'real', 'rich', and
'deep' data
o Ungen eralisable:
single case studies
o Assumes a dynamic
reality  Product -oriented
o Reliable: 'hard' and
replicable data
o Generalisable:
multiple case
studies
o Assumes a stable
reality

Variable
Whether one uses Qualitative or Quantitative research methods, the
concept of Variable is of critical importance in both types of research. In
research, a variable is a ‘thing, person, place, object or phenomenon’ that
the researcher is interested in studying. It is an element that liable either to
change or to cause chan ge. There are many types of variable; however we
will take into consideration only two major types: dependent and
independent variable. An independent variable is that element which does
not receive change but may be the cause of an observable change; wher eas munotes.in

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44 a dependent variable is that element that gets affected by an independent
variable.
Let us understand this through an example. If we hypothesise that Students
who practice English using language software do better on their oral tests
then, we notice t hat language software is an independent variable while
the performance of students in oral tests is dependent variable as it is
hypothetically affected by the use of software.
Types of Quantitative research methods
Some of us may wonder ‘what is the use o f quantitative analysis in
language research?’ We can identify and describe features of language by
using the data. We can count and classify these features using various
statistical tools. This helps in validation of hypothesis. Let us take an
example to understand this. If a study hypothesises that Indian users of
English prefer using present progressive where Standard British users use
Simple Present tense. To check the validity of this statement, a
questionnaire based survey may be conducted where the informants are
asked to tick mark sentences they consider appropriate. The statistical
analysis of their responses will show us as to how many of these
informants select sentences with present progressive tense. The validation
or invalidation of the hypoth esis will depend on the numeric analysis.
There are various statistical tools that can be used for the analysis of the
data collected empirically. Some of the frequently used statistical methods
used in language research include T Test, Chi Square Test, AN OVA,
Correlation and Regression Analysis. Let us now see a few research
methods that use quantitative data analysis.
Experimental research
In the context of language studies, Experimental research is used mainly in
the field of language learning and teach ing. Experimental research aims at
understanding differences between or within groups of learners under
manipulated environments. It requires strict control of conditions, enabling
interpretations with a low factor of error. Let us try and understand it
through a hypothetical situation:
 We wish to see whether the use of customized material is more
effective than the non -customised material in developing
comprehension skills among a group of learners.
 We divide learners in two groups: Group A and Group B
 We call group Aexperimental group, also known as treatment group,
as this group will receive treatment who effect we as researcher are
going to study. This group will be taught reading skills using
customised material.
 We call group B control group. This gr oup will be given non -
customised material rather than the customised material.
 After both the groups have been given training, a test will be
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45  The test performance will be analysed and compared by using
statistical tools.
 On the basis of the results we can either validate or invalidate the
hypothesis that we set for our study.
Quasi -experiment research method
The prefix ‘quasi’ means resembling. Hence quasi -experiment means
something that resembles experim ent but is not exactly an experiment. Let
us see the definition now. According to Cook and Campbell (1979) it is a
‘research that resembles experimental research but is not true experimental
research. Although the independent variable is manipulated, parti cipants
are not randomly assigned to conditions or orders of conditions. Here, the
researcher studies groups that already have pre -existing differences. The
groups differ on the independent variable, but the researcher doesn’t
control this difference betw een the groups. For instance, the study of
language proficiency test performance of two groups of first year B.A.
students, where the first group has studied in regional language medium
schools and the second group has studied in English medium school. Her e,
the medium of instruction hypothetically becomes an independent variable
while the performance of students in the test becomes a dependent
variable. This research method like experimental research falls under
quantitative research method as results are quantifiable and analysed using
statistical tools.
Survey method:
Survey research, in simple words, is a method used to collect data/
information from a sample of individuals/informants through their
responses to questions. The most frequently used tool o r instrument for
such a research is questionnaire. The information that is sought in this
method could be factual, behavioural and or attitudinal. Survey is useful in
describing how a certain group (learner community/speech community)
feels about one or mo re variables. Trends, opinions, beliefs and attitudes
of a specific group of individuals can be described effectively by using
survey method.
One of the key concepts in this method is sampling. It is defined as the act
or a process or a technique of selec ting a suitable sample of a population
in order to determine characteristics of the whole population. For example,
if we wish to study the attitudes of Marathi users of English about code
mixing in English, we will select only a sample of the target popula tion
which will be representative enough. The entire population is neither
desirable nor feasible as an option. In the similar way, a sample size of ten
or twenty individuals is not an acceptable. Moreover, there are many types
of sampling methods that one may use depending on its suitability to
address the research question. This includes the convenient sample (where
the more convenient basic units are chosen from a sample population for
observation), the judgement sample (where the sample is obtained usin g
the judgment of someone who is familiar with the relevant features of the
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46 sample has an equal probability of being chosen). We should note that this
is a very basic discussion. We may furt her explore this by referring to
reliable sources.
Let us now see the steps of carrying out a survey based research. There are
many models of the steps of carrying out a survey. The following is one of
the possible ways that uses questionnaire. We may exp lore more options
by referring to online and offline authentic sources such as books,
university portals, encyclopaedia etc.





As mentioned earlier, Questionnaire is an important instrument in Survey
research method. There are certain dos and don’ts that we should keep in
mind while designing a questionnaire. We should
 Write a short questionnaire
 Use simple words and sentences
 Assure a common understanding
 Start with interesting questions
 Balance rating scales
 Use Close -ended questions rather than Open -ended ones.
 Put questions in a logical order
 Pre-test our survey.
What we must avoid
 writing leading questions
 using double negatives
 making the list of choices too long
 Using difficult concepts
 Asking difficult recall questions
Having read this, some of us may be wondering as to what a leading
question is or what a double barrel question is. Answer to this can easily
be found by a search engine. Another term that we came across above is
rating scales . They help us in collecting qualitative and quantitative data.
Rating scale according to Garrett is a device for obtaining judgments of
degree to which individual possess certain behavior traits and attributes
not easily detectable by objective test. For example, the following question
using a s pecific rating scale Nine phase model of conducting a survey using
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47 There are two major types of scaling used in such questionnaires: Likert
and Guttman.
Likert or Summative Scaling is a question has a five -point or seven -point
scale. The example illustrates this scale. There are a variety possible
response scales: such as 1 to 7, 1 to 9, 0 to 4, and 1 to 5. Another scaling
is Guttman or Cumulative Scaling . It is representative of the extreme
attitude of the informant unlike the Likert scale. The answering term in
this scaling is yes or no.
Longitudinal study
This type of research falls well within Survey method. According to the
Encyclopaedia of Research Design , Longitudinal Research method can be
defined as “one that measures the characteristics of the same individuals
on at least two, but ideally more , occasions over time. Its purpose is to
address directly the study of individual change and variation”. In the field
of language studies, longitudinal research method is used to study the
development or change of certain linguistic features or patterns o f usage
over time in a speech community which is relatively stable. Here,
researchers re -study the same speech community that has been the subject
of earlier study. A deliberate attempt is made as far as possible to use the
sampling and data collection met hods which used in the earlier study. In
2020, McManus, Mitchell and Tracy published their research on a
longitudinal study of advanced learners’ linguistic development before,
during and after study abroad. The report of this study is available online
for further reading. 10.31219/osf.io/5b2fu .
Types of Qualitative Research methods
After our initial discussion on the definition and features of qualitative
research methods, let us study two major types, namely, case study and
ethnography.
Case study
Case study as a qualitative research method is widely used in language
studies, especially in applied linguistics. This includes research on
learning, teaching and use of English as a second lang uage or foreign
language. The ‘Case’ in this context is usually a person or a small group of
individuals. This may include a teacher, learner, speaker/language user,
writer or interlocutor. If it is a group, it may be a family, a class, a work
team, a comm unity of practice such as nurses or drivers etc. The approach
used in this research method is intensive rather than extensive. The
purpose of such research is an in depth understanding of individuals’
experiences, problems, stages and ways of development o r linguistic
performance in various contexts of language use. The ultimate goal of
such a research is provide us with a contextualized human profile. Hence,
this does not include larger sample or focus on hypotheses or findings in
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48 Some of the key concerns in case study research as discussed by Duff are
as follows:
1. Qualitative/ Interpretative case study: Individuals/ groups of language
users are studied in the backdrop of a sociocultural, educational or
political factor such as New Language Policy or education policy.
Reality of these individuals is viewed as co -constructed through the
dynamic processes of interaction with others and the immediate social
world. The researcher rather than seeking insights and perspe ctives
from the ‘cases’ explicitly, attempts to understand the phenomenon by
interpreting it.
2. Defining and delimiting the case: It is important to understand that the
selected ‘case’ is usually presented from the researcher’s perspective.
Though the parti cipant’s insider perspective or voice is taken into
consideration, it is the purpose for which the research is conducted,
participants are chosen or interview transcripts are selected and
observations that are included become defining and delimiting factor s.
3. Case Selection: The decision about the number of cases depends on
the purpose of the research. Either a single case or multiple cases may
be selected. Most single -case studies allow explanation of the
complexity and features of that one case. The choi ce of multiple cases
depends on the logistic provisions available.
4. Duration of case Study and timescales: Some case study research is
longitudinal in nature especially when the focus of the study is
development or change in linguistic behaviour or attitud e. However,
not all case studies are longitudinal. There are case studies that involve
interviews, observations at one specific point of time and within a
limited time frame. Sometimes it may access retrospective life history
through interviews or written narratives or any form of documents.
5. Critical Reflexivity and ethics: Researchers need to carefully reflect on
the social and context loaded process of generating meaning. The
researcher needs to maintain journals/ diary to register observations,
researc h process used, decisions made, issues that arose or areas for
follow up. One needs to be very careful in carrying a nuanced
reporting.
Let us not take a look at some potential areas in which case study research
method can be useful.
1. Linguistic experienc es of Students from rural/tribal areas studying in
urban colleges
2. Impact of Continuous Assessment policy on the English language
learning and teaching
3. Motivation and cultural distance in learning English as a second
Language
4. Perspectives on struggling Eng lish language learners
Ethnography
Ethnography is a qualitative researchmethod of data collection. It is based
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49 learners, second language speakers, language teachers etc.) social
interact ion in their natural environment. The aim of this research method
to get a better understanding of how the subjects act, react and interact in
such environment . These observations are used to draw conclusions.
Direct observation, diary, video recordings, a nd interviews become
instruments of data collection in this research method. The duration in
such research may vary from a day to several months depending on the
scope of study.
There are two types of observation involved, namely, passive and
contextual i nterview . The first type of observation is also known as
‘shadowing’ the researcher/s follow and observes the daily tasks of the
subjects by using methods such as note taking and audio/video recording.
In such research usually more than one researcher are involved if the
number of subjects is more. In the second type of observation, i.e.
contextual interviews, the researchers interact with the subjects while
observing their daily actions/reactions and interactions.
We may have a question if everyone the res earcher interacts with/
observes is a participant in such a study. The answer is NO. The type of
information that is collected and how the data is recorded determines the
participants. For example if you are talking to one or more English
language teachers in a particular school about the government’s
continuous assessment policy, it may not qualify them as participants.
However, if we talk to them about their experiences as teachers while
implementing this policy in English as Second Language Classroom; it
will qualify them as participants.
The major advantage is using ethnography is that it allows first -hand
observations of how subjects act/react and interact with a new approach/
curriculum/ syllabus/ textbook etc. However, such research is relatively
more time consuming and cost heavy.
Mixed Method Approach
So far we have been discussing Qualitative and Quantitative research
methods. We may wonder if the researchers use only one of these methods
at a time. The answer is not all researchers engage exclus ively in
qualitative or quantitative research. In social sciences as well as in
humanities, there has been a trend of find a method that combines
instruments/tool and strategies from the qualitative as well as quantitative
research methods in order to addr ess their research questions. Though
there are many definitions, we will see the definition that gives us a
comprehensive understanding of mixed method approach. According to
Tashakkori and Creswell (2007), “Research in which the investigator
collects and analyses data, integrates the findings, and draws inferences
using both qualitative and quantitative approaches or methods in a single
study or programme of inquiry” (04) In education studies, especially in
English Language Teaching research, Action resear ch method uses mixed
method approach more prominently and frequently than other methods,
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50
Action research
We will begin with a basic
question: What is action
research? According to the
Glossary of Education
Reform s, “Action Research
refers to a wide variety of
evaluative, investigative, and
analytical research methods
designed to diagnose problems
or weaknesses -whether
organizational, academic, or
instrumental - and help
educators develop practical
solutions to addr ess them
quickly and efficiently. The
following is an illustration of
the process involved in any
action research.
In the context of language teaching, action research is a form of
investigation that is carried out by teachers at their work place (school or
college). This research helps language teachers to explore if and how their
teaching methods/strategies/approaches are effective. What we need to
understand is that action research is cyclical in nature. It can be a
continuous/on -going process
1. As a lang uage teacher when you observe that your learners are not
showing interest/motivation/ results as expected in learning the
language or specific aspects of language such as writing skills,
reading skills or pronunciation
2. You reflect on the issue and try and find possible reasons behind it
3. You then start planning to address the issue with the help of your
observation, experience, reading, discussion with other colleagues
4. And then you put your plan into action by offering the learners a
special training.
5. You document the preparations you did, actions you carried out, and
changes that you noticed among learners and thus offer a new
understanding as a result of this practice.
6. If the result of earlier action is not satisfactory, you reflect on it and
prepare ano ther plan and put it into action.
We consider action research as a mixed method approach because we
collect data by means of tools used in quantitative method (such as
questionnaire, pre -test, post -test) and qualitative method (such as
interview, classroo m observations, assignments etc.). When it comes to
data analysis, we use tools for quantitative data analysis as well as
qualitative data analysis. In 2010, two English as Foreign Language
teachers, Urrutia and Cely published their action research “Encour aging
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51 Public School”. To get more details of this project we can access to this
research article by using the link given at the end of this unit.
4.6 LET US SUM UP
Let us summarize what we studied in this unit through ‘fill -in-the-black
self-check activity.
First, we familiarized ourselves with the notion of _________________.
The unit then helped us understand that ‘language studies’ is a not
__________ but has many dimensions. Some of the important areas in
language research include _________________________,
___________________________, ___________________________. We
then studied various methods in language research such as
_______________, ________________________, __________________.
4.7 REFERENCES
1. "Introduction and Overview." Experimental Research Methods in
Language Learning: Research Methods in Linguistics . Ed.
AekPhakiti. London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2014. 1 –20. Bloomsbury
Collections . Web. 12 Dec. 2022.
.
2. Burns, A. (2019). Action Research in English Language Teaching:
Contributions and Recent Developments. In: Gao, X. (eds) Second
Handbook of English Language Teaching . Springer International
Handbooks of Ed ucation. Springer, Cham.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978 -3-319-58542 -0_52 -1
3. Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (1979). Quasi -experimentation:
Design & analysis issues in field settings . Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin
4. Duff, Patricia A. “Case Study Research on Languag e Learning and
Use.” Annual Review of Applied Linguistics , vol. 34, 2014, pp. 233 –
255., doi
5. : 10.1017/S0267190514000051.
6. George, Mary. (2008). The Elements of Library Research: What
Every Student Needs to Know. 10.1515/9781400830411.
7. Goddard, W. & Melville , S. (2004) “Research Methodology: An
Introduction” 2nd edition, Blackwell Publishing
8. Gonzalez -Marquez, Monica, Raymond B. Becker, and James E.
Cutting. An introduction to experimental methods for language
researchers . Vol. 53. John Benjamins Publishing, A msterdam, 2007.
9. Hofer, Scott M. and Andrea M. Piccinin, editors. Encyclopedia of
Research Design. 0 vols. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications,
Inc., 2010. SAGE Research Methods , 18 Dec 2022, doi:
https ://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781412961288 .
10. https://guides.lib.uw.edu/research/linguistics/researchmethods
accessed on 25 November 2022
11. https://libguides.anu.edu.au/c.php?g=816733&p=5979889 accessed
on 25 November 2022
12. https://www.experienceux.co.uk/faqs/what -is-ethnography -research/ munotes.in

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52 13. https://www.fsps. muni.cz/emuni/data/reader/book -9/04.html accessed
on 20 November 2022
14. Jankowicz, A. Devi. Business research projects . Springer, 2013.
15. Podesva, Robert J., and Devyani Sharma, eds. Research methods in
linguistics . Cambridge University Press, 2014.
16. Sidnell, Jack. "Conversation Analysis." Oxford Research
Encyclopedia of Linguistics. 03. Oxford University Press. Date of
access 18 Dec. 2022,
https://oxfordre.com/linguistics/view/10.1093/acrefore/978019938465
5.001.0001/acrefore -9780199384655 -e-40
17. Tashakkori, A. and Creswell, JW. (2007). “Exploring the nature of
research questions in mixed methods research”. Journal of Mixed
Methods Research , 1: 207-211.
18. Wilson, J. (2010) “Essentials of Business Research: A Guide to Doing
Your Research Project” SAGE Publications, p.7
For further reading
1. https://www.eme raldgrouppublishing.com/conduct -empirical -
research -gated#design (on Empirical research)
2. https://www.britishcouncil.co/sites/default/files/basic_ar_guide_0.pd
f (on action research)
3. Urrutia León, W. & Vega Cely, E. 2010. Encouraging Teenagers to
Improve Speaking Skills through Games in a Colombian Public
School. PROFILE Issues in Teachers Professional Development ,
12(1), 11 -31.
http://www.profile.unal.edu.co/index.php/profi le/article/view/13831






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53 5
TRENDS AND APPROACHES IN
LITERARY RESEARCH
Unit Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Approaches in Literary Research
5.2 Trends in author -focused literary research
5.3 Trends in text -focused literary research
5.4 Trends in reader -focused literary research
5.5 Trends in context -focused literary research
5.6 Let Us Sum Up
5.7 Important Questions
5.8 References
5.0 OBJECTIVES
In Unit IV, we studied methods in language research. In this unit, we will
familiarize ourselves with the key methodological approaches in li terary
research. We will get introduced to many of the relevant theoretical trends
that are used for researching literary texts. After studying this unit, we will
not only have a better understanding of the appropriate approaches and
theoretical trends for textual and contextual analysis in their literary
research, but also will be equipped to use the same.
5.1 APPROACHES IN LITERARY RESEARCH
Literary research is the scholarly and critical study of one or more literary
texts for the purpose of analysis. To understand the possible approaches to
literary research, we may look at the diagram, made by M.H. Abrams, of
the connections between the literary work or text with the three
coordinates or categories that intersect with it: the artist or the author of
the text, the audience or the reader of the text, and the universe or the
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Based on this diagrammatic representation, there can be four approaches
to literary research:
 Author -focused
 Text-focused
 Reader -focused
 Context -focused
When we are undertaking research of one or more literary works, we tend
to choose our research methodology from these four possible approaches.
Our chosen research methodology equips us with critical concepts,
vocabulary and theoretical framework to answer specific research
questions.
Abrams’ diagram inter -relates the work, artist, audience and universe.
Thus, the four approaches to literary research are also interlinked. Using
one approach does not preclude referring to —or even using —the other
approaches.
5.2 TRENDS IN AUTHOR -FOCUSED LITERARY
RESEARCH
Biographical Criticism
Biographical or historical -biographical criticism studies a literary text as
predominantly being a reflection of the author’s life and times. Prevalent
since the Renaissance, many notable critics using this methodology
extensively, for instance, Samuel Johnson in his Lives of the Poets (1779 -
81).
From the 1920s, however, the biographical approach was increasingly
viewed as limited. The New Critics of the 1920s coined the term
“biographical fallacy” to indicate how biographical criticism often
neglects the vital role of imagination in generating a literary work. Despite
its shortcomings, historical -biographical criticism may be effectively used
to answer the following research qu estions, especially in genres like
autobiographies, memoirs and self -writing:
 Does the text reflect the writer’s lived experiences and concerns. If so,
how?
 How is the text shaped by the author’s chosen ideologies and beliefs?

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55
Psychological Criticism
Psychological or psychoanalytical critical theory became popular in the
early decades of the twentieth century, with the works of Sigmund Freud.
Freud often based his theories on analyses of literary texts, for instance,
his theory of Oedipus complex is deve loped through his analysis of
Oedipus Rex . Other than Freud, psychological criticism often refers to the
works of Carl Jung (especially his theory of archetypes, which are images
and themes deriving from the collective unconscious), and Jacques Lacan
(espe cially his theory of the three stages or orders of identity formation —
imaginary order, symbolic order and the real order).
In The Ego and the Id (1923), Freud theorized that a literary text is an
external expression of the author’s unconscious mind. This t heory
supports an author -focused approach, and would help in answering
research questions such as:
 How has the author’s life experiences and unconscious processes
shaped their emotional development, and how is this evidenced in the
writing of the literary text?
 What unintended meanings has the author embedded in the text?
Psychoanalytical criticism is also used by researchers to analyse the
characters in a literary text. For this purpose, the foundational research
questions would include:
 What are the cons cious and unconscious motivations of the
protagonist and/or antagonist?
 What is the role played by dreams, unconscious desires and
psychological disorders in the literary text?
 What universal archetypes or stages of identity formation may be
traced in the characters of the text?
5.3 TRENDS IN TEXT -FOCUSED LITERARY
RESEARCH
Formalism and New Criticism
Formalism is a literary theory that focuses exclusively on the structural
purposes of a literary text. It disregards all cultural, historical or
biographical influences on the text. Formalism began with the Russian
Formalists in 1916, who considered form and linguistics to be
foundational elements of literature and wanted to produce a “science of
literature.”
New Criticism is a later Euro -American counterpart of Russian Formalism
that gained popularity in the mid -twentieth century, with the claimed
scientific approach of I.A Richards. New Critics and Formalists prefer a
method of close reading of the text through which formal elements such as
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56 identify the themes of a text. Additional elements such as irony, paradox,
ambiguity and tension are also identified to analyse the text, which is
considered to be a self -contained, autotelic aesthetic object disassociated
from any external context.
Decontextualizing a text may be a flawed approach, but the method of
close reading and formal analysis are useful in answering research
questions such as:
 How does the structure of a text reveal its meaning ?
 How does the use of vocabulary, imagery, and other literary devices
produce the meaning of a text?
5.4 TRENDS IN READER -FOCUSED LITERARY
RESEARCH
Reader Response Theory
Reader response theory is a phenomenological reading approach that
gained popularity in the 1960s. The main proponents of this theory are
Wolfgang Iser, Stanley Fish and David Bleich, among others. It
destabilizes the long -held notion that the core of the meaning of a text
resides in the text itself. Instead, this theory contends that lite rary texts do
not have stable meanings, and that readers are not passive consumers of a
text but are actively involved in making meaning. Since each reader will
engage with a text differently, there are potentially as many meanings of a
literary text as th ere are readers. Readers are “interpretive communities”
who make meaning through their personal responses to a text or through
their inherited and culturally conditioned ways of reading.
Using this theory may be beneficial if the researcher is aiming to an swer
the following research questions:
 Who is the intended reader of a text?
 What are the thoughts and memories that a text evokes in a particular
reader and how are these shaped through cultural conditioning?
 What is the process through which interaction with the text creates
meanings for the reader, and whether these meanings change with re -
readings?
5.5 TRENDS IN CONTEXT -FOCUSED LITERARY
RESEARCH
Historical Criticism and New Historicism
Historical criticism researches a text through studying the context in which
it has been written, including relevant details of the author’s life
(biographical criticism) and the broader historical and cultural events
occurring during the time the text is situated in. An understanding of the
events, ideologies, culture, an d lifestyle of the time enables a more
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57 New Historicism is a form of historical criticism developed in the 1980s
by Stephen Greenblatt. This theory suggests that the socio -cultural and
historical conditions at the time of the production of a text form the co -
text. A researcher using this methodology to analyse a text would begin by
identifying the other literary and non -literary texts available at the time of
its production, and then would read and interpret the text in the parallel
light of its co -text.
Some foundational questions that researchers using historical criticism
focus on are:
 How does the text represent the historical period and the culture it was
produced in?
 What historical events influenced the author in the writing of the text?
Comparative Literary Criticism
This field of research has a very vast scope, as researchers studying
comparative literature critically compare and consider literature from
different genres, locations, and time periods simultaneously. Beyond that,
comparative literature may also include thinking across
different disciplines, like literature and music or literature and
anthropology. Comparative literary studies are closely tied to Goethe’s
concept of world literature and is also necessarily dependent on translation
studies.
A comparative research approach is trans -national, trans -medial, and
transcultural, and it enables the researcher to make connections across
borders, to find commonalities and respect differences.
Using a comparative method would lead a researcher to inquire into
questions such as:
 How are the texts being compared connected to common themes?
 How are they differentiated through their locations in separate socio -
cultural contexts?
 What has been gained o r lost in translating a particular text?
Structuralism
Structuralism became widespread in the 1950s and ’60s and is based
primarily on the linguistic theories of Ferdinand de Saussure.
Structuralism considered language as a system of signs and significat ion,
the elements of which are understandable only in relation to each other
and to the system. In literary theory, structuralism suggested that a text
was constituted of linguistic conventions and situated among other texts.
The core belief of structurali sm is that “things cannot be understood in
isolation, they have to be seen in the context of larger structures they are
part of.”
Structuralism suggests the interrelationship between “units” (surface
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58 what Saussure termed at the relationship between Langue (language as a
system) and Parole (an individual utterance in that language). Structuralist
critics analyse a text by examining underlying structures, such as
characterization or plot, and aim to trace how these patterns are universal.
Structuralist theories are foundational in the study of questions like:
 How are myths, rituals and folk -tales based on systems of recurrent
patterns?
 What such patterns may be identified in a chosen text /s?
Deconstruction and post -structuralism
Post-structuralism is a theory that is both built upon and rejects ideas
established by structuralism. Post-structuralists may critique structuralism
in different ways, but they all reject the self -sufficiency of s tructuralism,
and interrogate the binary oppositions that constitutes its structures. Post -
structuralism challenges the structuralist assumption that all definitions
and signs are fixed and valid.
Deconstruction is a theory that arose from post -structural ism, and Jacques
Derrida is the originator of the term. Deconstructive criticism aims to
reveal how conflicting forces within the text undermine the stability of the
text’s structure, and how meaning is an array of undetermined
possibilities. It focuses on binaries in a text, such as good/evil,
male/female, natural/artificial, etc, and exposes how one aspect of the
binary is privileged while the other is supressed. Derrida viewed
deconstruction as a technique for exposing and subverting many
assumptions of Western thought in a variety of texts.
A post -structuralist, deconstructive approach would address foundational
questions such as:
 What binary oppositions or tensions operate in the text?
 How does the text uphold or resolve the contradictory meanings,
binary oppositions or tensions?
 How do textual features such as dialogue and imagery invite
ambiguity versus certainty?
Marxist Literary Criticism
Marxism is a materialist philosophy which analyses how society and
history progress through the struggle between opposing classes. Class
struggle arises because of the continuing exploitation of one class by
another. During the feudal period, the feudal landlords exploited the
peasants; in the Industrial age, the capitalist class (the bourgeoisie) exploit
the workin g class (the proletariat). This class conflict will potentially lead
to social transformation.
Karl Marx used the concept of dialectic materialism to explain how all
ideological systems are produced by the socio -economic interests of the
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59 contradictions, which ultimately cause transformation. Another
fundamental Marxist concept is that of the base and superstructure, where
base refers to the socio -economic relations and the material means of
produ ction, and superstructure refers to the world of art, law, politics,
religion and ideology. This indicates that all cultural products are directly
related to the economic base in a given society.
Under the totalitarian communist regimes, however, other kinds of
Marxist criticism arose.
 Mikhail Bakhtin’s concept of Dialogism affirms plurality and variety
and argues against the hegemony of absolute authorial control.
 Louis Althusser further extended Marxist criticism through his
concepts of overdeterminatio n and ideology. Effects are
overdetermined and arise from various causes rather than from a
single factor. Ideology is a system of representations instituted and
promoted by the state through Repressive State Apparatuses (RSA)
(law courts, prison, police, etc) and Ideological State
Apparatuses (ISA) (schools, media, churches, family, etc).
 Antonio Gramsci introduced concepts like Hegemony and
the Subaltern . Hegemony is the domination by the elite, which works
through manufacturing the consent of the dominat ed groups.
Subaltern collectively describes a variety of exploited groups who
lack class consciousness.
A Marxist approach is useful in analysing the following research
questions:
 How are the socio -economic class relations depicted in the text?
 How does the plot, characterization, language of the text reveal or
erase class struggles?
 Does the text envision any kind of transformation of the existing class
relations in the story?
Feminist criticism
Feminist literary theory is an interdisciplinary interrogat ion of the role of
gender in the writing, interpretation, reception and circulation of literary
texts. It emerged from the struggle for women’s rights since the 18th
century.
The first wave of feminism, in the 19th and 20th centuries, began in the US
and the UK as a struggle for equality, voting and property rights for
women. The second wave of feminism in the 1960s and ’70s, was marked
by the motto, “The personal is the political,” which indicates awareness of
the false distinction between women’s domesti c and men’s public spheres.
Feminism began appearing in academic publications and scholarship.
Elaine Showalter ’s concept of gynocriticism is a useful female framework
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60 language and li terary career. In the post -1980s third wave, feminism has
become more interdisciplinary, pluralized and inclusive, and less Euro -
American centric. Contemporary feminist theory is diverse and
encompasses multiple variations like liberal feminism, radical f eminism,
black feminism/womanism, neo -marxist feminism, Islamic feminism,
intersectional feminism, among others.
A feminist approach is necessary to investigate research questions like:
 How do the text/s depict the lives of the women characters and the
relationships between men and women, and women and women?
 Do the characters, plot and language reinforce or challenge gender
stereotypes?
 What is the role of patriarchy in the lives of the characters in the text?
Postcolonialism
Postcolonial theory deals with literature produced in and about countries
that were once, or are now, colonized by other countries. Beginning in the
1970s with Edward Said’s seminal book, Orientalism , postcolonialism is
based on the concepts of otherness and resistance.
Postcolonial s cholars explore how writers from colonized countries
articulate and reclaim their cultural identities from the colonizers. They
also examine ways in which the literature of the colonizers justify
colonialism through perpetuating the notion of the colonized are inferior.
The concept of postcolonial “otherness” includes doubleness, both identity
and difference. Typically, the colonizer divides the world into mutually
excluding opposites: the west represents order, reason, masculinity,
goodness, and the east s tands for chaos, the irrational, femininity and evil.
Every “other” is dialectically created and includes the values and meaning
of the colonizing culture even as it rejects its power to define.
Postcolonial theory also focuses on resistance, and it reco gnizes that
resistance can be subversion, or opposition, or mimicry. However,
resistance always inscribes the resisted into the texture of the resisting: in
this way, the colonizer’s presence persists in the society and literature of
the colonized. The ide ntity of the colonized, thus, becomes a reclaimed but
hybrid identity. Hybridity refers to the mingling of cultural signs and
practices from the colonizing and the colonized cultures, and it can be
both enriching and oppressive.
Postcolonial theory helps in investigating research questions such as:
 How does the text’s perspective —as seen through plot,
characterization and language —validate either colonial oppression or
resistance to it?
 How does the text affirm or contest colonial ideology, either activel y
or implicitly?
 How are some characters represented as the “other” through
stereotypes?
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61


Postmodernism
Postmodernism is a socio -cultural and literary theory that originated in the
late 1950s, after the dehumanizing impact of World War II and the rise of
consumer capitalism. It is both a continuation of and a shift away from
Modernism. Both Postmodernism and Modernism share these features:
 Rejection of boundaries between high and low art.
 Employment of self -reflexive modes like pastiche and parody,
reminding the reader of the constructed -ness of texts.
 Fragmentation, decentred subjects and unreliable narrators, open to
multiple interpretations.
However, while Modernism regards contemporary fragmentation as tragic,
Postmodernism embraces fragmentation. Both Poststructuralism and
Postmodernism recognize the impossibility of having a coherent centre.
According to Jacques Derrida, this postponement of the centre, of any
coherence or unity of meaning is called difference . Modernism works
through metanarrativ es or grand narratives of order and centrality, while
Postmodernism questions and deconstructs metanarratives, which conceal
and negate inherent contradictions. Postmodernism favours “mini -
narratives” of small practices and local events, without pretending
universality and finality.
Baudrillard conceptualizes the Postmodern surface culture as a
simulacrum, which is a fake reality simulated or constructed by the media
or other ideological apparatuses. Baudrillard suggests that we have lost the
capacity to d iscriminate between the real and the artificial.
Postmodern theory may be used by researchers to study questions like:
 How does the text create and defer meaning through language?
 What are the metanarratives dismantled in the text? What mini -
narratives ar e validated?
 How does fragmentation and irony affect the construction of
characters and plot in the text?
Queer criticism
Queer theory is a critical lens established in the 1990s. It investigates how
gender - and sex -based binaries are constructed and perpe trated through
literary and cultural texts, and it aims to undo gender binaries, hierarchies
and inequalities. Queer critiques can be applied to deconstruct naturalized
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62 A key concept of queer theory is “heteronormativity,” which is a
worldview that promotes heterosexuality as the normal and privileged
sexual orientation, and it is socially reinforced through institutions like
marriage and others. Michael Foucault refused to accept that sexuality
can be clearly defined, and instead focuses on the expansive production of
sexuality within governments of power and knowledge. Gayle Rubin
demonstrates how certain sexual expressions are made more valuable than
others, and how those who are out side its parameters are oppressed. Judith
Butler discusses how gender is repeated performativity, and also how
gender performativity through drag or cross -dressing could be a strategy
of resistance.
Analysing with a queer perspective has the potential to u ndermine the base
structure on which any identity relies on, and this can be useful in
answering research questions like:
 What are the gender norms depicted in the text and how?
 Is there any resistance or subversion of these norms? How is that
resistance e xpressed in the text?
Critical Race Theory
Originating in 1989 in the United States, Critical Race Theory (CRT) is
based on the premise that race is not a biologically natural, but a socially
constructed and culturally invented category that is used to oppr ess and
exploit people of colour. Critical race theorists aim to dismantle race -
based and other unjust hierarchies.
Some of the basic tenets of CRT are:
 Race signifies an artificial correlation between a set of physical
characteristics —like skin colour —and an imagined set of behavioural
tendencies, conceived as either positive or negative.
 Most people of colour in America experience racism daily, often
through microaggressions.
 Popular media, culture and literature negatively stereotype minorities.
 “Inte rsectionality” reveals how each individual is a member of several
identity categories.
 As per the “voice of colour” thesis, people of colour are uniquely
qualified to speak on behalf of their group members regarding the
impact of racism.
As a literary cr itical approach, CRT can be used to engage with questions
like:
 What is the significance of racial issues —implicit or explicit —in the
texts examined?
 Are the voices of victims of racism included or excluded?
 How does the text reinforce or challenge systemi c racism?
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63 Eco-criticism
Ecocriticism investigates the relation between humans and the natural
world in literature . It studies how individuals in society behave and react
in relation to nature and ecological aspects. The notion of “Deep Ecology”
is at the core of ecocriticism, and it prioritizes the inherent
interconnectedness of all life forms and natural features, and presents a
symbiotic and holistic world -view of the ecosphere.
Beginning in the 1970s, ecocriticism has grown in relevance because of
multiple ecological crises that we face. Ecocriticism includes ecopoetics
and environmental literary criticism which analyse how literary treatment
and representation of nature influence our actions on nature. Ecofeminism
argues that all western thought and ac tion are not just anthropocentric but
also androcentric.
This theory is useful for researchers to understand questions like:
 How is nature represented in text/s?
 How do our metaphors of nature influence the way we treat it?
 How is science —especially scie nce that intervenes in ecology —open
to critical scrutiny?
Posthumanism
Posthumanism is a contemporary theoretical trend that primarily indicates
a series of breaks from humanism —one of the foundational assumptions
of post -Renaissance western culture. Post humanism offers a new
epistemology that is not anthropocentric and is not centred in Cartesian
mind -body dualism. Posthumanism regards the boundaries between the
human, the animal, and the technological as porous and unfixed. Related
terms include the tran shuman and the antihuman.
Donna Haraway’s concept of the cyborg embodies the
transhuman/posthuman nature of human beings. It symbolizes the multiple
ways technologies are modifying and altering how humans think, act and
interact.
Posthuman theory can be fruitfully applied to study texts —in the genre of
science fiction or having any kind of human -machine interaction —in the
light of the following questions:
 How does the human -machine interaction shape the characters and the
plot?
 Is the text anthropocentric ? How would it change if the perspective is
biocentric?
 How is the text located in the realms of the Anthropocene and the
Symbiocene?
Although we have defined various trends and theories in literary research,
many scholars argue against attempts to arrive at rigid definitions. All
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64 interconnected with other approaches and theories. Researchers need to
acknowledge this and adapt their research to the shifting and intermeshing
of liter ary trends.
5.6 LET US SUM UP
This unit has defined four approaches to literary research —author -
focused, text -focused, reader -focused and context -focused. The important
theoretical trends applicable to each approach have been introduced, along
with researc h questions investigable by each theory.
5.7 IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
The questions in this unit shall be asked in the short notes therefore you
need to understand each theoretical trend and approach in literary research
clearly.
5.8 REFERENCES
Abrams, M.H. The Mirror and the Lamp: Romantic Theory and The
Critical Tradition . Oxford University Press, 1953.
Ashcroft, Bill, Gareth Griffiths and Helen Tiffin. Post-Colonial Studies:
The Key Concepts. 3rd Ed. Routledge, 2013.
Barry, Peter. Beginning Theory: An Introdu ction to Literary and Cultural
Theory. 4th ed. Manchester University Press, 2017.
Braidotti, Rosi and Maria Hlavajova (Eds.). Posthuman
Glossary. Bloomsbury, 2018.
Crenshaw, Kimberle, Neil Gotanda, Gary Peller and Kendall Thomas
(Eds.). Critical Race Theory: T he Key Writings that Formed the
Movement. New Press, 1995.
Davis, Todd, and Kenneth Womack. Formalist Criticism and Reader -
Response Theory .Macmillan, 2002.
Dominguez, Cesar, HaunSaussy and Dario Villanueva. Introducing
Comparative Literature: New Trends and Applications. Routledge, 2015.
Eagleton, Mary (Ed.). Feminist Literary Theory: A Reader . 3rd Ed. Wiley -
Blackwell, 2011.
Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory: An Introduction . University of
Minnesota Press, 2008.
Ellmann, Maud. Psychoanalytic Literary Criticism .Longman, 1994.
Gallagher, Catherine and Stephen Greenblatt. Practicing New
Historicism .University of Chicago Press, 2000.
Glotfelty, Cheryll and Harold Fromm (Eds.) TheEcocriticism Reader:
Landmarks in Literary Ecology. University of Georgia Press, 1996. munotes.in

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65 Jaaware, Aniket. Simplifications: An Introduction to Structuralism and
Post-structuralism. Orient Longman, 2001.
Lodge, David and Nigel Wood (Eds.). Modern Criticism and Theory: A
Reader . 3rd Ed. Longman, 2008.
Lucy, Niall. Postmodern Literary Theory: An Introd uction. Wiley
Blackwell, 1997.
Norris, Christopher. Deconstruction: Theory and Practice . 3rd Ed. Taylor
and Francis, 2003.
Somerville, Siobhan B (Ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Queer
Studies .Cambridge University Press, 2020.
Tyson, Lois. Critical Theory T oday: A User -Friendly Guide . 2nd ed.
Routledge, 2006.


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66 6
PROCESS OF RESEARCH
Unit Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Selection of Research Topic
6.3 Chapterisation: Sections and Sub -sections of Chapters
6.4 Findings and Conclusion
6.5 Drafting ‘Discussion’ Section
6.6 Let Us Sum Up
6.7 Important Questions
6.8 References
6.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit we will be able to:
1. comprehend the process of selecting the research topic
2. prepare the scheme of chapters with sections and sub -sections
3. understand the process of enlisting the find ings and drawing the
conclusions
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Dear students, by this time, we do understand the key concepts regarding
‘research’ as discussed in the earlier units. In this unit we will discuss the
process of selecting the research topic, preparation o f scheme of chapters
(popularly known as ‘ chapterisation’ ) and the process of enlisting findings
and drawing the conclusions in the course of research.
Students, conducting a research is a systematic journey. Most of the times
this research journey begins with a problem/issue to be solved. The
research solves some particular problem/issue. Once we desire this
journey of research then we must consider the questions such as:
 What is the problem/issue to be solved?
 Who cares about this problem and why?
 Wha t have others done?
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67  How can we demonstrate that our solution is a good one?
In order to answer these questions we need to read/review the existing
literature on the issue. It will help us to find what is already know n about
the issue and thus our problem identification process will be triggered. The
other sources to find out the answers may be the discussion with subject
experts/ colleagues/ professor.
Gradually we will understand the need of converting the problem/i ssue in
particular or specific statement/topic. Therefore, our research begins with
the selection of research topic which is in fact the first significant step in
the research process. It is advisable that first we should concentrate on our
interest areas in order to have a researchable topic. We should start
reading the interested areas rapidly but with a purpose of finding potential
and relevant overview of probable topic for our research study. Thus,
while reading on the interested areas, we should consi der the questions
such as:
 What are some of the key studies in this area?
 What kinds of approaches have been taken to this area?
 What are the key issues and questions in this area?
 Are there any possible gaps or approaches yet to be explored in this
area?
Let us always bear in mind when it comes to literature as our interested
area we may explore some undiscovered aspects of the works of literature
of a well -known or budding author/s. We may study the dominant
interdisciplinary themes/issues from the wo rks of literature of author/s.
Further, we may deal with some issues or problems such as social,
historical, economical etc. from the works of literature of author/s.
Furthermore, we may apply particular theory/theoretical approach to the
works of literat ure of author/s. In this light, the selection of a good
research topic is the significant milestone in the journey of the research.
The following section of this unit discusses the process of selection of a
research topic.
6.2 SELECTION OF RESEARCH TOPIC
Generally, in research study selection of a feasible and clearly defined
topic is a successful beginning. However, it may not be very easy to select
a good research topic. We must understand that there is a difference
between subject (general, broader are a) and topic (specific, pin -pointed
area, a particular issue for investigation).
Students, in our graduation we have general understanding of broader
areas i.e. subjects for examples: Indian Literature, American Literature,
British Literature, Commonwealth Literature etc. Now, while doing
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68 considering the genre, the age, the period, the author/s, particular work/s
of the author/s as shown in the figure below:
Literature

Indian Lit erature

Contemporary Indian Literature

Contemporary Indian Novels
(published between 1990 -2010)
Author/s (Novelist/s)
(AnuragMathur, Arundhati Roy,
Bharati Mukherjee, JhumpaLahiri,
Kiran Desai, ManjuKapoor )
Particular Work/s (Novels)
(‘The Inscrutable American’,
‘The God of Small Things’, ‘Desirable Daughters’,
‘The Namesake’, ‘The Inheritance of Loss’,
‘The Immigrant’ )
Selection of the Characters
(Male or Female)
Framing the Research Topic

The selected topic should be new an d researchable. So students we need
creative thinking so as to have new, original and unique ideas. Further, we
must know that there are some sources or strategies that help in the
selection of research topic. These strategies are discussed by Wang and
Park (2016), Roberts (2010) as:
i. Review of Literature: The review of literature helps in deciding and
resolving about what is known and not known about the selected
topic. It also clears up the need of further research related to he
selected topic. Students wh ile having the review we must pay
attention to the “Recommendations for future research”, and
‘Limitation of the Study’ form the theses, journals and other
secondary sources of data.
ii. Brainstorming: Organizing few brainstorming sessions or building a
networ k so as to interact with friends, students, seniors and professors
who can guide, direct and discuss ideas for research topic. In all, it
can be used to generate ideas regarding the topic.
iii. Participation in Seminars: Attend seminars/ conferences
/presentat ions/ discussion sessions on the selected topic can help in
having new ideas or fresh insights for the topic.
iv. Attending Viva -voce/Oral Defense: This may provide fresh insights
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69 v. Use of Online Databases: Students w e can also search information
regarding the selected topic on the Internet systematically.
Information and Library Network (INFLIBNET) is an autonomous
Inter -University Centre of the University Grants Commission where
we can find theses repository system ( Shodhganga , Shodhgangotri )
and websites of renowned universities can also be helpful. Students,
we may use thesaurus, reference books, textbooks, notes etc. to find
different keywords related to our topic in the databases.
vi. Use of Internet: The encyclopae dias, Google News/Scholar and other
online sources help in topic ideas or for selection of the topic.
Students, we can compare our interest area or topic with the past
ones. Further, reading the abstract or summary from these sources can
support we to form basic overview of our topic. Students, we can
search for the concepts or keywords when reading the articles on
encyclopaedia. After the search, further, we can perceive how our
idea relates to broader or narrower, and related issues therein.
In all, the research topic needs to be very precise, interesting and also
broad enough to have sufficient data/information. Hence, choose topic of
our interest. Talk about research ideas with friends, colleagues, professors,
and guide. It will help focus our topic by d iscussing issues that did not
occur to us at first. Students, see to it that the topic is appropriate to our
discipline. Narrow down the broad topic to a specific one so as to make it
manageable and focused. Think about the social, scientific and personal
relevance of the topic. Further, also think about the feasibility of the study
on the topic. The feasibility can be checked while pondering over the
available resources, time -frame, and human -power, financial and other
constrains, ability of the researche r etc.
Let us understand it may be not be desirable if we select a particular topic
that requires years of searching for primary or secondary sources. In
general, much studied or familiar topics may be avoided. However,
considering the freshness of the app roach, or fresh insight, such topics
could be made fresh again. Students, we must understand that, at the end
of our research journey, our thesis must be a contribution to the sum total
of human knowledge; it must add something new to the existing
knowledg e. Thus, our thesis must be meaningful by illuminating an aspect
of literature or language which was unknown to the world. In this regard,
the guidance a researcher obtains from his professors, research guide is
requisite.
To sum up, let us understand tha t the selection of research topic forms the
base whereby a researcher constructs the building of the research. We
have discussed that the selection of the research topic is mainly directed
by the desire and interest of the researcher. The shortlisted area then must
be narrowed down to the specific or focused topic. Simultaneously, the
focused area must be scientifically, socially or personally relevant. The
essence of selection of the research topic should also further be examined
from the point of view of feasibility of the study. Here, the strategies that
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70 6.3 CHAPTERISATION: SECTIONS AND SUB -
SECTIONS OF CHAPTERS
After going through this part of the present unit, we will be able to prepare
the scheme of chapters with sections and sub -sections of our research
study. In all we will be able to understand the structure of thesis which in
fact is the basic step in planning a thesis writing process. In general,
considering the scope of re search study, it is marked that a (non -technical)
thesis has at least five major partitions in the form of chapters. This
process is popularly known as ‘chapterisation’ or scheme of chapters. This
process or scheme helps us to categorise and present data ( primary and
secondary), findings, conclusions etc. systematically in our thesis.
So in order to frame effective scheme of chapters for our research we must
be aware of exiting guidelines/rules of the university; the nature of our
research study as technic al or non -technical and the general format of
thesis; the nature and length of data to present in the thesis etc. Then
accordingly the chapters are formed so as to give the reader an idea of
what to anticipate in each chapter. The names of chapters must be short
and informative about the content of thesis.
We must understand that the thesis structure will vary considering the
factors such as rules of the university, our subject/topic (technical or non -
technical), scope of research, nature of data (qualitati ve or quantitative)
etc. In general, non -technical subject like literature or cultural studies are
seen more concentrated on theory, concepts, and cases while technical
subjects like computer sciences or engineering concentrate more on
programming.
Non-technical subject, like literature, has following widely used format
i.e. the scheme of chapters. The non -technical thesis has
1. a background to the problem (Introduction),
2. followed by the review of literature,
3. research methodology,
4. data analysis and
5. the c onclusion.
This scheme of chapters is seen accepted by many universities for non -
technical subjects. However, the technical subjects required more chapters
as they concentrate more on exploration and development of data (e.g.
primary data if collected fro m surveys, interviews and focus group
discussions then researcher can devote different chapters to different
types of data ). Hence, technical subjects need more than one chapter
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71 In view of the above discussion, the general (typical) ‘chapterisation’ or
scheme of chapters with sections and sub -sections for non -technical
subjects is outlined below:
No of
Sectio
n Particulars:
Section
(Probable) Particulars: Sub -sections
(Probable)
1 Title Page  Title of the Thesis
 Name of University
 Name of
discipline/faculty/subject
 Name of researcher
 Name of supervisor
 Study center
 Month and year of thesis
submission
2 Abstract  A summary of aim and
objectives of the research
 Outcomes of review of literature
 Research gap
 Research methodology
 Findings/conclusions.
3 Acknowledge
ment  Expression of gratitude or
thankfulness towards the
supporters/contributors.
 Names of the people and their
role in the research study.
4 Table of
contents
(Index)  Sequential listing of every
important element (Section and
Sub-section) of thesis.
 It is indexing of Section and Sub -
section with its corresponding
page number as shown in the
following table:
Content Page
No.
Certificate i
Declaration ii
Stateme nt by the candidate iii
Acknowledgment iv-v
List of Tables vi
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72 List of Graphs viii
List of Acronyms ix
Chapter 1. Introduction 01 – 30
1.1Research Outline 02
1.1.1 The Reason/
Background for the study 04
1.1.2 Objectives 05
1.1.3 Hypotheses 06
1.1.4 Statement of the
problem 07
1.1.5 Scope of the research 08
1.1.6 Data 09
1.1.7 Significance of the
research 10
1.1.8 Scheme of chapters/
Organization of study 12
1.2 Introductory Remarks 14 1.3 Conceptual framework
(Brief history of ….
/Definitions) 19
1.4 Summary 30 Chapter 2. Review of literature 31-50

5 Chapter 1.
Introduction  The Reason/Background for the
study
 Objectives
 Research questions
 Hypotheses
 Statement of the problem
 Scope of the research
 Data
 Significance of the research
 Scheme of chapters/
Organization of the study
 Introductory remarks
 Conceptual framework
 Summary
6 Chapter 2.
Review of
literature  Synthesis of recent research
studies conducted on the topic
 Critical review
 Research gaps,
 Theoretical framework
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73 7 Chapter 3.
Research
methodology  Research philosophy/approach
 Research methodology/ type of
research
 Research strategy or technique,
 Type of data (Qualitative or
Quantitative)
 Sampling (plan for target
population/selected texts, size
of sample, type of sampling)
 Process of data collection
 Process of data analysis (validity,
reliability and authenticity of
data)
 Summary
8 Chapter 4.
Data analysis  Introduction
 Analysis of data collection
 Analysis of Questionnaire
 Analysis of Interview
 Analysis of Survey etc. or
 Textual analysis of selected texts
 Thematic analysis
 Inferential analysis and
hypothesis testing
 Summary
9 Chapter 5.
Discussion,
findings,
conclusions
and
recommenda
tions  Introduction
 Synoptic summarization
 Findings
 Discussion
 Recommendations
 Limitations of the study
 Scope for further research
 Conclusion
 Summary
10 Appendices  Questionnaire/s
 List of respondents
 Plagiarism report
11 References  As per the recommended style
(MLA, APA, Chicago,
Harvard)
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74 In view of the above, students, we will discuss the basic idea or logic
behind each major section (chapter) of the non - technical thesis.
The first chapter (major section) most of the times happen to be
‘Introduction’. This chapter may deal with the outline of the research
study, brief survey regarding the selected topic/area in order to register the
introductory remarks, the overall organization of the study, conceptual
framework, the key concepts, the ( working) definitions, meaning, nature,
scope of the sele cted terms/concepts and the other concepts associated
with selected terms/concepts etc. This chapter can also deal with the aims
and objectives of the research, the research questions and the importance
of the research.
The second chapter ‘Review of litera ture’ aims at all -inclusive review of
existing literature associated with our research. This chapter discusses the
earlier relevant research studies and sort out the gaps in the existing
research. Further, it may cover the open questions left from earlier
research. In all, this section provides the s ynthesis of recent research
studies conducted on our research topic, the overall critical review based
on the identified gaps in research. Sometimes, this chapter can also
provide theoretical framework for the r esearch by describing different
theoretical aspects of the selected topic or issue.
The third chapter ‘Research methodology’ provides the research procedure
adopted for our research study. Research methodology is the precise
process supported with techniq ues used to identify, select, process, and
analyse information or data about the selected area of the research. This
chapter deals with the research methodology, research technique, research
procedures and design adopted to obtain data. It may focus in wha t way
the research method is employed to analyse the primary sources (e.g. the
select texts) or how the adopted research methodology enables the
researcher to concentrate on the analysis and interpretation of the selected
data. The very chapter thus deals with research philosophy/approach, the
selected research methodology, type of research used, research strategy or
technique used, how the data (qualitative or quantitative) is analysed etc.
The forth chapter ‘Data analysis’ provides an assessment of the d ata
collected through qualitative and quantitative measures. This chapter deals
with the analysis of data e.g. the analysis of select texts, of questionnaires,
of structured or semi -structured interviews, of surveys etc. This chapter
provides the textual a nalysis of selected texts, or the thematic analysis or
the inferential analysis and hypothesis testing in literature. The chapter, in
case of quantitative data, may contain figures and graphs for better
assessments of the analysis.
The fifth chapter ‘Disc ussion, findings, conclusions and
recommendations’ deals with the results (conclusions) of the conducted
research. It provides synoptic summarization of our research study
conducted so far. It also presents discussion and summary on the basis of
the interp retations drawn from the analysis. It can deal with
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75 of the present research study a scope for further research may be provided
therein.
The above was the general outline of schem e of chapters for the non -
technical research study. Further, i t is observed that some research study
has a devoted chapter on the research methodology and others do not.
Sometimes, a research study may have limitations of the words (minimum
or maximum) he nce depending upon the regulations and other needs
(constraints) researcher can have more or less than five chapters in order
to avoid the research presentation as repetitive, disconnecting, and boring.
Further, we must remember a rule of thumb to prepare the scheme of
chapters with sections and sub -sections of our research study, that is, we
should not skip the essentials. The number of chapters should not be the
reason to skip the basic parts of research e.g. the background, review of
literature, and the analysis and interpretation of data. The overall scheme
of said basic parts of research must result into the foundation of our
research study and the remaining chapters as the supportive pillars.
As discussed earlier the above ‘chapterisation’ or scheme o f chapters
with sections and sub -sections can be changed as per the rules of the
university, our subject/topic (technical or non -technical), scope/type of
research, nature of data/content (qualitative or quantitative) etc.
However, scheme of chapters must aim at the overall presentation of
thesis logically.
So to sum up, generally the organisation/planning comes first in order
to set precedence regarding the overall thesis framework or chapter.
This logical arrangement must be reflected in the scheme of ch apters
denoting major sections and sub -sections. Let us understand that the
major sections (chapters) or sub -section of our thesis do not stand
entirely alone. The content of our thesis, in a sense, is an argument in
which each major section or sub -section goes one step, one move in the
direction of conclusion. Hence, the ‘chapterisation’ say the scheme of
chapters with sections and sub -sections must be in logical order. Each
section and sub -section has a precise job to do in the overall scheme of
chapters. Hence, each section and sub -section needs to be linked to the
one before and one after sequentially. In all, students, our research
study/ thesis must be presented in a systematic way or arranged in the
given order if provided by the university and here s cheme of chapters
plays very crucial role.
6.4 FINDINGS AND CONCLUSION
It is important to know that the ‘findings and conclusion’section in the
non-technical subject like literary studies deals with the results/outcomes
of the conducted research. The last chapter of the thesis delivers the
findings and conclusion on the basis of the interpretations drawn from the
data analysis from the earlier chapters of the thesis.
The findings are developed from the analysis of the data. The findings can
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76 or character/s. For example, if we have conducted a qualitative research
study and have identified key themes/issues while analysing the data from
the works of literature of the author then we may highlight the
themes/issues in findings section of our thesis. It may be appropriate way
to proceed as we refer to the information that we have already documented
earlier and now we are presenting them in a logical way. Another way
may be to enlist our findings in relation to our research questions or our
hypotheses. The findings can be categorised as per technical area e.g.
age/gender/place -relevant findings in case of quantitative data obtained
from questionnaire or survey.
When it comes to enlisting t he findings of our research study then there
should not exit any uncertainty or confusion for the readers. The findings
essentially reveal the readers what they must know clearly about our
research study. So, students we may present our findings section
beginning with effective introduction that informs the readers our precise
journey i.e. where we have started/come from in the research process and
what is the outcome.
The section devoted to ‘findings’ is basically the descriptions of
results/outcomes. Hen ce, before dealing with the findings we must be sure
that we have evidently recognised the data that is related with the research
questions, hypotheses, or themes/issues of our research. In this section, we
are not expected to enlist what past researchers have said about our
research area. Therefore, while dealing with ‘findings’ we should
precisely exhibit our own contribution to the existing knowledge based on
the analysis/interpretation of the data.
It is useful to remember that the recommendations, gene rally, stem from
the findings. Hence, we must tie the recommendations to the finding that
supports them. Recommendations put forward particular strategies to
address the problems/issues recognised in the assessment of data.
Students, we must see to it that the offered recommendations should
respond to findings which we enlisted through data collection, analysis
and interpretation accordingly. Students we should prioritise the findings
in order to narrow down them and also line up them with the
recommendatio ns. Further, the recommendations should be feasible and in
SMART (Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic, Timely) format.
Now, we will see the difference between a discussion and conclusion
section of the thesis. Most of the times these two terms are used
interchangeably. However, these two terms have different purposes in the
thesis writing. The discussion section is employed to have comprehensive
presentation of the findings. It also offers methodical support for our
argument/s. In all, the discussi on section of the thesis elucidates the
findings, interprets them in the context of previous work, and offers
suggestions for future research. The conclusion section of the thesis
usually briefs or states the facts and main points of our thesis i.e. the ta ke-
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77 We must see to it that the conclusion section of our thesis must cover our
main argument/idea and offer the reader with the key -takeaways or strong
final impression. It may also restate the research problems and summarize
our overall arguments or most important findings. The conclusion section
may be consider as summary of our discussion and can state why our
research is relevant. However, the conclusion is not a summary. The
conclusion must transport our argument to a log ical close. It must justify
our argument to the readers. So, the conclusion may describe the
significance of the argument and may brief ‘why is my argument
important?’
Generally, in research paper the purpose of a conclusion is to summarise
the main points of our research study. Here, we can bring together
1. What we have been saying?
2. What is our opinion? and
3. What is our clear understanding of the topic?
Thus, our conclusion should emphasis the key argument, summarise the
answer to the research question as indicated in the introductory part, and
reinforce the main theme/issue. The conclusion must confirm researcher
understands of and approach to the conducted research study.
While writing the conclusion we should not begin the sentence with the
redundant ph rases e.g. ‘in conclusion’ or ‘to conclude’ etc. Further, we
just make a judicious final claim regarding our research and do not
exaggerate the main finding/s. We must take exceptional care with the
final sentence in the conclusion and draft it with maximu m care so as to
leave a strong final impression/ take -home message or key -takeaways to
the readers. So, we must consult with our guide/supervisor while writing
the final sentence of the conclusion.
6.5 DRAFTING ‘DISCUSSION’ SECTION
The following extracts discuss the care to be taken while drafting
‘discussion’ section in the light of findings and conclusion. The discussion
section is a review of the findings. It aims at presenting researcher’s
understanding of the findings. It is usually written in the pre sent tense. The
discussion section can have sub -sections. In the discussion section
researcher is expected to interpret and explain the results and link them
with other research studies.
Here, the researcher can answer the research question/s and evaluate the
study. The researcher, while drafting the discussion section, is expected to
 refer to the research questions,
 provide the answer,
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78  link the present research study with other works.
In all, the discus sion section gives the researcher fine space to clarify the
meaning of the results, therefore, while drafting this discussion section the
focus must be to help the reader understand the research and that the
highlight should be on the data.
Hence, the effe ctive outline or framework of discussion section is
fundamental in thesis writing. The outline of discussion section can differ
as per the requirement of the discipline or subject. Though, the
followingsteps and strategies as suggested by Hess Dean (2004) can be
useful to create an outline of discussion section.
Step No Strategy Particulars of Strategy
(Probable)
1 Summarizing
key findings Summarize the key findings from the
research and link them to the initial
research question/s. Pursue an swers to
the research question/s and ponder over
‘What should readers take away from
this research?’ The discussion should
begin with a statement of the major
findings and it may form first paragraph
in the discussion. It should be a direct,
declarative, a nd succinct proclamation
of the results of the research.
2 Placing the
findings in
context and
stating the
relevance Place the findings in context. So there is
a need to refer back to literature review
and analysis sections and how the results
fit in wit h past research. The discussion
section should relate our research
findings to those of other studies. The
findings of other studies may support
our findings, which strengthens the
importance of our results. In all, explain
the meaning of the findings and why the
findings are important (relevant) in the
given context.
3 Considering
alternative
explanations or
mentioning and
discussing any Mention and discuss any unexpected
results. Describe the results and offer a
judicious interpretati on of why they may
have appeared. Additionally, if an
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79 unexpected
result/s research question, be sure to explain that
connection. Let us understand that the
purpose of research is to discover and
not to prove hence we can discuss any
unexpected result/s
4 Acknowledging
limitations or
weaknesses in
the research. Address limitations/weaknesses in the
research so as to form the credibility as a
researcher. The reader has clear idea
about what our study does and does not
cover. Even the best research studies can
have limitations so just acknowledge the
limitations or weaknesses.
5 Making
suggestions for
further
research or
recommendatio
ns Recommend a few areas where further
research/enquiry may be vital. Suggest
potential area for follow -up research
studies. But, do not go overboard with
the suggestions.
6 Restating/Reaffi
rmation of the
most significant
findings and
their
implications Conclude with a restatement of the most
significant findings and their
implications. Explain why the resea rch
is important and remind readers of the
connections it has with outside material
- existing literature or an aspect of the
field that is affected by the study.

Hess Dean (2004) also suggests ‘care’ i.e. things to avoid in the discussion
section as
 The interpretation of the results must not go beyond what is supported
by the data (Avoid over -presentation of the results).
 There is little room for speculation in discussion and hence it should
remain focused on the data (Avoid unwarranted speculation).
 The unjustified or undue importance of the research results can
disgust reviewers and readers (Avoid inflation of the importance of
the findings).
 The tangential issues (digression) into the discussion section distracts
and confuses the reader hence need to focus on the hypothesis and
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80  The discussion section cannot be utilized to criticize other research
studies. Researcher can contrast the findings to other published
research but in a professional way. Do not use the di scussion to
attack past researchers. (Avoid ‘bully pulpit’).
 Avoid the conclusions that are not supported by the data and save
‘take -home message’ for the conclusion section.
In short, while writing the discussion section, we should have outline; use
subheadings as per the key points; continue with same tone, terminology
(but not use jargon) and point of view; be logical and concise; cite all the
sources and avoid the plagiarism. The discussion section is the final major
section of the thesis whereby rese archer explains the results, its
importance and relates to the research question(s). We should lead the
readers on a research journey and make sure that they stay on the track and
arrive at the final destination with us through the discussion section.
6.6 LET US SUM UP
In this unit we have discussed in what way we can select
research topic, prepare the scheme of chapters with sections and sub -
sections and enlist the findings and draw the conclusions of our research
study. We have discussed the content of t he thesis as reflected in the major
sections or sub -sections that go one step ahead in the direction of
conclusion. Hence, while pondering over the overall process of research or
the organization of the thesis we need to answer the questions such as:
What is the overall argument? What is the specific contribution each
chapter makes to the argument? What order (sequence) should the
chapters come in? What is the internal argument for each chapter? What
meta commentary/meta data (data about data) should be pro vided to make
sure the reader moves smoothly from one chapter to the next one?
In view of the above, the very selection of the research topic is
the crucial as it forms the base upon which we being the researcher will
construct the building of the researc h. The selection of topic is generally
comes out of the interest of the researcher. This interest (area) needs to be
narrow down to the specific/focused topic. The topic must be relevant and
feasible. Students, the strategies that are discussed in this uni t can be used
for the selection of research topic.
The scheme of chapters with sections and sub -sections is really
crucial in our research study. The process of categorisation or organization
of data is popularly known as ‘chapterisation’ or scheme of c hapters. It
enables us to comprehend the overall structure of our thesis which is also
considered as the fundamental step in planning of our thesis writing. We
must have understood the difference between the scheme of chapters for
technical and non -technic al thesis. In general a non -technical thesis has
five major partitions or sections in the form of chapters. In general, the
non-technical subject e.g. literature has scheme of chapters as
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81  a background to the problem (Introduction),
 review of literature,
 research methodology,
 data analysis and
 Conclusion.
However, we have discussed that this scheme may vary as per the rules of
the university, subject/topic, scope of research, nature of data being
qualitative or quantitative etc.
Let us remember that t he findings and conclusion section is a significant
section of our thesis. We can categorise the findings into sections as per
the thematic areas/themes/issues, particular author/s or character/s. or as
per research questions/hypotheses. In case of quantit ative data collected
from questionnaire/survey, the findings can be written off as per
age/gender/place etc.
The discussion section is also very important section in thesis writing and
should have outline in order to be logical. The steps and strategies and
‘care’ as suggested by Hess Dean can be used to form an outline of the
discussion section. It is good idea to show that we are aware of the
limitations of our study in the discussion section. The discussion section
should deal with both sides of our ar gument so as to give our conclusion
more credibility.
6.7 IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

i. Describe the process of selecting the research topic.
ii. Illuminate on the useful strategies for selecting the research topic.
iii. Prepare the scheme of chapters ( chapterisation ) with sections and
sub-sections of for non -technical thesis.
iv. Explain the chapter scheme in research.
v. What is chapter scheme in research?
vi. Clarify the probable differences regarding scheme of chapters for
technical and non -technical thesis.
vii. Write a note on process of enlisting the findings.
viii. Write a note on drawing the conclusions.
ix. What is the difference between a discussion section and conclusion
in research?
x. What care must be taken while drafting findings and conclusion?
xi. Explain the probable steps and strategies t o create an outline of
discussion section.
xii. Describe the mistakes/ things to avoid while drafting the discussion
section.



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82
6.8 REFERENCES
Best, J.W. and Kahn, J.V., 1996, Research In Education, Prentice Hall of
India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
Hess, Dean, 200 4, How to Write an Effective Discussion. Respiratory
care.Vol. 49.No.10. pp -1238 -41.
Kumar, R., 2011, Research Methodology: A Step -by-Step Guide for
Beginners , Third edition, Sage Publication, New Delhi.
Patrick Dunleavy., 2003, Authoring a PhD: How to Plan , Draft, Write and
Finish a Doctoral Thesis or Dissertation, Palgrave Macmillan,
Basingstoke and New York.
Roberts, C.M., 2010, Choosing a Dissertation Topic, The Dissertation
Journey: A Practical and Comprehensive Guide to Planning, Writing, and
Defendin g Wer Dissertation , Sage Publication, New Delhi.
Wang, G. T. and Park, K., 2016, Student Research and Report Writing:
From Topic Selection to the Complete Paper , John Wiley & Sons Ltd.,
West Sussex, UK.
Wayne C. Booth, Gregory G. Colomb and Joseph M. Willi ams, 2008, The
Craft of Research , Third edition, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.


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