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SOCIETY AND EDUCATION
Unit Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Meaning of Educational Sociology and Sociology of Education
1.3 Need to study Sociology of Education
1.4 a) Scope of Educational Sociology and
b) Sociology of Education
1.5Difference between Educational Sociology and Sociology of Education
1.6 Concept of Social Institution
1.7 Types of Social Institution
1.8 Functions of Social Institution
1.9 Unit End Exercise
1.10 References
1.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to
Understand the meaning of Sociology of Education and Educational
Sociology
Understand the scope of Sociology of Education and Educational
Sociology
Explain the need to study Sociology of Education
Explain the d ifference between Educ ational Sociology and Sociology
of Education
Understand the concept of Social Institution
Explain the types and functions of Social Institution
1.1 INTRODUCTION
For the study of various subjects the science is divided into two basic parts
one is the na tural sciences and other is social sciences. Physics, Chemistry
and Biology are the examples of natural sciences. Social sciences study
the sociological phenomenon for e.g. social relations. Society means the
network of social relationship. August Comte, A French Philosopher
(Father of Sociology) first coined the term “ Sociology ”. The word munotes.in
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2 SOCIOLOGY is derived from the Latin word “ Socius ” meaning society
and the Greek word “Logus ” meaning systematic study or science Thus
“Sociology” means the science or study of society.
Scope of sociology is depending upon two important schools one
Specialistic or formalistic school and the other is synthetic school.
According to Specialistic school sociology included the study of social
relations and as per the synthetic school sociology means general science,
means it include the study of other subjects like economics, history and
political science.
1.2 MEANING OF EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY AND
SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
Educational Sociology and Sociology of Education are the bra nches of
sociology. In 1928 George Payne (Father of Educational Sociology)
published the book “ The Principals of Educational Sociology ” in this
book he threw light on the effect of education. He considered that the
knowledge of social interaction is one of the important elements so social
progress and this knowledge should be grasped through education . John
Dewey threw light on the education is a social process and importance of
educational sociology in his book School a nd Society (1900) Democracy
and Educa tion (1916)
According to George Payne by Educational sociology , means the science
which describes and explains the institutions, social groups, and social
processes ,that is ,the social relationships in which or through which the
individual gains and org anizes his experience.
Brown – Educational sociology is the study of the interactions of the
individual and his cultural environment which includes other
individuals, social groups, and patterns of behavior.
Good – Educational sociology is the scientific study of how people
live in social groups especially including the study of Education i.e.
obtained from by the living in the social groups and education that is
needed by the members to live efficiently in social group.
Ottoway – Educational sociology s tarts with the assumption that
education is an activity which goes on in society and the society in
turn determines the nature of education
Cook& Cook – Educational sociology is the study of human factors in
the educative process, with the aim to improve t eaching and learning
in all types of educational system.
Emergence of Sociology of Education
Sociology of education is a later development in Sociological study of
education. It can be said to be as refinement or improvement upon
educations Sociology. Mai n contributors John Dewey, Emile Durkheim,
Robert Angel ,Marx Weber . Lester F. Ward , an American Sociologist munotes.in
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3 was the first scholar to emphasize the need of studying education
Sociology in his book “ Dynamic Sociology”(1883) and also focused
Education as the proximate means of progress.
John Dewey stress upon the school should be treated a social institution in
their respective articles “ My Pedagogic Creed ” and “ the demands of
Pedagogic on Sociology ” published by the university of Chicago press in
1897.
In 1920 Robert Angell was used the name sociology of education. Angell
and his colleague focused educational institutions are the systematic and
scientific sources data collection. In 1963 Journal of Educational
Sociology converted Journal of Sociology of Educ ation.
Web dictionary - Sociology of education is the study of how public
institution and individual experiences affects education and its
outcomes.
Brookover & Gottieb- Sociology of education may be defined as the
scientific analysis of the social processe s and social patterns involved
in educational system.
Sociology of education is the study of how social institution and forces
affects educational processes and outcomes and vice -versa.
Sociology of education emphasizes the analyses of sociological proces s
involved in educational institution and also the sociological problems in
the realm of education which is the concern of sociologists .
1.3 NEED TO STUDY SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
• Opposition to individualism: The sociological tendency was born out
of reacti on to individualism It stresses the importance of society
against the individual .
• Social progress as the aim of Education: Social welfare is the aim
ascribed to education by the sociological tendency Children should be
trained only for this through a syste m of free and compulsory
education .
• Stress on Professional and Vocational Education: The sociological
tendency lays stress on enabling the child to earn his livelihood.
• Faith in Democracy : The sociological tendency also evinces faith in
Democracy. In a Dem ocracy education is based upon the co -operation
between the state and society and besides success of a Democracy
depends on the education of its members .
• Clarification of Social Problems: The sociological tendency clarifies
social problems and suggests way s and means of solving them through
education many social reforms can be brought about through education
and it can create entirely new generation which may be free from the
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4 • Raising the standard of Social Life: The sociol ogical aim of
education is raising the standard of social life by promoting
comprehensive development of the child. Education must train him to
fulfil his social responsibilities If it falls to do this , education cannot
be said to have any utility .
• Import ance to Social Sciences: The presence of sociological
tendency in Education has led to greater importance being attached to
social sciences so that the child can understand social phenomena and
problems and thus be enabled to make some positive contributio n to
social welfare .
• Importance to social life in the school: Social life within the school
has been recognized as important because of the sociological tendency .
• Education as an Agency of social progress: According to
sociologists education is the best me ans of social control, social
change, thus leading to social progress .All social changes that are
necessary for social progress can be easily brought out through
education .
1.4 a) SCOPE OF EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY
Educational sociology studies the effect of social interaction on education
and vice versa. Following important factors should be studied in the
educational sociology.
Role of education in society
Interrelations between teacher and students
Need and significance of teachers in society
Relations be tween School and other social agencies
Importance of mass media
Importance of teaching method in the development of students.
1.4 b) SCOPE OF SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
Following important factors should be studied in the educational sociology
• Analysis of t he relationship of educational system to other aspects of
society.
a) Education and culture
b) Education and social control & the power system
c) Education and social change
d) Education and social class munotes.in
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5 e) Education and other groups
• School & social system
a) Nature of school culture
b) Structure of school society
• System of interconnected social relationship between the individual
and number of others a social role
a) Social role of teacher
b) Nature of teachers’ personality
c) The effect of teachers’ personality on pupils’ personality
d) Function of school in the process of socialization of the students
• Education – interaction within the system
• Education & Social system
a) Education & kinship
b) Education & Stratification
c) Education & political system
d) Education & the attitude of knowledge
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6 a) Effect of community on educational o rganization
b) Analysis of educational process in non -school social process of
community
c) Relationship between the school and community and Educational
function
d) Factors of community (Population & environment) and educational
organization
• Different social institute and education
• Relation between Education & job
• Relation between education & social class, culture & language
• Education & economical system of country
• Education & social & cultural change
1.5 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EDUCATIONAL
SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
Educational sociology is the application of general principles and findings
of sociology to the administration and processes of education. The
approach means the application of sociology to the institution of education
as a sep arate societal unit. Sociology of education depicts an analysis of
the sociological processes involved in the educational institution. It
emphasizes the study within the institution of education.
EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION Jorge pen – Finney, Snedden,
Peters, Clements & Kinneman R.C.Angell – Durkheim, Lester
word, Brookover & Gottlieb
Angell – Educational sociology is a
branch of the pure science of
sociology Angell – Researches develop in
school situation as a sociology of
education
According to Smith, Zorbaugh & Kulp – Educational sociology is the
application of Sociology to
educational problems. Sociology of education is Scientific
analysis of the social process &
Social pattern involved in the
educational system.
Educational so ciology is strictly
technology and not science at all. Development of scientific
generalization about human
relations in educational system
According to new science applying
sociological principles to the whole
process of education Educational process goe s on both
in formal & informal situations
To analyze the pattern of social
interaction and social role within the To analyze the human relations and
society. munotes.in
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7 school & relation of personalities
within the school to outside the
group.
To study the place of teacher in
society To study the social role of teacher
Determination of teaching methods
for the development of child. Determination of teaching methods
for the Socialization of child
To study the school as small unit of
society and their interrelati ons Study of whole society and other
aspects of society
1.6 CONCEPT OF SOCIAL INSTITUTION
A social institution consists of a group of people who have come together
for a common purpose. Social institution is a social structure and social
mechanisms of s ocial order and cooperation that govern the behavior of its
members. It is a group of social positions, connected by social relations
performing a social role. Social institution is an interrelated set of norms .let’s
study some of the definitions about soc ial institutions.
Ogburn and Nimkoff - Social institutions are organized and established
ways of satisfying certain basic human needs.
K Davis -Institution can be defined as a set of interwoven folkways
mores and laws built around one or more functions.
Parsons- Institutions are the normative complexes relating to the major
aspects of our social activity.
Harry Johnsons - A social institutions are thus a recognized normative
pattern.
Anderson and parker - Institutions are established normative patterns
operati ng through institutions agencies, which men develop to achieve
the basic needs or objectives of a society.
A set of organized beliefs rules and practices that establishes how a
society will attempt to meet basic needs .A group of persons bonded
together fo r common purposes having rights, privileges, liabilities, goals
or objectives distinct and independent from those of individual members.
A social institution may be defined as an organizational system which
functions to satisfy basic social needs by provid ing an ordered framework
linking the individual to the larger culture.
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8 1.7
Major Perspectives –
According to Marx – Social institutions are determined by the ir society’s
mode of production and Social institutions serve to maintai n the power of
the dominant class.
Weber – Social institutions are independent but no single institutions
determine the rest. The causes and consequences of social institutions
cannot be assumed in advanced.
Durkheim – Set the stage for later functionalist analyses of institutions by
concluding that religion promotes social solidarity and collective
conscience.
Functionalist Theory - The social institutions listed in this (along with
other social institutions) fulfill functional prerequisites and are essenti al.
Conflict theory - Social institutions tend to reinforce and inequalities and
uphold the power of dominant groups. Emphasizes divisions and conflicts
within social institutions.
Symbolic Interactionism - Focuses on interactions and other symbolic
communic ations within social institutions.
General functions of social institutions are -
1. Institutions satisfy the basic needs of society.
2. Institutions define dominant social values.
3. Institutions establish permanent patterns of social behavior.
4. Institutions suppor t other institutions.
5. Institutions provide roles for individuals.
The five basic institutions are : Family, Education , Religion, Economic
and Political institutions.
1. Family institution - deals with procreation and regulation of sexual
norms.
2. Educational ins titution - deals with socialization and preparation for
productive participatory citizenship.
3. Religious institution - deals with the promotion of personal meaning
and understanding of ultimate concerns.
4. Economic institution - deals with the allocation and di stribution of
goods and services.
5. Political institution - deals with the authoritative allocation of public
social goals and values. TYPES OF SOCIAL INSTITUTION
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The Family:
The family is the most important social unit in society. It is the building
block of society. Family, most un iversal social institution, takes
responsibility for raising the young and teaching those accepted norms and
values.
MacIver & Page - The family is a group defined by sex relationship
sufficiently precise and enduring to provide for the procreation and
upbringing of children
Clare -by family we mean a system of relationship existing between
parents and children
Burgess &Locke -a family is a group of persons united by the ties of
marriage, blood or adoption constituting a single household interacting
and in int ercommunication with each other in their respective social role
of husband and wife, mother and father, son and daughter, brother and
sister creating and maintaining a common culture.
Functions of the family institution -
The control and regulation of sexu al behavior.
To provide for new members of society.
To provide for the economic and emotional maintenance of
individuals.
To provide for primary socialization of children.
Religion Institution:
Religion provides a shared, collective explanation of the me aning of life.
Dawson –whenever and wherever man has a sense of dependence on
external powers which are conceived as mysterious as and higher than
man’s own, there is religion”. munotes.in
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10 Kant -Religion is the recognition of all our duties as divine
commandments.
Harald Hoffding -the essence of religion is faith in the conversation of
values.
A.N. WHITE -Religion is a vision of something which stands beyond,
behind and within.
Gisbert –Religion is the dynamic belief in and submission to god or to
gods on whom man feel s dependent.
A unified system of beliefs and practices pertaining to the supernatural
and to norms about the right way to live that is shared by a group of
believers. Sociologists treat religion as a social rather than supernatural
phenomenon.
Durkheim: re ligion provides social solidarity and collective conscience; it
expresses and celebrates the force of society over the individual.
Functionalist theory: functions of religion include providing meaning for
life, reinforcing social norms, strengthening socia l bonds and marking
status changes (e.g. marriage) dysfunctions, according to some, include
justifying persecution .
Functions of the Religion -
Providing solutions for unexplained natural, phenomena.
Supplying a means for controlling the natural world.
Religion tends to support the normative structure of the society.
Furnishing a psychological diversion from unwanted life situations.
Sustaining the existing class structure.
Religion serves as an instrument of socialization.
Religion may both promote and re tard social change.
Religion may both reduce and encourage conflict in groups.
Economic Institution:
Sociologists understand the economy as the set of arrangements by which
a society produces, distributes, and consumes goods, services, and other
resource s. Economic institution, organizes the production, distribution,
and consumption of goods and services.
Marx: economic organization determines the major features of any
society.
Functionalist theory: functions of economic institutions include:
production a nd distribution of goods, assignment of individuals to
different social roles such as occupations.
Function of the Economic institution -
Provide methods for the production of goods and services.
Provide methods for the distribution of goods and services. munotes.in
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11 Enable societies members to consume goods and services which are
produced .
Political Institution (state) :
Political institution is the system of norms that governs the exercise and
distribution of power in society.
Garner -state is a community of person , more or less numerous,
permanently occupying a definite portion of a territory, independent and
so of a foreign control and possessing an organized government to which
the inhabitants render a habitual obedience.
Weber: defines the state as an authority th at maintains a monopoly on the
use of violence in its territory.
Functionalist theory: Functions of political institution include protection
from external enemies, resolving group conflicts, defining societal goals
and strengthening group identity and norm s. Pluralism, a particularly
functional type of political institution, entails distribution of power among
many groups so no one group can gain control.
Function of the Political Institution -
The institutionalization of norms (laws).
The enforcement of la ws.
The adjudication of conflict (court).
Provide for the welfare of members of society.
Protection of society from external threat.
Construction of a national scheme of education .
Education Institution:
Educational institution - deals with socialization a nd preparation for
productive participatory citizenship. Education ensures the transmission of
values, patterns of behavior, and certain skills and knowledge . Education
institution is a form of learning in which the knowledge, skills, and habits
of a group of people are transferred from one generation to the next
through teaching, training or research.
Functions -
Mcnergney and Herbert (2001) described the school as first and foremost
a social institution, that is, an established organization having an
identi fiable structure and a set of functions meant to preserve and extend
social order.
School is the place for the contemplation of reality, and our task as a
teacher, in simplest term, is to show this reality to our students, who are
naturally eager about the m.
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12 • Intellectual purpose:
- To teach basic cognitive skills such as reading, writing, and mathematics,
to transmit specific knowledge.
• Political purpose:
- To inculcate allegiance to the existing political order(patriotism)
- To prepare citizens who wil l participate in the political order
- To assimilate diverse cultural groups into political order
• Social purpose:
- To socialize children into the various roles, behavior and values of
society.
• Economic purpose:
-To prepare students for their later occupa tional roles, and to select, train,
and allocate individuals into the division of labour.
• Construction of a national scheme of education.
• Training in citizenship.
• Provision of schools.
• Adult education.
• Finance of schools.
• Universal, compulsory and free ed ucation.
• Encouragement of guardians.
• Provision of efficient teachers.
• Provision of military education.
• Provision of standard books.
• Provision of scholarships.
• General control and direction of school system.
• Organization of boards and committees.
• Appointmen ts of commissions.
• Encouragements to educational research
1.8 FUNCTION OF SOCIAL INSTITUTION
1. Social Solidarity - the religious institute teach us to help each other.
Political institute maintain the security of the society through by laws
and orders.
2. Transm issions of culture - social institutions are transmitting the
culture from one generation to other. Educational institutions imparts
the knowledge .family institution provides values and culture about the munotes.in
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13 society. Family teach us various norms, values, trad itions of the
society.
3. Social Welfare and Development - social institutions provide and
satisfying the societal needs. Economic institutions provide the goods
and services. Religious institutions transmit the various values.
Political institutions provide the facilities for the various stakeholders
of the society.
4. Recreational Activities – social institutions are the real source of
recreation for the people .the educational institutions organize various
curricular and extra curricular activities.politica l institutions organizes
various national sports, competitions for the people.
1.9 UNIT END EXERCISE
1. Why we study the Sociology of Education?
2. Explain the d ifference between Educational Sociology and Sociology
of Education
3. Explain the role of social insti tution the development of society.
4. Discuss the functions of Social Institution.
1.10 REFERENCES:
Ballantine (1983) The Sociology of Education : A systematic Analysis
Prentice Hall
N.Jayaram (2015) Sociology of Education in India,Rawat Publication
Singh, Y. K . (2009) Sociological Foundation of Education. New Delhi:
A.P.H Publishing Corporation.
Sodhi, T.S. &Suri, A. (2003) : Philosophical and Sociological Foundation of
Education.Patiala:Bawa Publications
Talesara, H. (2002) Sociological Foundations of Educati on, New Delhi,
Kanishka Publishers.
Online References :
https://ncte.gov.in/website/OER.aspX NCTE
https://youtu.be/CcnoRcZiYgw
https://youtu.be/UldxQmDBfls
https://youtu.be/Eo75IjFVYhM
https://youtube.com/channel/UCuWXVxVRC9HFUn2NnY_SgFQ
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THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO
SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
Unit Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Proponents of sociological theories
2.3 Symbolic Interactionism Theory –George Mead
2.4 Structural Functionalism –Talcott Parsons
2.5 Conflict Theory - Karl Marx
2.6 Summary
2.7 Unit End Exercise
2.8 References
2.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to
Understand the various sociological theories .
Explain the contributions made by Durkheim and Parsons towards
structural functionalism
Explain the theory of symbolic Interactionism.
Understand the role of conflict theory and explain the modes of
conflict and causes of conflict
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Sociological theories means is a set of statements that seeks to explain
problems, actions or behaviour. Theories guide research and policy
formulation in the sociology of education. They also provide logical
explanation for why things are happens the way they do. A theory is a
proposed relationship between two or more concepts . An effective the ory
may have an explanatory and predictive power . Theories help sociologist
understand the educational system and it’s also contribute to our
understanding of education as a part of society. munotes.in
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15 Sociologists study social events, interactions, and patterns. Th ey then
develop theories to explain why these occur and what can result from
them. In sociology, a theor y is a way to explain different aspects of social
interactions and create testable propositions about society (Allan, 2006).
For example, Durkheim’s pro position, that differences in suicide rate can
be explained by differences in the degree of social integration in different
communities, is a theory.
The proponents of sociological theories are Karl Marks, Emile Durkheim,
Max Weber, Talcott Parsons & Rober t Merton, Louis Atthussor & Ralph
Dahrendorf, Herbert Mead& Herbert Blummer.
Theories in sociology provide us with different perspectives with which to
view our social world . A perspective is simply a way of looking at the
social world. A theory is a set of interrelated propositions Sociological
theories help us to explain and predict the social world in which we live .
Sociological theories help us to take various pieces of a puzzle and put
them together, using specific framework to help us make sense of it all and
to give us the tools about the bigger picture of society.
Each theoretical perspective represents a particular way of understanding
the social world. It is like seeing the world through a specific set of
glasses. There are three major theoreti cal perspec tives in sociology.
Symbolic Interactionism , Structural Functionalism and Conflict Theory.
2.2 PROPONENTS OF SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES
2.3 SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM
Definition - Interactionism theory analyze society addressing the
subjective mea ning that people impose on objects, events,&
behaviours.subjective meanings are given primacy because it is believe
that people behave based on what they believe and not just on what is
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16 The symbolic interaction perspective also called sy mbolic Interactionism
is a major framework of sociological theory. This perspective relies on the
symbolic meaning that people develop and rely upon in the process of
social interaction.
Symbolic Interactionism looks at individual and group meaning making
focusing on human action instead of large scale social structures.
George Herbert Mead (1863 -1931)
Mead an American Philosopher, S ociologist & Psychologist. One of the
founders of social psychology pioneered the development of symbolic
interacti on perspectives. Mead is well known for the his theory of social
self, which is based on the central argument that the self is a social
emergent..
The social conception of the self entails that individual selves are the
products of social interaction and n ot the logical or biological precondition
of that interaction. It is not initially there at birth but arises in the process
of social experiences and activity. For mead mind arises out of the social
act and communication meads concept of social act is rele vant not only to
his theory of mind but to all facets of his social philosophy. • George Herbert Mead was born in South Hadley,
Massachusetts in February of 1863.
• In 1894 , Mead moved from The University of Michigan to
Chicago, Illinois, where he would later become the center of
the sociological department at The University of Chicago.
• After Mead’s death in 1931 his students at the University
published his Mind, Self, and Society teachings.
• Herbert Blumer, Mead’s pupil, further developed his theory
and coined it “Symbolic Interactionism.” munotes.in
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17 Symbolic interaction theory in general asserts that the world is
constructed through meanings that individuals attach to social interactions.
Mead’s approach to understanding s ocial life was grounded in his
understanding of the steps in child development. In 1934, he used the
terms “I” and “Me” to refer to the process that individual go through in
understanding themselves in a social world.
I & Me Concept - A child enters the wo rld only understanding the concept
of “I” —he or she is mostly unaware of the social world except as it relates
to fulfilling his or her own needs. The “I” is controlled by impulses and
basic human needs and desires. As a child gets older, the social part o f the
self—the “Me” —develops. The child learns about other people through
the understanding and meaning he or she attributes to gestures. The “Me”
develops through interaction with other people and through the social
environment. This happens by learning h ow individuals respond to
specific acts and gestures made by the individual. The “Me” is the social
self. The “I” is our immediate response to others.
Mead explains that there are two distinct stages that a child goes through
in order to realize “Me.” The first is the play stage, where children learn
how to take the attitude of a single particular other. The second stage —
where full development of the self occurs —is the game stage, where a
child learns to take on the attitude of everyone else. By being able to
internalize the roles of several others, he or she is about to function in
organized groups in society.
Looking -glass self
• Looking -glass self is the process of developing a self -image on the
basis of the messages we get from others, as we understand t hem.
• There are three components to the looking glass self: 1.Imagine how
we appear to others; 2. Imagine what their judgment of that appearance
must be; 3. Develop some self -feeling, such as pride or mortification,
as a result of our imagining others' jud gment.
Generalized Other
• By being able to take on various roles at a time, he or she understands
the roles and attitudes of multiple people. This understanding of
collective attitudes of a society is what Mead referred to as
the generalized other . The gene ralized other keeps individuals
connected to society by an understanding of shared meanings; it can be
considered a bridge between the individual (micro) and the wider
society (macro).
After Mead’s death in 1931 his students at the University published his
Mind, Self, and Society teachings. Herbert Blumer, Mead’s pupil, further
developed his theory and named it “Symbolic Interactionism.” munotes.in
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Herbert Blumer (1900 -1987 )
This theory is the process of interaction in the formation of meanings for
individuals. In simple form, people act based on symbolic meanings they
find within a given situation.The goals of our interactions are to create a
shared meaning. Herbert Blumer came up with three Core principles
for his theory. -Meaning, Language, and Thought.
Meaning -
• Meaning: “Making is a community project”
• Meaning is something that has to be assigned and who assigns it?
• The definition of this word states that it is a intention for a particular
purpose or destination.
• Blumer says that the principle of meaning is centr al in human behavior
• Meaning is based on human interaction and how we act towards other
people.
This theory tells us that its how people interpret messages and statements.
Each one of us has a different meaning assigned to different things.
Different obje ct have different meanings for different individuals for eg.
Tree – will be different object to botanist, to poet, home Gardner. Word
“grass” is something that can be defined as green, or something needed to
be cut. To animals, the word “grass” could mean shelter or food. Now in
the case of symbols, meanings also depend on the number of consensual
responses of those who use it
Language -
• Language: “Symbolic naming for the human society”
• Language gives humans a means by which to negotiate meaning
through symb ols.
• Mead believed that when you named something, it is assigned a
meaning. An example of this would be me naming my dog Lucifer. munotes.in
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19 The meaning of this name would be the devil, because maybe the dog
is extremely mean or bites people all of the time.
• In simp le terms, this principle says that when we talk to each other,
symbolic interaction means that humans identify meaning or naming,
and then they develop discourse, which is communication orally
• Language is the source of meaning.
• Everything in life has a dif ferent meaning.
• All objects, people, and abstract ideas have been assigned certain
names.
• Meaning has never been inherent
• Spoken words, writt en words, and pictures are all the part of our
language.
• Each word or picture means different things to each indivi dual.
• Each person’s language is shaped by other people.
Thought -
• Thought: “Interpretation of symbols”
• Thought is based on language. While in a conversation, your mind is
imagining or thinking about the different points of view or meanings
to what the other person is saying to you.
• What this means is that once your hear someone say something, you
automatically start thinking about what you are going to say next.
• According to Mead “Minding is the two -second delay where
individuals rehearse the next move and anticipate how others will
react.”
• Mead believes that “We naturally talk to ourselves in order to sort out
the meaning of a difficult situation.”
• Whatever you think of before acting to an action or responding to a
phrase is your thought. We do this all th e time without knowing or
realizing it. It is your own personal meaning that you put on words
• Humans come equipped with a mind wired for thought.
• That mind allows everyone to interpret the symbols of our language.
Blumer, following Mead, claimed that peopl e interact with each other by
interpreting or defining each other's actions instead of merely reacting to
each other's actions.
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20
2.4 STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM
Structural functionalism is a body of theories that understand the world
as a large system of int errelated parts that all work together. Emile
Durkheim and Talcott Parsons are two major theorists in this area.
Talcott Parsons Émile
Durkheim (1858 –1917)
French sociologist Émile Durkheim (1858 –1917) was the first sociologist
of education. He is best known for his theory of moral regulation .in his
writings Moral Education (1925).1 He argued that it is only through
education that a given society can forge a commitment to an underly ing
set of common beliefs and values, as well as create a strong sense of
community or nationhood. This moral education prepares us to be
productive members of society by socializing and integrating us.
Durkheim’s belief that society is held together by a common set of values
and morals is at the heart of structural functionalism because it emphasizes
how the various parts of a social system work together.
Durkheim died in 1917 and structural functionalism work was largely
ignored until Talcott Parsons.
In 1950s and 1960 Functionalism reigned as the dominant theoretical
perspective in sociology.
It states that society is made up of various institutions that work together
in cooperation. Talcott Parsons structural functionalism has four
functional imperati ves for all general action system also known as AGIL
system.
What is AGIL? It includes Adaptation, Goal attainment, Integration
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21 Adaptation - system must cope up with the external situation, adapt to
its environment and adapt environment to its needs.
Goal attainment - a system must define and achieve its primary goal.
Integration - regulates the interrelationship of its component parts.
Manage the relationship among other three functional imperatives
(AGL)
Latency - furnish maintain and renew bot h the motivation of individual
and the cultural patterns that create and sustain motivation.
AGIL system was designed four system levels; the behavioral organism is
the Action System that handles the adaptation function by adjusting and
transforming the ex ternal world . Personality System performs the goal
attainment by defining system goals and mobilizing recourses. Social
System cope up with the integration function by controlling its component
parts . Cultural System performs the latency function by provid ing the
norms and values that motivates them for action.
Key principles of functionalist theory by Farley (1990)
Interdependency - every part of the society is depending to some extent to
other parts of the society, so that what happens at one place in soc iety has
important effects elsewhere.
Function of social structure and culture - social structure refers to
organization of the society including its institutional social position and
distribution of resources. Culture is the set of beliefs, rules values an d
language held in a common set of members.
Consensus and cooperation - society have a tendency towards consensus
i. e to have certain values that nearly overcome in the society agrees upon.
Societies tend towards consensus to achieve cooperation.
Equilibri um- is a characteristic of a society when it has achieved the form
that is best adapted to its situations. It has reached a state of balance and it
will remain in that condition until it is forced to change by some new.
2.5 CONFLICT THEORY
Conflict theori es emphasis the dominance of some societal groups. Social
order i s based on manipulation & controlled by dominant groups. Social
change is occurring rapidly in a disorderly fashion as subordinates groups
overthrow as dominant groups. Its examines conflict of interest and
coercion(forces) that holds society. Disagreements or clash between
opposing sides, principles or peoples. It can be overt or covert conflict. It
focuses on heterogeneous nature of society and unequal distribution of
political and social po wer. Struggle between the social classes.
Causes of conflict are the Class, Race and Ethnicity , Gender , Regions and
Religion . Welfare and Revolution , Strikes and Domination are the mode
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22 Conflict theory deals with the incompatible aspect of so ciety and how they
clash with one another. Interested in how societal institutions like family,
education economic, media helps to maintain the over willing of small
groups. Emphasis in social change and redistribution of resources makes
conflict theories more radical and activist than functionalist.
Impact of conflict theory on education -asks how schools contribute to the
unequal distribution of people into jobs in society. More powerful
members of society maintain the best positions and less powerful grou ps
are allocated to lower ranks.
Role of education in conflict theories - education plays a big part in
maintaining the prestige power and economic and social position of
dominant group in the society. A conflict theory assumes that social
behaviour is best understood in terms of conflict or tensions between
opposing groups.
2.6 SUMMARY
Sociological theories means is a set of statements that seeks to explain
problems, actions or behavior. Theories in sociology provide us with
different perspectives with whi ch to view our social world. The major
sociological theories offer insight into how we understand education
There are three major theoretical perspectives in sociology. The
Conflict, Structural functionalism and symbolic Interactionism .
The theory of symbo lic Interactionism focuses on education as a means
for labeling individuals Functionalists view education as an important
social institution that contributes both manifest and latent functions.
Functionalists see education as serving the needs of society b y preparing
students for later roles, or functions, in society
Conflict theorists see schools as a means for perpetuating class, racial -
ethnic, and gender inequalities
2.7 UNIT END EXERCISE
1. Explain the major theorist associated with structural functionalis m.
2. Read the articles or review the researches on education based on
theoretical approaches
3. Explain the various sociological theories
4. Apply the sociological theories in workplace
2.8 REFERENCES :
• M.S. Gore - Sociology of Education :a unique perspective on sc hools
• Singh, Y. K. (2008) Sociological Foundation of Education. New
Delhi: A.P.H Publishing Corporation.
• Bllantine,J.H. (2011) The Sociology of Education a Systematic
Analysis. New Jersey : Prentice Hall Inc munotes.in
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23 • M.A .Education study material Institute of open & distance learning,
University of Mumbai .
• Engels, Friedrich and Karl Marx. The Communist Manifesto . Trans.
Samuel Moore. London: Penguin Books, 1967.
• Engels, Friedrich and Karl Marx. The Communist Manifesto . Trans.
Samuel Moore. London: Penguin Books, 1967.
• Feinberg, Barbara S. Marx and Marxism,(1985 )New York: Franklin
Watts,
• Mooney, Knox, and Schacht, (2007) The Three Main Sociological
Perspectives ,Understanding Social Problems, 5th edition
• Wind Goodfriend, Sociology's Four Theoretical Perspective s:
Structural -Functional, Social Conflict, Feminism & Symbolic
Interactionism
Online References :
https://ncte.gov.in/website/OER.aspX NCTE
https://youtube.com/channel/UCuWXVxVRC9HFUn2NnY_ SgFQ
https://ncte.gov.in/website/OER.aspX
https://youtu.be/Eo75IjFVYhM
https://youtu.be/UldxQmDBfls
https://youtu.be/CcnoRcZiYgw
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24 3
MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION
Unit Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 An Overview
3.3 Meaning and Concept of Multicultural Education
3.4 Characteristics, goals and dimension of Multicultural Education
3.5 Principles of Teaching and Learning in a Mul ticultural Society
3.6 Unit End Exercise
3.7 References
3.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to
Know the meaning and concept of Multicultural Education
Understand the characteristics, goals and dimension of Multicultural
Education .
Explain the importance of the principles of Teaching and Learning in a
Multicultural Society.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Multicultural education is regarded as an idea or concept, an educational
reform movement, and a process. It helps in incorporating ideas that
students irrespective of class, caste, social structure, ethnicity, racial or
cultural characteristic have an equal right and opportunity to learn in
schools. It provides equal opportunity on the basis of gender and also instil
the values, cultures, tradi tions and customs that each of the members of
the nation celebrate and it is regarded as unique and respected by all. In
multicultural education, it is the duty of the educators to create an
awareness of the diverse cultures, traditions, disseminate them t hrough
their subjects so that unity in diversity is fostered. Through this, it will
help the young generation to understand the importance of accepting and
respecting each community along with their diverse characteristics.
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25 3.2 AN OVERVIEW
A form of educ ation that introduces the students to various cultural
backgrounds , values and beliefs is
multicultural education . It is an approach
to reform s chool, an idea or movement to
bring in equity, democracy and social
justice. Multicultural education aims at
revamping schools so that the knowledge ,
attitudes and skills acquired by the
students helps in proper functioning in a
racially and ethnically diverse nation and
world. Such type of education seeks to
ensure educational equity for members irrespective of div erse socio -
economic groups, cultural, ethnic and racial groups and helps to facilitate
their active participation as critical and reflective citizens in an inclusive
national civic culture.
Multicultural education is a set of educational strategies develo ped to
provide students with knowledge about the histories, cultures, and
contributions of diverse groups. It draws on insights from multiple fields,
including ethnic studies and women studies, and reinterprets content from
related academic disciplines
3.3 MEANING AND CONCEPT OF MULTICULTURAL
EDUCATION
Multicultural education is a type of educational model that helps in the
celebration of equity and diversity. It purposes of multicultural education
is to help all students, specially those who have been historically
underrepresented. It is a form of education that introduces students to
different cultural backgrounds, beliefs and values. According to James
Banks, 1997, it is an idea, an educational reform and seeks to create equal
educational opportunities for all students, including those from different
racial, ethnic and social -class groups. It therefore refers to any form of
education or teaching that incorporates, integrates the histories, values,
texts, beliefs and perspective of people from various diverse cultural
backgrounds
3.4 CHARACTERISTICS, GOALS AND DIMENSION OF
MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION
India, being a multicultural society, we witness people of diverse
ethnicities, races, nationalities that are living together in the same
community. Hence, in suc h multicultural communities, since they are
living together the people share their own unique life style, food, dressing
style, languages, art traditions and behaviour. Thus, such customs and
traditions are retained, sustained and disseminated to the futur e generation.
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26 Characteristics of
Multicultural Education :
1. It is an education for
social justice. : Social
justice is central to
education and thus the
curriculum and the
instructional techniques
must be based on social
justice. In order to achieve
this the two important
components of learning
isreflection and action .
The school activities
planned must be in relation to the community needs.
2. It is a critical pedagogy : Pedagogy involves both the teacher and the
students and both are involved in the teach ing learning activity, giving real
life situations. While providing real life experiences, the teaching learning
process becomes more effective and thus decision -making skills and social
action skills are fostered.
3. It is pervasive : Multicultural educati on is all pervasive. It is universal
and can be seen in the teaching learning process, in the planning of the
curriculum, syllabus, lesson planning, instructional objectives, strategies
used in the classroom etc. The talking walls of all educational instit ution
also speaks volumes of multicultural education.
4. It focuses on basic education :It focuses on the second language,
5. It is antiracist education : Multicultural education is antiracist .It talks
about customs, traditions, culture, ethnicity irrespecti ve of caste, class and
community. India being a diverse country it is important for people to be
aware of all communities along with their uniqueness so as to accept their
diverse nature to live in peace and harmony.
6. It is important for all students : Being a part of a citizen of the
country, the nation and world at large it is important that all students are
created awareness of multicultural education, its needs and its importance.
Goals of multicultural education
Educational equity : It fosters equity i n order to bring about peace and
harmony in the nation and world at large
Empowerment : it is one of the goals of multicultural education so that
everyone is independent especially the deprived section of the society.
Cultural pluralism : is fostered throu gh multicultural education as
each one is aware of the uniqueness of the customs, traditions, culture
of those living in and around them
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27
Intercultural/interethnic/ intergroup understanding : Awareness of
each and every community custom, traditions, culture automatically
fosters intergroup, intercultural and interethnic understanding as
students are made aware of their uniqueness and diverse nature.
Freedom : it enhances freedom among the individuals, societies,
communities to follow their own customs, tradit ions and this helps in
preservation of culture
Expanded knowledgeInformed : The goal of multicultural education
is through the awareness of rich culture, diverse backgrounds and the
dissemination of the same help in expanded knowledge and keep the
people w ell informed.
inquisitive multicultural perspective : it enhances, encourages an
inquisitive multicultural perspective so that critical thinking, analytical
and logical thinking is fostered and understanding is gradually
developed.
Dimensions of Multicultu ral Education
Many schools’ districts refer to James A. Banks's Dimensions of
Multicultural Education to conceptualize and develop courses, programs,
and projects in multicultural education.
As per Banks there are five main characteristic s, goals and dimen sions of
multicultural education .They can be listed as follows:
The dimensions of multicultural education
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28 c. Prejudice reduction
d. an equity pedagogy
e. an empowering school culture and social structure
The above dimensions are distinct, however practically they are
interrelated, interconnected and overlap each other.
1. Content integration : includes integrating, correlating, interconnecting
the content from the various culture and g roups in order to explain
principles, generalizations, concepts and theories in their own subject or
discipline. In a diverse country like India, it is paramount to infuse the
ethnic and cultural content into a subject area for awareness among the
young on es for the need for accepting and respecting each other cultures,
traditions etc. Content integration of ethnicity and cultural aspects are
possible more in some subjects than in others. This is to a greater extent in
subjects like social sciences, languag es, arts and in music wherein the
content is integrated to illustrate the key concepts, themes and principles.
Although there is lesser opportunity for content integration in maths and
science as it seems to some practitioners, it is not the case. There ca n be
content integration of multicultural education even in subjects like maths
and science in the form of word problems wherein in unity in diversity can
be enhanced.
2. The knowledge construction process : Inthe process of constructing
knowledge, the teac hing activities must help students to understand,
determine, investigate, and determine the importance of implicit cultural
assumptions, critically review the biases of researchers and text book
writers as they play an important role in influencing the way the
knowledge is constructed. The teachers and students have to understand
the integrities of cultural identities and social positions of researchers
when they are assessing the validity of knowledge claims in the
construction process of knowledge. The theories based on multicultural
education firmly believes that the personal histories, values and attitudes
cannot be separated from the knowledge they create. Such theories reject
positivist claims of disinterested and distancing knowledge and also
disagr ee of the possibility of creating such a knowledge that does not have
any cultural assumptions and social position of the knowledge producer.
Multicultural teaching focuses on changing the structure and organization
of school knowledge rather than just inf using the content into the school
curriculum based on ethnicity. It stresses on the way the teacher and
students view and interact with knowledge, helping them to become
producers of knowledge and not merely consumers of the knowledge
produced by others, t his will enhance the critical, analytical and logical
thinking as the knowledge produce will be based on theories rather than
their own assumption. Multicultural teaching involves not only infusing
ethnic content into the school curriculum, but changing the structure and
organization of school knowledge. It also includes changing the ways in
which teachers and students view and interact with knowledge, helping
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29 knowledge produced by others. It wi ll be related to life experiences and
thereby a tendency to distort or exclude concepts or even challenge such
concepts so that it can make it more representative and inclusive of the
nation’s diversity and to reshape the frames of references, perspectives
and concepts that is included in school knowledge.
3. Prejudice reduction : The prejudice reduction dimension of
multicultural education seeks to help students develop positive and
democratic racial attitudes. It also helps students to understand how ethni c
identity is influenced by the context of schooling and the attitudes and
beliefs of dominant social groups. The theory developed by Gordon
Allport (1954) has significantly influenced research and theory in
intergroup relations. He hypothesized that preju dice can be reduced by
interracial contact if the contact situations have these characteristics: (1)
they are cooperative rather than competitive; (2) the individuals
experience equal status; and (3) the contact is sanctioned by authorities
such as parents , principals and teachers.
4.An equity pedagogy : in order to achieve this the teachers will have to
modify their teaching and learning in order to facilitate academic
achievement of students who belong to diverse racial, cultural,
socioeconomic and languag e groups. The teacher uses different teaching
and learning styles within various ethnic and cultural groups. Various
methods in order to foster equity pedagogy includes cooperative
techniques .An equity pedagogy assumes that learners from di fferent
cultures and groups come to school with many strengths.Multicultural
theorists describe how cultural identity, communicative styles, and the
social expectations of students from marginalized ethnic and racial groups
often conflict with the values, beliefs, and cul tural assumptions of
teachers. The middle -class mainstream culture of the schools creates a
cultural dissonance and disconnect that privileges student who have
internalized the school's cultural codes and communication styles.
The t eachers practice cultura lly responsive teaching when an equity
pedagogy is used . They incorporate important aspects of the family and
community culture of their students in the instructional materials and
practices. Culturally responsive teachers also use the "cultural knowledge,
prior experiences, frames of reference, and performance styles of
ethnically diverse students to make learning encounters more relevant to
and effective for them" (Gay, p. 29).
5. An empowering school culture : an empowering school culture fosters
equality by restricting the culture and organisation of the school by
involving students from diverse racial, socio economic and language
group. There is an exchange of the uniqueness of different culture into the
social structure of the school. They need to be ref ormed, examined as per
the social structure in consensus with the needs of the society.
An empowering school structure requires the creation of qualitatively
different relationships among various groups within schools. Relationships
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30 reflected in school -wide goals, norms, and cultural practices. An
empowering school structure facilitates the practice of multicultural
education by providing teachers with opportunities for collective planning
and instruction, and by creating democratic structures that give teachers,
parents, and school staff shared responsibility for school governance.
3.5 PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING AND LEARNING IN A
MULTICULTURAL SOCIETY
TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT :
Principle 1 : It should help teachers understand the complex characteristics
of ethnic groups within society and the ways in which race, ethnicity,
language and social class interact to influence student behaviour.
STUDENT LEARNING :
Principle 2: Equitable opportunities to learn and meet high standards must
be ensured by all educational institutions.
Principle 3: The need to help student understand that knowledge is
socially constructed and it reflects personal experiences of the researcher
as well as the so ciological economic and political context in which they
live and work.
Principle 4: Participation of students in curricular and co curricular
activities will enable students to develop the knowledge, skills and
attitudes that increase academic achievements and foster positive
interracial relationships.
INTERGROUP RELATIONS
Principle 5: In order to improve intergroup relations schools should create
cross cutting group membership in order to improve intergroup relations.
Principle 6: Learning about stereotypin g and other related biases that have
negative effects on racial and ethnic relations should be taught to the
students.
Principle 7: Values shared by virtual and cultural groups should be taught
to students e.g justice, equality, freedom, peace, compassion a nd charity.
Principle 8: Social skills needed to interactive effectively with the students
from other racial, ethnic, cultural, and language groups helps them to
acquire the knowledge.
Principle 9: Need to interact socially under conditions so as to reduce f ear
and anxiety should be provided to students.
School Governance, Organization, And Equity;
Principle 10: Educational institutions should ensure that decision making
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31 develop collaborativ e skills and helps to live and create a caring
environment for students.
Principle 11: Strategies should be developed by leaders that ensure that all
public schools are funded equitably.
Principle 12: Teachers should use varied techniques that are culturall y
sensitive to assess complex cognitive and develop social skills.
3.6 UNIT END EXERCISE
1) Explain the meaning of multicultural education
2) What is the concept of multicultural education
3) Explain the characteristic of multicultural education
4) Elu cidate the goals of multicultural education
5) Illustrate the dimension multicultural education
6) Elucidate the Principles of Teaching and Learning in a Multicultural
Society
Write short notes on:
1) Concept of multicultural education
2) Dimensions of M ulticultural education
3) Goals of Multicultural Education
3.7 REFERENCES:
BANKS , JAMES A., and B ANKS , CHERRY A. M CGEE, eds.
2001. Handbook of Research on Multicultural Education. San Francisco:
Jossey -Bass.
BANKS , JAMES A.; C ORTÉS , CARLOS E.; G AY, GENEVA ;
GARCIA , RICARDO L.; and O CHOA , ANNA S.1991. Curriculum
Guidelines for Multicultural Education. Washington, DC: National
Council for the Social Studies.
BANKS , JAMES A., et al. 2001. Diversity within Unity: Essential
Principles for Teaching and Learning in a Multicultural Society. Seattle:
Center for Multicultural Education, University of Washington.
Multicultural Education - History, The Dimensions of Multicultural
Education, Evidence of the Effectiveness of Multicultural Education -
Students, Cultural, Ethnic, and School -
StateUniversity.com https://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2252/Mul
ticultural -Education.html#ixzz7HfwtzsyF
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32 Webliography
https://www.slideshare.net/hanifnandazaka ria/the -characteristics -of-
multicultural -education
https://www.myschoolr.com/blog/what -is-multicultural -education -
advantages -and-disadvantages.ht ml
https://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2252/Multicultural -
Education.html
https://study.com/academy/lesson/multicultural -education -definition -
approaches -quiz.html
Evidence of the Effectiveness of Multicultural Education
The Handbook of Research of Multicultural Education comprehensively
reviews the research on multicultural education and the effectiveness of
various kinds of multicultural curricular interventions. At least three
categories of research that describe the effectiveness of multicultural
education can be identified: (1) research that describes the effectiveness of
multicultural curriculum interventions such as Banks's 2001 research
review; (2) research on the effects of cooperative learning and interracial
contact, such as Robert Slavin's 2001 research review; and (3) research on
how culturally responsive teaching influences student learning, such as
Carol Lee's 1993 study and Gloria Ladson -Billings's 2001 work. An
extended discussion of studies in the first genre is presented in this entr y.
Research reviews of the other two genres are found in the Handbook of
Research on Multicultural Education.
Slavin's 2001 research review and Cohen and Lotan's 1995 research on
cooperative learning and interracial contact activities indicate that these
interventions –if they are consistent with Allport's theory of intergroup
contact –help students to develop more positive racial attitudes, to make
more cross -racial friendships, and have positive effects on the academic
achievement of Latino and African -Amer ican students. Lee's 1993
research on culturally responsive teaching indicates that when teachers use
the cultural characteristics of students in their teaching the academic
achievement of students from diverse groups can be enhanced.
Read more: Multicultu ral Education - History, The Dimensions of
Multicultural Education, Evidence of the Effectiveness of Multicultural
Education - Students, Cultural, Ethnic, and School - StateUniversity.com
https://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2252/Multicultural -
Educa tion.html#ixzz7Hftbtccr
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33 4
HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION
Unit Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Nature, Meaning and Concept of Human Rights and Human Rights
Education
4.2.1 Nature of Human Rights
4.2.2 Meaning and Concept of Human Rights and Human Rights
Education
4.2.3 Concept of Human Rig hts Education
4.2.4 Education in Human Rights as a Human Right
4.3 Types of Human Rights
4.4 Model of Human Rights Education
4.4.1 Value and Awareness
4.4.2 Accountability
4.4.3 Transformational
4.5 Let’s Sum Up
4.6 Unit End Exercise
4.7 Referenc es
4.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to :
Understand nature, meaning and Concept of Human Rights and
Human Rights Education
Describes the types of Human Rights
Explain different Models of Human Rights Education
4.1 INTRODUCTION
A right is a legitimate claim that we can make. Human Rights are like
shield that protect us from different regulations, rules, we can learn and
understand how we should behave. Human rights also act as a jury whom
we can appeal to. Human rights belong to every person in the world, and it
gives us our freedom to behave and act. Human rights cannot be taken
away from any person yes, certain amount of restriction can be put in the
application of it. Human rights are regardless of your place of belonging, munotes.in
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34 caste, and creed. Human rights make us learn to respect others and receive
respect from others.
4.2 NATURE, MEANING AND CONCEPT OF HUMAN
RIGHTS AND HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION:
4.2.1 Nature of Human Rights:
Human Rights possess certain characteristics which decide s the nature of
it.
1. Human rights are inseparable: The inseparable nature of Human
rights explains its irreversibility which is achieved from the very own
existence of the individual. It is conferred to a person from his birth.
They are existent in all peop le, regardless of caste, creed, religion,
sexual identity, or nationality. An individual's human rights are
conferred even after his death. This is clearly reflected by the various
rituals found in various religions.
2. Human Rights are important and needed: Physical, moral,
spiritual, and social wellbeing of an individual is meaningless without
Human Rights. Our moral and material outlook can be changed due to
Human rights. Link of Human Rights with Human dignity: The
treatment we offer to other person regard less of whether he is male or
female ,rich or poor is all concerned with human dignity.
3. Irrevocable Human Rights: Human rights are absolute: They cannot
be taken away by any influence or power because these rights stem
from man's social nature in human civ ilization and belong to a
particular entity because he is a living thing. As a result, human rights
are like moral rights.
4. Human Rights are considered necessary for the Gratification of
Life's Purpose: Human existence has an objective. The term "human
right" relates towards the components needed for the achievement of
desired goals. No government has the power to limit or revoke rights
that really are sacred, inviolable, and unchangeable.
5. Human Rights are Universal : Human rights are not the preferential
arena of any fortunate group of people. Human rights are essentially
universal ,mandating no consideration or exception. The values that
underpin these rights, such as divinity, dignity, and equality, are
inherent in human nature.
6. Human Rights are never ultim ate: Man is a social animal who lives
in a civic society that almost always confines his ability to exercise
his rights and freedoms. Human rights are those constraints related or
claims that contribute to the common good and thus are
acknowledged and gran ted to individuals by the state through its
legislation. Therefore, each right is liable to certain constraints.
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35 7. Human rights are not static; rather, they are vibrant : Human
rights continue to grow in tandem with the state's socio -eco-cultural
and politica l context. Judges must handle cases in ways which are
consistent with evolving society values. For e.g., providing
specially equipped schools for students who are physically
handicapped.
8. Human rights as constraints on state control: Human rights imply
that every person has legitimate claims on his or her society for such
liberties and advantages. Therefore, human rights limit the power of
the state. These can take the form of negative restrictions on the
State's powers, attempting to prevent it from viol ating the
indispensable freedoms of individuals, or they can take the form of
demands on the State, i.e., commitments of the State. (N,1948)
4.2.2 Meaning and Concept of Human Rights and Human Rights
Education:
ThebiblicalagreementknownasMagnaCartaiswidely regardedasthefirsthuma
n rights declaration. (Vikas A. 2020) According to Oxford dictionary
definition, Human right is a right which is believed to belong to every
person.
The concept of Human Rights can be formulated using the two aspects.
a) Sociological a nd b) Political.
a) Sociological: A crucial component explaining the delayed
development of human rights sociology is probable in the tradition of
sociology on its own. Often these sociologists who investigate human
rights would agree that there really is dis trust in sociology about the
normative notion of personal rights. The history of classical sociologists
such as Max Weber, who reinforced the drop of natural law and the
introduction of juridical rationalism, and Karl Marx, who saw individual
rights as mer e philosophy, has long hindered the development of a
sociology of civil liberties. (Pinto -duschinsky, 2011)
Considering this, it is not remarkable that, in the postwar era, the
sociology of citizen status came to serve as a kind of replacement for the
socio logy of human rights. After all, citizenship offers a theoretically
feasible and empirically reliable sociological alternative to the abstract and
humanist concept of human right.
Even though clearly different sociology of human rights has highlighted
its profile in recent decades, there is still debate about subject areas in
human rights investigation and the need or preference of multi -
disciplinarily or collaboration. Ideas from other disciplines, such as
philosophy, history, political science, and law, h ave also been borrowed
by sociology, empowering the sociological knowledge about human
rights.
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36 b) Political: Human rights have become a frequent topic between party
leaders and diplomats who want to emphasize the power of ideas to
discipline and civilize sta tes. This tendency has been given some exposure
by international protest sociology, which highlights the role of
globalization in the development of global legal norms.
4.2.3 Concept of Human Rights Education:
In the 1950s and 1960s, efforts to define huma n rights education
highlighted conceptual knowledge for young people in a formal school
environment. By the 1970s, most educators had broadened the concept to
include critical thinking skills as well as concern or empathy for those who
have had their right s violated. The importance, however, stayed on school -
based education for youth, with little or no emphasis on personal
responsibility or action to promote and defend rights or effect change in
society.
The United Nations Decade for Human Rights Education (1995 -2004) has
defined Human Rights Education as "training, dissemination, and
information efforts aimed at the building of a universal culture of human
rights through the imparting of knowledge and skills and the molding of
attitudes which are directed t o:
(a) The strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental
freedoms.
(b) The full development of the human personality and the sense of its
dignity.
(c) The promotion of understanding, respect, gender equality, and
friendship among all nations, indigenous pe oples and racial, national,
ethnic, religious and linguistic groups.
(d) The enabling of all persons to participate effectively in a free society.
(e) The furtherance of the activities of the United Nations for the
Maintenance of Peace. (Flowers et al.,2000)
4.2.4 Education in Human Rights as a Human Right:
Human rights education is both a fundamental human right and a
responsibility: the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)
exhorts "every individual and every organ of society" to "aim by educating
students to promote respect for these rights and freedoms. "According to
the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), a
government "may not obstruct people learning about [their] rights."
(Flowers et al.,2000)
The Goals of Human Rights Educati on:
Human rights education teaches about and advocates for human rights.
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37 Its mission is to help people understand, value, and take responsibility for
respecting, protecting, and promoting human rights. Empowerment, a
process by which people and communiti es gain more personal freedom
and the decisions that affect them, is an essential outcome of human rights
education. Human rights education's goal is for people to strive to attain
human rights, justice, and dignity for all.
Human -rights instruction provid es people with human rights information it
includes education –
About all people's intrinsic dignity and the right to be treated with
dignity
Concerning human rights principles such as universality,
indivisibility, and interdependence
About how human right s promote decision -making participation and
conflict resolution through peaceful means
Concerning the history and ongoing evolution of human rights
Concerning international law, such as the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights and the Convention on the Ri ghts of the Child.
About regional, national, state, and local law that reinforces
international human rights law
About using human rights law to protect human rights and to call
violators to account for their actions
About human rights violations such as t orture, genocide, or violence
against women and thesocial, economic, political, ethnic, and gender
for ces which cause them
About the persons and agencies that are responsible for promoting,
protecting, and respecting human rights
4.3 TYPES OF HUMAN RIGHTS :
The United Nations has declared basic human rights to be recognized all
over the world by means of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
The United Nations General Assembly held this declaration at the Palais
de Chaillot in Paris, France on December 10,1948
This declaration is made up of 30 articles which affirman in dividual's
rights. Those 30 articles are now known as the 30 Universal Declaration of
Human Rights or the 30 Fundamental Human Rights. (Nations et al.,1948)
1. All individuals are free and equal: All humans are born free and
with equal dignity and rights. They are equipped with reason and
sense of morality and should act in a brotherly sort of way toward
one another.
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38 2. There is no discrimination: Everyone has the privilege to all rights
and fr eedoms, irrespective of race, color, sex, language, religion,
political or other perception, national or social origin, property, birth,
or other status. Further more, no distinction shall be made based on a
person's political, juridical, or global status in the country or
territory to which he or individual belongs.
3. Right to life: All of us have the right to life, liberty, and personal
protection.
4. Slavery is prohibited: No one shall be held in slavery or bonded
labor; slavery and the slave trade in all th eir forms shall be
prohibited.
5. There will be no torture or inhuman treatment: No one shall be
mistreated or compelled to harsh, inhuman, or degrading treatment.
6. The same right to use law: Everyone has the right to be
acknowledged as a person before the law everywhere.
7. Being equal before the law: Everyone is equal before the law and
has the right to equal protection under the law. Everyone has the
right to be protected against illegal discrimination and accusation to
such bias.
8. The right to be treated as equ als in court: Everyone has the right
to an effective remedy by competent national tribunals for acts that
breach fundamental authority given to him by the constitution or by
legal system.
9. There will be no unjustified detention: No one shall be arbitrarily
arrested, held in custody, or expelled.
10. Trial by jury: Everyone has the right to appeal and public hearing
by an impartial jury in the determination of his duties and privileges,
as well as any murder offense aimed specifically against him.
11. Innocent until proven criminally liable: Everyone charged with
committing wrongdoing has the right to be protected until proven
guilty as per law in a court proceeding in which he has earned all
necessary guarantees for his protection. No one held responsible for
a crimi nal offense based on an unlawful act that did not involve a
penal offence under domestic or foreign law at the time it was
decided to commit.
12. Privacy right: No one shall be detained involvement with his or her
privacy, family, home, or correspondence, or t o threats on his or her
dignity or prestige. Everyone has a judicial responsibility to
safeguard from such interference or attacks.
13. Mobility and residence freedom: Everyone has the right to move
and reside freely within the boundaries of each state. Everyo ne has
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39 14. The right to seek permission to stay: Everyone has the right to seek
and receive asylum from persecution in other countries.
15. Nationality rights: Everyone is entitled to a nationality. No one
shall be arbitrarily removed of his nationality , nor shall he be
refused the right to change his nationality.
16. The right to marry and have children: Men and women of full age
have the right to marry and have children without regard to race,
national ity, or religion. They are entitled to equal opportunities in
marriage, during marriage, and after divorce. Marriage may be
entered into only with the free and unrestricted consent of the
planned spouses. The family is society's natural and fundamental
group unit, and it is protected by the law both from society and the
state.
17. The right to own property: Everyone has the right to own property
on their own or in partnership with others. No one's property shall be
taken from him arbitrarily.
18. Religious and thou ght freedom: Everyone has the right to freedom
of opinion, sense of right and wrong, and religion; this includes the
freedom to change his religion or belief, as well as the freedom to
manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practicing, worship, and
observance, whether alone or in community with others, in public or
private.
19. Freedom of thought and opinion: Everyone has the right to free
expression and the liberty to hold an opinion without intervention, as
well as the liberty to seek, receive, and impa rt knowledge and
information through any media and regardless of limits.
20. The ability to assemble: Everyone has the right to freely gather and
correlate in a peaceful manner. No one may be compelled to enter an
institution.
21. Democracy as a right: Everyone ha s the right to participate in his
or her country's government, either directly or through freely elected
representatives. In his country, everyone has the equal rights and
access to public service.
22. Right to social security: Everyone, as a part of the socie ty, has the
right to be secure and the right to the realization of the economic,
social, and cultural rights needed for his dignity and the free
development of his individuality, through national effort and global
collaboration, and in relation to the orga nization and resources of
each State.
23. The right to work: Everyone has the right to work, the right to
choose their own job, the right to fair and favorable working
conditions, and the right to be protected from unemployment.
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40 race or gender. Everyone has the right to organize and join trade
unions to protect his or her interests.
24. The right to rest and vacation: Everyone has the right to rest and
recreation, which includes a reasonable limi t on working hours and
paid vacations on a regular basis.
25. The right to social services: Everyone has the right to a standard of
living adequate for his or her own and his or her family's health and
well-being, along with food, clothing, shelter, medical ca re, and
necessary social services, and also the right to security in case of
unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age, or other
lack of livelihood due to the circumstances beyond his or her control.
Motherhood and childhood are entitled to sp ecial care and attention.
All children must have the same degree of social protection.
26. The right to an education: Every person has the right to an
education. Education must be free, at least in the primary and
secondary levels. Elementary education will be mandated. Technical
and professional education must be made easily accessible, and
higher education must be made available to all on a merit - based
basis.
27. Cultural and artistic rights : Everyone has the opportunity to freely
participate in the cultural li fe of their community, to enjoy the arts,
and to benefit from scientific innovation. Everyone has the right to
have his moral and material interests guarded as a result of any
scientific, literary, or artistic production of which he is the author.
28. Globally , there is freedom: Everyone has the right to a social and
international order that allows them to truly understand the rights
and freedoms ingrained in this Declaration.
29. In accordance with the law: Everyone has responsibilities to the
community, and it is only through these responsibilities that a
person's personality can develop freely and fully. Everyone shall be
subject only to such limitations in the exercise of his rights and
freedoms as are determined by law solely for the purpose of making
sure due recognition and respecting the rights and liberties of others
and meeting the just requirements of morality, public order, as well
as the general welfare in a democratic country.
30. Human rights cannot be revoked: Nothing in this Declaration
should be interpr eted as granting any State, group, or individual the
right to engage in any activity or perform any act aimed at
destroying any of the rights and freedoms enshrined in it.
4.4 MODEL OF HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION
4.4.1 Values and awareness based on its philosophical – historical
approach ,the Values and Awareness Model focuses on transmitting "basic
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41 public values." This model is what most people think of when they think
of human rights, with the gene ral public as the target group and topics
ranging from international human rights to more culturally based issues.
Human rights -related lessons in citizenship, history, social science, and
law-related education classes are examples of the Values and Awaren ess
Model, as is the incorporation of human rights -related themes into both
formal and informal youth programming (e.g., the arts, Human Rights
Day, debate clubs).
4.4.2 Accountability: The Accountability Model is linked to a legal and
political approach to huma n rights in which the learners targeted by the
model are already involved through professional roles. The model has
been implemented through training and networking, with concepts such as
court cases, codes of ethics, and handling with the media covered.
The Accountability Model includes programme such as training human
rights and community activists in techniques for tracking and recording
violations of human rights,as well as procedures for submitting complaints
with appropriate national and international bodies.
4.4.3 Transformational: This educational model emphasizes the
psychological and sociological elements of human rights. This method is
suitable for subjects that include vulnerable communities and people
who've had personal experiences with the topic, su ch as women and
minorities. The model's primary objective is to empower individuals, such
as abuse victims and injuries. The model is geared toward acknowledging
violations of human rights while also committing to preventing such
offences. (Tibbitts,2017)
The Transformational Model can be found in programs that serve refugee
camps, post -conflict societies, victims of domestic abuse, and low -income
people. There are examples of "human rights communities" wherein
governing bodies, local groups, and citizens " examine traditional beliefs,
collective memory ,and aspirations as those that relate to the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights." (Koenig2000).
4.5 LET’S SUM UP:
Characteristics of Human Rights: Inseparable, important and needed,
Human dignity, considered f or necessary for the gratification of Life’s
purpose, Universal, never ultimate and constraints on state control.
The concept of Human Rights can be formulated using Sociological
and political aspects.
Three models of Human Rights Education: Value and Awar eness,
Accountability and Transformational
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42 4.6 UNIT END EXERCISE
1. State the meaning of Human Rights?
2. Explain the nature of Human Rights Education?
3. Define Concept of Human Rights Education?
4. Describes the different types of Human Rights.
5. Explain the Model of H uman Rights Education?
4.8 REFERENCES:
Flowers,N.,Bernbaum,M.,Rudelium -Palmer,K.,Tolman,J.,HumanRights
USA., & Stanley Foundation. (2000). Human rights education
handbook: effective practices for learning, action, andchange .
N. (1948). Human rights: nature and constituents .
www.mu.ac.in/myweb_test/SYBA StudyMaterial/fc.pdf?
Nations,U.,Declaration,U.,Rights,H.,Nations,U.,Nations,U.,Declaration,
U., Rights, H., Nations, U., Assembly, G., Nations, U., Human, B., List,
R., Declaration,U.,Rights,H.,&Nations,U.(1948). 30BasicHumanRightsList
| Universal Declaration of Human Rights . December .
Pinto -duschinsky, M. (2011). Bringing rights back home. Making human
rights compatible with parliamentary democracy in the U K. In Crime and
Justice .www.policyexchange.org.uk/images/publications/pdfs/PX_Keepin
g_Human _Rights_at_Home_WEB_07_02_11.pdf
Tibbitts, F. L. (2017). 3. Evolution of Human Rights Education Models.
Human Rights Education , January 2017 , 69 –95.
https://doi.org/10.9783/9780812293890 -005
Koenig, Shulamith. 2000. Message to On -Line Forum “Mid -Term
Reviewof U N Decade for Human Rights Education” July 21, 2000,
hosted by Huma n Rights Education Associates(HREA).
https:// www.k12academics.com/education -issues/human -rights -
education/human -rights -education -models
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43 5
ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN EDUCATION
Unit Structure
5.1 Objectives
5.2 Introduction
5.3 An Overview
5.4 Entrepreneurship in Education - Concept, Need and Significance
5.5 Educating about, for and through entrepreneurship, value creation as
the common core of entrepreneur ial education
5.6 Entrepreneurship Competencies: Cognitive (Knowledge, Skills) and
Non- Cognitive (Attitudes), Benefits of Education for Entrepreneurs
5.7 Unit End Exercise
5.8 References
5.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to
Recall the concept, need and significance of entrepreneurship in
education
Understand the need for education about, for and through
entrepreneurship.
Understand the need for value creation as a common core of
entrepreneurial education
Explain the cognitive and non-cognitive entrepreneurship
competencies.
Understand the benefits of education for entrepreneurs
5.2 INTRODUCTION
Since the beginning of civilization, it is observed that transformation of any
idea takes the form of action, thus leading to global transfor mation of the
world. For the social, economic and political transformation of a society,
education plays a very important role. It imparts social cohesion,
individual excellence, national development and this is an integrative force
for the development of the society.
Men in business have been creating ventures for masses and materializing
them into useful action. Entrepreneurs have a vision of doing things in a
unique way, they think beyond the constraints of any present rules and
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44 vision. They inspire their fellow men and women by peeping deeper in the
world. Entrepreneurship is not just a venture creation process, serves as an
agent of change as it goes beyond modern times with mat urity. It is
universal and is reflected in all major dimensions of civilization viz.
social, political, and economic etc. across the globe
5.3 AN OVERVIEW
The key to Indian living is entrepreneurship leading to an increasing
income. The educational system today, is preparing students for linear
careers and jobs rather than preparing students for society and for
entrepreneurial success. In order that individuals succeed in the jobs, the
ethos of entrepreneurship is essential.
Entrepreneurship education seeks to provide students with the knowledge,
skills and innovation to encourage entrepreneurial success in a varied
setting. This entrepreneurship education is a key driver of our economy.
A skilled based learning is important therefore and is an integral
comp onent of increasing efficiency. Lack of skills in the education system
is a major drawback in the development of Indian economy due to lack of
manpower. The outworn curriculum in India, lacks to equip graduation
with job - ready skill sets.
With the advance ment of technologies and techniques this scenario can be
changed drastically making the graduates ready to fit in the real - work
environment. This is only possible when higher education in particular,
focuses on integrating skills education and by introduc ing experience
based and practical learning.
5.4 ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN EDUCATION - CONCEPT,
NEED AND SIGNIFICANCE
Concept of Entrepreneurship in education
Entrepreneurship education is study of source of opportunities and process
of discovery (Shane & venkata raman,2000; NKC,2008; Timmons,1989), in
which an individual endeavours ability of creativity, risk taking and turn
their ideas into action. Entrepreneurship is a thus a social phenomenon.
The word has been in use since the 16 centuries. In Middle Ages the term
'entrepreneur' was referred to a person who was managing large projects.
In 1730, the French economist Richard Cotillion first to coin the word
'entrepreneurship’.
Gangaiah and Viswanath (2014) explained the genesis of term
'entrepreneurship' from the French word 'entreprendre' which originally
means the organizer of musical or other entertainments. According to
Jones and English, 2004, entrepreneurship education is “a process of
providing individuals with the ability to recognize commercial
opportunit ies and the insight, self-esteem, knowledge and skills to act on
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45
Entrepreneurship education is defined as the development of attitudes,
behaviours and capacities that can be applied during an individual’s career
as an entrepreneur (Wilson, 2009 ). Entrepreneurship education is the
process of identifying, developing and bringing a vision to life . The
vision may be an innovative idea, an opportunity, or simply a better way
to do something. The reviewed literatures on entrepreneurship education
is on: fostering entrepreneurial attitude, skill, managerial attributes.
Entrepreneurship education has been defined as a “collection of
formaliz ed teaching that informs, trains, and educates anyone interested in
participating in socioeconomic development through a project to promote
entrepreneurship awareness, business creation or small business
development.”Ekong (2008) defines entrepreneurship education as
tutoring provided to enhance an individual’s skills in order to instil in
him the desire to start a business and the competency to plan for it and
manage it. While Mankinen and Turpeinen (1999) note that the objective
of entrepreneurship educat ion is to provide learners with knowledge that
will help them in the future whether they are employees or employers,
Ayeduso (2004) identifies seven detailed objectives. These are listed
below:
1. Provide meaningful education for the youth which coul d make them
self-reliant and subsequently encourage them to derive profit and be
independent or self-developed;
2. Provide small and medium size companies with the opportunity to
recruit qualified graduates who will receive training and tutoring in the
skills relevant to the management of the small and medium business
centres;
3. Provide graduates with the training and support necessary to help
them established a career in small and medium size business;
4. Provide graduate in training skills that will make them meet the
manpower needs of society;
5. Provide graduates with enough training in risk management to make
uncertainty become possible and easy;
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46 6. Stimulate industrial and economic growth of rural and less developed
areas;
7. Provide graduates with enough training that will make them creative
and innovative in identifying new business opportunities.
Need for entrepreneurship in education
Many educational institution, especially higher education realised the
importance of the need for entrepreneurship and regard this as the need of
the hour in education Increasing efficiency and productivity in every
developing country especially India, is necessary for sound economic
development . The ever-growing demand for skilled manpower
necessitates the need to overhaul the skill eco system. The need for
entrepreneurship in education will help in the following ways:
It will increase employment and equip the students with the
employability through a series of inputs to equip students with
appropriate hands -on skills helps them to be job- ready.
If entrepreneurship in education is given, it not only enriches
competencies but also enhances productivity and result in outcomes -
based learning.
The curriculum in educational institutes must be reorganised,
restructured in such a way that will encourage learning by doing in
student. Experiential learning programmes is needed to help students
to identify hands -on entrepreneurial opportunities and spend their time
in building and executing new business ideas.
The need for educational institution t o reorganise their curriculum in a
way that will push students out of the classrooms and embrace
learning by doing their own. Early - stage innovation and
experimentation will be the key for students because Experiential
programs let you immerse yourself in life, and this process helps
students to identify hands -on entrepreneurial opportunities and spend
their time on building and executing a business idea.
Educational institution needs to make it mandatory students’
participation in Entrepreneurship Boot Ca mps or even send eligible
candidates to these camp so that they can show their skills and learn
how to create, innovate, collaborate or compete on a national or global
platform in boot camps.
Significance of entrepreneurship in education
To build Atma Nirb har Bharat, the youth of the country need a skill that
makes them self - confident, reliant, purpose -driven, and also future -ready.
Curriculum of higher education focuses on finding more skill -based
activities and realistic knowledge sharing by using new learning
techniques with students rather than exam orientation. It is therefore
necessary for educational institution should collaborate or send students for
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47 contribute to reforming hand s-on learning strategies. Thus, in order to fill
the skill gap and prepare students for employment it is necessary to fill in
these gaps. Universities and educational institutions have realised the need
for entrepreneurship in education so as to train them with the required skills
and competencies in their desired field.
The Indian higher education system has consistently recognised the need
to become more entrepreneurial and innovative with a view to supporting
the economic, social, and cultural developmen t of the country and its
regions. In the present time, several universities understand that
entrepreneurship and innovation are the need of the hour and it should be
part of the curriculum as well. For instance (Delhi Government started
Delhi Skill and Ent repreneurship University aims to skill the youth of
Delhi) These kinds of steps by the government are counted as measurable
steps to enhance the future growth of Students.
It is necessary for the youth of today to keep themselves updated from
time to time to keep abreast with the current Indian market scenario so that
they understand the trends of employment in future and understand the
value of a more specialised course, intensive skill training, technological
based career so that they fit into the present market scenario.
The need of the hour is that the government, industry and educational
institutions must join hands together to revamp the eco system in which
skills can be hone, developed and nurtured. Overview of why
entrepreneurial educati on is stated to be relevant and important. Job
creation, economic success, globalization, innovation and renewal are
common but not so effective on a wider scale. Joy, engagement, creativity
and societal challenges are less common but promising.
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48 5.5 EDUC ATING ABOUT, FOR AND THROUGH
ENTREPRENEURSHIP, VALUE CREATION AS
THE COMMON CORE OF ENTREPRENEURIAL
EDUCATION
Entrepreneurial education is often categorized into three approaches,
Teaching “about” entrepreneurship involves awareness of
entrepreneurship. It includes all the content -laden and theoretical approach
aiming to give a general understanding of the phenomenon. It is the most
common approach in higher education institutions (Mwasalwiba, 2010).
Teaching “for” entrepreneurship refers to an occupational ly oriented
approach aiming at giving training to budding entrepreneurs the required
knowledge and skills. Teaching “through” means a process based and
often experiential approach where students go through an actual
entrepreneurial learning process (Kyrö,2 005). It deals with the actual on
the job training wherein the students get experiential learning and rich
experiences. This approach lends itself to the wider definition of
entrepreneurship, and can be integrated into other subjects in general
education, connecting entrepreneurial characteristics, processes and
experiences to the core subject.
While the “ about ” and “ for” approaches teaching entrepreneurship are
relevant primarily to a subset of students on secondary and higher levels of
education, the embe dded approach of teaching “t hrough ”
entrepreneurship can be relevant to all students and on all levels of
education.
There could be challenges faced while trying to integrate entrepreneurship
into education include resources, time constraints, unwillingnes s from
teachers, assessment challenges and cost implication
Value creation as the common core of entrepreneurial education :
Various definition of entrepreneurship resulted in variations in
pedagogical approaches and therefore educators find it difficult to
approach entrepreneurial education. However, it is accepted fact that it
will benefit teachers and education significantly. Bruyat and Julien’s
(2001) definition has been widely accepted in the concept of value
creation is outlined and constitutes the bas is of many of the resulting
recommendations. According to them, to study only entrepreneur is not
appropriate and cannot result in entrepreneurship.
It is much more than the change and learning that an individual
entrepreneur experiences through the intera ction with the environment and
value creation that is caused through one’s action. Learning and Value
creation are the two important aspects of entrepreneurship. This
interpretation aligns better with the learning focused aims of educational
institutions than many other definitions of entrepreneurship. Value creation
is the main goal for students from the definition of entrepreneurial
education. It suggests that let students learn to create their own values
from outside stakeholders resulting in the develop ment of entrepreneurial
competencies, irrespective of value creation has been successfully achieved
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49 John Dewey’s view of “Learning -by-doing” can also be looked upon as a
“Learning -by- creating -value” approach grounded in the field of
entrepreneursh ip (Lackéus et al., 2013). As per the definition of
entrepreneurial education, if a a pedagogical intervention lets students
learn to create value for other people (own group and teachers excluded),
it is indeed entrepreneurial education. It could be done by actual value
creation for other people as formal part of the curriculum (a preferred
teaching “through” approach), or by learning about how to create value to
other people (a less effective teaching “about” approach).
According to the definition given b y Danish Foundation for
Entrepreneurship (Moberg et al., 2012, p.14): “Content, methods and
activities supporting the creation of knowledge, competencies and
experiences that make it possible for students to initiate and participate in
entrepreneurial valu e creating processes”. Entrepreneurship is therefore
when one act upon opportunities and ideas and transform them into value
for others. The value that is created can be financial, cultural, or social.”
The concept of entrepreneurial value creation is that not only the value
created should be original but also requires some initiative from the value
creators which could be in the form of acquisition of resources that was
required to created the value and that the process of value creation is
managed by the initiator and is also ready to accept failure risk.
In society, the creation of values occurs extensively and is interconnected
to individual happiness as helping others makes both life and feelings
meaningful, satisfied and engaged.
Routine values are bas ed on operational competencies such as process
management and execution, optimization and incremental improvements.
However explorative value creation is based on entrepreneurial
competencies. It is necessary to strike a balance between both forms of
value be it routine or explorative value. Routine value has short term
success.
Value Creation examples of how different stakeholders create value
for others,
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50 5.6 ENTREPRENEURSHIP COMPETENCIES:
COGNITIVE (KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS) AND NON -
COGNITIVE (ATTITUDES), BE NEFITS OF
EDUCATION FOR ENTREPRENEURS
Entrepeneurship Competencies : Cognitive (Knowledge, Skills) Non-
Cognitive (Attitudes):
The main goal of most entrepreneurial education is to develop some level
of entrepreneurial competencies. Entrepreneurial competen cies are defined
here as knowledge, skills and attitudes that affect the willingness and ability
to perform the entrepreneurial job of new value creation. This definition
aligns with much of the literature on competencies in general as well as on
entrepren eurial competencies.
There are two types of competencies - cognitive and non - cognitive.
Cognitive competencies include the knowledge and skills required which
are primarily intellectual based competencies that are and non - cognitive
competencies include at titudes such as perseverance, self -efficacy, learning
skills and social skills).
Cognitive competencies are easy to teach and evaluate, whereas non -
cognitive competencies require learning -by-doing and are more difficult to
evaluate (Moberg, 2014a). There i s a need to strike a balance with both
cognitive and non- cognitive competencies. However, it is noticed that the
non-cognitive competencies are often neglected. The curriculum of today
focusses more on knowledge and intellectual competencies based on
teaching to test rather than learning and doing. Non cognitive competencies
as per many researchers have been neglected and thus leading to a
significantly impact on academic performance and future labour market
outcomes more than the cognitive competencies. A lmost no research done
on the interaction between non-cognitive factors and entrepreneurial
education this is a capable area where entrepreneurial education can support
the improvement of general education through its innate capacity to foster
the developm ent of non-cognitive competencies leading to increased
academic performance
Five categories of non - cognitive factors impacting academic
performance) Adapted from Farrington et all, 2012
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51 Entrepreneurial competencies. Framework outlining some key
entrepren eurial competencies and their relation to cognitive and non-
cognitive competencies.
Adapted from (Lackeus, 2014).
Benefits of Education for Entrepreneurs
The idea of integrating entrepreneurship into education has stimulated
much interest in the last few decades. Numerous of effects resulted in the
form of economic growth, job creation and increased societal resilience,
but also individual growth, increased school engagement and improved
equality. Introducing this idea and putting into practice has incre ased vital
challenges alongside the stated positive effects. Lack of time and
resources, teachers’ fear of commercialism, impeding educational
structures, assessment difficulties and lack of definitional clarity are
some of the challenges practitioners hav e encountered when trying to
infuse entrepreneurship into education.
Entrepreneurship in education differs significantly. Some regard this as
students should be encouraged to start up their own company. This is
rather a narrow definition of entrepreneurshi p. In a broader perspective
entrepreneurship in education is not at only starting new organizations, but
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52 it is all about making students more creative, opportunity oriented,
proactive and innovative, relevant to all walks in life
5.7 UNIT END EXERCISE
Write in brief:
1) Explain the concept of entrepreneurship in education
2) What is the need and significance of entrepreneurship in education
3) Elaborate the cognitive competencies of entrepreneurship in education
4) Elucidate the non-cognitive competencies of entrepren eurship in
education
5) Explain education about, for, through entrepreneurship in education
6) Elucidate value creation as the common core of entrepreneurial
education
Write short notes on:
1) Concept of entrepreneurships in education Need for entrepreneurship
in education
2) Significance of Entrepreneurship in Education
5.8 REFERENCES
Achor, E. E. & Wilfred -Bonse, K. U. (2013) The Need to Integrate
Entrepreneurship Education into Science Education Teachers’ Curriculum
in Nigeria. Journal of Science and Vocationa l Education, 7.
Ahlstrom, D. & Ding, Z. (2014) Entrepreneurship in China: An overview.
International Small Business Journal, 32(6). p. 610 -618.
Arthur, S. J., Hisrich, R. D. & Cabrera, Á. (2012) The importance of
education in the entrepreneurial process: a world view. Journal of Small
Business and Enterprise Development, 19(3). p 500 -514.
Awogbenle, A.C. & Iwuamadi, K.C. (2010) Youth Unemployment:
Entrepreneurship Development Programme as an Intervention
Mechanism. African Journal of Business Management. 4(6). p. 831 -835
Webliography
https://www.outlookindia.com/outlookmoney/career/integrating -
entrepreneurship -innovation - in-higher -education -8233
https:/ /www.re searchgate.net/publication/291846697_THE_SIGNIFICAN
CE_OF_ENTREP
RENEURSHIP_EDUCATION_IN_GABONESE_SCHOOLS_JUSTIFIC
ATIONS_FOR_A_ NEW_CURRICULUM_DESIGN
https:/ /www.oe cd.org/cfe/leed/BGP_Entrepreneurship -in-Education.pdf
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53 6
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION, MOBILITY
AND MODERNISATION
Unit Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 An Overview
6.3 Concept and Types of Social Stratification
6.4 Concept and Types of Social Mobility - Factors affecting Education in
relation to Social Stratification and Social Mobility with special
reference to Indian Society
6.5 Concept of Modernisation: Individual and Societal Modernity, Role of
Education in Modernisation
6.6 Unit End Exercise
6.7 References
6.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this un it, you will be able to
Know the concept and types of social stratification, social mobility and
modernization
Aware of the concept of modernisation: Individual and Societal
Modernity
Understand the factors affecting education in relation to social
stratif ication and mobility with special reference to Indian society
Understand the role of Education in Modernisation
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Stratification in ancient India was on the basis of the caste. According to
Young and Mack, “in most societies people classify one another into
categories, and rank these categories from higher and lower. The process
of defining such categories is called Social stratification and the resulting
set of ranked categories is called the stratification structure.” The
categories themse lves are called strata, popularly known as classes. munotes.in
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54 Sociologist use the term social stratification to describe the system of
social standing.
6.2 AN OVERVIEW
Social inequity is the basis of social stratification. More or less all
societies encouraged socia l inequality by stratifying their members.
According to some sociologist, stratification, and its resulting inequalities
are a necessary, functional requirement of all societies. The society has
some highly important functions which are to be performed by its
members who are most capable and thus came distribution based on
talents. Labourers performed the lower functions that they were capable
off. The society thus stratifies themselves on the lines of social functions.
Some sociologist differs that such st ratification led to social inequality
even though they admit that social inequality is universal.
6.3 CONCEPT AND TYPES OF SOCIAL
STRATIFICATION
Social stratification is a particular form of social inequality. Societies
arrange their members in terms of superiority, inferiority and equality.
Social stratification is nothing but division of society into various section
and groups. This division is called stratification because it leads to
formalization of in-groups versus out-group relations. It means that
members belonging to one group behave in a particular way and it differs
from the way the other group behaves.
Stratification is a process of interaction or differentiation whereby some
people come to rank higher than others.
Concept of Social Stratificat ion:Social
stratification refers to a society’s
categorization of its people into groups
based on socioeconomic factors like
wealth, income, race,education,
ethnicity, gender, occupation, social
status, or derived power (social and
political)
Definitions of Social Stratification:
P.W Murray: Social Stratification is horizontal division of society into
‘higher’ and ‘lower’ social units.
Gilbert: “Social Stratification is the division of society into permanent
groups or categories linked with each other by relationship of superiority
and subordination.”
Ogburn and Nimkoff: The process by which individuals and groups are
ranked in more or less enduring hierarchy of status is known as
stratification”.
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55 Types of Social Stratification:
Social stratification is based upon a variety of principles. So we have
different type of stratification. The major types of stratification is based on
1. Caste
2. Class
3. Estate
4. Slavery
1. Caste : It is purely due to a
person being born in a particular
religious or caste group.In such a
system the individual’s position
is determined by the position of
his family and the individual has
only limited opportunity to
either rise or fall in the
hierarchy.It is a hereditary
endogamous social group in
which a person’s rank and its
accompa nying rights and obligations are ascribed on the basis of his birth
into a particular group. e.g.Stratification based on caste is Brahmins,
Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Sudras.
2. Class: This type of stratification is on the basis of class which is
dominant in modern society. Stratification on the basis of class purely
depends to a very great extent on the achievement and ability of an
individual to use to advantage the inborn characteristic to the maximum
and the wealth that he may possess.
3. Estate: In the medieval Europe, estate system provides another type of
stratification which gave emphasis to birth as well as wealth and
possession. Here each estate had a state
4. Slavery: This type of stratification had an economic basis. The slave
had his master to whom he was subjected and this prime duty was to obey
his master. The master’s power over the slave was unlimited. Most of the
times, the slaves were illtreated and tortured by their masters.
6.4 CONCEPT AND TYPES OF SOCIAL MOBILITY:
FACTORS AFFECTING EDUCAT ION IN RELATION
TO SOCIAL STRATIFICATION AND SOCIAL
MOBILITY WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO INDIAN
SOCIETY
Concept of Social Mobility: Social Mobility indicates that that social
change has taken place and that the society is progressing. The societal
progress d efinitely leads to individual progress. Social mobility refers to
the movement within the social structure, from one position to another. It
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56 means that there is a change in social status. Societies provide some or the
other opportunity for social mobility . However, societies differ from each
other to extent in which individuals can move from one class or status
level to another.
The concept of Social Mobility has essential importance in ascertaining
the relative ‘openness’ of a social structure and this is studied by
sociologist. Improvement in any group will definitely improve its social
status. It differs from society to society and hence, not uniform in all
countries. Since, agriculture is the main occupation in India, and caste
system still prevalent in India, therefore the rate of social mobility is
naturally low.
Definition of Social Mobility :
Sorokin : By social mobility is meant any transition of an individual from
one position to another in a constellation of social group or strata.”
Headrick : Social mobility is the movement of persons from social group
to social group”
Types of Social mobility :
Sorokin has discussed two types of social mobility:
1. Horizontal social mobility
2. Vertical Social mobility
Horizontal Social Mobility: It refers to the
movement of people from one social group to
another situated on the same level. It means that
the ranks of these two groups are not different. It
is transition of an individual from one social group
to another situation on the same level. Here the
position o f the individual may change but his
status remains the same. eg. A teacher leaves one
school and becomes a teacher in another school.
Vertical Social Mobility : It refers to the movement of people from one
stratum to another or from one status to another. It brings changes in class,
occupation and power. It involves movement from lower to higher or
higher to lower. eg. When a person attains higher education and becomes
rich, it is known as vertical social mobility.
There are two types of vertical
mobility. One is upward and other is
downward mobility.
Upward mobility is when an
individual moves from lower status to
higher status eg daughter of a peon
joins the bank as an officer.
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57 Downward mobility is when an individual moves down from one
position to and other and change his status. eg if a person loses his job due
to his inefficiency or any other reasons, he is downwardly mobile from his
previous job.
Factors affecting education in relation to social stratification and
social mobility with special referen ce to Indian society.
Education and Social Stratification
Sociologists like Durkheim view the major function of education in any
society as the transmission of that society's norms and values. According
to them, education provides a link between the indivi dual and the society
and it provides the individual specific skills necessary for the future
occupations, which is the most. important factor in the modern social
stratification system. Parsons (1961) believes that the educational system
is an important me chanism for the selection and allocation of the
individuals in their future roles in the society. It is also regarded as the
ground for proving one's ability and hence selective agency for different
statuses according to their abilities. However, this argu ment is rejected by
people like Bowles and Gintis who argue that the social relationships in
the schools replicate the hierarchical division of labour in the work place.
There is a close correspondence between the social relationships which
govern the pers onal relationships at the work place and the social
relationships in the educational system.
Raymond Boudon (1974) also suggests that the inequality of educational
opportunity is primarily a product of social stratification. According to
him, even if ther e were no sub -cultural differences between classes, the
very fact that people stand at different positions in the class system will
produce inequality of educational opportunity. Thus, the essence of social
stratification is social inequality and it manife sts itself through many
forms such as differential allocation of income, status and privileges,
opportunities for various social utilities, etc and the educational
achievement is very important in all these aspects. In the open systems of
stratification su ch as class system, the movement up and down the strata is
possible and in the closed ascription -based stratification systems such
caste, where the boundaries between various strata are rigid, the
movement is extremely difficult. Further, there are various correlates of
the relationship between education and social stratification in a society.
Most important of them is that the education is the primary generator of
social mobility in any modern industrial society. This relationship is little
complex to unde rstand. For instance, the education is the main component
in achieving a status in the social class system, on the one hand, and
stratification system is the deciding factor in the differential access to
education, on the other hand. Therefore, the relatio nship between
education and social stratification is very complex and can only be
understood in relation to the concept of social mobility.
Education and Social Mobility As discussed earlier, education in the
present day context is the most important and d ynamic force in the life of munotes.in
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58 individual, influencing his social development. It functions I more as an
agent of social change and mobility in social structure. It leads to
economic I development by providing ways and means to improve the
standard of life. T he positive attitude towards education leads to socio -
economic mobility among the individuals and groups. That means, a
person who is born in an agricultural family can, by means of education,
become an administrator or any other government employee. Secon dly,
education leads to the changes in the lifestyles of people. It modifies the
attitudes, habits, manners and their mode of social living. Thirdly, the
education is responsible for inter -generational mobility among the
individuals and groups. Through int er-generational mobility, the social
groups are able to maintain their status and the status of their family.
Therefore, it can be said that education plays an important contributory
role in the mobility of individuals and groups regarding their social
position, occupational structure, styles of life, habits and manners.
6.5 CONCEPT OF MODERNISATION: INDIVIDUAL
AND SOCIETAL MODERNITY, ROLE OF
EDUCATION IN MODERNISATION
Concept of Modernisation
The word modern or modernisation is the derivative of the Latin term
‘MODO ’, which means ‘just now’ ‘or’ ‘the latest’ . Modernisation
involves transformation towards progress democratic, socio -economic and
scientific ideals. Modernisation as a process of change requires both
structural and functional changes. Mutual to lerance, respect for other’s
views and equality among all are the essential requisites of
modernity.Modernisation does not mean elimination of all traditional and
ancient values. Those ancient values are to be preserved and protected
along with induction a nd modernity has to be intelligently solved to
accommodate overall progress.
The Oxford English Dictionary defines the term ‘ modern ’ as ‘something
of the recent times or something new or latest, not concerned with classic.
Thus, the literal meaning of the term refers to anything which is New or
Latest in life style, dress, art or thinking .
According to Indian sociologist Prof. Y. Singh , “Modernisation
symbolizes a rational attitude towards issues and their evaluation from
universalistic, not particularisti c point of view”. For him, Modernisation
involves diffusing scientific and technological know -how.
C.E. Black in his book ‘ Dynamics of Modernisation suggests
modernisation as a process by which historically evolved institution are
adopted to the rapidly ch anging function that reflect the unprecedented
increase in man’s knowledge, permitting control over his environment in
the recent centuries that accompanies the scientific revolution.
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59 Concept of Modernity has following distinctive characteristics:
(i) Int ellectual characteristics are like emphasis on science and technology,
reason and rationality, belief in progress and human development, control
over environment and avoidance of superstition and orthodoxy.
(ii) Political Characteristics, include marginali zation of religious influence
from State/Political matters, and rise of secular democratic polity,
universal adult suffrage, democratic values.
(iii) Religious Characteristics constitute a secularized society free from
religious orthodoxy and decline of re ligiosity.
(iv) Social Characteristics include decline of a traditional social order,
decline of Joint family system, alienated kinship ties
v) In relation of education, it involves literacy, emphasis on knowledge,
trained skill and the like.
(vi) Economic Characteristics include changing over to commercial
agriculture, use of machines and advanced technology in agriculture,
growing industrialisation and urbanisation, improvement in commerce,
industry and growth of Market etc. Thus, modernity implies a bunc h of
new socio -economic, politico -religious and intellectual system, totally
separated from the traditional one.
Individual Modernity: is modernity in an individual and is defined as a
syndrome of attitudes and beliefs including progressive, secularity,
optimism, future -oriented perspectives and a sense of self efficacy
Societal Modernity: is associated with evolutionary social change
towards increasing differentiation of structure and increasing
specialization of function
Modernisation has broadly the following salient features:
(1) A Scientific temper outlooks
(2) Reasoning and rationalism
(3) Secularization
(4) High aspirations
(5) Total change in attitude, norms and values,
(6) Developed economy,
(7) Broader national interest
(8) Democratization
(9) An open society.
(10) A challenging personality and finally munotes.in
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60 (11) Dynamic leadership to organize socio -economic cultural & political
movement and undertake reforms.
Role of Education in Modernisation: There are certain parameters
that contribute directly to th e process of modernisation
1. Sound political ideology and its effective operation, viable national
economy, functionally literate population, wholesome personality, skilled
man-power, modified values and motivation, concerted national efforts,
open minded ness etc. are regarded as the gifts of education. Education
disseminates political ideology of a nation, accelerates the growth of
economy, prepares abled and skilled man -power and makes people literate
functionally and expands the minds for the larger int erests of the society
and nation.
2. Production of skilled Human Resources: Education directly
contributes to the process of modernisation. It is rightly acknowledged that
human resource is the key to national advancement and a sound human
resource is crea ted and developed by education.It produces the skilled
persons with a sound knowledge base to occupy and operate economic,
industrial, technological and social fields. This high -powered human
resource contributes to the growth of national wealth through t heir creative
abilities and productive efforts. Therefore, education promotes in the
rising generation those knowledge, skills and attitudes which accelerate
the pace of modernisation.
3. Breaks the barriers of traditional thinking : As a dynamic force of
change education breaks the status quo of the traditional thinking, doing,
habits, attitudes and values. It broadens the mental horizon are arouses
interest in innovation and experimentation. It helps Individuals to be
broad -minded and stimulates their thin king to accept new things and
objects without a compromise with the old thinking and ideas.
4. Education prepares intellectual individual who are sensitive to the
needs of the society : Education creates a cadre of philosophers, scientists,
technocrats, lea ders, elite, co -planners, administrators, physician, teachers
etc. who vanguard the chariot of modernisation. They are highly sensitive
to the needs, demands and aspirations of, a modernized society and they
work for consensus building on important issues including national and
emotional integration, and above all international understanding.
They socialize individuals to look at the objects, ideas, things, persons etc.
in the correct perspectives by cultivating scientific temper and fostering
rationality . These two cardinal instruments i.e. scientific temper and spirit
and rational thinking help man to evaluate everything in its correct forms
and perspectives.Therefore, a society is advanced in every respect and
education is the originator and creator of ev erything which steers the
vehicle of modernisation.
5. Education creates interest in the mind and positively changes the
thinking of the people Education, as a chief instrument of modernisation
arouses, sustains, stimulates and perpetuates interest in the m inds of munotes.in
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61 people in the change and growth processes. Education helps in the
evolution of mind which is dispassionate, and objective and enquiring.
Education brings about change in the mind: attitude, value, opinion etc. to
work for the progress and prosperit y of a nation. Moreover, education
helps in the increase of production and income of a nation. Therefore,
there is a positive correlation between education and the growth of per
capita and national income. Education is regarded as the engine of
economic gr owth of a nation .
6. Education prepares a band of knowledgeable and creative men and
women by imparting appropriate value, skill and knowledge adequately
who, in turn, will commit themselves to the process of modernisation.
Thus, modernisation is harnessed by education.
7. Education acts as a powerful force of modernisation by developing
national outlook and international understanding. It can help the pupils in
knowing the latest developments in social, economic, technological,
scientific and cultural doma ins of human life.
8. Education can help in the achievement of emotional and national
integration which is the basis for establishing unity among people and for
development of nation -social, cultural, economic and political and
scientific aspects.
9. Educa tion can help in accelerating the process of modernisation by
fostering a democratic and secular outlook and vision among the
people. Secular attitude helps in developing respect for all religions of the
world and of the nation. Democratic altitude enables people to live
successfully in the society with others without any difference and feelings.
10. Education helps people to prepare for future life which is essential
for modernization. It helps them to acquire all social skills for leading a
better future life. And better future life accelerates the process of
modernisation. Therefore, it is a powerful weapon that can accelerate the
pace of modernisation in the present society for a happier and respectable
life.
6.6 UNIT END EXERCISE
Write in brief:
1) Me ntion the three types of social stratification
2) Briefly identify education as a factor in social mobility
3) Explain the role of education in modernization
4) Elucidate individual modernity
5) Differentiate between upward and downward mobility
6) Explain the need for societal modernity munotes.in
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62 Write short notes on:
1) Concept of social stratification
2) Concept of social mobility
3) Concept of modernization
6.7 REFERENCES:
Bilton, Tony, et al. (1987). Introductory Sociology, London:,Mac Millan
Giddens, Anthony . (1990). Sociology, Cambridge: Polity Press
Gupta, Dipankar. (1991). Social Stratification, New Delhi: Oxford
University Press. Sharma, K.L. (1994). Social Stratification and Mobility.
Jaipur, New Delhi: Rawat Publications.
Webliography
http://pioneerjou rnal.in/files.php?force&file=Shodh/Role_of_Education_i
n_Modernization_245515705.pdf
https://www.egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/14167/1/Unit -2.pdf
https://www.sociologygroup.com/modernization -indian -traditions -
yogendra -singh -summary/
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