MA-English-Drama-munotes

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1UNIT -1
FIRST FIVE LITERARY TERMS PART I
Unit Structure :
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Elements of Drama
1.2 Greek Theatre
1.3 Indian Classical Theatre
1.4 Folk Theatre
1.5 Black Theatre
1.6 Let us Sum up
1.7 Important Questions
1.8 References
1.0. OBJECTIVES
In this unit, students will be familiarized with fundamental
knowledge about the concept of theatre, elements of theatre and
various kinds of theatre in the world. After studying this unit, they
will be using the knowledge gained for critically evaluating the
theatre and drama.
1.1ELEMENTS OF DRAMA
Literature springs from our inborn love of telling a story, of
arranging words in pleasing patterns, of expressing in words some
special aspect of our human experience. There are a number of
different branches such as drama, poetry, the novel, the short st ory;
all these are works of the imagination arising from man’s capacity
for invention. The primary aim of literature is to give pleasure, to
entertain those who voluntarily attend to it.
The word drama comes from the Greek meaning “to act, do
or perform” ,a n di t is in the several subtle and diverse meanings of
“to perform” that drama can be said to have begun. Drama is one of
the major forms of literature. As a literary form, it is designed for the
theatre because characters are assigned role and they act out their
roles as the action is enacted on stage. It is difficult to separate
drama from performance because during the stage performance of
a play, drama brings life experiences realistically to audience.
Drama is therefore presented in dialogue.munotes.in

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2Drama is an imitation of life. Drama is different from other
forms of literature because of its unique characteristics. It is read,
but basically, it is composed to be performed, so the ultimate aim of
dramatic composition is for it to be presented on stage befo re an
audience. This implies that it is a medium of communication. It has
a message to communicate to the audience. It uses actors to
convey this message.
Drama has been defined differently. Let’s understand some
of them.
“A play is a just and lively ima ge of human nature,
representing its passions and humours and the changes of fortune
to which it is subject for the delight and instruction of mankind”. -
John Dryden
“Drama is a composition in verse or prose intended to
portray life or character or tell a story usually involving conflicts and
emotions through action and dialogue and typically designed for
theatrical performance”. -Webster’s English Dictionary
“Drama is a composition designed for performance in the
theatre, in which actors take the roles of the characters, perform the
indicated action and utter the written dialogue”. -A Glossary of
Literary Terms by M. H. Abrams
The elements of drama include plot, character, dialogue,
conflict, staging, and theme. The discussions of each of these
elements individually allow us to highlight the characteristic features
of drama in a convenient way.
Plot
Plot means the arrangement of the events in a story,
including the sequence in which they are told, the relative emphasis
they are given, and the causal connections between events. Plot is
the series of events that take place in a play.
For the dramatic purpose plot means plan, scheme or
pattern. It may be defined as a pattern of events -the way in which
events are organized. It has to do with internal r elation of events or
the way incidents are combined or unified to produce an ‘organic
whole’. The events have to be formed into a plot. It is also narrative
of events, the emphases on causality. Plots could be infinite or
limitless, but their significance have no limits and that’s why
Aristotle said that plot is the soul of tragedy. According to Aristotle
action in drama is complete in itself. It has a beginning, a middle
and an end. At some points action begins, then complications
enter, which gradually re aches a peak point, technically called the
climax, followed by a crisis or the terming point what Aristotlemunotes.in

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3termed us asperipety, this leads to the failure of the central
character; the catastrophe depends on discovery or anagnoris is.
Character
Character is the next important element of the drama. One
can’t imagine the drama without characters. Characters are
persons like the men and women we see around us but sometimes
unreal and supernatural types of characters are also present. Plot
and characters are inseparable part because when we read plays
for their plots tofind out what happens -we also read them of
discover the fates of their characters. We become interested in
dramatic characters for varying, even contradictory, reasons.
Characters bring play to life.
Characters in drama can be classified as a major, minor,
static and dynamic, flat and round. A major character is an
important figure at the center of the play’s action and meaning.
Supporting the major character are one or more secondary or mi nor
characters, whose function is partly to illuminate the major
characters. Minor characters are often static or unchanging; they
remain essentially the same throughout the play. Dynamic
characters, on the other hand, exhibit some kind of change -of
attitu de, of purpose, of behavior. Flat characters reveal only a
single dimension, and their behavior and speech are predictable;
round characters are more individualized, reveal more than one
aspect of their human nature, and are not predictable in behavior or
speech.
Dynamic/ Round Character is a character that changes
according to the course of events in the story. He may or may not
be the protagonist or the hero. In most cases, he grows from
innocence to maturity or from ignorance to knowledge, so he is
consistently alert to his environment with its attendant problem and
reacts accordingly.
Static / Flat / Stock Character is complex and does not
change in any basic way in the course of the story. He is presented
in outline and without much individualization. He is usually stable
and is said to be static because he retains essentially the same
outlook, attitudes, values and dispositions from the beginning of the
story to the end of the story. He is the opposite of the round
character but lakes complexity in term of presentation.
Dialogue
Inits widest sense, dialogue is simply conversation between
people in literary work; in its most restricted sense, it refers
specifically to the speech of characters in adrama. As a specific
literary genre, a ‘dialogue’ is a composition in which charactersmunotes.in

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4debate and issue or idea. The dictionary tells us that; “dialogue is a
conversation between two or more persons real or imaginary”.
According to the critics of drama reading drama means essentially
reading dialogue.
Our discussion of character and confli ct brings us to a critical
aspect of dramatic characters -their speech, or dialogue. Dialogue
involves two speakers and monologue to the speech of one. An
important dramatic convention of dialogue is the use of a soliloquy
to express a character’s state of mind.
A soliloquy represents a character’s thoughts so the
audience can know what he or she is thinking at a given moment.
Soliloquies should be distinguished from asides, which are
comments made directly to the audience in the presence of other
characte rs, but without those characters hearing what is said.
Unlike a soliloquy, an aside is usually a brief remark.
Dialogue is a very significant element. Dialogue reveals the
nature of character and also gives us information about his
relations with the pers on spoken or of the person not present when
the conversation takes place. J. L. Styan rightly describes ‘dialogue
as dramatic speech’.
Conflict
The conflict can be the protagonist’s struggle against fate,
nature, society, or another person. Conflict bring s interest in the
story. Conflict means some kind of struggle of competition. It is the
conflict that makes the drama appealing .Conflicts are of two types
i.e. internal conflict and external conflict. Internal conflict deals with
man verses self it is als ocalled as a psychological conflict. External
conflict deals with man vs outside forces.
Staging / Stage Directions
Drama is distinct from other literature because it is
performed in front of an audience by actors to tell a story, along
with the use of a set, lighting, music, and costumes. Stage
Directions are guidelines, suggestions, given by the dramatist in the
script of the play. They are the guidelines for the producer and the
author wishes to be. Stage directions in earlier drama were pure
and simpl e. They gave the outline of the scenery of the play and
broad directions to the actors. Stage directions establish a link
between the reader and the dramatist. In the dramatic literature of
the past the chorus took care of these functions. In modern d rama
through the medium of the stage directions the dramatist attempts
to exercise his control on the production. Theater artists bring the
playwright’s vision to life on the stage. The audience responds to
the play and shares the experience.munotes.in

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5Theme
We use the word theme to designate the main idea or point
of a play stated as a generalization. Because formulating the theme
of a play involves abstracting from it a generalizable idea, the
notion of the theme inevitably moves away from the very details of
character and action that give the play its life. This is not to suggest
that it is not rewarding or useful to attempt to identify a central idea
or set of ideas from plays, but only that we should be aware of the
limitations of our doing so.
1.2GREEK THEATR E
The word ‘theatre ’comes from the Greek theatron ,l i t e r a l l y
"seeing place," or "place where something is seen." The word was
first used in its current form in 1576 when James Burbage named
his playhouse the Theatre. Since Burbage’s playhouse was o ne of
the first, if not the first, structure built specifically for the production
of plays, the name theatre eventually came to mean first the
buildings and then the entire genre. The companion
term ‘drama ’comes from the Greek word dran,l i t e r a l l y" t od o ." It is
"something done." Frequently the terms are used interchangeably,
although the theatre always refers to the structure where the
performances are held as well as to the company of players who
perform.
Theatre also refers to the designers, administ rators,
technicians, etc. who work together to produce plays as well as the
body of ideas that animates the artists and brings the plays to life.
Drama is a more limited term and tends to refer mainly to the plays
that are produced. In other words, drama i s the script itself; theatre
is all the elements that combine to bring that play to life. Drama
requires the reader to contribute more than any other form of
literature does. Not only must the reader see and understand what
is explicitly said and done, but he/she must also be aware of all that
is merely implied or left unsaid.
We can trace the history of theater to as far as 700BC
and the Ancient Greek civilization. We know that the Greeks
enjoyed musicals, but sadly, we don’t have the actual music or
understand what compositions were most popular. However,
we can still see how the Ancient Greeks’ love of theater plays
ap a r ti nt h e Broadway ,a n dt h e West End shows we know and
love today.
Theater first established in Greece in what was then the
city-stateo fA t h e n s ,s h o r t l yb e f o r et h ec l a s s i c a lp e r i o do f
Ancient Greece. The authorities held annual festivals to honor
the God Dionysus to promote peace and community betweenmunotes.in

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6individuals and neighboring city -states following the Great
Destruction ofAthens in480 BCE .
The first shows were often individual poets acting out
their written works. These shows quickly started to attract
large audiences, which subsequently led to the production of
longer scripts and people specifically choosing to act out
certain roles. It wasn’t long before these shows started to have
writers, directors, and a cast of actors.
Most plays in ancient Greece would also take the form of
competitions for who could create the best performance. The
earliest recorded competition w inner was Thespis ,who
became known as “The Father of Tragedy.” Thespis isalso
regarded asone ofthefounding fathers ofdrama, which iswhy
wesometimes refer tomodern actors asthespians .
Another important aspect of these festivals was
performances ofthe work ofHomer, who lived sometime
between the12th and 8thcenturies BC. Around the start of the
classical period of Ancient Greece, scholars at the time were
beginning to curate Homer’s works. Their readings at these
shows would be the first stage of bringing Homer into the
public consciousness, and he remains revered today. It wasn’t
just drama and the theater that took off as Ancient Greece
entered its classical period. The entire civilization went through
a“ G o l d e nA g e , ”w h e r et h ep e o p l ew e r ep a s sionate about
advancing and creating art, architecture, literature,
monuments, philosophy, and drama. Greece was the
foundation of modern culture.
Many of the plot devices and other writing tools used
byAncient Greek playwrights still apply and can be s een in
modern works. Although we may not know the specifics of
what happened during each performance, the dramas of
Ancient Greece have stood the test of time. Three genres
came to characterize Ancient Greek Theater: Tragedy,
Comedy, and Satire.
Early plays were typically tragedies; hence thecultural
use oftheterm “Greek Tragedy” that isstill widely used today.
Tragedies were popular because they were the most in -
demand stories at the time. Audiences wanted to see a story
that ended with a tragedy or that had a tragic moral. Some of
Aristotle’s writings indicate dithyrambs inspired many theatrical
tragedy productions. Dithyrambs were choral hymns sung in
honor of Dionysus at each year’s festival. Tragedies were also
often played alongside annual ritual su n d e r t a k e nb yt h e
Ancient Greeks to honor Dionysus. Citizens would wear masksmunotes.in

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7and sacrifice animals, usually goats while singing dithyrambs
or performing a tragic poem or play. This link led to the
adoption ofDionysus asthegod ofthetheater ,i na d d i t i o nt o
the other things for which the Ancient Greeks worshipped him.
Comedies represented ancient Greek’s daily lives and
the absurdities that could happen to them. In contrast,
tragedies often were set in the past and were more likely to
include appearances from the gods. Aristophanes is credited
with writing most of Ancient Greece’s first comedy plays. In
Aristotle’s writings around the emergence of the genre, he
explains comedy consists of ch aracters who are there solely
for the audience to laugh at. They make a mistake, and the
audience does not feel pain from seeing it, representing the
opposite of tragedy. At the time, comedy was a means of
offering an alternative to tragic stories and perf ormances.
Ancient Greek theater allows us to gain insights into how
Ancient Greek society was and comedy offered a window into
the legal system, education, religious practices, and political
systems of Ancient Greece. Analysis of Ancient Greek pottery
designs suggests that actors have been wearing costumes and
doing sillyactions onstage forthousands ofyears .
Satire emerged from tragedy and quickly became
popular. Ancient Greek satire was a mix of comedy and drama,
sometimes referred to as a tragi -comed y. Ancient Greek satire
would rely heavily on sexual themes and topics such as
drunkenness and is meant to get a lot of laughs from the
audience. Writers designed the characters’ actions to shame
people into change by seeing the actors mocked for things
they do themselves. These were the main difference between
satire and comedy in ancient Greece. Comedy was to be light -
hearted, while satire used laughter paired with shame to
provide social commentary and to make people or society
change. There were many re strictions in place to keep the
quality of the plays high. For example, only three actors ever
got speaking parts to ensure that everyone accurately
memorized their lines. This set up also meant the audience
could easily distinguish between the actors. It also helped to
keep the competitive festivals balanced. However, the costs
would have been too high for the state to handle on its own.
They enlisted wealthy citizens to fund production costs, and
they were afforded enormous amounts of respect as a
consequ ence, wealthy citizens oversaw expenses of
Costumes, Musicians, Rehearsals, and Choir Singers. They
became known as “choregos” (like the modern day
choreographer) and oversaw the costumes, musicians,
rehearsals, and choir singers. At the same time, the sta te paid
for professional actors to attend and take part.munotes.in

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8Ancient Greece was home to some of the best architects
of the time. They were continually learning and developing
their buildings. The theaters of Ancient Gr eece are a marvel to
behold. Their remains are among the most popular tourist
attractions in the country to this day. It’s also easy to see
where these theaters had a significant impact on the design of
today’s theatres especially in terms of architecture.
Parts of the Theater
Orchestra: (literally, "dancing space") A circular and level
space where the chorus would dance, sing, and interact with the
actors who were on the stage near the skene.
Theatron: (literally, "viewing -place") this is where the spectators
sat. The theatron was usually part of hillside overlooking the
orchestra.
Skene: (literally, "tent") the skene was directly in back of the
stage, and was usually decorated as a palace, temple, or other
building, depending on the needs of the play. It had at least one
set of doors, and actors could make entrances and exits through
them.
Parodos : (literally, "passageways") The paths by which the
chorus and some actors made their entrances and exits. The
audience also used them to enter and exit the theater before
and after the performance.
The first plays were performed in the Theatre of Dionysus,
built in the shadow of the Acropolis in Athens at the beginning of
the 5thcentury, these theatres pro ved to be so popular they soon
spread all over Greece. In Greek Mythology Dionysus was the son
of Zeus. He is the only god born of one god and one mortal parent.
He was the god of wine, fertility and revelry. He was raised by
satyrs, killed, dismembered, a nd resurrected (was actually reborn).
Other gods had temples; the cult of Dionysus met in the wood. It
was believed that he could liberate and inspire man. It was also as
also believed that he could endow man with divine creativity.
Dionysus, thus, came to be considered a patron of the arts .In the
sixth century BC, the Athenian ruler, Pisistratus, established the
'City Dionysia’, a festival of entertainment held in honor of the god
Dionysus. This festival featured competitions in music, singing,
dance and poetry. The most remarkable of all the winners was said
to be a wandering bard named Thespis.
Four Qualities of Greek Drama :
1.Performed for special occasions (festivals). Athens had four
festivals worshipping Dionysus.
2.Competitive --prizes were aw arded. Actors and playwrights
competed (Oedipus won 2ndplace)munotes.in

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93.Choral –There was singing; the chorus was made up of men
(from 3 to 50). The chorus sang, moved, and danced. They
moved the story along.
4.The stories were based on myth or history
Essential pieces of Greek Drama:
1. The play
2. The actors
3. The chorus
Types of Greek Drama :
1.Comedy
2.Tragedy
3.Satire Plays
Comedy and tragedy were the most popular types of plays in
ancient Greece. Hence, the modern popularity of the comedy and
tragedy masks to symbolize theater. Comedy was not admitted to
Dionysus festival till 487 -486 B.C the first comedies were mainly
satirical and mocked men in power for their vanity and foolishness.
The first master of comedy was the playwright Ar istophanes.
Structure of the Comedy :
Prologue: leading character conceives a "happy idea"
Parados: entrance of the chorus
Agon: dramatized debate between proponent and opponent of
the "happy idea"
Parabasis: chorus addresses audience on poet’s views o nt o p i c
Episodes: "Happy idea" is put to practical application
Some characteristics of Greek Tragedy:
Violence and death offstage
Frequent use of messengers to relate information
Stories based on myth or history, but varied interpretations of
events
Focus is on psychological and ethical attributes of characters,
rather than physical and sociological.
Tragedy dealt with love, loss, pride, the abuse of power and the
fraught relationships between men and gods.
The three great playwrights of tragedy wer e Aeschylus,
Sophocles, and Euripides.
The word tragedy came to be derived from the Greek tragos
(goat) and ode (poem). Tragedy literally means goat song or
goat poem.munotes.in

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10The Structure of Greek Tragedy:
1.Prologue, which described the situation and set the scene
2.Parados, an ode sung by the chorus as it as it made its
entrance
3.Five dramatic scene c scenes, each followed by a Komos, an
exchange of laments by the chorus and the protagonist
4.Exodus, the climax and conclusion
5.Tragedies were often presented in trilogies. Interspersed
between the three plays in these in the trilogy were satyr plays,
in which satyrs (men dressed as half -goats) made fun of the
characters in the surrounding tragedies.
Tragic flaw: a flaw or mistake that brings about the downfall of the
hero of a tragedy. The Greek term harmartia , typically translated as
"tragic flaw” actually is closer in meaning to a "mistake" or an "error,
" "failing, " rather than an innate flaw. The character's flaw must
result from something that is also a cent ral part of their virtue, which
goes somewhat awry, usually due to a lack of knowledge.
Satyr Plays : These were short plays performed between the acts
of tragedies. They made fun of the plight of the tragedy's
characters. The satyrs were mythical half human, half -goat
servants of Dionysus. Satyr and the Satyr plays spawned the
modern word satire. All of the actors and playwrights were men.
Women were not allowed to participate. The actors played multiple
roles, so a mask was used as used to show the chang ei n
character or mood. Gestures and body movements were controlled
and stately. If playing female role need for female appearance,
wore the prosternida before the chest and the progastrida before
the belly.
The Chorus:
Functions of the chorus:
an agent: gives advice
asks, takes part
establishes ethical framework, sets up standard by which action
will be judged
ideal spectator -reacts as playwright hopes audience would
sets mood and heightens dramatic effects
adds movement, spectacle, song, and dance
rhythmical function -pauses / paces the action so that the
audience can reflect.
The significance of Masks in Greek Theatre
Without the masks, the audience could not hear the actors
as well, and those at the top of the theater could not make out the
actors’ facial expressions. This meant much of the impact of the
play would be lost. These circumstances saw masks quicklymunotes.in

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11establish themselves as an art form and a necessity within the
theater.
Thalia: The Muse of Comedy
The two masks also were a nod to the muses of Greek
mythology .T h a l i a ,t h e Muse ofComedy , was depicted as a
cheerful mask. She was young, full of energy, and always smi ling.
Many statues representing Thalia also include trumpets or other
types of horns. Such imagery alludes to how these instruments
were used to make an actor’s voice carry in an ancient Greek
comedy .
Melpomene: The Muse of Tragedy
On the other hand, Melpomene was the Muse ofTragedy .
Her mask is sad, and she is often depicted with a weapon in her
hand. Somet imes, she even holds the mask itself. Melpomene in
art is also seen to be wearing the cothurnus, also known as
buskins, which were boots only to be worn by actors performing in
tragedies. She also wears a wreath made from a grapevine on her
head, which der ives from Dionysus.
1.3INDIAN CLASSICAL THEATRE
Indian theater goes back to the 4th century B.C. All night
dance -dramas, known yaksgana ,a r ep o p u l a ra n dh e l dt h r o u g h o u t
India, particularly to mark major festivals. They combine song and
dance and are based on the Hindu epics and mythology and
typically feature a story with good winning out over evil.
According to Indian terminology, the different types of
theatrical traditions fall broadly into two basic categories, margi or
classical ( Natyshastra -related) and desi or folk/regional styles.
Classical theater survives in only in a few cities, but folk theater
thrives in almost every region. Professional theater is confined
primarily to the cities.
Early Indian Literature and Theatre
Theatre and dan ce, which are inseparable art forms in Indian
culture, are present even in the earliest works of Indian literature.
The Vedic literature or the four Vedas, which form the basis of early
Brahmanism and later Hinduism, mentions dance and open -air
theatrical performance. Otherwise, the Vedas mainly include
invocations and hymns to the gods, ritual formulas, and short
stories.
The Vedic tradition evolved orally through the centuries and
received its written form much later in the post -Vedic period.
Towards th e end of the Vedic period, various gods, which were
originally rather simple personifications of aspects of nature, beganmunotes.in

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12to acquire complicated mythologies, which personalized them.
These mythologies were further elaborated in the early centuries
A.D. by the Purana literature, while at the same these mythical
stories became the main theme for much of the Indian theatrical
arts.
Indian literary heritage includes several shastras or manuals
(also code, theory, treatise) covering a vast range of subjects fr om
cooking, elephant and horse breeding, and lovemaking, as well as
several art forms, such as poetics, music, theatre, and dance. The
earliest treatise for theatre and dance is the Natyashastra or the
Drama Manual (a treatise on drama).
Other shastra manuals also give information about theatrical
practices, each according to their own specific viewpoint. The
Kamashastra (Kamasutra ), the treatise on love, informs us about
the kind of role that theatrical performances had in the life of the
upper class educated male citizen. The Arthashastra, the treatise
on politics and administration, on the other hand, gives detailed
information about the role of different kinds of performers in the
ideal, yet highly hierarchical, society described in this manual
written in the 4th century B.C.
Bhakti, Medieval Ecstatic Love
Dr. Jukka O. Miettinen of the Theatre Academy of Helsinki wrote:
During medieval times a new literary genre became a
popular, it was the ecstatic bhakti poetry. Bhakti was, and still is, an
extremely popular form of Hinduism in which the complicated
rituals, yoga systems etc. are replaced by loving devotion towards a
god which is seen as the personal lover of the devotee, a bhakti
poet, and the dancer enacting a bhakti poem.
Among numerous poets it was the 12th century Jayadeva
who was the definite trendsetter for the whole bhakti movement.
His Song of the Dark Lord or Gita Govinda (also Geeta Govinda )
has enjoyed phenomenal popularity and influenced all genres of
bhakti art all over the subconti nent. The most popular gods of the
bhakti worship are Shiva and Krishna, the flute -playing dark,
dancing youth who, in fact, is an avatar or incarnation of Lord
Vishnu. Jayadeva wrote his poetic work, Gita Govinda, structured in
12 poems or cantos, in Sans krit. It describes the passionate and
stormy love life of Krishna and his main beloved, Radha. It is known
that Jayadeva wrote it to be danced as a kind of offering to Lord
Krishna.
Bhakti poems are most often simply sung while a solo
dancer enacts the po em and assumes both the roles of the devotee
and the beloved god. These abhinaya , or mimetic sections, often
alternate with pure nrtta dances, as will be discussed later inmunotes.in

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13connection with the famous lasya -style dance genres, such as
Bharatanatyam, Mohini attam , and Odissi. Bhakti poetry, however,
also inspired actual drama literature, for example, in the case of the
Krishnanatam of Kerala. It also served as a vital source for popular
forms of pilgrimage theatre, such as Krishnalila andRamlila .
Ramlila, the Traditional Performance of the Ramayana
Ramlila refers to a ritual tradition of religious tableaux or
short plays performed in northern India in September and October
during the birthday festival of Prince Rama, the hero of the
Ramayana epic a nd an avatar of God Vishnu. The highlights of
Rama’s life can be enacted as robust village theatre or as sketchy
scenes performed by boy actors assisted by adult men. The most
lavish Ramlila takes place in Varanasi and its outskirts, where the
scenes are d ivided to cover one month and they are enacted in
various locations appropriate to the content of the particular scene.
The Ramlila tradition is inseparable from the famous Hindi
version of the Ramayana ,t h e Ramacharitmanas ,b yt h ep o e t
Tulsidas (1523 –1623). He was a devotee of Rama; he was a
philosopher and a composer, and has been regarded as an
incarnation of Valmiki, the author of the Sanskrit Ramayana.
Tulsidas’ vernacular Ramayana was strongly opposed by learned
Brahmans. However, it gained enormous popularity, particularly in
North India. Deeply inspired by Valmiki’s Ramayana, he created his
own version, which, in some details, slightly differs from the original
one. Even during Tulsidas’ time, the reciting of Ramayana was
regarded as an act of devot ion. After Tulsidas’ death in 1623, his
followers enacted the Ramacharitmanas during the Rama festival.
The tradition spread to other parts of the region, and gradually the
originally five -day performance grew into a lavish pageant lasting
up to one month.
In 2005, the Ramayana and Ramlila, the traditional
performance of the Ramayana was designated by UNESCO as one
of the Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of
Humanity. According to UNESCO: “Ramlila, literally “Rama’s play”,
is a performance o f then Ramayana epic, in a series of scenes that
include song, narration, recital and dialogue. It is performed across
northern India during the festival of Dussehra, held each year
according to the ritual calendar in autumn. The most representative
Ramlil as are those of Ayodhya, Ramnagar and Benares,
Vrindavan, Almora, Sattna and Madhubani.
For the performance, the boys’ hands and feet are layered
with sandalwood paste and their faces are covered with heavy
make -up. Floral motifs decorated with glittering sequins are painted
on their chins. They wear gilded crowns and an abundance of
flower garlands around their necks. In fact, they are just like livemunotes.in

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14versions of the religious imagery that is characteristic of the region.
Many characters, such as Hanuman a nd Ravana, are played by
adult men wearing masks. In street performances the masks are
often made of papier maché, while in more grandiose spectacles
the huge masks, for example Hanuman’s mask, are made of metal.
The nucleus of the whole pageant is the re citation of
Tulsidas’ Ramayana. Ramlila bears all the marks of bhakti -related
devotional rituals. The style of the performances can be that of
melodramatic folk theatre influenced by Indian movies. They can
involve dance sequences in various Indian classic al and semi -
classical styles or even in the glittering style of Bollywood musicals.
Although they still serve as reminders of Rama’s virtues and
victory, they are more entertaining in character than the devotional
Ramlilas .
Sanskrit Dramas
‘Theatre’ in Sanskrit is known as natya, although this term
also covers ‘dance’ for the simple reason that the two arts were
combined in classical India. Another term, nataka (or natakam),
refers to ‘drama’ that is based on epic themes, although now it is
used wide ly in most Indian languages to mean ‘theatre’ in the
western sense. Ancient Tamil literature refers to ‘drama’ using the
Sanskrit term nataka, and several plays are mentioned in
subsequent literature, though none survive. The Tamil term kuttu is
used for m ore localised, regional and today’s folk theatre traditions.
Indian classical theatre, and all Sanskrit literature and many
art forms, is guided by an aesthetic theory. The two key terms are
bhava, the mood or emotion of the dancer, and rasa, the distill ation
of that mood that is evoked in a (discerning) audience. The eight
different rasas (love, pity, anger, disgust, heroism, awe, terror and
comedy) were also later used to describe music and poetry.
Early fragments of a drama by Asvaghosa date from the 1st
c. CE, although it seems likely that dramatic performance must
have occurred earlier. Two early Sanskrit texts, the Mahabhasya
(‘Great Commentary [on grammar]’) and the N ātyaśāstra (‘Treatise
on Theatre), from about the same period, provide evidence o fa
developed drama form. The earliest extant complete plays are
those by Bhasa, Kalidasa and Sudraka (all 5th c. CE).
Some scholars have detected Greek influence in early Indian
drama, arguing that plays enacted at the courts of Indo -Greek kings
(c. 250 BCE -50 CE) inspired Indian poets to develop their own
form. Indeed, the curtain the divided the stage is called yavanika
(from the Sanskrit word for ‘Greek’). The famous ‘ The Little Clay
Cart’ also bears a superficial resemblance to the late Greek
comedy of the school of Menander.munotes.in

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15Manuscripts of plays by both Kalidasa and Sudraka have
been copied and transmitted throughout Indian literary history, but
Bhasa’s 13 plays had been lost for centuries and were known only
from mention in other works. In 1912, ho wever, palm -leaf
manuscripts were found in an old Brahmin house in south India.
None mentioned an author, but linguistic research eventually
credited them to Bhasa .
The Sanskrit dramas cover a wide range of subjects and
types of play. They include full -length poetic love stories, political
plays and palace intrigues, as well as shorter farces and one -act
love monologues. The foremost drama genre centred on the
character of a noble hero. These “heroic dramas”, often with plots
derived from tradition, are c alled natakas .A n o t h e ri m p o r t a n tt y p eo f
drama is a kind of social play dealing with various kinds of human
relationships. These plays, mostly invented by their authors, are
called prakranas .
The language of Sanskrit dramas is characterized by the
blendi ng of classical Sanskrit with local Prakrit languages. The
royal heroes and Brahman priests, ascetics and high officials use
Sanskrit, while women, children and all low -caste characters speak
Prakrit . Thus the plays, already at the level of language, refle ct the
social and gender hierarchies of their time. This intermingling of
languages may also have been intended to make the plays
understandable for those spectators who did not understand
Sanskrit. Another characteristic of the dramas is the blending of
prose and verse. The verses are mainly In Sanskrit. The alternation
of languages as well as prose and verse widens the scale of
linguistic expression from “high” to “low”, from noble to vulgar, and
anything in between.
Plays were performed by troupes of pr ofessionals, of both
men and women, but amateur dramatics were not unknown (texts
refer to performances at court by officials, kings and ladies of the
harem). No physical theatre building survives, and it is assumed
that plays were performed in palaces or in the homes of rich
merchants. A curtain, through which actors emerged, divided the
front from the back stage; no curtain divided the actors from the
audience. Scenery was non -existent and props were few.
Conventional costumes were worn by stock figures, who also used
the language of gesture to convey meaning.
Plays began with an invocation to the gods, followed by a
long prologue, in which the stage manager or chief actor often
discussed with his wife or chief actress the occasion and nature of
the even t. Most of the play’s dialogue was in prose, interspersed
with verse, declaimed rather than sung.munotes.in

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16Classical Indian drama, like most of Indian literature, did not
hold with tragedy. Heroes and heroines might suffer defeat and
loss, but a ha ppy ending was not far away. There was, however,
sufficient melodrama to satisfy the emotional needs of the
audience. Innocent men are led toward execution, chaste wives are
drive from their homes and children are separated from their loving
parents.
Bhasa, Kalidasa and Shudraka
Very little is known about Bhasa ,t h ee a r l i e s t( a n da r g u a b l y
the greatest) of the classical playwrights. He is dated between 200
BCE and 200 CE, and all that is certain is that he pre -dated
Kalidasa and that 13 plays are attribute d to him. Many of those
plays retell episodes from the Ramayana and Mahabharata, and
some are tragedies, which was unusual in classical Indian theatre.
For example, the Pratima Nataka tells the story of Kaikeyi from the
Ramayana, usually considered the evi l step -mother responsible for
the sufferings of Rama and his father. Bhasa, however, shows how
she herself suffered from her guilt.
The best -known playwright of the classical period is Kalidasa
(5th c. CE), whose fame rests also on his poetry. Three of his plays
have survived: ‘Malavika and Agnimitra ’(a palace intrigue), ‘Urvasi
Won by Valor ’(the Vedic story of Urvasi) and ‘The Recognition of
Shakuntala ’.T h i sl a s th a sa l w a y sb e e nc o n s i d e r e dh is finest work
and is still performed today, around the world.
Shakuntala is a love story, between a king and Shakuntala, the
foster -daughter of a hermit. After their meeting and falling in love,
much of the play describes their love -sickness, as they ar eu n a b l e
to meet or marry. When they do meet again, the king gives her a
ring to remember him by and to plight their troth. They marry but
are cursed by an irascible Brahmin: Shakuntala will lose the ring,
and the king will not remember her. In a tragic sc ene, Shakuntala,
pregnant and veiled, is led before the king, who is unable to recall
her. In folktale fashion, the lost ring is found by a fisherman inside a
fish. The king recovers his memory and all ends happily.
The only other surviving play of signi ficance in this period is
Mṛcchaka ṭika (‘The Little Clay Cart’) written by Sudraka ,a
contemporary of Kalidasa. This story is one of the most realistic
and the plot one of the most complicated in the large corpus of
classical Sanskrit literature. The centr al narrative concerns a love
affair between a poor Brahmin (whose son can only have a little
clay cart instead of grander toys) and a virtuous courtesan, but
quickly moves into political intrigue, stolen jewels, a vivid court
scene and the overthrow of a w icked king. With this moving story,
‘The Little Clay Cart’ is the most easily appreciated of classical
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171.4FOLK ELEMENT & INDIAN THEATRE
In rural areas, particularly in villages, when we heard a beat
of a musical instrument, an expression enters i nto the mind which
does not exist in the daily lives of people This is the expression of
lives and beliefs of people, their joys, sorrows, their struggle against
the forces of nature, then struggle for survival, which form an
integral part of life. But an urban educated man calls this as "folk"
or "traditional" as the way of their living is quite different from that of
rural people.
The traditional and folk theatre of India has not been
discussed from the historical point of view so far. After
Natyashastra of Bharata, a number of works on Drama and Theatre
were written in Sanskrit by Abhinava Gupta, Dhananjaya,
Sagaranandi, Sharada Tanaya, Nandikeshwara, but none of them
gave the examples of folk type of plays performed in the villages.
We can see folk poe try in the Prakrit work of Hala but the
folk and traditional dramatic forms have not been described in any
of the books written on drama But very recently, Dr Raghavan, a
Sanskrit scholar, has referred to some of the folk forms in his
paper, ‘Sanskrit Dram aa n dP e r f o r m a n c e ’.I n d i a nt r a d i t i o n a l
theatre, like its counterpart in any other country, is a very rich and
important element of the traditional culture It is a comprehensive
sense of the term it incorporates elements from poetry, music,
dance, mime, gr aphic and plastic arts, religious and civil pageantry,
and various decorative arts and crafts. It reflects the people's
beliefs and social ways.
For these, it can be said that India is very rich in culture and
we have quite a number of folk art forms all over the country, from
length and breadth of the country, which are being performed and
are entertaining people and the delivery of dramatic speech.
Repetition, superimposition, simultaneous speaking and alternation
of the speech between the character and the chorus arc sonic of
the devices of speech delivery. The alteration between the singing
of the chorus and presentation of brief dance sequences by the
actors is so worked out that the dramatic piece becomes a
conjunction of recitation, miming and danci ng.
In the scheme of dramatic structure, the use of the chorus is
very important .There is a chorus in most of the forms of the
traditional theatre, both in the secular forms like ‘khval’ and
‘Terukoothu’ and the religious forms like ‘Rasleela’ and ‘Ram leela’.
The chorus in Indian theatre has a different character from the
Greek though it performs many similar functions. It is a group of
singers attached to the play in a secondary' capacity and less
involved in the action of the play than the Greek choru s. It sings themunotes.in

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18narrative text and repeats or accompanies the actors in singing
dramatic dialogues. It also sings the entry songs describing the
costume, the qualities and dramatic functions of the characters.
In villages, the actors will have some fans (favourites). If a
favourite actor is participating in a particular drama, the fans attend
those programmes by taking all chances. The actors of traditional
theatre are generally very popular in their field .That is why almost
all the actors will have fans .Hence, audiences witness the
performances from the beginning till end interestingly. Intimacy
between the actors and the audience is a factor which vitally
determines the nature of the Indian traditional theatre making it a
most participative theatre .Intimacy is achieved through many
devices and conventions.
In one word, the traditional theatre actors are trained in all
the fields related to them. Those who join the traditional theatre
have to learn all the branches of that field .After having been
trained in all the branches, then only the new actors will be given
the chance of acting on the stage. Indian traditional theatre is an
actor -based theatre and the actor is primarily a performer well
versed in all the arts of the theatre —acting, mime, dance,
recitation, music and acrobatics. The actor stands on a bare stage
disengaged from any kind of decor, creating the scenic illusion with
his own dynamic presence. He keeps all the time intensely busy
demonstrating skill in various ar ts, switching over from one art to
another with greatest ease and facility In "Yakshagana" and
"Terukoothu." The performance is set to a heightened pitch and the
actors all the time move about in intensely dramatic gait to the
accompaniment of drum music, even their sitting and standing
poses ar ehighly theatrical and eloquent .Intermittently, they burst
into song and |om the chorus and when the chorus sings their
dialogues they dance in a circle with great gusto.
In these modern days, people began forgett ing the traditional
folk forms except a few forms in certain areas of India such as
Tamasha in Maharashtra, Jatra in Bengal, Ramleela and a few
other forms are still in vogue ,but the other forms have been
vanishing from the scene for want of patronage ,infrastructural
facilities and the poor conditions of the artists .
For the revival of the regional folk art forms, non -
governmental organizations try to study the forms and perform
them on par with dramas, from the Government side, the forms can
be made par t of the syllabus in schools so that there can be a
possibility of knowing the form by young children and they can
spark their interest towards these traditional folk -art forms in future.munotes.in

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19Let’s briefly see the various theatrical forms of different states of
India.
Bhand Pather (Jashin) -Kashmir
• It is a unique combination of dance, music and acting.
• Satire, wit and parody are preferred for inducing laughter.
• Music is provided with surnai, nagaara and dhol.
• Since the actors are mainly from the farming community, the
impact of their way of living, ideals and sensitivity is noticable.
Swang -Haryana
• It is mainly music -based.
• Gradually, prose too, played its role in the dialogues.
• Softness of emotions, accomplishment of rasa along with the
development of character can be seen
• Two important styles are from Rohtak and Haathras.
• In the style belonging to Rohtak, the language used is Haryanvi
(Bangru)
Nautanki -Uttar Pradesh
• Most popular centres -Kanpur, Lucknow and Haathras.
• The meters used in the verses are: Doha, Chaubola, Chhappai,
Behar -e-tabeel.
• Nowadays, women have also started taking part
Raasleela
• It is based exclusively on Lord Krishna legends.
• It is believed th at Nand Das wrote the initial plays based on the
life of Krishna.
• Dialogues in prose are combined beautifully with songs and
scenes from Krishna's pranks.
Bhavai -Gujarat
• Main centers -Kutch and Kathiawar.
• Instruments used are: bhungal, tabla, flute, pakhaawaj, rabaab,
sarangi, manjeera, etc.
• There is a rare synthesis of devotional and romantic sentiments.
Jatra -Bengal
• Fairs in honour of gods, or religious rituals and ceremonies have
within their frame work musical plays are known as Jatra.
• Krishna Jatra became popular due to Chaitanya Prabhu's
influence.
• Earlier form of Jatra has been musical & dialogues were added
at later stage.munotes.in

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20• The actors themselves describe the change of scene, the place
of actio n, etc.
Bhaona (Ankia Naat) -Assam .
• Cultural glimpses of Assam, Bengal Orissa, Mathura and
Brindavan can be seen in it.
• The Sutradhaar, or narrator begins the story, first in Sanskrit
and then in either Brajboli or Assamese.
Maach -Madhya Pradesh
• Maach is used for the stage itself as also for the play.
• Songs are given prominence in between the dialogues.
• The term for dialogue in this form is bol and rhyme in narration
is termed vanag.
• The tunes of this theatre form are known as rangat
Tamaasha -Maharashtra
• Evolved from the folk forms such as Gondhal, Jagran and
Kirtan.
• Female actress is the chief exponent of dance movements in
the play. She is known as Murki.
• Classical music, footwork at lightning -speed, and vivid gestures
make it p ossible to portray all the emotions through dance.
Dashavatar -Konkan and Goa
• Personify the ten incarnations of Lord Vishnu -the god of
preservation and creativity. The ten i ncarnations are Matsya
(fish), Kurma (tortoise), Varaha (boar), Narsimha (lion -man),
Vaman (dwarf), Parashuram, Rama, Krishna (or Balram),
Buddha and Kalki.
• Apart from stylized make -up, the Dashavatar performers wear
masks of wood and papier mache.
Krishnattam -Kerala
• It came into existence in the middle of 17th century A.D. under
the patronage of King Manavada of Calicut.
• Krishnattam is a cycle of eight plays performed for eight
consecutive days.
• The plays are Avataram, Kaliamandana, Rasa krida,
kamasavadha, Swayamvaram, Bana Yudham, Vivida Vadham,
and Swargarohana.
• Episodes are based on the theme of Lord Krishna -his birth,
childhood pranks and various deeds depicting victory of good
over evil.munotes.in

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21Mudiyettu -Kerala
• It is celebrated in the month of Vrischikam (November -
December). performed only in the Kali temples of Kerala, as an
oblation to the Goddess.
• It depicts the triumph of goddess Bhadrakali over the asura
Darika.
• There are seven characters in Mudiyettu -Shiva, Narada, Darika,
Danavendra, Bhadrakali, Kooli and Koimbidar (Nandikeshvara)
are all heavily made -up.
Theyyam -Kerala
• 'Theyyam' derived from the Sanskrit word 'Daivam' meaning
God hence it is called God's d ance.
• Performed by various castes to appease and worship spirits.
• Distinguishing features -colourful costume and awe -inspiring
headgears (mudi) nearly 5 to 6 feet high made of arecanut
splices, bamboos, leaf sheaths of arecanut and wooden planks
and dye d into different strong colours using turmeric, wax.
Koodiyaattam -Kerala
• It is based on Sanskrit theatre traditions.
• Characters of this theatre form are Chakyaar or actor,
Naambiyaar, the instrumentalists and Naangyaar, those taking
on women's roles.
• The Sutradhar or narrator and the Vidushak or jesters are the
protagonists.
• Vidushak alone delivers the dialogues.
• Emphasis on hand gestures and eye movements makes this
dance and theatre form unique.
Yakshagaana -Karnataka
• It is based on mythologic al stories and Puranas.
• The most popular episodes are from the Mahabharata i.e.
Draupadi swayamvar, Subhadra vivah, Abhimanyu vadh, Karna -
Arjun yuddh and from Ramayana i.e. Raajyaabhishek, Lav -
kushYuddh, Baali -Sugreevayuddha and Panchavati.
Therukoothu -Tamil Nadu
• It literally means "street play".
• It is mostly performed at the time of annual temple festivals of
Mariamman (Rain goddess) to achieve rich harvest.
• There is a cycle of eight plays based on the life of Draupadi.
• Kattiakaran, the Sutradhara gives the gist of the play to the
audience
• Komali entertains the audience with his buffoonery.munotes.in

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22Karyala -Himachal Pradesh
• It deals with serious question of life & death briefly and with
simplicity of expression & diction, all enveloped in humour.
• Indeed, audience is given essence of our cultural heritage of
viewing the world as a stage and as an unsubstantial pageant
which is to be negotiated and lived by rising above it.
• There is often stylistic diversity, which strengthens their identity
fromS w ang, Nautanki, Bhagat, etc.
Today, folk theatre is considered an art form that keeps the
basic elements of a drama intact, while taking on the stories and
flavours of the region its stems from. This very aspect makes folk
theater a vibrant and vital aspec to fI n d i a ’ si n t a n g i b l ec u l t u r a l
heritage.
1.5 BLACK THEATRE
The minstrel shows of the early 19th century are believed by
some to be the roots of Black theatre, but they initially were written
by whites, acted by whites in blackface, and performed for white
audiences. After the American Civil War , Black actors began to
perform in minstrel shows (then called “Ethiopian minstrelsy”), and
by the turn of the 20th century they were producing Black musicals,
many of which were written, produced, and acted entirely by African
Americans. The first known play by a Black American was James
Brown’s King Shotaway (1823). William Wells Brown ’sThe Escape;
or, A Leap for Freedom (1858), was the first Black play published,
but the first real success of an African American dramatist
was Angelina W. Grimké ’sRachel (1916).
Black theatre flourished during the Harlem Renaissance of
the 1920s and ’30s. Experimental groups and Black theatre
companies emerged in Chicago, New York City ,a n dW a s h i n g t o n ,
D.C. Among these was the Ethiopian Art Theatre, which
established Paul Robeson as America’s foremost Black
actor. Garland Anderson’s play Appearances (1925) was the first
play of African American authorship to be produced on Broadway,
but Black theatre did not cr eate a Broadway hit until Langston
Hughes ’sMulatto (1935) won wide acclaim. In that same year the
Federal Theatre Project was founded, providing a training ground
for African Americans. In the late 1930s, Black community theatres
began to appear, revealing talents such as those of Ossie
Davis andRuby Dee . By 1940 Black theatre was firmly grounded in
theAmerican Negro Theater and the Negro Playwrights’ Company.
After World War II Black theatre grew more progressive,
more radical, and sometimes more militant, reflecting the ideals of
Black revolution and seeking to establish a mythology andmunotes.in

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23symbolism apart from white culture . Councils were organized to
abolish the use of racial stereotypes in theatre and
tointegrate African American playwrights into the mainstream of
American dramaturgy. Lorraine Hansberry ’sA Raisin in the
Sun (1959) and other successful Black plays of the 1950s
portrayed the difficulty of African Americans maintaining an identity
in a society that degraded them.
The 1960s saw the emergence of a new Black thea tre,
angrier and more defiant than its predecessors, with Amiri
Baraka (originally LeRoi Jones) as its strongest proponent.
Baraka’s plays, including the award -winning Dutchman (1964),
depicted whites’ exploitation of African Americans. He established
theBlack Arts Repertory Theatre in Harlem in 1965 and inspired
playwright Ed Bullins and others seeking to create a strong ‘Black
Aesthetic’ in American theatre. During the 1980s and ’90s August
Wilson ,Suzan -Lori Parks , and George Wolfe were among the most
important creators of Black theatre.
The origins of black theater in America can be traced back
to the slave trade and th ec o n t i n u a t i o no fA f r i c a n
performance traditions.
Some of these traditions included the oral telling of
folktales, improvisation, songs and dances like the get
down and ring shout.
In the early years of the slave trade, Africans were only
able to put on p rivate performances at plantations and the
homes of their owners.
The first black characters to appear on stage, in the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, were white people
wearing ‘blackface’ make up.
They would appear at intervals in white productio ns as
comic relief, usually playing dim -witted servants.
The use of blackface characters grew in popularity in the
1820s and so -called teams of ‘Ethiopian delineators’ would
put on performances consisting of comic skits, variety acts,
dance and ‘Negro Song s.’
The African characters were portrayed as racist caricatures:
lazy, buffoonish, superstitious and stupid.
The performances were usually burlesque and aimed at a
low-brow audience but they soon infiltrated the opera
house, first as entr’actes and event ually taking over
completely to become America’s first national art form.munotes.in

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24In New York, a free black man from the West Indies,
William Henry Brown, attempted to get a genuine black theater
company off the ground. His African Grove Theater
performed Shakespeare plays and launched the career of Ira
Aldridge but was quickly shut down by the authorities on
trumped up charges of boisterous behavior. The theater
burned down five years after it first opened its doors. During
the African Grove’s b rief existence, Brown is believed to have
published the first ever play by a black playwright, ‘The Drama
ofKing Shotaway’ but no copies of this play are known to
exist.
Following the civil war, genuine blacks became regularly
involved in Ethiopian Minstrelsy although they would generally
follow the same conventions as the whites, including applying
blackface. These included Bahamian -American Bert Williams
and African -American George Walker who formed the Williams
and Walker Co.
In 1903, Bert Willi ams and George Walker starred together
in‘InDahomey’ ,a n o t h e rC o o ka n dD u n b a rp r o d u c t i o na n d
the first all -black musical comedy to play in a major
Broadway theater.
In 1907, Ernest Hogan became the first African American to
both produce and star in a Br oadway production when he
presented ‘The Oyster Man’ ,as h o wo f t e nc r e d i t e dw i t h
popularizing the musical genre of ragtime.
In 1916, Angelina W. Grimke’s ‘Rachel’ became the first
play authored by a black person and featuring a black cast
to be presented to a mixed audience. The play, which
painted a bleak picture of racial discrimination, was a
success but black theater still had a long way to go.
From 1916 to 1940: The Flourishing of Black Theater
This period saw African Americans create numerous
experi mental groups and theater companies in major cities like
Chicago, Washington D.C. And, of course, New York. The
Harlem Renaissance also saw Broadway present the first play
to feature an all -black cast: Ridgely Torrence’s ‘Three Plays
foraNegro Theatre’ (1917). The plays were performed at both
the New York’s Garden City and Garrick theaters.
According to author and civil rights activist James
Weldon Johnson, this was the single most important event in
the entire history of black theatre. In 1921, Eubie Bl ake and
Noble Lee Sissle presented ‘Shuffle Along’ to a Broadway
audience. The musical was hugely popular and showed more
than 500 times. It introduced Paul Robeson, an influential artistmunotes.in

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25and civil rights activist, to the world. Nevertheless, it was
anothe rsix years before Garland Anderson’s ‘Appearances’
(1925) became the first play of black authorship to make the
Broadway stage. African American poet Langston
Hughes’ ‘Mulatto: ATragedy ofthe Deep South’ (1935),
produced and directed by Martin Jones, wa st h ef i r s tp l a yo f
black authorship to receive widespread success.
Over the next two decades, African Americans continued
to set up various professional and community theaters and
launch the careers of exciting new actors such as Ossie Davis
and Ruby Dee .T h eF e d e r a lT h e a t r eP r o j e c t ,l a u n c h e di n1 9 3 5
with the aim of supporting racial integration, facilitated the
opening of the American Negro Theater (ANT) by the actors
Abram Hill and Frederik O’Neal. The ANT produced 19 plays in
9y e a r s .T h eF T P ’ sN e g r oU nit also supported left -leaning
political playwright Theodore Ward as he created his first full -
length production, ‘Big White Fog’ (1938), in Chicago.
Concerned by the increasingly controversial themes of its
productions, Congress shut down the FTP, prompt ing Ward to
move his play Off -Broadway to Harlem’s Lincoln Theatre as
the first play under his new project: The Negro Playwrights’
Company. Ay e a rl a t e r ,A m e r i c ae n t e r e dW o r l dW a rI Ia n d
African Americans were drawing uncomfortable parallels
between the Na zism America was fighting abroad and the
racism that they experienced at home. The black theater of the
post -World War period grew to increasingly challenge this
contradiction.
Post World War II: A Change in Style
Following the war, African Americans were beginning to
move towards a more progressive and radical –even militant –
stance towards the majority white culture. This was reflected in
1940s and 1950s black theater with plays such as Lorraine
Hansbury’s ‘ARaisin intheSun’ commenting on the diffic ulties
of preserving identity in a racist culture. At the same time,
there was a brief boom in Broadway musicals featuring all
black casts. This had started back in 1940 when Vernon Duke
put on ‘Cabin inthe Sky’ ,ap a r a b l eo fl i f ef o rA f r i c a n
Americans in the South. Then, in 1943, Oscar Hammerstein
presented a successful version of the opera ‘Carmen’
(‘Carmen Jones’ ), also set in the American South.
In 1946, the revue ‘Call MeMister’ focused on returning
American troops and featured a song bemoaning the racism
that prevented a successful serviceman from being employed
in his own country. That same year, Harold Arlen and Jonny
Mercer presented ‘StLouis Woman’ ,am u s i c a lb a s e do nt h e
novel ‘God Sends Sunday’ which was written by Africanmunotes.in

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26American author Arn aB o n t e m p s .T h ep r o d u c t i o nw a sb e s e t
with problems from the outset though, receiving criticism from
the National Association for the Advancement of Colored
Peoples (NAACP) for offering roles which ‘detracted from the
dignity of our race.’
Taking on the Ma instream Culture in the 1960s and 1970s
An increasingly angry black rights movement found its
natural home in the growing Off -Broadway movement where
experimental and controversial plays could be more easily
shown. Two of the biggest names in black theater from the
1960s and 1970s were Everett LeRoi Jones and Ed Bullins
who both became fierce proponents of the Black Arts
Movement following the assassination of civil rights activist
Malcolm X in 1965. Prior to this, Jones had won an Off -
Broadway (Obie) award for his hard -hitting play ‘Dutchman and
the Slave’ (1964) which is set on a New York subway and
centers on a dialogue between a white woman Lulu and black
man Clay.
Following Malcolm X’s assassination, Jones moved to
Harlem, changed his name to Amiri Bar aka and set up the
Black Arts Repertory Theater as the home for a new Black Arts
Movement (BAM), the so -called ‘aesthetic and spiritual sister’
to the Black Power political movement. Baraka and his fellow
BAM playwrights believed that equality could only c ome about
through creating a strong and powerful black aesthetic that
stood in opposition to the dominant white culture.
Inspired by ‘Dutchman’ ,E dB u l l i n sj o i n e dt h eB A M
cause and became one of the most prolific playwrights of the
1960s and 1970s. His p lays, which often incorporated street
lyricism and focused on racial and political tensions, include ‘In
theWine Time’ (1968), ‘Goin aBuffalo’ (1968), ‘The Gentleman
Caller’ (1969) and ‘The Taking ofMiss Janie’ (1975).
Much of the output of the BAM (inclu ding ‘The Taking of
Miss Janie’ )e x p l o i t e dt h ei m a g e r yo fs e x u a la g g r e s s i o n
against women which complicated the relationship black
women had with the feminist movement. This issue was
dramatized in Adrienne Kennedy’s 1964 play, ‘Funny house of
aNegro.’
The 1970s saw black musicals return to Broadway with
Melvin Van Peebles’ ‘Ain’t Supposed toDie aNatural Death’
(1971) and Charlie Smalls’ ‘The Wiz’(1975) among the most
popular. ‘The Wiz’ ,b a s e do nF r a n kB a u m ’ s ‘Wizard ofOz’ran
for four years and won sev en Tony awards, including that
year’s best musical.munotes.in

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27Black Theatre from the 80s to the 90s
During the late 1960s, BAM activist August Wilson co -
founded the Black Horizons Theatre in Pittsburgh. Wilson’s
most successful Broadway plays were ‘Fences’ (1987), wh ich
was set in the 1950s and focused on a conflict between father
and son, and ‘The Piano Lesson’ (1990), set in the 1930s and
featuring a family’s mixed feelings over an heirloom. Both
plays were awarded Pulitzers. The August Wilson Theatre
became the fir st Broadway theater to bear an African -
American’s name when the Virginia Theatre was renamed after
him in 2005, two weeks after his death.
Another highly acclaimed African -American playwright to
make his mark on Broadway towards the end of the
20thCentury was George Wolfe. His first Broadway play, ‘Jelly’s
Last Jam’ (1992) was performed at the Virginia Theatre. Wolfe
is mainly associated with his Tony award -winning
plays ‘Angels inAmerica: Millennium Approaches’ (1993)
and ‘Bring in‘daNoise, Bring in‘daFunk’ (1996).
The State of Black Theatre in the 21stCentury
The turn of the century finally saw an African -American
woman win a Pulitzer with Suzan Lori -Parks’ play ‘Top
Dog/Underdog’ (2001). More recently, black actors have been
playing leading roles wh ich have been traditionally portrayed
by whites. These include Noma Dumezweni as Hermione
Granger in ‘Harry Potter and the Cursed Child’ (2015);
Christiani Pitts as Ann Darrow in ‘King Kong’ (2018); Jelani
Alladin as Kristoff in ‘Frozen’ (2018) and Brittney Johnson as
the first black woman to play Glinda the Good Witch
in‘Wicked’ (2019), another adaptation of ‘Wizard ofOz.’
However, critics of black representation on Broadway
have pointed out that only three plays in the 2018/19 season
directly spoke to the black experience. Finally, we summarize
some of the key plays which have shaped black theater in
America from the early 19thCentury to the current day.
Points to Remember:
The Drama of King Shotaway –William Henry Brown (1823) .
Thought to be the first ever play produced by a black playwright.
No copies exist.
The Escape/A Leap for Freedom –William Wells Brown (1858) .
The first play produced by a black playwright that is still in
existence.
Clorindy /The Origin of the Cakewalk –Paul Laurence
Dunbar/Will Marion Cook (1898) .The first Broadway musical to
feature an all -black cast.munotes.in

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28In Dahomey –Paul Laurence Dunbar/Will Marion Cook/Jesse
Shipp (1903).The first all -black musical comedy to play in a
major Broadway theater
The Oyster Man –Ernest Hogan (1907).Hogan was the first
African American to both produce and star in a Broadway
production.
Rachel –Angeline W. Grimke (1916).The first play authored by
a black person and featuring a black cast to be presented to a
mixed audience.
Three Plays for a N egro Theatre –Ridgely Torrence (1917).The
first Broadway play to feature an all -black cast
Shuffle Along –Eubie Blake/Noble Lee Sissle (1921).Hugely
popular Broadway musical featuring Paul Robeson and shown
more than 500 times.
Appearances –Garland Ande rson (1925).The first Broadway
play of black authorship
Mulatto: A Tragedy of the Deep South –Martin Jones
(1935).Written by Langston Hughes, Mulatto was the first play of
black authorship to receive widespread success.
Big White Fog –Theodore Ward (1938 ).A play about the
fictional Mason family and depicting the emerging conflict
between African American integrationist and nationalist
sympathies.
A Raisin in the Sun –Lorraine Hansbury (1959).A Broadway
play commenting on the difficulties of preserving Af rican
American identity in a racist culture.
Street Scene –Kurt Weill /Langston Hughes (1947).First major
interracial Broadway collaboration
Dutchman and the Slave –LeRoi Jones (1964).Hard -hitting off -
Broadway play centering on a dialogue between a whit ew o m a n
Lulu and black man Clay. Jones received an Obie and later
changed his name to Amiri Baraka.
The Wiz –Charlie Smalls (1975).A Broadway musical based on
the Wizard of Oz, The Wiz won seven Tony awards including
Best Musical.
Ma Rainey’s Black Bottom –August Wilson (1984).First of
Wilson’s 10 -play Pittsburgh Cycle which charted the lives of
various characters from the 1920s to the 1990s.
Top Dog/Underdog –Suzan Lori -Parks (2001).First African -
American female play wright to win a Pulitzer Prize.munotes.in

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29Black Theatre Characteristics
Black Theatre should be:
a)About Black people –The plays must have plots, which reveal
African American life.
b)By Black people –The plays must be written by a Black
playwright.
c)For Black people –The plays must be written for Black people.
d)Near Black people –The theatre must be located or near a
Black neighborhood.
(The above theatre characteristics come from the writings of W.E.B.
DuBois.)
Black Theatre should be:
a)Functional –It should have a purpose and teach a lesson.
b)Collective –It should be group oriented. Group concerns have
priority over individual concerns.
c)Committed –These plays advance the struggle for
empowerment and freedom for Black people.
(The above theatre characteristics come from the writings of
Ron Karenga, the father of Kwanza.)
The audience consideration.
The play:
a)Encourages the audience to participate with the performance
through call and response. In Black theatre when the actors
hear the audience, it affects their performance (good or bad).
b)It elicits thought and action on the part of the audience. When
you leave the theatre, it should cause you to think about
yourself, the play, and possibly change your life.
c)The play should be entertaining.
d)The play should indulge in African -American dialect and
linguistic features.
To conclude Black Theatre then as an expression of Black
Consciousness was concerned with the beauty of a culture that had
been ravished by wh ite society. Black theatre was to regain this
beauty, a beauty that was to bring out the absolute being in Black
People, a people with pride in their communities and in their selves.munotes.in

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301.6 LET US SUM UP
This unit has defined and discussed five prescribed literary
terms such as elements of drama, Greek Theatre, Indian Classical
Theatre, Folk Theatre and Black Theatre. The fundamental
glimpses of these dramatic terms help to understand the ancient
classical theatre, Indian classical and modern plays including the
folk tradition of theatre in India. Besides, the notion of Black
Theatre is the new chapter in not only the American literature but
also in the world literature.
1.7 IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
The questions in t his unit shall be asked in the short notes
therefore you need to understand each literary term clearly.
1.8 REFERENCES
Abrams, M., and Geoffrey Harpham. A Glossary of Literary Terms .
11th ed., Cengage Learning, 2014.
Baldick, Chris. The Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms (Oxford
Quick Reference) . 4th ed., Oxford University Press, 2015.
Nicoll, Allardyce . The Theatre and Dramatic Theory. London:
Harrap, 1962. --. The Theory of Drama. New York: B. Blom,1966.
Rai, Rama Nand. Theory of Drama: A Comparative Study of
Aristotle and Bharata. New Delhi: Classical Pub. Co., 1992.
Allardyce Nicoll. A History of English Drama 3 Vol. Set .C a m b r i d g e :
1946.
Williams, Raymond. Drama from Ibsen to Brecht. London: Penguin
Books, 1973.
Bentley, Eric. The T heory of the Modern Stage: An Introduction to
Theatre and Drama. London: Penguin Books, 1968.
Gascoigne, Bamber. Twentieth Century Drama .L o n d o n :
Hutchinson, 1967.
Baumer, Rachel Van M., and James R. Brandon, eds.
1981. Sanskrit Theatre in Performance. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass,
1993.
munotes.in

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31UNIT -2
LAST SIX LITERARY TERMS PART II
Unit Structure:
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Realism and Naturalism
2.2 Poetic Drama
2.3 Angry Theatre
2.4 Street Play /Theatre
2.5 Third Theatre
2.6 One Act Play
2.7 Let’s Sum Up
2.8 Important Questions
2.9 References
2.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit you will be able to understand the
following dramatic terms —realism and naturalism, poetic drama,
angry theatre, street theatre and one act play. The glimpses of
these will prepare you to understand and interpret drama as a
genre of literature.
2.1 REALISTIC AND NATURALISTIC THEATRE
The two schools of thought and subsequent movements in
the theatre were distinct and separate, though blurred with
historical time lines and similarities in style. As a result, the move
towards a more authentic form of drama on the stage in the mid -
late 19th century is often considered one period. If realism and
naturalism in the theatre were two movements, which one came
first? Well, that depends on who you read. One thing is for sure
though; the over -the-top melodramas full of spectacle in early to
mid-19th century were to be no more. In terms of style, the words
realism and naturalism are frustratingly used interchangeably to
mean the same, yet they are not. They are similar, yes, but have
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32Realism
Realism came about partly as a response to these new
social / ar tistic conditions. The "movement" began in France and by
1860 had some general precepts:
1.Truth resides in material objects we perceived to all five senses;
truth is verified through science
2.The scientific method —observation —would solve everything
3.Human pr oblems were the highest were home of science .Art—
according to the realist view —had as its purpose to better
mankind.
Realism is the artistic attempt to recreate life as it is in the
context of an artistic medium. Realism beg an as an artistic
movement in the 18th Century in Europe and America and a late
19th Century movement for drama and the stage.
Drama was to involve the direct observation of human
behaviour; therefore, there was the need to use contemporary
settings and time periods, and it was to deal with a temporary life
and problems has subjects. Also, the common man and common
situations were subjects for drama, not just the upper classes,
kings, and queens. The characteristic features of realism can be
presented as:
Psychological reality, people trapped in social situations, hope
in hopeless situations.
Characters are believable, everyday types
Costumes are authentic
The realist movement in the theatre and subsequent
performance style have greatly influenced 20th century theatre
and cinema and its effects are still being felt today
Triggered by Stanislavski’s system of realistic acting at the turn
of the 20th century, America grabbed hold of its own brand of
this performance style (American realism) and acting (met hod
acting) in the 1930s, 40s and 50s (The Group Theatre, The
Actors Studio)
Stage settings (locations) and props are often indoors and
believable
The ‘box set’ is normally used for realistic dramas on stage,
consisting of three walls and an invisible ‘f ourth wall’ facing the
audience
Settings for realistic plays are often bland (deliberately ordinary)
Dialogue is not heightened for effect, but that of everyday
speech (vernacular)munotes.in

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33The drama is typically psychologically driven, where the plot is
seconda ry and primary focus is placed on the interior lives of
characters, their motives, the reactions of others etc.
Realistic plays often see the protagonist (main character) rise
up against the odds to assert him/herself against an injustice of
some kind (e. g. Nora in Ibsen’s A Doll’s House)
Realistic dramas quickly gained popularity because the
everyday person in the audience could identify with the
situations and characters on stage
Norwegian playwright Henrik Ibsen (A Doll’s House, Hedda
Gabler) is consi dered the father of modern realism in the theatre
Naturalism
While Ibsen was perfecting realism, France was demanding
a new drama based on Darwinism: all forms of life developed
gradually from common ancestry ;a n d evolution of species is
explained by su rvival of the fittest .
Naturalism became a conscious movement in France in the
1870’s; Emile Zola (1849 -1902) was an admirer of Comte and an
advocate of the scientific method. Literature, he felt, must become
scientific or perish; it should illustrate the inevitable laws of heredity
and environment or record case studies. To experiment with the
same detachment as a scientist, the writer could become like a
doctor (seeking the cause of disease to cure it, bringing the disease
in the open to be examined), ai ming to cure social ills.
Zola’s first major statement came in a novel, Thèrése
Raquin , which was dramatized in 1873; his preface states his
views. He also wrote a few treatises about naturalism in the theatre
and in the novel: he wanted art to detect "a scrap of an existence."
Even though Thèrése Raquin failed to adhere to most of the
principles of naturalism, except in the setting (it was mostly a
melodrama about murder and retribution), his followers were even
more zealous. The most famous phrase we he ar about naturalism
is that it should be "a slice of life." We often tend to forget what a
later French writer stated should be included with that phrase: "…
put on the stage with art."
The trend during the 19th century to present reality in as
convincing and natural a way as possible, so that the external
details of scene setting and of character portrayal were
emphasized. Much importance was given to costumes, props and
make -up-getting it to look just right. But by seeking to portray the
world 'natural ly', however, mainstream naturalism often got tied up
in the details, and lost track of the content. Structure and storyline
were very important, with a focus on character allowing themunotes.in

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34audience to become emotionally involved rather than detached.
The Natur alism can be described as:
In terms of style, naturalism is an extreme or heightened form of
realism
As a theatrical movement and performance style, naturalism
was short -lived
Stage time equals real time –e.g. three hours in the theatre
equals three h ours for the characters in the world of the play
Costumes, sets and props are historically accurate and very
detailed, attempting to offer a photographic reproduction of
reality (‘slice of life’)
As with realism, settings for naturalistic dramas are ofte nb l a n d
and ordinary
Naturalistic dramas normally follow rules set out by the Greek
philosopher Aristotle, known as ‘the three unities’ (of time, place
and action)
The action of the play takes place in a single location over the
time frame of a single da y-jumps in time and/or place between
acts or scenes is not allowed
Playwrights were influenced by naturalist manifestos written by
French novelist and playwright Emile Zola in the preface to
Therese Raquin (1867 novel, 1873 play) and Swedish
playwright August Strindberg in the preface to Miss Julie (1888)
Naturalism explores the concept of scientific determinism
(spawning from Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution) –
characters in the play are shaped by their circumstances and
controlled by external for ces such as hereditary or their social
and economic environment
Often characters in naturalistic plays are considered victims of
their own circumstance and this is why they behave in certain
ways (they are seen as helpless products of their environment)
Characters are often working class/lower class (as opposed to
the mostly middle -class characters of realistic dramas)
Naturalistic plays regularly explore sordid subject matter
previously considered taboo on the stage in any serious manner
(e.g. suicide, poverty, prostitution)
Writers of Realism (and Naturalism)
In France, to Playwrights helped popularized the idea of
realism but both clung to two inherent traditional morality and
values:munotes.in

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35Alexandre Dumas Fils(thefilsstands for "son," and designates
the "illegitimate son of Alexandre Dumas") –(1824 -1895) .His
novel, Camille , was dramatized in 1849. About a "kept woman," the
play was written in prose, and dealt with contemporary life.
Eventually, he wrote "thesis plays," about contemporary social
proble ms.
Emile Augier (1820 -1889) also wrote plays about contemporary
conditions.
Henrik Ibsen (1828 -1906) from Norway is considered to be the
father of modern realistic drama. His plays attacked society’s
values and dealt with unconventional subjects within the form of the
well-made play (causally related).
Ibsen perfected the well -made play formula; and by using a
familiar formula made his plays, with a very s hocking subject
matter, acceptable. He discarded soliloquies, asides, etc.
Exposition in the plays was motivated, there were causally related
scenes, inner psychological motivation was emphasized, the
environment had an influence on characters’ personaliti es, and all
the things ,characters did and all of things the characters used
revealed their socio -economic milieu. He became a model for later
realistic writers.
Among the subjects addressed by Ibsen in his plays
are:euthanasia ,the role of women ,war an d business ,a n d syphilis .
Some of Ibsen's playsa r e :
Ghosts —1881 —dealt with the concept of the sins of the father
transferring to the son, resulting in syphilis.
Pillars of Society –1877 –dealt with war and business.
Hedda Gabbler –1890 –ap o w e r f u lw o man takes her life at the
end of the play to get away from her boredom with society.
A Doll’s House –1879 –Nora leaves her husband Torvald and
her children at the end of the play; often considered "the slam
heard around the world," Nora’s action must hav eb e e nv e r y
shocking to the Victorian audience.
Later in life, Ibsen turned to more symbolic and abstract
dramas; but his "realism" affected others, and helped lead to
realistic theatre, which has become, despite variations and
rejections against it, the predominant form of theatre even today.
George Bernard Shaw (1856 -1950) –in England
Uncommon for his witty humor, Shaw made fun of societies’
notion using for the purpose of educating a nd changing. His playsmunotes.in

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36tended to show the accepted attitude, then demolished that attitude
while showing his own solutions.
Arms and the Man (1894) –about love and war and honor.
Mrs. Warren’s Profession –prostitution.
Major Barbara (1905) –am u n i t i o n s manufacturer gives more to
the world (jobs, etc.) while the Salvation Army only prolongs of
the status quo.
Pygmalion (1913) –shows the transforming of a flower girl into
a society woman, and exposes the phoniness of society. The
musical My Fair Lady was based on this play.
Anton Chekhov (1860 -1904) –in Russia
Chekhov is known more for poetic expiration and symbolism,
compelling psychological reality, people trapped in social situations ,
hope in hopeless situations. He claimed that he wrote comedies;
others think they are sad and tragic. Characters in Chekhov’s plays
seem to have a fate that is a direct result of what they are. His
plays have an illusion of plot -less-ness.
Again, his re alism has affected other playwrights, as did his
symbolic meanings in the texts of his plays and in the titles of his
plays.
Realism like Naturalism had a significant effect on modern
theatrical development, from its origins in the mid -nineteenth
century until the present day. It affected the way that productions
were staged, acted and presented although it was not the only
movement that affected the way that audiences thought.
In the later work of writers such as Strindberg and Ibsen the
effects of expre ssionism began to appear and by the start of the
twentieth century, new technologies such as cinema and later
television provided ways of perceiving and representing the world in
at o t a l l yn e ww a y .
2.2 POETIC DRAMA
The poetic drama is a great achievement of the modern age.
It is a mixture of high seriousness and colloquial element. It is the
combination of the tradition and the experiment and of the ancient
and the new. It is symbolic and difficult. Its verse form is blank
verse or free verse. In short, i ts vehicle is verse, its mechanism is
imagery, its substance is myth and its binding force is musical
pattern.
English poetic drama in the present century arose as a
reaction to the naturalistic prose drama of Ibsen, Shaw and
Galsworthy. By the second dec ade of the century, this prose dramamunotes.in

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37had reached a dead end. On the whole, this prose drama, in a
decadent stage after the best work of Shaw, had failed to grasp the
depth, tension and complexity of contemporary life. It was a mere
entertainment and did no t maintain any high levels. It concerned
itself entirely with social and economic problems to the entire
exclusion of deeper and more fundamental issues. It aimed at
photographic realism, avoided the romantic and the poetic, and had
grown too intellectual and sophisticated. It appealed to the mind
rather than to the heart. The result was that a number of writers,
who had made their first reputation as poets, and not as dramatists,
tried to revive the tradition of verse play for the “Little Theatre”, i.e.
theatre for specialized audiences.
Herod, the first poetic -play of Stephen Phillips, appeared in
1901, and this marks the beginning of the revival of poetic drama in
the 20th century. Irish dramatists, like W.B. Yeats, J.M. Synge,
Sean O’Casey, also played a significant part in the moment for the
revival of verse play. Other great names in the revival movement
are John Masefield, Cristopher Isherwood, W.H. Auden, Stephen
Spender, and Cristopher Fry. However, it is T.S. Eliot who, both
through his theory and practice of poetic drama, has achieved
considerable success in establishing tradition of poetic plays in the
20thcentury.
The 18thand the 19th century contributed little to the
development of poetic drama due to the unfavourable conditions.
There were s igns of rebirth of this drama by 1920. But it could not
gain much ground. The reason was that most of the dramatists of
this period were interested in realistic drama. A change was noticed
with the passage of time. The disciples of Ibsen began to be
oversh adowed. At the Abbey Theatre Yeats tried to revive poetic
drama. But he could not succeed. It was T.S. Eliot who firmly
established it. He prepared the concrete ground for it by saying that
the craving for poetic drama is permanent in human nature. He
adde dt h a tp o e t r yw a st h ec o m p l e t em e d i u mf o rd r a m a .
Before T.S. Eliot some dramatists tried to create a taste for
poetic drama. This attempt helped Eliot in making his valuable
experiments in poetic drama. Among these dramatists Stephen
Phillis, Jon Masefield, Gordon Bottomley, Flecker and John
Drinkwater are important. They all experimented in Poetic Drama
and prepared ground for Eliot. Their plays vitalised the course of
poetic drama.
W.B. Yeats :
W.B. Yeats, Lady Gregory and J.M. Synge established the
Abbey theatre in Dublin to encourage the poet -playwrights. At this
theatre Yeats endeavoured to revive poetic drama. He wrote about
twenty -six plays in verse but Yeats was more of a poet thanmunotes.in

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38dramatist. His plays are rich in poetical inte nsity. Eliot has praised
his contribution to poetic drama. Yeats' important plays are on
Baile's Strand , The Resurrection and Deirdre.
T.S. Eliot :
Eliot propounded the theory of the poetic drama. It was he
who established its tradition in 20th century. TheM u r d e ri nt h e
Cathedral is his first full -length poetic play. The Family Reunion,
The Cocktail Party, The Confidential Clerk and the Elder Statesman
are his other important poetic plays. Through these plays he
evolved a befitting poetic mode of expressio nf o rt h ep o e t i cd r a m a .
He discarded the use of traditional blank verse. He carefully
avoided any echo of Shakespeare. He explored the dramatic
possibility of verse and extended the scope of poetic drama.
Auden and Isherwood :
Auden wrote two plays alone a nd three plays in collaboration
with Isherwood. Audern's The Dance of Death is an important
poetic drama. Isherwood's Ascent of F6 and Across the Frontiers
are important plays. His plays deal with symbolic situation and
cartoon characters.
Stephen Spender :
He wrote Trial of a Judge. But it can't be considered to be a
poetic play of permanent value. John Masefield, Drinkwater,
Macneice, Duncan, and Ridler are the other dramatists that have
enriched the field of the poetic drama.
Christopher Fry :
His'The Lady Is Not f or Burning' is an important experiment
in verse and technique. In 'Venus Observed' Fry uses simple poetic
language.
Eliot took to writing plays comparatively late in his career; he
came to theatre as a mature critic and poet. He had a fu ll
understanding of the nature of poetic drama, the difference
between verse drama and prose drama, the causes of the failure of
19th century verse dramatists, the problem, technical and
otherwise, which face a writer of verse plays in the modern age.
Thro ugh his critical writings, he tried to demolish many of the
misconceptions about verse drama, emphasised its superiority over
prose drama, and in this way created a favourable atmosphere, “a
current of fresh ideas”, as Matthew Arnold would put it, for the
flourishing of poetic drama. Through his own practice, he showed
that verse drama is possible in the modern age.
Thematic Problem
T. S. Eliot emphasized that there are certain conditions
which must be fulfilled before success can be achieved in this field .munotes.in

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39First, it must be realised that the difference between prose drama
and verse drama is not merely one of medium. The themes of the
two are, and must be different. Poetic drama has been thought fit
only for such themes as cannot be appropriately dealt with by the
naturalistic prose drama T.S. Eliot writes, “…..no play should be
written in verse for which prose is dramatically adequate”. The
dramatic adequacy then demands a poignant theme, involving
symbolic characters with imaginative atmosphere; this means af a l l
back on the elemental, emotional realities of life in contradistinction
to the socio -economic issues which constitute the realm of the
naturalistic prose drama.
Through his practice, Eliot solved the thematic problem. His
verse -plays are not conc erned with socio -economic problems; they
are concerned not with the outer, but with the inner emotional and
psychic realities. Thus the core of his first play, Murder in the
Cathedral , is the psychic struggle of the hero with the temptations
offered to him ,a n dt h a to f The Family Reunion the psychological
guilt-complex of Harry, the hero of the play; The Cocktail Party is a
study in the awareness of personal inadequacies of married life in
the modern context. In these plays, he has also demonstrated the
relevance of religion to all human activity. They are all Christian
plays, the purpose of the dramatist being, “to train people to be able
to think in Christian categories.” In this way, “Eliot has been
contributing to the creation of the kind of wholeness of outlook
without which poetic drama cannot be accepted as the normal
mode of drama.” (D.E. Jones)
Eliot distinguishes between false and true rhetoric and says
that the employment of false rhetorical utterances is incompatible
with the concept of poetry as a medium. The presence of false
rhetoric not only brings to consciousness the remoteness of the
rhetorical dialogue from the spoken language, but also exploits the
sentiments of the auditors, and in this way destroys the dramatic
detachment of the audience. The contention that poetry should
become a medium, and not a decoration, implies that it should
serve the following purposes: first through poetic images as the
objective correlatives of the states of mind, poetry should help in
the revelation of the personality —pattern of the characters;
secondly, through poetic symbolism it should work out the
implications of the theme; thirdly, the scenic setting of the play
should be revealed through poetic mani pulations of references. The
fourth and the last condition for the successful revival of poetic
drama, according to Eliot, is the re -orientation of the attitude of the
audience.
The Elizabethan audience accepted with, “willing suspension
of disbelief, th e convention of making the high personages speak in
verse and the low in prose. No such frame of mind exists today,munotes.in

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40with the result that the attention of audience is distracted from the
play to poetry, the moment any character starts speaking in verse.
The true home of the poetic drama is lreland, which saw a
brilliant revival of the dramatic literature. The establishment of the
Abbey Theatre, Dublin in 1904, through the generosity of Miss
Horniman attracted the famous Yeats, Synge, Lady Gregory who
becam e its Directors.
The idea of a national drama, the lrish drama was born in the
minds of these famous writers and they wrote plays for this stage.
Later on it attracted more playwrights but these three remain the
most outstanding figures in the scene.
They looked upon the drama as a thing of the emotions and
reacting against the current realism, sought their themes among the
legends, folk -lore and peasantry of Ireland. In their drama we have
poetry in the truest sense.
W. B. Yeats wrote some twenty play sf o rt h i st h e a t r e ,
leaving aside his lyric poetry for the time being, in order to put the
Irish drama on a firm footing. Among these poetic dramas, mention
may be made of The Shadowy Waters (1900), The Golden Hemet
(1910), Deirdre etc.
Lady Gregory had a talent for comedy but her contribution
was not much. S preading the News is probably her best play. Her
one-act play, The Rising of the Moon with its intermingling of high
patriotic seriousness and Quixotic comedy will always live as
literature and drama.
Thus, P oetic Drama is one in which poetry and drama are
fused. Since the dialogue between the characters is in verse, the
play becomes a combination of music, imagery, and ritual. These
factors create high intensity and dramatic effect, making poetic
drama an important feature to study.
2.3. ANGRY THEATRE
Anger as a force in 1950s literature had its origins in a group
known as the Movement. Deeply English in outlook, the Movement
was a gathering of poets including Philip Larkin, Kingsley Amis,
Elizabeth Jennings, Thom Gunn, John Wain, D J Enright and
Robert Conquest. The Move ment can be seen as an aggressive,
skeptical, patriotic backlash against the cosmopolitan elites of the
1930s and 1940s. The poets in the group rejected modernism,
avant -garde experimentation, romanticism and the metaphorical
fireworks of poets such as Dyl an Thomas. Their verse was ironical,
down to earth, non -sentimental and rooted in a nostalgic idea ofmunotes.in

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41English identity. European sympathies were regarded as
unmistakable signs of intellectual pretentiousness and moral
turpitude. The Movement had members wh ow e r eO x b r i d g e -
educated (Oxford and Cambridge), white, predominantly male
(Jennings was the only woman in the group, and she was a late
arrival), middle -class, Europhobic and for the most part
heterosexual. Even so, they caught the mood of their time, and
Larkin and Amis in particular are undeniably major figures in
English literature.
The Movement produced two anthologies, Enright’s Poets of
the 1950s (1955) and Conquest’s New Lines (1956), but while Amis
achieved some success as part of the group with h is poetry it was
his debut novel, Lucky Jim (1954), which secured his reputation.
With the novel’s central character, Jim Dixon, Amis gave English
literature an unlikely new hero, one who was very much in tune with
the modern age.
HisAngry Young Men came about as a howl of rage against
the class system, the literary elite and the Establishment has been
questioned. What cannot be doubted, however, is that the Angry
Young Men shook things up and got themselves noticed. Lucky
Jimwas a best seller, Look Bac ki nA n g e r roused strong emotions
and the writers who followed Amis and Osborne made the literary
establishment sit up and take notice. The Angry Young Men may
have been loud, crude and even obnoxious, but they gave literature
a fresh impetus and they help ed theatre regain its relevance to
modern life.
As a group of mostly working and middle -class British
playwrights and novelists who became prominent in the 1950s. with
leading members including John Osborne and Kingsley Amis. The
phrase was originally coi ned by the Royal Court Theatre's press
officer to promote John Osborne's 1956 play Look Back in Anger .
Their impatience and resentment were especially aroused by what
they perceived as the hypocrisy and mediocrity of the upper and
middle classes. They shar ed an outspoken irreverence for the
British class system, its traditional network of pedigreed families,
and the elitist Oxford and Cambridge universities. They showed an
equally uninhibited disdain for the drabness of the postwar welfare
state, and their writings frequently expressed raw anger and
frustration as the postwar reforms failed to meet exalted aspirations
for genuine change.
The Angry Young Men were:
Many British novelists and playwrights, who emerged in the
1950s, expressed scorn and disaffect ion with the established
sociopolitical order of their country.munotes.in

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42Their impatience and resentment were especially aroused by
what they perceived as the hypocrisy and mediocrity of the
upper and middle classes.
The Angry Young Men were a new breed of intellectuals who
were mostly of working class or of lower middle -class origin.
Some had been educated at the postwar red -brick universities
at the state’s expense, though a few were f romOxford .
They shared an outspoken irreverence for the British class
system, its traditional network of pedigreed families, and the
elitist Oxford and Cambridge universities.
They showed an equally uninhibited disdain for the drabness of
the postwar welfare state ,a n dt h e i rw r i t i n g sf r e q u e n t l y
expressed raw anger and frustration as the postwar reforms
failed to meet exalted aspirations for genuine change.
Another frequent subj ect in this age is the depiction of the
position of the youth in society. The writers often portrayed the
central hero being disillusioned with the life and dissatisfied with
their job and a society where he is unfit and deprived of normal
rights.
Angry Y oung Men literature strongly revolted against all the
accepted norms and ideals. Typically, the hero is a rootless,
lower -middle or working -class male psyche with a university
degree. He expresses his dissatisfaction towards social ills with
excessive ange r and sardonic humor. He often indulges into
adultery and inebriation to escape from complexities of life. In
life, he is the very epitome of a frustrated post -World War II
generation.
Let’s briefly look at the prominent works of this genre.
Kingsley Amis and Lucky Jim
Lucky Jim tells the story of Jim Dixon, a lecturer at one of
Britain’s new redbrick universities. Dixon, especially to modern
eyes, is an affable Everyman; the chap in the street; the down -to-
earth fairly decent bloke with a tas te for beer and jazz and with an
eye for pretty girls. What he is not is an intellectual; it is Dixon’s
ordinariness and his lack of heroic qualities that make him such a
radical departure for English literature. He has the unheroic aim in
life of keeping his job while doing as little work as possible. He is
also –and here Amis shows his roots in the Movement –
suspicious of anything foreign, and has a horror of eccentricity.
Dixon at one point even considers tying his colleague, Professor
Welch, to a chai r and ‘beating him about the head and shoulders
with a bottle until he disclosed why, without being French himself,
he’d given his sons French names’.munotes.in

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43Lucky Jim was a controversial novel. For the literary
establishment –writers such as Evelyn Waugh and S omerset
Maugham –it encapsulated the new lower -middle -class challenge
to the status quo presented by both free secondary education and
the emerging welfare state. In an article for the Sunday
Times Maugham launched a tirade against not only Jim Dixon, but
also the suburban world of the white -collar proletariat he believed
Dixon represented :“They do not go to university to acquire culture,
but to get a job, and when they hav e got one, scamp it. They have
no manners and are woefully unable to deal with any social
predicament. Their idea of a celebration is to go to a public house
and drink six beers. They are mean, malicious and envious …
Charity, kindliness, generosity are qu alities which they hold in
contempt. They are scum.”
By implication, Maugham was also criticising Kingsley Amis.
For critics of the novel, Dixon, with his distrust of Continental,
coffee -drinking intellectuals and his interests in beer, popular music
andsex, mirrored his creator and signalled the rise of the intelligent
outsider –the clever, work -shy chancer, keen to enjoy himself and
with no respect for the upper classes.
Look Back in Anger by John Osbourne
Osborne's play was the first to explore the t heme of the
"Angry Young Man." This term describes a generation of post -
World War II artists and working -class men who generally ascribed
to leftist, sometimes anarchist, politics and social views. According
to cultural critics, these young men were not a part of any
organized movement but were, instead, individuals angry at a post -
Victorian Britain that refused to acknowledge their social and class
alienation.
Jimmy Porter is often considered to be literature's seminal
example of the angry young man. Jim my is angry at the social and
political structures that he believes has kept him from achieving his
dreams and aspirations. He directs this anger towards his friends
and, most notably, his wife Alison.
Where Lucky Jim had shaken up the novel, Look Back in
Anger shook up the theatre. At the time most new plays were
aimed at a self -consciously conservative audience.
Terence Rattigan, author of popular dramas such as The
Browning Version (1948) and The Deep Blue Sea (1952),
summarized this audience in the imaginary figure of ‘ Aunt Edna ’-a
typical elderly theatre goer who knew what she liked, and who
wanted to be enter tained rather than shaken by something gritty,
realistic and possibly foul -mouthed.munotes.in

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44The Angry Young Men
Kingsley Amis, by combining the Movement’s straightforward
approach and loathing for snobbery with a portrayal of lower -middle
class opportunistic cha rm in the character of Jim Dixon, suddenly
found himself at the forefront of a new group of writers, namely the
Angry Young Men. The term ‘Angry Young Men’ was coined by the
Royal Court Theatre’s press officer to promote Look Back in Anger ,
a1 9 5 6p l a yb yt h et h e n -unknown playwright John Osborne .T h e
label caught on and came to characterize young working -class and
lower -middle -class writers disillusi oned with conformity and the
conservative values of the ruling classes.
The Angry Young Men, as the title implies, also did little for
women. Their writing of female characters reveals a rife,
inescapable misogyny: not only are women never the central
protagonists, but they are also often treated in a horrifyingly
aggressive way as passive objects of the male characters’ tirades.
InLook Back in Anger Jimmy snarls at his wife: ‘I want to
stand up in your tears, and splash about in them, and sing. I want
to be there when you grovel’ .
Shelagh Delaney, who wrote A Taste of Honey (1958), was
inevitably labelled in some quarters as an ‘Angry Young Woman’,
but she was the exception to what was a male -centred group. A
crucial distinction between Delaney and the group was made by the
critic Lindsay Anderson, who characterized Delaney’s lead
character, Jo, as wholly different to ‘the middle -class angry young
man, the egocentric rebel’: ‘Josephine is not a reb el; she is a
revolutionary’.
This literary Movement brought a fresh concept which was
totally complied with the then socio -political context. Though lasted
only for a short span of time, it exerted a profound impact in the
field of British literature. Like the Beat movement in the United
States, the impetus of the movement was exhausted in the early
1960s.
2.4. STREET PLAY/THEATRE
Street theat reis a form of theatrical performance and
presentation in outdoor public spaces without a specific paying
audience. These spaces can be anywhere, including shopping
centers ,car parks , recreational reserves, college or university
campus and street corners. They are especially seen in outdoor
spaces where there are large numbers of people. The actors, who
perform street theatre range from buskers to organized theatre
companies or groups that want to experiment with performance
spaces, or to promote their mainstream work.munotes.in

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45It was a source of providing information to people when
there were no sources of providing information like television, radio
etc. Nowadays, street play is used to convey a message to the
crowd watching it. Street play is considered to be the rawest form of
acting, because o ne does not have a microphone or loud speakers.
Sometimes performers are commissioned, especially for
street festivals , children's shows or parades , but more often street
theatre performers are unpaid or gather some income through the
dropping of a coin in a hat by the audience.
The logistics of doing street theatre make use of
simple costumes andprops ,a n do f t e nt h e r ei sl i t t l eo r
noamplification of sound, with actors depending on their
natural vocal and physical ability. The performances need to be
highly visible, loud and simple to follow in order to attract a crowd.
Street theatre should be distinguished from other more
formal outdoor theatrical performances, such as performances in a
park or garden, where there is a discrete space set aside
(orroped off) and a ticketed audience. In some cases, street
theatre performers have to get a license or specific permission
through local orstate governments in order to perform.
Street theatre is arguably the oldest form of theatre in
existence: most mainstream entertainment mediums can be traced
back to origins in street performing, including religious passion
plays and many other forms. More recently performers who, a
hundred years ago, would have made their living working in variety
theatres ,music halls and in vaudeville ,n o wo f t e np e r f o r m
professionally in the many well -known s treet performance areas
throughout the world. Notable performers that began their careers
as street theatre performers include Robin Williams ,David
Bowie ,Jewel andHarry Anderson .
Street theatre allo ws people who might not have ever been
to, or been able to afford to go to, traditional theatre. The audience
is made up of anyone and everyone who wants to watch and for
most performances is free entertainment. Performance artists with
an interest in soci al activism may choose to stage their work on the
street as a means of directly confronting or engaging the public.
A character -based street theatre which developed in the
1960s and 1970s was developed by groups like Lumiere and Son,
John Bull Puncture R epair Kit, Exploded Eye and Natural Theatre
Company. The performances were unannounced and featured
characters who acted out a pre -arranged scenario, looking beautiful
or surreal or simply just involving passers -by in conversation. They
did not seek to tri ck in a Candid Camera way, but rather invited themunotes.in

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46audience to pretend along with them. No amount of planning or
rehearsal could dictate what would happen.
Another example would be Natural Theatre's Pink Suitcase
scenario. A number of smartly dressed people carrying bright pink
suitcases enter a set of streets or buildings. They search for and
miss their companions. In their search they get on buses, hail cab s,
end up in shop windows, etc. By the time they meet up at a pre -
arranged spot with the help of passers -by, perceptions of the area
have changed and shopping has ceased for at least a few
moments. The humor is universal and this piece has been seen in
nearly seventy countries. It is usually performed by four or five
actors, but has been done with twenty -five.
Street plays or the street theatres however also evolved in
the early 20th century as a tool to emancipate the working class
and reinforce revoluti on against the established power. Its journey
began in India during the time of anti -colonial struggle, essentially
by the left -wing theatre activists. Performance artists with an
interest in social activism may choose to stage their work on the
street as a means of directly confronting or engaging the public.
Other factors include reaching to the most people who cannot
afford to buy a stage ticket for their entertainment. Street plays
mostly focus to boost the ideology of a special section of people
who ha ve no connection to education or moral etiquettes.
Street Theatre andthe Indian Scenario (Nukkad Natak)
There has been an explosion of street theatre activity in
India in the eighties and nineties. One study estimates the
existence of about 7,000 street theatre groups in different parts of
the country with the largest number in West Bengal, Andhra
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. In India, street theatre or
popularly termed as ‘Nukkad Natak’ actors are mainly teachers and
students committed to bringing ab out social change. Their returns
in terms of finances or fame are nil. The time that this form of
theatre demands is considerable. All evenings and weekends are
spent rehearsing or performing.
The preparation of these plays takes a long time too
depending on the topics and motive behind the play. To attract the
audience they started playing a ‘dholak’ or choral song. When the
audience surrounds in a circular position, one person narrates while
the actors do mime. As these plays are mostly low budgeted, the
theme and the dressing has to be kept simple so almost no makeup
looks are preferable unless it’s a mime. In a mime play, the face is
being painted white and eyes should be highlighted in the black
circle. Not much scope of good acting is considered as th et h e m e
needs to be displayed in an exaggerated version. Uses of
microphones and sound box depend on the size of the gathering.munotes.in

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47The topics or the themes of an independent street play have
always been on bringing the positive changes in the society. The
maker or the scriptwriter takes different topics from general day to
day instances or the burning topics that shook the world. For
example, Nirbhaya incident of 2013 that immensely impacted India
has been portrayed beautifully in a street play in Gurgaon
demo nstrating the safety of women in India day to day negative
impact of drinking and smoking on human health invarious nukkad
natak .
Janam (Jann Natya Manch)
The venerable pioneer of Indian street theatre is Jana Natya
Manch –People’s Theatre Front, or Jan am–which was created
nearly 40 years ago and popularised street theatre as activism. In
India, we have a marathon of street play which was organised in
2017. Manthan Mahotsav, nearly performed by 125 teams in 40
states in India as well as few states in a broad like Brazil and Nepal
picking up issues like women empowerment, ragging, eve teasing,
religious fanaticism etc. in all prominent places around the city.
Being the largest street play festival in India, started off its 10th
edition on March 4. The bra inchild of Verve, the street play society
of Shaheed Sukhdev College of Business Studies, University of
Delhi, Manthan 2017 created history with street plays being
performed in so many different locations across India, many of
them simultaneously.
Street play will never age as this happens to be the oldest
and the most convenient way of spreading the goodness to the
extremely difficult areas. It has the power to persuade someone to
change ideas. Whatever the reason for choosing the street, the
street is a place with a different set of possibilities than the
conventional theatre space.
In India a paradigm shift from proscenium theatre to the
theatre of the streets was initiated by the anti -fascist movement of
communist party of India under the canopy of Indian People’s
Theatre Association (IPTA). The root of stre et theatre in India was
strongly related with the anti -fascist political ideology of the leftists
and the progressive political theatre in the ‘40’s in Kolkata.
It evolved as a tool to emancipate the working class and
reinforce revolution against the established power. Street plays
based on issues and stories directly concerned with the people
such as hunger, famine, poetry, communal violence, feudal and
colonial exploitation created impact on the society deeply divided
by class, caste and religion through these common grave
concerning issues.munotes.in

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48Even after Independence, Indian Street theatre evolved as a
means to voice the concerns of the common man. This theatre form
immediately struck a chord with the masses. Street theatre is a
situation where the audience has not come prepared to watch a
play, and people may not have much time on hand. These
limitations determine the parameters of the plays. They are short.
The exchange is close, direct and intima te and, to be more
effective, usually loud and larger than life. In order to draw crowds
from all walks of life, the plays are humorous. Songs based on
popular catchy tunes are included to add to the appeal.
After the independence, street plays became pop ular during
the ‘50s and the ‘60s. However, it burst into national prominence
during the political turmoil of the late ‘70s and the early ‘80s.
With the Emergency declared by the central government,
repression unleashed against Communists and the revolut ionary
Naxalbari uprising in Bengal, street theatre entered a new phase.
Performers were attacked, often by the police.
Safdar Hashmi’s Jana Natya Manch formed in 1973, led this
movement of Indian street theatre. Hashmi defined street theatre
as “a militant political theatre of protest whose function is to agitate
the people and to mobilize them behind fighting organizations”.
1989 marked a turning point for street theatre after Hashmi
was killed during a show. In the early winter afternoon, Janam was
performing their play Halla Bol (“Raise Your Voice”) for a group of
workers at Jhandapur, Sahibabad, on the outskirts of Delhi, as a
part of its campaign to support the CPI (M) in the local election
campaign. A cand idate from the rival party backed by a gang of
hundred goons armed with guns and sticks, ordered JANAM to stop
the performance and in consequence Safdar Hashmi was
murdered in the agitation. His birthday, 12th April is now observed
in India as National Str eet Theatre Day.
Street Plays or “Nukkad Natak” were not just used as tools
of political awareness but in their early days of popularity in the
80’s, it was used for fighting social injustice as well.
In 1980, the famous Mathura rape case instigated a l ot of
shows on the need to make the rape laws more stringent. Another
famous street play of those days -“Om Swaha” dealt with demands
for dowry resulting in harassment and sometimes death. There
were several productions which give a short summary of the li fe of
a woman in India and examine a woman’s needs and abilities.
By the early ‘90s street plays were used by several NGOs
for spreading awareness in villages regarding issues such as HIV,munotes.in

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49social equality, injustice against women, ecological consciousnes s
etc. Such was the popularity of the “Nukkad Natak”, that it has been
even used by companies for marketing their products in India. Big
players like the UN, Goonj, CRY etc. prefer this form for
propagating their message to their target audience for its
characteristic of being an audience magnet and being closely
connected to them.
There are thousands professional theatre groups in the
country today which continue to use “nukkad natak” for social
awareness. The strong culture of street play can be felt in the
National capital of Delhi through the dramatics societies of the
universities. Hundreds of competitions are organized throughout
the year and almost every Delhi college has a “Nukkad” team each
with a swelling will to amend the erroneous and build a b etter
future.
The voice of a street play artist is the voice of a rebellion.
Street play is the spark that ignites numerous fires in the hearts,
minds and souls of us Indians, the fire of voice, fire of initiation and
the fire of change.
2.5. THIRD THEA TRE
The term ‘third theatre’ was coined by Eugenio Barba,
founder of the Odin Teatret in Denmark, who, in 1976, was given
the task of organizing a conference on theatrical research by
UNESCO and the Institut eInternational du Théâtre.
The “thir d theatre” is a mix of contemporary theatrical
techniques and ancestral traditions. Through the will and desire
necessary for these encounters to take place, the opening up of
cultures is enabled. Numerous puppeteers have understood the
theatrical gains to be made by regrouping expressive mediums and
techniques from other performance arts, on the condition that this
mixing is done in the aim of creating a specific dramatic effect, and
to avoid an incomprehensible “mish -mash” of styles.
In the Indian conte xt, Badal Sircar was one of the leading
and most influential playwrights and directors in modern Indian
theatre movement. He is the writer of more than 50 plays and also
a recipient of Padma Shri, Sangeet Natak Akedemi Fellowship and
the Sangeet Natak Akad emi Award. Inspired by Grotowski and
Euginio Barba, he started a new movement in the Indian theatre
world, also known as ‘Third Theatre’.
Badal Sircar emerged as a theatre director and writer who
tried to emancipate (free) himself and his work by crossing
boundaries. He brought new ideas and methods to Indian theatremunotes.in

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50from the West and constructed a new form called the ‘Third
Theatre’.
Sircar was also inspired by Polish theatre practitioner Jerzy
Grotowski’s ‘The Poor Theatre’, who considered an actor’s bo dy as
the primary element in a theatre performance. Grotowski
constructed a ‘theatre laboratory’ to experiment with the physical,
spiritual and ritualistic elements of theatre. He tried to comprehend
this acting style/system by turning to Indian Classical dance,
Kathakali as well as yoga. For him, yoga remained inefficient, as it
focused on interiority whereas actors required exteriority of
emotions as well as gestures.
For him, gestures were to be expressive and dominant
enough to overpower the lack which the form inhabits consciously.
‘Poor Theatre’ rejects the use of excess in theatre which includes
lavish mis -en-scene, costumes, etc. The focus of the performance
becomes actor’s body, which performs with minimalistic props. The
process becomes simplistic and was performed in any space,
thereby, rejecting traditional theatre halls or spaces.
Coming of ‘Third Theatre’
Sircar, professionally a town planner, never went through an
official training in theatre. In the beginning of his theatre career, he
could not remain stable and dwindled between theatre and town
planning. Sircar, emerged as a great playwright in process of
writing plays in which he could act. His first play was Solution X
written in 1956 based on the Hollywood film, ‘The Monkey
Business’. The play was performed with people from his office
named ‘Rehearsal Group’ and was started with no intention of
performing on a formal stage.
Sircar, fascinated with comedies and science fiction
fantasies wrote six plays which included Baro Pishima, Shonibar
and Ram -Shyam -Jadu. But his play EvamIndrajeet, written in
1960s opened gates of fame and popularity. The play was
published in the journal of ‘Bahurupee’ and was performed by
theatre group Shouvanik in 1965, while he was in Nigeria. With the
new success in theatre, Sircar’s interest also grew and he got
actively involved in theatre, starting his own group called ‘Satabdi’
with amateur performers willing to entertain middle class audience
in the proscenium theatre. The rupture came, when Sircar started
togrow over proscenium theatre and was invited by the
Government of India to visit three European countries in 1969
where he encountered experimental theatre. This allowed Sircar to
get introduced to Grotowski as well as Poor Theatre.
“For Sircar, poor thea tre brought the theatre back to its
ritualistic form, reduced to the unadorned body of performer.” Aftermunotes.in

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51his encounter with such ideas, the group started minimalistic use of
sets, lights, costumes and even background music, completely
rejecting mechanical and technological tools such as radio. Similar
to Grotowski, the body of the actor experimented with mime, dance,
movement, time, and space rather than speech. This new form was
highly appreciated by the ‘mass’ audience as well as critics.
With these expe riments in mind, Sircar adapted them to his
previously written works. ‘Spartacus’ became the first, which he
wrote for proscenium theatre, based on Howard Fast’s novel. The
process was closely associated as a workshop which explored
capabilities of artiste s.
His famed play ‘Spartacus’ became the route through which
Sircar moved towards his destination to reach a concrete ‘Third
Theatre’. To familiarise Indian theatre groups with his form, Sircar
started to conduct theatre workshops in different regions of the
country.
During the performance, the burst of energy by the slave
characters became the high point for the local audiences, which
they appreciated by spontaneous applause.
The revolt in the play was becoming the voice of the mass
audience standin g outside the fence. Performance was held in an
open space under a wooden roof which invited local people and
certain VIPs. For Sircar, selling tickets became turning audiences
into consumers, thus it remained a practice to keep the tickets very
cheap by r educing the cost of theatre, and also not relying on funds
from government or other business houses. The reason for creating
a ‘Third Theatre’ remains to enable interaction with audiences
about role, responsibility and rights of citizens. Spartacus talks
about the marginalised community and their exploitation. Such
performance thus intrigues a desire to change, in the form of
protest by giving a voice to the oppressed; not only by
representation of the script by characters but also through form.
The 1960s was a definitive decade for the arts in many parts
of the world, including India. Moving into a postcolonial era, Indian
theatre was starting to be demarcated in national terms. Theatre
has always been one of the most powerful media of sensitization
and so cial communication in India. Communal violence and
conflicts arising out of caste, religious, and gender identities have
found a unique resonance and representation in post -
Independence Indian theatre. Theatre reveals many salient aspects
of urban violence by the staging or enactment of violence. While
looking at the contributors of theatre the name of Badal Sircar is
included without any exception. It is observed that Badal Sircar
contributed to the modern Indian drama and played roles asmunotes.in

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52playwright, direc tor, and actor to change the scenario contemporary
theatre. No other theatre personality has had such a deep and
pervasive influence on theatre practice and theory in post -
independence India as Badal Sircar. As a writer of proscenium
plays in the 1960s, al l of which have been widely produced by
leading directors in several Indian languages; as the pioneer of
non-proscenium political theatre in the 1970s; as the mentor of
countless directors and theatre activists who have carried his ideas
to far corners of the country, his work is an integral part of
contemporary Indian theatre history .
Third Theatre had turned into “free theatre” in three ways:
First, there was free expression it promoted direct and therefore
uninhibited communication; second, it was free from the
paraphernalia of conventional theatre; and last, it was offered at no
cost to the audience. A logical development leading to truly free
theatre was the gram parikrama. A true theatre of the people
therefore would have to go where the majority of t he population
lived. Satabdi went on its first parikrama in 1986 for three days and
two nights. It has since been trying to undertake at least two such
tours every year. The radical departure from established realist
stage traditions that had many people r eferring to Sircar’s theatre
as “experimental” and “alternative”.
Free theatre is also often loosely used synonymously with
street theatre because both are flexible, portable, and inexpensive.
And while he has no objections to the conflation per se, Sirca r
clarifies the distinction. He and other members of Satabdi define
street theatre as a quickly created short performance, which has
some topical value. So: “Street theatre in a way is Third Theatre.
But all Third Theatre is not street theatre”. Sircar’s i nnovations in
the use of public space have had a profound impact on Indian
theatre. Even though experimentation for its own sake was never
his intention, his example encouraged many others to explore
different styles. But if this purposeful theatre was to survive, it
required more than just meddlers interested in its form. What was
needed to carry Third Theatre forward was a group of committed
practitioners who were invested in its content.
After the scripts for change were written, a movement
ensued. “Th e entire process of change involves a philosophy that
the new language can only be established if it takes the shape of a
movement”. To understand the contribution of Sircar and Satabdi in
making process of the Third Theatre it is necessary to look up the
annoying effort of Sircar and his group Satabdi. It is a long history
of dedicated activity, most of it far from the glare of the national
spotlight that has periodically shined on him. His exploration has
never been motivated by a desire to experiment for the sake of
experiment alone. He has never believed in maxims like ‘art formunotes.in

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53art’s sake’ or ‘theatre for the sake of theatre’. Truly a man of the
theatre, Sircar has nurtured a group that is now in its 45th year. He
has generated a movement that continues to attract new people
even decades after Third Theatre has passed from the dominant
theatrical and critical interest. His influence is inductive. He works
with his group and they in turn inspire mimetic configurations. He
conducts workshops with individual s who become stimulated to do
their own theatre. As a result, elements of Third Theatre have
traveled far and wide, crossing boundaries of language, class,
culture, and nationhood.
Third Theatre has certain unique facets which can be
elaborated as follow s:
1.Unity of Rural and Urban: Theatre Third theatre is the fusion of
two theatres rural and the urban theatre. In the exploration Sircar
had seen the inherent features of folk theatre i. e. live performer
and direct communication technique. And the emph asis on the
performers body rather than the set -ups and mechanical devices
from the proscenium theatre. Thus Sircar combined these features
of the rural and the urban theatre and made the third theatre as the
synthesis of these two theatres.
2.Emphasis on Audience Participation: In exploration of the
theatre Sircar came to realize that the theatre is a human act.
Experience is the key word in every art and theatre is also a kind of
art, where people come to have experience. According to Badal
Sircar thea tre should be a collective exercise to awaken and
enhance the social consciousness of participants, including the
viewers. So, he preferred doing theatre in the open air where
audience can participate. Sircar has said of his own theatre: There
is no separa te stage —the performance is on the floor; that is the
Performers and the spectators are within the same environment.
This is intimate theatre. The performers can see the spectator
clearly, can approach him individually, can whisper in his ears, can
even to uch him if he wants.
3.Anti-Proscenium Nature: Third theatre is anti -proscenium in
nature. In proscenium theatre elaborate stage set -ups, props,
spotlight, costume, make -up etc. are used to create illusion of
reality. But in the Third theatre emphasis is given on the
performer’s body rather than set, props and costumes. In
proscenium theatre raised stage is used to keep distance from the
spectator. But the Third theatre offers openness to the spectator.
4. Portability, Flexibility, and Inexpensive: Thirdt h e a t r ei s
portable, because it can be moved anywhere. As it does not require
heavy set -up, spotlight, furniture, costumes etc. so it becomes
portable. Third theatre is flexible because plays can be performedmunotes.in

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54anywhere, it does not require stage. A theatr e which can go to
where the people are without waiting for them to come to a
specified place. Since it reduced the cost of theatre, and it can be
offered at freely, so it is inexpensive. Sircar believed in human
relationship, not in the buyer and seller re lationship. He believed
that theatre is a human act; it is art not the source of earning
money.
5. Approach to Acting: In the Third Theatre emphasis is given on
the acting rather than set -ups, costumes. Set -ups are made of
collective human act. Emphasis is totally given on the human body.
For the free flow of action games exercises are taken in the
workshops. Training is given to the performers through improve.
Instead of imitating certain stage voices and movements, the
performers are taught to giving mo re from within, replacing the fake
in theatre by a true expression of the self. Freeing them from the
constraints of realistic depiction, Sircar encouraged the performers
to use movements, rhythm, mime, formations, and contortions to
express them physicall y. The body of the actor becomes the text.
6.S y n t h e s i so fE a s ta n dW e s t : Third theatre exhibits an
openness and receptivity. Sircar was influenced both Indian folk
theatre and western experimental theatre. Sircar adopted direct
communication techni que and live performance from the Indian folk
theatre. Open performance and emphasis on the performer’s body
from the west theatre. Thus ,he combined these features and made
the Third theatre.
Sircar himself admits that he learned the most from
observing and sometimes working with practitioners like Jerzy
Grotowski, Joan MacIntosh, Judith Malina, Julian Beck, and
Richard Schechner. But mere observing is other thing; he has not
imitated them. Third or free theatre can never be like Grotowski’s
physical the atre because, Sircar says, those conditions of
performance are simply not available in India. Sircar focused on
doing theatre than writing plays, because he had profound
knowledge Indian society where physical, psychological, cultural,
mental, political, a nd spiritual dichotomies reclined. To bring about
a change Sircar used theatre as a tool. He was conscious that the
dichotomy in the cultural field cannot be removed without a
fundamental change in the socio -economic situation, and he knew
that it cannot b e done through theatre. Though he knew that theatre
by itself can never change the society, he firmly believes that
theatre can be one of the many facets of a movement that is
needed to bring about the desirable change, and that makes the
idea of Third The atre, a theatre of change meaningful to him.
7.Theatre as the servant of Nationalism: During the exploration
Sircar realized the existence of two cultural trends r unning parallelmunotes.in

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55to each other giving rise to a fundamental dichotomy between
urban and rur al lives, with this understanding he had come to
realize the existence of two distinct kinds of theatre in rural and
urban areas of India. As he was basically a middle -class man of
Calcutta, he was attached to the city of Calcutta. A city of alien
culture based on English education repressing, distorting, buying,
promoting for sale the real culture of the country. Sircar had an
intimate feel of the urban conscience of this city and had a profound
understanding of the middle -class life, and through almost al lh i s
major plays, he is found probing into the Calcutta middle -class
mind. Sircar produced plays that hit the rural and urban dichotomy
as he wished to create a link between the two theatres through his
Third theatre, a theatre of synthesis.
8. Theatre as a Tool of Political Ideology: Sircar was active
member of undivided Communist Party of India in 1940s, the
decade of Independence. Thereafter he says he criticized the Party
and was suspended. After a year of his suspension still he
continued in organiz ed politics. Though in the early 50s he left
politics never to return, his political ideology has not changed. As
he said party had let him down but the ideology of Marxism has
kept him alive. As Sircar believed in Communism, he wished to
work for the soci ety. He wished to make the world change. The
transition from depicting the alienation of the middle classes to
writing about the lives of workers and peasants is arguably a
Marxist progression. It is best outlined in his play Hattamalar
Oparey (Beyond the Land of Hattamala, 1977). The story of two
thieves —named Kena (Bought) and Becha (Sold), obviously
representative of the evils of capitalism chance upon a land of no
money that operates according to the Communist principle of each
to the best of his abili ty and to each according to his need. After
many escapades they decide shamefacedly to give up their evil
ways and live in this new land, one as a mason and the other as a
gardener. Hattamala ends with the chorus singing “We’ll share what
we have together. Come, let’s share everything together.”
2.6ONE -ACT PLAY
One-Act plays were written and staged throughout the 18th
and 19th centuries as “The Curtain Raisers” or “The After Pieces”.
They were chiefly farcical andserved to amuse the audience before
the commencement of the actual drama or were staged for their
amusement just after it had come to an end. The famous one -act
play “Monkey’s Paw” was first staged as a ‘Curtain Raiser’ and it
proved to be more entertaini ng than the main drama. It may be said
to mark the beginning of the modern one -act play.
The origin of the one -act play may be traced to the very
beginning of drama. In ancient Greece, Cyclops, a play on themunotes.in

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56forest God, by Euripides, is an early example. It was great
Norwegian dramatist Ibsen, who, for the first time, introduced the
minute stage -directions into the one -act play. Before him, one -act
plays were written in poetry, but he made prose the medium of his
one-act plays. In short, he made the drama, simple and real and
brought it nearer to everyday life. He made the modern one -act
play what it is and his example has been widely followed. George
Bernard Shaw and John Galsworthy are two of his greatest
followers.
The one -act play requires no elaborate setting and
costumes, and so comes in handy to be staged in amateur
dramatic societies and clubs.
Famous one -act plays by major dramatists —–
Anton Chekhov: A Marriage Proposal (1890)
August Strindberg: Pariah (1889), Motherly Love (1892), The
First Warning (1892)
Thornton Wilder: The Long Christmas Dinner (1931)
Eugene Ionesco: The Bald Soprano (1950)
Arthur Miller: A Memory of Two Mondays (1955)
Samuel Beckett: Krapp’s Last Tape (1958 )
Israel Horovitz: Line (1974)
Edward Albee: The Goat, or Who is Sylvia? (2002)
Chief Characteristics of One Act Play
One-act play is a play that has only one act, but may consist of
one or more scenes.
One-act plays are usually written in a concise manne r.
It deals with a single dominant situation, and aims at producing
a single effect.
It deals with only one theme developed through one situation to
one climax in order to produce the maximum of effect.
It treats the problems of everyday life as marriage, punishment
for crimes, labor conditions, divorce, etc.
The one -act play, like the longer drama, should have a
beginning, a middle and an end. It may be divided into four
stages: The Exposition, The Confl ict, The Climax and The
Denouement.
The exposition is usually brief, serves as an introduction to the
play.munotes.in

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57It is through the conflict that the action of the drama develops. It
is the very backbone of the one -act play.
Climax is the turning point of the dr ama. It isanimportant part of
the one -act play andconstitutes its moment of supreme interest.
The Denouement is very brief andoften overlaps with climax.
Action begins right at the start of the play.
There are no breaks in the action .It is continuous since it is a
short play .T h e r ei s no interval.
Everything superfluous is to be strictly avoided as the play is
short andthe action takes place within a short period of time. It
introduces elaborate stage directions to minimize the time taken
by the actio ni t s e l f .
The creation of mood or atmosphere is indispensable to its
success.
There are three dramatic unities which are observed in the one -
act play. The unities are —-the unity of time, unity of place and
the unity of action.
It aims at simplicity of pl ot; concentration of action and unity of
impression. It does not rely on spectacular effects andcommon
dramatic tricks of old.
The characters in a one -act play are limited in number.
Generally, there are not more than two or three principal
characters.
There is no full development of character. All the different
aspects of a character are not presented. The attention is
focused on only one or two salient aspects of character and
they are brought out by placing the characters in different
situations andcircumstances.
There is an influence of realism. The characters in the modern
one-act play are ordinary men andwomen. It depicts characters
that seem to be real andrelated to everyday life.
It must present a question, for which the audience eagerly
awaits the answer.
Its language is simple and can be followed without any strain.
All superfluity is to be avoided in the dialogue.
The dialogue must be purposeful .The best dialogue is that
which does several things at one time. Every word is to be
carefully ch osen and the sentences must be compact and
condensed.munotes.in

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58It is a play -that is, it is meant to be performed or enacted. It
is a short play (of one act) as distinct from a long play (of three or
five acts).What is an Act? An act is a distinct main section o fap l a y .
This implies that a one -act play deals with one single, dominant
dramatic situation. Therefore, a one -act play is not a condensation
of a long play (which consists of a series of situations, where each
situation arises out of what had preceded it ). On a similar logic, we
can also say that a one -act play cannot be elongated into a 3 -Act or
a5-Act play. A one -act play is short. A short play requires a short
span of time to act it out.
2.7 LET’S SUM UP
In this unit we have discussed six important dramatic terms.
Realism and naturalism are the two schools of dramatic traditions
which have some similarities and dissimilarities. Poetic drama is the
twentieth century phenomenon that brought in a sort of revi val of
poetry in drama. Angry Theatre is a theatre movement that caught
a howl of rage against oppressive social systems. Street Theatre or
Street Play, the powerful medium of reaching to the unreached
launched a new movement for the masses in the twentiet h century.
Third Theatre like Street Theatre is a flexible, portable and
inexpensive. It also served as political ideology to be promoted
among the have -nots. The unit ends with one act play, its meaning
and its growth and development in a historical timel ine.
2.8 IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
Here too, the student has to learn all the prescribed terms so
that they should be able to write short notes on these dramatic
terms.
2.9 REFERENCES
Abrams, M., and Geoffrey Harpham. A Glossary of Literary
Terms .1 1 t he d . ,C e n g a g eL e a r n i n g ,2 0 1 4 .
Baldick, Chris. The Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms (Oxford
Quick Reference) . 4th ed., Oxford University Press, 2015.
Nicoll, Allardyce . The Theatre and Dramatic Theory. London:
Harrap, 1962. --. The Theory of Drama. New York: B.
Blom,1966.
Rai, Rama Nand. Theory of Drama: A Comparative Study of
Aristotle andBharata. New Delhi: Classical Pub. Co., 1992.munotes.in

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59Allardyce Nicoll. A History of English Drama 3 Vol. Set .
Cambridge: 1946.
Williams, Raymond. Drama from Ibsen to Brecht. London:
Penguin Books, 1973.
Bentley, Eric. The Theory of the Modern Stage: An Introduction
to Theatre and Drama. London: Penguin Books, 1968.
Gascoigne, Bamber. Twentieth Century Drama .L o n d o n :
Hutchinson, 1967.
Baumer, Rachel Van M., and James R. Brandon, eds.
1981. Sanskrit Theatre in Performance. Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass, 1993.

munotes.in

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60Unit-3
A STUDY OF BERTOLD BRECHT’S
COURAGE AND HER CHILDREN PART I
UnitStructure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction to the Play
3.2 Bertolt Brecht: The Playwright
3.3 Summary in a Nutshell
3.4 Scene wise Summary of the Play
3.5 Let’s Sum up
3.6 Important Questions
3.0 OBJECTIVES
The objective of this unit is to familiarise you with the play
Mother Courage and Her Children by Bertolt Brecht. After reading
this unit you will be able to:
Understand the background of the play
Acquaint with the background of the dramatist and the dram atic
techniques employed by him
Understand the plot summary of the play
3.1INTRODUCTION TO THE PLAY
The play Mother Courage and Her Children was written by
Bertolt Brecht during his exile in Sweden in the year 1939 .T h ep l a y
was published and performed for the first time in the year 1941 and
became successful and greatest anti -war play in the twentieth
century. The play is set during the Thirty Years War and is located
in Europe. The play is an illustration of Bre chtian technique of Epic
Theatre and Alienating Effect that became popular during the
twentieth century drama in Europe. The play has had many
successes on stage and influenced many playwrights of the time.
The play was originally written in German languag e.
The protagonist of the play, Mother Courage plays the role of
an ordinary woman who has to survive during the Thirty Years War
with her children. Brecht describes the suffering of the common
people during the war and how war actually looked as a busin ess
proposition and profitable venture. The action of the play takesmunotes.in

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61place in 12 years depicted as 12 scenes in the play. Through the
technique of Alienation, Brecht is able to remarkably portray the
character of Mother Courage as a woman who is more inte rested in
making the most from the war. She is an opportunistic woman and
not like any epic characters.
3.2 BERTOLT BRECHT: THE PLAYWRIGHT
Bertolt Brecht (1898 -1956) was born in Ausburg, Bavaria in
am i d d l e -class family. He suffered from heart disease t hroughout
his life. He received firm classical education and instruction on the
Bible from his mother who was prominent figure in many of his
plays. He attended the University of Munich and moved to
Germany after his graduation. He started working with the
Deustches Theatre in 1924 and started writing and directing plays
for the theatre. He wrote three short plays Baal,Drums in the Night
and In the Jungle won him immediate success and he was
bestowed with a prestigious award.
Brecht was a Marxist and ant i-Fascist and wrote his ideas
about these ideologies in newspapers. Due to his Marxist and anti -
Fascist leanings, he had to flee Germany and lived in exile for the
next fifteen years in Scandinavia and United States. His dramatic
style was largely influen ced by comic actors Karl Valentine and
Charlie Chaplin and German playwright Karl Buchner. Brecht
developed the idea of “Epic Theatre” that strongly resonated in his
plays. The Epic Theatre emerged as a strong reaction to
consequences of the Second World W ar and Brecht’s engagement
with the political climate of his time.The basic aim of Brecht’s Epic
Theatre was to educate the audience to view the action of the play
critically from point of view of distancing or detached or alienated
rather than getting emo tionally involved in the play. The distancing
or alienating effect was known as Verfremdungseffekt .He rejected
the Aristotlean notion of drama with its rising action, exposition and
climax. Instead, he wanted his plays to be known as dialectical
comments o n society.
Brecht devised an acting technique for his epic theatre that
he called as gestus that involved physical gestures or attitudes. He
wanted the actor to observe the character, demonstrate the actions
of the character but the actor should not iden tify with the role. To
emphasize the technique of epic theatre on stage, Brecht aimed at
unfamiliar stage settings, interruption of action and dialogue, music,
use of banners to indicate change of scenes and the stage divided
by half curtains.
During the War Years Brecht wrote many plays that were
successful such as Life of Galileo ,Mother Courage and Her
Children ,The Good Woman of Schezwan ,The Caucasian Chalkmunotes.in

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62Circle, The Three Penny Opera and many others. In the year 1949,
Brecht established his theatre group called The Berliner Ensemble
and spent the next years of his life writing and directing plays for
the Ensemble. Brecht died at the age of 58 of a heart -attack.
3.3 SUMMARY IN A NUTSHELL
Mother Courage was first produced in the year 1941 in
Switzerland. Brecht’s second wife Helene Wiegel played the title
role in the Berlin production of the play in 1949. It has been
considered as the greatest play of the 20thcentury and a great anti -
war play of all times. Since i ts first production, it has seen
numerous stage and film productions. The action of the play takes
the course of 12 years (1624 -1636) represented in 12 scenes. The
plays portrays the indomitable courage of the central character and
spans her career without any empathy or sentiment. Unlike the
traditional epic characters Mother Courage is quite ordinary and far
removed from the epic situations faced the heroes. At the end of
the play, the character of Mother Courage does not inspire the
readers but makes us think about the folly of her actions.
The play is set in Europe especially in Sweden, Poland and
Germany during the Thirty Years War that was fought between
1618 to 1648. The play opens with the character of Mother
Courage and her three children: Eilif, K attrin and Swiss Cheese.
Mother Courage is a canteen woman seen with her wagon trading
her goods for money and profit. The readers are then introduced to
the Recruiting Officer and the Sergeant who express their difficulty
in recruiting soldiers for the wa r. They distract Mother Courage and
her wagon to a corner with the promise of a transaction and the
Recruiting Officer takes Eilif with him. One of Mother Courage’s
children is now gone.
After two years we find Mother Courage haggling with the
General's C ook over a capon. On the other side of the stage, Eilif is
praised by the General for heroically slaughtering some peasants
and stealing their cattle. Eilif sings "The Song of the Girl and the
Soldier," and his mother joins in. She then scolds him for risk ing his
life in a thoughtless manner.The play moves ahead bythree years
where Swiss Cheese, Mother Courage’s son has taken a job as the
regiment's paymaster. Yvette Pottier, the camp prostitute sings
"The Song of Fraternization" to warn Kattrin about the h orrors of a
relationship with a soldier. The Cook and the Chaplain arrive to
greet Mother Courage with a message from Eilif, and there is
suddenly a Catholic attack. The Chaplain discards his robes, and
Swiss Cheese hides the regiment's paybox.
In the sam e evening Swiss Cheese is being followed when
he attempts to return the paybox to his General but is captured.munotes.in

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63Mother Courage mortgages her cart to Yvette and tries to bargain
with the soldiers using the money --but she bargains for too long
and Swiss Chees ei ss h o t .M o t h e rC o u r a g ed e n i e sh i sb o d yw h e ni t
is brought to her to be identified so it is thrown into a pit. In the next
scene we find Mother Courage waiting to complain outside the
Captain's tent. She sings the "Song of the Great Capitulation" to a
young soldier who also has come to complain to the Captain. The
song which contains the moral lesson "everyone gives in sooner or
later" leads to the soldiers’ storming out and Courage herself ends
up deciding that she doesn't want to complain.
One day Moth er Courage undertakes a stock check of her
goods. she talks with the Chaplain for a long time discussing about
the continuation or ending of the war. He convinces her that it will
continue so she decides to invest in more stock for her cart. The
Chaplain s uggests that Mother Courage could marry him, but he is
rejected. Kattrin appears and returns to her mother, severely
disfigured, having collected some merchandise. Mother Courage
thus curses the war.In the following brief scene, Courage sings a
song that p raises the war as a good provider. Business is good for
now.
Two peasants wake up Mother Courage, trying to sell her
some bedding, shortly before the news breaks that peace has
broken out. The Cook returns, unpaid by the regiment, and he
instigates an arg ument between Mother Courage and the Chaplain.
Yvette makes her second appearance, now a rich widow, much
older and fatter, and reveals that the Cook was once her lover.
Mother Courage leaves for the town, and Eilif is dragged along by
soldiers. Again he h as slaughtered some peasants and stolen their
cattle, but it is now peacetime. He is executed for it, but his mother
never finds out. She returns with the news that the war is back on
again, and she now returns to business with the Cook in tow.
The seven teenth year of the war finds the world in a bleak
condition, with nothing to trade and nothing to eat. The Cook
inherits an inn in Utrecht and invites Mother Courage to run it with
him, but he refuses to take Kattrin. Mother Courage is forced to turn
him d own, so the two go their separate ways. Pulling the wagon by
themselves, Mother Courage and Kattrin hear an anonymous voice
singing about the pleasure of having plenty. The Catholics are
besieging the Protestant town of Halle, and Mother Courage is
away in the town, trading. Sleeping outside a peasant family's
house, Kattrin is woken by their search party, who take one of the
peasants with them as a guide. The peasant couple prays for the
safety of those in the town, but Kattrin, unseen, gets a drum from
the cart and climbs onto the roof. She beats the drum to try to
awake the townspeople so that the siege can be anticipated.munotes.in

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64The soldiers return and shoot her, but before she dies, she is
successful in awakening the town. The next morning, Mother
Courage si ngs a lullaby over her daughter's corpse, pays the
peasants to bury her, and harnesses herself, alone, to the cart. The
cart rolls back into action, but it is easier to pull now, since there is
so little left in it to sell.
3.4. SCENE WISE SUMMARY OF THE PLAY
3.4.1. SCENE ONE
Mother Courage opens in Dalarna, in spring of 1624. A
Sergeant and Recruiting Officer are recruiting soldiers for the
Swedish campaign in Poland. They stand shivering on a highway
outside a town. The Officer complains of the difficulty in recruiting
soldiers from the untrustworthy townspeople. The Sergeant
declares that the people could use a good war. Without war, there
is no organization.
A harmonica is heard, and a canteen wagon appears on
stage. The infamous Mother Courag e sits on it with her dumb
daughter, Kattrin, and her sons, Eilif and Swiss Cheese pull it
along. Introducing herself to the officers, she sings her trademark
song. A "sales pitch" of sorts, it markets the wares that will help the
soldiers march to their d eaths. She calls the soldiers to wake: "Let
all of you who still survive/ Get out of bed and look alive!"
The Sergeant demands to see her license. Fishing out a
number of papers, Courage mocks his request. He again bemoans
the lack of discipline in the a rmy and asks the group's names.
Courage reveals her family's rather colorful lineage, each of her
children being the offspring of a different, and perhaps forgotten,
father of a different nationality. The two officers deride her, and Eilif
threatens to pun ch them out. Courage silences him and offers the
men her wares.
The Recruiting Officer reveals his intentions and attempts to
seduce Eilif into the army. Courage demands that he leave her
children alone, ultimately drawing her knife. The Sergeant protests ,
saying that since Courage lives off the war, the war should not ask
something of her in return. The war has not done him any harm.
Looking into the future, Courage disagrees. To her, the Sergeant is
a corpse on furlough.
To confirm her prophecy, she has the Sergeant choose his
fortune. Courage puts two strips of parchment in his helmet,
drawing a black cross on one of them. She mixes them, and he
draws. To his horror, the Sergeant has chosen his death.munotes.in

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65Unbeknown to Courage, the Recruiting Officer has co ntinued
his pursuit of Eilif. When Eilif admits that he would like to sign up,
Courage similarly foretells the fate of her children. Each draw the
black cross as well. She laments their fate. Eilif will die for his
excessive bravery, Swiss Cheese for his h onesty, and Kattrin for
her kindness. Sorrowfully, she readies to leave.
The Recruiting Officer presses the Sergeant to stop them.
The Sergeant examines one of Courage's belts, taking her behind
the wagon. Simultaneously the Recruiting Officer takes Eilif off for a
drink. A horrified Kattrin leaps from the wagon and starts
screaming. Courage emerges and stands still, realizing she has lost
her child. Bitterly the family departs. Looking after them, the
Sergeant delivers his own epigrammatic prophecy: "When aw a r
gives you all you earn/ One day it may claim something in return!"
3.4.2 SCENE TWO
In 1625 –1626, Mother Courage journeys through Poland
with the Swedish army. The scene begins in the tent of the Swedish
Commander and the adjacent kitchen outside the besieged town of
Wallhof. Courage is arguing with the Cook over the sale of a capon,
a castrated rooster. She cries that the soldiers are starving, chasing
after field rats and drooling over boiled leather —no food is left. If
the Cook does not buy the capon, the Commander will take his
head. Nonplussed, the Cook begins to prepare an old cut of beef.
The Commander, a Chaplain, and Eilif enter the tent, the
Commander lauding the young man for a recent raid on the local
peasants. Angrily he calls for meat. Having overheard the
conversation, Courage rejoices at finding her son again and forces
the capon o nt h eC o o kf o rap r e t t yp e n n y .
Eilif recounts the raid. Upon learning that the peasants had
hidden their oxen, he began to deprive his men of their meat rations
to make them desperate for food. When his company attacked,
however, they found that the peasa nts outnumbered them. Four
cornered Eilif. Laughing, he bid on the oxen to confuse them and
then he retrieved his sword and chopped them to pieces.
"Necessity knows no law, huh?" he chuckles.
The Commander asks the Chaplain what he thinks of the
tale. Cyn ically, the Chaplain notes that Jesus told men to love their
neighbor at a time when their bellies were full, but this is no longer
the case. The Commander remarks that Eilif got his men meat, and
any act done for the least of God's children is done for Go d. He
celebrates Eilif's bravery, calling him Julius Caesar, and declares
that he should be presented to the king. In the kitchen, Courage
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66were any good, he would not need brave soldiers. Inde ed, great
virtues always signal that something is amiss.
The Commander declares that Eilif's father must have been
a great warrior. The boy concurs and sings a song of warning
Courage taught him called "The Song of the Wise Woman and the
Soldier." It tell s of a soldier who joins the fight against the advice of
a wise woman and dies, vanishing like smoke and leaving nothing
but glorious deeds that cannot console the living. Courage picks up
the song from the kitchen, beating on a pan with a spoon. Eilif
enters and embraces her. She boxes him on the ear for failing to
back down when the peasants attacked him.
3.4.3 SCENE THREE
Three years later, Mother Courage and Kattrin fold washing
on a cannon. At the same time, Courage bargains with an
Ordinance Officer over a bag of bullets. Swiss Cheese, now in a
paymaster's uniform, and Yvette Pottier, the camp prostitute, look
on. Yvette's red boots stand nearby. Courage declares that she will
not buy military property, reproaching the officer for selling
ammunition w hen his soldiers have nothing to shoot with. The
officer encourages her to sell them to another regiment and
Courage buys the bullets. Giving Swiss Cheese his underwear,
Courage enjoins her son to balance the regiment books. Even if the
seasons do not come , the books must balance. He leaves with the
Officer.
Courage remarks to Yvette that the war is drawing in more
countries, thus her business prospects improve as well. Yvette is
desperate because of rumors that she is ill and none of the men will
touch he r. She starts recounting a familiar story of her Dutch army
beau, Peter dubbed Piper for the pipe he always carried in his
mouth. The story should harden Kattrin against love. Yvette sings it
in "The Fraternization Song," telling of his arrival, their affa ir, and
his departure. She has spent the past five in a futile search for her
lover. She moves behind the wagon, and Courage warns her
daughter against military affairs.
The Chaplain and Cook appear. Eilif has requested money;
Courage gives some to the Ch aplain, chiding her son for
speculating in maternal love. The Cook says she is too hard: her
son may die at any moment. The Chaplain rejoins that to fall in a
war of religion is a blessing to his skeptical interlocutors.
The three move behind the cart, ta lking of politics. This
campaign has cost the Swedish King a great deal. Neither the
Poles nor Germans wanted their freedom from the Kaiser, forcing
him to subjugate if not execute them. He got nothing but trouble for
his outlays and so he had to levy an u npopular salt tax back home.munotes.in

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67In any case, his justification by God kept his conscience clear.
Without it, he could be accused of seeking profit alone. Courage
and the Chaplain chastise their friend for his disloyalty and he eats
the king's bread. The Cook disagrees; he does not eat his bread,
but instead bakes it.
While the three converse, Kattrin's dons Yvette's boots and
imitates her sashay. Suddenly cannons, shots, and drums explode:
the Catholics have launched a surprise attack. The Ordnance
Officer an d a Soldier enter and attempt to move the cannon. The
Cook departs for the Commander, leaving his pipe behind. The
Chaplain remains, wringing a cloak from the reluctant Courage to
disguise himself. Discovering Kattrin, Courage rips off the boots
and smears her face with dirt. When a clean face appears before a
soldier, another whore comes into the world. To her horror, Swiss
Cheese arrives and stupidly hides the regiment cash box in the
wagon. They quickly take down the regiment flag.
Three days later, the remaining characters sit eating
anxiously. Swiss Cheese worries that his sergeant is wondering
about the cash box, and the Chaplain complains of having no one
to preach to. Mother Courage has sworn herself a Catholic to keep
the canteen safe. The Chaplain asks Swiss Cheese what he plans
to do with the cash box. Spies are everywhere, the Chaplain even
found a one -eyed fellow sniffing his excrement. Courage also
commands her son to leave the cash box where it is. She leaves
with the Chaplain, and Kattrin cle ars the dishes.
Swiss Cheese resolves to return the cash box, daydreaming
about his sergeant's reaction. Two men -an enemy Sergeant and
the Man with the Bandage over his eye —confront Kattrin. They ask
if she has seen a man from the Second Protestant Regiment and
she flees in terror. The men withdraw after seeing Swiss Cheese.
Oblivious to the imminent danger, Swiss Cheese prepares to leave.
Kattrin does all she can to warn him but to no avail.
When Courage and the Chaplain return, Kattrin desperately
tells her mother what has happened. Suddenly the two men bring in
a struggling Swiss Cheese. Mother and son pretend to not know
each other. Nevertheless, Courage strongly suggests that Swiss
Cheese give up the cash box. The men take him away, and
Courage follows.
That evening, Kattrin and the Chaplain appear rinsing
glasses and polishing knives. The Chaplain sings "The Song of the
Hours," a song that recounts the passion of Christ . An excited
Courage enters, declaring that they must buy Swiss Cheese's
freedom. Yvette has picked up a hoary old Colonel who might buy
the canteen from her. Courage plans to pawn the wagon andmunotes.in

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68reclaim it after two weeks with the money from the cash box. Yvette
seduces the Colonel into the purchase. He exits. Stopping her as
she counts the merchandise, Courage sends Yvette to bribe One
Eye with the 200 guilders. She thanks God men are corruptible, as
corruption is their only hope.
Yvette returns and repor ts that One Eye has agreed. She
also relates that Swiss Cheese confessed under thumbscrews that
he threw the cash box into the river when he was near capture.
Courage hesitates and decides that she will not be able to reclaim
the wagon. She asks Yvette to return with a new offer of 120
guilders.
Courage sits to help polish the knives. She muses that they
will get Swiss Cheese back, that the war will never end, and that
she was once offered 500 guilders for her wagon. Kattrin flees,
sobbing behind the wagon . Yvette returns, One Eye rejected her
offer, and Swiss Cheese's execution is imminent. Desperately,
Courage orders Yvette to tell him that she will pay 200. "I believe —
that I've haggled to long" she murmurs.
Drums roll in the distance. Yvette appears and Swiss
Cheese has eleven bullets in him. The army remains convinced
that they are hiding the cash box. They are coming with the body.
She asks if she should keep Kattrin away and Courage asks that
she bring her. Two men enter with a stretcher with a sheet over the
top. Raising the sheet, the Sergeant asks Courage if she can
identify the body. Courage shakes her head. The Sergeant orders
that the body be thrown into the carrion pit: "He has no one that
knows him."
3.4.4 SCENE FOUR
Mother Courage appears out side an officer's tent,
complaining to a Clerk that the army has destroyed her
merchandise and charged her with an illicit fine. She plans to file a
complaint with the captain. The Clerk responds that she should be
grateful they let her stay in business.
A Young Soldier enters, threatening the captain's murder.
Apparently the captain has stolen his reward for rescuing the
Colonel's horse, squandering it on food, drink, and whores. He is
hungry and wants to eat. The Commander ordered the army into
the field s the year previous, not thinking they would remain in the
area. The soldiers ruined the crops, and famine has been the
result.
An Older Soldier tries to calm the younger one. Courage tells
him to quiet down, saying that the screamers never last long. His
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69stocks before he realizes that he can bear with injustice. Suddenly
the Clerk announces the captain's imminent arrival and orders the
group to sit. They follow and Courage remarks that it is better to not
rise again.
Courage then sings "The Song of the Great Capitulation." It
tells of a proud man who joined the army and quickly came to
submit to its discipline and ultimate capitulation. The soldier leaves
and the Clerk informs Courage she ca n see the captain; she exits
as well.
3.4.5. SCENE FIVE
Two years have passed and the wagon crosses Poland,
Moravia, Bavaria, Italy, and Bavaria again. In 1631, it stands in a
war-ravaged village after Tilly's victory at Magdeburg. Mother
Courage and Kattrin serve two soldiers at the counter. One wears a
stolen women's fur coat. Victory marches play throughout the
scene.
Courage demands that the men pay and they protest that
their "humane" commander was bribed and only allowed one hour
for plundering. The Chaplain staggers in and there is another family
of peasa nts in the farmhouse. He needs linen, and an excited
Kattrin tries to get her mother to fetch some. Courage refuses, as
she has sold all her bandages and will not sacrifice her officer's
shirts.
The Chaplain brings in a wounded woman and peasant who
stayed behind to protect their farm. All look to the unmoved
Courage. Kattrin threatens her with a board. The Chaplain lifts her
off the wagon, takes out the shirts, and begins tearing them in
strips. From the house comes the cry of a child in pain. Kattrin
rushes into the collapsing building.
Torn in two directions, Courage anxiously watches for Kattrin
and warns the Chaplain to go easy on her linen. Kattrin emerges
triumphantly with a bab y. Courage commands that she return it to
its mother. Kattrin rocks the baby and hums a lullaby. Courage
demands that the victory marches stop; the victory has only cost
her money. She sees a soldier trying to make off with a bottle of
schnapps and snatche s his fur coat as payment. The Chaplain
murmurs that there is still someone in the farmhouse.
3.4.6. SCENE SIX
In 1632, the canteen sits before the Bavarian city of
Ingolstadt during the funeral of Commander Tilly. Mother Courage
and Kattrin take inventor yw h i l et h eC h a p l a i na n daC l e r kp l a y
draughts. They sit inside the canteen tent and outside it rains.munotes.in

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70Counting her merchandise, Courage ruminates on Tilly's
death. Courage confesses her pity for the Commander: men of his
stripe undoubtedly leave special plans unaccomplished, something
worthy of a monument. These plans are always spoiled by the
"littleness" of the underlings who should carry them out. The
Chaplain laughs at her subtly subversive speech. She asks him if
he thinks the war will end; she needs to know if she should buy
more supplies.
The Chaplain responds that heroes grow on trees and that,
though the war might be imperfect, someone will always pull it out
of the hole. A Soldier at the counter begins singing a cynical call to
battle. Scandaliz ed, the Clerk asks the Chaplain what he thinks of
peace. The Chaplain responds that war has its islands of peace.
Moreover, it satisfies all needs. You can take a crap, drink, screw,
nap, and onward. War is like love —it always finds a way.
Courage resolves to buy new supplies. Kattrin bangs a
basket of glasses on the ground and runs out, distraught. Courage
has promised her a husband come peacetime. Courage goes back
and consoles her daughter. She then sends her to town with the
Clerk to fet ch some supplies and they exit.
The Chaplain commends Courage on her courage. She
replies that the poor need it because they need it to wake in the
morning, plough their field during wartime, raise their children, face
each other, and suffer rulers who wo uld cost them their lives. She
sits, smokes her pipe, and asks the Chaplain to chop her some
wood.
He comments on the pipe. Upon learning that it comes from
the Cook, he jealously maligns its owner's character, angrily
bringing the ax edown on the choppin g block. Courage warns him
against breaking the block. The Chaplain laments that he has no
talent for physical labor. He is a great preacher, rousing his
listeners out of their senses and providing them with warmth.
Courage responds that she needs her sens es, and that firewood
provides warmth best. Brandishing his ax, the Chaplain pursues his
courtship: he wants to cement his bond with Courage. Courage
refuses him laughingly.
3.4.7. SCENE SEVEN
Suddenly Kattrin enters with wound across her eye and
forehead , dragging the supplies behind her. She was attacked en
route and permanently scarred. Courage attempts to console her,
giving her Yvette's boots. Kattin leaves the boots and enters the
wagon. Counting the scattered merchandise, Courage bitterly
curses the war.munotes.in

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71Courage appears at the height of prosperity, dragging the
wagon and its new wares along a highway with the Chaplain and
Kattrin. She wears a necklace of silver coins. She declares that she
will not let "you" spoil the war for her; war feeds its peop le. She
sings "The Song of Mother Courage" anew.
3.4.8. SCENE EIGHT
It is 1632. An Old Woman and her son appear in front of the
wagon on a summer morning, dragging a bag of bedding. They
attempt to sell it to an unwilling Courage. Suddenly bells starting
ringing, and voices from the rear announce Gustavus Adolphus's
fall at the battle of Lützen. Peace has been declared. Courage
curses: she has just purchased new supplies. Crawling out of the
wagon, the Chaplain decides to don his pastor's coat.
Suddenly the Cook, bedraggled and penniless, arrives. Eilif
is expected at any moment. Courage calls Kattrin from the wagon,
but she has come to fear the light in the wake of her disfigurement.
Courage and Cook sit and chat, flirting as they recount their
respective ruin. The Chaplain emerges wearing his coat, and the
Cook chastises him from urging Courage to buy new supplies. They
begin to argue. As the Courage Model Book indicates, they are
engaged in a "fight for the feedbag." When Courage defends the
Cook, the Chaplain calls her a "hyena of the battlefield," a war
profiteerer who has no respect for peace. Courage observes that
the Chaplain has been living off her with little complaint and
suggests they part company.
Upon the Cook's suggestion, Courage r ushes off to town to
sell as much as she can. The Cook removes his boots and the
wrappings on his feet. Poignantly, the priest begs the Cook not to
oust him. Suddenly an older, fatter, and heavily powdered Yvette
enters with a servant in tow. The widow of a colonel, she has come
to visit Courage. When she sees the Cook, she unmasks him as
the Peter Piper that abandoned her years ago, warning Courage of
his history. Courage calms her and takes her to town.
Both men are now convinced that they are lost. They
reminisce about happier days under the service of the Commander.
Eilif, now a richly dressed lieutenant, then enters in fetters followed
by two soldiers. He has come to see his mother for the last time. He
has been arrested for another of his acts of plun dering, now
criminal under the new peace, one that left the wife of a peasant
dead. He has no message for his mother. The soldiers take him
away and the Chaplain follows, instructing the Cook to defer telling
Courage for now.
Uneasily, the Cook approaches the wagon, asking Kattrin for
food. A cannon thunders. Courage appears, breathless, with hermunotes.in

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72goods in arms. The war resumed three days ago. They must flee
with the wagon; she wants the Cook to join her and takes hope that
she will be seeing Eilif soon. Wi th the Cook and Kattrin in the
harness, Courage sings triumphantly: "Report today to your
headquarters! If it's to last, this war needs you!"
3.4.9 SCENE NINE
By the autumn of 1634, the war has taken half of Germany's
population. A hard winter has come ea rly. Everyone is starving, the
towns are razed, and only begging —rather than business —
remains. Courage and the Cook appear in rags before a half -ruined
parsonage in Fichtelgebirge. They ring to ask for food, but there is
no answer. Courage suggests that th ey sing for their alms.
Abruptly the Cook tells her that he has received a letter from
Utrecht: his mother has died of cholera and left him the family inn.
Recounting the woes of the land, Courage confesses that she tires
of wandering. "The world's dying out" the Cook responds, inviting
her to join him at the inn. She must, however, decide whether she
will join him immediately.
Courage calls Kattrin and tells her of the plan. The Cook
asks to have a word with her alone. Once Kattrin has returned to
the wa gon, he tells her that they must leave Kattrin behind with the
wagon. There is no room for her, and the customers do not like to
look upon disfigured mutes. Courage does not know what to do;
Kattrin overhears the conversation.
Calling to the parsonage, th e Cook sings "The Song of the
Great Souls of the Earth." It recounts the fates of Solomon, Julius
Caesar, Socrates, and Saint Martin, all of whom meet their dark
destinies on account of their respective virtues —that is, wisdom,
bravery, honesty, and pity. Thus, a man is better off without such
qualities. A voice calls them inside. Courage decides she cannot
leave her daughter, and they enter the parsonage.
Kattrin climbs out with a bundle, laying a skirt of her mother's
and a pair of the cook's trousers on the ground as a parting
message. Courage emerges with a plate of soup and stops her
daughter. They toss the Cook's belongings on the ground, harness
themselves to the wagon, and depart. The Cook enters, still
chewing, and sees his abandoned possessions.
3.4.10. SCENE TEN
During 1635, Courage and Kattrin follow the ever more
tattered armies from central Germany. They come upon a
prosperous farmhouse on the highway. A voice inside sings of the
house's prosperity through the seasons. Courage and Kattrin stop
to listen and then start out anew.munotes.in

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733.4.11. SCENE ELEVEN
One night in January 1636, the wago n stands near a
farmhouse outside the Protestant town of Halle. Out of the woods
come a Catholic Lieutenant and three soldiers in full armor. They
have come from a guide to the town and the Lieutenant orders to
kill anyone who makes a sound.
They knock an d seize the Old Peasant Woman who
answers. The soldiers bring out an Old Peasant and his son. Kattrin
appears on the wagon and her mother has gone to town to buy
supplies because the shopkeepers are fleeing and selling cheap.
The soldiers demand a guide; t he son refuses, even upon the
threat of death. The soldiers then threaten to destroy their cattle.
The son complies and exits with the soldiers.
The Old Peasant climbs on the roof and spies a Catholic
regiment, which has killed the watchman and readies fo r a surprise
attack on the town. Convinced there is nothing they can do, the
Peasant Woman begins to pray, asking God to protect their family
members in the town.
When she learns of the Peasant Woman's grandchildren in
town, Kattrin quietly climbs on the roof. She withdraws a drum from
under her apron and begins to beat it. The peasants command her
to stop, threatening to stone her. The soldiers return, threatening to
kill them all. Craftily, the First Soldier promises Kattrin that they will
spare her moth er if she stops and accompanies them to town. She
ignores them, as the young man notes, and she does not beat for
her mother alone. The Old Peasant begins maniacally chopping
wood to conceal her drumming with an innocent peacetime noise.
The soldiers consi der setting the farm on fire.
Kattrin listens and laughs. Enraged, the Lieutenant orders his men
to bring a musket. The Peasant Woman suggests that they smash the
wagon. The Young Peasant deal it a few blows; Kattrin pauses in distress
but continues. Sudd enly he cheers her on and the soldier beats him with
his pike. The second soldier returns and shoots the weeping Kattrin. Her
final drum -beats mingle with the thunder of a cannon. She has saved the
town.
3.4.12. SCENE TWELVE
Toward morning, Mother Courage sits by Kattrin's body in
front of the wagon. The drums and pipes of the marching troops are
heard. The peasants order the parasite away and Courage must
follow her regiment. Courage responds that Kattrin has perhaps
fallen asleep and sings her a lullaby. The peasants bring her to her
senses. Courage fetches a sheet from the wagon to cover the
body. She plans to go to Eilif. The peasants offer to bury her.
Courage pays them and harnesses herself to the wagon. She is
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74resolves. As she calls to the passing regiment, the soldiers sing her
signature song.
3.6. LET’S SUM UP
In this unit we have understood the background of the play.
It was followed by the circumstances that led to shape Bertolt
Brecht as a playwright and his major contribution to the world
theatre. Lat two sections provide outline summary and scene wise
summa ry of all 12 scenes in the play.
3.7. IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1.What kind of response can we gauge about Mother Courage
from the summary provided?
2.How has Brecht successfully handled his dramatic technique
through this play? Explain with suitable examples from the text.
3.What ideas can be formulated with the respect to the summary?
3.8.REFERENCES
Bertolt Brecht, and Eric Bentley. Mother Courage and Her
Children : A Chronicle of the 30 Years’ War . New York, Samuel
French, 1 987.
Bertolt Brecht, et al. Bertolt Brecht Collected Plays / Translated
by John Willett. London, Eyre Methuen, 1980.

munotes.in

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75Unit-4
A STUDY OF BERTOLD BRECHT’S
COURAGE AND HER CHILDREN PART II
UnitStructure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Character Analysis
4.2Themes in the Play
4.2.1 War
4.2.2 Anti -war Play
4.2.3 War as Business and Profit
4.2.4 Motherhood
4.2.5 Religion
4.3 Symbols in the Play
4.3.1 Mother Courage’s Wagon as a Symbol
4.3.2 The Red Boots of Yvette
4.3.3 Silence and Dumbness
4.3.4 The Drum
4.4 Significance of Songs in the Play
4.5 Mother Courage as an example of Epic Theatre
4.6. Let’s Sum up
4.7. Impor tant Questions
4.8. References
4.0 OBJECTIVES
This unit will familiarise you with the analysis of the play and enable
you to understand the play in detail. At the end of this unit ,you will
be able to :
Understand the various themes in the play
Give the character sketches in the play
Analyse the literary and theatrical devices for a deeper
understanding of the play
4.1CHARACTER ANALYSIS
Mother Courage: The real name of Mother Courage is Anna
Feirling in the play. She is a mother of three children Eili f, Swissmunotes.in

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76Cheese and Kattrin. She operates a small business as a canteen
woman selling products, food and drinks to soldiers and military
from a wagon. Mother Courage is a representative of the brutalities,
hypocrisy, corruption, capitalist forces operating in war. The three
children of Mother Courage have been born in three different
countries of Europe and with three different fathers. Brecht has
taken extreme care to portray Mother Courage as an antithetical
image to the traditional roles of a mother. On the one hand,
audience sympathise with Mother as the only provider of the family
and also who struggles for survival. She looks at war as an ongoing
opportunity to make money and keep her head above water.
Having lost one son already to the war, she is not ready to sacrifice
her second son Eilif to the war but is unable to prevent it by the
Recruiting Officer.
She earned the nickname Mother Courage as she boldly ran
through the bombardment to sell her loaves of bread before they
perish. The title of the play itself creates the image of a formidable
woman possessing several admirable qualities. Mother Courage
the central character of the play produces a mingled impression
upon the readers of the play. Brecht depicts mother with admirable
qualities as well as certain weaknesses. The root cause of her
suffering is in some of her faults, weaknesses and surroundings.
Mother Courage also represents the theme of motherhood in
the play reflecting the anxiety and tension of a mother trying
extremely hard to save her sons from the war. Mother Courage
realizes the cruelty of war. She is aware of destructiveness and
terrible misfortunes that have befallen in her person al life. The
contradictions in Mother Courage are perceived throughout the
play. Once she praises the war for feeding its people better than
peace does. Immediately in the very next utterance, she shows her
resentment and warns the soldiers of the prematur ed e a t ht h e y
would meet. She considers herself as ruined by peace. The lament
of Mother Courage provokes the Chaplain to describe her as a
“hyena of the battlefield”.
As the play progresses, Mother Courage’s character also
undergoes changes that is portr ayed by Brecht as anti -
motherhood. However she pines for her children and gives up the
comforts of leading a decent life with the Cook because of her mute
daughter kattrin. Mother Courage also sings songs in the play that
depict various events in the play .I nt h ee n dB r e c h ti n f o r m st h a t
despite the deaths of her children, Mother Courage does not
change her ways and continues with whatever she was doing.
Eilif: is the eldest son of Mother Courage. He represents the virtues
of good soldiers as well as the worst that war brings out in humans.
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77their livestock to feed the starving regiment fighting the war. When
Eilif performs such acts during peacetime he is mercilessly
executed. Eilif’s death rai ses pertinent questions about how heroic
acts during war and peace time raise questions about the
absurdities of war.
Swiss Cheese : the youngest son of Mother Courage but rather
stupid. He gets appointed as a Paymaster for the Finnish regiment
and takes h is job quite seriously. When he is getting ready to return
the cash box to the commanding officer, he is captured by the
enemy forces. Mother Courage tries to bargain by haggling over the
prices for the release of Swiss Cheese but to no avail. This
exposes the value of money over humanity by Mother. Ultimately
Swiss Cheese is executed for his trouble.
Kattrin : is a victim of the brutalities, abuse and cruelties of the war.
She is the mute daughter of Mother Courage. According to Mother,
Kattrin was gagged and abused that left her without a voice.
Secondly, her face also suffered a gash by some soldiers that
results in disfigurement of her face. Kattrin is full of compassion and
desires love from an eligible companion despite Mother’s warning
of Yvette being dumped after passionately loving a soldier. All she
desires is to get married and have a family. She is the voice of
resistance and resilience in the play. She does not turn around the
war like her mother. She tries to alert the villagers about the enemy
attack by drum beats and gets shot in the process for refusing to
stop. Despite her sacrifice, the war continues and Mother Courage
carries on with her business as usual.
The Cook : provides comic relief in this disturbing satire on war. He
is a greedy man , prepares food for the Swedish general but leaves
quickly when the food is insufficient. He is cynical and is on the
lookout for opportunities he can get from the war. He is an aging
lover who has seduced many women including Yvette, the camp
prostitute. He plans to open an inn along with Mother Courage. He
invites her to be a part of this comfortable life but without Kattrin,
Mother Courage’s daughter. He also agrees with the Mother that
war is nothing but a racket.
The Chaplain: is the religiousleader of the army but extremely
hypocritical and cowardly. He personifies Brechtian view of religion
during war time that religion is no use during war. He switches
allegiance freely and is not ashamed of such acts. During
peacetime, the chaplain assumes he will be able to return to his
church, despite having abandoned his faith and those who needed
him during difficult times. He lacks real faith.
Yvette Pottier : Yvette is a prostitute who follows the army. She
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78gets married to a rich colonel and becomes wealthy but loses her
looks. She wears red boots that are a fascination for Kattrin. When
Kattrin playfully imitates Yvette wearing red boots, it results in a
disaster for Kattrin.
4.2THEMES I N THE PLAY
4.2.1. War
War is one of the important themes in the play. Bertolt
Brecht presents the play in the background of Thirty Years War. He
also discusses the futility and destruction caused by war. Through
the theme of War, Brecht exposes the manner in which common
peopl e and civilians like Mother Courage and her children are
affected by war. More over war has destroyed all the qualities,
virtues and traits like humanness, sympathy and compassion. War
has turned people and society into a disintegrated whole with
emotions like fear, anxiety and disappointment lurking in the minds
of people. War has consumed both sons of Mother Courage: Swiss
Cheese and Eilif and also resulted in the tragic death of her mute
daughter, Kattrin. Mother Courage has no other means of livelihood
except to capitalise on war. Through the money that she earns by
selling goods from her wagon, Mother Courage is able to provide
for her family. Brecht in this play very poignantly depicts the
brutalities of war in terms of destruction, ravage, loss of inn ocent
lives and the futility of war.
4.2.2 Mother Courage as an Anti -War play
Brecht wrote the play while in exile in the year 1939. He was
extremely moved and disturbed by the turn of events in Europe
during the war. Mother Courage is an expression of anti-war play
that seems topical in its time and has a universal appeal. Amidst
the loss of lives in the war, Brecht writes about the struggle of
survival of Mother Courage and her three children. The wagon
becomes a source of her livelihood. Mother Cour age’s children
become victims of war and death is inevitable for them. Right from
the beginning of the play, the inverted interests of the military
become apparent. Brecht’s main aim was to expose the horrors of
war and how it destroys the people through i nhuman conditions and
wished that the future world should not witness war of such
magnitude.
4.2.3 War as Business and Profit
Brecht shows the character of Mother Courage as a “war
profiteer” -who makes a living out of the profits of the war. The
Thirty Years War has drained the finances of the people and they
have no choice but to turn to war as a means of livelihood. Mothermunotes.in

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79Courage is no exception to this rule. She is forced to profit from the
war. Not only Mother Courage but other characters like the G eneral
Tilly, Cook, Recruiting Officers also profit from the war. Even Yvette
Portier, the prostitute is a victim of the business of war. The reader
observes the business mind of Mother Courage when she bargains
for the release of her son Eilif from the wa r. Unfortunately, her not
relenting to the price quoted of two hundred guilders proves
expensive as her son dies before she accepts the price. Mother
Courage has a love/ hate relationship with war. She is more
interested in profiteering rather than the we llbeing of her children.
4.2.4. Motherhood
Brecht presents a picture of motherhood that is antithetical to
the play. All the three children of Mother Courage are born of
different fathers. Mother Courage plays the role of a mother who is
more interested in money. If war ends, Mother Courage would have
no business. Even while trying to save her son Eilif, she is
bargaining with the money to be paid rather than releasing him
ultimately resulting in his death. In contrast to the profiteering,
capitalist Mot her Courage, Kattrin is picture of compassion and
sacrifice. Though she is mute, she attempts to warn the people
against the enemy by beating the drums from the rooftops. This
results in getting herself shot.
4.2.5. Religion
Brecht shows that religion i s often an obstacle during wartime.
One of the main concerns in the play is about Christianity and the
Bible. He shows the sarcastic character of Chaplain and how the
Bible fails during wartime. The Chaplain appears first to be
glorifying war and calls it as a “holy war”. Later he appears scared
and afraid of the guns roaring during war and tries to save himself
from danger. Instead of offering spiritual comfort and solace to
people, he is seen with Mother Courage pulling wagon and
chopping wood. Brecht ex poses the hypocritical view of Christian
morality and religion.
4.3 SYMBOLS IN THE PLAY
4.3.1 Mother Courage’s Wagon as a Symbol
The wagon symbolizes survival and the continuation of war.
It was due to vested interests of i ndividuals like Mother Courage
and the Recruiting Officers, war continues bringing havoc upon
people’s lives and livelihood. The wagon symbolizes the business
and profession of Mother Courage who uses it to trudge her wares
and survive without the help of any man. The wagon also changes
hands by way of her three children, the Cook, the Chaplain. It is themunotes.in

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80only means of livelihood for the mother. The wagon gets broken
and vandalized but continues doggedly at conducting the main
purpose of selling and reinfo rcing the belief that war is business
and capitalism. The Mother through the symbolism of wagon
represents the doggedness and determination to continue her
business amidst all the tragedies taken place in her life. The wagon
also traverses borders and trav els throughout Europe. At a deeper
level, the wagon symbolises the inherent brutality of the war and
how it is synonymous with the character of Mother Courage
4.3.2 TheRedBoots of Yvette
The red boots worn by Yvette symbolise sexual attraction in
the p lay. Yvette wears them to attract customers but discards them
later out of frustration. When Kattrin wears them and playfully
imitates Yvette’s walk, it painfully symbolizes her aging and lack of
love. As the play progresses, the audience learns about Katt rin’s
abuse by men that has scarred both physically and mentally. When
mother gives the same boots to cheer Kattrin, it suggests abuse at
the hands of soldiers. Her rejection of the boots symbolizes
rejection of love and fulfilment.
4.3.3. Silence and Du mbness
Kattrin symbolizes this aspect in the play. Her silence
reflects the silence and sacrifice of virtues during war time. At the
same time her silence was probably due to silencing her voice
during war by means of assault and abuse.
4.3.4 The Drum
The drum symbolizes protest and resistance to violence
unleashed due to war. It acts as a vehicle of resistance for the
peasants and to kattrin. The drum becomes a voice for the mute
and unvoiced Kattrin to express her anguish and frustration about
the war .T h r o u g ht h ed r u mb e a t s ,K a t t r i na l e r t st h ev i l l a g e r sa b o u t
the enemy attacking them. She continues to play the drum louder
and louder as the soldiers aim to shoot her. Kattrin dies a tragic
death playing the drum and getting shot by the soldiers.
4.4 SI GNIFICANCE OF SONGS IN THE PLAY
Brecht emphasized on music and songs in his plays and
Mother Courage is no exception to music and songs. In fact, in this
play, there are songs in almost all the scenes except in scenes 5
and 11. Brecht considered music a nd songs to be insertions in the
play treated them in an unconventional and novel manner. The
songs in the play perform the role of explaining the themes of the
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81actions and future events in the play. Every important character
sings a song in the play. Mother Courage herself sings five songs
and a lullaby in the play, Eilif, Yvette, Chaplain and the Cook sing
one song each and the soldiers sing two songs.
In Scene 1 Mother Courage sings a so ng informing about
her trade as a canteen woman and invites soldiers to buy food and
drinks from her wagon as they may soon be buried or gone
underground in the course of the war. This song strikes the keynote
of “war” in the play.
“Oh have yer squaddies halt and buy
New boots and claes an aw forbye!
Fleariddensojers who love their loot”
The song exposes the true nature of Mother Courage as an
individual who profits from the war by selling her goods at a higher
price and also the cynical realism adopted by Mother to her life.
Eilif sings a song in Scene 2 called “The Fish Wife and the
Soldier” that describing a story about an ambitious soldier lad
getting killed in the war meeting a premature death. The song
proves to be ironic for Eilif as he predicts his own tragic destiny. In
Scene 3 Yvette sings a song called “The Song of Fraternizati on”,
an autobiographical song describing her camp life as a prostitute
after she was left a destitute by a soldier who she loved
passionately. This song also proves to be a warning for Mother
Courage’s daughter Kattrinagainst getting involved with a soldie r. In
the same scene the Chaplain sings a funeral song that is dirge
“Song of the Hours” describing the passion of Christ suffering his
execution in agony known as ‘The Crucifixion ’. The song is an
appropriate description and comparison of the impending ex ecution
of Swiss Cheese with Christ’s Crucifixion.
In Scene 4 Mother Courage sings the autobiographical song
“Song of the Great Capitalization” that describes the
disillusionment, frustrations and dashing of hopes related to war. It
also describes the bit terness, anger and hatred of Mother Courage
towards war and how war forces one to compromise on our
principles for the sake of survival. In scene 6, a soldier’s song
describes his feelings and attitude who is always on the move and
how he tries hard to enj oy the fewer pleasures of life. In the same
scene Mother Courage sings about “War as Business” but does not
seem to learn any lessons from the horrors and destruction of war
but continues to profit from the war.
In Scene 9, the Cook sings a long song ti tled “The Song of
the Wise and the Good” expressing the futility of wisdom, bravery,
unselfishness, honesty and every virtue in the world. The Cookmunotes.in

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82describes himself and Mother Courage as God fearing individuals
and faith has only caused them misery. The s ong also provides a
symbolic significance to three children of Mother Courage who
represent three cardinal principles such as bravery of Eilif like
Julius Caesar, honesty of Swiss Cheese like Socrates and
unselfishness of Kattrin like Martin who all meet a tragic end. In
scene 10 “The Song of Shelter and Security” sung by the inmate of
a prosperous farmhouse and heard by Mother Courage and Kattrin
makes the audience aware of the contrast between the prosperity
of the farmhouse and the hardships faced by Mot her Courage and
her daughter.
In the concluding scene 12 there are two songs and a lullaby
sung by Mother Courage to Kattrin who has fallen asleep. The song
is a painful reminder to the misfortunes in relation to both her sons.
“aya Papaya
Who sleeps i nt h eh a y ?
--------------------------
I see your eyes close
One kid lies in Poland
The other, well, who knows?”
The last song is sung by the soldiers that describe the
devastation of war causing more misery and that war will continue
for three generatio ns. The song ends on a painful note of gloom
and helplessness. All the songs are integral to the plot and
development of action of the play. The enhance the dramatic action
of the play and offer commentary on scenes and themes in the
play.
4.5 MOTHER COU RAGE AS AN EXAMPLE OF
BRECHT’S EPIC THEATRE
Bertolt Brecht was the staunch follower of the Epic Theatre
and almos ta l lo fh i sp l a y sf a l li n t ot h i sc a t e g o r y .T h ea l i e n a t i o n
method followed by Brecht is a landmark in the Western theatrical
world to express the disillusionment, frustrations and discontent of
the post war world and Europe. Brecht desired that the audienc e
should be motivated to think and so the character of Mother
Courage brings apathy and helplessness to the audience. On the
one hand we empathise with Mother and on the other we are
shocked with the business like manner conducted by her. Brecht’s
techniqu e of theatre and ideas was a product of a devastated world
and he used theatre to communicate his perception of reality.
Brecht wanted to show Mother Courage unreformed, unadvised
and unadvisable. According to him, each society is unique with its
own circu mstances facing its own problems. The aim of the theatre
is to raise such problems. He puts forward the view that themunotes.in

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83goodness must be ready to take a stand against the evil rather than
meekly resigning to the oppression .
The play Mother Courage and Her Children begins with a
broad sweep of historical fact that is The Thirty Years’ War. it is a
chronicle of the Thirty Years War that took place froml618 to 1648
in Germany fought between the Protestants and Catholics. Though
Brecht wrote it as an anti -war p lay, he does not mention it explicitly.
He simply depicts the misfortunes and sufferings of a family against
the background ofwar, and leaves his audiences to draw their own
inferences. The play creates a powerful impact upon the minds
ofthe spectators esp ecially because the evils of the war produce
tragic effects upon the main characters in the play itself.
The play is divided into 12 scenes that serve the purpose of an
episodic structure to explicate the themes of War as Business,
Profit and Capitalism. The purpose of the narrative in epic theatre
was to reveal the conditions in which people lived.
The play successfully depicts the social conventions in Europe
at the time of war. All the characters are meek sufferers of the war
unable to express their rebellion or resistance to the war. Kattrin
who alerted the villagers through drum beats met with death as a
punishment for her resistance.
The aim of epic theatre was to clarify the process by which
men and women were shaped by their living conditions and by
which they were also able to shape those conditions. This aim was
the theatrical basis for another technique which Brecht employed
was alienation. He wanted his audiences to view characters and
their actions on the stage with detachment and with a c ritical
observation. Brecht has certainly used distancing or alienation
devices in the course of the play. We do feel alienated from Mother
Courage at various points in the play. The contradictions in her
character particularly alienate us. She wants the w ar to continue,
and yet she does not want her sons to enlist in the army. She
denies that she is a ‘hyena of the battlefield’ and yet is the most
callous towards the Protestants who have been wounded in an
attack by the Catholics. She is full of maternal a nxiety about the
safety of her own children but proves hard -hearted towards a child
whom Kattrin has rescued. She curses the war, and yet continues
to desire continuance of the same and even to sing songs praising
the war. And yet at the end of the play, t he audience is filled with
the deepest sympathy for her so that all the alienating devices in
her case ultimately lose their effectiveness. Mother Courage
emerges as a noble, tragic figure despite Brecht’s own
unfavourable view of her. Kattrin’s heroic dee d to save the
townspeople is also highly esteemed by the audience.munotes.in

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844.6. LET’S SUM UP
We have learned the character analysis in Mother Courage
and Her Children discussed various themes such as war, anti -war
play, war as business, notion of motherhood and religion. The
playwright has brilliantly employed symbols like wagon, red boots,
drum and silence and dumbness to reinforce the meaning of the
play. The use of song in the play is another important aspect of the
play which has been discussed at length. The last section
discusses how Mother Courage and Her Children is the finest and
the most illustrative example of epic theatre.
4.7. IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1.Identify thevarious themes in the play and explain each with
textual examples.
2.Doy o ut h i n k that the playwright’s interpretation of war as
reflected in the play? Illustrate with suitable examples.
3.How does the character of Mother Courage shape in the course
of the war as depicted in the play?
4.Comment on the importance of songs in the play.
5.Discuss Mother Courage and Her Children as an Epic Theatre.
4.8. SUGGESTED READING
Bertolt Brecht, and Eric Bentley. Mother Courage and Her
Children: A Chronicle of the 30 Year s’ War . New York, Samuel
French, 1987.
Bertolt Brecht, et al. Bertolt Brecht Collected Plays / Translated
by John Willett. London, Eyre Methuen, 1980.
Esslin, Matin. Brecht: A Choice of Evils .London: Eyre and
Spottiswoode, 1963 .
Bertolt Brecht, Brecht on Theatre: The Development of an
Aesthetic .ed. John Willet .London: Methuen, 1964
Anjala Maharishi, Anjala. A comparative Study of Brechtian and
Classical Indian Theatre .New-Delhi: National School of Drama,
2000
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85Unit -5
STUDY OF KALIDASA’S SHAKUNTALA
PART I
Unit Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Sanskrit Plays
5.2.1 Natyashastra and Sanskrit drama and theatre
5.2.2 Characteristics and Types
5.3 Major Sanskrit Playwrights
5.4 Kalidasa
5.5Nataka and Shakuntala
5.6 Epic Source and Kalidasa’s innovative retelling
5.7Some Translations of Shakuntala
5.8Summing up
5.9Suggested Reading (Print and web resources)
5.10 Hints for self -check exercises
5.0 OBJECTIVES
The four objectives of this unit are as follows:
to acquaint you with some characteristics and types of Sanskrit
drama
to make you familiar with some of the major Sanskrit playwrights
to understand the form of Nataka in Sanskrit drama
to appreciate the ae sthetic range of Kalidasa
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
recognise the features and types of Sanskrit drama
know some major Sanskrit playwrights
understand the elements of Sanskrit drama in general and
Nataka in particular
appreciate the artistry of Kalidasa
5.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we shall provide a brief overview of Sanskrit
drama and its types. We shall also shed light on some of the major
characteristics of Sanskrit drama. After outlining a few acclaimed
Sansk rit playwrights, we will briefly elaborate on Kalidasa’s artisticmunotes.in

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86works. Thereafter, we will highlight the characteristics of Nataka as
seen in Kalidasa’s classic play Shakuntala followed by Kalidasa’s
innovative retelling of the episode from the Mahabhara ta.
5.2 SANSKRIT PLAYS
In this section we will look at the significance of the
Natyashastra in Sanskrit drama and theatre. Then we will elucidate
on the important traits of Sanskrit plays.
5.2.1 Natyashastra and Sanskrit drama and theatre
Classical Indian Drama was greatly influenced by the
treatise on Sanskrit dramaturgy i.e. Natyashastra which is attributed
to Bharatamuni. Natyashastra laid down the principles to be
followed while writing a play. Bharatmuni relates to Atreya and
other sag es that Lord Brahma took words from Rigveda , music
from Samaveda ,m o v e m e n t sa n dm a k e -up from Yajurveda ,
emotional acting from Atharvanaveda and produced the Natyaveda ,
the fifth Veda, accessible to all Varnas (castes), on Mahendra’s
request. The first perf ormance took place at the flag -festival of
Mahendrato mark his victory over the demons. The
enrageddemons disturbed the performance by paralyzing the
actors. Hence a natyavesham was constructed and Lord Brahma
pacified the demons and reinforced that the Natyaveda represented
the ways ofthe entire three worlds.
In classical Indian categorization, drama was considered as
drishya kavya . In simple terms ‘drishya’ means seeing or visualizing
and ‘kavya’ means poetry which is heard. Indian Classical theatre
with reference to the Natyashastra consists of two classes:
lokdharmi (popular and realistic) and natyadharmi (conventional
and theatrical i.e. marked by artificiality with songs, dances, asides
and soliloquies).
5.2.2 Characteristics and Types
Plays were c onsidered as spectacles. So, the term preksaka
referred to spectators and not merely the audience. Elite spectators
and royal patronage ensured that the plays reinforced upper class
values and were not a means of mass entertainment.
Sanskrit playwrights d ipped into the acclaimed Indian epics
Mahabharata and Ramayana due to three main reasons. First,
these epics were part of every Indian’s shared stories, a treasure -
house of faith and instruction. Second, the preksaka could connect
to the play and appreciate the playwright’s dramatization. Third, the
playwright could pick up an episode and subtly connect it to the
ruling King.munotes.in

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87Dialogues were used effectively by the playwrights to
stimulate the imagination of the preksa ka.T h eh i g ho rd i v i n e
characters spoke Sanskrit and the other characters spoke Prakrit
(colloquial languages). The poetic quality of the plays was due to
the mixing of lyrical stanzas (poetic language) with prose dialogues.
The aim of the lyrical passages was to allow for commentary or
reflection. All characters were placed in Bharatvarsha (India)
without restrictions of place and time (day/month/year).
Two interesting characters, always Brahmins, were the
Sutradhara/ Stage -director/ Manager and a Vidush aka/ clown/
jester/ fool (a confidante). The Sutradhara performed many
functions. He introduced the play and the playwright and directed
the play. Sometimes, he was a performer, a narrator and a
commentator. The Vidushaka provided comic relief and could ea sily
enter everywhere, even the women’s quarters.
Plays began with the preliminaries or what was called as
purvaranga which consisted of music, song or dance as a means of
propitiating the Gods and entertaining the preksaka .T h e
purvaranga was unrelated t ot h ep l a y .P l a y sb e g a nw i t ht h e Nandi
or the benediction to a deityand it was a prayer for the success of
the performance. This was followed by the prastavna or the
introduction ( genera lly done by the Sutradhara) to the play and the
playwright and the her o.Rasa or ‘aesthetic emotion or sentiment’
was integral to Sanskrit plays. But, there was no place on the stage
for death, curses, degradation, banishment, national calamities,
biting, scratching, kissing, eating or sleeping. Tragedy was
completely absent and there are only happy endings followed by
theMangalastuti or a prayer for the kingdom.
The Sanskrit plays are classified into two main types: the
major Rupakas (Sanskrit term for drama) and the minor
Uparupakas .Rupakam means that which is presented on the stage
and it is further classified into Nataka, Prakarana, Bhana,
Prahasana, Dima, Vyayoga, Samavaara, Vithim, Anka and
Ihamrga .As M.R. Kale and Benegal mention, the basis of
differentiation of Rupakas is based on three factors, namely, plot
(Vaas tu)H e r o( Neta/Nayaka ) and emotion/sentiment ( Rasa) .Of
these, the two principal types of drama are Nataka (stories about
Kings and divine beings) and Prakarana (middle -class characters).
Kalidasa’s Shakuntala is a Nataka . Before moving on to Kalidasa,
let us list some of the major Sanskrit playwrights.
5.3 MAJOR SANSKRIT PLAYWRIGHTS
A quick overview of some of the famous Sanskrit playwrights
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88
Sudraka wrote only one play Mrichchakatikam (English
translation -The Little Clay Cart )i nt h e prakarana form. It depicts a
social revolution and the courtesan -heroineloves a poor Brahmin
Charudutta. We will focus on Kalidasa’s play Shakuntala .
Self-Check Exercise 1
1.What were the functions of the Sutradhara ?
2.Name the two principal types of Sanskrit drama.
3.Surf the web and know more about the plays written by each of
the Sanskrit playwrights mentioned above.
5.4 KALIDASA
There are many disputes regarding the times or period of
Kalidasa’s works butscholars agree on the broad overview of his
works as below:
Take a close look at the titles. Interestingly, as Miller (1999)
points out, each title includes the names of the protagon ists or the
story’s central idea. Malavikagnimitram (Malavika and Agnimitra )
dips into an episode from History and is a five Act play revolving
around the Sunga King Agnimitra from Vidisa and a princess from
Vaidarbha, Malavika who serves as the maid of th e chief queen
Dharini , Abhignanasakuntalam (The Recognition of Shakuntala )and
Vikramorvasiyam (Urvashi won by valour ). Likewise,
Raghuvamsam (The dynasty of Raghu ), Kumarasambhavam (The
birth of the War -God Kumara ), Rtusamharam (The Song of the
Seasons) and Meghadutam (The Cloud Messenger).munotes.in

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89David Damrosch places Abhignanasakuntalam as one of the
‘two masterpieces of world drama (besides Sophocles’ Oedipus ).
(2008, p.47) Let us now understand as to why
Abhignanasakuntalam is considered as a Nataka .
5.5NATAKA AND SHAKUNTALA
Nataka , considered as the highest form of drama, drew its
subject from epic tradition. The subject was famous, for instance, a
King was its hero. The dominant emotion was heroic and erotic.
The play had a happy ending. The play Shak untala fulfils these
three requirements of Nataka . The plot wasfrom epic tradition i.e.,
the narrative of Shakuntala from the Mahabharata .T h eh e r ow a s
the braveKing Dushyanta and the dominant emotion was sringara
rasa or love or heroism.
5.6 EPIC SOURC E AND KALIDASA’S INNOVATIVE
RETELLING
Kalidasa has drawn from the Sakuntalopakhyana from the
Adi Parva of the Mahabharata .Refer to one of the translated
versions for appreciating as to how Kalidasa has dramatized the
epic narrative and understand the difference between narration and
dramatization. As Thapar suggests, Kalidasa’s use of the dramatic
form indicates the ‘deliberat e distancing from the epic’ for the epic
genre and the dramatic genre reflect ‘diverse literary and social
interests’ ( Preliminaries ,5 ) .
In Vaisampayana’s narration, we find only four main
characters, namely, King Dushyanta, Shakuntala, Bharata (son of
King Dushyanta and Shakuntala) and Sage Kanva. Kalidasa’s
retelling of the Shakuntala narrative involves many invented
characters and interesting devices. Kalidasa uses the benediction
orNandi followed by the Prologue (a conversation (between the
Stage Dir ector or Sutradhara and the actress). These highlightthe
varied elements in the making of theatre. We will learn more about
the functions of the prologue in the section on the play’s structure.
Whereas the forthright Shakuntala herself relates the story o f
her birth and abandonment in the epic narrative, Kalidasa
introduces two friends Anusuya and Priyamvada who relate the
story of the coy Shakuntala to King Dushyanta. The innovative
device of the love -letter (writing with nails on a lotus leaf) is used to
allow Shakuntala to express her romantic feelings for the King and
movethe action forward. King Dushyantafeigns ignorance of his
marriage vow to Shakuntala in the epic narrative for fear that his
subjects won’t accept Shakuntala’s son as the King. It take sa
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90In Kalidasa’s retelling, the King is made to appear as
nobleby three dramatic techniques: the curse, the loss of the ring
and the discovery of the ring by the fisherman. Shakuntala, lost in
though ts of Dushyanta, doesnot extend her hospitality to Sage
Durvasa. The angry sage curses her that she the person she was
thinking of would forget her. The curse is not heard by Shakuntala
but by her friend who requests the Sage to take back the curse.
The Sa ge cools down and informs that the King would remember
Shakuntala on seeing a token (ring). Another interesting device is
the use of a heavenly voice to inform Sage Kanva about
Shakuntala’s marriage and pregnancy which is brought home to us
through the con versation of her friends. Dushyanta, under the effect
of the curse, forgets Shakuntala and regains his memory when he
sees the signet ring that he had given to her. These invented
scenes make the King appear noble and the preksaka sympathise
with the King. Read the episode and the play and discover the
numerous additions and deletions. The most interesting part is Act
IV wherein the trees bless her and present her with jewels and
clothes befitting a queen.
Self-Check Exercise 2
1.Name three plays written by Kalidasa.
2.Explain how the play Shakuntala fulfils the requirements of a
Nataka .
3.Surf the web and know more about the plays written by
Kalidasa.
5.7 SOME TRANSLATIONS OF SHAKUNTALA
Do keep in mind that we are studying the play Shakuntala in
English tran slation while the play was originally written in Sanskrit.
Indeed, Sanskrit literature became known to the West through
William Jones’ English translation of Shakuntala in 1789. Sir Monier
Williams in the preface to his English translation has hailed
Kalid asa as ‘the Shakespeare of India’ and placed him among the
foremost literary figures in Sanskrit.
English translations of Shakuntala and the debates centred
on the translated versions continue to grow. They enrich the
repertoire of translations of the pl ay and shed light on the
variations. Some translators of Abhignanasakuntalam from Sanskrit
into English are: Sir William Jones, William Moniers, M.R. Kale,
C.S.R. Shastri, J.G. Jennings, Richard Pischel and Arthur W.
Ryder. There are many more and you can make a list. As Thapar
observes, we can understand the play better when we familiarize
ourselves with the way the many translations remodelled the play to
offer multiple perspectives or illuminate the textor reflect the
historical moment.munotes.in

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91In order to dra w your attention to the differences in the
varied versions of the English translations, it would be apt to quote
a few lines from Act I when Dushyanta is jealous of the bee which
is disturbing Shakuntala.
Translation 1
William JonesTranslation 2
Monier WilliamsTranslation 2 Arthur
Ryder
Dushm. [Aside,
with affection. ]
How often have I
seen our court
damsels affectedly
turn their heads
aside from some
roving insect,
merely to display
their graces! but
this rural charmer
knits her brows,
and gracefully
moves her eyes
through fear only,
without art or
affectation. Oh!
happy bee, who
touchest the
corner of that eye
beautifully
trembling; who,
approaching the tip
of that ear,
murmurest as
softly as if thou
wert whispering a
secret of love; and
who sippest
nectar, while she
waves her graceful
hand, from that lip,
which contains all
the treasures of
delight! Whilst I am
solicitous to know
in what family she
was born, thou ar t
enjoying bliss,
which to me would
be supreme
felicity.http://www.columbia.
edu/itc/mealac/pritch
ett/00litlinks/shakunta
la_jones/01_act.html
Thou touchest
repeatedly her
quivering eye, whose
outer -corner moves
(playfully); going
close to her ear, thou
art softly humming as
if whispering a secret
(of love); thou art
drinking the lip,
containing all the
treasures of delight,
of her waving her
hand ; (whilst) we,
bee ! through (the
necessity for)
inquiring into the
truth (of her origin),
are disappointed (of
immediate fruition),
thou indeed art in the
full enjoyment (of thy
desire).'King (ardently)
As the bee about her
flies, Swiftly her
bewitching eyes
Turn to watch his
flight.
She is practising to -
dayCoquetry and
glances’ playNot
from love, but fright.
(Jealously.)
Eager bee, you
lightly skim
O’er the eyelid’s
trembling rim
Toward the cheek a -
quiver.
Gently buzzi ng round
her cheek,
Whispering in her
ear, you seek
Secrets to deliver.
While her hands that
way and this
Strike at you, you
steal a kiss,
Love’s all,
honeymaker.
I know nothing but
her name,
Not her caste, nor
whence she came –
You, my rival, take
her.munotes.in

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925.8 SUMMING UP
In conclusion, we provided an overview of some Sanskrit
playwrights. Then we outlined some of the major features of
Sanskrit plays and the various forms of Rupakam .A f t e rm e n t i o n i n g
some works by Kalidasa, we d elineated the characteristics of the
play as a Nataka and the innovations of Kalidasa. Finally, we
attempted to illustrate the difference in some western translations of
the play. In the next unit, we will examine the play in greater detail.
5.9 SUGGESTED READING/VIEWING (PRINT AND
WEB RESOURCES)
Damrosch, David. How to Read World Literature ,J o h nW i l e y
& Sons, Incorporated. ProQuest Ebook Central ,2 0 0 8 .
https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/inflibnet -
ebooks/detail.action?docID=416426 .
Figuera, Dorothy Matilda. Translating the Orient: The
Reception of Sakuntala in Nineteenth Century Europe .A l b a n y :
State University of New York Press. 1991
Ghosh, M anmohan. Trans. The Natyashastra . Calcutta: The
Asiatic Society of Bengal. 1951
Jones, Sir William. Trans. Sacontala or The Fatal Ring: An
Indian Drama . By Kalidas. Calcutta: Joseph Copper. 1789
Kale, M.R. The Abhijnanasakuntalam of Kalidasa .D e l h i :
MOTILAL BAANARSIDASS. 1960
Keith, Berriedale. The Sanskrit Drama in its Origins,
Development, Theory and Practice .L o d o n :O U P .1 9 5 4
Lal, Ananda. The Oxford Companion to Indian Theatre. New
Delhi: OUP. 2004
Miller, Barbara Stoler.Kalidasa's world a nd his plays. In The
plays of Kalidasa: Theatre of memory .b yB a r b a r aS t o l e r
Miller. Delhi: MOTILAL BANARIDASS PUBLISHERS PVT.
LTD. 1999
Richmond, F., Swann, D. and Zarrilli, P. (Eds). Indian theatre:
Traditions and Performance , Honolulu, HI:University of Hawaii
Press.1990
Ryder, Arthur. Trans. Shakuntala. By Kalidasa. Cambridge,
Ontario: In parentheses Publications. 1999.
Thapar, Romila. Sakuntala :Texts, Readings, Histories .N e w
York: Columbia University Press. 2010
Varadpande, M.L. History of Indian Theat re.N e wD e l h i :
Abhinav Publications.1987munotes.in

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93Zarrilli, Phillip B., et al. Theatre Histories: An Introduction ,
edited by Tobin Nellhaus, Taylor & Francis Group, 2010.
ProQuest Ebook Central ,
http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/inflibnet -
ebooks/detail.action?docID=472466 .
Ganguly, Kisari Mohan. Trans. Sacred Texts Hinduism.
Mahabharata .
http://www.sacred -texts.com/hin/m01/m01069.htm >24 July
2019
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Kalidasa
http://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/64650/1/Unit3.pdf
https://www.textlog.de/22272.html
http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book/lookupname
?key=Kalidasa
https://www.gutenberg.org/files/16659/16659 -h/16659 -h.htm
www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00litlinks/shakuntala_jo
nes/index.html
5.10 HINTS FOR SELF -CHECK EXERCISES
Self-Check Exercise 1 Refer to Section 5.2.
Self-Check Exercise 2 Refer to Section5.4 and 5.5.

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94Unit -6
STUDY OF KALIDASA’S SHAKUNTALA
PART II
Unit Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Structure
6.2.1 Overall Structure
6.2.2 Prologue
6.3 Summary
6.4 Characters
6.5 Themes
6.5.1 Love and Duty
6.5.2 Ecology and Nature
6.6 Allusions
6.7 Rasa
6.8 Summing up
6.9 Suggested Reading (Print and web resources)
6.10 Hints for Self -Check Exercises
6.0 OBJECTIVES
The three objectives of this unit are as follows:
read and appreciate the Sanskrit play Shakuntala in English
translation
familiarize yourselves with the characters and themes of the
play
learn more about some allusions and rasas in the play.
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
understand and appreciate the play Shakuntala in English
translation
become familiar with the characters and themes of the play
identify the allusions and rasas in the play.
6.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, we learnt about some Sanskrit
playwrights and characteristics of a Sanskrit play. We explained the
innovatio ns of Kalidasa and dwelt briefly on some translations ofmunotes.in

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95the play. In this unit, we will gain a better understanding of
Shakuntala through a study of its structure, summary, characters,
themes, allusions and rasas.
6.2 STRUCTURE
The play begins with the benediction ( Nandi ), a prayer to the
Ashtamurthi (eight manifest forms) Lord Shiva. The prologue and
seven acts are followed by the Bharatavakya or epilogue or
blessings for the Kingdom.
6.2.1 Overall Structure
As mentioned in u nit 5, located in Bharatavarsha, the play’s
action takes place in varied geographical areas like the forests
(hermitage), Palaces (cities) and the Mountains (abode of the
Gods). There are three locations. Act I -IV-Sage Kanva’s
hermitage, Act V and VI -King Dushyanta’s Palace and Act VII -
Heavenly Mountains. The table below depicts the seven -acts with
the action spread over seven years:
Prologue
Act I The Hunt
Act II The Secret
Act III The Love -Making
Act IV (Scene I and Scene II) Shakuntala’ sD e p a r t u r e
Act V Shakuntala’s Rejection
Act VI (Scene I and Scene II) Separation from Shakuntala
Act VII Reunion
Scenery and stage properties are absent. There are no
curtains or lights or announcements and the scene is indicated or
evoked through vivid dialogues. There is no chariot and no deer in
Act I but only artificial theatrical conventions. The vivid descripti on
of the chase conveyed by King Dushyantaand his charioteer helps
to recreate the scene. There is no actual attack by the bee in Act I
but the King’s verbal description and Shakuntala’s gestures, both
natural and conventional or stylized enable the preksa kato vividly
imagine the scene. Some more examples include Sage Durvasa’s
curse (reported by her friends) and the trees presenting Shakuntala
with clothes and jewellery (reported by the hermits).
Scholars have noted the parallels and contrasts when the
Acts are considered as reflections of each other as given in the
table below (1 and 7, 2 and 6, 3 and 5):munotes.in

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96Act I
Dushyanta and his earthly
charioteer arrive at Sage
Kanva’s hermitage. He
receives a blessing that a
son as great as King Puru
would be born to him.He
meets Shakuntala and
makes inquiries about her
parentage with her friends.
His signet ring reveals his
identity.Act VII
Dushyanta and the heavenly
charioteer Matali arrive at Sage
Kashyapa’s hermitage on the
heavenly mountains. The amule t
reveals Dushyanta’s identity as the
young Bharata’s father. Dushyanta
reunites with his wife Shakuntala
and son Bharata. They receive the
blessings of Sage Kashyapa and
Aditi.
Act II
Dushyanta confesses his
love (for Shakuntala) to his
companion Madhav ya and
plans to win her over. When
the hermits arrive at his
camp and request him to
stay back to protect them
from demons, Dushyanta
gets an opportunity to woo
and wed Shakuntala.Act VI
Dushyanta regains his memory on
seeing the signet ring. In
Madhavya ’s company in the garden,
he paints Shakuntala’s portrait and
grieves for her. Charioteer Matali
informs that Lord Indra needs
protection from demons. This paves
the way for Dushyanta’sreunion with
wife Shakuntala and son Bharata.
Act III
Dushyanta conceals himself
and learns that Shakuntala
too loves him. They marry
secretly ( gandharva
marriage). They separate
when the hermit mother
Gautami calls Shakuntala
and the hermits ask for
Dushyanta’s help against the
demons.Act V
Ah e a v i l yp r e g n ant Shakuntala is
escorted to Dushyanta’s court by
Gautami, and hermit pupils,
Sharadvata and Sharngarva.
Dushyanta fails to recognise her
and disowns her and her child.
Shakuntala is left at the palace but
an invisible fairy carries her away.
There is a l ong separation of six
years.
6.2.2 Prologue
As mentioned in unit 5, the prologue is significant. It is
agreed that the prologue captures the theatrical worldview
expressed in the Bhagavad Gita . Two theatrical techniques are
used, namely, the benediction (to ward off obstacles) and the witty
conversation between the Sutradhara and the actress. The mention
of all the elements of a theatrical performance make it
metadramatic (drama about drama.) The Sutradhara ’s presence -
between the world of the preksaka (hall) and the world of the play
(stage) –and his interaction links the two worlds, enabling a
smooth transition from the lokdharmi (real) world into the
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97The opening interaction between t heSutradhara and the
actress informs about the staging of the play (Shakuntala) and the
playwright (Kalidasa). The song sung by the actress is both a
device to entertain the preksaka and verbally indicate the summer
season, the settings, timings and locat ions and create a total
theatre. The Sutradhara foreshadows the theme of forgetting by
assuring the actress that she has enchanted him with her song
(making him forget) and hints at the entry of King Dushyanta, who
is chasing a deer, in Act I. Thus, the pr ologue creates ‘a willing
suspension of disbelief’ and allows for an intellectual engagement.
6.3 SHORT SUMMARY
In Act I, King Dushyanta is chasing a deer. A hermit informs
that the deer belongs to Sage Kanva’s hermitage, which is under
the King’s prot ection. The King obeys the hermit who prophesies
the birth of a son as mighty as Puru. The hermit tells him that
Shakuntala would receive the King in Sage Kanva’s absence.On
entering the hermitage, the King hides himself and sees Shakuntala
and her friends watering the trees. Both Dushyantaand Shakuntala
are drawn to each other. He asks her companions about her
parentage. Offering his signet ring to free Shakuntala from the debt
of watering more trees, he hears cries of the hermits warning of an
injured Ele phant. In Act II, the King confides his love for Shakuntala
to Madhavya and receives a message from the Queen Mother. The
hermits request the protection from evil spirits, so he sends
Madhavya to the palace. In Act III, the King overhears Shakuntala’s
love poem and declares his love. They unite in gandharva marriage
and he assures her that he would send for her. In Act IV,
Shakuntala’s friend report about Sage Durvasa’s curse and
remedy. A heavenly voice announces Shakuntala’s marriage and
pregnancy to Sage Kanva and he prepares to send her to the
palace.
In Act V, the King receives the hermits but denies any
relation with Shakuntala. She wishes to remind him by showing the
ring but the ring is missing. The hermits leave the weeping
Shakuntala at the palace but a celestial nymph carries her away. In
Act VI, a fisherman discovers thering in a fish’s belly. The King
regains his memory and cancels the spring festival in grief.
Mishrakeshi, Menaka’s friend, spies on the King, who paints
Shakuntala’s portrait, and affirms that he is depressed with
Shakuntala’s ab sence. Matali, Lord Indra’s charioteer takes him to
fight the demons. After being honoured by Lord Indra, the King and
Matali descend in Marica’s hermitage. The King sees a young boy
playing with a lion cub. When the King picks up the magical amulet,
his p aternity is proved and he is reunited with his wife Shakuntala
and son Bharata. All misunderstandings are cleared when the sage
explains about the curse and blesses them and their Kingdom.munotes.in

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986.4 CHARACTERS
In addition to the invisible fairies, divine voi ces and voices of
characters who are not actually visible (Sage Durvasa) on the
Stage, the characters of all classes in their order of appearance in
each Act/Scene is as follows:
Self-Check Exercise 1
1.Explain the significance of the prologue in the play
Shakuntala.
2.Write in brief about the play’s locations.
3.In which Acts is Shakuntala not present physically?
4.Who were Shakuntala’s parents?
6.5 THEMES
The play reflects the social -cultural and ecol ogical
consciousness of the playwright and his times. The theme of love
and duty encompasses two of the four purushartas, namely,
dharma (duty), artha (material/ meaning), kama (desire) and
moksha (liberation). The second theme proves Kalidasa’s non -
binary thinking i.e., the harmonious blending of the humans and the
non-humans in the pious hermitage.munotes.in

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996.5.1 Love and Duty
Dushyantaloves hunting but stops when reminded of his duty
to protect the hermitage. He is bound to pay his respect to Sage
Kanva and me ets Shakuntala in Kanva’s absence. He falls in love
at first sight but upholds social values (here caste) and inquires if
Shakuntala was a Kshatriya (not a Brahmin) and if she was to be
married. He reflects on the social order and proposes his love and
suggests gandarva -vivah (marriage by mutual consent) only after
ascertaining that she was a Kshatriya’s daughter. Shakuntala and
her friends dutifully water the trees daily. She is duty -bound to
extend hospitality to Sage Durvasa but her absent -mindedness
makes her forget her duty resulting in the curse and separation of
the lovers.
6.5.2 Ecology and Nature
There is a peaceful co -existence of humans, plants and
animals in the hermitage. Shakuntala wears sirisha blossoms and
lotus bracelets. Besides watering the trees which bloom during
summer, she waters plants which are past their flowering time. She
calls the spring -creeper as her sister and the young fawn as her
adopted son.As Miller observes, infused with the spirit of
interchange ability between the nayika (heroine) and nature’s
elements, Shakuntala is depicted as an embodiment of the fertile
nature and her bodily parts are equated with natural objects. ( p.29)
The mango -tree gestures to her and the jasmine vine chooses the
strong mango -tree as husband (symbolic of Shakuntala and
Dushyanta). The trees give gifts (silken marriage dress, lac -dye for
feet), invisible fairies give gems and cuckoos sing a farewe ll song.
Shakuntala employs nature imagery to express her anguish when
she parts fromKanva “’I am torn from my father’s breast like a vine
stripped from a sandal tree on the Malabar hill. How can I live in
another soil? ‘(Ryder, Act IV, p.48).
6.6 ALLUSI ONS
Allusion is an indirect or implied reference (to a person,
place, event or a text) and dips into shared stories. Let us look at
some of the allusions. In Act I, there is a reference to God Shiva’s
immortal chase. This story draws upon Sati’s self -immolation and
Shiva’s hunting down the sacrificial fire which takes the form of a
deer. The reference to Kaushika (Act I) brings to mind the story of
Vishwamitra’s seduction by celestial nymph Menaka and
Shakuntala’s birth. Dushyanta’s reference to the burni ng of love -
tree by an angry Shiva in Act II reminds one of the destructions of
love-God Kama when Shiva opens his third eye. Kama disturbs
Shiva’s meditation and shoots an arrow to fill Shiva with love for
Parvati. The reference to Puru (not once but thric e) and
‘Sharmishtha, Yayati’s wife and kingly son Puru’in Act IV brings tomunotes.in

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100mind the exchange of the curse of old age between father Yayayi
and son Puru.
6.7RASA
Rasa means ‘aesthetic emotion or sentiment’ and was a
significant aspect of Sanskrit plays. This is a mind map which
captures the nine rasas in Sanskrit dramaturgy:
Read the play slowly and learn to savour the rasas .D o
remember that the rasas can be experienced more deeply when
one reads the play in Sanskrit! Let’s illustrate a few instances of the
varied rasas in the play. The main emotion of Sringara Rasa which
consists of both union and separation. Dushyanta and Shakuntala
experience mutual attraction/love for each other in Act I and their
long se paration makes them spiritually stronger in Act VII. When
Dushyanta’s right arm throbs, he experiences Adhbhuta Rasa and
wonders if love can blossom in a hermitage. The parting gifts of the
trees to Shakuntala in Act IV exemplifies Adhbhuta Rasa .
Bhayanaka Rasa is felt when the injured elephant or the flesh -
eating demons in Act III disturb the hermits. Madhavya’s comments
in Act II create Hasya Rasa . One experiences Bibitsa Rasa in Act V
on seeing the King’s rejection of Shakuntala and Raudra Rasa
when Sharngrava accuses the King of treachery. One experiences
Karuna Rasa on seeing the weeping Shakuntala who is left behind
in the palace by her hermit -brothers and mother. Dushyanta’s
courage in extending protection to the hermits and Lord Indra
again st the demons are instances of Veer Rasa .T h eh a p p ye n d i n g
of Act VII culminating in a Bharatavakya or epilogue leads to
Shanta Rasa .munotes.in

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101Self-Check Exercise 2
1.Which duty did Shakuntala neglect?
2.Give more instances of Adhbhuta Rasa in the play.
6.8 SUMMING UP
In this unit, we developed a deeper understanding of
Kalidasa’s acclaimed play Shakuntala . We analysed the overall
structure and explained the significance of the prologue. We gave
an overview of the summary and the characters and elaborat ed on
some themes, allusions and rasas in the play.
6.9 SUGGESTED READING/VIEWING
Figuera, Dorothy Matilda. Translating the Orient: The Reception
of Sakuntala in Nineteenth Century Europe .A l b a n y :S t a t e
University of New York Press. 1991
Jones, Sir Wil liam. Trans. Sacontala or The Fatal Ring: An
Indian Drama . By Kalidas. Calcutta: Joseph Copper. 1789
Kale, M.R. The Abhijnanasakuntalam of Kalidasa .D e l h i :
MOTILAL BAANARSIDASS. 1960
Keith, Berriedale. The Sanskrit Drama in its Origins,
Development, Theory and Practice .L ondon: OUP. 1954
Miller, Barbara Stoler.Kalidasa's world and his plays. In The
plays of Kalidasa: Theatre of memory .b yB a r b a r aS t o l e rM i l l e r .
Delhi: MOTILAL BANARIDASS PUBLISHERS PVT. LTD. 1999
Ryder, Arthur. Trans. Shakuntala. By Kalidasa .C a m b r i d g e ,
Ontario: In parentheses Publications. 1999.
Thapar, Romila. Sakuntala :Texts, Readings, Histories .N e w
York: Columbia University Press. 2010
http://egyankosh.ac.in//handle/123456789/64647
http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book/lookupname?
key=Kalidasa
https://www.gutenberg.org/files/16659/16659 -h/16659 -h.htm
www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00litlinks/shakuntala_jon
es/index.html
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pR5LE3X7Jko
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0U7TOT2xtlo Act IV
https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=LVqBD_2P4Pg short stop -
animation filmmunotes.in

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102https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DP75esh1hA0 Vinay
Dharwadkeron Shakuntala
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ieRAMZabsdI Shakuntala dir.
Dr. Ananda Lal
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tIg5HXUudNM Romila
Thapar on Shakuntala
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=haZGHUcVbzQ e-
paathshaala, play synopsis
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z3nilC60ulI Sanskrit Drama
and Theatre
6.10 HINTS FOR SELF -CHECK EXERCISES
Exerci se 1 Refer to section 6.2. 2 and 6.2.1 for questions 1 and 2
and section 6.4 for questions 3 and 4.
Exercise 2 Refer to section 6.5 for question 1. Read the play and
discover more instances.



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103
Unit -7
AS T U D YO F HENRIK IBSEN ’SAD O L L ’ S
HOUSE PART I
Unit Structure
7.1 Objective
7.2 About Author :H e n r i kI b s e n
7.3 Biography
7.4 His Style
7.5 About the Play :AD o l l ’ sH o u s e
7.6 Plot
7.6.1 Act I
7.6.2 Act II
7.6.3 Act III
7.7I m p o r t a n t Questions
7.9 Bibliography
7.1 OBJECTIVES
The basic objective of this unit is to make learners aware
about the play ‘A Doll’s House’ and to provide the basic
information about the author, the period and the text.
7.2 ABOUT THE AUTHOR :H E N R I KI B S E N
As one of the founders of Modernism in theatre, Ibsen is
usually mentioned as “the father of Realism” and therefore
thesecond most influential playwright of all times –after
Shakespeare. Within the late 19th century, the
playwright Ibsen completely rewrote the principles of drama with
ar e a l i s mt h a tw es t i l ls e ei nt h e a t r e st o d a y .H e
transformed thestage faraway from what it had become –a
plaything and distraction for the bored –and introduced a
replacement -order of ethical analysis. His major works
include Brand ,Peer Gynt ,An Enemy of the People ,Emperor and
Galilean ,A Doll's House ,Hedda Gabler ,Ghosts ,The Wild
Duck ,When We Dead Awaken ,Rosmersholm ,and The Master
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104
7.3 BIOGRAPHY
Henrik Ibsen was born on March 20, 1828, in Skien,
Norway. In 1862, he was exiled to Italy, where he wrote the
tragedy Brand .I n1 8 6 8 ,I b s e nm o v e dt oG e r m a n y ,w h e r eh e
wrote one among his most famous works: the play AD o l l ' s
House .I n1 8 9 0 ,h ew r o t e HeddaG abler .B y1 8 9 1 ,I b s e nh a d
returned to Norway a literary hero. He died on May 23, 1906, in
Oslo, Norway.
7.4HIS STYLE
Unlike his predecessors, without using fairy tale figures
and unlikely plots, Ibsen brought his audience into regular
people’ sh o m e s ,w h e r et h eb o u r g e o i sa n du p p e r -middle -class
people kept their carefully guarded secrets. He then placed the
conflicts that arose from challenging assumptions and
confrontations against arealistic middle -class background and
developed them with pie rcing dialogue and meticulous attention
to detail. For this, he has earned his place in history.
7.5 ABOUT THE PLAY :AD O L L ’ SH O U S E
AD o l l ’ sH o u s e is perhaps the most played throughout the
planet. The play culminates within the character of Nora leaving
her husband Torvald and her three children –something which
was unprecedented in 1879 when it had been first performed. It
is still considered one of the foremost famous gender political
moments in world literature. The role of No ra even holds an
iconic status: Unesco’s Memory of the planet register calls Nora
“as y m b o lt h r o u g h o u t the planet ,for ladies fighting for liberation
and equality”.
AD o l l ' s House isat h r e e -act play written by a Norwegian
playwright Ibsen .I tp r e m i e r e da tt h eR o y a lT h e a t r ei n
Copenhagen, Denmark, on 21 December 1879, having been
published earlier that month. The play is about aNorwegian
town around 1879. The play is critical and controversial for the
way it deals with the fate of a wife,w h oa tt h et i m ei nN o r w a y
lacked reasonable opportunities for self -fulfillment during
amale -dominated world. Though Ibsen denies he had
intended to write down af e m i n i s tp l a y .I ta r o u s e d an
excellent sensational response at the time and caused a "storm
of outraged controversy" that went beyond the theatre to the
media and society.
Once the topic of public controversy, defended only by
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prose dramas now are famous as successful television plays
and are an important part of the repertory
theatreeverywhere .They no more invite inflaming audience
reactions and now acceptable fare to the foremost conservative
theatre -goer.
7.6PLOT
7.6.1 Act I
Act I of Henrik Ibsen’s AD o l l ’ sH o u s e opens with the
housewife Nora Helmer arriving home from a Christmas
shopping trip. Her husband, Torvald, greets her and playfully
commentson her for spending such a lot ofmoney. Nora argues
that since Torvald was recently promoted at work, the Helmers
have more financial comfort than they had in previous years. As
they talk, the doorbell rings. The Helmers’ maid Helene informs
them that two guests have arrived: Dr. Rank, an old and
close family friend who is terminally ill ,a n d ,m u c ht oN o r a ’ s
shock, her old-fashioned friend Christine Linde.
After the guests are admitted, Dr. Rank and Torvald meet
in Torvald’s study while Nora and Mrs. Linde remain in the living
room .N o r af e e l sb a df o rM r s . Linde as she is now a childless
widow and apologizes for not staying in-contact after marrying
Torvald. Mrs. Linde explains that she has lived at o u g h life since
her husband died and feels lost with nobody to care for and
concern for. Mrs. Linde hopes Nora might convince Torvald to
offer heremployment or some work at the Bank that he now
manages, which Nora agrees to try to do .Nora then recounts
the woes of her first year of marriage, wherein Torvald fell ill
from overwork. To treat him and revive his health, the Helmers
had torequire an upscale trip to Italy. At first, Nora claims that
her wealthy father gave them the cash .H o w e v e r ,a f t e rM r s .
Linde insinuates that Nora doesn't understand true suffering,
Nora reveals that she acquired the cash byremoving al o a n —
something she shouldn't have legally been ready to do.
When a junior bank employee named Krogstad arrives
requesting to ascertain Torvald, both Nora and Mrs. Linde react
uneasily. Dr. Rank, who joins Mrs.Linde and Nora to
offer Torvald and Krogstad privacy, calls Krogstad “morally sick.”
After Torvald and Krogstad’s meeting ends, Torvald, Dr. Rank,
and Mrs.Linde depart the Helmers’ home, leaving Nora to
play together with her children. Krogstad then returns to talk with
Nora privately, revealing that he's the source of her loan. He
also reveals that he is aware of Nora illegally forged her father’s
signature on the bond. Torvald intends to dismiss Krogstad from
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blackmail her into advocating for him and s upporting his job.
When Torvald returns home, Nora talks to him and attempts to
convince him to stay Krogstad employed at the bank. Torvald
reprimands her for advocating for Krogstad and shares with her
that the first crime that ruined Krogstad’s reputati on was a
forgery. Torvald further reiterates that he hates people who lie,
keep secrets and corrupt their families. This opinion disturbs
Nora.
7.6.2. ACT II
AsAct II opens, Nora nervously paces the front room .H e r
maid Anne -Marie arrives with the dress that Nora is going to
bewearing to ac e l e b r a t i o n subsequent night. As Nora and
Anne -Marie converse, Nora reveals that she has been avoiding
seeing her children. She also laments that they might
probably ditch her if she left permanently .
Mrs.Linde arrives to assist Nora to manage her dress
for the party. She tries to ask Nora about her relationship with
Dr. Rank, implying that Nora may have received the cash from
him. Nora denies the accusation but seems intrigued by the
thought .T h e i rc o n versation is interrupted by Torvald’s arrival.
Nora once more attempts to convince Torvald to not fire
Krogstad. She tells him that she is worried that Krogstad will
write slanderous and defamatory articles about the Helmers.
Torvald reassures her that he will handle any fallout, which only
distresses Nora further. She decides to not allow Torvald to
require the autumn for her actions.
Dr. Rank arrives soon after and informs Nora that he is
very sick and will die soon. He asks Nora to not tell Torvald
because Torvald doesn't handle “ugly” things well. As they talk,
Nora asks Dr. Rank if he would do her a favor. He agrees and
adds that he would do anything for her becausehe’s crazy
together with her .U n s e t t l e db yh i sr e m a r k s ,N o r as c o l d sD r .
Rank and refuses to inform him what favor she had planned to
ask him for. Their conversation is interrupted by the arrival of a
visitor. Knowing that it'sKrogstad, Nora asks Dr. Rank to stay.
Torvald occupied, claiming that she doesn't want her husband
toascertain her in her finished dress.
Krogstad reveals that he has received his dismissal letter.
He tells Nora that he willnow not publicly expose her forgery but
makes a plan to blackmail Torvald into giving him a promotion at
the bank to fix hisreputation. Nora gets scared and offers to
finish her own life to spare Torvald the blame, shame, and
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Torvald believes that a man always remains socially in charge
ofhis woman’s actions.
Ashe leaves, Krogstad drops a letter explaining Nora’s
actions into the Helmers’ letterbox. After Krogstad leaves, Nora
frantically reveals everything to Mrs.Linde. Shocked, Mrs. Linde
informs Nora that she and Krogstad wish to be romantically
involved. Mrs .Linde promises to undertake to convince
Krogstad to require his letter back. Meanwhile, Nora attempts to
stop Torvald from reading the letter. She asks him to assist her
to rehearse the dance she is about to perform at the party the
subsequent night. Torvald indulgently agrees.
Mrs.Linde returns with the news that Krogstad has left
town and won’t return until the subsequent night. Mrs.Linde left
al e t t e rf o rh i ma n dp l a n s to talk with him when he returns. An
increasingly desperate Nora redoubles her efforts to distract
Torvald from the letters.
7.6.3 Act III
Act III begins the next day evening. The Helmers are
attending ac e l e b r a t i o n ,a n dM r s . L i n d ei sw a i t i n gt h e r ef o r
Krogstad. When Krogstad arrives, he's initially hostile towards
Mrs.Linde, accusing her of abandoning him for a richer man.
Mrs.Linde tells him that she did what she had to try to supply for
her family. After revealing their mutually unhappy
circumstances, the two reconcile and comply with marriage.
Krogstad remorsefully agrees tor e q u i r e his letter back, but
Mrs.Linde stops him. She believes that it'simportant for Nora to
be honest with Torvald. Krogstad then departs after agreeing to
send a second letter clarifying that he does not intend to use
Nora’ sf o r g e r ya g a i n s tt h eH e l m e r s .
Nora and Torvald return from the party shortly after that.
Mrs.Linde greets them and tells Nora that Krogstad has not
taken the letter back. Mrs.Linde then departs, and Dr. Rank
arrives. He uses coded gestures and tells Nor at h a th i sd i s e a s e
has progressed to a fatal point inwhich he plans to lock himself
awaytodie. Nora tells him to “sleep well” and asks him to wish an
equivalent for her.
After Dr. Rank leaves, Torvald checks the letterbox. The
onlyletter he gets is Dr.R ank’s death notice. Torvald is
saddened to listen to his friend’s impending death. He retires to
his study. Nora hurriedly prepares to go away from the house.
She has decided toend her own life. But before sheleaves,
Torvald confronts her about Krogstad’ sl e t t e r . Nora is scared
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seeing her children because he believes she would corrupt
them. Finally, instead of risking the damage to his reputation, he
plans to travel alongside Krogstad’s deman ds. Nora grows
increasingly cold as Torvald insults and humiliates her. She
realizes that he's notthe person she thought he was.
Torvald’s diatribe is interrupted by the arrival of
Krogstad’s second letter. The second letter contains Nora’ s
bond and a promise from Krogstad that the Helmers don't have
anything to fear from him. Torvald is overjoyed, and he
immediately claims to possess forgiven Nora for everything.
However, after seeing Torvald’s reaction to the primary letter,
Nora decides to go away from him. She accuses both Torvald
and her father of infantilizing her, treating her assort of
a“doll” instead of ar a t i o n a l person .T o r v a l da t t e m p t st o
convince her to remain by citing the social, moral, and
nonsecular repercussions of her leaving. However, Nora insists
that she must become independent and learn to think for herself.
She insists that the laws prohibiting women from removing loans
are unjust, and she or he points out that Torvald would have
died had she not taken him to I taly. Despite Torvald’s begging,
Nora leaves him and her children. the ultimate direction depicts
Nora shutting the door behind her as she leaves
7.7I M P O R T A N T QUESTIONS
1. Discuss important features of the plot of ‘A Doll’s House’ with
reference to the position of Nora as a woman of the house
2. Discuss Henrik Ibsen as a play -wright of the ‘New Age’
literature.
7.8BIBLIOGRAPHY
Boyesen, Hjalmar. ACommentary onthe Works ofHenrik
Ibsen. New York: Russell & Russell, 1973 .
Bradbrook, M.C. Ibsen theNorwegian: ARevaluation .L o n d o n :
Chatto and Windus, 1966.
Egan, Michael, ed.Ibsen: The Critical Heritage. Boston:
Routledge and K. Paul, 1972 .
Gray, Ronald. Ibsen, ADissenting View. New York: Cambridge
University Press, 1977 .
Ibsen, Henrik (trans. Charlo tte Barslund and Frank
McGuinness). ADoll's House .L o n d o n :F a b e ra n dF a b e r ,1 9 9 7 .munotes.in

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Ibsen, Henrik (trans. Michael Meyer). ADoll's House (Ibsen
Plays: Two) .L o n d o n :M e t h u e nD r a m a ,2 0 0 0 .
Ibsen, Henrik. ADoll's House . No city: no publisher, 1879.
Johnston, B rian. Ibsen's Selected Plays: ANorton Critical
Edition . New York: W.W. Norton, 2004.
Lebowitz, Naomi. Ibsen and the Great World. Baton Rouge:
Louisiana University Press, 1990 .
Lee, Jennette. The Ibsen Secret. Seattle: University Press of the
Pacific, 2001 .
Lyons, Charles R.Henrik Ibsen: The Divided
Consciousness. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University
Press, 1972 .
Marker, Frederick. Ibsen’s Lively Art.New York: Cambridge
University Press, 1989 .
McFarlane, J.,ed.The Cambridge Companion toIbsen. New
York: Cambridge University Press, 1994 .
Meyer, Michael. Ibsen . Great Britain: Sutton Publishing, 1967.
Northam, John. Ibsen: ACritical Study .C a m b r i d g e :C a m b r i d g e
University Press, 1973.
Shaw, George Bernard. The Quintessence ofIbsenism .L o n d o n :
Dover Publish ing, 1891.
Steiner, George. The Death ofTragedy .L o n d o n :F a b e ra n d
Faber, 1961.
Weigand, H.J.The Modern Ibsen: AReconsideration. Salem,
New Hampshire: Ayer, 1984 .
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Unit -8
AS T U D YO F HENRIK IBSEN ’SAD O L L ’ S
HOUSE PART II
Unit Structure
8.1 Objective
8.2 Significance of the Title
8.3 Important Literary Devices
8.4The Setting of the Drama
8.5. Major Themes
8.5.1 Marriage, Family and Love
8.5.2 Importance and Stereotyping of Man -Woman
Relationship
8.5.3. Importance of Money in Marriage
8.5.4 Lack of Trust in a Family
8.5.5 Individual’s Agonies Vs Morality of the Society
8.6Character Analysis
8.7 Critical Analysis of the Play
8.7.1 Ibsen and His Social Experiments
8.7.2 Ibsen’s Ideas on Lack of Love for a Woman
8.7.3 Insights into Human Nature
8.8Important Questions
8.9Bibliography
8.1 OBJECTIVES
This unit is an extension of the Unit 7. The o bjectives of
this unit are to provide the in -depth analysis of the play ‘A Doll’s
House’. This unit convers the character sketch of the major
characters, discusses the significance of the title of the play and
also provides the critical analysis of the pla y.
8.2 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TITLE
The play carries a very significant title. Nora is not
theonly adoll in thishouse but she has aslo made her children
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outside (right before Krogstad appears for ap e r s o n a l visit with
Nora in Act 1), she calls Emmy "my sweet little babydoll" and all
her children "my pretty little dollies." Nora flies their coats and
hats as if she were undressing dolls then proceeds to play hide -
and-seek with them as if she were twiddling with dolls herself.
AD o l l ' s House isan appropriate title for the story. She is
that doll, and therefore the home is of her creation. She realizes
this at the top .S h eh a sa l l o w e dh e r s e l ft ob ee s t a b l i s h e d within
therole of the doll -she allowed her father to treat her that
way and she or he has allowed Helmer to try to an equivalent .
More so than allowed, she has played the sport with them, using
it to her advantage. She is the creator of her house and her
decision to go away from her marriage house at the top is
symbolic of her decision to go away from the role she created for
herself.Nora has little idea of the way to be a mother, having had
only Anne Marie to serve therein role. Now Anne Marie
continues therein position with Nora's children. Is Anne Marie
also liable for making Nora a doll? Her stunted personality
development is usually attributed to her father and Helmer,
butthe nurse features a role asw e l l .
8.3 IMPORTANT LITERARY DEVICES
Significant literary devices utilized in Ibsen 'sAD o l l ' s
House include foreshadowing and symbolism. Foreshadowing is
when a storyteller drops hints about events to return within
earlier scenes. this is often how of making suspense and
continuity within ap i e c e .F o r e s h a d o w i n ga n ds y m b o l i s ma r e
major literary devices utilized in AD o l l ' sH o u s e .T h ep l a yo p e n s
with several instances of foreshadowing, likewhen Nora lies to
Torvald about eating macaroons and when she asks for money
as her Christmas present .T h e s ea c t i o n sf o r e s h a d o wt h e
revelation of Nora's secret from Torvald, that she has been
paying off a loan that she took out illegally. Dolls are significant
symbols within the play demonstrating how the characters
treat each other as mere playthings. ADoll's House uses
foreshadowing quite abit.The foremost notable case is when
Nora eats macaroons without her husband's permission.
8.4 THE SETTING OF THE DRAMA
AD o l l ' sH o u s e takes place entirely within the confines of
the Helmer household; other locations are merely alluded to
within the work. The author of the play, Henrik Ibsen, was
Norwegian, and therefore the characters have names with a
definitive Scandinavian feel, so it'sassumed that their apartment
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mirrors not only the title of the work but also several thematic
elements. The Helmer house becomes a dollhouse. it'stastefully
decorated and kept neat and cozy for the entertainment of their
guests —and to stay the looks ofac h e e r f u l ,l o v i n gh o u s e h o l d . At
the opening of the play, the most room is described as
"furnished comfortably and tastefully, but not extravagantly,"
alluding to the family's bourgeoisie lifestyle. Itiswintertime, but
the house has carpeted floors and always features a fire going,
making it ac l u m s y place for Nora and Torvald's family and their
guests.
8.5 MAJOR THEMES
8.5.1 Marriage, Family, and Love
As a play focused around the marriage between Nora and
Torvald, AD o l l ' sH o u s e is often seen as ap e r s o n ’ ss e a r c h of
affection and marriage, or even, more profoundly, on whether
there is often love in marriage. At the start of the play, Nora and
Torvald appear to be very happily married, even to themselves.
At first, it seems that Nora and Torvald both enjoy playing the
roles of husband and wife in a way that's considered respectable
by society. However, Nora soon reveals to Mrs.Linde that she
went behind Torvald’s back by borrowi ngthe cash from
Krogstad, and thus has already broken both the law and
therefore the rules of marriage at the time. This creates a
dilemma: Nora broke the principles of marriage, yet did so to
save lots of her husband’s life —at r u ea c t of affection .N o r a talks
joyfully about her love for Torvald, and Torvald refers to Nora
using affectionate pet names. Their loving marriage stands in
stark contrast with the lives of the opposite characters: the
marriages of Krogstad and Mrs.Lindehave
supported necessityins tead oflove and were unhappy. While Dr.
Rank was never married, and, it'srevealed, has silently loved
Nora for years. Yet although Nora and Torvald’s marriage is
predicated on love (as against necessity, as was the case with
Krogstad and Mrs.Linde), it'snonetheless still governed by the
strict rules of society that dictated the roles of husband and
wife. It is clear that Nora is predicted to obey Torvald and
permit himto form decisions for her; meanwhile, it'simportant
for Torvald’s career that he's ready to boast as u c c e s s f u l
marriage to a dutiful woman.
Yetthis is often an act of affection that society condemns,
thereby placing the principles of marriage above love. Within
thefinal moments of the play, it's revealed that Nora's fear of the
keygetting out isn't af e a rt h a t she is going to find
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certainty that Torvald will protect her by taking the blame, and in
so doing will ruin himself.
Nora is for certain that beneath the role Torvald is
playing, that he loves her even as deeply as she loved him when
she secretly broke the principles of society. Of course, Torvald's
reaction reveals that he is not actually "playing a role" at all —he
does put his reputation first, and he would never sacrifice it to
guard Nora. What Nora thought was role -playing was the
whole reality. This cements Nora’s disillusionment together with
hermarriage, and with marriage in general —sheinvolves the
conclusion that not only does Torva ld love her but that the
institution of marriage because it is conceived and practiced in
her society .While Krogstad and Mrs.Linde's joyous option
tomarry may suggest that the play doesn't entirely share Nora's
view .I ti s important to notice that their marriage doesn't in the
least conform to the norms of society. Mrs.Linde yearns for the
aimshe would get by truly caring from someone she loves, while
Krogstad sees Mrs.Linde not as some ornament to reinforce his
reputation but because of the source of the salvation of his
integrity.
8.5.2. Importance and stereotyping of Man -Woman
relationships
AD o l l ’ sH o u s e exposes the restricted role of girls during
the time of its writing and therefore the problems that arise from
ad r a s t i ci m b a l a n c eo fp o w e r between men and women .
Throughout the play, Nora is treated as a sort of child by the
opposite characters. Torvald calls her his “pet” and his
“property,” and implies that she isn't smart or responsible
enough to be trusted with money. Neither Krogstad nor Dr.Rank
takes her seriously, and even Mrs.Linde calls her a “child.” While
this treatment does seem to mildly frustrate Nora, she
plays alongside it, calling herself “little Nora” and promising that
she would never dream of disobeying her husband. However ,
there are clues that she isn't entirely proud of the limited position
she has as al a d y .W h e nr e v e a l i n g the key of how she borrowed
money to finance the trip to Italy, she refers thereto as her
“pride” and says it had been fun to be on top of things of cash ,
explaining that it had been “almost like being ap e r s o n ”
Although she regrets her decision to borrow money,
Nora’s dissatisfaction together with her status as a
lady intensifies over the course of the play. within the final
scene, she tells Torvald that she isn't being treated as an
independent person with a mind of her own. Her radical
solution to the present issue is to go away domestic life behind,
despite Torvald's declaration that he will change. Nora's decision
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only partially with Torvald. The more fundamental issue is with
domestic life because it was conceived and lived at the
time, within the way it legally and culturally infantilized women
and made it impossible for them to be recognized or treated as
full individuals.
Meanwhile, the lads of the play also are expected to fill a
particular role. Both Torvald and Krogstad are very ambitious,
driven not only by the necessity to supply for his or her families
but also by a desire to realize seniority .R e s p e c t a b i l i t yi so fg r e a t
concern to both of them; when Nora’s borrowing is revealed,
Torvald’s first thoughts are for his reputation. Meanwhile,
Krogstad is fixated on achieving success now that he has “gone
straight,” and intends to at least one day take over Torvald’s job
and run the bank.
8.5.3 Importance of Money in Marriage
An e e df o rm o n e ya f f e c t sa l l the main characters in
ADoll’s House .At the beginning of the play, it'srevealed that
Torvald was recently promoted and can receive “a big fat
income,” however he still chastises Nora for spending an
excessive amount of ,a r g u i n gt h a t they have totake care of
financially. Mrs.Linde is in desperate need
ofemploymentfollowing the death of her husband, and after her
replacement of Krogstad at the bank leaves him threatening to
show Nora in to urge his job back. Indeed, the bank works as a
logo for the pervasive presence of cash within the characters’
lives.
In the play, money symbolizes the power and dominance
that the characters have over each other .In the first scene,
Torvald’s ability to dictate what proportion Nora spends on
Christmas presents shows his power over her. Meanwhile, the
debt that Nora owes Krogstad allows himto possess power over
her and Torvald. Both Nora and Mrs.Linde cannot earn large
incomes because they're women; their inability to access
significant amounts of cash isam e t h o d that they're oppressed
by the sexism of the time.
The play also shows that, while earning money results
inpower, it also can be dangerous. Inthebeginning of the play,
Nora is pleased with the very fact that she “raised” the cash for
her and Torvald’s trip to Italy .However, the debt she owes soon
becomes a source of terror, dread, and shame. The joys of
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8.5.4 Lack of Trust in a Family
Nora, a dutiful mother, and awife spen tmost of the play
putting others before herself. She thinks little of how her act of
forgery and debt to Krogstad affect her personally, opting
instead to stress about how they could impact the lives of her
husband and youngsters .E v e nw h e ns h ep l a n st ok i ll herself
near the top of the play, it'snot tohide her shame but rather
because she thinks that if she is alive then Torvald will ruin
himself in trying to guard her. During a similar vein, Mrs.Linde
admits that, without a husband or any relations toworry for, she
feels that her life is pointless. Therefore, both women find a
way of meaning in their lives through serving others and
performing the caring, obedient role that society requires of
them. During the play, however, Nora learns that prioritizi ng her
duty as a wife and amother cannot bring real happiness. She
realizes when it becomes clear that Torvald would never have
sacrificed his reputation to guard her, that while she thought she
was sacrificing herself to guard her love, actually no such love
existed, and indeed the structure of society makes the love she
had alleged to be an impossibility. She, therefore, decides to go
away from him to develop aw a y of her own identity. The play
ends with Nora choosing to place herself as ap r i v a t e before
society’s expectations of her.
Atthe start of the play, Nora appears to be a dutifully
obedient and honest wife, however it'squickly revealed that she
is hiding as i g n i f i c a n t secret from him —theincontrovertible fact
that she borrowed money from Krogstad to finance av i s i t to Italy
that she claims saved Torvald’s life. This renders all her
statements about never disobeying him or hiding anything from
him deceitful. When she reveals her dishonesty to Mrs.Linde,
Mrs.Linde ins ists that she needs to confess to Torvald
immediately, insisting that aw e d d i n g cannot succeed when
husband and wife aren't completely honest with one another. A
parallel occurs between Nora and Krogstad when it'srevealed
that they both committed forgery. Their acts of deception spark
the unraveling of both their lives —Krogstad’s reputation is
ruined, and Nora is forced to re -evaluate everything about
herself and therefore the society around her ,e v e n t u a l l yl e a d i n g
her decision to go away from her husband and family .
In some ways, deceit is presented as a corrupting and
corroding force within the people’s lives; however, in Nora’s
case, it'sclear that the motivation for her dishonesty was love —
she lied to save lots of her husband’s life. Furthermore, her
actions wouldn't have had to be deceitful if it weren’t for societal
law dictating that ladies weren't allowed to handle financial
matters independently. Therefore, Nora’s deceit wasn’t there
sults ofap r i v a t e flaw, but rather the sole means necessary of
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8.5.5 Individual’s Agonies vs Morality of the Society
Throughout the play, it seems that Krogstad cares more
about his reputation than anything .P u n i s h e db ys o c i e t yf o rh i s
act of forgery, he's wanting to reclaim respectability within
theeyes of others. However, his conversation with Mrs.Linde in
thethird act shows that he will only achieve happiness through
truly reforming himself and regaining the private integrity that he
lostinstead of outward respectability. Krogstad learns that
society’s view of him is meaningless if he doesn’t respect
himself .
8.6CHARACTER ANALYSIS
NORA
Nora ,ad u t i f u lm o t h e ra n d awife,occupies major part of
the play putting others before herself. She thinks little of how her
act of forgery and debt to Krogstad affect her personally, opting
instead to stress about how they could impact the lives of her
husband and youngsters .E v e nw h e ns h ep l a n st ok i l l
herself, it'snottohide her shame but rather because she thinks
that if she is alive then Torvald will ruin himself in trying to
guard her. Inasimilar vein, Mrs.Linde admits that, without a
husband or any relations to worry for, she feels that her life is
pointless. Therefore, both women find aw a y of meaning in their
lives through serving others and performing the caring, obedient
role that society requires of them. During the play, however,
Nora learns that prioritizing her duty as a wife and mother
cannot bring real happiness. She realizes when it becomes clear
that Torvald would never have sacrificed his reputation to
guard her, that while she thought she was sacrificing herself to
guard her love, actually no such love existed, and indeed the
structure of society makes the love she had alleged to be an
impossibility. She, therefore, decides to go away from him to
develop aw a y of her own identity. The play ends with Nora
choosing to place herself as ap r i v a t e before society’s
expectations of her.
Torvald Helmer
Torvald Helmer may be a lawyer who at the play’s outset
has recently been promoted to director .he's married to Nora
Helmer, with whom he has three children. He doesn't seem
particularly keen on his children, even once saying that their
presence makes the house “unbearable to anyone except
mothers.” Straightforward and traditional in his beliefs about
marriage and society ,hel o v e sa n d is extremely affectionate
towards Nora, but often treats her more as a pet, child, or object
than as at r u e person. His allyis Dr. Rank, who visits
himoneday.H o w e v e r ,t h i sf r i e n d s h i pi sr e v e a l e dt ob emunotes.in

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something of a façade, as Torvald seems untroubled and even a
touch relieved at the thought of Dr. Rank’s death. An
identical occurrence happens when he finds out about Nora’s
secret debt and instantly activates her until he realizes that his
reputation is safe. Torvald's specialization in status and being
treated as superior by pe ople like Nils Krogstad highlights his
obsession with reputation and appearances. When Nora tells
him she is leaving him, Torvald initially reacts by calling her mad
and saying she is acting sort of a stupid child. However, when
he realizes how resolute sh ei si nh e rd e c i s i o n ,T o r v a l do f f e r s to
vary and desperately searches for how to remain together with
her.H i sd e s p a i ra sN o r ae x i t sa tt h ev e r ye n do ft h ep l a y
suggests that, despite his patronizing and unjust treatment of
her, Torvald does love Nora.
Mrs.Linde
Mrs.Linde ,as she is usually known to the opposite
characters, is an old flame of Nora's. She may be a woman
whose marriage was loveless and supported ar e q u i r e m e n t for
financial security, and who doesn’t have any children. She and
Krogstad had been crazy at the time, but he was too poor to
support her family. She arrives in town in search of employment
to earn money and survive independently. Inthisway, she may
be a fairly modern woman .She explains to Krogstad that she
finds joy and meaning in work. However, in other ways, she is
more traditional. She tells both Krogstad and Nora that she is
miserable without people to require care of, thereby fitting
into the normal role of girls as caretakers and nurturers. it'sthis
conviction that causes her to marry Krogstad. She believes very
deeply in honesty and stops Krogstad from taking the letter he
wrote to Torvald back, thereby ensuring that Torvald determines
Nora’s secret. Although this initially looks like ab e t r a y a lo fN o r a ,
itseems to ultima tely be ac h o i c e to Nora’s benefit because it is
after Torvald finds out about the debt that Nora is in a position to
ascertain truenature of her marriage. This twist confirms Mrs.
Linde’s belief that honesty is usually better than deceit,
albeit Mrs. Linde expected that it had been Nora's deceit that
needed to be exposed, not the vanity of Torvald's feelings.
Nils Krogstad
Nils Krogstad isanantagonist of the play. He is an
unscrupulous and dishonest .Heb l a c k m a i l sN o r a ,w h ob o r r o w e d
money from him with a forged signature, after learning
that he's being fired from his job at the bank. Int h e past, he too
committed the crime of forgery, an act that he didn't
attend prison for but that nonetheless ruined his reputation and
made it extremely difficult to seek out ag o o d job. Later in
theplay, it'srevealed that he was once crazy with Kristine Linde,
who ended up marrying another man to possess enough moneymunotes.in

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to support her dying mother and young brothers. This left
Krogstad lost and embittered, unhappy in his marriage, and is
presented because of the reason behind his moral corruption.
Initially, he treats Nora without mercy on the idea that no mercy
has been shown to him in life; however, after he and
Mrs.Linde plan to marry, he becomes happier and rescinds his
threats to Nora, saying he regrets his behavior. he's one
among several examples within the play of an individual being
forced into morally questionable action as a result of the rigid
and unmerciful forces of society.
Dr. Rank
Dr Rank may be a doctor who is best friends ofTorvald
and Nora, whom he visits one day.D r .R a n ks u f f e r sf r o ms p i n a l
tuberculosis, a condition he believes was caused by his father’s
vices, including having extramarital affairs and consuming an
excessive amount of luxurious food and drink. Dr. Rank is
unmarried and lonel y. It is revealed that he's crazy with Nora.
Cynical about life, he rejoices when he finds out that his illness
is terminal, and insists that neither Torvald nor Nora visits him in
his dying days.
8.7 CRITICAL ANALYSIS
8.7.1 Ibsen and His Social Experiments
Ibsenian drama has become ap a r to f the social history
ofthestage and a study of his work gives us a special insight
into contemporary writings. The fashionable "theatre of the
absurd," as an example ,e x p r e s s i n g ap r i v a t e alienation from
society, is simply another sort of social criticism which Ibsen first
inspired. All his plays are interesting for their social message.
Ibsen's dramas wouldn't survive today ,were it not for his
consummate skill as a technician. Each drama is carefully
wrought into ad e c e n t logical construction where characters are
delineated and interrelated, and where events have a
symbolic as well as actual significance. The symbolism in
Ibsen's plays is never overworked. Carefully integrated to unify
the setting, events, and character portrayals, the symbols are
incidental and subordinate to the reality and consistency of his
picture of life.
Because of his interest in painting as a you th, Ibsen was
always aware of making accurate observations. As a dramatist,
he considered himself a photographer also,u s i n gh i sp o w e r so f
observation as a lens, while his finished plays represented the
proofs of at a l e n t e d darkroom technician. The realism of his
plays is supported by his visualization skills. The credibility of
his characters, the immediacy of his themes, and his ability tomunotes.in

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the finest details are the result of those photographic skills at
which Ibsen so con sciously worked. Among his countless
revisions for every drama, he paid special heed to the accuracy
of his dialogue. Through constant rewriting, he brought out the
utmost meaning within the fewest words, attempting to suit each
speech into the character of the speaker. Additionally ,I b s e n ' s
ability as a poet contributed a special beauty to his crisp prose.
8.7.2 Ibsen’s Ideas on Lack of Love for a Woman:
The problems of Ibsen's social dramas are consistent
throughout all his works. InADoll's House ,h e especially
probed the issues of the social passivity assigned to
women during a male -oriented society. After considering the
plight of Nora Helmer, he then investigated what would happen
had she remained reception .T h ec o n s e q u e n c eo fh i st h o u g h t s
appears in Ghosts. His concept of the individual love is of
supreme importance .Ibsen believed that the ultimate personal
tragedy comes from a denial of any kind of love .F r o mt h i s
viewpoint, we see that Torvald is an incomplete individual
because he attaches more importance to ac r i m i n a l
offense against society than a sin against love.
8.7.3 Insights into Human Nature
In an age where nations were striving for independence,
Ibsen's sense of democracy was politically prophetic. He
believed not that "right" was the prerogative of the mass
majority, but that it resided among the educated minority. In
thedevelopment and enrichment of the individual, he saw the
sole hope of av e r y cultured and enlightened society.Until the
latter part of the nineteenth century, the the atre remained a
vehicle of entertainment. Insights into the human condition were
merely incidental factors within the dramatist's art. Ibsen,
however, contributed replacement significance to the drama
which changed the event of the recent theatre. Discovering
dramatic material in everyday situations was the start of realism
that novelists as different as Zola and Flaubert were already
exploiting. When Nora quietly confronts her husband with "Sit
down, Torvald, you and that I have much to mention to
every other," drama became notam e r ed i v e r s i o nb u ta n
experience closely impinging on the lives of the playgoers
themselves. With Ibsen, the stage became a pulpit, and
therefore the dramatist exhorting his audience to reassess the
values of society .
8.8IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Discuss ‘A Doll’s House’ as a Realistic Play.
2. Discuss major characters of the play.
3. Critically discuss the significance of the title of the play.munotes.in

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8.9 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Boyesen, Hjalmar. ACommentary onthe Works ofHenrik
Ibsen. New York: Russell & Russell, 1973 .
Bradbrook, M.C. Ibsen theNorwegian: ARevaluation .L o n d o n :
Chatto and Windus, 1966.
Egan, Michael, ed.Ibsen: The Critical Heritage. Boston:
Routledge and K. Paul, 1972 .
Gray, Ronald. Ibsen, ADissenting View. New York: Cambridge
University Press, 1977 .
Ibsen, Henrik (trans. Charlotte Barslund and Frank
McGuinness). ADoll's House .L o n d o n :F a b e ra n dF a b e r ,1 9 9 7 .
Ibsen, Henrik (trans. Michael Meyer). ADoll's House (Ibsen
Plays: Two) .L o n d o n :M e t h u e nD r a m a ,2 0 0 0 .
Ibsen, Henrik. ADoll's House . No city: no publisher, 1879.
Johnston, Brian. Ibsen's Selected Plays: ANorton Critical
Edition . New York: W.W. Norton, 2004.
Lebowitz, Naomi. Ibsen and the Great World. Baton Rouge:
Louisiana University Press, 1990 .
Lee, Jennette. The Ibsen Secret. Seattle: University Press of the
Pacific, 2001 .
Lyons, Charles R.Henrik Ibsen: The Divided
Consciousness. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University
Press, 1972 .
Marker, Frederick. Ibsen’s Lively Art.New York: Cambridge
University Pre ss,1989 .
McFarlane, J.,ed.The Cambridge Companion toIbsen. New
York: Cambridge University Press, 1994 .
Meyer, Michael. Ibsen . Great Britain: Sutton Publishing, 1967.
Northam, John. Ibsen: ACritical Study .C a m b r i d g e :C a m b r i d g e
University Press, 1973.
Shaw, George Bernard. The Quintessence ofIbsenism .L o n d o n :
Dover Publishing, 1891.
Steiner, George. The Death ofTragedy .L o n d o n :F a b e ra n d
Faber, 1961.
Weigand, H.J.The Modern Ibsen: AReconsideration. Salem,
New Hampshire: Ayer, 1984 .
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121Unit -9
A STUDY OF CHRISTOPHER FRY’S A
PHOENIX TOO FREQUENT PART I
Unit Structure:
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction: Christopher Fry and Post -war Britain
9.2 Verse Drama
9.3 AP h o e n i xT o oF r e q u e n t :AB r i e fO v e r v i e w
9.4 Conclusion
9.5 Important Questions
9.6 References
9.0OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this unit are firstly, to ensure that the student
develops an understanding of the social position of verse drama
and a playwright such as Christopher Fry in themid-20thcentury
Britain, and secondly, to introduce Fry’s AP h o e n i xT o oF r e q u e n t as
a play that succeeded in the immediate post -war period before the
onset of a more realistic and minimalist style of theatre.
9.1INTRODUC TION: CHRISTOPHER FRY AND
POST -WAR BRITAIN
Christopher Fry (18 December 1907 –30 June 2005) was a
British poet and playwright. He was born as Arthur Hammond
Harris to Charles John Harris, a master builder who retired early to
work full -time a s a licensed Lay Reader in the Church of England,
and his wife Emma Marguerite Fry Hammond Harris in Bristol,
England. In his youth, Fry took his mother's maiden name because
he believed her to be related to the 19th -century Quaker prison
reformer Elizabet h Fry. He eventually admitted that the relation to
Elizabeth Fry was rather unsubstantiated. Nevertheless, Fry also
adopted Elizabeth Fry's faith to became a Quaker, and
consequently, a lifelong pacifist. As a pacifist, Fry played the role of
a conscientio us objector during World War II, and went on to serve
in the Non -Combatant Corps .Accounts suggest that for a part of
the time, he cleaned London's sewers.It was after this brutally trying
period of war that Fry wrote a comedy: AP h o e n i xT o oF r e q u e n t .
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122A formidable figure in the British theatre scene of the mid -
20th century, Fry was best known for his verse drama. His
popularity sustained in the five years beginning in 1946,
immediately after the end of the second World War —five of his
major dramas, plus his translation of a Jean Anouilh play, achieved
critical and public appreciation.
Fry is placed in the literary tradition of several other post -war
playwrights such as T. S. Eliot and Archibald MacLeish who
attempted a rev ival of drama in verse. The rich, poetic grandeur of
the genre is most fully visible in Fry’s The Lady’s Not for Burning
(1948), which remains till date his best -known play and is produced
regularly. Fry’s mainstream popularity first began when he was
comm issioned by Alec Cunes, the manager of the Arts Theatre in
London. This commission led to the writing of The Lady's Not for
Burning , which was first performed there in 1948 and directed by
the actor Jack Hawkins. The play met with great success and was
eventually transferred to the West End for a nine -month run,
starring John Gielgud as well as Richard Burton and Claire Bloom
as a part of its cast. The Lady went on to be presented on
Broadway in 1950, again with Burton. The warm reviews and
critical acclaim that Fry’s play received marked an undeniable
revival in the audience’s interest in poetic drama. The Lady remains
one of Fry’s most performed plays and has also gathered some
popular and political significance after it inspired British Prime
Minister Mar garet Thatcher to declaim, "You turn if you want to —
the lady’s not for turning," at the Conservative Party conference in
1980.
The 1950s were speckled with several adaptations and
translations from Fry, including the adapted translation of Jean
Anouilh ’sInvitation to the Castle asRing Round the Moon for
director Peter Brook. In the same period, Fry also wrote Venus
Observed , which was produced at the St James's
Theatre byLaurence Olivier. Shortly after, in 1951, Fry wrote A
Sleep of Prisoners , which was first performed at St Thomas' church
inRegent Street, London, and went on tour with Denholm
Elliott andStanley Baker.
In 1954, Fry penned a winter play starring Katharine Cornell
and Edith Evans, called The Dark is Light Enough .T h ep l a yw a s
the thi rd in a quartet of seasonal plays and notably featured
Leonard Bernstein’s famed incidental music. This play followed the
springtime of The Lady’s Not for Burning and the autumnal Venus
Observed . The quartet was completed in 1970 with AY a r do fS u n ,
repres enting summer.
A number of works by Fry in the period that followed these
seasonal plays were translations from French dramatists. Thesemunotes.in

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123included a play called The Lark, which was an adaptation of Jean
Anouilh’s L'Alouette ("The Lark"). In 1955, Fry trans lated both a
Tiger at The Gates , which was based on Jean Giraudoux’s La
guerre de Troien'aurapas lieu ,a sw e l la s Duel of Angels ,a d a p t e d
from Giraudoux's Pour Lucrèce . Fry went back to Giraudoux in
1960 with his Judith .
The fullness of verse drama such as Fry’s was,
unfortunately, short lived. After the success of several dramas
in verse in the immediate post -war period, the scene and
aesthetic tastes of modern English theatre shifted to realism
and minimalism. The existe ntial minimalism of the plays of
Samuel Beckett and Harold Pinter, the arrival of John
Osborne, and the ‘kitchen -sink’ realists in the 1950s
contributed directly to a decline in the popularity of poetic
language and theatrical grandeur.
After Fry’s poet ic style of drama fell out of fashion in the mid -
1950s, his focus shifted to writing and working mainly for cinema in
the 1960s. He had numerous cinematic collaborations to his credit,
including one with Denis Cannan on a screenplay for the film
version of John Gay’s The Beggar's Opera (1953), for
director Peter Brook, and starring Laurence Olivier. Fry’s work as
one of the writers of the widely popular film, Ben-Hur(1959),
directed by William Wyler , remained uncredited for several years .
Nevertheless, dra ma seemed to have remained Fry’s first love, and
he continued to write plays, including Curtmantle for the Royal
Shakespeare Company in 1962, and AY a r do fS u n –the fourth in
his seasonal quartet as mentioned earlier –for the Nottingham
Playhouse in 1970 .
Fry’s popularity, albeit short -lived in the theatre scene,
is still sustained as an important figure in the proliferation of
drama in verse. Diane Gillespie writes:
“Poetry in the theatre, Christopher fry says, is a
response to thetwentieth -century need for a new
realism.' In saying so, he follows inthe wake of W. B.
Yeats, J. M. Synge, and T. S. Eliot, and is joined byother
English -speaking dramatists like Archibald MacLeish.
MaxwellAnderson. Robert Frost. W. H. Auden, and
Christopher Isherwood.However diverse and uneven
their achievements are in practice, thesemen are
remarkably consistent in theory: the realistic or
naturalistictheatre dominated by imitators of Ibse n's
social -problem plays, theyinsist, must be amplified or
replaced' instead of mundane,trivial human lives lived in
powerlessness and despair, they emphasize
deeperemotion and sensitivity in man, or they insist thatmunotes.in

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124man and his effortsare potentially nobl e however much
his modern environment seems todegrade him. Poetry,
they insist, communicates these complexitiesmore
successfully than prose.' Fry's own emphasis is on the
spiritualdimension in the human experience and the
poetic language that cansay "heave na n de a r t hi no n e
word.'" (287)
Benedict Nightingale also suggests that Fry’s plays were often
spiritual at their core, and radiated a n optimistic faith in God and
humanity, evoking, in his words, "a world in which we are poised on
the edge of eternity, a world which has deeps and shadows of
mystery, and God is anything but a sleeping partner." (qtd. in
Nightingale).Fry is said to have w ritten his plays in poetry because
that was "the language in which man expresses his own
amazement" at the complexity both of himself and of a reality
which, beneath the surface, was "wildly, perilously, inexplicably
fantastic." (Nightingale)
9.2VERSE DRAMA
Verse drama, as a genre, can be described quite broadly as any
drama written inverse, and such a form may also be called ‘poetic
drama’. In poetic drama the dialogue is written in verse, and the
forms of such verse vary according to languages and at time
literary traditions. For instance, poetic drama in English is usually in
blank verse, which consists of lines in iambic pentameter which are
unrhymed. In French, the verse in poetic drama is the twelve -
syllable line called the alexandrine .
Drama in verse was for several centuries the most dominant
mode of drama in bothEuropean and non -European literary and
artistic cultures. Most dramatic works in Elizabethan and
Restoration England were in verse, including the plays of
Christoph er Marlowe and William Shakespeare. In Germany,
Johann Wolfgang Goethe’s much acclaimed and influential Faust ,
among others, was a verse drama as well. Due to its continued use
in the literary works of the ‘Golden Age’ of literature, especially in
England, verse drama has come to be associated with the
seriousness, heroism, and grandeur of tragedy. Aside from the
artistic and aesthetic pull of this form, a more practical advantage of
verse drama is that lines in verse are often easier for the actors to
memor ize in the original, precise form.
The immediate period following the end of the second World
War in the twentieth century, proved to be a period conducive to the
revival of drama written in verse. The ravages of war, the social and
moral upheaval of soc iety, as well as a general desire for optimism
made the theatre scene prime for the richness of poetic plays.munotes.in

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125In what David Daiches calls “by far the most interesting
development in dramatic literature in the first half of the twentieth
century” (1109), w riters such as W. B. Yeats and T. S. Eliot began
their experiments in reviving poetic drama. Yeats, especially, began
by writing fantastical plays on Irish mythological themes, but from
the beginning he showed a symbolic power in both action and
imagery, w hich suggested levels of meaning the drama had not
sought after for a long time (Daiches 1109). The period also saw
the verse -drama of John Millington Synge, whose poetic prose
based on the speech rhythm of the Irish peasantry provided him
with some of the resources of his unique vocabulary, which in
drama was both poetic and real, both rich and natural (Daiches
1110). T. S. Eliot, another stalwart of this tradition, attempted to
restore ritual to drama; Eliot’s Murder in the Cathedral (1935),
arguably rema ins the most successful of his plays because the
poetic, lilting ritualistic element is implicit in the situation (Daiches
1111). Christopher Fry followed in this tradition with an airy
exuberance in both imagery and wit, with AP h o e n i xT o oF r e q u e n t
(1946) ,The Lady’s Not for Burning (1948), and Venus Observed
(1950).
The sudden and intense popularity of such verse -drama was
also a reaction to the realistic ‘problem’ plays of G. B. Shaw orJohn
Galsworthy written in straightforward prose. While these plays
provided an understanding of the social ills of the age in great
depth, their tone often bordered on pedantic and did little to
address the sentimental requirements of the immediate post -war
age.
As societal narratives progressed, and the ideas of
fragme ntation, minimalism, and alienation took hold and the
dramatical aesthetic of England other neighbouring countries,
verse -drama rapidly declined in popularity, making the poetic plays
of Yeats, Eliot, Synge, and Fry the last of a rich and long tradition.
9.3A PHOENIX TOO FREQUENT: A BRIEF
OVERVIEW
After the end of the second World War, in which Christopher Fry
served in the Non -Combatant Corps, he wrote a comedy called A
Phoenix Too Frequent , which was produced a t the Mercury
Theatre, Notting Hill Gate, London, in 1946, starring Paul
Scofield. The Mercury Theatre was opened by Ashley Dukes in
1933. A part of the theatre’s brief was to strive to present new and
experimental drama. Before the second World War and the
subsequent upheaval began, plays by T. S. Eliot, W. H. Auden,
Christopher Isherwood and many other verse dramatists of the time
were presented there. After the war, the Mercury reverted to its
endeavour to showcase new plays and forms of theatre. In the A prilmunotes.in

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126of 1946, shortly after the end of the war, the theatre staged the first
British performance of The Resurrection by W. B. Yeats as well as
the world premiere of Fry'scomedy AP h o e n i xT o oF r e q u e n t .
Interestingly, both works had a limited cast, with only four
performers in the Yeats play, and three in that of Fry.
For AP h o e n i xT o oF r e q u e n t , Christopher Fry took as his
inspiration Jeremy Taylor's retelling of a tale from Petronius, while
the title of the play comes from Robert Burton's translation of lin es
from an epigram of Martial, lamenting his lost love, in comparison
with whom a ‘peacock's undecent, a squirrel's harsh, a phoenix too
frequent’.
The play is a comedy that is based upon the once well -known
tale of the “Widow of Ephesus” told in Petroni us’ “Satyricon”.The
Widow, here named Dynamene, has vowed to join her husband
Virilius in the afterlife by starving herself to death in his tomb. Her
faithful servant Doto hasto follow her mistress into death.
Dynamene and Doto while away their time in th et o m bb y
discussing their mental states and recalling Virilius’ exaggerated
grandeur, thereby setting the comic tone of the play.
The situation becomes complicated when a Roman soldier,
Tegeus, guarding six recently hanged prisoners, follows the light
into the tomb and finds the women. At first, Doto is quite taken by
Tegeus and attempts to woo him. However, Tegeus finds greater
interest in Dynamene. In these exchanges, Doto’s insatiable
appetite for men in combination with her imminent death becomes
a source of humour. It is notable that Fry presents Doto’s dalliances
in a positive light, with an air of celebration rather than moral
highhandedness, and sets a decidedly secular tone for the play.
Tegeus offers Doto and Dynamene wine, and the women begin
to chat more animatedly under the influence. Tegeus’ consistent
admiration for Dynamene’s faithfulness soon turns to love while
Dynamene is torn between her vow and the possibility of new life.
At the end of the play, Tegeus steps out to check on the bodies he
is guarding and finds one of them missing. Tegeus returns to the
tomb and reports to Dynamene that he must kill himself honourably
rather than be hanged after he is found guilty of misplacing a body.
Here, Dynamene resolves to save Tegeus’ life by sacr ificing Virilius
literally and figuratively. Virilius is ‘resurrected’ from the tomb to
give Tegeus a ‘new life’, and thus ensure that Dynamene continues
to live on. Fry’s play draws both its humour and its philosophy from
the false heroics of Dynamene's m ourning of her husband in his
tomb, and her reawakening to the joy of life by a handsome officer
who enters the tomb to rest on a course of duty (Fry).munotes.in

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127Through AP h o e n i xT o oF r e q u e n t , alongside several other of his
plays, Fry thus brings colour and gaiety to the stage in the form of
humour, while also artfully rendering myth and allegories through
his rich verse. The play is an artful blend of an old dramatic form
and new thematic as well as comic styles.
9.4 CONCLUSION
A study of Christopher Fry’s play, AP h o e n i xT o oF r e q u e n t ,i s
of great import ance to gain a fuller understanding of drama in the
mid-20thcentury. The play allows a glimpse not only into classical
techniques and contemporary humour, but also allows a study of
the counter -views to the realists of the 1940s and 50s. After the
temporal distance of over half a century, Fry’s verse drama can be
appreciated not only for its inauguration of a particular trend, but
also for its inherent worth. Fry’s work remains a beacon of the
lively, dialogic nature of drama, and of literature as a whole.
It is important to credit Christopher Fry with not only b ringing
an e o -Elizabethan verbal dash to atheatre scene that was growing
increasingly dry, but also as the writer who brought a refreshing
warmth and to post -war Britain. Even at the time, Fry was not
without critics who argued that Chekhov, Ibsen and Shaw had
proved that prose was the proper form for contemporary drama. But
Fry, through his suppleness and versatility, remained a dominant
figure in the English theatre of the early 1950s. For Kenneth Tynan,
"he gave us access to imagined worlds in which ratio ning and the
rest of austerity's paraphernalia could be forgotten."Fry, who took a
quiet pride in liberating the theatre from one -dimensional realist,
often found his work sside-lined on account of escapism by the
adherents of the "angry young men" and the existential minimalists.
His poetry was increasingly dismissed as affected and decorative.
The critic Denis Donoghue talked of "the wanton prancing of
words."(Nightingale; Billington)
Nevertheless, Fry still believed passionately in the validity of
poeti c drama. As he wrote in the magazine, Adam: "In prose, we
convey the eccentricity of things, in poetry their concentricity, the
sense of relationship between them: a belief that all things express
the same identity and are all contained in one discipline o f
revelation." (Billington)
9.5IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Critically examine the socio -political factors that determined the
theatre scene in mid -20thCentury Britain.munotes.in

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1282. How does verse drama differ from the realistic and minimalist
plays of the 1950s?
3. Discuss the style of the literary tradition that Christopher Fry was
placed in.
4. Offer a brief overview of Christopher Fry’s body of work.
5. Comment on the decline of verse -drama in the second half of the
20thcentury, and the subsequent shifts in En glish theatre.
9.6REFERENCES
Billington, Michael. "Christopher Fry Christian Humanist
Playwright Who Brought A Spiritual Elan To The Drab World Of
Postwar Theatre". The Guardian ,2 0 0 5 ,
Daiches, David. A Critical History of English Literature: Volume
II.M a n d a r i n ,2 0 1 5 .
Fry, Christopher. “A Phoenix Too Frequent.” The Hudson
Review ,v o l .3 ,n o .2 ,1 9 5 0 ,p p .1 6 5 –202. JSTOR ,
www.jstor.org/stable/3856638. Accessed 31 Dec. 2020.
Gillespie, Diane Filby. "Langu age as Life: Christopher Fry's
Early Plays." Modern Drama ,v o l .2 1n o .3 ,1 9 7 8 ,p .2 8 7 -
296. Project MUSE ,doi:10.1353/mdr.1979.0015.
Nightingale, Benedict. "Christopher Fry, British Playwright In
Verse, Dies At 97". The New York Times ,2 0 0 5 ,
https://www.ny times.com/2005/07/05/theater/christopher -fry-
british -playwright -in-verse -dies-at-97.html.
https://www.theguardian.com/news/2005/jul/04/guardianobituari
es.artsobituaries.
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129Unit -10
A STUDY OF CHRISTOPHER FRY’S A
PHOENIX TOO FREQUENT PART I I
Unit Structure:
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Synopsis
10.2 Significance of Character Names
10.3 Themes
10.3.1. The Archetypal Dialectic of Life, Death, and
Resurrection
10.3.2 Moral Dilemma
10.4 Symbolic Layers in AP h o e n i xT o oF r e q u e n t
10.5 Conclusion
10.6 Important Questions
10.7 References
10.0OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this unit are, firstly, to help students develop
an in -depth understanding of the themes, symbols, and literary
techniques that are at play in Christopher Fry’s AP h o e n i xT o o
Frequent , and secondly, to equip t hem with the tools to form their
own interpretation of the play after engaging with a variety of
perspectives.
10.1 SYNOPSIS
The one -act play is set in the underground tomb of the
recently -dead Virilius, near Ephesus. Dynamene, Virilius’ grieving
widow, has determined to remain in the tomb until she can join
Virilius in the underworld. She is accompanied by her maid Doto.
Outside the tomb, there are several human bodies hanging on
trees. The play opens during the night, as Doto and Dynamene
fast. The two ladies are disturbed at 2 a.m. by Tegeus, a soldier on
guard nearby, who comes to investigate the activity taking place in
the tomb, drawn by the light inside. He has originally been put on
guard over the bodies of six criminals hanged nearby. Doto and
Tegeus begin bantering as Dynamene sleeps, and share wine as
well. When Dynamene wakes up, she is at first displeased by
Tegeus’ presence in her place of mourning and thinks of him as a
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130the two increases, and Dynamene renames Tegeus as Chromis.
However, Tegeus eventually has to return to check on his guard
post, which he leaves unmanned while spending time in the tomb.
When Tegeus returns shortly after, he reports that one of the
bodies from his post is missing, and was most likely cut down by
the family members for a proper funeral. He further reports that
when his neglect of his duties will be discovered, he is liable to
court martial. Tegeus then resolves to kill himself rather than be
dishonou redthus. Once again, Dynamene finds herself faced with
the prospect of losing her love a second time. However, she
suggests that the use Virilius’ body as a substitute for the body that
has gone missing on Tegeus’ watch. While Tegeus is appalled at
first, she manages to persuade him. Dynamene, Tegeus and Doto
drink a toast to the memory of Virilius as the play ends, as
Dynamene opts for life with Tegeus/ Chromis rather than death with
the entombed Virilius.
10.2 SIGNIFICANCE OF CHARACTER NAMES
The characters in Christopher Fry’s AP h o e n i xT o oF r e q u e n t
are limited, yet layered with meaning.
Dynamene, whose name means power/energy, is the
character at the centre of the play. She is recently widowed and
has made the decision to join h er husband in the afterlife. However,
she finds that her penance and her sentiments are ceremoniously
interrupted by Tegeus, and is eventually attracted to him.
Dynamene, like the reference of her name suggests, does indeed
wield a considerable amount of p ower over the rest of the
characters in the play. Doto is condemned to die simply as a
companion for Dynamene, and she further decides what is to be
done with the dead Virilius’ body in order to save Tegeus, who she
takes the liberty of re -naming Chromis.
Dynamene is accompanied by Doto, whose name refers to
‘dowry’, which could mean property. In this case, the name is
perhaps a suggestion of the slave -like position that Doto occupies
under Dynamene. Doto is ‘meant to’ die alongside Dynamene and
keep her c ompany in her mourning. The lack of choice and agency
given to the character of Doto is thus foregrounded in the meaning
of her name. Phonetically, Doto also sounds like ‘doting’, wherein
she dotes on Dynamene and on several of her own lovers, or
alternati vely, ‘dodo’ suggestive of her comical role in the play.
Tegeus is the handsome soldier who acts as an intervention
in Dynamene and Doto’s resolution to mourn until death. His name
is phonetically similar to the word ‘tedious’, and may be thus seen
as a suggestion of his (at first) tiresome interruption of the two
ladies’ attempt at death by starvation. He also offers them food andmunotes.in

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131wine in the course of the play. Dynamene decides to rename
Tegeus as Chromis, stating “I shall call you Chromis. It has a
breadlike I think of you as a crisp loaf”. The signification of Tegeus
as colour may be a marker of his role in returning the colour to the
prospects in Dynamene’s, and indirectly Doto’s, life. He also literally
returns the colour to their cheeks by offering them wine.
The play is set in the tomb of Virilius, whose name harks to
‘virility’. However, his absence in the play, an ironic description of
him by Dynamene, alongside his replacement by Tegeus adds a
rather comical effect to the association of Virilius to virility. At one
point, while mourning for Virilius, Dynamene declares “I am lonely,
/Virilius. Where is the punctual eye/ And where is the cautious voice
which made/ Balance -sheets sound like Homer and Homer sound/
Like balance -sheets?”. These descrip tions of Virilius grate against
the traditional definition of virile masculinity, and enhances the
effect that Tegeus’ virility has on Doto, Dynamene, and the comic
irony of the play. However, Virilius’ is able to figuratively ‘give life’ to
Dynamene and T egeus when his body is used to evade Tegeus’
court martial and/or impending death.
10.3 THEMES
10.3.1. The Archetypal Dialectic of Life, Death, and
Resurrection
The saving of one’s life, and losing that life, exist in a
dialectica l, reciprocal relationship in Christopher Fry’s AP h o e n i x
Too Frequent .A f t e rT e g e u sa n dD y n a m e n ef a l li nl o v e ,T e g e u s
discovers that one of the bodies that he was guarding is missing,
and resolves to kill himself instead of being discovered in
dishonour. Death, thus arrives close on the heels of the newfound
life shared by Dynamene and Tegeus. Emil Roy notes interestingly
that in a number of plays by Fry one finds “ the overt and concealed
suicide attempts, a motif which Fry had observed in a hospital for
shell-shocked patients after the war while he was considering the
problem of acting Hamlet. Although he had the reluctant prince in
mind, his insights illuminate the conflicts of most of his displaced
seekers for identity” (96), thus situating the life -death dialectic of
Fry’s play in the context of its time, alongside its mythological
significance.
Tegeus’ fate is resolved by Dynamene’s decision to use
Virilius’ body as a substitute; t he lover’s dalliance in the tomb is “not
regular and circular, but elas tic and elliptical” between life and
death, much like the Christian myths that Fry borrows so heavily
from. Unlike Virilius’ “daily revolution of habit” (Fry 167), the
relationship between the two new lovers, Dynamene and Tegeus, is
counterpointed by its o ccurrence, as it were, between life and
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132The title of the play becomes a significant image in such a
dialectic context between life and death, for it references the
phoenix that gets new life out of its own death. The phoenix
submits to time and dea th, and in doing so is paradoxically
liberated into a new life. A life together for Dynamene and Tegeus
too comes out of time and (a) death:
DYNAMENE. Time runs again; the void is space again;
Space has life again; Dynamene has Chromis(Fry 198)
Tegeus and Dynamene discover at the end of the play that
they need not necessarily become the victims of death, but can
harness it for their own benefit and life instead. Alvin Vos argues
that the life -death dialectic is linked specifically to its Christia n
substructure. The lifeless corpse of Virilius suddenly acquires the
power to save the erring soldier from his doom. Virilius is to
accomplish his mission as Christ did, by hanging from a holly tree.
Moreover, his substitutionary atonement is, from anothe r
perspective, his resurrection from the tomb. He figuratively moves
again in the world to achieve the welfare of the lovers (240). The
theme of resurrection in the play thus becomes a potent one; as a
result of Virilius’ resurrection, Dynamene’s and Doto’ si m m i n e n t
death in the tomb is subverted, while Tegeus is given a ‘new life’ by
the use of Virilius’ body.
Fry himself explained in a lecture delivered on “Death” at
Chichester Cathedral that “The nature of love and the nature of
death… are not opposites , but correlatives… If death has the
quality of mystery it is only so because of the abundant mystery of
life” (qtd. in Vos 239).
10.3.2 Moral Dilemma
The characters in Fry's play consistently display a moral
and/or psychological d ilemma.
The actions of the widow of Ephesus, who is Dynamene in
Fry’s play, serve as moral as well as philosophical markers for the
concepts of love, loyalty, atonement, and choice. Dynamene, who
has made a seemingly permanent decision of starving to dea th in
Virilius’ tomb, is faced with multiple choices, especially when she is
confronted with the prospect of a life with Tegeus. Even as she is
prepared to die, she confesses her dilemma while speaking to
Tegeus (and to herself):
DYNAMENE. Stop, stop, I s hall be dragged apart!
Why should the fates do everything to keep me
From dying honourably? They must have got
Tired of honour in Elysium. Chromis, it's terrible
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133I have the constitution of a whirlpool.
Am I actually twirling, or is it just sensation? (Fry 192)
With the arrival of Tegeus, she is drawn into conversation
and offered wine, where her decision to starve and mourn is
challenged. Further, she finds herself attracted to Tegeus while still
in Virilius ’ tomb, and acting upon her vow to join him in death.
Dynamene is faced with firstly, the choice of her older love for the
dead Virilius and her newfound love for the lively Tegeus, and
secondly with the choice of death as per her vow and of life in what
Tegeus has to offer. It is her choice of life with Tegeus that allows
her to navigate the decision to use Virilius’ body to save Tegeus
from the court martial and secure her life with him.
Doto, Dynamene’s maid, is jolly, and celebrates her colourful
lifeeven when she is faced with her own imminent death. She does
not attempt to rid any thoughts about the men she has had relations
with in the past, and proceeds to philosophise about her choices in
with the arrival of Tegeus. Although Doto assures Dynamene that
she is “dying to be dead” (Fry 195), just like her mistress, her
appetite for her lovers consistently subverts her resolve. She
continually oscillates between the commitment to join Dynamene in
the quest for death and her scarcely repressible desire t oh a v et h e
interloper Tegeus as her lover (Vos 234). Such a breach of moral
‘propriety’, and its presentation through Doto’s humorous
philosophy of life make the question of bodily desire in Doto’s mind,
and in the play, an ambivalent one (Wiersma 295). W hen she
admits to her mistress that she would not have allowed the soldier
into the tomb, she becomes explicit about her dilemma:
DOTO. Maybe I could have kept him out
But men are in before I wish they wasn't.
I think quickly enough, but I get behindhand
With what I ought to be saying. It's a kind of stammer
In my way of life, Madam. (Fry 196)
However, Vos writes that Fry means to celebrate Doto’s
“openness to the tension between flesh and spirit, death and love”
(234), and that her sexuality in the play i s Fry’s wonderfully ironic
symbol for the Phoenix -like life that the play affirms:
DOTO. …life is more big than a bed
And full of miracles and mysteries like
One man made for one woman, etcetera, etcetera.
Lovely. I feel sung, madam, by a baritone
In mixe d company with everyone pleased.
And so I had to come with you here, madam,
For the last sad chorus of me. It’s all
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134Tegeus, the soldier, is also faced with multiple moral
dilemmas from the moment of h is arrival in the tomb. At first, he is
faced with the affections of Doto, which he side -lines in order to
nurture his feelings for Dynamene. He is then faced with the
question of whether he loves the idea of Dynamene, created by her
sense of purity and sa crifice, or whether he loves the actual woman
in the flesh.
Tegeus is presented with his largest dilemma at the end of
the play, where he first must decide between facing dishonour after
the court martial, or dying honourably by his own hand before he is
found. After he resolves to kill himself, Dynamene creates another
dilemma by suggesting that they rid themselves of Tegeus’ court
martial by replacing the lost body on the tree with the dead Virilius.
It is interesting to note that while Doto as well as Tegeus are
both faced with moral dilemmas and life -changing choices of their
own, Dynamene makes the final decision, or at least influences it
greatly.
She makes the decision of using Virilius’ body as a
substitute, thereby determining the course of Tegeus’ life:
TEGEUS. Hang your husband?
Dynamene, it's terrible, horrible.
DYNAMENE. How little you can understand. I loved
His life not his death. And now we can give his death
The power of life. Not h orrible: wonderful!
Isn't it so? That I should be able to feel
He moves again in the world, accomplishing
Our welfare? It's more than my grief could do
(Fry 202)
Further, it is Dynamene’s decision to not let Doto die in the
tomb, after which she orders Doto out of the tomb:
DYNAMENE. I'm asking you
To leave me, Doto, at once, as quickly as possible,
Now, before -now, Doto, and let me forget
My bad mind which confidently expected you
To companion me to Hades. Now good -bye
Good -bye (Fry 196).
From the perspective of gender roles and expectations, one
may question why the onus of the moral dilemma falls squarely on
the shoulders of the widow. The dilemma in the play, between the
honour of dying for one’ s love versus the choice of continuing to
live on with another can be wielded to vilify Dynamene, while the
morals of Virilius and Tegeus remain untouched. Interestingly,
Doto, the only other woman in the play, is characterised as amunotes.in

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135woman who has taken mor e lovers than she can count, and is used
as a source of humour. The theme of morality in the play, thus, is
gendered by the sexual politics of the characters.
10.4 SYMBOLIC LAYERS IN A PHOENIX TOO
FREQUENT
Christopher Fry’s APhoenix Too Frequent operates between
the boundaries of a bawdy secularism and a Christian allegory. The
metamorphoses of the lives and decisions of the characters also
represent several symbolic levels. All the characters in the play, in
their own way, come to represent the erotic. Dynamene, Doto,
Tegeus, and even Virilius signify the desire for life and for love in its
bodily and sexual form, especially when confronted with death.
Howeve r, Doto and Virilius seem to both embody a more physical
desire, as is evidenced through Doto’s recollections of the several
men she has been with, and Virilius’ name evoking the image of
sexual prowess. Such a physical desire is counterpointed by the
existentially placed love of Dynamene and Tegeus, which is ripe
with images of recreation and resurrection. However, any clear
symbolic division is problematised by Fry through the use of
humour and moral questions directed at Dynamene’s renewed
affections for Tegeus.
Dynamene and Tegeus both also become symbols of
existing outside societal and statutory laws; Dynamene finds that
she is no longer expected to be wedded to the societal idea of
sacrificing her life in grief over her husband, while Tegeus learns
that the Regulations’ are nothing more than mere demands that
may be fulfilled by an unexpected substitute.
The bowl of wine that is shared by the three characters also
becomes an important symbolic reference point in the
mythicalcontext of the play. At t he outset, the bowl of wine
becomes a mean of establishing a friendship between the living
inhabitants of the tomb. Further, the intoxication of the wine allows
Doto at first, and eventually Dynamene herself to stray from the
original decision to starve un til death and join Virilius in death. The
reduced inhibitions between Dynamene and Tegeus also allow their
love to blossom. Further, the design on the bowl becomes
significant for its mythological connotations:
DYNAMENE. What an exquisite bowl…
TEGEUS. Ye s. Do you see the design?
The corded god, tied also by the rays
Of the sun, and the astonished ship erupting
Into vines and vine -leaves, inverted pyramids
Of grapes, the uplifted hands of the men (the raiders),
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136Venturing into leaves and tendrils, and Proteus
With his beard braiding the wind, and this
Held by other hands is a drowned sailor (Fry 179)
From one perspective, the design on the bowl is an allusion
to the Ovidian story about the kidnap of the wine -God Bacchus,
described here as the corded god. He is kidnapped by sailors or
“the raiders” who intend to sell him in Egypt as a slave. However,
their venture is thwarted when the ship “erupting/ Into vines and
vine-leaves, inverted pyramids” undergoes a me tamorphosis
caused by the god, and is consequently unable to move through
the sea (Vos 231). The overthrow of Dynamene’s journey to the
underworld is interrupted in much the same way by the wine bowl
and Tegeus, as the tomb transforms from a place of grief and death
to a place of love, resurrection, and life.
10.5 CONCLUSION
Through AP h o e n i xT o oF r e q u e n t , Christopher Fry
participates in the revival of verse drama and artfully renders
several complex themes through rich, witty lin es. The archetypal
dialectics of life, death, and resurrection become integral to the
movement of the play. Fry’s articulation of the dialogue between life
and death reveals that they are complementary to each other,
rather than in opposition. It also reve als a phoenix -like philosophy
about the celebration of life, further highlighted by the moral
dilemmas of the characters, and their comic renditions. A study of
Fry’s play, thus, allows an understanding of one of the oldest forms
of drama in combination wi th a variety of secular themes and
comedy.
10.6 IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the dialectics of life and death in the context of
Christopher Fry’s AP h o e n i xT o oF r e q u e n t .
2. Critically comment on the symbols and the symbolic levels
employed in Christopher Fry’s AP h o e n i xT o oF r e q u e n t .W h a ti s
the significance of the wine bowl?
3. What are the moral dilemmas that shape the characters in
Christopher Fry’s AP h o e n i xT o oF r e q u e nt?
4. How does Christopher Fry render the theme of resurrection in A
Phoenix Too Frequent ? Discuss in the context of the Christian
mythology that informs the course of the play.
5. In your opinion, does Christopher Fry’s AP h o e n i xT o oF r e q u e n t
successfull y deliver its philosophy of the celebration of life in
spite of the moral dilemmas of the characters? Justify your
answer with textual evidence.munotes.in

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13710.7REFERENCES
Fry, Christopher. “A Phoenix Too Frequent.” The Hudson
Review ,v o l .3 ,n o .2 ,1 9 5 0 ,p p .1 6 5 –202. JSTOR ,
www.jstor.org/stable/3856638. Accessed 31 Dec. 2020.
Roy, Emil. “Archetypal Patterns in Fry.” Comparative Drama ,
vol. 1, no. 2, 1967, pp. 93 –104. JSTOR ,
www.jstor.org/stable/41152429. Accessed 3 Jan. 2020.
Vos, Alvin. “Christopher Fry's Christian Dialectic in "A Phoenix
Too Frequent". Renascence ,S u m m e r1 9 8 4 ,p .2 3 0 -244. Print.
Wiersma, Stanley M. "Christopher Fry's AP h o e n i xT o o
Frequent : A Study in Source and Symbol." Modern Drama ,v o l .
8n o .3 ,1 9 6 5, p. 293 -302. Project
MUSE ,doi:10.1353/mdr.1965.0037 .Accessed 3 Jan. 2020.

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138UNIT -11
ASTUDY OF BADAL SIRCAR’S PLAY
“PROCESSION” / “JULOOS” PART I
Unit Structure
11.0 Objectives
11,1 Origin of Indian Drama and Theatre
11.2. Modern Indian Drama
11.3 About the Playwright: Badal Sircar
11.4. Badal Sircar’s Career as a Playwright
11.5. Badal Sircar’s Contribution to Indian Modern Theatre
11.6. Badal Sircar’s Concept of “The Third Theatre”
11.7. Let’s Sum Up
11.8. Important Questions
11.9 References
11.0.OBJECTIVES
The prime objectives of this unit are to make the students
familiar with the glimpses of the origin of Indian drama, modern
Indian theatre, Badal Sircar as a prominent name in Indian theatre,
his contribution to the third theatre and Indian t heatre in general.
11.1 ORIGIN OF INDIAN DRAMA AND THEATRE
It is aptly said, “The stage constitutes a very important
chapter in the social and political history of people, and the bend of
national genius cannot be fully comprehended without its study. . ..
it is no exaggeration to say that a ‘nation is known by its theatre’”
(Gupta -1). Drama / play projects the real life on stage. It makes
aware readers / audiences to their lives when characters performed
their roles on stage. We have a long history of drama. It almost
traces back to more than two thousand years. The critic A.
Berriedale Keith says, “Indian tradition, preserved in The
Natyasastra, the oldest of the texts of the theory of the drama,
claims for the drama divine origin, and a close connexio nw i t ht h e
sacred Vedas themselves” (12). Indian drama, as it is viewed,
originates from the ancient Four Vedas. According to the Hindu
belief, the knowledge of dramatic art is created by the Lord
Brahma -the Creator of the Universe. It is believed that t he lord
Indra requested Lord Brahma to create Natya Veda. This F ifthmunotes.in

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139Veda derives a lot from the ancient Vedas. Lord Brahma, assigned
this task of performing art to the Gods, and later it came to
Bharatmuni -the sage. Bharatmuni’s Natyashastra has all the
dramatic elements such as –dialogue, plot, theme, characters,
plots, subplots, setting, stage decoration, language, music etc.
Gradually Natyashastra turned into ‘Folk Theatre’ which is also
considered as the ‘First Theatre’. The Folk Theatre has its own
strengths and limitations.
11.2 MODERN INDIAN DRAMA / THEATRE
The modern Indian drama mostly derives from contemporary
Proscenium theatre which basically ‘imports’ a lot form the
colonisers’ performative arts. The influence was so prevalent that it
supersedes the traditional Indian Folk Theatre. The critic Aparna
Dharwadker opines, “The influence of Western textual models
produced a body of new “literary” drama and dramatic theory in
several Indian languages, led to a large -scale translations and
adaptations of European as well as Indian canonical plays, and
generated the first nationalist arguments about the cultural
importance of a national theatre in India.” (3) During the colonial
period, Indian theatre borrow edfrom proscenium theatre but with
the indigenous themes and content.
The post -independence period witnessed a vast change in
the Indian drama as it developed rapidly in various regional
languages with the contemporary context such as afflicting impact
of colonialism, traditional vs. modernism, impact of industrialization,
issues of independent country and some dramatists made efforts to
revive the folk theatre. The plays in the regional languages got
worldwide acclaimed and got tra nslated into other languages
especially in English. The scenario of Indian theatre, however, got
changed during the 1960s, when the contemporary renowned
playwrights such as Vijay Tendulkar, Girish Karnad, Mohan Rakesh
and Badal Sircar came on the stage ofIndian theatre. These are
the dramatists who broke away with the conventional trends of
Indian drama with modern strategies. They brought modern man’s
concerns, anxiety, issues, feeling of meaningless existence in their
scripts. One critic aptly writes “ . . . these playwrights have made
bold innovations and fruitful experiments in terms of both thematic
concerns and technical virtuosities.”
11.3 ABOUT THE PLAYWRIGHT: BADAL SIRCAR
Badal Sarkar was born on 15thJuly 1925 in an educated
middle -class family . Badal Sircar’s real name is Sudhindra Sircar.
He studied Civil Engineering from a reputed Bengal Engineering
College, Shibur, Howrah, near Kolkata, and completed his Mastersmunotes.in

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140of Arts from Jadavpur University in comparative literature. After
completion of Civil Engineering, he became a town planner and
started earning his livelihood. But he did not forget his childhood
passion for theatre. Later he involved himself in politics for a short
period of time. Disillusioned due to the political estrange policies,
he concentrated on his job of being a civil engineer at Maithon,
near Kolkata. This was a time which allowed him to focus on his
childhood passion for theatre. Badal Sircar formed a ‘Rehearsal
Club’ with the help of his friends and started rehearsing the plays.
But, he realised the lack of serious and relevant plays, this
motivated him to write play scripts. The other reason was that
Sircar felt dissatisfaction to see the contemporary Indian society
was divided into two classes -the bourgeois and proletari at class.
He desperately wanted to bring the balance in the society but was
uncertain about the ways to bring the reformation in the society.
Drama, Sircar believed, iso n eo ft h ei m p o r t a n tt o o l st o
reform the society and make people aware about the need of
brining the change in the society. He wrote his plays with certain
intension / message to be given to the society. His most of the
plays showed his rejection of artificial naturalistic approach of the
contemporary playwrights. He reluctantly accepted ‘A rts for Arts
Sake’. He altered his plays totally to suit his purpose of reformation
of the society. Sircar’s innovative themes and experiments with the
performances led to various social movements in the modern
Indian Theatre. Through his plays, Sircar dep icted the innate
search for the ways to change the society for better. His plays,
therefore portrayed the actual reality of commoners’ life. The plays
captured the exact essence and sensibilities of common people
with their real -life pain, problems and suf ferings. Most of his dramas
focussed on socio -political situation in India, especially Bengal.
Badal Sarkar was awarded India’s highest honour in the field
of Theatre by the National Academy for the performing arts. “For
his eminence in the field of drama and his contribution to its
enrichment Sri Badal Sarkar receives the Sangeet Natak Academy
Award for play writing”. In 1969 he was awarded with the
“Padmashree” award the greatest national recognition for artist in
India. Badal Sircar dies on 13thMay 201 1.
11.4 BADAL SIRCAR’S CAREER AS A PLAYWRIGHT
Badal Sircar was the first -generation Bengali playwright of
post-independence India. He was popularly known for his anti -
establishment plays. Sircar, initially, started his career with the
proscenium theatre but soon rejected it for its typical influence of
Britishers. Sircar by profession was as a town planner in India,
England and Nigeria .Later he entered Theatre and became anmunotes.in

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141actor. Gradually he started directing dramas and later soon he
became the playwri ght.
Many well -known critics acclaimed his work and compared
him with contemporary popular playwrights in India such as Vijay
Tendulkar, Mohan Rakesh, Girish Karnad and many other .B a d a l
Sircar elevated egalitarian society. He was influence dby
severalw estern writers but he believed that influences will always
be there, the question is whether one copies it exactly or
assimilates it to make something new out of it to fulfil one’s own
needs. Badal Sarkar never charged for his plays’ performances. As
he int ended through his free performances to raise people’s
awareness to fight for a better life.
He wanted to project an authentic picture of common
masses on stage and hence formed his own concept of theatre as
the “ Third Theatre ”. At the beginning of his car eer he, was writing in
the fashion of proscenium theatre but later left it. Though his path
breaking play Ebong Indrajit (Evam Indrajit, 1963) from the
proscenium phase truly set Sircar as a playwright. The other plays
likeThat Other History ,( 1 9 6 5 )a n d There is No End (1970) are the
chief plays which Sircar wrote for the proscenium stage. However,
he gave the reason of leaving the proscenium theatre. In one of the
interviews, he said, the reason of quitting on the proscenium
theatre is: “When I came to the proscenium stage, I hadn’t realized
the strength of the theatre. I wasn’t aware of what theatre can do. In
other words, there was already deep down an awareness of the
limitations of this theatre. It was from that awareness itself that
there eventually came the question of communication, utilization of
space, redefining the spectator performer relationship, and the
gradual realizati on that the distinctive feature of theatre is that it is a
live show and it offers scope for direct communication, man to man
communication, and therefore the barriers between the two parties
to the process, viz. spectators and performers, should be
minimi zed, and if possible, eliminated. With that realization, I left
the proscenium theatre. (Sircar 8 -9). Badal Sircar as a playwright
through his ‘Third theatre’ produced the plays in his mother tongue -
Bangla only. Later his almost all plays got translated w orldwide.
11.5 BADAL SIRCAR’S CONTRIBUTION TO INDIAN
MODERN THEATRE
In order to understand his huge contribution to Indian Drama
and the Theatre one has to understand his prolific contribution as a
whole. Sircar, initially, wrote few comedies such as -Solution X
(1956), Baropisima (The Elder Aunt, 1959), Sanibar (Saturday,
1959), Ram Shyam Jadu (Tom Dick Harry ,1 9 6 1 ) , Ballabhpurer
Rupkatha (The Fairy Tale of Ballabhpur 1963) and many other .munotes.in

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142Sircar believed that his roles as playwright, director and
actor with precision was of significance. He said, “I wrote plays to
perform them. I am a theatre person that’s all.” His scripts and
radical use of theory surpassed the contemporary dramatists. Badal
Sircar’s Omniscient commitment to the Theatre of social ch ange
after independence especially during the 1960s. The decade
witnessed formation of art in many parts of the world including
India. Plays were performed throughout the country in various
regional languages. Indian drama, however, got nationally
recognis ed from one region to another. Badal S ircar,of course ,
made a major contribution to the Indian Theatre.
At the beginning of his career Badal S ircar wrote pure
comedies of local Bengali during1950s and 1960s. He came into
limelight in 1965 with his semin al work EbongIndrajit. The play
showed Sircar’s rebellious beginning in the world of theatre. He
never experimented for the sake of experiments. His plays explored
the contemporary ruling classes and the exploitation of masses but
with the positive remark. At the end of the play, Badal S ircar
provided a concrete vision, an optimistic tone for better future. The
theme of the play is a writer ’s search for the subject of his play. The
play depicted a story of a man who was torn between his mother
and his love Manasi. He looked for inspiration from them but failed
he could not get marr iedwith Manasi and had to marry the one
whom he did not love. When the play was performed for the first
time it was a big hit, undoubtedly, accepted as a hallmark in Indian
dramat ic history. The play highlighted the anxiety, angst, dilemma,
complexity and anxiousness of the Indian educated middle -class
man. The play can be seen as an existentialis tp l a y based on Albert
Camus and Samuel Beckett’s Theatre of Absurd.
The play EbongIn drajit proved significant as Badal Sircar
through it did away with contemporary traditional, conservative,
naturalist conventions which have tied down the Indian Theatre.
Badal Sircar gave up contemporary set conventions, montage of
past and present, and introduced fragmentary scenes, with
experiments with the language. Sircar also rejected the
conventional features of drama such as ‘unity of action’, ‘un ity of
time’ and so on. Another feature of his play is his extensive and
absolutely relevant use of poetry and wry humour.
One of the most modern leading Marathi playwrights and a
critic G .P.Deshpande wrote about Badal S ircar’s innovation in the
theatre . The critic said, “Badal Sircar’s Bangla is radically different
from the pre -Sircar Theatre speech in Bangla that it came close to
actual speech is not its only achievement, the economy of words
was unknown to several Theatre traditions in India.” (Mitra)munotes.in

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143The play EbongIndrajit was an instant success on stage. The
play was translated in many languages including Hindi, English,
Marathi, Kannada, Gujarati etc. The play was performed in various
parts of India. During 1964 to 1967, Sircar wrote many plays whi ch
firmly established him as a leading contemporary playwright in
Indian Theatre.
Sircar’s plays like Baaki Itihas (The Other History) published
in 1964, and Pagla Ghoda (Mad Horse) published in 1969, were the
main plays based on the theme of existentialis m. The play
BaakiItihas projected the story of a man who killed himself because
of the burden of that ‘other history’. In fact, it killed almost all human
beings but no one talked about it directly. Sircar’s play very
relevantly shouldered the responsibili ty on all the human beings.
The play Pagla Ghoda centralises on the theme of the four men at
graveyard watching the cremation of a girl who has committed
suicide. The play unfolded each of their lives through memories and
showed how these characters were r esponsible directly or indirectly
for the girl’s suicide.
Sircar’s plays got widespread publications and high -profile
productions. Badal Sircar got widespread popularity and his name
became indispensable in the Indian Modern Theatre. In spite of
populari ty and fame, Badal Sircar was not happy with the kind of
experiments he was doing in Indian theatre. Richard Schechner
accurately captured this dissatisfaction. The critic wrote, “Badal
knew that the modern Theatre of psychology, drama, the spoken
words, t he proscenium stage, the box set, and the spectator,
audience was dead. Worse, it was rotting.” (1972)
This quote depicted Sircar’s dissatisfaction with the
contemporary Theatre. He rejected First Theatre that is Folk
Theatre for its conservative ideologi es and the rigid, redundant
monotonous themes. He criticised the second theatre for its
glorification of the rural India. He also denounced Proscenium
Theatre which imported European especially Britishers’ trends in
the Theatre. Sircar did not accept these prominent theatres in India
he wanted to bring innovations which will help to project modern
man’s life on Indian Theatre.
11.6 BADAL SIRCAR’S CONCEPT OF “THE THIRD
THEATRE”
Badal Sircar’ s dissatisfaction with the First theatre i.e. Indian
conventional Folk Theatre, Second Theatre (Urban) and the
Proscenium Theatre, led him to form his own new Theatre and that
he called it as the ‘Third Theatre”. Folk Theatre was still busy with
only the f olk forms and the second theatre was engages with the
projection of an urban life which was a minor population. Therefore,munotes.in

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144Badal Sircar believed a true Theatre of the people, therefore, would
have to go where the majority of population lives. ‘Badal S ircar
Theatre’ was considered as an experimental and alternative as it
took radical departure from these well establish naturalists’
theatres.
Sircar wanted to establish such a theatre where he could
project his anger against the colonisers’ exploitation of In dians and
hence in his ‘Third Theatre’ he reacted and opposed the colonisers’
language. He felt that English language cannot convey his
objectives to the masses exactly as he wanted. Hence, he adopted
his mother tongue -Bangla for his plays. Of course, la ter his plays
got translated in English by others. His popular plays which were
translated: EbongIndrajit (1963), Michhil (1974), Bhoma ( 1976),
Sukhapathya Bharter, BakiItihas (1976), Hattamalar Uparey (1977),
There is No End (1970) and Basi Khabar (1979) were written in
Bengali language. These plays emphasise on meaningless
existence of commoners, their struggle for the survival, the
declining human values. He intended to make aware the down
trodden classes of their exploitation by the bourgeois cla sses.
Sircar, through his new Theatre introduced a novel turn to
the Indian Theatre. It was a theatre which had taken its foundation
from both the First and the Second Theatre but with his own unique
style. He made his dramas/ plays as ‘live performance’ . His scripts
were performative scripts and hence very dynamic, multifaceted,
multidimensional, multi -layered instead of rigid or limited and
confined. The Third Theatre suited the post -independence
environment and the changes that were taking place in and around
India.
Badal S ircar realised the Proscenium Theatre was
insufficient to bring all the liveliness of modern life and hence tried
to enhance the relations between the performers and the
spectators. The new theatre, he felt should not create an illus ion of
reality, but must project reality itself. Sircar intended the performers
and the spectators must share the same space and acknowledge
each other’s presence. The theatre was completely indispensable
on the performers’ body on the one hand, and the sp ectators’
imagination on the other end.
The three major features of Sircar’s Third Theatre were its
free of cost, portability, flexibility. Sircar never charged for the
performances, only at the end of each performance, the group was
requesting for charit y and generous contributions by the spectators.
The charity used to be the income source for planning of next
performance. Badal Sircar never used props or any other costly
material for the performances. His plays touched the inner self and
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14511.7. LET’S SUM UP
In this unit we have learned the origin of Indian drama and
theatre from earlier times to the modern -day theatre. The later part
of the unit made you acquainted with a modern -day theatre
luminary, Badal Sircar, the circumsta nces that shape Sircar as a
prominent playwright and his contribution to Indian theatre
especially the third theatre. The glimpses of theatre and drama you
gained in this unit will, by all means, help you understand and
analyse Indian drama prescribed for your course.
11.8. IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1.Trace the origin and development of Indian drama and theatre.
2.Describe the circumstances that shape Badal Sircar as a
prominent Indian theatre personality.
3.Critically evaluate Badal Sircar’ s contribution to Indian Modern
theatre.
4.Write short notes on:
I.Indian Modern theatre
II.The third theatre
III.Badal Sircar as a playwright
11.9 REFERENCES
Bajaj, Yogita, and Sangita Mehta. “Emerging Trends in Indian
English Drama.” Researchers World. 1.1 (2 010): 150 -55. Web.
20 Jan. 2012.
Bharatmuni. The Natyasastra. Trans. Manmoham Ghosh.
Calcutta: The Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1959. PDF file.
Course Material ForIDOL MA -Part I, Semester I, Paper VII -
Drama
Crow, Brian, and Chris Banfield. An Introdu ction to Post -colonial
Theatre. New York: Cambridge University Press. PDF file.
Dharwadker, Aparna Bhargava. Theatre of Independence:
Drama, Theory and Performance in India since 1947. Lowa city:
University of Lowa Press, 2005. PDF file.
Dr.G. Kiran Kumar Reddy. Badal Sircar’s Procession;
Exploration of Search For Real HomeInternational Journal of
Recent Research in Social Sciences and Humanities
(IJRRSSH) Vol. 2, Issue 2, pp: (86 -88), Month: April 2015 -June
2015, Available at: www.paperpublications.org
Dr.Kulsoom Fatima, select plays of Badal Sircar
http://hdl.handle.net/10603/110706munotes.in

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146Dutta, Ella. Introduction. Three Plays: Procession/ Bhoma/ Stale
News . By Badal Sircar. Kolkata: Seagull Books, 1983. v -xi.
Print.
Gupta, Hemendra Nath Das. The Indian Theatre. New Delhi:
Gyan Publishing House, 2009. Print.
https://frontline.thehindu.com/books/a -life-
intheatre/article8068393.ece#:~:text=Michhil%20(1974)%20was
%20one%20of,love%2Dhate%20relationship%20with%20Calcut
ta.
Iyengar, K R Srinivasa. Indian Writing in English. New Delhi:
Sterling Publishers Private Limited, 2008. Print.
Keith, A. Berriedale. T he Sanskrit Drama in its Origin,
Development Theory & Practice. London: Oxford University
Press, 1959. Print.
Lal, Anand. The Oxford Companion to Indian Theatre. New
Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2004. Print.
Mathur, J. C. “Hindi Drama and Theatre.” Publ ications Division,
Ministry of Information and Broadcasting. Indian Drama. Delhi:
National Printing Works, 1956. 23 -32. Print.
Mitra, Shayoni. “Badal Sircar: Scripting a Movement.” TDR/The
Drama Review. 48.3. (2004): 59 -78. Web. 20 Sept. 2011.
Mohan, T. M. J. Indra. “Post -Colonial Writing –Trends in
English Drama.” The Indian Review of World Literature in
English. 2.II (2006): n. pag. Web. 15 May 2014.
Sarkar, Subhendu. “More on Badal Sircar (1925 -2011).” Frontier
43.51 (2011): n. pag. Web. 2 Dec 2012.
Sarkar, Subhendu. Introduction. Two Plays Indian History Made
Easy/ Life of Bagala. By Badal Sircar. New Delhi: Oxford
University Press, 2010. xi -xxxvii. Print.
Shayoni Mitra. “Badal Sircar: Scripting a Movement.” TDR (1988 -),
vol. 48, no. 3, 2004, pp. 59 –78.JSTOR ,
Sircar Badal. “Juloos”. Print (Hindi)
Sircar Badal. “The Third Theatre: A Photographic Exhibition of
his Work”. New Delhi: The Press, 2009. 8 -13. Print.
Sircar, Badal. “In Conversation: Badal Sircar with
SamikBandhopadhyay.”
Sircar, Badal. On T heatre. Kolkata: Seagull Books, 2009. Print.
Web -references:
www.jstor.org/stable/4488571. Accessed 9 Feb. 2021 .
munotes.in

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147UNIT -12
ASTUDY OF BADAL SIRCAR’S PLAY
“PROCESSION” / “JULOOS” PART II
Unit Structure :
12.0 Objectives
12.1 Introduction to the Play
12.2 The significance of the Title ‘Procession’
12.3 The Outline of the Play ‘Procession’
12.4 Characters in the Play ‘Procession’
12.5 Symbols/Imagery in the Play ‘Procession’
12.6 The Themes of the Play ‘Procession’
12.7 Idea of Stage Performance
12.8 Conclusion
12.9 Let’s Sum up
12.10 Important Questions
12.11 References
12.0 OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this unit are to make the st udents
acquainted with the introduction to Badal Sircar’s play ‘Procession’
(originally Michhil ), the significant use of title, its outline summary,
characters, use of symbols and imagery, central themes of the play
and Sircar’s idea of stage performance. After the study of this unit,
you will be able to critically evaluate not only the prescribed play
‘Procession’ but also entire corpus of Sircar’s writing.
12.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE PLAY ‘PROCESSION’
The prescribed play was originally published in 1972 in
Bangla language. It is titled as Michhil in its original language which
means procession. The play was first performed on 13thApril 1974
at the village Ramchandrapur by Satabdi. The peculiar feature of
the play that it had no distinct characters, plot or story line. It was
circular and open -ended. The play waswell written and performed.
In most of the parts of Bengal, it was per formed in its original
language. The play and its performances became so popular in a
very short period of time that people demanded it to be translated
into various languages. Hence it got translated, later, in manymunotes.in

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148languages. The play was titled as Juloo sin Marathi, Juloos in Hindi,
and Procession in English. The play projected multiple themes –
such as the consequences of colonisation, its impact on Indians
especially commoners, increasing corruptions, unstable
governments and its policies, class conflict ,e x p l o i t a t i o no fl a b o u r
class, underprivileged and downtrodden subalterns by the leading
and emerging industrialists, their increasing greed for money etc.
Procession highlight schaos, meaninglessness in existence,
commoners’ mental, physical, financial t rauma, and widespread
anarchy in the civilization and Indian culture .
12.2 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TITLE
‘PROCESSION’
The play’s title Procession was very apt and relevant as it
was based on the dominant imagery for Kolkata’s nickname as ‘ the
city of procession’. Sircar remembered: “I have always had a love -
hate relationship with Calcutta. In the early 1970s I had this idea of
making a play on Calcutta in the form of a collage. As Calcutta is
known as a city of processions, Michhil seemed t ob ea n
appropriate name as well as a suitable way of making the play. In
the immediately preceding years, so many young people and
adolescents were killed by the police, brutally and cruelly, secretly
and openly, that the image of the man who is being kil led every day
was very strong in my mind, and I had a vague idea of a clownish
old man, probably visualising myself in the role” (quote from
Sircar; Voyages in the Theatre, On Theatre; pages 115 -16).
The projection of the mental deformity (procession) is
affected and how it was perpetuated is focussed. The play depicted
modern man’s search for real home. The critics, Brian Crow and
Chris Banfield wrote about the significance of title of the play,
“Mich hil(Procession, 1974) has been an immensely successful
play using the noisy, chaotic evocation of Calcutta’s crowded
streets in a theatrical setting that incorporates an audience
arranged informally around the acting arena, in a fast -moving,
satirical tra gi-comedy of police repression, establishment hypocrisy,
race riot and personal loss of direction. (129). Lot of processions, in
the play, were happening. The character of the old man said, “. . .
Michhil, Michhils for food and clothes, Michhils for salva tion,
Michhils for the revolution, Michhils in military formation, Michhils
for refugees, Michhils for flood relief, Michhils mourning, Michhils
protesting, Michhil festive, Michhils with stars” ( Procession 8).
Brian Crow and Chris Banfield added to the suitability of the
title “The image of the procession in Michhil is employed to present
both negative and positive aspects of the joining together of
individual and communities under a common banner” (130).munotes.in

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14912.3 THE OUTLINE OF THE PLAY ‘PROCESSION’
Badal Sircar once said that he wanted to produce it even
before the play was written. He wrote, “It is one of the very few
plays where I had the idea of the production even before I began
writing it, particularly the procession idea” (qtd. in Dutta viii).
The play Michhil did not have a definite plot. It depicted the
journey of two characters in search of true procession through
various processions. The play was the sign of rejection, resistance,
protest, rights, responsibilities towards families, society. It depicted
the futility of all sorts of processions of refugees, strikes, poverty,
politics, oppressed and oppressors, ideologies, festive processions,
condolences, etc. The character khoka projected this challenging
and unstable scenario by saying, “I’m los t in the colour of the flags
of the procession, in the noise of the footsteps…” Khoka was
crossing through all phases but he was not getting his own real
hope the road through to the true home real true home was lost.
The play reinforces the theme of unre solved connections of
existence. The play project sthe socio -political upheaval and the
city-Kolkata with its storms and processions.
The play was staged with the scenes of Calcutta streets,
chatting in teashops, conversations in the coffee houses, differ ent
scenes in the offices. These variety of processions aptly captured
the meaningless existence and unguided crowed searching for
nothing, the exploiters exploiting the poors.
The following dialogue made it clear:
THE MASTER: What is the greatest enemy o f civilization?
CHORUS: Communism.
THE MASTER: Who upholds, preserves, and protects civilization?
CHORUS: You, Master!
THE MASTER: Rest assured, my children, I’ ll keep you civilized.
Communism is the religion of the animals. Keep in mind that you
are not animals, you are men.
CHORUS: But Master, we’re dying.
THE MASTER: There’s heaven for you after you die, and heavenly
happiness. Animals have no heaven. I ble ss you, you’d die as men,
not animals. ( Procession 23-4)
The one more scene projected the insignificance of poor
people’s lives. The play focuss eson the disappearance of a
character called Khoka. The other characters try to enquire about
him but the Offi cer silenced them. He threatened and kicked them
away. Badal S ircar used dead Khoka to capture this cruelty whomunotes.in

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150gets killed daily, every day, yesterday, in the past, today, in the
present, tomorrow, in the future also he will be killed. Khoka says, “.
..the day before the day before. Last week. Last month. Last year.
I am killed every day” ( Procession 7). Repetition of dialogues
enforced the seriousness of the theme. Badal Sircar depicted the
harsh reality of poverty t hrough the scene of -the Beggar -woman’s
desperate cry for bread. She screamed for: “A piece of stale bread
please, moth -e-e-e-er. O mother -Om o t h -e-e-er” (Procession 22).
Sircar wanted to make the masses aware of their exploitation and
hence he reduced th eg a pb e t w e e nt h ep e r f o r m e r so ft h ep l a y sa n d
the spectators. It was the one significant feature of his Third
Theatre. The gap between the two is bridged by the direct
communication between the performers and the spectators. For
example ,theOld Man direct ly talk sto the audience in the play,
“Every day in the battlefields thousands die, thousands of I’s like
me. (To the audience) You sit on the sideline swatching
processions, (shrieking) you are watching murders, murders! You
sit in peace watching murders, you are killed yourselves, you kill.
Yes, you kill, you have killed. I’m killing, you are killing. We are all
killers. We all kill, we all get killed. We kill by sitting quietly and
doing nothing at ease, we get killed. Stop it. Stop it. ( Procession 37)
12.4 CHARACTERS IN THE PLAY ‘ PROCESSION’
Badal Sircar’s unique style of characterization is that the
characters are not types. They are representative and symbolic.
The play Procession has characters like Dead Khoka, the Old Man,
the Officer and the Chor us-One, Two, Three, Four, Five (men) and
Six is a girl and the spectators
The characters appeared on stage from the audience only.
When they didn’t have their performance on stage, they will sit
among the spectators, so no entry from somewhere outside. T he
performers did not decorate themselves as characters. They played
their roles as the characters but without characters’ costumes,
make up, and so on. At maximum to let the audience know who is
playing which character, the performers attached labels on t heir
clothes with the names of the characters they are performing. To
our surprise, the playwright did not give a specific name to any
characters in the play. As they are symbolic of any person in the
real world. His characters had names like One, Two, Thr ee, four
and so on.
At the end of the play, the characters joined hands with the
audience by inviting them to play their roles. They all including the
performers and the spectators started singing the positive song with
the optimistic tone in the process ion. This is how Sircar directly
involved and connected the spectators through the play. Sircarmunotes.in

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151actualised his intension of making spectators aware of his ideology
and made them hopeful to change the current situation with a hope.
Badal Sircar used human b ody instead of expensive material to
perform. He advocated that human body is the most significant tool
in the theatre. The use of human body through movements, use of
human voices as the chorus used, wood branches, bamboo sticks
for the music to create a very different aura in the play. Sircar
rejected the conventional naturalistic theatre’s fashion of
performance. He viewed that that the naturalistic theatre copies and
applies, in short, it is all fake. This was generally known as ‘acting’.
But the perfor mers in his plays came down, came close, appeared
as the human beings as they were, to the human beings that the
spectators were. In his play, the characte rsw e r en ol o n g e rf a k e .
The performer had to take on his/ her own mask and be himself /
herself.
The Third Theatre focussed on human presence and hence
other theatrical elements and requirements became absolutely
unessential. Lighting was reduced to minimum level, makeup was
natural, props were removed and hence the play was produced
with a minimal cost. Of course, all these innovations in
performances did not came at once toSatabdi -the performing
house. Sircar believed that if he continues doing experiments with
the theatre, they would be able to do away with the costing and
heavy items of Theatre. Henc e, gradually a flexible, portable and
inexpensive Theatre is being created.
12.5. SYMBOLS/ IMAGERY IN THE PLAY
‘PROCESSION’
Badal Sircar used powerful symbols to convey his ideology /
ideologies poignantly to the readers /audiences. Sircar, though,
projected all pessimism and cruel realities on the contemporary
India, he did not do away with the hope in Procession. Look closely
at the scene where a character Khoka went on missing, the people
tried to lure him with lots of gifts and awards such as chocolates,
books, pass, job, land, house, car, gold, happiness, peace and
salvation to come back to the old home. But he does not ret urn to
the old home. And here Badal Sircar who actually performed the
character of the old Khoka said, “Khoka means Little. Khoka means
one who hasn’t grown up yet. Khoka means Green, Raw,
Immature” ( Procession 10-11). He added, “Khoka’ll never come
back t ot h eO -o-old house. . .. if he comes back, it’ll be to a new
home, a real home, a really real ho -o-ome” (11). The powerful
images like Khoka and the old and new home had symbolic
significance. Khoka seemed to be an innocent child who is not
ruined by the contemporary degraded society and its culture. New
home symbolised an imaginary new balanced society which will not
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152new home / society will be based on humanity, generosity and
balanced. The characters of the Officer and the Master symbolised
the ruling class in India who exploited people for their profits,
completely ignoring the powerless class. The Officer denied the fact
of the murder of Khoka as he said, “It’s nothing, sir. It’s all quiet”
(Procession34).
12.6. THE THEMES OF THE PLAY ‘PROCESSION’
The play had multiple themes but no story element or plot as
such. The play depicted the afflicting influences on the post
independent -India communal riots, conflict between political part ies,
oppressor and oppressed, impact of partition, unemployability etc.
These were major themes of the play. Badal Sarkar poignantly
highlighted all contemporary burning sensitive issues like strikes,
loss of spirituality, increased greed for material aspe cts, down fall of
families, poverty, and many more s uch problems. The play,
however, end swith an optimistic note.
The play Procession is deeply rooted in socio political
anarchy dissent and its protest to the contemporary trends. The
play began with the Chorus -five men –One, Two, Three, Four,
Five and the Six –girl on stage talking about the murder,
assassination, kidnapping, and disap pearance. When the play
starts, we can observe the conversation of the Chorus about power
(current). ‘One’ speaks to ‘two’ about power cut. They discussed
about the load -shedding. Everyday darkness engulfs the area.
‘Five’ warned others to guard their pock ets. The chorus hear a
piercing death scream. Here Chorus pointed out about the
screaming. They conversed with each other about murder. The
search for a‘ torch’.
One: Does anybody have a torch? A torch?
Two: who would carry a torch in the city?
The pl ay showed that there was a young boy called Khoka,
went on being killed every day on the roads and there was an old
man who gets lost his way. Michhil of allsorts -protest for
revolutions, social -spiritual procession, festive procession, funeral
procession , political procession, flood relief procession, military
procession, unemployability procession, operation procession,
unemployability procession etc. Both the Khoka and the old man
are in search of the real home. They tried to search their home but
failed to find the road. The young man in search of his home
following the procession helplessly in the expectation of getting his
own home. Nobody knew anything about their search. They were
simply walking on and walking on. They’re following all sorts of
processions fruitlessly , hoping that particular procession will lead
them to the real home. Khoka was lost, killed assassinated,munotes.in

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153kidnapped. He tried hard to search his home. He thought that he
would find the road leading to his new home but again returned at
the same place with frustration. Khoka represent sall those who
were lost, killed similar to the young kids of Bengali parents during
the period of riots. Khokam etthe Old Man who himself had lost his
way trying to search for his home seeking the true proce ssion with
the hope because he believed, “if you’re lost you can get search if
you can search then you can find young Khoka believes on the old
Man’s opinion and tries to search for the new home.
The play rarely focussed on the urban people. It was very
well accepted by poor villagers. The play was performed at various
places. Procession isvery popular and significant for its projections
of real image of processions. It closely connects to the aud ience
because the play involve sthe spectators actively in the
performance itself.
The play Procession endswith the performers holding hands
of each other, inviting spectators to join the procession and hoping
for the better future in the gloomy present. The play connect s
audience emotionally and offer shopes for the better future.
Badal S ircar never advertised or promoted his plays. Satabdi
was founded in 1967, most of the plays’ performances were
performed under Sircar’ s guidance as director but unfortunately his
plays are still generally ignored by the Theatre intellectuals.
The major themes like suicide, execution, the dead or disappeared,
frequently appearing and explaining the difficulties in living, has
accurately captured by the dramatist.
12.7. IDEA OF STAGE PERFORMANCE
Badal Sircar’s plays were the reaction to the proscenium
theatre and the first (urban) as it is full of artificiality and hence, he
believed Theatre in the urban centres are an elite minority. H eo f t e n
accused the theatre ofromanticising the rural landscape. And the
second (folk) theatre. Most of his plays were directed by himself.
He was, hence, very well acquainted with the kind of performances.
The play procession is also directed by him. I t posed a
challenge to the spectator’s imagination when it was performed.
Badal S ircar being the playwright, director and perform ergave a
thought that his plays should be attended by all the public
irrespective of their financial conditions. He did not co mmercialise
his plays. Sircar wanted to make public aware about his ideologies.
His main concern was for the ordinary public, poor people which
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154Thecut -throat competition was brought in by the
technological advan cement during the era. Public started to prefer
cinema instead theatre due to its comparative high cost. And hence
cinema was becoming a predominant media to reach to the public
with all itsluxurious richness. In such circumstances, Badal S ircar
pondered over the issues like use of props, elaborate lighting,
expensive costumes, stage decoration, and stars etc. It was all very
costly affair and difficult to manage with the meagre income. He
determined to offer something real which cinema cannot offer and
it’s the concept of ‘live show’. He rejected all these for a noble
cause and he started his own Muktmanch (open / free theatre) for
all. Sircar firmly believed, there had to be a real close connection
between what is happening on the stage and the emotions o ft h e
spectators.
Badal Sircar changed the setting of his plays in the Third
Theatre. He believed that architecture of proscenium theatre
appears to be all wrong. He explained that all spectators on one
side pushing the last row far, which affected the last rows’
audiences’ comprehension of the play. And hence to resolve this
issue he put the spectators on all sides of the theatre. He brought
the stage performers at the level of the spectators. It made easy for
performers to get the spectators feedback immediately. Feedback
from both the spectators and the performers played a significant
role in Sircar’s plays.
He firmly advocated establishing the direct communication
between both the parties. There were three types of communication
happening in his plays :performer to perfo rmer ;performer to
spectator ;and spectator to spectator. Badal S ircarb r i d g e dt h eg a p
between the two and closely connected with the drama which was
going on the stage. Badal S ircar made every aspect of the theatre
live by introducing very innovative conc epts in his Third Theatre.
The special feature of this theatre was it was not at all expensive
for spectators. Anyone can watch the plays which were performed
in this Theatre. Badal Sircar believed and proved “Theatre is a
human event, cinema is not” by b ringing the ‘live event’ on stage.
The play Procession was performed throughout India and it
charged nothing to the audience. The performance of the play
happened on the stage surrounded by audiences. Badal S ircari n
his venture, attracted many youngste rs during the 1970s. For Sircar
tried to project the actual reality on the Indian stage. It was a period
of all socio -political upheaval in India. The set trends were rooted
out. New concepts were coming into existence during the period.
This small group o f people led by Badal Sircar shun the proscenium
performances. They introduced the concept of Anganmanch.
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155So, no requirement of specific theatre locations. Badal Sircar and
his group tried to ma ke theatre free for all public.
12.8. CONCLUSION
To conclude, Badal Sircar’splays were basically by the
people, of the people and for the people. Sircar firmly believed that
the theatre can help in bringi ng revolution as he said, “Let us be
clear that theatre alone will not bring about social change but it can
be one of the tools in the movement to bring about the social
change”. He had a huge contribution in bringing the dynamic
change in the Indian theat re as well as the contemporary society.
The critics, however, attribute to him both negative and
positive opinions. For example, Sudhanwa Deshpande, a well -
known author director wrote, “Badal S ircar is cynical of political
processes and has a slightly rom antic notion of the villager’s”.
Sircar’s ‘Third Theatre’, relevantly related and exactly projected the
modern young generation which seemed to be lost and the
complexities of the contemporary Indian society. It established
direct communication with the sp ectators. ‘Badal Sircar Theatre’
was a direct reaction to the dominant forms of Indian First Theatre
and the Second Theatre and the Proscenium Theatre. Of Course,
we can’t deny the fact that Sircar borrowed a lot from the Folk
Theatre such asJatra, Tamash a, and N autanki but with its modified
forms. Sircar actually revived these forms of the traditional theatres
and contributed rigorously to the Indian Modern Drama and the
Theatre with his ‘Third Theatre.’
12.9 LET’S SUM UP
In this unit we have studied the first appearance of Badal
Sircar’s Michhil orProcession on the arena of Indian theatre and
how it became an acclaimed play due to the new techniques of
theatre, novel way of characterisation, experiments with plot and
the whole notion of the Third The atre and its use for promotion and
propagation of thoughts and ideologies to bring social changes in
the lives of the common men or masses.
12.10 IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1.Write short notes on the following:
a.The significance of the title of the play, Procession
b.Badal Sircar’s art of characterisation
c.Badal Sircar’s idea of the stage performance
d.Comment on the Badal Sircar’s use of symbols and imagery
in the play Processionmunotes.in

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1562.Discuss Badal Sircar’s play Procession as a people’s play.
3.Explain how Sircar’s playProcession bears the characteristic
features of The Third Theatre.
12.11 REFERENCES
Bajaj, Yogita, and Sangita Mehta. “Emerging Trends in Indian
English Drama.” Researchers World. 1.1 (2010): 150 -55. Web.
20 Jan. 2012.
Bharatmuni. The Natyasastra. T rans. Manmoham Ghosh.
Calcutta: The Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1959. PDF file.
Course Material ForIDOL MA -Part I, Semester I, Paper VII -
Drama
Crow, Brian, and Chris Banfield. An Introduction to Post -colonial
Theatre. New York: Cambridge University Press. PDF file.
Dharwadker, Aparna Bhargava. Theatre of Independence:
Drama, Theory and Performance in India since 1947. Lowa city:
University of Lowa Press, 2005. PDF file.
Dr.G. Kiran Kumar Reddy. Badal Sircar’s Procession;
Exploration of Search For Real HomeInternational Journal of
Recent Research in Social Sciences and Humanities
(IJRRSSH) Vol. 2, Issue 2, pp: (86 -88), Month: April 2015 -June
2015, Available at: www.paperpublica tions.org
Dr.Kulsoom Fatima, select plays of Badal Sircar
http://hdl.handle.net/10603/110706
Dutta, Ella. Introduction. Three Plays: Procession/ Bhoma/ Stale
News. By Badal Sircar. Kolkata: Seagull Books, 1983. v -xi.
Print.
Gupta, Hemendra Nath Das. The Indian Theatre. New Delhi:
Gyan Publishing House, 2009. Print.
https://frontline.thehindu.com/books/a -life-
intheatre/article8068393.ece#:~:text=Michhil%20(1974)%20was
%20one%20of,love%2Dhate%20relationship%20with%20Calcut
ta.
Iyengar, K R Srinivasa. Indian Writing in English. New Delhi:
Sterling Publishers Private Limited, 2008. Print.
Keith, A. Berriedale. The Sanskrit Drama in its Origin,
Development Theory & Practice. London: Oxford University
Press, 1959. Print.
Lal, Anand. The Oxford Companion to Indian Theatre. New
Delhi: Oxford Univers ity Press, 2004. Print.munotes.in

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157Mathur, J. C. “Hindi Drama and Theatre.” Publications Division,
Ministry of Information and Broadcasting. Indian Drama. Delhi:
National Printing Works, 1956. 23 -32. Print.
Mitra, Shayoni. “Badal Sircar: Scripting a Movement.” TDR/Th e
Drama Review. 48.3. (2004): 59 -78. Web. 20 Sept. 2011.
Mohan, T. M. J. Indra. “Post -Colonial Writing –Trends in
English Drama.” The Indian Review of World Literature in
English. 2.II (2006): n. pag. Web. 15 May 2014.
Sarkar, Subhendu. “More on Badal Sir car (1925 -2011).” Frontier
43.51 (2011): n. pag. Web. 2 Dec 2012.
Sarkar, Subhendu. Introduction. Two Plays Indian History Made
Easy/ Life of Bagala. By Badal Sircar. New Delhi: Oxford
University Press, 2010. xi -xxxvii. Print.
Shayoni Mitra. “Badal Sircar :S c r i p t i n gaM o v e m e n t . ” TDR (1988 -),
vol. 48, no. 3, 2004, pp. 59 –78.JSTOR ,
Sircar Badal. “Juloos”. Print (Hindi)
Sircar Badal. “The Third Theatre: A Photographic Exhibition of
his Work”. New Delhi: The Press, 2009. 8 -13. Print.
Sircar, Badal. “In Conve rsation: Badal Sircar with
SamikBandhopadhyay.”
Sircar, Badal. On Theatre. Kolkata: Seagull Books, 2009. Print.
Web -references:
www.jstor.org/stable/4488571. Accessed 9 Feb. 2021 .
munotes.in

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UNIT -13
A STUDY OF AMIRI BARAKA’S HOME ON
THE RANGE
Unit Structure :
13.0 Objective s
13.1 Amiri Baraka
13.2 Afro-American Drama and Baraka as a Dramatist
13.3 Different Phases of Barak’s Literary Career
13.4 About the play, Home on the Range
13.5 Characters
13.6 Themes
13.7 Language, Style and Tone of the Play
13.8 Significance of the Song and Dance
13.9 Home on the Range as a representative of Revolutionary
Theatre:
13.10 Conclusion
13.11 Questions
13.12 Bibliography
13.13 Reference for further study
13.0 OBJECTIVE S
This unit discusses the play, Home on the Range byanAfro-
American playwright, Amiri Baraka. This section begins with a short
introduction to the playwright and his contribution to Afro -American
Theatre. It also highlights on the different phases of Amiri Baraka’s
literary career as it helps to understand th ee v e n t sa n dm o v e m e n t s
that influenced him as a black writer and his contribution to Afro -
American literary world. A short discussion of the play with respect
to its content, characters, themes, symbols and language and style
has been attempted at to help the readers understand and
appreciate Amiri Baraka’s Home on the Range as an Afro -
American play. A list of probable questions and bibliography too
has been added to help the readers engage themselves in further
study of Afro -American plays, the growth and development of Black
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13.1 AMIRI BARAKA ( 1934 –2014 )
LeRoi Jones (Amiri Baraka) was a poet, story -writer,
dramatist, political activist, art critic and teacher who devoted his
literary career in explor ing and depicting the experience and anger
of Afro -Americans. His literary work mainly aimed at making the
black voice prominent in the land of the whites. Baraka's writings
have been his weapon against racism and later in his life to
advocate scient ific socialism. He entered the American
consciousness not merely as a multifarious genius but as an event,
a symbolic figure, somehow combining the craft and insights of
Euro -American radicalism with the rebellious energies of young
Afro-Americans. He was one of the leading representatives of the
Black Aesthetic or Black Arts Movement and was regarded in high
esteem because he created through his writing a compelling force
of consciousness in the minds of the Black Americans. The overall
theme of his works of art reflects initiation, renunciation and
reformation of Black people in America.
Born in 1934, in Newark, New Jersey, LeRoi Jones attended
Rutgers University for two years, then transferred to Howard
University, where in 1954 he earned his B.A. in En glish. He served
in the Air Force from 1954 until 1957.
13.2 AFRO -AMERICAN DRAMA AND BARAKA AS A
DRAMATIST :
The dramatic world of Baraka is immense. He writes his
plays with a strong commitment and tries to bring about a social
and cultural consciousness among the Black Americans. He
reflects himself as a radical rebel of the 60s through them. He
writes plays of great purpose, seeking justice for the Black
Americans. Like his poetry, his plays project a brilliant and
pragmatic mind of an American Black wr iter. His plays expose
several features related to Black culture, Black society and Black
mind with a magical touch of the Black Arts Movement of 1960s.
Baraka’s plays are strongly affected by the tension between art and
activism that he always felt. His c areer as a playwright was also
greatly touched by the philosophy and perspectives of Marxist -
Leninist -Mao Tsu -Tung, hence most of his plays emphasise on the
greater legitimacy of the act over the word (Brown 135). His plays
also reflect the influence of Ma oists on his mind and work.
Therefore, the Maoist insistence on the unity of politics and art, on
the fusion of revolutionary political content" and "the highest
possible perfection of artistic form mark his writings. The fact that
Baraka manages to achiev e such difficult goals in his creative work
proves his determination to follow and practice the principles that
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Baraka the dramatist, or more specifically, to Baraka the
revolutionary dramatist. In this connection Brown comments:
Drama is the means of achieving that unity of political action
and literary word, which has always been crucial to Baraka. Hence
that interest in the word as act which dominates much of the later
poetry culmi nates in the drama -especially in the later plays. In
these plays the dramatic synthesis of language and action is both
the symbolic and literal example of Baraka's ideal of the word as
action. Indeed in Baraka's drama, even in the earlier works but
especia lly in the more recent revolutionary plays, the very idea of
dramatic form is both an aesthetic principle and political concept:
the play as action is integral to the revolutionist's idealistic activism;
dramatic form as motion through time and space is compatible with
the revolutionary view of history as constant change(Brown, 136).
Baraka's theory of dramatic art is so integral to his political
principles and practices that Baraka's achievement as a dramatist
is decidedly uneven. Indeed, on the basis of those very socialist
standards, which he himself invokes, he is "least effective as a
dramatist in the revolutionary plays of his Black Nationalist and
socialist periods." However, it is known that all his plays of the 60s
exclusively befit the purpose of the Black Arts Movement. Wiliam J.
Harris writes, Baraka's "abilities as a playwright transcend particular
artistic milieus is suggested by the fact that although the Black Arts
Movement is moribund, Baraka's influence and creativity is
persevere" (Harris xvii).The spirit of Baraka's plays is the spirit of
the Black Arts Movement.
13.3 DIFFERENT PHASES OF BARAK’S LITERARY
CAREER
Baraka's works have shown many stages of self -revelation
and they are nothing but the outcome of his self conscious
sensibility. Baraka's plays are written chronologically in four
periods. They are:
The 'Beat Period' (1957 -1962),
The 'Transitional Period' (1963 -1965),
The 'Black Nationalist Period' (1965 -1974) and
The 'Third World Marxist Period' (1974 -2014).
During the Beat Period ,h ew a sg r e a t l yi n f l u e n c e db yt h e
white avant -garde like Charles Olson, 0' Hara, and Ginsberg. He
wrote poems, which were full of imagery and spontaneous humour.
Historical events like The Civil Rights Movement, Martin Luther
King Jr. and the Blac k political upsurge of the late 1960s also
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race and art. He developed the consciousness of his identity as a
Black, rather a Negro, and gradually rejected his earlier perception
of life and his existence. The early plays of Baraka include
Dutchman, The Slave, The Baptism and The Toilet. Each play is a
highly effective analysis of American society with immense radical
value from the point of view of Black Americans’ social and cultural
conscio usness. Dutchman and The Baptism are symbolic and
allegorical plays whereas The Slave and The Toilet are quite
realistic and reactionary. These plays enact tensions or conflicts
prevailing among the Black Americans.
In the Transitional period , his writings became expressions
of his racial and political consciousness. They expressed the theme
of Blackness and politicization of art by Baraka. During this phase
he started showing interest in Black Nationalism and gradually
became a Black National ist. His sense of hatred for the whites
knew no bound. The assassination of Malcolm X hurt him so
intensely that he wanted the death of the white race. Also in this
period, he tried to formulate the Black aesthetics in which he tried
to express his America n experience in forms that spring from his
own unique culture and that his art must be evaluated by standards
that grow out of his own culture.
In the Third World Marxist Period , Baraka rejected Black
Nationalism as racist and became a Third World Social ist. Having
struggled as a Nationalist, he came to the state of a Marxist. His
socialist art is addressed to the Black community, which he
believes as the greatest revolutionary potential in America. Thus
Baraka quickly earned the respect of artists of all mediums,
particularly the writers of the so called Beatnik movement. He could
emerge as a personality and leader and transformed himself from a
Beat poet to "father of the Black Arts Movement".
The essence of Amiri Baraka’s writings in these various
phas es can be summed up in his own words as he has put in the
Preface to The Le Roi Jones/Amiri Baraka Reader edited by
William J. Harris, Baraka writes -
My writing reflects my own growth and expansion, and at
thesame time the society in which I have existed throughout
thislongish confrontation. Whether it is politics, music, literature,or
the origins of language, there is a historical and
time/place/condition reference that will always try to explain exactly
whyI was saying both how and for what (Harris, xvii ).
13.4 ABOUT THE PLAY, HOME ON THE RANGE
A small one act play, Home on the Range, which was read
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at Spirit House in Spring 1968. It has much of music, suspense and
absurdity. It takes place in an American family whose members are
found "seated in a room watching television, eating popcorn,
chattering" (43). The language that the family members like Father,
Mother, Son and Daughter use are quite symbolic which the Black
Criminal can't underst and. However, the Black Criminal wants to
command them variously. It seems as if he is sadistic and
revengeful in mood. But the family members do not take him
seriously and watch TV. When laughter comes from the television
set, "they all begin to imitate t he laughter... are wiggiling” and
shaking, slapping each other and grabbing themselves in a frenzy
of wicked merriment" (107 -108). The Black criminal fails to
understand this kind of strange behaviours and asks them to shut
up: "What the hell's wrong with you folks? Godamit, shutup, shutup"
(108). But the families members do not pay any heed to his words
and howl even louder. The criminal becomes very angry and shoots
at the television set. As a result, "the Family stops laughing as
suddenly as the bullet s hattering the set's tubes" (P 108). However,
at the very next moment the family members start dancing and
singing in response to the criminal's confession that he has come to
commit a crime. Looking at the absurdity of the actions of the family
members, th e criminal guesses that probably they are panic -
stricken. Therefore, he tries to convince them that "it is not the reign
of terror" (108) and tries to bring them to reality. When vague
sounds come from a concealed loudspeaker, the Criminal gets
angry again and he shoots at it. Immediately after it as the lights on
the stage become dim, and go down and finally off, the criminal
sleeps for a while and again "comes awake with a start" (110). He
listens to "the FAMILY singing: first a version of 'America the
Beautiful/ then a soupy stupid version of the Negro National
Anthem, lift Every Voice and Sing' and brings the action to a super -
dramatic climax by "having been moved to tears, finally giving a
super -military salute"(110). The stage direction continues to
describe the following situation:
As they reach the highest point of the song, suddenly a
whole CROWD OF BLACK PEOPLE pushes through the door. The
criminal wheels around, at first, started, then he lets out a yell of
recognition, and there is a general yowl from all the Black People,
and they proceed to run around and once they take in the family,
with second takes, over the shoulder Jibes, and stage whispered
insult -inquiries, they race around and begin getting ready for a
party (110).
The party, dance a nd movement go on and everybody get
absorbed in it. The criminal is absorbed in the party too. However,
the Criminal then targets the audience. Gradually shifting his
attention from the party to the audience, he continues showing his
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Criminal. This is the tone of America. My country, 'tis of thee.
Heshoots out over the audience. This is the scene of the Fall.The
demise of the ungodly. He shoots once. Then quickly twice. This is
the cool take over in the midst of strong rhythms, and grace. Wild
procession, Jelly Beans. French Poodles. Razor Cuts. Filth.
Assassinations of Gods. This is the end, He shoots. Run. Bastards.
Run. You grimy mother fuckers who have no place in the new the
beautiful the black change of the earth. Who don't belong in the
mother fuckering world.... He shoots again three times. The world !
(110 -111)
The same night brings another turn in the play as the
Criminal keeps awake when ot hers are fast asleep and listens to
the father murmuring in his sleep, "I was b orn in Kansas city in
1920. My father was the Vice -President of Fertilizer Company.
Before that we were phantoms ... waving at his family. Evil ghosts
without substance" (111) and repeats it again. In the mean time the
criminal shouts "Come on, Come on" wh ich Black girl compliments
with "Good Morning" as morning arrives; symbolically suggesting
the dawn of a new starting for the Black people.
13.5 CHARACTERS
The play ,Home on the Range ,consists of two sets of
characters: a white family consisting of four members and the
other set consisting of a Black Criminal and a crowd of Black
people. The members of the white family are without any names.
They are basically identified with the relat ion that they share
amongst each other. Hence, the family members are identified as
father, mother, son and daughter. The other set of characters
consists of Black people. The leading character amongst them is
the Black Criminal. He is also without any spe cific name. He is
identified as the Black Criminal throughout the play. The Crowd of
Black people is also anonymous. None of them has a name nor are
they identified on the basis of their work or role as the Black
Criminal is identified.
The absence of nam e for the characters is very significant
and befits the theme and structure of the play. The Black Criminal
tries to reveal the psychological reality of a Black man as well as
that of a white. In this play, the Black Criminal shows self -assertion,
af r e e d o m of mind, daringness, protest and anger against the white
family who is affected by mania, a sadist and the representative of
careless white people. The boldness with which the Criminal tries to
dictate on the white family and throws his weight in the dom ain of
the Whites indicates that the Criminal has escaped the hideous
past of the "slave mentality" and entered a history of slave
rebellion. He is trying to subvert the hierarchies and trying to take
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However, the Criminal is without a name. He is known by his
actions, that is his crime. His lack of a name in a way reflects his
identity crisis. However, by taking control over the white family he
tries to gain one. His identity as a Criminal that is used as his name
can also be interpreted as he is seen in the eyes of a White man; a
Black criminal and how the Negros are made to conceive of
themselves and their identities; as the white wanted to see or
perceive of them.
Other characters in th e play besides the White family
consisting of four members are also known as Black Man 1, Black
Man 2, Black Man 3, Black Woman 1 and Black Girl. The irony of
the existence of these characters is that none of them has an
individual existence. They are coll ectively identified as Black and
hence to be recognised individually, they are attributed with a
number. Amiri Baraka by not naming any of his characters like
many other plays of his once more reiterates the fact that an
individual’s name is only a superfi cial creation of one’s identity.
According to Amiri Baraka, plays are the most suitable vehicle to
raise Black consciousness in the Negros and fight for their due
respect. Hence, he might have deliberately kept his characters
nameless in order to convey ho w the Black people in America are
perceived. Their names are not the signifiers of their individual
identity. Through their nameless existence, Amiri Baraka attempts
to convey the fact that a Black individual is actually known by the
baggage of his ancestr al history, the place of his origin, his race
and his skin colour.
13.6 THEMES
One of the major themes that can be discerned from the
short but complex storyline of Home on the Range is the Black
Criminal’ s desire to take revenge on the White family by plundering
the White’s household. Associated with it is a sense of fear that the
Black Criminal manages to create in the members of the White
family by commanding on them, shouting and screaming at them as
and when they falter and eventually keeping them under gunpoint.
Since the plot is loosely woven it creates a sense of mystery and
not much is understood about the objectives of the Black Criminal’s
visit to the White household unless and until the Crowd con sisting
of the Black people actually ask him and makes it apparent to the
readers/ audience. The revenge that he intends to take is not an
individual one but a collective one. More than looting the material
possession of the family, he attempts at robbing the whites of their
complacency and egoistic attitude. The White family initially tries to
ignore his presence and keep themselves calm and composed.
However, gradually their sense of all time power and authority start
crumpling down in the presence of the Black Criminal and they
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eventually silenced by the Black Criminal and soon one by one all
the family members fall flat on the floor while dancing. Their falling
down flat on the floor and getting in to a long sleep can be regarded
as their waning power control and gradual acceptance of the over
bearing power and authority of the Black criminal. The father’s
coming back to normal state and attempting to utter, though very
faintly audible, “I was born i n Kansas city in 1920. My father was
the vice -president of a fertilizer company...” (111) indicate his last
attempt to claim his position and status as a White. The whole
scene where the White father, fallen flat on the floor endeavours to
claim his lost g lory in the presence of the Black criminal and other
Negros also symbolically depict the fall of the Whites and the rise of
the Blacks.
Another major theme that the play deals with is identity
crisis. The Blacks in the American land had lost their identi ty as
humans. They were verbally, physically and psychologically abused
and were treated as things. They were even refused basic needs of
human beings and in order to inflict psychological pain and force
them to internalise their condition as no better tha ni n a n i m a t e
things they were most often addressed as ‘it’. There was a
deliberate effort on the whites to keep the Black people nameless
and call them as niggers. The Black people in Amiri Baraka’s plays
continuously fight against identity crisis and hence they are
identified in his plays either through their actions or their relation
with the others in the play. The Whites too in this play, quite
surprisingly, are depicted as nameless people. This might be read
as an artistic attempt of Amiri Baraka to hin t at the subversion of
roles that is depicted in the later part of the play.
The play also deals with another significant theme of power
struggle. The Black Criminal who takes control on the White family
wants to establish his power over the White famil y, sort of dream
come true for him. Whereas, there are indications made by the
White family that speak about their attempt to resist it, they
ultimately fail. The nonsensical language, the Father’s utterance
about his past in his sleep amply speaks about t heir attempts to
give up and resist the dominance that the Black Criminal was trying
to build over them. However, the involvement of the white family in
the nigger dance ultimately establishes the dominance of the Black
over the white, a future that the pl aywright tries to visualise.
The play also deals, though very subtly, with the theme of
despair, loss and shame on one hand and an overwhelming sense
of contentment and satisfaction on accomplishing the desired
objectives on the other hand. Home on the R ange was written by
Amiri Baraka in the late 1960s, when he had already achieved a
heightened sense of Black consciousness and was almost
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presence of the White family and the Black Crimin al and later the
crowd of black people depict the despair and sense of loss of
control, position and respect of the White as they encounter the
Black Criminal.
The play also subverts the theme of assimilation. The Afro -
American literature always focusse d on the Black’s conscious
efforts to assimilate the White culture. However, in Home on the
Range , Amiri Baraka interrogates the concept of assimilation as
understood by the Blacks and subverts it by showing the White
family trying to assimilate the Black culture in their endeavour to
become a part of the Black Nigger Party and dance with them. It
also symbolically indicates the end of White sophisticated culture
and reign and the rise of the Blacks into power where they will be
dictating on the Whites as h appened in the White household.
13.7 LANGUAGE, STYLE AND TONE OF THE PLAY
The play ,Home on the Range ,is a unique play of Amiri
Baraka that is for the most of the part consists of dialogue that is
beyond comprehension. In this play though the Black Criminal and
the crowd consisting of Black people utter words that are clear and
make sense the language of the White family is completely beyond
comprehension. The words that they speak are meaningless and
do not help in forming a sentence. Most of the ti me whatever they
utter is monosyllabic and repetitive. Hence, the conversation that
they engage into is also meaningless and leaves no clue of any
kind of interpretation. The given conversation is one such example
of an ambiguous, almost meaningless conver sation that altogether
defeats the idea of a conversation:
Daughter: Deedee, dodo! Laredgrepe and stooble.
Son: Noik. Dissreal grump!
Father: Yak. Yak. (laughs).
Mother: Dirigible (33)
and again, similar type of gibberish exchange of dialogues
continue:
Father: Terring. Gollygolly.
Daughter: Ahhhhhhk. Bretzel. Mamarama.
Father: Crackywacky. Riprip. Dullongdulux cracks. Dirigible.
Son: Bahl -grepe. Ramona...(33).
The conversation that the White family engages into is so ver y
meaningless that the Black Criminal is left absolutely clueless. His
sense of irritation with their meaningless conversation is the most
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Criminal: What the hell’s wrong with you? Goddamn idiot, back up.
and when the father replie s saying, “Yiip, Vachtung. Credool.
Conchmack. Vouty”, the Criminal cries out, “What kind of shit is
this? What the fuck’s wrong with you people?” (33).
Though the words leave no clue of any kind of emotions that
the White family possesses, Amiri Baraka’ s direction in parenthesis
does the needful. The action words depicting their emotions and
feelings leave sufficient clue to interpret the condition of the White
family in the presence of the Black Criminal. It is only through the
playwright’s direction in parenthesis like (Rest of the family now up
and moving concerned toward door. Are frozen when they see
father and daughter under the Black criminal’s gun) (33) that the
readers/audience come to know about the fear that the White family
is experiencing und er the gunpoint of the Black Criminal.
Through the exchange of some incongruous monosyllabic
sounds and words the play sets various types of tones. Home on
the Range is a one act play, the action of which spans from one
evening to next day early morning . However, in such a short span
of time the play switches between that of authority and command to
that of shock and surprise and again from that of helplessness and
despair to a tone of accomplishment and satisfaction. If the
utterances of the father, “Va taloop, Lurch, Crench. Crench” and
Baraka’s stage direction indicate his fear and anger, his utterances,
“I was born in Kansas City in 1920. My father was the vice -
president of a fertilizer company...” (33) in the latter part of the play
as he lies on the floor evoke a sense of satisfaction and
contentment in the Black Criminal.
13. 8 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SONG AND DANCE
Amiri Baraka in Home on the Range had introduced a song
and a dance that play a very significant role in reinforcing the theme
of the play. Like his many other plays, song and dance has become
an integral part of the play and indicates at a vital turn that is
exclusive of this particular play. Dance in Amiri Baraka’s plays has
a ritualistic significance. Like the play, Slaveship, dance in Home on
the Range highlights the roots of African culture and its significance
in the lives of the Negros.
The Black Criminal who has entered the Whit ef a m i l yw i t h
the objective of looting, while taking control on the White family
members, starts humming the beautiful and melodious song,
“America the Beautiful”, written and composed by Katherine Lee
Bates. This beautifully American patriotic song not on ly depicts the
great beauty of America but also the spirit attached with the land.
The Black Criminal, though started with it, quickly switches over to
another very powerful song, “Lift Every Voice and Sing” composedmunotes.in

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and sung by the Blacks. It was embraced as the Black National
anthem. The song is a prayer of thanksgiving of fruitfulness and
freedom. The Black Criminal probably sings this inspirational song
to draw inspiration from its powerful lyric and organise his
objectives of gaining prominence in Whit e culture by overturning
the power struggle. The song also embodies Afro -Americans’
desire to break free from the slavery that they had were conditioned
to think and internalise as encrypted on their fate. Therefore, when
the Black Criminal sings this song ,h en o to n l yt r i e st om o t i v a t e
himself to achieve his objective with which he has visited this place
but also indicates a remarkable twist that he is about to bring. The
Black criminal by insisting and almost forcing all the members of
the White family to sing this Black National Anthem, actually tries to
highlight on the role reversal of the Whites that he is trying to
achieve. The Whites’ singing of this song can be symbolically
treated as their acceptance and assimilation of the African culture;
am o v e that actually brings their culture and power related with it
towards a fading end.
The Black Nigger Dance too emphasises on the slow but
subtle acceptance of the Black culture by the White family. Dance
is an essential part of Afro -American culture. It signifies the
inversion of the normative trend where the Blacks tried to assimilate
the culture of the Whites to make some space for themselves in the
society. The fact that the Head of the family and his daughter is so
absorbed and possessed by the charm of the dance that they get
lost dancing it for hours signify their gradual loss of power. The
dance in a way is symbolic of the fall of the whites and the rise of
The Blacks. Thus, the dance serves two vital functions. First, it
invites the members of the audience to act out the aggression and
violence. Secondly, with its unifying force, it also celebrates the
spiritual restoration of the Black criminal and the Black crowd. The
final scene suggests that the primal energy of the Afro -American
Black people is in the process of being reasserted. The song, ‘Lift
every Voice and Sing’ and the Nigger dance actually help the
readers to identify Amiri Baraka as a rebel writer with revolutionary
aims and objectives and his play, Home on the Range as one of his
revolu tionary plays.
Hence, the music and dance in the Nigger party can be
interpreted as a form of protest as it subverts the normative notion
of assimilation of American culture and celebrates Black
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13.9 HOME ON THE RANGE AS A REPRESENTATIVE
OF REVOLUTIONARY THEATRE
The play, Home on the Range, depicts the attitude of a Black
burglar towards members of a White family. Baraka demonstrates
his continuing awareness of the newest theatrical modes in this
play. In this play the objectives of “the revolutionary theatre’ are
fully realized. There is no definite plot in the play. The playwright
uses very little of moving speech and there is total absence of
steady dialogue. All the theatrical elements are set towards creating
an “atmosphere of feeling”. The gibberish communication, the song
and nigger dance party symbolize the future of the Blacks. It also
symbolizes a step towards a more liberated soul and independence
that the Blacks crave for. The ultimate scene with the head of the
White family lying flat on the ground trying to recollect his glorious
past and the Black girl announcing the dawn of a new day is not
only symbolic of the new future but also speaks a lot about the
mind of the playwright, Amiri Baraka. The play th rough its short but
evocative use of words, characters, setting and scene set the tone
of a revolutionary play.
13.10 CONCLUSION
The play, Home on the Range, is an excellent study of Afro -
American play and the revolutionary types of plays that Amiri
Baraka excelled in. It also gives a glimpse of the socio -cultural and
political background of the Afro -American existence amongst the
Whites. The play while focussi ng on the feelings of a Black burglar
about a white family actually attempts to depict, though very subtly,
the attitude of the Blacks towards the White. Through the
interaction of the Black Criminal with the White, the playwright
endeavours towards openin gan e ww i n d o wt ot h ef u t u r eo ft h e
Black community.
13.11 QUESTIONS
i.Assess Amiri Baraka’s Home on the Range as a strong
statement in African American protest.
ii. Examine Amiri Baraka’s Home on the Range as a representative
of the Revolutionary Theat re.
iii. Critically discuss the themes of the play, Home on the Range.
iv. Discuss the symbolic significance of the song and dance in the
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v. Consider Amiri Baraka’s play Home on the Range as an
exploration and a critique of absurd theatre.
13.11 BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.Brown, Llyod W. "Drama", Amiri Baraka. Boston: Twayne
Publishers, 1980.
2.Harris, William. J. "Introduction", The Leroi Jones / Baraka
Reader , New York: Thunder's Mouth Press, 1986.
3.Home on the Range -In Drama Beylea 12 (Summer 1968): 106 -
11.
4.Bullins Ed. New Plays from the Black Theater. New York:
Bantam Books, 1969.
13.12 REFERENCE FOR FURTHER STUDY
i.Andrews, W.L. and others, ed. The Concise Oxford Companion
to AfricanAmerican Literature. New York: Oxford University
Press, 2001.
ii.Baraka, Amiri, and W.J. Harris, ed. The LeRoi Jones/Amiri
Baraka Reader. New York: Thunder V Mouth Press, 1991.
iii.L.C. Sanders, The Development of Black The ater in America:
From Shadows to Selves, London: Louisiana State University
Press, 1988.
iv.Jones, LeRoi [Amiri Baraka]. Home: Social Essays. New York:
William Morrow and Company, Inc., 1971.
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