MA-Education-SEM-I-Core-Course-I-Adv.-Philosophy-of-Edu.-English-munotes

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PHILOSOPHY AND EDUCATION
Unit Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Meaning of Philosophy
1.3 Branches of Philosophy
1.4 Meaning of Education
1.5 Philosophy of Education
1.5.1 Nature
1.5.2 Scope
1.5.3 Function
1.6 Relationship between Philosophy and Education
1.7 Let Us Sum Up
1.8 Unit End Exercise
1.9 References
1.0OBJECTIVES
Student will be able to:
Discuss the meaning of Philosophy and Education
Explain the meaning of Philosophy of Education
Explain the nature and scope of Philosophy of Education
Enumerate various functions of Philosophy of Education
Describe the Relationship between Philosophy and Education
1.1INTRODUCTION
Philosophy is a search for a general understanding of values and
reality by chiefly speculative rather than observational means. It signifies
a natural and necessary urge in human beings to know themselves and the
world in which they live an d move and have their being. Western
philosophy remained more or less true to the etymological meaning of
philosophy in being essentially an intellectual quest for truth. Hindu
philosophy is intensely spiritual and has always emphasized the need for
practi cal realization of truth. Philosophy is a comprehensive system of
ideas about human nature and the nature of reality we live in. It is a guide
of living because the issues it addresses are basic and pervasive,
determining the course we take in life and how we treat other people.
Hence we can say that all the aspects of human life are influenced andmunotes.in

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2governed by philosophical consideration. As a field of study, philosophy is
one of the oldest disciplines. It is considered as a mother of all the
sciences. In f act it is at the root of all knowledge. Education has also
drawn its material from different philosophical bases.
Various fields of philosophy have great influence on the various
aspects of education like educational procedures, processes, policies,
plann ing and its implementation, from both the theoretical and practical
aspects.
Progress of human civilization is the product of education, but the
answer to every educational question is ultimately influenced by our
philosophy of life. Philosophy against va lues in life and education tells us
how these values can be realized, thus philosophy and education are
closely interrelated with each other, therefore, this chapter is devoted to
bring to light some aspects of philosophy which may be termed as
foundations or basis of education.
1.2 MEANING OF PHILOSOPHY
A beginner in philosophy is perturbed to find that different
philosophers have given different definitions of philosophy. Some
philosophers have laid emphasis on psychological facts; others have given
more importance to values. According to John Dewey, "Whenever
philosophy has been taken seriously, it has always been assumed that it
signified achieving a wisdom that would influence the conduct of life." On
the other hand, according to Windelband, philosop hy is "... the critical
science of universal values."
The word philosophy literally means Love of Wisdom ; It is derived
from two Greek words i.e.
‘ Phileo”(love) and “Sophia” (wisdom)
While there is much difference in Indian and Western definitions
of philosophy, one finds widely different definitions presented by Western
philosophers also. Of these definitions, some emphasize the critical aspect
of philosophy while others lay emphasis upon its synthetic aspect. Some
examples of these two types of definitions of philosophy are as follows:
(a)Philosophy is a critical method of approaching experience. Examples
of this type of definitions are as follows:
●"Philosophy is essentially a spirit or method of approaching
experience rather than a body of conclusions about experience."
—Edgar S. Brightman
●"If it is not the specific content of the conclusions, but the spirit
and method by which they are reached, which entitles them to be
described as ph ilosophical..." —Clifford Barratmunotes.in

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3●"Were I limited to one line for my answer to it, I should say that
philosophy is general theory of criticism." —C.J. Ducasse
(b)Philosophy is comprehensive synthetic science —The following
definitions of philosophy emphasize its synthetic aspect:
●"Philosophy, like science, consists of theories of insights arrived
at as a result of systematic reflection." —Joseph A. Leighton
●"Philosophy is concerned with everything as a universal science."
—Herbert Spencer
(c) "Our subject is a collec tion of science, such as theory of
knowledge, logic, cosmology, ethics and aesthetics, as well as a
unified survey." —Roy Wood Sellars
(d)The above mentioned definitions of philosophy show that while
some philosophers have mainly emphasized critical philosoph y,
others have defined it as a synthetic discipline. In fact both these
view -points are one -sided because philosophy is both critical as well
as synthetic. The literal meaning of philosophy shows that the
philosopher is constantly and everywhere engaged in the search for
truth.
(e)He does not bother so much to arrive at final conclu sions and
continues with his search for truth throughout his life. His aim is the
pursuit of truth rather than its possession. Those who enjoy journeys
do not care so much about the destination, nor are they perturbed
when the destination is lost in sight in spite of continued long
journeys. In an effort to define philosophy, one arrives at the
difficulty that there is no genus in this case and also no differentia. In
defining a science one points out to the genus science and also to the
particular area of the particular science which differentiates it from
others.
(f)This is however, not possible in the case of philosophy because
philosophy is one and not many. Hence in order to arrive at the
meaning of philosophy you will have to discuss its problems,
attitud e, method, process, conclusions and results. In brief,
philosophy is a philosophical process of solving some characteristic
problems through characteristic methods, from a characteristic
attitude and arriving at characteristic conclusions and results. Some
might find this definition very vague and inadequate.
(g)Therefore, what is vague and inadequate if we say that in order to
understand philosophy one must understand the attitude, problems,
activity, and conclusion and results peculiar to it? This will also
clarify the distinctions between philosophy and science which has
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41.3 BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY
While studying the philosophical thoughts of a philosopher, we
study his thinking in different branches of philosophy.
These branches of philosophy are as follows:
●Epistemology. Philosophy is the search for knowledge. This search is
critical. Hence, the first problem which arises before a philosopher is
about the nature of knowledge and its limitations. Therefore, epistemology
is the most fundamental branch of philosophy. It discusses philosophically
truth, falsehood, validity of knowledge, limits of knowledge and nature of
knowledge, knower and known etc.
Example: Idealism, Naturalism, Pragmatism etc.
●Metaphysics. This is the study of existence, reality or essence. Its
main branches are as follows:
(i)Cosmogony -This is a study of creation. Is the world creat ed, or is it
eternal? How was world created? Why was it created? Who created
the world? What is the purpose in creation? All these are the problems
of cosmogony.
(ii) Cosmology -The main problems of cosmology are: Is the world one or
it many, or is it bo th one and many?
(iii)Ontology -Ontology is the study of ultimate reality. Is the reality
one—or is it many or is it both one and many? If reality is many, what
is the relation between these many elements? All these are ontological
questions.
(iv)Philosophy of s elf-This is mainly concerned with the philosophical
analysis of self. What is self? What is its relation with the body? Is it
free or does it depend on the body? Is it one or many? All these are
problems of philosophy of self.
(v)Eschatology -The discussion of the condition of soul after death, the
nature of the other world, etc., form the subject matter of this branch of
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5●Axiology. This branch of philosophy philosophically studies value. It
has been divided into the f ollowing three branches:
(i)Ethics -Ethics discusses the criteria of right and good.
(ii)Aesthetics -Aesthetics discusses the nature and criteria of beauty.
1.4 MEANING OF EDUCATION
History shows that the most pri mitive tribes viewed education as a
means for securing social solidarity and uniformity. For this, instructions
in certain exercises were imposed on children under the guidance of the
"wise men" of the tribe. During the medieval period education was used t o
serve political and religious ends. The Renaissance affected a change in
the whole outlook of life and education was regarded as a means for
independent personal culture and individual development. At first the
Reformation was a continuation of the best educational influences of the
Renaissance. But because of many sects, a new formalism creeped into
educational practices little different from medieval scholasticism. With
Realistic tendencies during the seventeenth century we find the beginnings
of the ps ychological, scientific and sociological movements in education
which are trying to reach their peak today.
ETYMOLOGICAL MEANING OF EDUCATION:
The Latin word 'Educatum' means -to train. ' E' means from inside
and 'Duco' means to draw out, to lead out or to bring up. By combining the
two, education comes to mean to draw from within. Education is a process
which draws from within. Each child is bo rn with some innate tendencies,
capacities and inherent powers. Education draws these powers out and
develops them to the full. The Latin words 'Educare' and 'Educere' mean to
bring up, to lead out and to develop etc. In this way the word education
means t o develop the inborn qualities of a child to the full.Thus education
is a process of development. To understand its nature and rate of progress,
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6NARROWER MEANING OF EDUCATION:
In its narrow sense school instruction is called education. In this
process, the elders of society strive to attain predetermined aims during a
specified time by providing pre structured titbits of knowledge to children
through set methods of teaching. The purpose is to achieve the mental
develop ment of children entering school. In the process, the teacher is the
most important factor and the child is assigned a subsidiary role. The
teacher is expected to instill ready -made doses of knowledge in the child's
mind. By this, the child cannot attain t he wholesome development of his
personality. Such knowledge strangles the natural development of the
child and hence is of no use to him for his actual future life. In spite of
this, school education has merits of its own. In the words of John Stuart
Mill—"The culture which each generation purposefully gives to those who
are to be its successors, in order to qualify them for at least keeping up,
and if possible for raising the level of improvement which has been
attained."
Following opinions of some educat ionists represent the narrow
meaning of education.
a."In a narrow sense, education may be taken to mean any consciously
directed effort to develop and cultivate our powers." —S.S. Mackenzi
b."Education is a process in which and by which knowledge, character
and behavior of the young are shaped and molded." —Prof. Drever
WIDER MEANING OF EDUCATION:
In its wider sense, education is not the communication of
information by the teacher or the acquisition of knowledge by the child but
the total development of the personality. Education consists of all those
experiences which affect the individual from birth till death. Thus
education is the process by which an individual freely develops himself
according to his nature in a free and uncontrolled environment. It is a
lifelong process of growth and development. It is not confined to the limits
of time, place and individuality. Any person who gives the child a new
experience is a teacher and any place where this giving and receiving takes
place may be termed as a school . Thus, education is essentially a process
of growth and development which goes on throughout the whole life.
Rousseau developed his philosophy of naturalism keeping this wider
concept of education in his view point. Following eminent scholars
interpret ed ucation in the wider context.
a."In the wider sense, it is a process that goes on throughout life, and is
promoted by almost every experience in life." —S.S. Mackenzi
b."By education, I mean the all round drawing of the best in a child and
man—body, mind and soul." —M.K. Gandhi
c."Education in its widest sense includes all the influences which are
upon an individual during his passage from cradle to the grave." —
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7ANALYTICAL MEANING OF EDUCATION:
a.Children in schools -Its programme goes on from birth till death.
Every one learns something or the other throughout life through
various experiences and activities. All this is education.
b.Education as the Development of Child's innate Power -Education is
developing the native endowment of a child rather than something
forced into the mind from outside. Addision has rightly remarked,
"Education, when it works upon the noble mind, draws out to view
every latent virtue and perfection which without such help are never
able to make their appearance."
c.Education as a Dynamic Process -Education is not a static but a
dynamic process which develops the child according to changing
situations and times. It is a purposive activity always pursuing some
aim of life to which an individual devotes himself fully.
d.Education as a Bipolar Process -In his book "Evolution of Educational
Theory" Adams has interpreted education as a bipolar process. He
analyzed education as under:
i."It (Education) is a bipolar process in which one personality acts
upon another in order to modify the development of the other."
ii."The process is not only a conscious one but a deliberate one. The
educator has the clearly realized intention of modifying the
development of the educand."
iii."The means by which the development of the educan d is to be
modified are two folds:
iv.The direct application of the educator's personality to the personality
of the educand and,
v.The use of knowledge in its various forms."
According to Adams, bipolar education has two poles. At one end is
the teacher and at the other is the child. Both are equally important in
education. If the teacher instructs, the child follows. If the teacher gives,
the child receives. Thus in the process of education there is interaction
between the teacher and the child. The teacher tries to mold and modify
the behavior of the child so that the latter develops his personality to the
full. With the active cooperation of the teacher and the child, the process
of education goes on smoothly and efficiently.
e. Education as a Tripolar Proces s. Like Adams, John Dewey also
regards education as a process of development. But while accepting the
psychological view, Adams emphasizes the importance of teacher and the
child, John Dewey emphasizes the sociological view point. Hence
according to John D ewey education has two aspects —Psychological, and
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8He accepts the contention that education of the child should be
according to his native endowments. He further asserts that the
development of a child does not take place in a vacuum. It takes place in
and through the society in which the teacher and the child both live. It is
the society which will determine the aims, contents and methods of
teaching.
In this way the process of education contains three poles,
namely —(1) The teacher, (2) T he child, (3) The society. These three
factors actively cooperate in the efficient and successful working of the
educational process.
MEANING OF EDUCATION IN THE WEST:
Educational thinking, like every other branch of knowledge, started
in the philosophi cal deliberation of the ancient Greek philosophers. Thus
the meaning of education in the west is initially available in the works of
Plato. It is interesting to note that thousands of years ago Plato gave a
meaning to education which is even now followed i n the West with slight
changes here and there. Plato defined education as a life -long process
starting, "from the first years of childhood and lasting to the very end of
the life." He used the term education in a very wide sense, "which makes a
man eagerly pursue the ideal perfection of citizenship and teaches him
how to rule and how to obey." Education not only provides knowledge and
skills but also inculcates values, training of instincts, fostering the right
attitude and habits.
In (Republic), Plato p oints out that "true education, whatever that
may be, will have the greatest tendency to civilize and humanize them in
their relation to one another and to those who are under their protection."
This humanist definition of education propounded by Plato is still the most
widely accepted meaning of education in the West. Education everywhere
has been taken as a process of inculcating values. As Plato said, "Now I
mean by education that training is given by suitable habits to the first
instincts of virtue in c hildren." These views of Plato have been universally
accepted in the West as well as in the East. Education has been defined
differently by the idealists, the pragmatists, the naturalists and the realist
philosophers. However, its meaning has been generall y idealistic. Without
some sort of idealism there can be no education worth the name.
In the words of Robert R. Rusk, "We may accept the aim of
education is the enhancement or enrichment of personality, the
differentiating feature of which is the embodime nt of universal values."
The Western educational philosophers have generally agreed that the
growth of the human child is the essence of education. In the words of
A.G. Hughes, "The essence of discipline is, thus not forced subordination
to the will of hat ed tyrants, but submission to the example of admired
superiors".
In the middle ages Comenius declared education to be a process
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9and morality, and thereby established his cla im to be called a human
being. "The fundamental principles of education", according to Froebel,
"instruction and teaching should be passive and protective not directive
and interfering."
The principles of liberty have found the most eloquent expression
in the definition of education given by Rousseau when he said, "Let us
obey the call of Nature. We shall see that her yoke is easy and that when
we give heed to her voice we find the joy in the answer of a good
conscience." Other have laid emphasis upon the social meaning of
education whereby it aims at making an individual fit in the society. It was
in this sense that Aldous Huxley said, "A perfect education is one which
trains every human being to fit into the place he or she is to occupy in the
social hie rarchy, but without, in the process, destroying his or her
individuality." All the foregoing definitions have stated that education is
the process of development. It, therefore, becomes necessary to discover
what is implied in this development. Although th e ability to learn depends
upon development, development is not synonymous with education.
Development means the gradual and continuous progress of mind and
body.
Through this development the child acquires the following elements:
1. Knowledge of the env ironment by which he is surrounded.
2. The necessary motor control to fulfill has individual needs.
3. Linguistic abilities to enable him to converse.
4. Some knowledge of individual and collective relationships.
The development of all these elements beg ins at home itself.
The educator's goal is to continue this process and to encourage it
while the child is at school. In fact this process of development continues
right through an individual's lifetime. Consequently, it is accepted that
education in its general sense continues throughout a man's natural span of
life, Even the successful teacher or educator himself remains a student
throughout his life. On the one hand, he teaches certain things to some
people but at the same time he learns something from them. All successful
educators experience that the development undergone by their thoughts,
personalities and abilities would have been impossible otherwise. In much
the same way, people other than the educator, teach and learn
simultaneously.
MEANING OF EDUCATION IN INDIA:
Turning to the Indian approach, it becomes necessary to include
the spiritual aspect also because it is accepted as a part of the development
of education. In fact, Indian thinkers have placed special emphasis upon
this. Yajnavalkya op ined that only that is education which gives a sterling
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10Shankaracharya said that education is that which leads to salvation.
Even the more recent educationists have stressed the importance of the
spiritual aspect. In the world of A.S. Altekar, "Education has always been
regarded in India as a source of illumination and power which transforms
and ennobles our nature by the progressive and harmonious development
of our physical, mental, intell ectual and spiritual powers and faculties."
This spiritual tradition has been carried on by contemporary Indian
philosophers of education in their integral approach, synthesis of idealism
and pragmatism, rationalism and humanism, diversity in unity and
harmony of the individual and society.
It was due to this emphasis on the spiritual meaning of education
that Vivekananda said. "Religion is the innermost core of education." In
the words of Sri Aurobindo, "The child's education ought to be an
outpouring of all that is best, most powerful, most intimate and living in
his nature, the mold into which the man's action and development ought to
run is that of his innate quality and power. He must acquire new things but
he will acquire them best, most wholly on th e basis of his own developed
type and inborn force."
M.K. Gandhi expressed the same idea when he defined education
by saying, "By education I mean an all -round drawing out of the best in a
child and man, body, mind and spirit. Literacy is not the end of e ducation,
not even the beginning. It is one of the means by which man and woman
can be educated. Literacy in itself is not education."
MODERN CONCEPT OF EDUCATION:
To understand the modern concept of education, one has to make a
comparative study of the old and modern concepts.
Following are the differences between the old and the new concepts.
●Meaning of Education. Education is derived from the Latin word
'Educatum' which means to draw out, to foster growth and to develop.
Hence the modern concept of ed ucation seeks to develop the inherent
capacities of a child in the social environment. In the old concept,
education was taken to mean as a process to thrust ready -made titbits
of knowledge into the mind of a child as if it was an empty vessel. The
old con cept has exploded under the weight of psychological research
and democratic values. The mind is a dynamic self adjusting and self
learning force needing proper guidance for wholesome growth and
development modern education seeks to develop the mind accordi ng to
its own inherent capacities in a social environment.
●Aims of Education. Ancient education emphasized scholarship and
mental development. It kept an indifferent attitude towards other
aspects of personality. Acquiring more and more knowledge was
regar ded as the prime aim. On the contrary modern educationists lay
equal stress upon other aspects of development viz. physical, mental,
emotional and social. Thus the aim of modern education is to develop
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11●Curriculum. In the old curriculum, only subjects promoting mental
development were included and emphasized. Thus the old curriculum
got rigid and stratified. It was confined mostly to classroom activities
and experiences. Modern curriculum is flexible, varied and progressive
in the sense that it tries to meet the needs of the developing child as
well as the demands of ever changing modern society.
●Methods of Teaching. As the methods emphasized cramming and
stimulated rote memorization educat ion was a lifeless, dull and drab
process. Modern methods condemn rote memorization and promote
the adoption of lively and effective methods like Play way, Learning
by doing, Learning by experience etc. These methods stimulate
motivation, interest and atte ntion.
●Discipline. Old concept of discipline emphasized the use of rode and
punishments to enforce obedience and discipline in children. This
concept of enforced discipline through repression has now been given
up. The modern concept is self discipline lea ding to natural obedience.
●Examination. The old method of essay type examination encouraged
cramming and rote memorization. Modern techniques evaluate as well
as examine. These include objective tests, progress reports, cumulative
records, interviews and p ractical performances.
●Agencies of Education. According to old beliefs, school was the only
agency for the education of children. According to modern views all
formal and informal agencies are harnessed to the task of education.
●Teacher. Old education put the teacher at the top of the educational
process. In modern times a teacher is considered as a friend,
philosopher and guide.
●Child. According to the old concept, the child was a mere passive
recipient of whatever the teacher instructed. Modern education is child
centered. The entire educational process is to cater to his needs and
develop him according to his nature. He is to interact actively with the
teacher and his classmates to achieve effective learning promoting his
own development and the developme nt of the society of which is an
integral part.
●School. According to the old concept, school served as a shop for
selling knowledge. Everything was pre -planned in advance. Teachers
were concerned with the input and bothered little about output.
Modern conc ept of education regarding school is a miniature of
society laying emphasis more on output in comparison with input.
●Education as a Discipline. In ancient times, education meant only
training for some aim. Modern education is a separate discipline of
deep study, investigation and research. It is a very important process of
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12distinct special features and factors to promote it as a vital formative
process.
DEFINITIONS:
• Education is the creation of a sound mind in a sound body. It develops
man’s faculty specially his mind so that he may be able to enjoy the
contemplation of supreme truth, goodness and beauty .
-Aristotle
•Education is helping the growing soul to draw out that in itself.
-Aurobindo
•Education is enfoldment of what is already enfolded in the germ. It is
the process thr ough which the child makes the internal -external.-Froebel
•Education is the infl uence of the environment of the individual with a
view to producing a permanent change in his habits of behavior, or
thought and attitude. -G. H. Thompson
• Education is the development of good moral character .
-J.F.Herbert
•Education is not a preparation for life, rather it is the living. Education
is the process of living through a continuous reconstruction of
experiences. It is the devel opment of all those capacities in the
individual which will enable him to control his environment and fulfill
his possibilities.
-John Dewey• Education is the training for a country and for the nation.-Kautilya
•Human education means the training which one gets from nature.
-Panini
•Education is the harmonious and progressive development of all the
innate powers and faculties of man -physical, intellectual and moral.-Pestalozzi
•Education develops in the body and soul of t he pupil all the beauty and
all the perfection he is capable of .-Plato .
•The highest education is that which does not merely give us information
but makes our life in harmony with all existence .
-Rabindranath Tagore
•Education according to Indian tradition is not merely a means of
earning a living; nor it is only a nursery of thought or a school for
citizenship. It is initiatio n into the life of spirit and training of human
souls in the pursuit of truth and the practice of virtue .
-Radhakrishnan
•Education is something which makes a man self -reliant and self -less.
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13•Education ought to be related to the life, needs and aspirations of the
people so as to be a powerful instrument of social, economic and
cultural transformation.
-The Ed ucation Commission (1964 -66)
1.5 PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION:
1.5.1 NATURE
Philosophy of education is the branch of practical philosophy
concerned with the nature of education, as well as the philosophical issues
that can arise from educational theory and practice. The major
philosophies of education can be divided into three main types: teacher -
centered philosophies, student -centered philosophies, and society -centered
philosophies.
Aphilosophy of education refers to the examination of the goals,
forms, methods and meaning of education. The term can be used to
describe the fundamental philosophical analysis of these themes and
analysis of practical pedagogical approaches. Its subject matter includes
both basic philosophical issues, s uch as the nature of the knowledge that is
worth teaching and learning and the state of educational justice as well as
problems concerning practical educational policies and practice, such as
standardized testing or the social, economic, and legal implicat ions of
school funding.
The philosophy of education plays an important role in providing
direction to education as well as a theory of knowledge for education to
work upon.
Philosophy of education is essentially a method of approaching
educational exper ience rather than a body of conclusions. It is the specific
method which makes it philosophical and the Philosophical method is
critical, comprehensive and synthetic.
Therefore,
●Philosophy of education is the criticism of the general theory of
education.
●It consists of critical evaluation and systematic reflection upon general
theories.
●It is a synthesis of educational facts with educational values.
METAPHYSICS & EDUCATION:
Even a cursory study of either historical or contemporary societies
will reve al the impact of the cosmological, theological, anthropological,
and ontological aspects of metaphysics upon their social, political,
economic, and scientific beliefs and practices. People everywhere embrace
answers to these questions and then live their d aily lives in keeping with
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14one chooses to vegetate and even that choice would be a metaphysical
decision about the nature and function of humanity. Education, like other
human activi ties, cannot operate outside the realm of metaphysics.
Metaphysics, or the issue of ultimate reality, is central to any concept of
education, because it is important for the educational program of the
school (or family or church) to be based upon fact and reality rather than
fancy, illusion, error, or imagination. Varying metaphysical beliefs lead to
differing educational approaches and even separate systems of education.
Why do Adventists and other Christians spend millions of dollars each
year on private systems of education when free public systems are widely
available? This is due to their metaphysical beliefs regarding the nature of
ultimate reality, the existence of God, the role of God in human affairs,
and the nature and role of human beings as God’s children. At their
deepest levels, men and women are motivated by metaphysical beliefs.
History demonstrates that people are willing to die for those convictions,
and that they desire to create educational environments in which their
most basic beliefs wi ll be taught to their children. The anthropological
aspect of metaphysics is especially important for educators of all
persuasions. After all, they are dealing with malleable human beings at
one of the most impressionable stages of their lives. Views about the
nature and potential of students form the foundation of every educational
process. The very purpose of education in all philosophies is closely tied
to these views.
Thus, anthropological considerations lie extremely close to the
aims of education. Philosopher D. Elton Trueblood put it nicely when he
asserted that “until we are clear on what man is, we shall not be clear
about much else.”It makes a great deal of difference whether a student is
viewed as Desmond Morris’s “naked ape” or as a child of G od. Likewise,
it is important to know whether children are innately evil or essentially
good, or good but radically twisted by the effects of sin. Variations in
anthropological positions will produce significantly different approaches
to the educational pr ocess. Metaphysics is speculative and focus on issues
as the nature of cause -effect relationships. It relates to teaching in terms of
thoughts about educational goals, the selection of appropriate content and
educational goals, and attitudes towards the ge neral nature of learners.
EPISTEMOLOGY & EDUCATION:
Epistemology and education are tacit companions since both are
primarily the act of knowing. Epistemology is the motor of education in a
sense because it drives the educational process. Whatever educati onal
theories and practices one employs will be consistent with his or her
theories and practices of epistemology. Epistemology has a direct impact
upon education on a moment -by-moment basis. For example, assumptions
about the importance of various sources of knowledge will certainly be
reflected in curricular emphases and teaching methodologies. Because
Christian teachers believe in revelation as a source of valid knowledge,
they will undoubtedly choose a curriculum and a role for the Bible in that
curricu lum that differs substantially from the curricular choices of
nonbelievers. In fact, the philosophic worldview of their faith will shapemunotes.in

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15the presentation of every topic they teach. That, of course, is true for
teachers from every philosophic persuasion and thus constitutes an
important argument for educating Adventist youth in Adventist schools.
AXIOLOGY & EDUCATION:
Our contemporary age is an age of great confusion and turmoil.
Wars and conflicts continue unabatedly, and innumerable alarming and
tragic p henomena, including terrorism, destruction, arson, kidnapping,
murder, drug abuse, alcoholism, sexual immorality, family breakdown,
injustice, corruption, oppression, conspiracy, and slander, are occurring
worldwide. At the vortex of this turmoil, humankin d’s most valuable
assets are now almost obliterated. It refers to the loss of personal human
dignity, the loss of time -honored traditions, the loss of the dignity of life,
the loss of mutual trust among people, the loss of the authority of parents
and teac hers, and the list goes on. In this context education plays an
important role for inculcating the value (such as -truth, beauty and
goodness etc.) and transmitting from one generation to another through its
curriculum. It has been rightly stated that cultu re is a totality of values
created throughout history and that education is the means of performing
culture.
This is why axiology requires an important educational dimension.
Which are the components of this dimension? First, axiology, by
projecting a sy stem of values, proposes educational aims under the form of
axiological objectives and ideals. Second, axiology comprises both general
human or universal and specific values for a determined community,
thereby giving it its personality. Education preserves and transmits values
that guarantee the cultural identity of the human community. Third, the
performance of values requires knowledge and experience, which means
the involvement in this process of education on its two interrelated planes:
cognitive and em otional. Finally, as axiology is the horizon of the
manifestation of human creativity, education has among its fundamental
functions that of cultivating the creative power of the individual and the
human community. Otherwise expressed, though personality i s the source
of all values, it is not born, but is developed by education. That is why we
estimate nowadays that education is one of the fundamental resources for
future social development. From this concise presentation of the elements
making up the conte nt of the educational dimension of axiology, there
results a very important conclusion: without education, axiology would be
deprived of living power, and, without the light of axiology, education
would grope about in the dark.
1.5.2 SCOPE
The scope of philosophy of education is the study of all those
aspects or schools of philosophy, which are important from the
educational point of view. Thus, it is philosophy in the field of education.
The scope of philosophy of education is concerned with the
problems of education. These problems mainly include –munotes.in

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16• Interpretation of human nature, the world and the universe and their
relation with man,
• Interpretation of aims and ideals of education,
• The relationship of various components of the system of education,
• Relationship of education and various areas of national life [economic
system, political order, social progress, cultural reconstructions etc.],
• Educational values,
• Theory of knowledge and its relationship to education.
The above mentioned problems constitute the scope of philosophy
of education and explain its nature. Thus, the scope of philosophy of
education includes the following.
(a)Aims and Ideals of Education Philosophy:
Education critically evaluates the different aims and ideals of
education. These aims and ideals have been propagated by various
philosophers in different times. They are character building, man making,
harmonious human development, preparation for adult life, -development
of citizenship, -utilization of leis ure, training for civic life, training for
international living, achieving social and national integration, -scientific
and technological development, education for all, equalizing educational
opportunities, strengthening democratic political order and hum an source
development. These and other aims of education presented by educational
thinkers in different times and climes are scrutinized and evaluated. An
educator is helpless in arriving at the aims of education if he/she lacks the
knowledge of related ci rcumstances and problems. Thus, philosophy of
education critically evaluates different aims and ideals of education to
arrive at.
(b) Interpretation of Human Nature: -
A philosophical picture of human nature is a result of the synthesis
of the facts borrowed from all human science with the values discussed in
different normative sciences. The philosophical picture, therefore, is
broader as compared to the picture of man drawn by biology, sociology,
psychology, economics and anthropology and other human sciences.
(c) Educational Values: -
Value is typically a philosophical subject since it is more abstract,
integral and universal. Philosophy -of education not only critic ally
evaluates the values but also systematizes them in a hierarchy. Educational
values are determined by philosophical values. Educational values
propagated by different philosophers have been derived from their own
world view and their outlook on the pur pose of human life. Therefore, a
scrutiny of the world views, outlook, beliefs is the specific function of
philosophy and it is necessary for the philosophical treatment of the
values.munotes.in

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17(d) Theory of Knowledge: -
Education is related to knowledge. It is det ermined by the source,
limits, criteria and means of knowledge. The discussion of all these falls
within the jurisdiction of epistemology, one of the branches of philosophy,
therefore, an important area of the functioning of philosophy of education
is rela ted to theory of knowledge.
(e) Relationship of education and various area of national life and
various components of the system of education: -
One of the most important contributions of the philosophy of
education to the cause of education is the provisio n of criteria for deciding
the relationship of state and education, economic system and education,
curriculum, school organization and management, discipline, teacher -pupil
relationship, methods of teaching, textbooks etc. These problems have led
to the ev aluation of different philosophies of education. The criteria of
judgment everywhere are determined by philosophy; therefore, philosophy
of education provides the criteria for critical evaluation and judgment in
these fields.
1.5.3 FUNCTIONS
Philosophy of education performs various functions. These are
discussed below:
A) DETERMINING THE ASPECTS OF EDUCATION:
Philosophy of education provides original ideas regarding all
aspects of education particularly educational aims, method of teaching,
curriculum , teacher, students etc. It is said that educational philosophy
gives different views, but this situation is not harmful, rather it helps in
providing education according to the needs of society. The difference in
view of philosophy of education reflects t he multiplicity and diversities of
human life.( e.g -Self –expression is the aim of education under
naturalism, where as it is self -realization in idealism and social efficiency
in pragmatism) Philosophy of education guides the process of education
by sugg esting suitable aims from the diversities of life and selecting the
means accordingly.
B) HARMONIZING OLD AND NEW TRADITIONS IN THE FIELD
OF EDUCATION:
In the process of social development the old traditions become
outdated for the people. They are replac ed by new traditions. But this
process of replacement is not always smooth. It is faced with lots of
opposition from certain orthodox sections of the society. At the same time
it must be kept in mind that every ‘old’ is not outdated and every ‘new’ is
notperfect Therefore, there is a need of co -coordinating the two in order
to maintain the harmony between both. This function can be performed by
philosophy of education. (e.g., the crises of Indian culture –Indian NOTES
28 and Anglican, i.e. East and West) I t tells us how the cultural tradition
of the country is to be maintained.munotes.in

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18C) PROVIDING THE EDUCATIONAL PLANNERS,
ADMINISTRATORS AND EDUCATORS WITH THE
PROGRESSIVE VISION TO ACHIEVE EDUCATIONAL
DEVELOPMENT:
Spencer has righ tly pointed out that only a true philosopher can
give a practical shape to education. Philosophy of education provides the
educational planners, administrators and educators with the right vision
which guides them to attain the educational goals efficientl y. It is very
much useful to educational practitioners for his work and its place in the
general scheme of life. Educational philosophy helps teacher,
administrator or students to interpret his professional experiences with that
of acquired theoretical kno wledge and vice versa. The function of
educational philosophy is to help the individual to fit the square peg in the
square hole and the round knot in the round hole. It helps him to grasp a
conceptual framework on educational principles and practices. It further
helps one to change or modify one’s activities to attain desired end or
goal.
D) PREPARING THE YOUNG GENERATION TO FACE THE
CHALLENGES OF THE MODERN TIME:
Society is not static; it changes its value, tradition, custom, culture
etc. from time to time. Social commentators have given many labels to the
present period of history. For some it is the information age and for others
it is post modernity, later modernity, high modernity or even the age of
uncertainty. One more addition to this list may be that ‘present age' is an
age of Globalization as a phenomenon arrived on the economic scene in
the 1990 in India. This watchword has had its implications in the social,
political, economic fabric of the country of which education is a part.
Philosophy of education is a guiding, steering and liberating force that
helps young people and society at large to face the challenges of the
modern time. It helps the individual to understand the relationship
between his goal and day to day routine work and develop cr itical attitude
towards life in diverse society.
1.6 THE RELATIONSHIP OF PHILOSOPHY AND
EDUCATION:
Education is dependent of Philosophy due to following reasons:
(1)Philosophy Determines the Real Destination towards Which
Education has to go —Education is a conscious dynamic process which
needs proper guidance and supervision. Without proper guidance and
supervision, it cannot achieve its goal. Philosophy determines the goal of
life and also provides suitable and effective guidance and supervision for
education to achieve that goal. Without the help of philosophers, education
cannot be a successful process of development and achievement. Spencer
has rightly remarked —"True education is practicable only by a true
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19(2)Philosophy Determines the Various Aspects of Education —Some
scholars believe that philosophy is concerned with abstract items and
conceptions only, while education deals with practical, concrete things and
processes. Hence, the two are different and there exists no relation
between them. But this is a wrong belief. Both philosophy and education
are intimately and integrally connected with each other. Separation
between the two is not possible on any account. It is the philosophy, we
must know, that has been influenci ng all aspects of education since the
very beginning and will go on influencing education for all times to come.
Once again it will be better to recollect the saying of Ross that —
"Philosophy and education are like the sides of the same coin, present
differ ent views of the same thing, and that one is implied by the other."
(3)Great Philosophers have been Great Educationists Also —
History bears eloquent testimony to the fact that great philosophers have
been great educationists also of their times. Plato, Socra tes, Locke,
Comenius, Rousseau, Froebel, Dewey, Gandhi, Tagore, Aurobindo Ghosh
and others who were great philosophers of their times have also talked
about education. Their philosophical treatises have been important guide
books for educational planning a nd determination of educational aims for
children of the world. In other words, all great philosophers have
employed education as a means to translate their philosophical ideas into
practice for the people to follow and develop themselves.
Philosophy is dependent on education due to following
reasons:
(1)Education is the Dynamic Side of Philosophy —
Two things are essential for completing any task —(1) Thought or plan and
(2) Application or practicability. Philosophy is the thought or plan side
and education is the application or practical side. Philosophy determines
the aim of life and by analysis lays down the principles to be followed for
achieving the set aims. Education translates these principles and ideas into
practice, because the purpose of education is to mold human behavior.
Thus, Adams has rightly said —"Education is the dynamic side of
philosophy."
(2)Education is a means to Achieve the Goal —As said above it is
philosophy which determines the aims of life. Through analysis and
classification these are divided into goals to be achieved by the process of
education. Herbart holds the same opinion —"Education has no time to
make holiday till all the philosophical questions are once for all cleared
up." At times educationists and educators put before philoso phers such
problems which face them and defy solutions. In this way, education
contributes to new thinking and new philosophy may be born out of his
thinking and analyzing. So close are these two, the philosophy and the
education, that it will be better to discuss this relation in greater details as
Philosophy and Aims of Education, Philosophy and Curriculum,
Philosophy and Methods of teaching. Philosophy and Disciplines.
Philosophy and Textbooks and so on.munotes.in

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20PHILOSOPHY AND AIMS OF EDUCATION:
The answer to every educational question is ultimately influenced
by our philosophy of life. Although few formulate it, every system of
education must have an aim, and the aim of education is relative to the aim
of life. Philosophy formulates what it conce ives to be the end of life;
education offers suggestions how this end is to be achieved. Philosophy
acquaints us with values in life and education tells us how these values can
be realized. That is why so much emphasis is placed on value in life while
considering the nature of the school curriculum, the method of school
discipline, and techniques of instruction and school organization. These
values are nothing but a philosophy of education which in the ultimate
analysis is a philosophy of life. Philosophy g ives meaning to all that is
done in an educational process. Philosophy is the main guide towards
which we have to look at points of conflicts in the educational endeavor.
We must have an aim of education for giving direction to various
educational efforts. The aim of education is related with the aim of life,
and the aim of life is always dependent on the philosophy that the
individual has at a particular time. Thus we cannot do without a
philosophical foundation of education.
In the following lines more l ight is being thrown on this close
relationship as borne by history:
Ancient Period —First of all, let us take the example of Sparta state in
ancient Greece. It should be remembered that Sparta was under a constant
attack by the enemies. Hence, the state n eeded resolute commanders and
brave soldiers to defend its freedom and integrity. Hence, the aim of
philosophy of ancient Sparta came to be a constant struggle against the
enemy. To achieve this aim, the system of education tried to inculcate in
children v irtues of patriotism, courage, fearlessness, bodily power, strict
discipline and a spirit of self -sacrifice at the call of the state. Weakness of
body was condemned as vice and death in the service of the state was
considered as the highest virtue. After S parta; let us come to Rome,
Athens and India. Romans were very conscious of their rights and duties
and as such Roman education catered to the needs of fullest development
of children in all spheres of human activity. In Athens, the aim of life was
to have beauty of physique, beauty of character and a sense of
appreciation for the objects of beauty. Hence, the aim of education was the
development of wholesome character and inculcation of qualities which
enable children to lead their lives comfortably. Thus, children were given
full freedom and ample opportunities to develop themselves physically,
mentally and emotionally. One can note here that with a change in the
philosophy of life, the aims of education in Athens were quite different to
those of Rome and Sparta. In ancient India, religion was regarded as most
essential. The aim of life was to perform all worldly duties and then
achieve salvation from worldly ties of rebirth. Hence, education, during
those days, was organized to attain happiness, bliss and in the end
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21Medieval Period —Philosophy of life during medieval times saw great
ups and downs. Aims of life changed from time to time and so the aims of
education also changed accordingly. In these days Islam and Christianity
were busy with prose lytisation programmes in a very aggressive manner.
Hence, religion entered the precincts of education also. The chief aims of
Muslim education in India were:
●Propagation of Islam,
●Spread of education among Muslims,
●Extension of Islamic kingdoms,
●Development of morality,
●Achievement of material well being,
●Propagation of Shariat, and
●Building of character.
In Europe, the Reformation and Renaissance criticized the
infallibility of Catholicism. People asserted their right to know the truth
themselve s and did not believe blindly in the rituals and ceremonies. Thus,
the aims of education changed again. Education was to develop critical
insight and reasonableness in all beliefs and activities. It was expected of
education to demolish all blind beliefs a nd mechanical rituals.
Modern Period —Philosophy of life again changed in the modern
period. As a result, revolutionary changes began transforming education
also. Philosophy of Locke fell from prominence and it came to be argued
that education should devel op the inherent qualities, aptitudes and
capacities of children. Psychological tendencies began to influence
education very powerfully. Education became child -centered and
according to famous educationist Pestalozzi the aim of education was
declared to dev elop the personality of the child to the fullest extent.
Herbart advocated the aim of education to be the formation of character.
As times went by, the aims of life changed again. The industrial revolution
had its impact on education. As a result, one of t he aims of education,
namely, development of vocational efficiency came to the forefront.
At present, all nations of the world are organizing their educational
systems according to their needs and ideologies. In countries where the
sentient of democracy i s strong, the aims of education are the inculcation
of democratic values and promotion of democratic principles. On the
contrary, in countries where communism, fascism or other kinds of
despotism prevails as political ideology, education is so organized as to
promote absolute obedience, blind beliefs and rigid discipline in children.
PHILOSOPHY AND THE CURRICULUM:
Nowhere is this dependence of education on philosophy more
marked than in the question of the curriculum. In the first chapter of his
work on Education Spencer asserts that in the determination of the
curriculum "our first step must obviously be to classify, in the order of
their importance, the leading kinds of activity which constitute human
life." To this principle there can be but little obj ection. But immediatelymunotes.in

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22we seek to fix the relative value of subjects, to classify them "in the order
of their importance," differences of aim and of philosophy emerge and
confuse the issues.
Smith, Stanley and Shores speak of moral authority as one of th e
chief guides of curriculum building. They say that 'moral authority is
derived from fundamental principles of right and wrong. Evidently, the
problem is philosophical. According to Spencer, the building of a
curriculum should be based on the main human a ctivities. He fixes the
relative value of subjects in order of their importance; e.g., he gives first
place to subjects that relate to self preservation.
According to the naturalists, the present experiences, activities and
interests should be the guiding factor. The idealists, the child's present and
future activities are not important at all in the curriculum construction. The
experiences of the human race as epitomized in sciences and humanities
should provide the primary consideration in deciding a cur riculum. The
idealist does not emphasize one subject in preference to another. In fact,
he attaches great importance to the quality of personal greatness which
some subjects have in abundance. The idealist's point of view is
subjective, as opposed to merel y objective values.
The pragmatists emphasize the principle of utility as the main
criteria for determining the nature of curriculum. Lodge in "Philosophy of
Education'' writes: "All subjects on the curriculum will be used to develop
mastery over techniqu es in order to solve new problems rather than to
train memory capable of flawless reproduction of systematic contents."
The realists think that a bookish, abstract or sophisticated curriculum is
useless. They want to concentrate on the realities of life. T hey emphasize
the importance of subjects that fall within the range of natural science. The
surprising and welcome interest and activity recently manifested in the
problem of the curriculum is at present arrested for the want of a
philosophical criterion. Thus Bode in "Modem Educational Theories' ',
remarks that unless we have some sort of guiding philosophy in the
determination of objectives we get nowhere at all. Briggs in discussing
Curriculum Problems says: "It is just here that education seriously need s
leaders —leaders who hold a sound comprehensive philosophy of which
they can convince others, and who can direct its consistent application to
the formulation of appropriate curricula."
The philosopher, on the one hand, looking at life from the
idealistic standpoint believes that work can, and ought to, be humanized,
that man should be able to find satisfaction in his labour, that "we have
somehow to discover there a theater for the attai nment if not of the
highest, certainly of genuine spiritual values." The educationist, on the
other hand, has assumed a principle of 'compensation'. It is not without
significance that almost the best plea ever made for practical work in
schools was penned by one of the most idealistic of educational
philosophers, namely, Frobel. The above discussion indicates that the
problem of curriculum construction is philosophical in terms of themunotes.in

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23philosophical beliefs held by a group of people. The same is true of
textbooks as well.
PHILOSOPHY AND TEXT -BOOKS:
Intimately connected with the question of the curriculum is the
adoption of appropriate text -books, and this too involves a philosophy, as
Briggs in "Curriculum Problems'', has recently recognized, saying:
"Everyone familiar with the ways in which text -books are selected must be
convinced of the need for ideals and standards. The reason they have not
been prepared and accepted in practice is the same as that for slow
progress in curriculum revision: they must b e underlain by an entire and
consistent philosophy of education."
The choice of appropriate textbooks involves a philosophy. We
must have some ideals and standards for guiding us in the selection of
textbooks. It is the textbook whose contents are to be i mparted in
conformity with the aim of education. The working of the chosen
curriculum depends on the textbook. "The textbook reflects and
establishes standards. It indicates, too frequently perhaps, what the teacher
is required to know and what the pupils are supposed to learn...it markedly
affects methods and reflects the rising standards of scholarship." It is true
that some modern educational thinkers have revolted against the so -called
tyranny of textbooks in the forms of their projects or concrete unit so f
work etc. But to dispense with the textbook is nothing short of folly, and
to continue the argument against its use is an educational fallacy In fact, a
textbook is an institution which cannot be demolished. In order to keep
this institution healthy a nd serviceable there must be a philosophy in order
to determine its nature and contents. Hence the need for a philosophical
foundation of education cannot be over -emphasized.
PHILOSOPHY AND TEACHING LEARNING PROCESS:
TEACHER
Philosophy has a great influe nce on the teacher both in the area of
thinking and behaving. Really speaking, a teacher is not a teacher alone.
He is also a philosopher. In other words, a teacher himself has a
philosophy of his own and he influences children accordingly. As such,
his ph ilosophy of life should be such which develops the individuality of
children to the fullest extent. For this, the teacher should know well the
needs of children and the demands of society and then plan his methods of
teaching. He must keep in mind that his own beliefs, ideology and
principles of behavior have a powerful impact on the development of
children. Hence, he must possess a good understanding of all the
philosophies of life and choose good and wholesome elements from them
to form his own philosophy . Further, he must be a man imbued with high
ideals and possess moral and spiritual values which go to form his
character and shape his conduct. He must also be well -conscious of
national needs in all spheres and plan his teaching activities to fulfill tho se
needs. Only such teachers imbued with high ideals, moral and spiritualmunotes.in

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24values together with a sense of national responsibility for national
prosperity and honor can create patriotic, dynamic, and resourceful and
enterprising citizens devoted to national service and international
goodwill.
METHOD OF TEACHING
As with curriculum, so with method. The outstanding problem in
the educational method at the present time is the extent to which, if at all,
the teacher should intervene in the educational process, and this raises
philosophical issues. Non -intervention is justified for two quite different
reasons, either because of the nature of the pupil's endowment or because
of his environment. Rousseau, Fichte, and Froebel all assume that the
child's nature is g ood, and any intervention is consequently harmful, hence
the 'negative' or preventive education of Rousseau and the 'passive'
education of Froebel. Montessori takes the environmentalist standpoint,
and assumes that as the environment, comprising the didact ic apparatus,
etc., which she has prepared for the child, is ideal and perfectly adapted to
evoke only the right type of response and the good impulses of the child,
the teacher's intervention is unnecessary and unjustified. The choice of
methods of teachi ng depends on a philosophy. Kilpatrick's use of the term
"Philosophy of Method" shows that there is a close relation between
educational method and philosophy. Method is a means by which a
contact is developed between the student and the subject matter. Bu t in
absence of a definite aim of education or an adequate philosophy of life,
the method of teaching employed by the teacher may repel the student
from the subject. Teachers who think that they can do without a
philosophy of life render their methods of t eaching ineffective, because
thereby the students are not able to see a relation between their life ideals
and what they read. Evidently, there is a need of a philosophical
foundation of education. Teachers who assume that they can afford to
ignore philoso phy, pay the penalty of their neglect, for their efforts,
lacking a coordinating principle, are thereby rendered ineffective.
DISCIPLINE
Discipline reflects the philosophical prepositions of an individual
or an age more directly than any other aspect of school work. We have
already instanced the dependence of discipline by natural consequences on
a hedonistic ethics and a naturalistic metaphysics; and freedom in
education implies an idealistic philosophy. The general relationship was
well expressed by Spe ncer in the following passage in 'Education': "There
cannot fail to be a relationship between the successive systems of
education, and the successive social states with which they have co -
existed. Having a common origin in the natural mind, the institution so f
each epoch, whatever be their special functions, must have a family
likeness....
Along with political despotism, stern in its commands, ruling by
force of terror, visiting trifling crimes with death, and implacable in itsmunotes.in

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25vengean ce on the disloyal, there necessarily grew up an academic
discipline similarly harsh —a discipline of multiplied injunctions and
blows for every breach of them —a discipline of unlimited autocracy
upheld by rods, and ferrules, and the black hole.
On the ot her hand, the increase of political liberty, the abolition of
laws restricting individual action, and the amelioration of the criminal
code, have been accompanied by a kindred progress towards no coercive
education: the pupil is hampered by fewer restraint s, and other means than
punishment are used to govern him Thus, alike in its oracular dogmatism,
in its harsh discipline, in its multiplied restrictions, in its professed
asceticism, and in its faith in the devices of men, the old educational
regime was a kin to the social systems with which it was
contemporaneous; and similarly, in the reverse of these characteristics, our
modern modes of culture correspond to our more liberal religious and
political institutions."
The need for a philosophical founda tion of education becomes
more apparent when we look to the problem of discipline. In fact, the
nature of discipline is always governed by the philosophy one holds.
Naturalism stands for unhampered freedom for the child. It emphasizes
individual assertion as against social co -operation. Realism wants to
discipline the student into objectivity. Lodge in "Philosophy of Education"
writes: "The cult of objectivity for its own sake is identical with the
essence of discipline; and as long as we have realist minde d teachers, so
long there need be no fear of the decline of the sterner virtues."
Idealism relies much on the personality of the teacher for the
maintenance of discipline for the purpose of cultivating subjective power
on the part of the student. With th e help of such a discipline, idealism
advocates the development of a transcendental self which is liberated from
the forces of a merely physical reality. Pragmatism does not believe in the
employment of external discipline as a means for the performance of
school tasks. It gives complete freedom to the child and stresses the
educational value of interest which is of empirical, biological, and social
nature in the child. Thus we see that the problem of discipline is closely
related with philosophy, and the c onception of discipline as held by a
teacher or educational regime will always be influenced by the philosophy
believed in.
PHILOSOPHY AND EVALUATION:
For effective evaluation you need clear knowledge of educational
aims and definite educational objecti ves. Evaluation is the continuous
process of measuring the educational achievements in the light of
educational aims already determined and Educational aims are determined
by philosophy of life.
Evaluation is based on the philosophy in which the ability t ol e a r n
is randomly distributed in the general population. It means that if somemunotes.in

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26learning task is assigned to a class and then a test is administered to study
their performance.
1.7 LET US SUM UP
•Philosophy is rational enquiry to the reality of world which aims to
find out Truth for the sake of attaining wisdom.
•Philosophy has 3 branches –Metaphysics, Epistemology & Axiology.
•Metaphysics deals with reality, Epistemology deals with Knowledge &
Axiology study about Value.
• Metaphysical questions are divided in 4 subsets known as:
Cosmological, Theological, anthropological & ontological aspects.
•Cosmology asks questions related to Universe, Theological questions
related to religi on or God, Anthropology ask questions related to
Human being & Ontology is the study about nature of existence.
•Epistemology relates to the source of human knowledge which has
divided into 4 categories such as: Empirical( knowledge obtained
through sen se & can be verified), Revelation ( based on faith),
Authoritarian ( based on experts opinion or sanctified over time as
tradition) , Rational ( Use of reasoning, thought or logic for knowing
something) & Intuition ( Immediate feeling of certainty).
•Axiology has mainly 2 branches: Ethics & Aesthetics.
•Ethics is the study of moral value & conduct whereas Aesthetics deals
with beauty & art.
•Education is a social process by which society deliberately transmits
its accumulated knowledge, skills and v alues from one generation to
another.
• Education in a narrower sense includes only getting
degree/diploma/certificate after completion of a course in an institution
but in wider sense it indicates as life long process.
•Application of philosophical pr inciple in the field of education to solve
various educational issues is regarded as educational philosophy.
•Philosophy and education are complementary to each other in the
sense that both deal with the nature of human being.
•Philosophy determines the various aspects of education such as: aims,
curriculum, methods of teaching, role of teacher etc.
• Philosophy provides theoretical guidelines to education whereas
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271.8 UNIT END EXERCISE
1. Discuss the meaning of P hilosophy and Education.
2. Distinguished between Metaphysics, Epistemology and Axiology.
3. Why should a teacher study philosophy of education?
4. Enumerate the functions of philosophy of education.
5. “The scope of philosophy of education is unlimited.” Critically evaluate
this statement.
1.9 REFERENCES
1. Chandra, S.S. and Sharma, Rajendra K. , (2002) “Philosophy of
Education”(2002), Atlantic Publisher , New Delhi.
2. Taneja, V.R., (2000) “ Educ ational Thoughts and Practice”, Sterling
publisher, New Delhi.
3. K., Dinesh Kumar, “Philosophy of Education”, pdf,
https://www.cukashmir.a c.in/departmentdocs_16/PHILOSOPHY%20
AND%20EDUCATION%20%20Dinesh%20Kumar%20K.pdf
4. Shri. Dash, Nikunja Ranjan, “Philosophical Foundation of Education”,
https://ddceutkal.ac.in/Syll abus/MA_Education/Paper_1.pdf

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282A
EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF THE
CONVENTIONAL
SCHOOLS OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY
Unit Structure
2A.0 Objectives
2A.1 Introduction
2A.2 Philosophy of Vedas
2A.3 Vedanta in Education
2A.4 Educational Implications of Vedanta
2A. 5 Let Us Sum Up
2A.6 Check Your Progress
2A. 7 Introduction
2A.8 Concept of Yoga
2A.9 Educational Implications of Yoga
2A.10 Let Us Sum Up
2A.11 Unit End Exercise
2A.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will be able to:
Acquire knowledge about Eastern philosophies of education.
Develop an understanding about Vedanta and Yoga.
Understand the impact of philosophy of Vedanta and Yoga in the fiel d
of Education.
Realize the Educational Implications of Vedanta and Yoga.
2A.1 INTRODUCTION
The Indian schools of philosophy may be classified broadly into two
Asthi ka (orthodox) and Nastika (heterodox). The first group believed in
the Vedas and the second school rejected the Vedas. The first one‘s are
called the Asthika systems which have the schools of Mimansa, Vedanta,
Sankhya, Yoga, Nyaya and Vaisesika. The latter schools are Charvaka,
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29INDIAN SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY
Eastern schools of philosophy
Eastern philosophies are concerned with all aspects of life. Indian
philosophies both orthodox and heterodox are more concerned with the
perennial problems of life. So philosophy is ―Tattva Darshan or vision
of life.
Let us outline, now, briefly the sal ient features of the Indian
philosophical tradition.
1.The Indian philosophical schools have developed a more synthetic
outlook. There is no separate treatment of ontology (Theory of
Reality), Epistemology (Theory of Knowledge), or Ethics and
Aesthetics as distinct branches of philosophy. These questions are
approached generally and relatively, some schools stressing more the
metaphysical point and some the logical approach to knowledge.
2.Indian philosophical tradition is indifferent to History. Every attempt
is made to go into the contribution and content of each school by clear
exposition and sequential arrangement of things.
3.The underlying spiritual and moral basis is uniform to all the schools
generally, except perhaps the philosophy of charvaka or the
materialistic philosophy.
4.Philosophy is a practical necessity for understanding how life can be
used. The broad human ends (Purusharthas) are Dharma, Arhta, Kama
and Moksha. These are far different from mere intellectual pursuits.
5.Indian philosophy starts wit h a pessimistic note but builds up a
positive approach to realize one‘s values in life.
6.The doctrine of Karma or a doctrine of action finds a firm faith. The
doctrine of births and deaths is common to Vedic Buddhist and Jain
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307.There is a reference to the universal stage outside the individual self.
The content of ―Para-Brahma is the external universal transcendental
edition of the spiritual development of the individual.
8.The terms “bondage’ and “liberation” are used in the sense that the
former me ans the cycle of births and deaths and the latter means
release from the process.
9.Self-control and concentration are needed to remove passions and
develop techniques of yoga and contemplation
10.The highest aim of life is “Moksha” or “Nirvana” which means
liberation positively as the Eternal Bliss and negatively as destruction
of all sufferings.
2A.2 PHILOSOPHY OF VEDAS
The Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas and epics are the sources to know
the ancient Indian philosophy and education. With a view to understand
the philosophy of Vedas, it is very necessary to understand the meaning of
the word “Veda”. Veda is derived from the root of the Sanskrit word
“Vid”.
Vid means to :
To know {God, soul, nature & mind}
To be {one with God}
To obtain {salvation}
To consider {various relationships}
To feel {oneness with God}
To tell {glories of God}
To dwell {into the mysteries of universe}
Vedas believe in:
The concept of one God and one world
God is one & only one(omniscient, omnipotent and ever present)
There are three entities in this universe –God, Soul and Matter.
Ultimate aim of life is to obtain salvation (moksha) in union with god
Actions are followed by their results. The “Law of Karma” is an
important teaching of Vedas.
This universe is formed by god.
The theory of rebirth and immortality of soul
Universe is real, universal fraternity should be promoted
Knowledge of truth should be acquired and dissipated
Justice should be done to all creatures and we should live in peace &
harmony.
Vedas were the basic education during those days.
Each Veda was divided into further three broad sections :
Mantras
Brahmans
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31Mantras (Hymns of God)
It contains expressions of wonderments, joy at the visions of beauty in
nature around. The dignity of mountains, the majesty of sunrise, the
beauty of the Moon and such phenomenal powers were worshiped through
Mantras.
Brahamans (Prose, Rituals, prayers)
It contains detailed scientific description of methods of various ritualistic
performances and secret methods to invoke the mig hty powers.
Aryanakas ( Appendages of Brahamanas)
Aryana means forest. Aryanakas were studied and composed only in the
quiet Himalayan valley. This section is also known as Upanishads. The
Upanishads are also known as ― The Vedanta” as it comes at the end of
Vedas.
The word Upanishad is derived from the root “sad” which means to:
Sit down
To loose
To destroy
“Upa” means nearby
“Ni” means devotedly
The word Upanishads therefore means sitting down of the disciple
near his teacher in a devoted manner to r eceive instruction about the
highest Reality which loosens all doubts and destroys all ignorance of the
disciple.
There are as many as 1180 Vedic literature, each school has
Upanishad. Of about 280 Upanishad unearthed so far 108 have been
generally accept ed as authentic texts.
All Upanishads have one goal which is Liberation and prescribe
techniques of achieving this goal Vedic literature comprising “shruti” &
“smriti” literature is storehouse of knowledge which throws light on the
intellectual, economic, political, religious, social and spiritual life. Shruti
is that part of Vedic literature which acc. To Hindu belief was revealed to
certain sages by God and then passed on orally from generation to
generation. Smriti was composed by Rishis on the basis of their memory.
The Vedic literature consists of:
1)Four Vedas :
Rigveda (consisting of 1028 hymns), Yajurveda (lays down the
procedure of sacrifices), Samveda (history of Indian music), Atharvaveda
(deals with medical sciences).
2)The Vedangas
Vedangas are sort of help books to pronounce and understand
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32i.Shiksha (science of phonetics)
ii.Chandas or matras
iii.Vyakarana
iv.Nirukta or Etymology
v.Jyotish or astronomy
vi.Kalpa or rituals
3)The Upvedas : There are four Upavedas -Each deal with four subjects
viz
i.Ayurveda (deals with medicine)
ii.Dhanurveda (Military science)
iii.Gandharva Veda (Music)
iv.Shilpa Veda (Architecture & Arts)
4)Brahmana Granthas:
They provide supplementary matter. Brahamana Granth is written
in prose and composed by Rishis and Acharayas. Some of the known
Brahman granth are Satpath Brahaman, Gopatha Brahman, Sam Brahman,
Aitareya Brahmana etc. The Satpath Brahaman is a voluminous p rose
work and provides valuable information about the Geography, History,
Philosophy and Rituals etc of Vedic age.
5)The Upanishads:
Deal with the relation of matter, soul and God. Out of 108
Upanishad, the following ones are most important:
1)Isha Upanishad ( emphasizes on spiritual unity )
2)Kenya Upanishad ( illumines the nature of knowledge)
3)Katha Upanishad ( deals with philosophical Questions put by
Nachiketa, the student and answers given by Yama, his guru.)
4)Mundaka Upanishad (clarifies high er & lower knowledge)
5)Mandukya Upanishad (related to the true self of the man)
6)Chandougya Upanishad (provides an important account of man's
spiritual education)
7)Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (explains the nature of the divinity of man)
6)Six systems of philosophy
I.The Nyaya system deals with knowledge. It is the science of science.
According to it knowledge can be acquired through 4 methods:
Pratyaksha (Intuition) Anumana (Inference) Upma (comparison) Shabda
(verbal testimony)
II.Sankhya system of philosophy by Rishi Kapil deals with matter.
III.Vaisheshika system of philosophy by Rishi Kanad deals with the
theory of atoms.
IV.Yoga system of philosophy by Rishi Patanjali is related with self
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33V.Purva -Mimansa system by Rishi Jamini deals with schemes of right
living through appropriate action.
VI.Uttar -Mimansa or Vedanta system of philosophy by Rishi Vatsayana
elucidates the concept of supreme being.
7)Bhagwat Geeta :
Bhagwat Geeta is a collection of teachings of Lord Krishna to his
disciple Arjuna. The essence of the philosophy as contained in the Gita is
with inner convictions. We should discharge our duties diligently and
honestly irrespective of the consequence and leave the rest to the
Almighty. We must fight for Justice and the right cause.
i)Sutras : There are three sutras Ashtadhyayi (14 sutras of grammar
composed by Panini)
ii)Dharma sutras (rules laid down for conduct of both teachers and
students)
iii) Graha sutr as (related to art of living)
Characteristic of Vedas:
1.Vedas are representative of Indian society and culture and point to a
unique socio -economic civilization where all are equal irrespective of
status and gender.
2.Vedic people had simple and pure living.
3.Worshiped one God whom the wise described as many. It was a
religion of nature which held man central.
4.Vedic outlook is optimistic and positive.
5.Vedic outlook on life is revealed
6.Profess and practice ideal moral lif e without seduction and sin.
7.People were religiously and spiritually simple, kind and honest.
8.Students were given special attention and treatment by teachers,
depending on their interests, aptitude, proficiency and performance,
thus acting as a forerunner of the modern theory and practice of
education.
2A.3 VEDANTA IN EDUCATION
Education during Vedic period was the third eye, the eye of insight
and source of illumination. The system of education generally emanated
from the Vedas and was called Vedic system of education, which insisted
on a code of conduct both for the student and the teacher and placed the
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34AIMS OF EDUCATION DURING VEDIC AGE
1. Citta -Vritti -Nirodh : Education must aim at self -fulfillment and
provide freedom from material desires and attachment.
2.Education of Mind : Education must provide knowledge for
creativity and pursuit of culture and civilization.
3.Make living worthy : Education should make life worthwhile,
purposeful and relevant.
4.Tamso -ma-Jyotirgamaya : Knowledge should dispel doubts, dogmas
and darkness. Religion Centered: Religion dominates every aspect
of life, all national, personal, social and educational procedures and
practices, hence education should be wedded to religion.
5.Individual Centered: Education was for individuals which was i ts
chief concern. Education should therefore aim at overall development
of an individual.
6.Nature Oriented: The centers of education were located from the
populated and crowded areas, more in natural and sylvan
surroundings. Education should make man one wi th nature.
EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM
•Primary :Education was first provided at home then a ceremony
(vidyarambha Sanskar) before beginning education was performed.
Education period was up to the age of five years.
•Child was made to pronounce Vedic mantras, know ledge of sandhis
(connective rules), elementary grammar, elementary arithmetic.
•After primary education children were sent to Gurukulas and ashrams
for higher education.
•Higher education:
Entry age varied between 8 to 12 for different varnas and complete d
by the 25th year of age. Upanayan ceremony was performed to enable
the child to enter into studentship.
CURRICULUM
According to Kathoupanishad, the subjects fell into two categories:
Para-vidya or (spiritual learning) Apara -vidya or (worldly learning)
Paravidya:
Into this study fell the essential study of 4 Vedas.
Also included Vedangas, Upanishads, Puranas, Pitrya (rules for
sacrifices for ancestors), Vakovakya (logic), Ekayana (ethics), Devavidya
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35Apara -vidya :
This inc luded subjects like History, Ayurveda, Economics,
Astrology, Physics, zoology, chemistry, science, kalpavidya, the rashi
(science of numbers), bhuta vidya (sci. of demons).
METHODS OF TEACHING
Two methods of Teaching were being practiced during vedic
period. The first method was Maukhik (oral) and second was based on
Chintan (thinking or reflection). In the oral method students were to
memorize the mantras (vedic hymns) and Richayas (verses of Rigveda).
The process of education passed through three stag es of
comprehension i.e Shravan (Hearing), Manan (Meditation) and Nidhi -
dhyasan ( realization and experience).
Methods of teaching were based on apprenticeship and were
psychologically sound. Teaching followed some strategies such as simple
to complex, ac tivity and skill oriented procedures. Question -Answer
technique and illustration. Self -study (Swadhyaya) was considered more
important.
DISCIPLINE
•Rules for conduct of both teachers and pupils were listed down.
•Rules also for respect due from pupils to teachers were framed.
•Rigid rules were laid for conduct of pupils
•Code of dress was observed
•Observation of Brahmacharya or celibacy was compulsory for all
pupils.
TEACHER
During Vedic period the teacher occupied a very important place in
the scheme of e ducation. He was the center of education and without him
no education could be conceived of. He was called Guru or Acharya and
he was respected as a god by the students as well as the society. Even the
king did not enjoy as much respect as the teacher enjo yed.
2A.4 EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS
1) Pride in civilization and culture
We are living in the modern age, but we feel proud of the
civilization and culture of our ancestors inherited to us. We give more
preference to character, spiritualism philosophy rather than wealth, power,
violence and diplomacy. We wish to lead an ideal l ife. Educational aims of
Vedic age are accepted in principle as aims of modern education to build
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362.Discipline and pupil teacher relationship
The sense of discipline and cordial relation between teac her and
pupil of Vedic age is well known to the world. Today‘s scenario
can be revived back by taking efforts to adopt the ideal relationship
between teacher and pupil.
3.Subject of studies
Vedic literature is enriched by the sense of peace, humanity,
universal brotherhood which is also a vital part of our curriculum.
4.Teaching Methods
As discussed above, some methods of teaching are still used
fruitfully in our classrooms.
5.All round development of child
The nature of education was much more individualist ic rather than
joint in groups. All round development of a child’s personality was the
chief aim of education. Same aim is kept in view in modern education
also.
6.Equality of opportunity
There was no discrimination on the basis of caste, creed, colour
etcand the students of all strata of society received education on an equal
footing. In modern times too, the constitution has adopted the principle of
equality in the field of education.
7.Education for self -sufficiency
Apart from the intellectual aspect of education its practical side
was not lost sight of and along with art, literature and philosophy, students
got a working knowledge of agriculture and other vocations of life.
Modern education also lays stress upon preparing students to prepare
themselves for their future life. Vocational subjects are included in the
curriculum.
8. Commercial education and Vedic -Mathematics
Commercial education and Mathematics Education is one of the
chief features of Vedic period. The ideas of the scope and nature of
commercial geography, needs of the people of various localities, exchange
value and quality of articles and language spoken at different trade centers
were considered necessary.
Vedic mathematics has become more popular now. More and more
parents are awar e about the significance of Vedic mathematics and are
taking keen interest to offer the opportunities to their child to learn Vedic
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372A.5 LET US SUM UP
Terms such as knowledge, awakening, humility, modesty etc are often
used to characterize Vedic education. Education leads to the development of
personality. The word “Veda” originates from the root “vid” which bears the
meaning of knowledge. Sayana declares that the veda is a means to the
obtaining of the adored, that which is worthy of worsh ip, as well as a
means to the banishment of the undesired, the evil. Knowledge of the four
Vedas Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveds and Atharvaveda, along with the
knowledge of shruti, smriti etc provided an individual with new
knowledge which broadened his inte llectual horizon. In the Vedic period,
education had an idealistic form, in which the teachers (acharyas) laid
stress upon worship of God , religiousness, spirituality, formation of
character, development of personality, creation of an aptitude for the
development of culture, nation and society.
2A.6 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1) Describe various salient features of Vedic education.
2) Discuss the impact of Vedic education in the present system of
education.
3) Discuss educa tional implications of Vedanta education
4) Multiple Choice Questions:
1. The method of teaching in Vedic education is .
a) Sravana b) Manan c) Nididhyasana d) All of the above
2. The aim of education of vedic system is .
a) Chitta -Vritti -Nirodha b) Tamso -ma-Jyotirgamaya
c) Education of Mind d) All of the above.
3.The subjects of study in vedic education is .
a) Deva Vidya b) Brahmavidya
c) Rashi d) All of the above.
Key : 1. (d) 2.(d) 3. (d)
2A.7 INTRODUCTION
Since time honored the lore of Yoga was developed and refined by
the Indian sages in search of the real -most state of human nature. In course
of time that traditionally evolved system of Yoga has been a science of
consciousness development and finally in modern time yoga was seen as
the science of possibilities, latent within oneself and helpful in dealing
with crucial problems of human life. After the popularization of health
promotion potentials of Yoga practices among masses, certain other
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38development, have remained to be substantiated scientifically. That‘s why
modern educationists are taking interest in improving the quality of
education with the help of the yoga system. It is seriously being felt that
besides the development of national strength and scientific mentality
among the students, the aim of education should be the liberation of mind
and soul as well.
2A.8 CONCEPT OF YOGA
It is one of the six ancient Indian philosophy other being (Nyaya,
Vaisishi ka, Mimansa, Vedanta & Sankhya).The word Yoga is derived
from the word “YUJ” which means to unite or to combine or to bind yoke
with the individual self with the universal self. To bring out the balance &
harmony on every level viz. physical, mental & spir itual to transform
humans into super humans.
Types of Yoga :
Bhakti Yoga
Gyana yoga
Karma Yoga
Mantra Yoga
Layayoga
To attain physical, moral, mental and spiritual perfection, the
following Eight Fold steps of yoga discipline are recommended which
help i n controlling and sublimating attachment which distracts the body
and mind:
1.Yama : It is discipline to control will -power. It includes restraint of
injury to anyone through thought, word or deed. Absenteeism from
falsehood (satya), from stealing (asteya), from passions and lust, from
greed and avarice (aparigraha).
2.Niyama : It is a moral culture and aims at cultivation of good habits .
Individual discipline regulates one‘s own behavior. It leads to
satisfaction.
3.Asana : It means steady & comfort able posture. Yogic posture does
not involve physical strain or violence, but in turn tones up our body &
mind. Reduces our fatigue, soothing nervous system and discipline of
the mind.
4.Pranayama : Controlling breath to win overtime, is the discipline of
breath control. It aims at regulation of inhalation, retention and
exhalation of breath. Not only beneficial to health but also conducive
to concentration and meditation.
5.Pratyahara: Controlling senses from their objects. Withdrawal of
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396.Dharna: It is the discipline of fixing the mind without any
modification on the object of meditation.
7.Dhyana: Means meditation, the steady contemplation of the object of
meditation without any break. Concentrating on a point to reach hi gher
self.
8.Samadhi: It is the state of mind in which contemplative
consciousness disappears and has no awareness of itself.
Thus samadhi is the ultimate goal of life, being in that state means
being in the universe. The first five are external aids to yoga while the last
three are internal aids. The remarkable part of Vedic literature,
Kathopanishad elucidates that Yoga is a system of holistic life where all
the facets of human life as well of personality get due consideration as
inevitable elements of a whole system. In Bhagavad -Gita, composed by
the sage Ved -Vyasa , the practical implication of Yoga in active life
situations has been wonderfully elaborated. In the modern period, after
having been redefined as a system of modern sci ences, yoga is presently
being defined as a system of personality development, transformation of
consciousness and integration within the human system leading to
complete well -being.
The outstanding figure of contemporary Yoga, Sri Aurobindho
defined yoga as a methodical effort towards self -perfection. It is a process
by which the limitations and imperfections in man are washed away which
result in all round personality development at the physical, mental,
intellectual, emotional and spiritual levels.
There is a great relationship between holistic health and yoga has
been proved by present scientists, educationists, psychologist not only in
India but by the practitioners all over the world.
2A.9 EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF YOGA
Commonly, the term Yoga E ducation has been referred to as the
training and teaching process of Yoga, though it should also be seen as the
application of Yoga techniques to bestow better support to the education
process. The target of both the disciplines is the same and that is
enhancement of socially useful potentials of human personality. To
achieve this target, the system of Yoga lays foundation stones whereupon
the education system may flourish in all areas. Modern educationists are
taking interest in improving the quality of e ducation with the help of the
yoga system. Yoga in education should lead to the development of
harmonious personality and behavior at all levels. An atmosphere needs to
be created where the students study yoga with their own enthusiasm. To
the whole the hi gher level of education is the fittest for integration of
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40In the current Indian perspective, the role to be played by the
education system is facing new challenges. Normally the main aims of
education have been the physical, psychological, interperso nal,
professional and spiritual refinement of a personality. In modern Indian
perspective it is deemed that the system of education should also be
helpful in the attainment of the objectives of socialism and democracy
mentioned in the Indian constitution t oo. Besides , to attain refinement at
the level of thoughts (intellectual development) and feelings (affective
aspect), contributing to the development of national character and
scientific mentality among the people, at present it is seriously being felt
that the aim of education should also include the liberation of mind and
soul as well. Acharya Vinobha Bhave , the spiritual heir of Mahatma
Gandhi suggested the same that =Education in India should be based on
three principles i.e yoga (spiritual training ), udyoga (vocational training)
and sahayoga (social training)
Areas of educational processes
Certain thrust areas positively concerned with educational process
have been identified, where the potential of yogic practices are duly
proved:
Treatment of ph ysical difficulties. Improvement of mental health,
and developing resistance to strain. Promotion of emotional balances and
control on hyperactivity.
Positive aspects of yoga :
i)Promotion of willpower
ii)Development of perseverance in students
iii)Education and training about inner self
iv)Unfolding creative consciousness
v)Promotion of uniqueness or talent in the students
AIMS OF EDUCATION
✔Comprehensive development of Human personality
✔Free child from bodily, mental and supernatural miseries
✔Physical , mental, intellectual and spiritual growth
✔Moral preparation of pupil
✔Understanding of human nature
✔Development of scientific attitude and logical and
✔Intellectual faculties
TEACHER & TAUGHT
•Great importance to teacher
•Not only a theoretician but also a demonstrator
•Give practical demonstration to the student (scientific notation)
•Teacher has power of knowledge, power of will and power of action.
•Role is that of scientist in our agemunotes.in

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41STUDENT
•Surrender to his teacher for his total cure
•Without a teacher nothing can be obtained by the student.
CURRICULUM
Not explicitly laid down
⮚System stands for psycho -physical training of human child
⮚Provides literature which arouses interest amongst students in moral
life.
⮚Embodies such specific sciences as medicine, clinical psychology,
social sciences
⮚Yoga approves all those subjects which deal with human physiology,
true human nature and hidden laws of nature
⮚Comprehensive
⮚Most appropriate to the evolution of individual and society
⮚If society are highly evolved divi ne culture can be happily fostered
METHODS OF EDUCATION
•“Cittati Nirodha” ( concentration/ meditation) involves right cognition,
wrong cognition, imagination, memory.
•Concentration as the most essential method.
•Scientific attitude development method.
•Yoga adopts not only the scientific attitude but also the Programmatic
one.
•The system also believes in a Discriminative method in acquiring
knowledge.
•The law of Association in education constitutes great importance in
yoga.
DISCIPLINE
•Education & Discipline are identical
•Discipline is the means of which yoga is the aim
•One has to discipline oneself bodily, mentally and intellectually
whether he is a teacher or taught so that he may learn.( Teacher &
Taught both)
•Disciplining the body and mind is the core of the educational process.
Education system not only in India but the modern globalizing
world also really is in great need of taking help from the yoga system.
Therefore it is high time to think seriously on the inclusion of yoga and
yogic values in the ed ucation system.
Self education (education of self –realization): Yoga renders self
education. It is nothing but education of self awareness. Yoga teaches us
how to live with wisdom, not with worldly orientations. The present
education system should inculcate this yogic value intensively. Yoga can
impart progressive tra ining for the development of self awareness and
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42Pursuit of the transcendental state of Psyche: The paramount aim of the
yoga system is the pursuit of the transcendental state of psyche i.e
Nididhyas ana, assumed as an essential aspect of the ancient Indian system
of study and education. Samadhi leads to the Nididhyasana state which
further escorts the wisdom. The experience of Samadhi is not a very
difficult or rare stage. Like other components of yog a it is also attainable.
Samadhi is a state of consciousness, which begets energy, awareness and
delight to the experiencing being for his/her creative thoughts and actions.
Moreover , real creativity is impossible to achieve without attaining
Samadhi stat e. A creative Samadhi is again hard to achieve without
adopting high moral values in daily life.
Samadhi (transcendental state) further leads to wisdom. Yoga
teaches how to attain wisdom. Knowledge through real vision or wisdom,
accomplished by profound m editation, directed to the Samadhi is the real
attainment. Learning through mind and senses is a shallow class of
knowledge, which leads to complexity. In most of the institutions today,
we find that the majority of the students are growing with complexity .
Complex living patterns lead to tensions.
Methods of peaceful living are not being included in the present education
system.
Development of General Awareness: The objectives of Yoga , besides
causing physical, mental and spiritual enfoldment in an indiv idual, are also
the inculcation of social and ecological awareness within oneself. The
Yoga system emphasizes awareness of very subtle aspects, hardly
attainable subjects of single pointed focus. It leads to the awareness of the
external environment in its fullest extent and awareness of the external
environment in its full depth as well as awareness of the internal
environment in its full depth as well as awareness of those aspects, which
are beyond internal and external attainability. Normally people are so
absorbed in self -centered endeavors and materialistic sensual enjoyments
around their world that they are unable to see the pros and cons or good
and bad effects of their conducts. With the awareness of Yogic values,
slowly one experiences the joy prese nt in his surroundings and after a time
finds himself deeply connected with his external environment and starts
appreciating the truths of ecology.. so the general awareness leading to
deeper appreciation and realizations should be the essence of yoga in
education.
Promotion of will Power and Perseverance : The path of Yoga is a test
as well as the training of will power. Will power is a quality that plays its
major role in every creative performance and success.
Management of Mental Health: In the Eight -limbic system of yoga,
Patanjali recommended the observance of Yama and Niyama, for the
management of conscious emotional conflicts, whereas, as far as the
subconscious emotions are concerned he recommended Asana and
Pranayama. Stability of the body , broug ht about by the practice of Asana
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43psychologists on the basis of their experimental results and clinical
experiences found that Yoga is an effective instrument of modification of
human behav ior.
Treatment of Physical Difficulties: From the period of later Upanishads
it was duly emphasized that the practice of yogic postures and yogic
breathing, in addition to mental and ethical disorders are also able to
alleviate physical pains and problems .
Management of Stress Disorders: Stress can be controlled by
recommended Yogic techniques. Yoga appears as a system of self -
healing, causing remarkable reduction in anxiety and hypertension.
2A.10 LET US SUM UP
The aim of entire education formal and informal is to attain bliss
that comes after the empirical self is merged in the transcendental self or
God. But the process of self -discipline implies that without the well -being
of the human body and moral preparation on the part of man yoga i sn o t
possible. This aspect makes education a social necessity. The yoga lays
stress on Yama -Niyama, Asana and pranayama and these four aspects
point out how social values such as truth, non -violence, non -stealing, non -
collection and celibacy are needed. The aim of education according to
Yoga is the comprehensive development of human personality. Yoga is
entirely a philosophy of doing with concentration.. Hence concentrating in
education has value of great order. Also, discipline of body and mind is
the c ore of the educational process and modern educators must know the
inevitability of this factor in any kind of education. Discipline in education
is of far reaching importance in the sense that if a teacher or student does
not discipline himself he cannot c oncentrate on the subject and cannot
know about it.
Educational process requires, by implication, an expert teacher in
every subject. When a teacher gives anything to a student from his inner
experiences with great confidence and demonstrates it is imposs ible that
education should not take place. The system is therefore a challenge to a
theoretical teacher of today who simply transmits knowledge from books
to students.
2A.11 UNIT END EXERCISE
1)Enumerate the eightfold path of Yoga (Ashtanga yoga).
2)Discuss Yoga education with specific reference to aims of education,
curriculum, and methods of teaching and role of a teacher.
3) Discuss in detail the educational Implications of yoga education.
4)Discuss the role of Yoga in education.
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442B
EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF THE
HETERODOX SCHOOLS OF INDIAN
PHILOSOPHY
Unit Structure
2B.0 Objectives
2B.1 Introduction
2B.2 Buddhist Philosophy
2B.3 Educational philosophy of Buddhism
2B.4 Educational Implications of Buddhist Philosophy.
2B.5 Philosophy of Jainism
2B.6 Jainism Education
2B.7 Educational Implications of Jainism
2B.8 Let us Sum Up
2B.9 Unit End Exercise
2B.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will be able to,
Know about heterodox schools of Indian Philosophy
Understand the educational philosophy of Buddhism and Jainism
Identify distant features of Buddhism and Jainism
To understand about the contribution of Buddhism and Jainism in
Education.
2B.1 INTRODUCTION
Strictly speaking it is not proper to use such a blanket tem as
Indian tradition of philosophical thinking. The Vedanta might be the
dominant philosophical tradition in India, but it is not the sole system of
thought. To emphasize and highlight the Vedanta only in lieu of Buddhism
and Jainism is to omit a vast chunk of Indian tradition of philosophical
thought.
Schools that do not accept the authority of Vedas are by definition
unorthodox (nastika) systems. The following schools belong to heterodox
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45Charvaka :It is characterized as a mate rialistic and aesthetic school of
thought. Accepted direct perception as the surest method to prove the truth
of anything. Insists on joyful living.
Buddhist Philosophy : It is a system of beliefs based on the teachings of
Siddhartha Gautma. Buddhism is a non-theistic philosophy whose tenets
are not especially concerned with the existence or non -existence of God.
Jain Philosophy : Already in existence by 6th century B.C , it was
revived by Mahavira , the 24th Jain Tirhthankar.
2B.2 BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY
Buddhism is one of the most remarkable developments of Indian
thought. It is an offshoot of later Vedic thought. Buddhism is founded on
the rejection of certain orthodox Hindu Philosophical concepts. It has
many philosophical views with Hinduism, such as b elief in Karma, a
cause and effect relationship between all that has been done and all that
will be done. Events that occur are held to be direct results of previous
events. The ultimate goal for both is to eliminate Karma (both good &
bad) , end the cycle of rebirth and suffering and attain freedom (Moksha or
Nirvana).
The Buddhist education system (200B.C to 200 A.D) was founded
by Lord Gautam Buddha. Gautam Buddha was primarily an ethical
teacher and reformer and not a philosopher. He was concerned mainly
with the problems of life. He avoided the discussion of metaphysical
questions because they are ethically useless and intellectually uncertain.
He always discussed the most important questions of suffering, its
cessatio n and the path leading to its cessation.
Thus Buddha‘s enlightenment which he tried to share with all
fellow -beings has come to be known as the four Noble Truths .Four
Noble truths are :
⮚There is suffering
⮚There is cause of suffering
⮚There is cessation of suffering
⮚There is a way to cessation of suffering
Buddhists philosophy of life to get “Nirvana” from suffering is based
on the following eight principles:
✔Right Faith (Samyak Dristi)
✔Right Resolve (Samyak Sankalpa)
✔Right Speech (Samyak Vakya)
✔Right Action (Samyak Karmanta)
✔Right Living ( Samyak Ajiva)
✔Right Thought (Samyak Smriti)
✔Right concentration (Samyak Samadhi)
✔Right Effort (Samyak Vyayama)munotes.in

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462B.3 EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY OF BUDDHISM
Buddhist Education offered to impart education to all. Many
peop le shifted to the Buddhist system of education. It was for the first time
in India that education was institutionalized on a large scale during the
Buddhist movement. It is also a historical fact that with the arrival of the
Buddhist era great internationa l centers of education like Nalanda,
Takshashila, Vikramshila, Ballabhi, Odantapuri, Nadia, Amravati,
Nagahalla and Saranath were in prominence. Educational centers in the
Buddha period developed in Viharas and Sanghas.
AIMS OF EDUCATION
The Buddhist edu cational aims were comprehensive based on
knowledge, social development, vocational development, religious
development, character development aims which were as follows:
•To follow the moral values of Buddhist religion
•To adopt good conduct and violence
•Toachieve the final goal of Nirvana
•To propagate Buddhism
•To eradicate Vedic karmakanda or ritualism
•To give up caste system
•To take the teachings of Buddhism to the masses.
•To leave yajna and sacrifices for achieving knowledge
•To provide education in the l anguage of masses i.e Pali
•To emphasize the progress and development of the society rather than
the individual
•To provide education through the new system this was stated by
Buddha.
PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION
•Avidya that is ignorance must be removed through education as it is
the root cause of sufferings
•Education should be provided in peaceful surroundings in Buddhists
monasteries, viharas and organized educational institutions instead of
Gurukulas.
•Pupils should be educated in a democratic atmosphere
•Things of luxury must be prohibited for students.
•Framed few commandments for the Suddhvi, Harika (new entrant) at
the time of “Pabbajja” ceremony. A ritual called as pabbajja was
necessary for admission to a monastery for education. Educational
period for this phase was 12 years.
•After 20 years of age Upasampada ritual was performed to gain an
entry into higher education. Rules for second ceremony Upasampada
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47EDUCATION SYSTEM
•Two tier system:
1)Popular Elementary Education
2)Higher Educati on
Elementary Education:
Popular Elementary education was religious in nature, included
wordly education, up to the age of 12 years, pupils received instructions in
reading, writing, arithmetic and religion.
•Curriculum of Elementary education :
Thor ough learning of Grammar, Hetu vidya (Logic), Nyaya
(science of reasoning), Adyatma vidya (philosophy), shilpa sthan (arts &
crafts) & chikitsa vidya (medicine).
Higher Education:
Well organized, carried out at Buddhist monasteries & Buddhist
universities . Higher education was given to only those students who
intended to be monks or nuns. Emphasized both theoretical and practical
aspects.
Following subjects were included in the syllabus of higher education:
Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, Theology, Philo sophy,
Metaphysics, Logic, Sanskrit, Pali, Astronomy, Astrology, Medicine,
Law, Politics, Administration, Tantrik philosophy.
METHODS OF TEACHING
•Mostly verbal.
•Question, answer, discussion and debates.
•Agra shishya pranali (Monitorial system)
•Traveling and Nature study method
•Bookish method.
•Preaching and conference method
•Medium of instruction was pali and also importance to vernacular
dialects were given.
TEACHER TAUGHT RELATIONSHIP
•Close , Pure, good and affectionate
•Teacher besides being a scholar o f repute must have inspiring ideals in
himself.
•Like his students the teacher also used to spend life in simplicity,
constant study, celibacy, following ideals and strength of character.
•Both teacher and student were required to have the authority of reaso n
and experience.
•Students were required to maintain the freedom of thought
•Disciplined in matter of morals and conduct
•Maintain self restrained lifemunotes.in

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482B.4 EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATION OF BUDDHIST
PHILOSOPHY
•Cosmopolitan: Buddhist education was free from communal
narrowness; there was no favoritism on the basis of caste, creed in the
centers.
•Total development of personality : Buddhist education laid much
emphasis on the physical, mental and spiritual development of the
novice, even today the aim of education is integration of personality
that can develop the various aspects of the individual which are
interlinked.
•No corporal punishment: corporal punishments were absolutely
forbidden which is also very true in the present scenario of education.
•Positivism: Buddhist philosophy is positivistic and has a careful
logical systematization of ideas
•Ethica l:It is ethical; the eightfold path to Nirvana makes a universal
appeal.
•Democratic: It is democratic as it believes in freedom of inquiry.
Democratic and republican procedures were followed while running
the educational institutions.
•Development of good conduct: The entire techniques of Buddhism
provide directions to develop good conduct and which is also the
essence of a sound system of education. Also its belief in Karma lays
stress on the necessity to be constantly on the vigil to maintain one‘s
conduct in the present life.
•Moral Discipline : The Buddha Bhikkhu (monk) took the vows of
chastity and of poverty. Character was the basis of moral discipline.
•Emphasis on Manual skills: Training of manual skills like spinning
and weaving was emphasized to enable men to earn for living.
•Pragmatic: It is pragmatic; everything is in a state of flux as it is only
momentary. Change is the rule of the universe. It does not believe in
absolutism. It is witnessed in the present era of globalization.
•Methods of Teaching: The methods of Instruction were oral.
Preaching, repetition, exposition, discussion and debates were all used.
The Buddhist council organized “seminars” to discuss the major issues
at length. Learned conferences, meditation, educational Tours.
•International impact : Buddhist education helped India to gain
international importance. It also developed cultural exchange between
India and other countries of the world. International exchange of
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49•Value educ ation & Character development :To be a moral being
one must follow a noble path, the eightfold path as preached in
Buddhism provides guidance for moral education and peace. The
entire technique of Buddhism provides directions to develop good
conduct which is also the essence of a sound system of education.
•Curriculum: Curriculum included secular as well as religious
subjects.
•Organization and Structure of Universities :Universities established
during this period are still serving as a guiding force. The o rganization
of Nalanda and Vallabhi university was advanced that it continues to
influence the organization and structure of university till present day.
The system of determining a minimum age for higher education,
providing a set of rules and taking a te st for admission are even today
guiding the educational structure.
•Education as a social Institution : Education as a social institution got
its existence as a result of the Buddhist system of education.
•Imparting education in practical subjects: An important
contribution of this period is the imparting of education in various
practical subjects, a tradition which has come down to the present day
also.
•Collective Teaching Methodology: It was in this period that the
method of collective teaching a nd the presence of numerous teachers
in a single institution were evolved.
2B.5 PHILOSOPHY OF JAINISM
Jainism is independent of Buddhism yet it resembles it in several
aspects, such as in its repudiation of the authority of the Vedas, its
pessimistic out look on life, and its refusal to believe in supreme God. But
the differences it exhibits are equally noticeable, such as its recognition of
permanent entities like the self (jiva) and matter. Derived from the word
“jina” with root in “ji” it means “victor” i.e, the one who has successfully
subdued his passions and obtained mastery over himself.
The origin of Jain philosophy traces back to the prehistoric time. It
is said 24 Tirthankars or liberated persons preached this truth which was
handed over one by o ne in course of time. The last of them was
Vardhamana also called Mahavira, a contemporary of Gautam Buddha.
Jainism is the smallest of the major world religions, but in India its
influence is much more. Jain philosophy and culture have been a major
cultur al and philosophical, social and political force since the dawn of
civilisation in Asia. Metaphysically, Jainism believes in plurality of souls
and not in the existence of God. It holds that there are as many souls as
there are living beings. They also acc ept the existence of souls even in
animals and plants, with degrees of difference in the level of
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50consciousness, power and happiness by removing all “Karmas'' or
bondages.
Infinite faith, infinite knowledge, infinite power and infinite bliss
are the state of liberation. According to Jainism Nirvana or liberation is
obtained through three jewels: Right Philosophy, Right Knowledge and
Right Conduct. (Tri -ratna) Right conduct i mplies 5 abstinences: not to lie,
not to steal, not to strive for luxury and not to strive for possessions, not to be
unchaste and not to injure (Ahimsa). Ahimsa is a vital principle of Jainism.
Jainism rejects the idea of the creator of the world. It beli eves reality to be many -
sided. Jainism emphasizes “Syat -vada” or “Ane -kant-vada” which lays the mind
open to truth coming from any quarter. No preposition about the truth can be
absolute. This generates tolerance and regard for all. In the theory of knowle dge
Jainism accepted three sources of getting real knowledge, namely perception,
inference and testimony.
Practical teachings of Jainism
1.Triratna or three gems of its teaching were considered three precious
principles of life.
2.Five vows (vrata) arabscienc es to indicate general character.
3.Ahimsa (Non -violence) is the foremost virtue in Indian thought but in
Jainism it requires distinct meaning and depth; it is non -violence in
word, thought and deed.
4.Emphasizing the individualistic aspect, Jainism emphasize so nt h e
development of personality as the final aim. Jaina teachings are social
and tolerant and believe in the happiness of all.
5.There are two levels of discipline depending on the severity of the
vows which are different for the monks and of lay life.
6.The aim of life is to get oneself disentangled from karma. Jainism
believes in transmigration of the soul. Soul united with karma is called
a soul in bondage, and is to be redeemed and liberated.
7.Moksha means dissolution of partnership between soul and matt er,
restoring the ideal character of the jiva.
8.Jainism rejects God as the creator of this world, as a need to create the
world would be inconsistent with his necessary perfection, Jainism
looks upon man himself as God when his inherent powers are fully in
bloom.
9.Jain views are both relativistic and pluralistic as it recognizes jivas and
the material objects.
10.The primary aim of Jainism is the perfection of the soul, rather than
the interpretation of the universe; hence it fails to find ultimate
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512B. 6 JAINISM EDUCATIONS:
AIMS OF EDUCATION
Truth is relativistic and pluralist, in a state of “may be”. Knowledge
therefore may be viewed differently. Nothing fixed.
Self-realization as jiva is divine. Education must focus on his divinity
and remove the material bond of the soul.
Education should lead to self -enlightenment and restore the full powers
of jiva.
Development of personality as an individual. Hence, more stress on
individual aims.
Cessation of Karma would disassociate jiva from it and regain its
power and glory. Teaching must help train one for it.
Believes in transmigration of soul, hence education may partly be the
preparation for the next world.
CURRICULUM
“Punya” and “Paap” are the two principles of the Nine categories.
Hence, education should dev elop sense of discrimination.
Education should include provision for attainment of Tri -ratnas, the
precious principles of life, that bring happiness, success and love here
and now.
Education should inculcate non -violence as a virtue, practiced and not
only aspired for, that would be socially desirable.
Teaching of nine principles called as nine categories of Jainism to
dissolve the partnership betw een soul and matter.
METHODS OF TEACHING
Knowledge is through senses and meditation. Teaching must develop
these faculties.
Teaching should be social and tolerant, and should bring happiness to
all.
Jiva is essentially karmic, therefore education must be action based
and ideally oriented.
DISCIPLINE
●Emphasis on self discipline and hard w ork
●Practical discipline (of a lower order meant for ordinary house -
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52●Happiness and bliss through action. Man is a free moral agent,
responsible for all his deliberate action.
2B. 8 EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF JAINISM
•Major Contributions: Jainism has made important contributions to
art, architecture and literature. Jain philosophy and culture have been a
major cultural and philosophical, social and political force since the
dawn of civilization in Asia.
•Strong emphasis on Non -Violence: The distinguishing feature of
Jainism philosophy is its strong emphasis on non -violence, accent on
multiple facets of truth, morality and ethics.
•Integrated: The contribution of Jainism philosophy in the
development of Indian philosophy has been significant. Jain
philosophy concepts like Ahimsa, Karma, Moksha, Sansara and like
have been assimilated into philosophies of other Indian religions like
Hinduism and B uddhism. It is impossible to separate Indian religion,
philosophy and education.
•Concept of Compassion: Sense of sympathy extends to all living
beings even to animals as stated in both Jainism & Buddhism.
•Contribution to a strain of Pacifism: Absolute re spect for living
beings is stressed, the best way to resist evil is through non -violence,
it is successfully used in Jainism & Buddhism.
•Law of Karma (cause and effect): Universe is ruled by moral law
which punishes all sins and rewards good deeds. The b elief that our
character creates its own heaven and hell is significant in nearly all
schools of philosophy.
•Aims of education: The education has always aimed at some of the
philosophical and religious objectives enlisted in Indian philosophy of
educati on. It is clear that the main objective of education in India since
earliest days of civilization had been Man -making who is capable of
self-realization.
•Highest state of knowledge: The highest state of knowledge is
intuition through which man achieves a realization of oneness of the
universe. Most of the Indian philosophy's essence lies in this aspect.
2B. 8 LET US SUM UP
The education imparted during the Buddhist period in reality,
reaction to the education of the preceding post -Vedic period. During this
period, educational institutions or general education were established.
They made provisions for imparting primary as we ll as higher education.munotes.in

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53An important contribution of this period is the imparting of education in
various practical subjects. Educational institutions were formally
organized and established in this period. It may favorably compare with
the modern Sarva Sh iksha Abhiyan.
Summarizing Jainism education we can say that the distinguishing
feature of this philosophy is its strong emphasis on non -violence, and
emphasis on multiple facets of truth , morality and ethics. Education has
always aimed at some of the p hilosophical and religious objectives
enlisted in Indian philosophy of education. Education system according to
Jainism has nothing special to mention except the following the Vedic and
Buddhist system of schooling and discipline.
2B.9 UNIT END EXERCISE
1) Describe salient features of Buddhist education.
2) Comment upon the following in context of Buddhist Education:
Pabajja ritual
Upasampada ritual
Higher Education
3) Discuss aims of education and the role of teacher with specific
reference to Buddhist education.
4) Discuss Buddhist education with specific reference to aims of
education, curriculum, and methods of teaching and role of a teacher.
5) Discuss in detail the educational Implications of Buddhist education.
6) Discuss Jainism education with spe cific references to various
components of education.
7) Discuss in detail the educational Implications of Jain education.
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542C
EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF
ISLAMIC AND CHRISTIANITY
THOUGHTS
Unit Structure
2C. 0 Objectives
2C.1 Introduction
2C.2 Basic Tenets of Islamic World View
2C.3 Features of Islam
2C.4 Islamic Education in relation to Components of Education
2C.5 Educational Implications of Islamic Thought.
2C.6 Let Us Sum up
2C.7 Introduction of Christianity Education
2C.8 A Christian Philosophy of Education
2C.9 Implications for the Teaching -Learning Process
2C.10 The place of Practical Teaching in the Philosophy of Christian
Education
2C.11 Let Us Sum Up
2C.12 Unit End Exercise
2C. 0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will be able to:
Define the basic tenets of Islam
Identify the major features of Islam
Understand the Islamic education in relation to components of
education
Understand the Educational Implications of Islamic thought.
Explain Christian philosophy of education.
Enlist the role of teacher in Christian education.
Explain method of teaching learning process in education of Christian
philosophy.
2C.1 INTRODUCTION
Islam is a religion for all mankind and is relevant for both spiritual
and mundane life. Isl am does not recognize the differences on the basis of
caste, creed, wealth, language, race, region etc. Islam contains justmunotes.in

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55economic system, a well -balanced social system, codes of civil, criminal,
international law and a philosophical outlook on the missi on of life. Islam
essentially stands for deep religious life and at the same time defines a
good living for the mankind.
2C.2 BASIC TENETS OF ISLAMIC WORLD VIEW
•Man is the creation of God who can choose to conform to his ordinates
•Man has intelligence, will and speech. But man is also weak and
forgetful. Through revelation‘s guidance he can seek to overcome his
imperfections.
•Conformity with God‘s will determines a man‘s destiny in this life and
the next.
•The right way to live is ac cording to God‘s will, which he has revealed
through the prophets.
•Islam is a restatement of what god has to say to man as a set of beliefs
•Law is prescribed in Islam for every sphere of life
•Islam has provided the social framework for a great culture for more
than a thousand years.
•The Muslim world is one unit.
•Islam is not only to be apprised of, even carefully acquainted with, its
pattern, institutions and history but also to apprehend what these mean
to those who have the faith.
2C.3 FEATURES OF ISLAM
•Islam is universal : The Islamic system is such that it makes all men as
one community and does not make any distinction on the basis of
language, race, colour , culture or history.
•Islam is comprehensive: It provides a complete code of conduct for
living. It is not merely for individuals but for nations as well.
•Islam is eternal: From the beginning of the universe, Islam has been
the only true religion. Islam is not a novel religion that appeared in
Arabia four centuries ago, preached by the Prophet Muhamm ad. It is
the religion God made known on the day when man first appeared on
the earth.
•Islam is dynamic: Islam is not a static RELIGION. It‘s principles are
not confined to any one particular period of history or particular set of
circumstances, Islamic pr inciples cannot be outdated. They are capable
of meeting the demands of the modern age.
•Islam is rational: Several verses quoted from Holy Quran and sayings
from Prophet clearly ask human beings to observe, to think, to analyse
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56•Islam is realistic: Islam is a religion which does not make
discrimination between theory and practice. It does prohibit such
action which is difficult to do. Islam knows the characteristics and
nature of human beings .
•Islam does not make any distinction on the basis of colour: Islam
considers all human beings on the same footing and does not
discriminate on the score of colour.
•Islam promotes harmony between the individual and the society, faith
and science, the mater ial and the spiritual
•Islam is misunderstood: It has been the misfortune of Islam that it
has been misunderstood by various religions and their followers. The
causes of misunderstanding are improper interpretations old Jihad, the
alleged use of sword in spreading Islam, imposition of Jizya,
polygamy, divorce etc. if non -Muslim try to understand how
misgivings have arisen about these terms then Islam can be properly
understands.
2C.4 ISLAMIC EDUCATION IN RELATION TO
DIFFERENT COMPONENTS OF EDUCATION
Education system was essentially religious in character. It was
patronized by the Muslim rulers. The sole aim of Muslim education
became spread of Islam, perpetuation and preservation of Muslim culture.
The Muslim rulers and beneficiaries established “Makt abs” and
“Madarsas” where the study of Holy Quran became a prominent feature.
The Islamic laws, opinions, customs and doctrines were subjects of study
and all students were required to master them.
The object of Muslim education was attainment of worldly
prosperity and social distinction. The main aim of education is “To
understand the relation of man with God as revealed in the Holy Quran”.
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
•To provide the teachings of Holy Quran as first step of education
•To provide experiences which are based on fundamentals of Islam.
•To provide experiences in the form of knowledge and skills with clear
understanding that these experiences are likely to be changed in the
light of changes in society.
•To develop understandin g that knowledge without the basis in faith
and religion is incomplete education
•To develop commitment towards the basic values which have been
prescribed in religion and scripture.
•To develop sense of accountability towards Almighty creator so that
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57•Toencourage international brotherhood irrespective of
differences in generations, occupations and social class.
•To foster great consciousness of the Divine presence in the universe
•To bring man nearer to an unders tanding of God and of the relation in
which man stands to his Creator
•To develop piety and faith amongst the followers
•To produce man who has faith as well as knowledge in spiritual
development
•To develop such qualities of a good man which are universally
accepted by the societies which have faith in religion
Nature of Elementary & Higher Education
•Maktaba & Primary Education :
Maktaba is an Arabic word which means a place where writing is
taught. Thus Maktaba is a place where pupils learn reading & writing.
Here pupils are made to learn Ayats & verses of Quran Like the Vedic -
Upanayana and Buddhists -pabajja in the Islamic edu cation a ceremony
called Bismillah was performed when the child attained the age of 4
years, 4 months & 4 days .
CURRICULUM
The child was taught the letters of alphabets of Urdu, Persian and
Arabic languages. Recitation sutras or chapters of Quran . Stories of
muslim fakirs and the poems of persian poets were also taught. For
character building, the books Gulistan and Bostan written by Shaikh Saddi
were taught. Grammar and literature, history of laws of Islam, logic,
philosophy, Law, Astrology, Hist ory, Geography, Agriculture, Unani
system of medicine,
TEACHING METHODS
Recitation ,learning kalama & collective repetition.
Writing, reading and oral methods and also Monit or methods in
Maktabs and madrasas.
Madrasas and Higher Education:
The word -Madarsa is derived from the Arabic word -dars
which means a lecture. Thus Madarsa means a place where lectures are
delivered. Madarsa was an educational institution for im parting Islamic
education and higher learning in which students sought admission after
completing Maktab education.
Lecture method was supplemented by discussions.
Duration of education in Madrasas was 10 to 20 years.
•Curriculum was divided into two categories: (Religious education
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58•Religious education: The contents of the religious curriculum
included intensive and critical analysis of the Quran, intensive study of
Islamic Law, Sufism and the heri tage of Mohammad Sahib.
•Secular education: The contents of secular education included the
teaching of languages and literatures of Arabic and Persian, logic,
History, Geography, Astronomy, Astrology, Arithmetic, Agriculture,
Medicine, Economics, Ethics, Ph ilosophy.
•Teaching Methods: Lecture method, self study, and practical method
in subjects like music architecture.
DISCIPLINE
Education was not imparted on a psychological line. Students were
forced to maintain strict discipline by giving them severe corpo ral
punishments. Truants and delinquents were severely caned on palms.
Good and intelligent students were rewarded.
TEACHER -PUPIL RELATIONSHIP
The relationship between teachers and students in Muslim period
was as cordial as it was during Vedic and Buddh ist period. Students and
teachers showed genuine feelings of love and respect. There was a
constant and intimate relationship between teacher & student.
2C.5 EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OFISLAMIC
EDUCATION
•Practical and useful Education: Education was for preparation for
practical life. Education achieved more objectivity
•Free-Education: Education in Maktabs and Madarsas was free and
compulsory up to elementary level for all muslim children. Boarding
and lodging in Madrasas was also free.
•Individual Contact: Education was considered a personal process, the
teacher had to live with his pupils.
•Monitorial System: Monitorial system was also more commonly
used.
•Status of Teacher: Teacher had high status, they commanded respect
in society where man of high moral character.
•Patronage of Education: Enjoyed state patronage. Almost all muslim
rulers set up maktabs & Madarsa and showed their generosity, favour
and love for education. Even learned persons, literary people, poets etc
got patronage and encouragement from states and royal families.
•Promotion of cultural Unity: No restriction of caste and religion to
get admission in Maktabs & Madrasas.
•Encouragement to Persian language & Science: Persian Language
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59teaching of Arabic and Persian language, and the study of science
subjects was emphasized.
•Development of Literature and History: Great attention was given
to the growth of History and art of writing History; in fact tradition of
writing history had its root in this period. Various forms of Literature
also underwent significant growth .
2C.6 LET US SUM UP
The stream of Islamic education continued to flow in India for a
period of almost 500 years. Its system passed through the hands and reign
of many rulers. This process inevitably left an indelible mark on Indian
life.
In this period a synthesis between wo rdily or materialistic and
religious education began, and consequently a tendency toward
professionalization or vocationalisation emerged. During this period, great
attention was paid to the growth of history and the art of writing history.
2C.7 INTRODUCT ION OF CHRISTIANITY
EDUCATION
Although the term Christian education does not occur in the Bible,
the Bible speaks of the moral and spiritual instruction of believers in
general and of children in particular. It places a high value upon
knowledge, both of God and of His works. It describes the moral and
spiritual fruits of this knowledge and defines its ultimate purpose.
The present Christian school movement can be understood only as
ap a r t —certainly in these times a very significant and necessary part —of
the total endeavor of Christian education. A full understanding of this
movement requires an examination of the basis upon which it’s
educational theory and practices rest: its philosophy of education.
BIBLICAL FOUNDATIONS FOR CHRISTIAN EDUCATION
▪God’s revelation is the basis for all truth.
▪Parental responsibility is the priority control.
▪The example of early Christians.
▪Significance of the Holy Spirit in the life of the teacher.
▪Christian Education is education for the whole man.
▪God’s education is always in contrast to man’s education.
▪Biblical Education requires a submission of all intellect and will to the
Lordship of Christ.
2C.8 A CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
From a Christian philosophy of education, thoughts and actions
can be deriv ed, implemented, and defended. The elements to bemunotes.in

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60considered in developing a Christian philosophy of education range from
theological and doctrinal to social and educational. The first step is the
development of a Biblical base. The Bible becomes the skele ton on which
the practical application of our philosophy can be arranged.
Christian school’s educational philosophy shall be the Biblical
base, implications for the teaching -learn ing process of the school, the role
of the educator, and the role of the learner.
The importance of having a sound Biblical philosophy of
education cannot be overemphasized. In referring to the importance of
developing a distinctively Christian philosophy , more Christian educators
are beginning to realize that to be truly Christian, the curriculum must be
Bible integrated in theory and practice. By this the Bible is to provide
more than theoretical guidance and generalization. It is to be a vital part of
the content of the curriculum and integrated with all subject matter. The
Bible should be the integrating factor around which all other subject
matter is correlated and arranged, and provides the criterion by which all
other subject matter is judged.
AGod-centered pattern of education demands that the Christian
educator spell out clearly the processes involved in the total structure of
the curriculum. This means all procedures and processes must be based on
a definite theory of knowledge.
Since education deals primarily with the communication of
knowledge, the defining of knowledge of truth becomes important.
Knowledge may be defined as an understanding or a clear perception of
truth. The Biblical view of knowledge presupposes a source of all
knowledge, fo r knowledge is dependent on truth; and truth, in turn, is
dependent on God. All avenues of knowledge stem from God. God,
Himself, is truth, and has chosen to reveal Himself through natural
revelation and special revelation.
The implications of having a Go d-centered theory of knowledge as
a base for the philosophy of education are clear. Since god is the source of
all truth, then all truth is God’s truth.
For the Christian, then, the seat of truth is God’s revelation,
contained primarily in the inspired Wo rd, but manifest also in creation,
and this truth, though on its highest level received by faith, can also be
known through our reason, enlightened by the Holy Spirit. Any adequate
basis for Christian education must, therefore, include God’s revelation in
creation as well as in His written Word. Our human understanding of the
book of nature must not be made the norm for acceptance of the other
book, the Bible. All the time, however, the ultimate criterion of truth is
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61Since God is central in the universe and is the source of all truth, it
follows that all subject matter is related to God. Thus, the revelation of
God must become the heart of the subject matter curriculum.
The Bible itself becomes the central subject in the school’
curriculum. It, as God’s primary revelation to man, must become the
integrating and correlating factor in all that is thought and taught at the
school. It is the basis by which all other channels of knowledge are
evaluated and used. Through th e bible the inter -relatedness of all other
subjects and truths is made possible.
We may conclude therefore that the function of the bible in the
subject matter curriculum is two -fold. First, it provides content of its own.
Second, it provides a service fu nction to the other subjects. The principles
of Biblical truth should be applied to and in all other subjects. Claim to
truth from other areas should be tested and evaluated by the philosophical
and theological truths of the Word of God.
God’s Christian S chools are built on the premise that all truth is
God’s truth and that the Word of God is to be the key factor in the
communication of knowledge. It is important to note that any and all
education that is received should have the word of God as its foundat ion.
This is not to imply that the Bible is a textbook on anything and
everything; but rather, that the Bible is to be the point of reference from
which we can evaluate all other areas and sources of knowledge. What one
learns from God’s natural revelation must be in harmony with what He has
revealed in His Word. Since God is the author of both revelations it is
reasonable that they would not contradict each other.
2C.9 THE IMPLICATIONS FOR THE TEACHING -
LEARNING PROCESS
The implications of having a sound Biblical base for the
educational process are many. The educative process is the process by
which the communication of the foundational truth is accomplished, in
other words, it is the process by which the Christian philosophy of
education is implemented i n the classroom.
Aclear danger of not having a firm Biblical base is pointed out by
lack of life and power and reality in some evangelical teaching. We have
been content to borrow man -made systems of education instead of using
God’s system. Secular educa tors do not give central place to the unique
revelation of God’s Word. Our distinctive content calls for distinctive
treatment.
The school’s foundation, the Word of God, reveals the
characteristics of true Christian education as to purpose, method, and
results. The purpose is to put the believer into the right relationship with
God, man, self, and his surroundings. The method is by the Spirit’smunotes.in

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62assistance in the appropriation of Biblical truth to the believer’s life. The
result will be a maturing believer who is able to live a life that is in
conformity with the Word of God. In essence, Christian education is a
process of guided learning where the teacher and the Holy Spirit combine
efforts to help the leaner to spiritually grow and mature, to more and more
conform to the image of Christ.
The scope, or field of Christian education, though guided by
Biblical truth, is not limited to Biblical exposition. A Christian School
seeks to develop the learner's worldview, a perspective that enables him to
understand, appreciate, and live a Christian life in the world in which God
has placed him. The school’s education, hopefully, shall help the
individual develop the ability to separate truth from error, not only in
Bible doctrine, but also in the facts and issues of his everyday life.
THE ROLE OF THE EDUCATOR
The Christian educator or teacher is to be a guide or resource
person in the wonderful experience of learning. He is to be neither a drill
sergeant nor a manipulator, but rather, a facilitator of learning. His
learners must know that he cares about them. The educator must have
experienced the reality of what he is attempting to teach or else he is just a
blind man leading blind men.
“This is why the school or college that would develop a Christ -centered
and Bibl ically grounded program must fly from its masthead this
standard: ‘No Christian education without Christian teachers’, and must
never, under any condition, pull its colors down. Compromise of this issue
always results in the progressive de -Christianizing o f an institution.” 1
The nature of the teaching process gives us some clues as to the
function of the teacher. As a Christian educator the teacher must be both a
Christian and an educator. As a Christian he has experienced the reality of
God’s truth, and he has God's Spirit to empower him and his teaching. As
an educator he functions in accordance with the mandate of God to teach
in accord with the educational principles contained in the Word of God.
Educating means to change one’s behavior.
In the book o f 1 Corinthians, Paul exhorts his readers to be
followers of him as he is of Christ. This must be true of the teachers too,
for as leaders they must exemplify what they are trying to teach. They
must be spirit -filled men of God.
Six Qualifications for a S pirit-filled Teacher are:
1.The teacher is the communicator of truth, he must be openly and
boldly a Christian.
2.Every teacher must know the bible. Because the Word of God is
relevant to all subjects.
3.The Christian teacher must be committed in every aspect o f his life
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634.The teacher must seek excellence. This is a seeking after intellectual
excellence to the glory of God, and a Christian teacher should be
content with nothing less than superiority in this area.
5.The Chris tian teacher must truly love his students, seeking their
highest good even when at times the way may be hard. Not only
should he love his students, he should genuinely like and understand
them.
6.Finally, the Christian teacher should exercise complete submis sion to
the one great teacher. Every teacher must listen to the Lord, and the
Holy Spirit, for his lessons and never should he think that he does not
need to be taught of Him.
THE ROLE OF THE LEARNER
The learner represents the challenge to the Christian educational
process. Each believer brings to class a personal set of needs, wants, and
goals. Each is looking for fulfillment and growth in his own personal and
spiritual life. Every learner starts with his own basic needs, thus the
educator must seek to m otivate the learner to discover and apply God’s
provisions to his life. In Christian education true learning comes as the
learner experiences the wonder of God’s truth applied to his life.
A. Personality with attitudes, desires, knowledge, skills, etc
▪Created in the image of God
▪Marred by sin
▪Adorned with mental, physical, spiritual, social interests.
B. Learner, follower, disciple, endowed with:
1. Mind to discover, understand, perceive truth confronted
2. Heart to appreciate, desire truth made a ttractive
3. Will to appreciate, respond to truth and opportunity
The pupil is to be considered as an individual, a person of worth,
as God sees us as individuals. His personal experiences and knowledge
have value. He is a responsible member of a learni ng group, having
something to contribute and something to learn.
The truth that is learned must not be finally imposed from without,
but rather must be discovered by the pupil under the guidance and
leadership of the teacher and the Holy Spirit.
2C.10 T HE PLACE OF PRACTICAL TEACHING IN
THE PHILOSOPHY OF CHRISTIAN EDUCATION
After the exile period, we noticed that there was a direct parallel
between the secular studies of mathematics, astrology, etc., with the study
of the Torah. They complement one another. They were not separated, butmunotes.in

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64integrated. From this emerges yet another educational principle: secular
truth is God’s t ruth and should be integrated and seen as a cohesive whole.
Even within evangelical circles, the great gulf that often exists
between the bible and everyday life and practice is all too apparent. A
breakdown has occurred, intellectual schizophrenia if you please, with the
result that business, science, and politics are almost totally unrelated to the
Scriptures. As Schaeffer has so aptly put it:
“Today we have a weakness in our educational process in failing to
understand the natural association between t he disciplines. We tend to
study all our disciplines in unrelated parallel lines. This tends to be true in
both Christian and secular education. This is one of the reasons why
evangelical Christians have been taken by surprise at the tremendous shift
that has come in our generation.”
To accomplish this integration is no easy task, but the Christian
needs to understand that all truth is important and that Christian education
needs to present a unified philosophy of life.
METHOD OF TEACHING LEARNING PROCESS
1. A. Pattern of teaching involves:
1. Introduction: intrigues interest in investigation
2. Interpretation: defines in framework of known to unknown
3. Interaction: encourages participation deepening impressions
4. Integration: assimilates new truth into enlarged life
B. Manner of instruction is:
1. More than telling or showing; engaging in participation
2. Many times unconscious in effort as well conscious
3. Multiplied in various activities as worship, camp, play, etc.
4. Manifested by imparti ng, counseling, discussing, living!
2. Through Experiences . .
A. Education involves a teacher -pupil -subject -relationship
1. Teacher introduces, interests, explains, encourages
2. Pupil investigates, appreciates, assimilates, acts
3. Subject is truth around which this interaction revolves
B. Education takes place only when truth is:
1. Understood in the mind, not mere mental assent or repetition .
a. Related to previous experience or fragmentary
b. Related to life situation or artificial
2. Believe d in the heart (the entire being)
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653. Of Truth . .
A. All truth is God’s truth, but received in portions
1. Expressed in nature, providence, Scriptures, Christ
2. Received by intuition, experience, authority, reason, faith
B. Holy Spirit illuminates, providing super -rational truth
4. Into a Life...
A. Purpose of grace and truth is conformity
B. Christ is not only truth but life
C. Provision of truth is compl ete
1. Standard of measurement of maturity is Christ
2. Instructions are adequate in Scriptures
3. Power is provided in Gospel
D. Completed only when see Him and become like Him
CONTENT OF THE CURRICULUM
●It should be value -driven according to reforme d principles
●It should reflect a holistic and integrated, but also inclusive approach
●It should be written according to outcome -based principles where the
affective outcome should be prominent
●It should be missioner in nature and contextualized within the Sub-
Saharan African and more specifically the Mozambican context
●It should comply with high academic standards with emphasis on the
enhancement and development of higher thinking skills
●Although the curriculum was developed from a reformed Christia n
perspective, it is not a prerequisite that applicants should be Christians.
THE AGENCIES OF EDUCATION
The Church
The Church is that group of individuals who have been regenerated
by the Holy Spirit through faith in Jesus Christ as Savior and who have
openly confessed this faith. The Church thus is not a building or even a
denomination. It is the Body of Christ, composed of every true believer in
the Lord Jesus Christ from Pentecost to Christ’s return. Although true
believers are commanded by Scripture to assemble in local churches, to be
part of the true Church is not merely to be part of a congregation. It is not
just to be religious or to belong to a religious group. It is to possess the life
of God in the soul. The believer is made a partaker of the divine nature.
Education
From the moment a child is born , certain forces are at work
influencing his development. As his inherited powers and tendencies
surface and interact with his environment and his will, he takes on the
charac teristics of his adulthood. Human growth, however, does not end
with physical maturity. Some faculties of the personality are capable of
expansion and refinement into old age. Education, whether of child ormunotes.in

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66adult, is the directing of this total ongoing pr ocess of development toward
specific objectives.
Purpose
The purpose of Christian education is the directing of the process
of human development toward God’s objective for man: godliness of
character and action. It bends its efforts to the end “that the m an of God
may be perfect, thoroughly furnished unto all good works.
This goal of godliness presupposes the experience of regeneration.
As education in general begins with physical birth, Christian education
proper begins with spiritual rebirth, when the life of God is communicated
to the soul. To say that Christian education proper begins with the new
birth is not, however, to say that it is pointless before regeneration. The
student can be provided with necessary awareness of God and responses to
His Word so that when the Holy Spirit brings conviction of sin he will
readily and with full understanding accept Christ as his Savior. Timothy
from childhood knew “the holy scriptures, which are able to make the
wise unto salvation th rough faith which is in Christ Jesus”. To make
children and even unregenerate adults “wise unto salvation” is no less a
legitimate function of Christian education today.
The Christian School
Christians have a biblical mandate to educate in their homes and in
their churches. In order to reinforce the educational ministries of these
institutions or to protect their ministries from secular interference,
Christian parents or church members, acting either individually or in
concert, may elect to form a Christia n school. In doing so, they are acting
from religious conviction. To deny them their choice of means in carrying
out the biblical mandate of Christian education is to deny them the
exercise of their religious convictions.
It follows that the education of children is the prerogative not of
the state but of the parents or church members. Allowing the state to
dictate the standards and procedures of Christian education jeopardizes the
ability of parents and church members to exercise their educational
preroga tive, to perform their responsibility to God for the education of
their children. The subjection of the Christian school to the control of the
state or of any other secular agency is, in effect, the subjection of the
Christian homes and churches to secular domination. It is a religious
subjection, rightly regarded as vicious, for secular control (even when it
may appear benign) is incompatible with the aims of a spiritual ministry.
2C.11 LET US SUM UP
Efforts to bring about change in society should be foc used on
young people, as they are the leaders of the future. Abraham Kuyper is
considered the father of Christian higher education. It was his conviction
that everything belongs to Christ. Christian academics should develop andmunotes.in

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67exhibit a Christian perspect ive on, and an integral approach to all subjects
in the curricula essential for students to become Christian professionals in
a postmodern pluralistic society.
Through CHE, students' faith and educati on could be integrated in
such a way that they would be competent in their profession, but also
committed to apply their competency to address the spiritual and material
conditions of their continent. Once they are morally transformed, they are
equipped to contribute constructively to the transformation of the societies
in which they will find themselves. This process could be enhanced by the
inclusion of Christian ethics, Christian values and a Christian worldview
in the curriculum, and by applying the cor rect methodology in the
educational endeavor. The narratives of three Mozambican students bear
witness to the impact that CHE had on their lives, their families, their
professional lives and the community in which they live.
2C.12 UNIT END EXERCISE
1.Discuss the various salient features of Islamic Education.
2.Discuss the organization of Islamic Education
3.Discuss Islamic Education with specific references to aims of
education, curriculum, and method of teaching and role of teacher.
4.Discuss biblical found ations for Christian education.
5.Explain Role of teacher and Enumerate qualities of teacher in
Christian education.
6.How should the curriculum content of Christian education be
according to Philosophy of education?
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683A
ESSENTIALISM AND PERENNIALISM
Unit Structure
3A.0 Objectives
3A.1 Introduction
3A.2 Beliefs of Traditional Philosophy
3A.3 Beliefs of Progressive Philosophy
3A.4 Introduction of Essentialism philosophy
3A.5 Basic Principles of Essentialism
3A.6 Educational Implications of Essentialism
3A.7 Let Us Sum Up
3A.8 Check the progress
3A.9 Concept of Perennialism Philosophy
3A. 10 Educational Implications of Perennialism
3A.11.A) Strengths of Perennialism
3A.11. B) Weakness and Criticism of Perenni alism
3A.12 Perennialism -Evergreen Ideas
3A.13 Let Us Sum Up
3A.14 Check the progress
3A.15 References
3A.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
Differentiate between the beliefs of Traditional Philosophy and
Progressive philosophy
Explain the philosophical principles of Essentialism .
Discuss the educational implications of Essentialism.
Describe the concept of Perennialism philosophy.
Explain Educational Implications of Perennialism.
Enlist strengths and weaknesses of Perennialism.
Differentiate between Philosophy of Essentialism and Perennialism.
3A.1 INTRODUCTION
Both Philosophy and education permeate the fiber and texture of
culture. Philosophy does so because every culture, liter ate and non literatemunotes.in

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69alike, symbolizes a basic pattern of beliefs providing those who accept that
culture with greater or lesser articulation and significance. Education does
so because every culture endows its members with formal and informal
symbols and training that aim to acculturate its philosophy into attitudes,
habits and skills. If philosophy expresses the belief of culture, education
helps to carry them out.
It is important to understand and have some knowledge of these
two conflicting philosophie s. These are usually described as the
conventional and progressive philosophies. It must be emphasized that
those who support the traditional philosophy are not old -fashioned. Major
beliefs of the traditional and progressive philosophies are listed below:
3A.2 BELIEFS OF TRADITIONAL PHILOSOPHY
1)Education is reasonably authoritarian and hierarchical.
2)The curriculum is subject -centered.
3)Emphasis is on content in the process.
4)Knowledge and accuracy are essential.
5)Rationality and the consideration of factual evidence should
predominate
6)Recognition of right and wrong.
7)There should be a product
8)The product, or knowledge of content, should be objectively tested or
measured.
9)Choice between different curricula and/or dif ferent types of school is
essential to maximize individual strengths.
3A. 3 BELIEFS OF PROGRESSIVE PHILOSOPHY
1)Education is egalitarian. It is child -centered and relevant,
2)Emphasis is on skills.
3)Experience, experiment and understanding are more important.
4)Creativity and feelings are more important than facts.
5)Criteria provide a framework for subjective assessment or tasks based
on skills.
6)Co-operation gets the priority
7)Entitlement for all replaces choice and differentiation; equal
opportunities can be used to construct equality of result.
The traditionalists believe that the purpose of education is to pass on a
body of knowledge (both factual and cultural) to future gene rations;
The progressive believe that the purpose of education is to change
attitudes and values, to construct a politically correct secular and socialistmunotes.in

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70society. The progressives give particular attention to English, History and
Research, because these subjects have enormous cultural importance.
3A.4 INTRODUCTION OF ESSENTIALISM
PHILOSOPHY
Educational Essentialism is a theory that states that, children should
learn the traditional basic subjects and these should be learned thoroughly
and rigorously.
An essentialist program normally teaches children progressively, from
less complex skills to more complex.
William Bagley (1874 -1946) was The founder of the Essentialist
Movement.
The term essentialism as an educational philosophy was originally
popularized in the 1930s by the American educator William Bagley.
Bagley completed his Ph.D. in 1900 and spent the following
academic year, as an assistant in Kitchener's laboratory. In 1908 Bagley
joined the faculty at the University of Illinois Urbana -Champaign. At
Illinois, Bagley helped to develop the Department of Education to the
point that it became one of the most well known in the nation.
The foundation of Essentialism took place in 1938 by William Bagley.
Early in the twentieth century, essentialism was criticized as being
too rigid to prepare students adequately for adult life.
But with the launching of Sputnik in 1957, interest in essentialism
revived.
Bagley's basic point with his role i n the founding of essentialism
was that the currently dominant theories of education were feeble
and insufficient.
He wanted these dominant theories complemented, and perhaps
replaced, with a philosophy that was strong, forceful and positive.
He did not, h owever, want to completely destroy the dominant
theories that he was critiquing.
Throughout his life, he supported both the academic disciplines
and certain basic tenets of Progressive education.
Essentialism is a uniquely American philosophy of educatio nw h i c h
began in the 1930‘s and 1940‘s as a reaction to what was seen as an
overemphasis on a child -centered approach to education and a concern
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71Although essentialism, as a theory and program of education has
developed to maturity before progressivism, it is considered mainly for its
current formulations.
Most of the leading exponents are still strikingly devoted disciples
of the two major systems of philosophical thoughts –idealism and realism
–that emerged in the Renaissance and attained their matured formulations
during the early parts of the 19thcentury. The expression into which each
system matured is extremely diverged and not always internally
consistent, with the c onsequence that essentialism, which include both
idealism and realism, abounds with eclectic elements.
Despite their differences, idealistic and realistic philosophies are
deeply concerned with the three chief areas of belief: reality, knowledge
and value.
Essentialists believe in a critical core of information and skill that
an educated person must have.
3A.5 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ESSENTIALISM
In the Essentialists Platform, which Bagley published in April
1938, the essentialists offered several basic educational principles.
First, they recognized the right of an immature student to the
guidance of a well -educated, caring, and cultu red teacher.
Second, they proposed that an effective democracy demanded a
democratic culture in which teachers impart the ideals of the
community to each succeeding generation of the children.
Third, they called for a specific program of studies that requi red
thoroughness, accuracy, persistence, and good workmanship on the
part of the pupils.
Underlying Philosophical Basis:
•Essentialism is grounded in a conservative philosophy that accepts the
social, political, and economic structure of American society.
•It contends that schools should not try to radically reshape society.
Rather, essentialists argue, schools should transmit the traditional
moral values and intellectual knowledge that make the students model
citizens.
•Essentialists believe that teachers s hould instill such traditional virtues
such as respect for authority, perseverance, fidelity to duty,
consideration for others, and practicality.
Reflecting its conservative philosophy, essentialism tends to accept the
philosophical views associated with the traditional, conservative
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72Metaphysics
It acknowledges the primary nature of Essence.
It is not dependent on objective facts and measurements and not
limited to empirical understanding.
It transcends self /other dualism to define the undivided source.
Epistemology
1.Truth exists in the classics and modern science.
2.Students must learn process and content.
3.Knowledge is gained through the interaction of experiences and
rational thought.
Axiology
1.Determined by the natural order of things.
2.Values exist in the best of culture.
3.Rationality is best developed through interplay of deductive and
inductive thinking.
3A.6 EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF
ESSENTIALISM PHILOSOPHY GOALS OF
EDUCATION
The main aims of education are:
1.To prepare students to be productive, contributing members of the
society.
2.To teach the young, the essentials they need to live well in the modern
world.
CURRICULUM
Essentialism is related to the cultural literacy movement, which
advocates the teach ing of a core set of knowledge common to (and
assumed to be possessed by) members of a culture or society.
Strong emphasis is on basic skills in elementary schools. Emphasis
is on knowledge and scholastic achievement in secondary schools.
Reflecting the es sentialist emphasis on technological literacy, A
Nation at Risk recommends that all high school students complete at least
one semester of Computer Science.
Essentialism refers to the "traditional" or "Back to the Basics"
approach to education.
Essentialis m tries to instill all students with the most essential or
basic academic knowledge, skills and character development.
It is so named because it strives to instill students with the
"essentials" of academic knowledge and character development. T he
foundation of the essentialist curriculum is based on traditional disciplines
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73Essentialists frown upon vocational courses. In the essentialist
system, students are required to ma ster a set body of information and basic
techniques for their grade level before they are promoted to the next
higher grade.
The content gradually moves towards more complex skills and
detailed knowledge.
METHOD OF INSTRUCTION
Essentialist avoids methodo logical add -ons and soft pedagogy and
concentrates on sound, proven instructional methods.
The students would learn passively by sitting on the desks and
listening to the teacher. An example of essentialism would be lecture
based introduction classes taug ht at universities. Students sit and take
notes in a classroom which holds over one hundred students. They take
introductory level courses in order to introduce them to the content. After
completing one course, they will take the next level course and appl yw h a t
they have learned previously.
•Elementary students receive instruction in skills such as writing,
reading, measurement, and computers.
•Subjects most often associated with the development of creativity such
as Art and Music to be provided.
•The studen ts are required to master a body of information and basic
techniques, gradually moving from less to more complex skills and
detailed knowledge.
•Only by mastering the required material for their grade level, the
students are promoted to the next highe rg r a d e .
Essentialism is different from what Dewey would like to see in the
schools. Students in this system would sit in rows and be taught in
masses.
ESSENTIALIST CLASSROOM
Essentialists urge that the most essential or basic academic skills
and knowle dge be taught to all the students.
The essentialist classroom is centered on students being taught
about the people, events, ideas, and institutions that have shaped American
society. Essentialists hope that when students leave school, they will not
only possess basic knowledge and skills, but they will also have
disciplined, practical minds, capable of applying lessons learned in school
in the real world.
In an essentialist classroom, students are taught to be ―Culturally
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74Essentialist programs are academically rigorous, for both slow and
fast learners. Essentialists believe in strict classroom management for two
reasons.
The first being that students will team better and concentrate better if
there are few distractions.
Secondly the teacher can teach better with few distractions.
If a student does something wrong then he or she needs to be punished.
ROLE OF A TEACHER
Moreover, essentialists maintain that classrooms should be
oriented around the teacher, who ideally serves as an intellectual a nd
moral role model for the students.
The teachers or the administrators decide what is most important
for the students to learn and place little emphasis on student
interests, particularly when they divert time and attention from the
academic curriculum.
Essentialist teachers focus heavily on achievement test scores as a
means of evaluating progress.
Essentialists believe that the teachers should try to embed
traditional moral values and virtues such as respect for authority,
perseverance, fidelity to du ty, consideration for others, and practicality
and intellectual knowledge that students need to become model citizens.
DISCIPLINE
•The report A Nation at Risk reflects the essentialist emphasis on
strictness.
•It calls for more core requirements, a longer school day, a longer
academic year, and more challenging textbooks.
3A. 7 LET US SUM UP
Essentialism, a dynamic force in the earlier stage of modern
history, becomes a conserving force as the culture that formerly nourished
it and to which it has sinc e been loyal and grateful strains towards further
sweeping change.
3A. 8 CHECK THE PROGRESS
Answer the following questions:
1)Explain the differences between the beliefs of traditional philosophy
and progressive philosophy.
2)Explain the philosophical principles of Essentialism.
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753A.9 CONCEPT OF PERENNIALISM PHILOSOPHY
Perennial means ‘Everlasting ’like ‘a perennial flower that comes
up year after year . The perennial philosophy goes by many names –eg.
Neo Thomism, Traditionalism, Rational Humanism etc. Whatever the
name the end result is essentially the same: a belief that certain universal
truths or ideas exist at all times and that the level of existence that man
attains is determined by his att ention or in attention to these external
principles.
The perennialist traces the foundation of his philosophy back to
Plato and Aristotle together with the revised understanding of their ideas
as interpreted by Augustine and Thomas Aquinas.
A perennialis t is “One who believes that certain perennial truths in
and about education have existed from the very beginning and continue to
have existence and validity as first principles which all right thinking men
will accept.”Perennialism is a philosophical and l iterary theory that argues
for the existence of universal truths.It is also an artistic movement which
was popular in the 19th century.This theory’s idea is that certain truths
about life can be found by looking at different culture throughout history.
Perennialism is a school of thought in the philosophy of arts. The theory
proposes that some art works have universal and lasting values regardless
of their age or style.
●PERENNIALISM PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
This philosophy of education focused on teaching in a way that
focuses on the progress of the individual. This philosophy of education is
based on the belief that it’s not the teacher’s job to focus on the group but
on the individual.
It doesn’t matter if a student is below average in the group; as long
as they progress to their own goals they are excelling.
The philosophy argues that children should be educated to provide
them with the knowledge and skills they need to succeed across time
periods. Perennialist education is designed to provide children with
relevant skills today and will be relevant in the future.
●EDUCATIONAL PERENNIALISM PHILOSOPHY
Educational perennialism is a philosophy that stands for the idea of
“learning without education”. It promotes lifelong learning and an
education system i .e.constantly evolving.
The philosophy was 1stintroduced in 1975 by Dr.James Baston
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76Perennialists believe that all students should have access to a wide
variety of educational oppo rtunities throughout their lives.
3A.10 EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF
PERENNIALISM AIMS OF EDUCATION
Perennialism values knowledge that transcends time. This is a
subject centered philosophy.The goal of a perennialist educator is to teach
students to thin k rationally and develop minds that can think critically .
A perennialist classroom aims to be a closely organized and well -
disciplined environment which develops in students a lifelong quest for
the truth.
They believe that education should epitomize prepared efforts to
make these ideas available to students and to guide their thought process
towards the understanding and appreciation of the great works.
Perennialists are primarily concerned with the importance of
mastery of the content and developmen t of reasoning skills.
1. Aims to develop student’s intellectual and moral qualities.
2. They emphasize that students should not be taught information that may
soon be outdated or found to be incorrect.
3. Classrooms are centered on teachers.
4. It ensures that students acquire understanding about the great ideas of
western civilization.
5. It teaches concepts and focuses on knowledge and the meaning of
knowledge.
6. Aimed at teaching student’s way of thinking that will secure individual
freedom, human rig hts and responsibilities through nature.
WHY IS CALLED TEACHER –CENTERED?
1. Emphasize the importance of transferring knowledge, information and
skills from the older generation to the younger one.
2. The teacher is not concerned about the student’s inter est.
3. More focus on the curriculum and nature.
4. The teacher set everything based on the syllabus.
TEACHER CENTERED PHILOSOPHY
1) FOCUS ON CURRICULUM -
●Universal and unchanging truth
●To espouse personal development and internal transformation
●To search and disseminate the subjects based on the universal and
immutable truth.
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772) SAMPLE CLASSROOM ACTIVITY ( INDOOR -SCIENCE
EXPERIENCE)
3) ROLE OF TEACHERS –
●Instill respect for authority, Perseverance duty, consideration and
practicability
●Act as the director and coach of intellect -respondents.
●Must deliver clear lectures
●Coaching in critical thinking skills
4) GOALS FOR STUDENTS -
●Train the student’s intellect and moral development.
●Able to discipline themselves
●Will gain the ability to develop a full range of rational powers.
5) EDUCATIONAL LEADERS -
1) Robert Maynard Hutchins
2) Mortimer J. Adler
3) Jacques Mortain
CURRICULUM
The Perennialist curriculum is a teaching method that focuses on
the study of timeless topics. It is a theory of formal education that suggests
all systematic knowledge can be divided in 4 types.
1) Arts
2) Science
3) Philo sophy
4) Mathematics
Perennialist thinkers generally believe this because they think
nature's laws are universal meaning if you learn one type of knowledge or
skill from any source, it would be necessary to know the other three kinds.
3A.11.A) STRENGTH SO FP E R E N N I A L I S M
1. Perennialism is a history theory that argues the same basic patterns and
structures are at work in all cultures.
2. The strengths of perennialism include its ability to explain similarities
between different cultures and its emphasis on the importance of
certain values, such as progress.
3. It promotes self -sufficiency and discourages ones depending.
4. It is a holis tic approach to understanding the world and life.
3A.11.B) WEAKNESS & CRITICISM OF PERENNIALISM
1. It can be seen as deterministic because it does not account for change
overtime or for cultural differences.
2. Some Scholars argue there are no universal v alues.munotes.in

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783. It is a form of environmental determinism critics argue that it does not
account for the complexities of human behavior & social change.
4. It believes that humans are inherently good but critics disagree.
5. It is not a very strong theory, it do es not account for change every time.
6. It is a history theory that argues the past, present and future are all
connected.
7. Critics argue that this theory does not take into account the possibility
of change in society overtime. It also ignores how diff erent cultures
have their own unique histories.
3A.12 PERENNIALISM -EVERGREEN IDEAS
Perennialism states that the ideas taught in schools should be
evergreen and everlasting. Explore an overview of perennialism, discover
the impact of evergreen ideas, assess the Great Conversation, and review
practical teaching examples.
Example
She's a teacher, and her principal has just asked her to plan her
school's curriculum for next school year. It's a great honor; it shows that
her principal has faith that Sita knows what should be taught!
But what, exactly, should Sita choose for the curriculum? Some
people believe that the school should be teaching the classics , like
Shakespeare and Darwin. Others think it's important to look at newer, less
classic figures and learn from them.
Perennialism in education is the idea that school curricula should
focus on what is everlasting. You can remember the word 'perennialism '
by remembering that perennial means lasting for many years. Thus,
perennialism is focused on things that have lasted for many years.
One of the cornerstones of perennialism is the concept
ofevergreen ideas , or philosophies that last through many genera tions.
Think of the old adage, 'All's fair in love and war.' Whether you believe
that it's true or not, it's been around a long time, and many people have
explored it in different ways.
To create a perennialist curriculum, Sita will want to focus on
everg reen ideas and avoid fads and other new ideas. In other words, she'll
want to stick with what's tried and true. The way that an evergreen lasts all
year round (and for many, many years), evergreen ideas last a long time
and are applicable to many people th rough many generations.
For example, in social studies, Sita might want to focus on big,
evergreen ideas of democracy; that is, things like human rights, educating
voters, and things like that. Voting machines and drones may be new
issues faced by humans today, but they are tied to the same ideals that ourmunotes.in

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79grandparents and great -grandparents faced, things like national security
versus privacy, or voting rights for all. So instead of talking about drones
in social studies, Sita will want the school to look at how the founding
fathers balanced personal rights with national security.
Because perennialism is so focused on evergreen ideas, Sita should
make the most of the curriculum about evergreen ideas. That way,
students are learning what their grandparents learned. The belief is that
ideas that have stood the test of time have proven themselves to be worthy
of study. Newfangled concepts might add something to the curriculum, but
they may not. Why not just stick with what Sita knows will work because
it's wor ked for generations before?
3A. 13 LET US SUM UP
Perennialists believe that the focus of education should be the ideas
that have lasted over centuries. They believe the ideas are as relevant and
meaningful today as when they were written. They recommend that
students learn from reading and analyzing the works by history’s finest
thinkers and writers.
Essentialists believe that when students study these works and
ideas, they will appreciate learning. Similar top perennialism, essentialism
aims to develo p students’ intellectual and moral qualities. Perennialist
classrooms are also centered on teachers in order to accomplish these
goals. The teachers are not concerned about the students’ interests or
experiences. They use tried and true teaching methods an d techniques that
are believed to be most beneficial to disciplining students’ minds. The
perennialist curriculum is universal and is based on their view that all
human beings possess the same essential nature. Perennialists think it is
important that indi viduals think deeply, analytically, flexibly, and
imaginatively. They emphasize that students should not be taught
information that may soon be outdated or found to be incorrect.
Perennialists disapprove of teachers requiring students to absorb massive
amounts of disconnected information. They recommend that schools
spend more time teaching about concepts and explaining they are
meaningful to students.
Perennialists believe that one should teach the things that one
deems to be of everlasting importance to all people everywhere. They
believe that the most important topics develop a person. Since details of
fact change constantly, these cannot be the most important. Therefore, one
should teach principles, not facts. Since people are human, one should
teach fi rst about humans, not machines or techniques. Since people are
people first, and workers second if at all, one should teach liberal topics
first, not vocational topics. The focus is primarily on teaching reasoning
and wisdom rather than facts, the liberal arts rather than vocational
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803A.14 CHECK THE PROGRESS
1) Explain the concept of perennialism in your own words.
2) Why is the perennialism philosophy teacher centered?
3) Enlist the strengths and weaknesses of perennialism.
3A.15 REFERENCES
1) The philosophical concepts of perennialism retrieved from website:
http: //www.ttgst.ac.kr/upload/ttgst_resources13/20123 -176.pdf
2) University of Luzon Graduate school perennialism Reporter Kathleen
Lat Encarnacion retrieved from website : slideshare.net


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813B
PRAGMATISM AND NATURALISM
Unit Structure
3B. 0 Objectives
3B. 1 Pragmatism –am o d e r n school of thought
3B. 2 Basic principles of Pragmatism
3B. 3 Leaders in Pragmatism
3B. 4 Forms of Pragmatism
3B. 5 Chief affirmations of Pragmatism
3B. 6 Basic Rules of Pragmatism
3B. 7 Educational Implications of Pragmatism
3B. 8 Let Us Sum Up
3B. 9 Check the Progress
3B.10 Introduction of Naturalism
3B.11 Educational Implications of Naturalism
3B. 12 Let Us Sum Up
3B. 13 Check the progress
3B.14 References
3B.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
Explain the chief affirmations of pragmatism.
Discuss the educational implications of Pragmatism with compare of
Naturalism Philosophy
Describe the meaning of Naturalism.
Enumerate the leaders of Pragmatism and naturalism.
3B.1 PRAGMATISM –AM O D E R NS C H O O LO F
THOUGHT
Pragmatism is a mod ern school of thought and plays an important
role in the educational system. Pragmatism is essentially a
humanistic philosophy maintaining that human creates his own values in
the course of activity, that reality is still in making, and awaits its part of
completion from the future Ross. Pragmatism as such, is an attitude of
mind which views that reality is in flux, in a continuous process of action,munotes.in

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82making and dissolution, and is in the state of becoming responding
vigorously to the need and de mand of human experiences and fluctuating
with the insight and progress that man may acquire during his journey on
earth.
3B.2 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF PRAGMATISM
Philosophy of pragmatism is a movement consisting of varying but
associated theories, and disti nguished by the doctrine that the meaning of
an idea or a proposition lies in its observable practical consequences. A
practical, matter -of-fact way of approaching or assessing situations or of
solving problems.
The term is derived from the same Greek word pragma, meaning
action, from which our words practice and practical come. It was first
introduced into philosophy by Mr. Charles Peirce in 1878. In an article
entitled How to Make Our Ideas Clear ,in the Popular Science Monthly for
January of that yea r Mr. Peirce, after pointing out that our beliefs are
really rules for action, said that, to develop a thought‘s meaning, we need
only determine what conduct it is fitted to produce: that conduct is for us
its sole significance. The root of the word Pragma tism is a Greek word
meaning work. It is primarily a 20th century philosophy developed by
Americans.
Let us discuss the basic principles of Pragmatism:
•Truth is what works in the real world. We must keep the desired end in
mind.
•Ideas should be applied to solving problems; including social
problems.
•Truth is that which works in Practical situation.
•Action is real, ideas are tools.
•Man is an Active being.
•No absolute values of life.
•Faith is man's ability to solve problems.
•Through the logic of scientific m ethods.
•Rejects authoritarianism –govt religion edu.
•Knowledge is always tentative and functional.
•Child is the center of an activity.
•Stress on social and physical environment.
•Education should be preparation for life
•Solving problems is important; there fore use real -life situations
•Teaching methods should be varied and flexible
•Education should be action oriented
•Needs and interests of students should be considered
•Project approach to teaching is desirable
•Curriculum is varied.
•A broad education is more desirable.munotes.in

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833B.3 LEADERS IN PRAGMATISM
•Charles Darwin, 1809 -1882 according to him,
–Reality is not found in Being, but in Becoming
–Reality is open -ended, in process, with no fixed end.
•American Pragmatists
•Charles Sanders Peirce, 1839 -1914
•Widely acknowledged as the father of pragmatism
•Wrote an article on ―How to make our Ideas Clear‖in
Popular Science Monthly that is regarded as the basis for pragmatism.
•True knowledge of anything depends upon verification of our ideas in
actual exper ience
•John Dewey, 1859 -1952
–Need to concentrate on real -life problems
–Sought practical solutions for practical problems
–How We Think
•Felt Difficulty
•Define the problem
•Formulate possible solutions
•Examine & Evaluate possible solutions
•Accept or reject solu tions
3B.4 FORMS OF PRAGMATISM
Humanistic Pragmatism: -It considers only those things or principles as
true which satisfy the needs, requirements, aspirations and goals of human
beings thus furthering the cause of mankind. Truth is the index of human
satisfaction. Hence truth is relative and contingent subject to satisfying
human needs.
Experimental Pragmatism: -Only those things and principles are true
which can be verified experimentally. Experientially verified things only
are true. Therefore, the outcome is verification.
Biological Pragmatism: -According to it ,whatever helps oneself to adjust
and to adapt with the environment or helps in changing the environment,
is valuable and important. Truth, therefore, is biologically useful. It also
may be called Instrumentalism as ideas are tools and instruments. They are
meant to attain practical knowledge. It means a thinker, is a manipulator
and not a beholder. Ideas or thoughts enlarge their scope by testing
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843B.5 CHIE F AFFIRMATIONS OF PRAGMATISM
1.A revolt against Traditionalism & Absolutism: -They believe in
change. To them reality is change which lies in man making -That
which works in a practical situation.
2.Thought is Subordinate to action: -Believe in action rather than
thought. Though thoughts create means for action yet it is passive to
action. Ideas are the tools.
3.Rejects ultimate values: -Values are man made, which are created in
the course of activities and experiences. They do not be lieve any
ultimate values because these values are constantly changing with the
passage of time, situation and need.
4.Pragmatism is instrumentalism: - Dewey says ―the test is found in
the function of thought, in adapting the human organism to its
environmen t ―It considers thoughts a mean, instrument, for solving
problem -situations to achieve adjustment and harmony.
5.Pragmatism is Experimentalism: -It stands for testing every
statement by finding out its practical implication. So they gave special
emphasis on experimentation. Everything subjected to experiment is
good.
6.Pragmatism is Humanism: -Pragmatism has total faith in man‘s
power, capacities and initiative, as man is competent to mold his
circumstances to his advantage as well as to that of society. Man is the
creator of his environment and has uncontrolled initiative in this
regard.
7.Faith in Democracy: -It is only through democracy that the individual
develops his personality to a fullest extent. Because democracy gives
importance to both individual and so cial development resulting in total
national development.
3B.6 BASIC RULES OF PRAGMATISM
1.Changing nature of truth. Truth lies in successful application and
result.
2.Problems act as motivations for truth.
3.Faith in social interaction.
4.Principle of utility.
5.No fixed values and ideas.
6.Human initiative.
7.Activity as central.
8.Forward looking.
9.Pluralistic and flexible.
10.Reality in making.munotes.in

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853B.7 EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF
PRAGMATISM
AIMS OF EDUCATION
The pragmatists do not consider any aims or values fixed in
advance. These all emerge during reconstruction of experience, and as
such no way to education is the true way. Aims of education, therefore, are
emergent and subject to change from time to time.
1.Social efficiency.
2.More & more education & continued growth.
3.Adaptation to the environment.
4.Harmonious development.
CURRICULUM
•Experience Curriculum, graded curriculum. ( Activity curriculum)
•Utility as the prime mover in determination of career.(utilitarian
curriculum)
•Assigns due place to the interest of the child.
•Provides problem solving activities.
•Integrated subjects, not static, include purposive, productive &
socialized activities. (Integrated curriculum).
•Dynamic, Stress on Subject & studies like physical training, hygiene,
social science, math, science .
METHODS OF TEACHING
Creative activities in teaching learning process (spontaneous,
purposeful socialized activities.)
Learning by doing.
Curriculum advocates powerful activities.
Project method. This method is followed by certain principles and
steps which are given below as the principle of project method.
Life oriented.
Problem centered Purposeful in nature.
Activity based Manual or motor in nature.
Types of educational project -
1.Producer type.
2.Consumer type.
3.Problem type.
4.Drill type.
ROLE OF TEACHE R
As a helper and guide Teacher‘s role is to put a child in a real life
situation, so that he might be able to understand his life‘s problems and
thereby solve them. Doing is more important than knowing, the pragmatic
teacher wants his pupil to think and act for them to do rather than to know,munotes.in

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86to originate rather than to repeat. Teaching should not be based on
lecturing and repeating only. The teacher should create a problem solving
attitude in his pupils.
DISCIPLINE
Pragmatism believes in Social discipli ne. Project method deals
with all such essentials. They believe that play and work should be
combined and this combination will perform a mental attitude –discipline,
inner discipline cannot be maintained through force and domination.
Discipline comes thr ough purposive & Cooperative activities.
3B.8 LET US SUM UP
Pragmatism is an attitude of mind and a way of life which opposes
tradition in search of the greener pastures and creates a world of its own. It
is an innovative, naturalistic, experimen tal and problem solving approach
to life and education.
3B.9 CHECK THE PROGRESS
Answer the following questions.
1)Explain the historical background of Liberal Philosophy.
2)Explain the basic characteristics of Liberal Philosophy.
3)Explain the basic principles and chief affirmations of Pragmatism.
4)Which are the forms of pragmatism?
5)Discuss the educational implications of pragmatism.
3B.10 INTRODUCTION OF NATURALISM
Naturalism is concerned with‘ natural self’ or ‘real self’. The
naturalist says that the material world is the real world. The naturalist sees
things as they are. They want to “apprehend reality as it is in its own
nature.” They want to develop the self which is influenced by reality. They
do not believe that there are any spiritual values or absolute truths.
Opposed to the spiritual nature of man, the naturalists take recourse to
such concepts as instinct evolution and recapitulation. Instincts, they say,
are responsible for all our activities -biological, Psychological or social. It
is the e volutionary process which helps in increasing the freedom of
organisms. Man being endowed with imagination has been undergoing
evolution. The principle of recapitulation helps the idea that the education
of the child must accord both in mode and arrangemen t with the education
of mankind considered historically.
Naturalists like Rousseau, Locke, Fichte and Kant believe that man
is not born evil. About the inherent goodness of man naturalist have
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87“God makes all things good man meddles with them & they become
evil”.
“Man’s conscience is the voice of reason & the voice of nature”.
“In man there is an innate capacity for morality.”
“Man is born rational”.
The naturalist said does not believe in esta blished truths or values
of life. They say that values of life are created by the needs of life. Man
creates them, when he reacts to, or interacts with the environment. He
must adapt himself to the environment. They want to build up that
knowledge which is in accord with the teaching of physical science. They
want to be objectives, except in the study of psychology, which is studied
from the behaviouristic point of view.
Nature, according to the naturalists, is complete in itself having its
own lows. It does not therefore require us to have insight or intuition to
understand Nature.
Three Schools of Naturalists –
From educational point of view, naturalists group themselves
under three heads: -
1) Instinctivists and Physical naturalist
2) Darwinians and Biological naturalist
3) Experimental naturalist
1) Instinctivists and Physical Naturalists -
This school of thought wants the development of children without
any restriction. Instincts must have their own way. The development of the
child should be from within and not from without. Let the child learn by
himself in the lap of nature. Book of nature is the best of all the textbooks
in the world. The interests and likings of children should determine the
educational programmes.
Rousseau’s Emile was to be e ducated according to the laws of
nature away from society. He wanted that sensory experiences should be
tapped to the full to impart knowledge to children. Every child has two
basic urges -expression and activity. Complete freedom in both will
develop the p ersonality of the child. Interference on the part of the
teachers should be reduced to the minimum let them learn by their own
experiences and make the mistakes and learn from them
2) Darwinians and Biological Naturalists -
Darwinians School of naturalism lays great stress on intelligence
which according to them is very helpful in dealing with experiences of life
in controlling them and giving them a proper direction. Intelligence is very
helpful in all walks of life -moral, social, economics etc. It help s in
solving the problems of life and in adjusting the individual to the
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883) Experimental Naturalists -
This school believes that all activities and experiences of the
human race should be subjected to scientific enquiry and then truths
should be established. They believe in the total education of the whole
man for complete life.
3B.11 EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATION OF
NATURALISM
AIMS OF EDUCATION
1. Under the naturalistic school of philosophy, the aim of education is self
expression. 2. The natur alists who consider man as a machine they lay
down that the aim of education is “To make the human machine as
good a machine as possible by attending to its construction by
elaborating it and making it capable of more & more complicated
tasks.
3. Acco rding to some naturalists the aim of education should be the
restriction and coordination of instincts in such a way that man should
achieve those goals which “have individual and social value”.
4. On the whole, the naturalists believe that education is “t he process of
development of the child into a joyful, rational, harmoniously
balanced, useful and natural child.
5. It is true education “when the nature powers and inclination of the child
are allowed to develop freely with a minimum of guidance. Such
naturalists regard the development of individuality as the supreme
educational aim but development of individuality should not mean that
the individual should develop tendencies like self -assertion,
acknowledging no authority or bragging of his own personalit ya n dn o t
caring for his neighbors.
6. Pupils must be taught “not only to think for themselves but to think like
other people. It is only the animals that think for them. In the words of
Aldous Huxley, personality is not an absolutely independent existence ;
persons are an interdependent part of a greater whole.
CURRICULUM
1. Naturalists emphasize the study of sciences which deals with nature -
Physics, Chemistry, Zoology, Botany etc. They want so much
mathematics and language as is necessary to understand those subjects.
2. Textbooks, Methods and Teachers whose whole idea is to prepare him
to plunge into poetry and literature rather than Science are in the eyes
of the naturalists, the greatest mistakes of the whole school system.
They would like to see tex ts, subjects and teaching oriented wholly
towards science and the scientists, point of view with simplicity andmunotes.in

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89objectivity as the watch words and with knowledge of relevant facts as
the sole controlling aim.”
3. They explain the origin of the present and also help to give an insight
into the future. They want history to be included in the curriculum in
order to make available the morals of history to the children. These
morals can help them in bringing a new social order in the present time
and also in pla nning the future line of action.
4. In the curriculum there is no place for teaching about God and religion.
They believe that no child wants to practice religion when he is free
and there are no signs that worship is a natural thing in children.
5. Reason ing power should be developed to the maximum.
6. According to naturalists children do not like classical music or classical
paintings so these subjects should not be taught.
7. According to Spencer, ‘a curriculum centered on science would provide
a libera l education. He gives priority to the activities which minister to
self preservation’. Thus he assigns in the curriculum a place to ‘lows
of life and principles of physiology.’
METHODS OF TEACHING
1. Naturalist education is paido -centric. The child occ upies the central
place in it. The child in order to develop should be left on its own.
2. Naturalism was responsible for a violent denunciation of the traditional
methods of education. It opposed all kinds of negative techniques and
the stress on rote lea rning.
3. Being empirical it preferred to educate the child by giving him actual
experience of all that he is to learn.
4. Locke believed that training of the sense organs or sensory training
should be the first stage in child education.
5. They propounded the principle of “do and learn”.
6. Much emphasis is laid upon direct experience, Reasoning, teaching of
science can be more effective if it is done through practical work in the
laboratory just as geometry is better learnt by calculating the
configuratio n of actual objects and space than through hypothetical
problems posed in the textbooks.
7. Geography can be taught better through tours of places of geographical
interest than through maps and charts.
Naturalist thinkers suggest the following two methods of education:
1)Positive Method –In this the educator tries to inform the child about
various subjects. This is the traditional method which the naturalist rejects
as old fashioned and ineffective.
2)Negative Method –It consists in training the child to use his sense
organs and motor organs instead of filling his mind with bits & pieces ofmunotes.in

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90information. By using the various bodily powers at his disposal the child
will generate much knowledge for himself.
The play way method of education is very popular with naturalists.
TEACHER
1. According to the naturalists the educator is acceptable only on terms.
They think that the original glory of the child fades because of the
“well -meant interference of the educator.”It is therefore essential that
the teacher must understand children and should not unnecessarily
interfere. This should be “the attitude of knowing what not to do” and
a positive attitude of love and approval for only thus can ensure
since rity on their part. To love and approve of children he must have
remained a child himself avoiding the tragedy of growing up and for
getting childhood.
2. The educator's aim is to be the voice of science, clear, distinct,
systematic and thoroughly imperson al. He should have supreme
reverence for truth and fact and just assist his pupils to understand the
truth and the fact. The place of educator is behind the scenes he is an
observer of the child’s development rather than a giver of information
ideas, ideal s and will power or a molder of characters”.
3. The teacher has only to “set the stage ,supply the materials and
opportunities, provide an ideal environment and create conditions
conducive to natural development. Such a role of the teacher is
advocated in all the modern methods of teaching project methods.
DISCIPLINE
1. As in the case of curriculum and educational methods the naturalist
philosopher opposes the traditional concepts of discipline and more
than anything else. They opposed the method of phys ical punishment
for they believe that this gives rise to undesirable conflict in the child.
2. Rousseau has written “Children should never receive punishment
Freedom and not power is the greatest good.” If the child makes
mistakes he will get his reward fr om nature itself and thus he will learn
to distinguish between the right and the wrong through the
consequences of his own actions. For this reason the child should be
given even liberty.
3. To the naturalist liberty does not imply freedom to interfere wit ht h e
activity of others. The child can never be independent in this sense
because he is controlled by many rules and laws which unconsciously
or consciously operate in his mind. Only external and obvious
discipline should be done away with.
4. Respect for discipline is sought to be instilled in the child's mind
through natural consequences. The system of reward and punishment
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91the value of the naturalist concept lies in that it hints at the
shortcomings of excessive external discipline although there is no
doubt that the theory is definitely one -sided.
3B.12 LET US SUM UP
One cannot justifiably deny the contribution of naturalism to
education for it has influenced all spheres of it, the aim of education,
methods curriculum, discipline teacher etc.
It achieved the complete refutation of traditional and dogmatic
concepts of education by basing child education on the principles of child
psychology and development psychology.
Although the e mphasis laid on experimental teaching was justified
it soon gave way to evolutionary influences. Naturalism limited its
interpretations of nature to a very narrow field by considering human
nature to be nothing more than biological.
In more recent years, one finds that the gap between naturalism is
rapidly filling up. Modern naturalism is more comprehensive in that it has
abandoned the purely biological explanation and had come nearer the
idealistic conceptions.
3B.13 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1) Explain the c oncept of Naturalism philosophy.
2) Discuss aims of education and three schools of naturalists
3) Write a short note on:
●Naturalism and Curriculum
●Naturalism and Teacher
●Naturalism and Method of teaching
3B.14 REFERENCES
1) Chandra, S.S. and Sharma, Rajendra; “Philosophy of Education”
Atlantic publishers & Distributors,2002 New Delhi.
2) Taneja, V.R.; “Educational Thought and Practice” sterling publishers,
New Delhi.
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923C
HUMANISM AND EXISTENTIALISM
Unit Structure
3C.0 Objectives
3C.1 Introduction of Humanism Philosophy
3C.2 Meaning of Humanism
3C.3 Educational Implications of Humanism
3C.4 Let Us Sum Up
3C.5 Check the progress
3C.6 Introduction of Existentialism
3C.7 Fundamental Research
3C.8 Chief Components of Existentialism
3C. 9 Themes in Existentialism
3C.10 Educational Philosophy of Existentialism
3C.11 Critical Evaluation
3C.12 Let Us Sum Up
3C.13 Check the Progress
3C.14 References
3C.0 OBJECTIVES
ToUnderstand the concept of existentialism.
To Explain features of Existentialism.
To Identify the exponents of Existentialism & their views.
To Deliberate on some themes in Existentialism.
To Explain the meaning of Humanism.
To Describe the educational philosophy of Humanism and
Existentialism.
3C.1 INTRODUCTION OF HUMANISM PHILOSOPHY
1. Humanism in the philosophy according to which man is central in the
scheme of things. Man is the only worthy object of knowledge.
Humanism is the criterion to solve the controversies arising in human
life. Ever Since reason dawned in man, thoughtful persons have been
in search of some one or the other criterion of reality to solve the
controversies arising in human life. Such have been the at tempts of
Socrates, Plato, Aristotle and other ancient Greek Philosophers.
2. Philosophical thinking in ancient times was not distinguished from
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93from religious dogmas and established phil osophical thinking on
independent grounds. Such were the rationalists, the empiricist, the
realists and the idealist and other Modern philosophers.
3. In the contemporary world of philosophy, philosophical thought was
very much influenced by the developme nt in physical and social
sciences with the results that new criteria of reality were accepted by
the philosophers. The unprecedented progress in the means of
transport and communication have today made the world small and
brought human beings very near to each other. Human problems
therefore have become central in all serious thinking; this has created a
favorable climate for the rise of humanism.
4. Like other trends of thought the roo ts of humanism can be traced in the
old Greek philosophy and in the ancient thought of India .In the west
Protagoras of Greece declared that man is the measure of all things.
After Protagoras the humanist idea could be seen in the thought of
sophist philos ophers and the ideas of Plato and Socrates. But this
humanist trend received maximum encouragement by the naturalist
and materialist philosophies.
5. Charles Darwin’s Theory of evolution established that there is no deep
gulf between man and animal in nat ure. After Darwin the idea of
evolution was utilized in almost every field of human thinking and so
many theories were established. Today it has been generally accepted
that animal and man are two different stages in the same process of
evolution.
3C.2 ME ANING OF HUMANISM
The English word humanism has been derived from the Latin term -
“Homo” which means human being. Thus literally speaking, Humanism is
the philosophy in which man occupies a central place.
Etymological meaning however is not the sufficient meaning of a
term; it includes its historical usage as well. The use of a term in the
historical tradition gradually unveils the different aspects of its meaning.
Thus in order to understand the full impli cation of the term humanism one
must take into account its historical evolution.
In this historical evolution whatever has been found to be useful
for human welfare has been attached with the concept of humanism such
as the idea of social welfare, scienti fic attitude, progress of democratic
institutions etc.
●Leaders in Humanism
1) Abraham Maslow
2) Carl Rogers
3) Malcolm Knowlesmunotes.in

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94Humanism is a movement organized to gain for man a proper
recognition in the universe. Educational thought in humanism is concer ned
with the restoration of lost values.
In humanism a man is considered an end and not a means. He is a
free agent.
Humanism operates on two principles;
1) Values upheld by a nation affect history .Good follows when a nation's
values are of the highest quality. Modern man must learn from history.
2) Great literature stresses values and man comes to recognize pieces.
In humanism learning is student centered and personalized and the
educator’s role is tha t of facilitator. Affective and cognitive needs are key
and the goal is to develop self actualized people in the cooperative,
supportive environment.
3C.3 EDUCATION IMPLICATIONS OF HUMANISM
1. According to the humanist school of thought educational prog rammes
should foster an admiration and love for ancient cultures. These serve
as an important source for the growth of human civilization.
2. The younger generation should learn to respect the wisdom of the
scholars as it relates to the field of human valu es.
3. Intellectuals through their vast knowledge and intellectual ability are in
a favorable position to set goals for society.
4. Respect for language should be inculcated among the students.
Education must stress on the correct and appropriate use of vo cabulary
and follow rules of grammar.
PRINCIPLE OF HUMANISM
There are basic principles of humanistic education. They are as
follows
1) Students should be able to choose what they want to learn. Humanistic
teachers believe that students will be motivated to learn a subject if it’s
something they need and want to know.
2) The goal of education should be to foster students' desire to learn and
teach them now to learn. Students should be self motivated in their
studies and desire to learn on their own.
3) Hum anistic Educators believe that grades are irrelevant and that only
self-evolution is meaningful. Grading encourages students to work for
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954) Humanistic educators are opposed to objective tests because they test a
stude nt’s ability to memorize and do not provide sufficient educational
feedback to the teacher and students.
5) Humanistic educators believe that both feeling and knowledge are
important to the learning process unlike traditional educators
humanistic teachers do not separate the cognitive and affective
domains.
6) Humanistic educators insist that schools need to provide students with a
non-threatening environment so that they will feel secure to learn.
Once students feel secure, learning becomes easier and more
meaningful. They emphasize the “natural desire” of everyone to learn
so the teacher relinquishes a great deal of authority and becomes a
facilitator.
IMPLICATION FOR INSTRUCTION
1. Instruction should be intrinsic rather than extrinsic. (student centered)
2. Students should learn about their cultural heritage as part of self
discovery and self esteem.
3. Curriculum should promote experimentation and discovery of open -
ended activities.
4. Curriculum should be designed to solici t student’s personal knowledge
and experience. This shows they are valuable contributors to a non
threatening and participatory educational environment.
5. Learned knowledge should be applicable and appropriate to the
student’s immediate needs, goals and v alues.
6. Students should be part of the evolution process in determining leanings
worth to themselves –actualization.
7. Instructional design should facilitate learning by discovery.
8. Objectives should be designed so students have to assign value to
learned ideas more & concepts.
9. Take in account individual learning styles needs and interests by
designing much optional learning experience.
10. Students should have the freedom to select appropriate learning from
many available options in the curriculum
11. Instruction should facilitate personal growth.
STUDENT ROLE
1. The student must take responsibility in initiating learning. The students
must value learning.
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963. Through critical self reflection, discover the gap between one's real and
ideal self.
4. Be truthful about one’s own values, attitudes and emotions and accept
their values & worth.
5. Improve one’s interpersonal communication skill
6. Become empathetic for the values, concerns and needs o f others.
7. Values the opinion of other members of the group even when they are
oppositional.
8. Discover how to fit ones values and beliefs into a societal role
9. Be open to differing viewpoints.
TEACHERS ROLE
1. Be a facilitator and a participating member of the group.
2. Accept and value students as viable members of society.
3. Accept their values and beliefs
4. Make learning student centered.
5. Guide the student in discovering the gap between the real and the ideal
self.
6. Facilitate the stude nts in bridging this gap.
7. Maximize individualized instruction
8. To facilitate independent learning, give students the opportunity to learn
on their own and promote open -ended learning and discovery.
9. Promote creativity, insight and initiative.
3C.4 LET US SUM UP
From the humanism concept of philosophy. We have learned about
the concept or meaning of it with educational implications. The principles
of humanism, Curriculum, Teachers & Students roles plays an important
aspect while studying in the vie w of the educational process. The aim of
this is to make a complete development of human personality. It enables
man to solve individual and social problems. Its purpose is to increase
efficiency and happiness of human beings.
3C.5 CHECK THE PROGRESS
1) What is Humanism? Describe in your own words
2) Write a short note on:
●Teacher’s role in Humanism
●Student’s role in Humanism
3) How will the philosophy of humanism affect/ Implement in today’s
educational system? Explain.munotes.in

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973C.6 INTRODUCTION OF EXISTENTIALISM
Existentialism is a way of philosophizing that may lead those who
adopt it to a different conviction about the world and man‘s life in it.
Existentialism is mainly a European philosophy that originated before the
turn of the twentieth centu ry, but became popular after World War II
(1939 –45).
The seeds of existentialism may be traced back to an earlier period
of the history of philosophy. During the 18thcentury reason and nature
were given more importance, objectivity was very much emphas ized,
leading to industrial and technological developments and science was
given utmost importance. From the scientific viewpoint, man was also
regarded as an object. Man became a slave to machines in developing
industrial society. Against this situation e xistentialism emerged as a
protest against the society and asserted the supremacy of individuality of
man.
Existentialist philosophy is not a creation of any single
philosopher. The existentialist writings scattered in the works of many
philosophers, the important ones of which are : Friedrich Nietzsche, Soren
Kierkegaard, Gabriel Marcel, Martin Heidegger, Jean Paul Sartre, Karl
Jaspers, Abbagnamo, Bardyaev and Albert Camus etc.
In American education, such people as Maxine Greene, George
Kneeler, and Van Cleve Morris, are well -known existentialists who stress
individualism and personal self -fulfillment.
3C.7. FUNDAMENTAL RESEARCH
1.Existence precedes Essence: This philosophy begins from man, but
from man as existent rather than man as a thinking subject, having a
definite nature or essence. A man first exists, encounters himself, and
defines himself afterwards. Existence comes before man is set with value
or essence. It is because to begin with man is nothing, has no essence, he
will be what he makes of hi mself. Man defines himself in his own
subjectivity, and wanders between choice, freedom, and existential angst.
Existentialism often is associated with anxiety, dread, awareness of death,
and freedom.
2.Importance of Subjectivity: The Danish philosopher S K ierkegaard
has said that truth is subjective, truth is subjectivity: objectivity and
abstraction are hallucinations. Existentialism is the philosophy of subject
rather than of the object. Each individual by probing into the depths of
one‘s subjectivity can discover the truth of one‘s being and discover his
authentic role in life. This is a creative process which gives rise to fresh
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983.Man‘s Freedom: The basic feature of a human person is his freedom
–unfettered and unrestrained. Society and social institutions are for the
sake of man and not vice versa, as believed by idealists and others. There
is no ―general will to which the ―individual will is subject.
4.Criticism of Idealism: Existentialism has emerged and developed as a
reaction against idealis m. Existentialist philosophers are highly critical of
idealism and conceptualism. They criticize idealist‘s contention about
universal elements and man‘s good being subject to general good. They
regard the search for essence a mistaken pursuit and accordin g to them it
is not the essence but existence which is real.
5.Criticism of Naturalism: The existentialist philosophers are also
critical of the philosophy of Naturalism. According to naturalists, life is
subject to physico –bio–chemical laws, which in t urn, are subject to the
universal law of causation. Human acts are as mechanical as the actions of
an animal. This, however, is anathema to the existentialists and they
stoutly defend the freedom of man. As a matter of fact, man is so free,
according to J. P. Sartre, that he is fearful of his freedom.
6.Criticism of Scientific Culture: With tremendous progress in science
and technology, rapid industrialization and urbanization have taken place.
This has given rise to crowded towns in which individuals are lost.
Everything is done or happens on a large –scale and all personal values,
individual likes and dislikes are altogether lost sight of. Today, it is not the
individual who chooses his end; rather all decisions are made by computer
or statistical laws a nd data. Thus, science has made the value of man
negligible. This is why the existentialists are opposed to scientific
philosophy and culture.
7.Attention on Human Weakness and Security: In this scientific life
of today, the individual is leading a life of tension, worries, frustrations,
fear and sense of guilt. His individuality is getting continually blundered;
therefore for security of individuality the individual should be given an
environment free of worries, anxieties and tension.
Thus, existentialism is a philosophical movement that is generally
considered a study that pursues meaning in existence and seeks value for
the existing individual. It, unlike other fields of philosophy, does not treat
the individual as a concept, and values individual subjec tivity over
objectivity. As a result, questions regarding the meaning of life and
subjective experience are seen as being of paramount importance, above
all other scientific and philosophical pursuits.
Check your progress -1
1.What is meant by existentialism?
2.What were the consequences of industrial developments?
3.Bring out existentialist‘s criticism against idealism and naturalism.munotes.in

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994.Discuss the importance of subjectivity and human freedom in terms of
existentialism.
5.Existence precedes essence. Do you agree? Justify your answer.
3C. 8 CHIEF EXPONENTS OF EXISTENTIALISM
Soren Kierkegaard (1813 –1855) is regarded as the father of modern
existentialism and is the first European Philosopher who bears the
existentialist label. In his view, subjectiv ity and intensity should be priced
as the criteria of truth and genuineness. We touch reality in intense
moments of existence, especially moments of painful decisions. These
moments are characterized by deep anxiety, and life is known in such
moments and c annot be reduced to just a system of ideas.
Friedrich Nietzsche (1844 –1900) is regarded as a key figure in the rise
of existentialism. According to him Christianity is to be overcome by
putting in its place the doctrine of Superman, that is, man surpass ing
himself.
Martin Heidegger (1889 –1976) in his book Being and Time, gave a
very impressive analysis of human existence, the prominence of the
important themes of existentialism like care, anxiety, guilt and above all
death is brought out here.
Jean –Paul Sarte stressed that man‘s existence precedes his essence.
―Man is nothing else but what he is, he exists only in so far as he realizes
himself, he is therefore nothing else but the sum of his actions, nothing
else but what his life is.
3C.9 THEMES IN EXISTENTIALISM
Themes such as freedom, decision, and responsibility are
prominent in all existentialist philosophers. These matters constitute the
core of personal being. It is the exercise of freedom and the ability to
shape the future th at distinguishes man from all other beings that we know
on earth. It is through free and responsible decisions that man becomes
authentically himself.
Another group of recurring existentialist themes includes such
topics as finitude, guilt, alienation, de spair, moods, changing feelings,
emotional life of man and death. Discussions of these have not been
prominent in traditional philosophy, yet they are discussed at length in
existentialism.
For the existentialist man is never just part of the cosmos but
always stands to it in a relationship of tension with possibilities for tragic
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100Check your progress –2
1.Name some of the existentialists.
2.Bring out the views of Sartre and Nietzsche.
3.Which are the most frequently repeated themes in existentialism .
4.Write 10 sentences about the philosophy of existentialism in your
words.
3C.10 EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY OF
EXISTENTIALISM
The object of education is to give man the unity of truth…
In the field of education the contribution of existentialism is as follows:
The aim of Education : Existentialists believe that the most important
kind of knowledge is about the human condition and the choices that each
person has to make, and that education is a process of developing
consciousness about the freedom to c hoose and the meaning of
responsibility for one‘s choices. Hence, the notion of group norms,
authority, and established order –social, political, philosophical, religious,
and so on –are rejected. The existentialists recognize few standards,
customs to t raditions, or eternal truths; in this respect, existentialism is at
odds with the ideas of idealism and realism.
Total Development: The existentialists have aimed at total development
of personality through education. Education should aim at the whole man .
It should aim at character formation and self –realization. In the
existentialist classroom, subject matter takes second place to helping the
students understand and appreciate themselves as unique individuals who
accept complete responsibility for thei r thoughts, feelings, and actions.
Since feeling is not divorced from reason in decision making, the
existentialist demands the education of the whole person, not just the
mind.
Subjective Knowledge: The present age of science has made too much of
objecti ve knowledge, so much so, that the term has come to mean unreal,
non-sense, ignorant and irrelevant. The existentialists rightly point out that
subjective knowledge is even more important than objective knowledge.
They rightly hold that truth is subjectivi ty. It is a human value and values
are not facts. Reduction of values to facts has led to widespread loss of
faith in values. Therefore, along with the teaching of science and
mathematics, the humanities, art, literature should also be given a suitable
place in the curriculum at every stage of education. Most of the ills of the
modern man are due to an over –objective attitude. This requires a
subjectivist correction in the light of existentialist ideas.
Importance of Environment: The present industrial , economic, political
and social environment is valueless. Therefore, it helps confusion and
corruption, tensions and conflicts. The existentialists seek to provide an
environment proper to self –development and self –consciousness. Thismunotes.in

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101environment in t he school requires contribution from humanities, arts and
literature. These will help in the development of individuality in education
so that he may cease to become a cog in the social wheel. Rather he should
develop into a self –conscious and sensitive individual.
Child –Centered Education: Existentialist education is child –centered.
It gives full freedom to the child. The teacher should help the child to
know himself and recognize his being. Freedom is required for natural
development. Education sho uld convert imperfection into perfection.
Education should be according to the individual‘s needs and abilities of
the child. The relation of the child to himself should be strengthened by
education.
Curriculum: Existentialists prefer to free learners to choose what to study
and also determine what is true and by what criteria to determine these
truths. The curriculum would avoid systematic knowledge or structured
disciplines, and the students would be free to select from many available
learning situations . The learners would choose the knowledge they wish to
possess. The humanities are commonly given tremendous emphasis. They
are explored as a means of providing students with vicarious experiences
that will help unleash their own creativity and self –expression. For
example, rather than emphasizing historical events, existentialists focus
upon the actions of historical individuals, each of whom provides possible
models for the students‘ own behavior.
Existentialist‘s approach to education is almost an inversion of the
realist approach. In the field of curriculum while the realists exclusively
emphasize science, the existentialists find out that science and objective
education severs our relation with ourselves. Science cannot help in inner
realization a nd achievement of peace. This, however, does not mean that
science education should be ignored. It only means besides science the
curriculum must include humanities, ethics and religion. In keeping with
this viewpoint contemporary engineering colleges have included some
philosophy, ethics and social studies, in their curriculum. Without this
synthetic approach to curriculum the aim of character formation and
personality development will be defeated.
Learning Experiences: An existentialist curriculum would consist of
experiences and subjects that lend themselves to philosophical dialogue
and acts of choice making. Because the choice is personal and subjective,
subjects that are emotional, aesthetic and philosophical are appropriate.
Literature, drama, film –making, art, and so on, are important, because
they portray the human condition and choice –making conditions. The
curriculum would stress self –expressive activities, experimentation, and
media that illustrate emotions, feelings and insights.
The clas sroom would be rich in materials that lend themselves to
self–expression, and the school would be a place in which the teacher
and students could pursue dialogue and discussion about their lives and
choices.munotes.in

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102The Teacher: According to the existentialists the teacher creates an
educational situation in which the student may establish contact with
himself, become conscious of it and achieve self –realization. This
requires an existential approach in the teacher himself. He should also
have an experience of self–realization so that he may be capable of
guiding the students in this process. The teacher‘s role is to help students
define their own essence by exposing them to various paths they may take
in life and creating an environment in which they may free ly choose their
own preferred way.
Existentialist methods focus on the individual. Learning is self -
paced, self directed, and includes a great deal of individual contact with
the teacher, who relates to each student openly and honestly.
The student: Thestudent should feel completely free for realizing his
Self. Under the guidance of the teacher, the student should try to realize
himself through introversion. The student accepts the discipline prescribed
by the teacher and does not become irresponsible. The purpose of freedom
given to him should be to enable him to effect the full development of his
individuality.
Religious and Moral Education: The existentialists particularly lay
emphasis upon religion and moral education. Religion allows a person to
develop himself. Religious education gives him an understanding of his
existence in the cosmos. It shows the religious path of self –realization.
It also makes him capable of utilizing faith in self –development. Moral
education is closely related to rel igious education. Both develop the inner
self and help in the realization of the infinite within the finite.
3C.11 CRITICAL EVALUATION
Some critics (mainly traditionalists or Conservatives) claim that
existentialism as philosophy for the schools has limi ted application
because education in our society, and in most other modern societies,
involves institutionalized learning and socialization, which require group
instruction, restriction on individual behavior and bureaucratic
organization. Schooling is a p rocess that limits students freedom and that
is based on adult authority and on the norms and beliefs of the mass or
common culture. The individual existentialist, exerting his or her will and
choice will encounter difficulty in school –and in other large ,f o r m a l
organizations.
3C.12 LET US SUM UP
Philosophy and education are two sides of the same coin, and thus
different philosophies bring out a different facet of education and as
education can change the philosophy of man and his life. Existentialism
as a philosophical idea was revolutionary, dynamic and passionate; it
changed the way of thinking and brought to forefront the cause ofmunotes.in

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103individualism. Moreover its views on education may seem dramatic but
taken in the right sense and moderation is necessa ry in today‘s
materialistic society.
In this unit, we have seen the philosophy of existentialism, the
criticism of them prevailing traditional rigid systems. The philosophy of
existentialism brought man, his existence, his emotions and his
subjectivity into forefront; they were forerunners of individ ualism and
uniqueness of each man.
The views of various exponents of existentialism and the themes
they brought out makes their philosophy better understood.
The philosophy of education of existentialism speaks about aims,
curriculum, the role of teacher , method of teaching, learning experiences
and religious and moral education.
3C.13 CHECK THE PROGRESS
1.What is the role of teacher and the student according to the
existentialist?
2.Bring out the importance of learning experiences in teaching –
learning pr ocess.
3.What is the aim of education according to the existentialist?
4.What kind of curriculum does the existentialist recommend?
5.Bring out the importance of existentialism in today‘s education
System. Illustrate your answer.
6.Critically evaluate existentiali st general and educational philosophy
3C.14 REFERENCES
1) Chandra, S.S.& Sharma, R.K.; “Philosophy of Education”, Atlantic
publisher, New Delhi.
2) Macquarric J (1968) :Existentialism pelican book
3) Chaube S.P.& Chaube, A (1996), “Foundat ion of Education”
,Publishing House, New Delhi
4) Learning Theories for educators retrieved from the website, uwyo.edu.
5) Humanism and Education by Dr.Jainkumar ,Maheshwari,
Slideshare.net
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1044A
DR. ZAKIR HUSSAIN (1897 -1969)
Unit Structure
4A.0 Objectives
4A.1 Introduction
4A.2 Brief life history
4A.3 Dr. Zakir Hussain‘s philosophy
4A.4 Dr. Hussain‘s views on education
4A.5 The four essential values
4A.6 Educationally productive work
4A.7 Freedom, discipline and authority
4A.8 The teacher‘s role
4A.9 Teacher as custodian of values
4A.10 Education and culture
4A.11 Characteristics of good school
4A.12 Contribution of Dr. Zakir Hussain to Education
4A.13 Let Us Sum Up
4A.14 Unit End Exercise
4A.15 References
4A.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this you will be able to:
Explain his views on various aspects of his general philosophy.
Understand his educational philosophy.
Explain his expectations of good school. Appreciate his contribution to
education.
4A.1 INTRODUCTION
Agraceful stylist, a sensitive soul vibrant with deep emotions, a
practicing educationist of long standing, Dr. Hussain is by far one of the
best representatives of a secular, free and civilized India. Known for his
devotion and sacrifice to the educational cause he is one of the chief
exponents of Basic Education. It is a great privilege for the people of our
country that two of her most eminent educationists, Dr. Radhakrishnan
and Dr. Zakir Hussain, have functioned as presidents of our country. By
virtue o f their office they have dignified the teaching profession and given
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1054A.2 A BRIEF LIFE HISTORY
Dr. Zakir Hussain was born on February 8, 1897 in Hyderabad.
When he was hardly nine years old his father died and his family returned
to his ancestral home in Qaimganj in Uttar Pradesh. After finishing his
schooling in Etawah, he joined the Mohammedan Ang lo-Indian College in
Aligarh. While studying for M. A. Zakir Hussain responded to the clarion
call of Gandhiji and left the college to join the Non -cooperation
Movement with the British. Along with other students, he founded Jamia
Milia Islamia (National M uslim University) in 1920 at Aligarh. To satiate
his hunger for higher education, he went to Berlin University wherein he
earned his Ph. D. degree in Economics. On returning to India in 1926, he
took over as Vice Chancellor of Jamia Millia Islamia, Delhi, at the age of
29 only. In 1948 he was made the Vice Chancellor of the Aligarh Muslim
University. In 1952, he was nominated to the Rajyasabha. In 1957, he
became the Governor of Bihar. In 1962, he was elected to the office of the
Vice President of India. In 1967, he became the President of India and
remained at this post till his death in 1969. On being elevated to the
presidency of India he said, ―My choice of this high office has mainly
been made on account of my long association with the education of my
people. It is, indeed a great honor that the nation has bestowed on a mere
teacher who some 47 years resolved to devote the best years of his life to
national education ‖.
4A. 3 DR. ZAKIR HUSSAIN‘S PHILOSOPHY
Dr.Hussain was an idealist. A clear evidence to this is his zeal to
translate Plato‘s Republic in Urdu. Belief to him was an essential
prerequisite of character. He said, Feeble beliefs must be replaced
by healthier habits and irrelevant ins titutions by progressive institutions.
Our will should get guidance not from the twilight of the intellect but from
the broad daylight of true beliefs.
Secularist to the core, he was a humanist with a broad vision and
never allowed his Islamic principles and his nationalism fall into narrow
grooves but set them in the context where the East and West, the ancient
and the modern, the Muslim and the Non -Muslim could find a happy
meeting ground. In the words of Moraes, He loved India, he loved
theworld. He loved truth, justice and humanity. He advocated humanistic
education, the foundations of which are best laid in the early years of life.
About reality he says that this universe is real. There are two
worlds; the material world and the spiritual world. Material world is of the
senses and deals with things of the world. The spiritual world is of soul
and spirit. Hence pleasures of the world are considered secondary. The
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106He attaches the highest value to man in his educational philosophy
and seeks to evolve man to the best of his potentialities. He had faith in
Man and it is clearly visible in his philosophy and educational ideas.
4A.4 DR. ZAKIR HUSSAIN‘S VIEWS ON EDUCATION
According to Dr. Zakir Hussain education in this country is sadly
handicapped. He considers education as the very life sustaining sap of a
cultured society. The problems for this state of affairs are as follows:
1.Sitting fo r long hours silently in the classroom receiving lessons in
complete passivity in a manner, which is most un -child like
conformity. This system kills the natural ardor the child once had and
transforms him into a listless non -reaching entity.
2.Scarcity of g ood teachers. What is available in the system are teachers
with cruelty, harshness and strict regimentation.
3.Another source of indiscriminate hardship is the heavy and
meaningless curriculum.
4.The existing educational system enables the democratic educator to
dispose of the mistaken notion that education must be the shaping of
the education according to a given generic type, according to a ready -
made educational ideal with a sharp delineated content. He believes
that education is not the process of pressing into shape but letting loose
and setting free which respects the unique and specific individuality of
the education. The success of Indian education depends on the ideas
and principles and how its evolution helps in the growth and
development of the democr atic way of life, on how it provides for the
full growth and development of individuality, on how it harnesses
harmoniously developed individuality to social ends, and how it
masters the mysteries of selflessness.
To him the basic principle of education i nad e m o c r a c ys h o u l db e
reverence to the individuality of the child, the child who is to grow into a
citizen through his intelligent and willing participation in education. For
democracy is nothing but the full discharge of duties to himself and to the
society by every citizen. This is possible only if the competencies are
discovered and developed to their fullest by education.
Regarding the process of education, he compares it with the
growing development of human body, from its embryonic beginnings
grows and develops to its full stature by means of agreeable, assimilable
food, movement and exercise, in accordance with physical and chemical
laws, so does the mind grow and develop from its original disposition to
its full evolutionary cultivation by means o f mental food and mental
exercise according to the laws of mental growth. This development of the
individual human mind must start from infancy. He firmly believed that
the process of education is a continuing one in which the journey is as
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107Dr. Hussain expresses his deep concern for the fact that more often
than not the means become the ends in due course. It appears to him that
schools are the creation of an evil mind; otherwise they could not have
been what they actually are. He says, ―Schooling is not equated
with learning the three R‘s but it is on the other hand, a gradual initiation
to life ‖. He would like schools to be familiar with society, family and
individuals.
He believed in having and acquiring only that knowledge which is
functional and in support of this he cites an English educator: -
―knowledge is idle in a community if it becomes the private possession
of an esoteric coterie. He wanted education to provide effective leadership
in a world of change. Dr . Hussain‘s primary objective is to provide
leadership to the community, which gives sustenance to its academic
organ.
His views on university education are very clear. He considers
work as the main instrument of education. He wants education to be
lifelo ng. It should be relevant and provide effective leadership to the
community to which they belong. This is possible only by learning to
respect work and treat it as an instrument of educating minds so that
universities could repay their debt to society. In this connection
Ramaswamy Iyer observes that the principal purpose of university
education is to enable one to serve the country in its variegated scientific
and technological necessities.
He dislikes the peculiar reaction to a problem by an Indian, which
he says, is evasion. No matter what a university has to face it must never
evade an issue but face it boldly and squarely. A true university should
possess a passion for excellence. He has reservations on the people having
patience especially with poverty , dirt, disease and incompetence. He says,
unless patience is combined with diligence, it is a crime. If a university
discharges its obligations well, there is no earthly reason why a new world
of which Dr. Hussain so fervently and sincerely dreams of may not come
to pass.
Dr. Hussain has his clear view on the long -standing controversy
between science and humanities. He believes that the advance modern
world has made in the recent past is entir ely due to the application of
scientific knowledge and its application to social and political problems
that man is faced with. He laments that the specialization in each field of
technology has reached to such an extent that the jargon of is hardly
unders tood by those in the other field of specialization. This phenomenon
is rightly described by C. P. Snow, ―never was the exclusion of one
branch of knowledge from another so pronounced, and neither was one
faculty so developed at the expense of the other as we find today. Dr.
Hussain concludes that humanities and science are not mutually
contradictory but complementary. One should realize the fact that science
is devoid of values, especially moral and ethical values. He points out that
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108judgment becomes an ally of everyone –of the good as well as the bad -
and is of service in changing the world into a paradise or reducing it to a
veritable hell.
Regarding the importance of education, he said in his speech after
being sworn in as the President of India in the following words.
―I maintain that education is a prime instrument of national purpose and
that the quality of its education is inseparably involved in the quality of
the nation ‖.
Dr. Hussain laid stress on the following aims of education:
i.Education should develop a sense of common national ethos.
ii.Education should develop higher values of life.
iii.Education should develop qualities of citizenship.
iv.Education should also der ive inspiration from traditional knowledge
and real work experience.
v.Education should develop a positive attitude.
vi.Education should develop a sense of social responsibility.
vii.Education should develop vocational efficiency.
His views on education and politi cs are that education is the master
and politics is its servant. About education and morality he says it is
necessary to combine power with morality as well as with science and
technology. Regarding education, science and technology his views are
very dist inct. Scientists and technologists must keep social welfare in
mind. Education thus should develop the totality of the child. He laments
that Indian education is lacking in the following major drawbacks.
(1) Indian education has been like stagnant water f or quite some time.
(2) Indian education ignores new ideas and fresh thinking in educational
matters.
Check your progress
Answer the following in one or two sentences:
1.What are Dr. Zakir Hussain‘s views on belief‘?
2.Why Zakir Hussain is considered a humanist‘?
3.What is his view on reality?
4.Who does he attach the highest value to in his educational philosophy?
5.Why does he say education in India is handicapped?
6.What is his view on the relationship between education and society?
4A.5 THE FOUR ESSENTIAL V ALUES
During a convocation address, Dr. Zakir Hussain gave four self -
evident values for the young people. They are healthy, strong, beautiful,
and clean. These simple values tend to expand as one endeavors to re alize
them. When one pursues health, he finds himself pursuing the objectives
of a healthy body, healthy mind and a healthy character. A strong vigorous
body enables one to have a strong, alert, disciplined mind and a strong
character. Such a person posses ses a firm, efficient, persevering andmunotes.in

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109thorough personality. Beauty refers to beauty inside and outside as well as
a beautiful world around. The objective of a clean body entails one to have
an unbolted clean mind and a clean life.
4A.6 EDUCATIONALLY PROD UCTIVE WORK
Dr. Zakir Hussain in his own choicest words gave one of the finest
statements about the meaning of work in education. He placed work on the
niche of honor and worship. His idea of work has developed across the
years not through bookish knowledge but through devotion and
experience. He says, after years of thinking on th e subject, I have come to
the conviction that work is the only instrument of effective education. It
may sometimes be manual work and sometimes non -manual work.
Although it is work alone that can educate, I have also come to the
conviction by long observat ion and experience that all work does not
educate. Only that work is educational which serves value. Dr. Hussain
calls such work of educational value as educationally productive work‘;
work which helps in the cultivation of the mind.
Other views on educat ion are: (i) productive work should be
related to mental work. (ii) The sequence in work education is thinking
and doing and doing and thinking‘. The real school work consists in
training children to think before they take up an activity. He lays emphasis
on the fact that work should be planned and executed. It‘s why and
how must be carefully considered. He firmly believed that work is
worship.
4A.7 FREEDOM, DISCIPLINE AND AUTHORITY
He reiterates that freedom an d authority are not opposites. There is
no authority in education without inner freedom. There is no freedom
without creative work and an orderly environment. The individual is
helped by the school to go through certain stages. In the beginning the
authori ty of teachers is of experience and maturity. At the end, the
authority is of the values developed by the child. Responsibility, freedom
and discipline go hand in hand and education should train the student in
each of these.
4A.8 THE TEACHER‘S ROLE
The teacher must make all efforts to lead his pupils to acquire
higher values of life. This he should do through his personal conduct and
character. The teacher is not to dictate or dominate, instead he is to help
and serve the student. The teacher must also understand that the pupils
have their own personality and the personality must be well looked after
and nourished. The teacher should be an embodiment of love and patience
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1104A.9 TEACHER AS THE CUSTODIAN OF VALUES
What sort of person could be an ideal teacher? Dr. Hussain has a
clear vision about this. He has categorized human beings based on some
dominating principles. The highest principle of theoretical man is truth,
that of imaginative man is beauty, that of the economic man is gain, that of
religious man is salvation, that of political man is power, and that of social
man is love. It is rather difficult to find a pure type but they have some
dominating principles. Dr. Hussain considers predominantly a character of
the soc ial type can make a good teacher. The teacher belonging to social
type is characterized by love for other fellow beings, a feeling of solidarity
and belongingness with them, an urge to help them, and finds joy in giving
oneself up for them. The teacher is not to dictate or dominate the pupils
but help and serve them in order to mold and shape them in faith and love.
The teacher should be the custodian of the highest values cherished by the
society. It is his pious duty to transmit these values to his pupils through
the charisma of his personality.
4A.10 EDUCATION AND CULTURE
History is the record of the past and in it are the roots of our
inheritance. The depth and expanse of it is very vast. Our present should
be based on a sound footing of the past experience taking into
consideration the present and aimed at a bright future. Our history is
enriched by a variety of cultures and civilizations, a good number of world
religions and great philosophers. It is the fu nction of education to sift
through the rich heritage and make them available for the moral and
spiritual nourishment of growing generations. Dr. Hussain says
―Education should be able to distinguish between the heritage that helps
and that heritage hamper s the tradition that undermines and the tradition
that fortifies.
4A.11 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SCHOOL
In his speech on founder‘s day celebration of Modern School, New
Delhi, on November 25, 1962, Zakir Hussain gave the following
characteristics of a good school.
1.Knowledge of individuality of each child: A proper understanding of
the individuality of each pupil should be the prime concern of the school
and the teacher. The children come from different social and family
backgrounds, possess different c apabilities and tastes, different likes and
dislikes and different personalities. The school and the teacher should
make sincere attempts to understand these and deal with them in such a
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1112.Under standing the stages of development: The second concern of the
school should be directing the school programmes in consonance with
the stages of development of the pupils.
3.All round development: Another characteristic feature of a good
school is that it devotes its efforts to the growth and development of
the three H‘s of the pupil.
4.Purposeful activities: Education is a purposeful activity and the
programmes of the school sh ould be leading to educationally
productive work.
5.Social and individual development: The school should aim at
individual development as well as generating a sense of social
responsibility.
6.Self-education: the school should take initiative in enhancing the
process of self -learning in the pupils. In fact the best way to teach is to
help the learner how to learn i.e. learning to learn.
4A.12 CONTRIBUTION OF DR. ZAKIR HUSSAIN TO
EDUCATION
Dr. Hussain‘ s contribution to education is worth noting. Some of them
are given below.
1.Establishment of the Jamia Millia Islamia.
2.Formulation of the Wardha Scheme of Basic Education.
In 1937, Gandhiji expressed his views on education that literacy
itself is no educa tion. He therefore wanted children to be taught useful
handicrafts to enable them to produce and earn from the moment they
begin training.
A conference of National Workers was held at Wardha in the same
year under the presidency of Gand hiji. The conference appointed a
committee of eminent educationists under the chairmanship of Dr. Zakir
Hussain to prepare a detailed syllabus. This report of the committee on
education later came to be known as the =Wardha Scheme of Education‘.
Dr. Zakir Hussain played an important role in the preparation of this
report.
Salient features of Basic Education as suggested by the Committee
1.The duration of the course has to be seven years.
2.Students are free to choose one basic craft of their choice from among
the options given.
Spinning and weaving, Carpentry
Agriculture,
Gardening, (Fruits and vegetables) Leather work,
Any other craft which the local and geographical conditions
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1123.Other subjects of the course: (i) Social studies, (ii) General science,
(iii) Drawing, (iv) Music, (v) Hindustani.
4.The medium of instruction should be mother tongue.
5.Duration of work in the curriculum per day is 5 hours thirty minutes.
6.Total working days per year should be 228 days.
7.The school should be a residential one.
Check your progress
Fill in the blanks with the correct option given below.
1.According to Dr. Hussain, educationally productive work is that one
.
a)Which helps in cultiv ation of knowledge.
b)Which has devotion and experience.
c)Which is placed at the niche of honor and worship.
d)Which serves the society.
2.Education should train the students in ----------- and------------
a)Responsibility and authority.
b)Freedom and discipline.
c)Discipline and creativity
d)Authority and maturity.
3.According to Zakir Hussain the dominating principle that makes a
good teacher is --------
a)The truth of a theoretical man.
b)The love of a social man
c)The beauty of an imaginative man.
d)The gain of an economic man.
4A.13 LET US SUM UP
Economist by training, educationist by profession, humanist by
temperament, Dr. Hussain is one of the most creative and distinguished
sons of India. He has been an important liberating force in education,
enriching its purpose as well as contents, experime nting in methods and
techniques, elucidating its true relationship and responsibility not only to
society but also with the precious legacy of man as a whole. He has, on the
one hand, shown sensitiveness to its social and psychological foundations
and, on the other, has been deeply involved in its moral and spiritual
implications. His views on work and aims of education are crystal clear.
His contribution to education is no less than many other educationists by
any standards.
4A.14 UNIT END EXERCISE
1.Explain Dr. Zakir Hussain‘s philosophical views and aims of
education.
2.Write short notes on the following.
1.Dr. Zakir Hussain‘s views on university education.munotes.in

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1132.The four essential values for the young people.
3.The concept of work according to Dr. Hussain.
4.Relationship between freedom, discipline and authority.
5.Role of teacher according to Dr. Hussain.
6.Relationship between education and culture.
7.Salient features of Basic Education.
8.Characteristics of a good schoo l.
9.Important contributions of Dr. Hussain to education.
4A.15 REFERENCES
1.Aggarwal, J. C., Great Philosophers and Thinkers on Education,
(2006), Shipra Publications, Delhi.
2.Dr. Hussain Zakir, Educational Re construction in India, (1969),
Director, Publications Division, Government of India Press, Faridabad.
3.Singh, R. P., Zakir Hussain: Dynamics of Indigenous Education,
(1968), Sterling Publishers (P) Ltd. Delhi.

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1144B
SRI AUROBINDO GH OSH (1872 –1950)
Unit Structure
4B.0 Objectives
4B.1 A Brief Life History
4B.2 Sri. Aurobindo as a Philosopher.
4B.3 The Two Negations
4B.4 Aurobindo‘s Views on Reality
4B.5 Aurobindo‘s on Mind
4B.6 Functions of education
4B.7 Integral Education
4B.7.1 Aims of Education
4B.7.2 Integral Curriculum
4B.7.3Methods of Teaching
4B.7.4 Principles of teaching and learning.
4B.7.5 The Teacher
4B.8 National system of education.
4B.9 Let us sum up
4B.10Unit End Exercise
4B. 11 References
4B.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will be able;
To understand the views of Sri Aurobindo on the controversies of
materialistic and ascetic thoughts in philosophy.
To understand the philosophical interpretation of Sri Aurobindo on
Reality.
To understand the various levels of mind and its functions. To
understand the concept of integral education.
To understand his views on aims of education, curriculum, role of
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1154B.1 A BRIEF LIFE HISTORY
Aurobindo was born in an educated middle class family in Calcutta
on 15thAug. 1972. He went to England at the age of 7 and lived there for
14 years. He received his education at Cambridge At the age of 18, he
passed the entrance examination of the Indian Civil Service. Besides
English, he mastered Latin and Greek and learnt French, German and
Spanish.
In 1893, on his return from England, he joined as professor of
English at Baroda College in Gujarat. Here, besides devoting himself to
cultural and literary activities, learnt Bengali, Gujarati, Marathi and
Sanskrit.
He joined the In dian National Congress and became an active
freedom fighter. He was a revolutionary and was disappointed with the
Moderates of the Indian National Congress. He started the Bengali daily
Yugantar and English daily Bande Mataram to promote his revolutionary
ideas. He was considered one of the most dangerous leaders by the British
government.
From a revolutionary freedom fighter, he became a philosopher
and seer. In 1908, he was sent to jail for the Alipore Bomb case. During
this time, he turned to yoga, medi tation and study of religious,
philosophical and spiritual literature. This changed him a lot. He went to
Pondicherry and spent his remaining 40 years in his Ashram there. He
changed himself and became involved in several educational and social
activities. He proposed theories of education which catered to Indian
needs. He set up an International Ashram and International Centre of
education and social activities. He also started a new experiment known as
Aurowill as a city of human unity.
4B.2 SRI. A UROBINDO AS A PHILOSOPHER
Sri Aurobindo cannot be considered a philosopher in the strict
western sense though he had acquired the western philosophical traditions
through his British education and later readings. It is also wrong to think
of him as a trad itional Indian holy man though many in India recognized
him not only as an accomplished yogi but also as an avatar of the new age.
What we find in him is not a fusion of philosophical -religious types, but
an appearance of a new kind of thinker whose metho ds are of spiritual
inquiry derived from the Indian tradition with a completely new frame of
intellectual reference to modern science and the challenge of transcending
through the conflict between religion and materialism, tradition and
modernization. It i s also wrong to consider him as a Hindu thinker;
Hinduism sought only eternal law,‘ sanatana dharma,‘ which is not an
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116His spiritual inquiry was aimed at clearing the weaknesses of
current thinking about conflicts between the spiritual qu est and functional
materialism. He showed the new ways of seeing the relationship of man to
the natural environment and to the material aspects of existence. He is
undoubtedly a more systematic thinker than Gandhi and Tagore.
Like Jiddu Krishnamurti, Sri Aurobindo also believed that what we
call as religious is not primarily a matter of doctrines or dogmas, but of
experience. He says what validates a religious intuition is the experience
of its spiritual authenticity. It is not a point of view or collectio n of ideas
given down through generations, but is entirely first hand personal
experience. Aurobindo wondered if one could discover the means to
connect the personal religious experience to the modern world‘s larger but
inherently religious analytical rati onality.
Check your progress
Fill in the blanks with the correct option.
i.Aurobindo started a new experiment called .
ii.(a)Bande Mataram. (b) Aurowill (c) yoga.(d) Materialism.
iii.Aurobindo can be considered as a.
(a)Hindu thinker (b) Western philosopher.
(c) Indian holy man. (d) New kind of thinker.
iv.Aurobindo‘s spiritual inquiry was aimed at clearing the conflicts
between _.
(a)The experience of spiritual authenticity.
(b)The spiritual quest and functional materialism.
(c)Hindu thought and Islamic thought.
(d)Sanatana dharma and eternal law.
4B.3 THE TWO NEGATIONS
One of the cornerstones of Aurobindo‘s outlook is his concept of
the two Negations. He maintains that the ascetic ideal that became
dominant in India after the spread of Buddhism was a withdrawal from the
world, which he calls the revolt of Spirit against Matter. This resulted in
an over -emphasis on transcendent realization and undervaluing of the
natural world. This tendency was strengthened in Hinduism by the
Sankara School of the ninth century which taught that reality was spiritual
and that the material world was merely qualified reality. This illusion that
dominated Hinduism resulted in social indifference to material progress
thus losing the balance bet ween things spiritual and things material. Thus,
the sub -continent lagged behind the western world with regard to material
progress.
The other negation was materialism. Materialism denies the reality
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117fantasy. Both these negations are the result of exaggerating a part of the
truth to claim that it is the whole truth. In his book The Life Divine,
Aurobindo wrote, both negations are opposite poles of the same error.
4B.4 AUROBINDO‘S VIEWS ON REALITY
The negation of materialism in India and refusal of the ascetic in
Europe have sought to assert themselves as the sole truth and dominate the
conception of life. In India, if this has led to a great heaping up of the
treasures of the spirit and a bankruptcy of life, it wa s just the opposite in
Europe; accumulation of riches and world‘s powers moved towards a
bankruptcy of things of the spirit.
Aurobindo is in total agreement with Vivekananda when he says
that we progress not from error to truth, but from partial truth to more
complete truth. It is characteristic of Aurobindo‘s intellectual method that
he avoids simplistic juxtapositions of contrarieties, but finds a reasonable
basis for recognizing that what appears inconsistent is actually compatible
and are different asp ects of the same reality which is more complex and
subtle. Placing spirit and matter either on an analytical test of science or
spiritual understanding by religion has failed to satisfy the people. What is
needed, according to him, is to place both the mat erial world and spiritual
world in the same realm.
Aurobindo argues that the world as it is must claim the attention of
religion, because this world is one part of the total cosmic domain
transformable by the Spirit. He rejects the view of those who focus on the
promises of the hereafter on the fulfillment of the individual soul as a
reward for renouncing evil and doing good. His objection is not based on a
conviction that these views are spiritually false, but rather that the truth is
partial. The error i s not absolute, but it is in the aggregation of a part of the
truth and considering it as the all embracing reality. He wrote, The ascent
of man into heaven is not the key, the key is rather his ascent here into the
spirit and descent of spirit into his normal earthly nature of humanity.
The second major element in Aurobindo‘s thought is that
transcendence is to be sought in this world rather than the next. He
maintains that just as humans evolved genetically from simpler to more
complex organisms; it is possible for human beings to evolve continuously
as spiritual beings. He makes no concession to the well established
convention of thought that matter is here, spirit there, and only when the
threshold of death is traversed may we expect a higher existenc e. For him,
both can be achieved in this world by rising above the blindness of
selfishness and by achieving a higher consciousness.
Fundamental to Aurobindo‘s message is that no single perspective
on man or God is able to disclose more than partial truth . Hence, his work
is filled with subtle and complex distinctions between levels of
consciousness in man, and different aspects of Brahman. He stronglymunotes.in

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118believes that the natural world is not separate from the all embracing
Absolute .
If Divine is everywhere , then certainly it is there in man also, may
be a partially concealed spirit. Through spiritual disciplines, one is able to
uncover this spirit which is hidden by our ego. What is new in Aurobindo
is the firm conviction that a new spiritual discipline is necessary to achieve
the next stage in spiritual evolution of humanity. The divine in man can be
obtained by the spiritual discipline called yoga. The task is to find it,
develop it and use it. His concept of yoga is not that of a sanyasi who turns
away fr om life in order to turn towards God. Yoga is a spiritual discipline.
In it mental intuitions are admitted only as a first step for realization. They
must be confirmed and adjusted by experience. The obstacle in achieving
this spiritual discipline is not t he material limitations of the natural world,
but our failure to seek the inner self that is already a higher consciousness.
Aurobindo wrote ―Because man is wrapped up in his own outward going
mind, because he has not learned to live within; he is not cons cious of
himself. Yoga is for the ordinary man, while he carries out his worldly
pursuits. If a merchant wishes to follow yoga, he regards his work as
Divine; he does not use unfair practices to earn money. If a student looks
for higher values, he must obs erve brahmacharya .
Check your progress
Answer the following in one or two sentences
1.What was the result of the so -called revolt of the spirit against matter?
2.What was the reason for India lagging behind the western world with
regard to material progress?
3.What according to Aurobindo is the obstacle in achieving the spiritual
discipline of yoga?
4.What is fundamental to Aurobindo‘s message?
4B.5 AUROBINDO‘S VIEWS ON MIND
His concept of mind is different from others. To him, the mind is
the primary means of m anifestation in man. Mind is not a thing. It should
not be equated with the brain. It is a function or a process. The function of
mind expresses itself in higher mental processes in feelings, emotions,
attention, and memory etc. In his writings he brings o ut the different
planes of mind. They are : -1) The ordinary mind 2) the higher mind 3)
The illuminated mind 4) The intuitive mind 5) The over mind 6) The super
mind.
Ordinary mind is divided into three different parts —thinking mind,
dynamic mind, and ext ernalizing mind; the first is concerned with ideas
and knowledge, the second is concerned with forces of realization of
ideas, and the third with expression of them in life. Aurobindo also writes
about thinking mind and vital mind which may then be conside red as
functions of mind. The action of the thinking mind is to doubt, to question,munotes.in

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119to argue to reason, to be bold enough to reject if it is uncertain and repeat
the process again and again.
Man‘s mind is an imperfect instrument to catch the full integral
truth. According to Aurobindo, the errors of conceptual mind must be
corrected by the super mind which acts as a link between sachidananda
anduniverse , knowledge and ignorance.
Super mind is the divine gnosis (having special knowledge). This
super mind c reates, governs and upholds the world. It is omnipotent,
omniscient and omnipresent. It is the Lord within. In it there is no
distinction of knowledge known or unknown.
According to Sri Aurobindo, the super mind is a state of
consciousness. One can acquir e it gradually. After acquiring it, one must
use it for transforming his entire being, his body, mind and soul which one
attains through the super mind; he becomes a superman, a jnani or Gnostic
at our own plane of being. Ordinary mind can become a super m ind by
yoga.
Check your progress
Answer the following sentence or two.
1.What is the function of the mind?
2.What are the different planes of mind?
3.What according to Aurobindo one should do after acquiring a super
mind ?
4.How ca n an ordinary mind become a super mind?
4B. 6 FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION
The main functions of education can be summarized as follows.
i.To bring out the real man in oneself.
ii.To build the power of the human mind and spirit i.e. evoking
knowledge, character and culture.
iii.To enable the individual to establish a clear continuity between the
past, present and future.
iv.To enable the individual to establish the right relationship withi n
himself and outside -world.
4B.7 INTEGRAL EDUCATION
True education, according to Sri Aurobindo, is not only spiritual
but also rational, vital and physical. In other words it is integral education.
This integra l education has been explained by Sri Aurobindo‘s closest
collaborator, the Mother in these words. ―Education to be complete must
have five principal aspects relating to the five principal activities of human
beings: the physical, the vital, the mental, th e psychic and the spiritual.munotes.in

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120This education is complete, complementary to each other and continued
till the end of life. Aurobindo‘s scheme of education is integral in two
senses. Firstly, it is integral in the sense inculcating all the five aspects of
theindividual being. Secondly, it is integral in the sense of being an
education not only for the evolution of the individual alone, but also of the
nation and finally of humanity. The ultimate aim of education is the
evolution of total humanity. In this sch eme of evolution, the principle of
growth is unity in diversity. This unity again, maintains and helps the
evolution of diversity.
The integral School
The ultimate aim of education is man -making. It prepares the
educand to work first as a human being and then as a member of a nation
and finally as an individual. The circles of moral responsibility and
loyalties proceed from wider to narrower and vice -versa. The man has to
develop first as a human being then as a citizen and finally as an
individual. Most o f the present confusion of values is due to an inversion
of this order.
That education which comes naturally, easily, effectively and
without strain is called integral education. Integral education is complete
education. Important aspects that constitute integral education are: -
i.Strengthening of mental and physical aspects.
ii.Achievement of five principal aspects –the phy sical, vital, mental,
psychic and spiritual. All the above five aspects have to be developed
together.
iii.Development of the four aspects of truth namely; love, knowledge,
power, and beauty.
iv.Development of the vehicles of truth namely psychic for love, mind
for knowledge, vital for power and physical body for expression of
physical beauty.
Shri Aurobindo believes in these ultimate principles of
individuality, commonality and essentiality. These, in other words, are the
educand, the society and humanity. Integ ral education, according to him,
must include evolution of all these three elements. These should develop
together. This is the purpose of the school. In his lectures at Baroda
college, Sri Aurbindo observed that the colleges and universities should
educat e through their academic as well as social activities. The school
cannot be isolated from society. If I cannot give total education in
isolation. Its teachings have to be practiced in the society outside it. In the
integral school four types of rooms are r equired to carry on various
activities: 1. Rooms of silence, 2. Rooms of collaboration, 3. Rooms of
consultation, 4. Lecture room. Thus the school will develop different types
of activities such as silence, collaboration, consultation and lectures. It
willprovide play, activity, discovery, innovation and finally development
of the powers of the body, mind and spirit of the educand. In brief, the
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121In fact, the aims, curriculum and methods of teaching are in the
light of these concepts of integral education.
Check your progress
Say whether the following statements are true or false. If false,
correct the statement.
1.To Aurobindo, one of the main functions of education is to establish
the right relationship with the past, present and future.
2.According to Mother, complete education must have five aspects
relating to the five principal activities of human beings.
3.Integr al education is meant for the individual only.
4.The purpose of school is the simultaneous development of the educand
the society and humanity
4B.7.1. AIMS OF EDUCATION
i.Perfection of soul: The main aim of education is to help the growing
soul to draw out what is best and make it perfect for a noble caus e.
ii.Realization of inner self: Education should enable him to realize his
inner self which is a part of the universal consciousness. He has to
enter into right relationships not only within himself but also with the
people of country and with the universal society to which he belongs
iii.Physical development: Physical development of the child is another
important aim of education. It will be misleading to say that those who
are physically strong are mentally weak. Without physical
development no other development is possible.
iv.Development o f morality: Without moral and emotional development
mental developmental becomes harmful to human progress. The three
essential factors for the moral development of a child are emotions,
impressions or habits and nature. So it is necessary that the ideals of a
teacher should be so high that the child by mere imitation is able to
reach higher stages of development.
v.The development of senses: Education should aim at the training of
senses. According to him senses can be trained fully when manas,
chitta and n erve are pure.
vi.Development of consciousness: another important aim of education is
to develop consciousness. According to him it has four levels. (i)
Chitta (ii) Manas (iii) Intelligence (iv) Knowledge. A teacher should
develop all these four levels harmo niously. This will promote the
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122vii.Harmony of the individual and collectivity: Most of the socio -
political thinkers have either laid emphasis upon the individual or
collectivity. But Aurobindo aims at realization of harmony between
individuals and also between nations. His scheme of education
therefore is truly international. Explaining this ideal of Sri
Aurobindo‘s scheme The Mother said, ―For all world
organizations, to be real and to be able to live, must be based on
mutual respect and understanding between nation and nation as well as
between individual and individual. It is only in the collective order and
organization, in a collaboration based upon mutual goodwill that lies
the possibility of man being lift ed of the painful chaos where he is
now. It is with this aim and in this spirit that all human problems will
be studied at the university center, and their solution will be given in
the light of the supra -mental knowledge which Aurobindo has
revealed. ‖
viii.Cultivation of values: The present crisis of man is due to the chaos
of values. Old values have been challenged while new values have not
firmly taken their place. Character formation very much depends on
value. The supreme value in Sri Aurobindo‘s thought i sh a r m o n y .
Other values are spirituality, divinity, evolution, ascent, transformation
etc. the most important value required for all growth is sincerity. Once
that is developed, the rest follows.
4B.7.2. INTEGRAL CURRICULUM
Sri Aurobindo Ghosh prescribed a free environment for the
children to develop all the latent faculties to the full and suggested all
those subjects and activities of child‘s interest to be included in the
principles of curr iculum.
iAll life is education. So the curriculum is not confined to a limited
syllabus and a few text books.
iiIt should include all those subjects which promote mental and spiritual
development.
iiiIt is a means towards an end, not an end in itself, the end b eing the
development of integral personality.
ivIt should provide for leisure pursuits.
vThere should be flexibility to meet individual needs.
viSubjects of curriculum should be able to motivate children.
viiCurriculum should involve creati vity of life and constructive activities
viii Curriculum should be interesting
On the basis of the above principles, Aurobindo has prescribed the
following subjects in the curriculum
1.For primary stage: Mother Tongue, English, National History, Art,
Painti ng, General Science, Social Studies, and Arithmetic.munotes.in

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1232.Secondary stage: Mother tongue, English, French, Arithmetic, Art,
Chemistry, Physics, Botany, Social Studies, Physiology, Health
Education.
3.University Stage: Indian and western philosophy, Histor yo f
Civilization, English, Literature, French, Sociology, Psychology,
History of Science, Chemistry, Physics, Botany, International relations
and integration.
4.Vocational Education: Arts, painting, photography, sewing,
sculptural, drawing, type, shorthand , collage industries, carpentry,
nursing, mechanical and electrical engineering, Indian and European
music, and dramatization.
Check your progress
Attempt the following in short.
1.List the aims of integral education.
2.How does education lead to the realiza tion of universal consciousness?
3.When can senses be trained fully according to Aurobindo?
4.What solution does Aurobindo suggest for lifting man out of the chaos
in which he is now?
5.What are the different levels of consciousness according to
Aurobindo?
6.What is the supreme value in Sri Aurobindo‘s thought?
7.Why should curriculum be not confined to a limited syllabus? Why
does Aurobindo say that curriculum is not an end in itself?
8.What is the justification for Aurobindo including art, painting, music,
etc.in the curriculum?
4B.7.3 .METHODs OF TEACHING
The following principles of methods of teaching have been
stressed by Sri. Aurobindo.
1.Love and sympathy for the child
2.Education through mother tongue
3.Education according to the interests of the child
4.Education through self experience
5.Emphasis on learning by doing
6.Education through co -operation of teacher and students in the
education process
7.Education according to the nat ure of child -considering the divinity in
the child and latent gifts of mind and spirit
8.Freedom of child -free environment to gain more knowledge through
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1244B.7.4. PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING AND LEARNING
The first principle is that ―nothing can be taught, but everything can be
earned. The teacher is a helper and guide, not an instructor or taskmaster.
He doesn‘t impart knowledge but shows him the way to acquire
Knowledg e which is already within him.
The second principle is that the mind has to be consulted in its growth. It
is wrong to mold the child into the shape desi red by the parent or teacher
ignoring and destroying the divine in the child. To face the nature of the
child to abandon its own dharma is to do permanent harm, says
Aurobindo.
The third principle of teaching is to work from near to far, from the
known to unknown. Education should be according to the nature of the
child. He says man‘s nature is molded by his souls past, his heredity and
his environment. The past is the foundation, the present is the material and
the future is the aim and each should find i ts due place in any national
system of education.
4B.7.5. THE TEACHER
Sri Aurobindo has assigned a very important place to the teacher.
However, he has not made him central as in the ancient Indian scheme.
The teacher rem ains the philosopher and the guide. The Guru does not
have absolute authority. He aims at turning the disciple‘s eye towards the
beacon light of his own Godhead. In fact the real teacher is within the
educand. He is God. He is the ultimate guide and yet th e teacher plays an
important role in arousing the educand towards God within. He has not to
impose his opinions or demand passive surrender from the educand. Sri
Aurobindo compared the teacher to a gardener. Sri Aurobindo emphasizes
an inner relationship b etween the educator and the educand.
Describing as to who is a teacher, The Mother has laid down the
following qualifications.
One must be a saint and a hero to become a good teacher. One
must be a good yogi to become a good teacher.
He should be absolutely disciplined and have an integrated
personality.
He should be absolutely disciplined and have an integrated
personality.
One must have the perfect attitude in order to be able to exact a
perfect attitude from one‘s pupils.
A teacher who does not possess a perfect calm, an unflinching
endurance and who is full of self -deceit will reach nowhere.
He should be able to eliminate his ego, master his mind and
develop an insight into human nature.munotes.in

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125The most important thing in a teacher is not knowledge but the
attitude.
The teacher also should grow along with the pupils.
The Mother says, If a teacher is to be respected, he must be
respectable.
4B. 8 NATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION
Aurobindo strongly ar gued for a national system of education. He
put forward the following elements.
i.Education does not become national by tagging the word national to
the system.
ii.Education should pay due attention to sacrifice, progress and
increasing knowledge.
iii.Mere knowledge of science doesn‘t make us educated in the true
sense. This must be related to powers of the human mind and spirit.
iv.There should be a balanced understanding of the national and
international relationship of universal relationship.
CHECK YOU RP R O G R E S S
State whether the following statements are true or false. If wrong,
correct the same.
1.Sri Aurobindo proposes education through experience.
2.A child can gain knowledge through his own efforts in a free
environment.
3.The teacher has no role to play in the child‘s development.
4.A saint is a good teacher.
5.A teacher must have an insight into human nature.
6.Education does not become by not tagging national to the system.
7.Knowledge science must be related to powers of mind an d spirit to
become education in the true sense.
8.The most important thing in a teacher is his attitude.
9.Education should pay due attention to sacrifice, progress and not
knowledge.
4B. 9 LET US SUM UP
The synthes is of the great philosophy of Sri Aurobindo can be
summed up in one phrase: ―Realization of the sublime Truth-which can
be achieved through the Integral view of life, Being a superman and the
Gnostic individual, Descent of Divine Power, intuition, yoga an ds u p e r
mind. By integral view of life, he implied ―a healthy integration of God
and man”. Aurobindo placed premium on intuition and not on logicalmunotes.in

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126reasoning and preached the gospel of ―intuition and more
perfect intuition”. His idea on y oga was aimed at divinizing the whole
man and for this he advised the education of the mind.
To Aurobindo only such education was true and living which
helped one to develop his latent powers and enabled him to enter into the
right relationship with life, mind, soul of his nations as well as with the
total life, mind and soul of humanity. Information cannot be the
foundation of intelligence, but can help build knowledge, the starting point
of further discovery and creation of fresh knowledge. An education that
confines itself to imparting knowledge is no education. Education must be
based on the psychology of the child‘s nature. Parents and teachers must
enable the child to educate himself, to develop his own practical,
intellectual, moral and aesthetic cap acities and to grow independently as
an organic being.
4B.10 UNIT END EXERCISE
1.What are the different opinions about Sri Aurobindo as a
philosopher? What is your opinion?
2.Explain the two negations. Which one do you support?
3.What is the controversy between materialism and spiritualism
according to Aurobindo‘s thoughts? What is his solution?
4.Give the main functions of education as perceived by Aurobindo.
5.Explain the concept of integral education and the aims as laid down
by Sri Aurobindo.
6.Write short notes on the following:
(i)Curriculum in integral education.
(ii)Methods of teaching according to Aurobindo.
(iii)Principles of teaching and learning.
(iv)Role of teacher in integral education.
(v)Views of Sri Aurobindo on the National system of education.
4B.11 REFERENCES
1.Aggarwal, J.C. and Gupta S. (2006), Great Philosophers and Thinkers
on Education , Shilpa Publications, New Delhi.
2.Aggarwal, S., (2007), Philosophical Foundations of Education, Author
Press, New Delhi.
3.Chandra, S. S. and Sharma, R. K., (2004), Principles of Education,
Atlantic Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi.
4.Chaube S.P., (1988) Indian and Western Educational Philosophers,
Vinod Pusthak Mandir, Agra.munotes.in

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1275.Joshi, S. (2006), Great Indian Educational Thinkers, Authors‘ Press,
New Delhi.
6.Mishra P.K. & Dash P.C. (2010), An introduction to Philosophical and
Sociological Foundations of Education, Mangalam Publications Delhi.
7.Pandey R.S.,(1997), East -West Thoughts on Education, Horizon
Publications, Allahabad.
8.Shehsad, A., (2006), Educational thinkers of India, Amol Publications
Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi.
9.Shukla, C. S., Shaida B. D. and Safaya R. N.(2008), Teacher in
Emerging Indian Society, Dhanpatrai Publishing Co. (P) Ltd, New
Delhi.
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128
4C
JIDDU KRISHNA MURTHY (1895 -1986)
Unit Structure
4C.0 Objectives
4C.1 A Brief Life History
4C.2 Krishnamurthy ‘s Philosophy of Life.
4C.3 Difference between Listening and Learning
4C.4 The Concept of Self
4C.5 Krishnamurthy ‘s views on Religion
4C.6.1 Aims of Education
4C.6.2 Shortcomings of the Prevailing System of Education
4C.6.3 Characteristics of Integral Learning
4C.6.4 Methods of Te aching According to Krishnamurthy
4C.6.5 Role of the Teacher
4C.6.6 The true teacher
4C.7 Krishnamurthy ‘s Concept of an Ideal School
4C. 8 Krishnamurthy ‘s Contribution to Education
4C.9 Let Us Sum Up
4C.10 Unit End Exercise
4C.11 References
4C.0 OBJECTIVES
ToDiscuss Krishnamurthy ‘s philosophy of life.
To Explain his views on religion.
To List down the shortcomings of the prevailing system of educat ion
according to J. Krishnamurthy .
ToExplain the characteristics of Integral learning.
To Explain the role of a t eacher according to Krishnamurthy ‘s scheme
of education and the Concept of ideal school.
4C.1 AB R I E FL I F EH I S T O R Y
Jiddu Krishnamurthy ‘s family migrated from Telugu Desam and
settled in Madanapalli in Tamil Nadu, His bouts of fever and his father‘s
frequent transfers interrupted his schooling. Like Rabindranath Tagore, he
also did not like book learning and the school atmosphere, but was a keen
observer. About his school he wrote in his memoir ―I cannot say I munotes.in

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129was particularly happy at school, for the teachers were not very kind and
gave me lessons that were too hard for me. He made three unsuccessful
attempts to pass matriculations.
At the age of 15, Krishnamurthy accompanied Miss Annie Besant
to England in 1911. Like his father he also became a member of the
Theosophical Society. In 1912, he wrote a book entitled =Education as
Service ‘ in which he described the life of an ideal school where love rules
and inspires, where the students grow in to noble adolescents under the
fostering care of teachers who feel the greatness of their vocation.
4C.2 KRISHNAMURTHY ‘S PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE
Krishnamurthy claimed no authority or religion. He did not initiate
any new faith or dogma and launch any social reform. What he proposed
was nothing more than a total transformation of individual self as a cure
for conflict and suffering in the world. He suggested his audience to think
for them to feel passionately, to shed the burdens of the past or future so
that their mind is free from fear. His message to mankind was ―First
understand the purpose of our existence, the purpose of our life, and
understan d what we were thriving for. Then utilize everything, to
strengthen us.
To find out what you really love to do is one of the most difficult
things. That is part of education. (Krishnamurthy 1974) (Part 1, Chapter 8)
Krishnamurthy described the relationshi p between “being” and “doing”
frequently. It is not doing is being but being is doing. For Jiddu
Krishnamurthy , doing is derived from being rather than being derived
from doing -the reverse of convention. Much more needs to be said about
the consequences of reversing the roles of being and doing. Observe the
modern convention of a question like, "Who are you?" (a question about
being) which is answered by, I'm a lawyer, engineer, etc. (a statement
about doing) suffice it to say that this reversal or confus ion usually leads
to a highly developed 'doing' (which is easier to accomplish) with
impove rished 'being,' and Krishnamurthy felt that dysfunction was the
usual consequence of such imbalance.
FREEDOM:
Freedom is at the beginning, it is not something to be gained at the
end. (Krishnam urthy 1953c) (Chapter 6) There is no freedom at the end of
compulsion; the outcome of compuls ion is compulsion. (Krishnamurthy
1953b). If you dominate a child, compel him to fit into a pattern, however
idealistic, will he be fr ee at the end of it? If we want to bring about a true
revolution in education, there must obviously be freedom at the very
beginning, which means that both the parent and the teacher must be
concerned with freedom and not with how to help the child to be come this
or that. (Krishnamurthy 1953b)munotes.in

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130MIND YOUR MIND:
He observed that it is necessary to encourage the development of a
good mind that is capable of dealing with many issues of life holistically,
instead of trying to run away from them. For this, one should be well
aware of one‘s own conditioning, motives and purpose of life. Thus
knowledge is essential only as a means of cultivating the mind and not an
end in itself.
Like Ges talt psychologists, Krishnamurthy believed in the totality
of perception. G enerally, we see things in fragments, we function as a
nationalist, as an individualist, as Catholics, as Hindus, as Muslims as
Germans, Russians, French etc. We fail to see mankind as a whole;
instead, we see things broken up into fragments.
Mind is to b e freed from fragmentation. Energy of mind is wasted
when there is fragmentation. When we accept or follow any ideology, we
are caught by a fragmentation of authority. The truth is beyond it and it
should be found in the totality. A mind is confused in fra gments. A
confused mind will continue to be confused and will lead to danger and
thereafter will lead to inaction.
The images about us, our friends, our wives are so strong in our
minds that only these images have relationships and there is no direct
relationship. Mind is to be freed from these images in order to establish
direct relationships.
Pleasure is not to be condemned. It should be understood well.
Without understanding the nature of pleasure and pain, one cannot be free
from fear. A mind, not free from fear, lives in confusion and in conflict. In
order to pursue pleasure and to be free from fear, one must be aware of
oneself, accept oneself as one is. We have to live with actuality. There is
no love, if there is fear . Even if we are physically secure, we may be
feeling insecure psychologically from within. Immaturity lies only in
one‘s ignorance. Here Krishnamurthy talks about bringing a revolution in
our thinking.
The real issue is the quality of our mind: not its knowledge but the
depth of the mind that meets knowledge. Mind is infinite, it is the nature
of the universe which has its own order, has its own immense energy. It is
everlastingly free. The brain, as it is now, is the slave of knowledge and so
is limited, finite, and fragmentary. When the brain frees itself from its
conditioning, then the brain is infinite, then only there is no division
between the mind and the brain. Education then is freedom from
condi tioning, from its vast accumulated knowledge as tradition. This does
not deny the academic disciplines which have their own pro per place in
life. (Krishnamurthy 1985)
Contrary to the perspective that has shaped much in convention al
education, Jiddu Krishn amurthy felt that each person needs to exploremunotes.in

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131themselves and reveal themselves to themselves rather than be shaped into
something by others. This is not a new perspective, and again has links to
the educational theories of Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Frobel, an d Montessori.
We have to reflect on our minds, hearts and actions daily. There is no
tomorrow for us to be peaceful or orderly. Instead, we have to be so, on
the instant.
ACTION: PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE
Action implies our active present, but actually it is the result of
yesterday‘s knowledge and experience. We simply act out these past ideas
and formulas. When we act according to our memory, we, no doubt, claim
to act in the present and create the future, but there is no active present.
Action here is bas ed on a dead thing (past ideas and experiences). Action
according to memory only is not action at all. Action on a dead thing
makes tomorrow also dead.
We only are responsible for wars in the past and present. To live in
peace means to live peacefully eve ry day. To live peacefully every day,
we should not develop hatred towards different nationalities, religions,
dogmas or authorities. Peace means to love and to be kind.
4C.3 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LISTENING AND
LEARNING
Jiddu Krishnamurthy lays stress on understanding the meaning of
communication. It means understanding verbal utterances of what is being
said. But the fact is that the understanding is only at the intellectual level.
According to Krishnamurthy this c oncept includes listening and learning.
Understanding the difference between the two is of great benefit to the
teachers.
In listening the most important thing is the way, the method or
“how” of listening. Generally, when we listen, we simply try to proje ct on
our own impressions of the past, our opinions, prejudices and ideas. When
we listen, we listen to what is being said with our own images and
background. Here, we are not listening at all.
Listening takes place when there is silence. Silence is very much
emphasized by this great teacher. In silence, the mind concentrates. Actual
communication takes place when there is silence. Learning does not imply
accumulation of ideas. Learning takes pla ce when there is communication
and when the whole mind and heart are involved in the process. Only
when one listens without any previous image or intention, learning takes
place. Listener and learner then understand what is the truth or fallacy and
if true immediate action takes place and if false no action takes place.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:
Say whether the following statements are true or false. If false,
correct the same.munotes.in

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1321.Find out what one really loves to do is not in the purview of education.
2.The concept of our being can be understood if we know what we are
doing.
3.A revolution in education is possible if only there is freedom at the
beginning.
4.The truth should be found in the totality and fragments
simultaneously.
5.The mind is infinite in the nature of t he universe and is everlastingly
free.
6.According to Krishnamurthy the main function of education is to
shape the child by others.
7.Actual listening takes place when we listen with our background and
images of the past.
4C.4 THE CONCEPT OF SELF
The self is made up of a series of defensive and expansive
reactions. Its fulfillment is always in its own projections and gratifying
identifications. Experience cannot be free from conflicts, confusion and
pain as long as we translate experience in terms of the self, the ego i.e. me,
mine and I and try to maintain itself throug h its reactions. Freedom comes
only when one understands the ways of the self, -the experience.
Experience takes on an entirely different significance and becomes
creation only when the self with its accumulated experiences do not
influence the reactions.
What is essential for man is to live fully and integrally. Undue
emphasis on any part of our total makeup gives a partial and distorted
view of life. It is this distortion which is causing most of our difficulties.
Any abnormal growth of any part of our own body is bound to cause
constant anxiety and worry. So is the development of only intellect which
is only one aspect of our total make up. Similarly any partial development
of our temperament is bound to be disastrous both for ourselves and for
the soci ety. Hence it is very important that we approach our problems with
an integrated point of view.
To be an integrated human being, one should understand the entire
process of one‘s own consciousness. This is not possible if we give undue
emphasis to the int ellect. Living in the intellect is the way of
disintegration.
For most of Jiddu Krishnamurthy 's life, what he said and wrote
sparked both interest and controversy. His observations on religion,
nationalism, tradition, organization and relationships oft en ran counter to
the convention of the day. He was always ahead of his time. But his
thoughts on education are still radical and frequently misunderstood or
dismissed as impractical. This is probably larger d ue to the fact that
Krishnamurthy presents educ ation as a religious activity at a time when
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133Through the ages, sages have cautioned us that what we see is not
true even though they appear to be so. We see things the way we have
been taught to see and what we expect to see or hear. We always tend to
choose what is familiar or what we like most over what is true or sacred as
in the Bible the Jews chose Barabbas, a proven criminal and murderer
over Jesus for Jesus thinking and teachi ngs were not akin to the
established traditions of the then Jewish society.. This is true in matters
related to education also.
Modern education fails to solve the world‘s problems or prepare
the people for the fundamental challenges of living. It also fa ils to meet
the soc iety‘s aspirations. Krishnamurthy says; ―To overcome these
problems we need educational insight which has a close alliance with the
sacred, an d with the secular. Krishnamurthy ‘s insights are radical, that
they meet the challenges of livi ng at a profound level.
4C.5 KRISHNAMURTHY ‘S VIEWS ON RELIGION
Krishnamurthy ‘s approach to religiousness is free of religion. He
firmly believed that what is sacred or truly religious cannot be conditional,
culture-bound or time -bound. He said what is religious cannot be
contained or subjected to any dogma, rituals, belief or authority. One may
ask a question: How can man make contact with the sacred if sacred
cannot be related to dogma, authorities or symbols? H e clarifies, the
bridge from secular to sacred is a particular consciousness; a
consciousness that has transcended the imperatives of the self or ego, a
consciousness which knows compassion or selfless love, a consciousness
which knows silence, sees beauty and lives joy, a consciousness which is
free from conditioning and limitations of thought.
Krishnamurthy felt that the sacred is the foundation of all things; it
lies at the origin of all things and so cannot be fragmented into more
fundamental elements. He says all things are part of an integrated whole
and that unity is sacred.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:
Choose the correct option and fill in the blanks.
a)To be an integrated human being, one should understand the entire
process of one‘s own ----------- 1) grow th of body. 2) Intellect
3) consciousness 4) confusion.
b)Modern education fails to solve the world‘s problems because of --
(1)Deviation from the convention (2) lack of insight related to sacred and
secular 3) insights which are radical. (4) society‘ s aspirations.
(c)What is truly religious or sacred cannot be -------- .
(1)dogmatic (2) free of religion (3) unconditional (4) unselfish love.munotes.in

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1344C.6.1AIMS OF EDUCATION
For Krishnamurthy’s education is:
(i) Educating the whole person.
(ii)Educating the person as a whole (not as an assemblage of parts).
(iii)Educating the person within a whole. (As part of society, humanity,
nature, etc.). For him education is about preparation fo r the whole life
and not preparation for part of life (like work).
Jiddu Krishnamurt hy, like Rabindranath Tagore, Mahatma Gandhi,
Swami Vivekanand and others founded his own educational institutions to
put into practice what he preached. In his educationa l institutions, he
insisted that children must be educated rightly in order to make them
religious human beings of course, according to his interpretation of
religiousness. He wanted these centers to be the places of learning the
ways of life, which is not based on pleasures, on self centered activities
instead on the understanding of correct action, on the depth of
relationships and on the sacredness of a religious life. These places should
be meant for only the enlightened ones. Education should awaken th e
capacity to be self aware and not merely, indulge in gratifying self
expression. The right kind of education is not concerned with any
ideology, however much it offers to future Utopia. It is not based on any
system, however carefully thought out, nor is it a means of conditioning
the individual in some special manner.
Education in the true sense is of helping the individual to be
mature and free, to flower greatly in love and goodness. That is what we
should be interested in, and not in shaping the child according to some
idealistic pattern. According to this great teacher the main aim of
education is to enable the child to develop mentally in such a way that he
should know himself. Education should help one to feel freedom of mind
and fearlessness.
For Jiddu Krishnamurthy , the intentions of education must be the
inner transformation and liberation of the human being and, from that ,
society would be transformed. Education is intended to assist people to
become truly religious. These intentions must not be just pleasant
sounding ideals to which one pays lip service, and they are not to be
arrived at by their opposites. And the religi ous intentions are not for some
eventual goal, but for life in educational centers from moment to moment.
The function of education is to help us from childhood not to imitate
anybody, but to be ourselves all the time. So freedom lies...in
understanding wh at we are from moment to moment. We are not
[normally] educated for this; our education encourages us to become
something or the other...
To understand life is to understand ourselves, and that is both the
beginning and th e end of education. Krishnamurthy felt that not only was
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135also has a unique vocation that needs to be discovered; what he/she really
loves to do has to be found and pursued, and to do anything else is a
deprivation of t he worst kind, especially if such deprivation is in order to
pursue success or other such cultural aspirations. The discovery of the
natural vocation for an individual student and the student‘s understanding
of what he really loves to do may not fit into t he plans of the parents or
society, but it is an important part of understanding oneself and,
consequently, of education.
Modern education is making us into thoughtless entities; it does
very little towards helping us to find our i ndividual
vocation.(Kris hnamurthy 1964) (Chapter 3) To find out what you really
love to do is one of the most difficult things. That is part of education.
(Krishnamurthy 1974) (Part 1, Chapter 8) Right education is to help you to
find out for yourself what you really, with all yo ur heart, love to do. It
does not matter what it is, whether it is to cook, or to be a gardener, but is
something in which you have put your mind, your heart. ( Krishnamurthy
1974) (Part 1, Chapter 8)
4C.6.2 SHORTCOMINGS OF PREVAILING SYSTEM OF
EDUCATION
Krishnamurthy observed the following shortcomings of the Indian
education.
The conventional education:
1.Makes independent thinking extremely difficult.
2.Strangulates spontaneity.
3.Leads to a dull and lackluster mind.
4.Develops fear in the mind to deviate from established standards even if
they are legitimate.
5.Fails to enable us to understand the higher and wider significance of
life.
6.Fails to integrate thoughts and feelings.
7.Is lopsi ded and doesn‘t provide overall growth of the individual.
8.Trains us only to seek personal gains and security and fight for
ourselves.
9.Consider examinations and degrees as criteria for intelligence.
10.Merely train the mind to be cunning and avoid vital human issues.
11.Helps in making us subservient, mechanical and thoughtless.
12.Though it awakens intellectually, leaves us incompetent and
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1364C.6.3.CHARACTERISTICS OF INTEGRAL LEARNING
Integral education enables a learner for the following:
1.Development of capacities to face challenges
If the individual is to grapple with life‘s problems, intricacies,
mysteries, and sudden demands, he must be free from theo ries and
particular patterns of thoughts.
2.Development of self knowledge
Education should help an individual discover the true values which
come with unbiased investigation and self -expression becomes self
assertion with all its aggressive and ambi tions conflicts. To Krishnamurthy
the individual is of first importance; not the system, and as long as the
individual does not understand the total process of himself, no system can
bring order and peace to the world. Understanding comes only through
selfknowledge which is awareness of one‘s total psychological process.
Education in the true sense is the understanding of oneself for it is within
each one of us that the whole of existence is gathered.
3.Integrated experience
Krishnamurthy says ―the right kind of education which
encourages the language of technique should help man to experience the
integral process of life which is of greater importance. It is this experience
that will put capacity and technique in their right place.
4.Freedom from readymade ideas
According to Jiddu Krishnamurthy ideas have no place in
education for they prevent the comprehension of the present and escaping
into the future cannot make one aware of what is to be after an idea
indicates sluggishness of min d and a desire to avoid the present.
Pursuit of a readymade utopia is denial of the freedom and
integration of the individual. What we need is not an idealistic entity or
mechanical minds but integrated human beings who are intelligent and
free.
5.Developm ent of free and mature human beings
To Jiddu Krishnamurthy , the right kind of education is free from
ideology and conditioning. Education in true sense should help the
individual to be free and mature and to blossom in love and goodness. The
conditioning o f the child‘s mind to fit a particular ideology whether
political or religious breed‘s enmity between man and man will not help to
bring about brotherhood and change in the society. The Indian scenario
gives ample examples of lack of brotherhood understand ing and
resistance.
6.Re-education
Right education comes with transformation of us. We must learn to
be compassionate, to be content with little and to seek the supreme for,
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1377.Development of Right Understanding of Environment
We must realize the fact that we are not conditioned by the
environment, but we are the environment. We never see that we are the
total environment because there are several entities in us, all revolvin g
around the “me”, the self. The self is made of these entities, which are
merely desires in various forms. From this conglomeration of desires
arises the central figure, the thinker, the will of the “me” and the “mine”.
A division is thus established betw een the “self” and the “non -self”,
between the “me” and the environment i.e. the society. This separation is
the beginning of conflict, inward and outward.
8.Development of Wisdom and not Acquiring Knowledge
In our desire to acquire more knowledge, we are l osing love,
feeling for beauty and sensitivity to cruelty. When we become more and
more specialized, we are becoming less and less integrated. Wisdom
cannot be replaced by knowledge and no amount of explanation or
accumulation of facts will free man from s uffering. Our education is
making us more and more shallow and is not helping us to overcome the
deeper meanings of our being and our lives are becoming increasingly
meaningless, disharmonious and empty.
Knowledge of facts though ever increasing is limite d by its very
nature, whereas wisdom is infinite. It includes knowledge and the way of
action. What we normally do is hold a branch; assume it is the whole tree.
Through the knowledge of the past, we can never realize the joy of the
whole. We are like the blind men who tried to describe the elephant after
feeling different parts of the elephant. Intellect alone can never give a
holistic view because it is only a segment of the whole.
9.Development of Love towards Others
Only true love and right thinking will bring about revolution within
oneself. But it cannot be achieved through pursuit of the ideal of love.
What can be done is to keep ourselves free from hatred, greed,
exploitation, envy and ego.
10.Development of Right Relationship
Education should help an i ndividual to cultivate the right
relationship between individuals and society and this is possible only if he
understands his own psychological process. Intelligence lies in
understanding oneself and going above and beyond oneself.
11.Development of freedom and integration
To educate a child is to help him to understand freedom and
integration. To have freedom, there must be order and order is achieved
only through virtue. Integration is achieved through simplicity -simplicity
in both o ur inward life and outward needs.
12.Development of creative intelligence
The spirit of constant inquiry and the feeling of discomfort in the
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138alive is a cumbersome task. Most people d o not want their children to have
this kind of intelligence, the reason being the discomfort they have to face
when the established values are questioned.
13.Development of International understanding
As long as the glaring disparities like rich and poor, ex ploiters and
exploited powerful and powerless exist in our society and divisions like
Nationality, religion, caste, color and various dividing loyalties prevail, it
is not possible to have brotherhood among men.
If we are to radically change our present h uman relationship, our
only and immediate task is to transform ourselves through self -knowledge.
Thus we come back to the central point which is =oneself‘. We normally
dodge this point and instead of owning up the responsibility, put the
government, religi ous and ideologies responsible. The government is what
we are. The religious and ideologies are but projection of us. Until we
change ourselves fundamentally there can neither be right education nor a
peaceful world.
14.Freedom from ideology
Jiddu Krishnamur thysays conditioning of the child‘s mind to fit a
particular ideology, whether political or religious breed‘s enmity between
man and man. In a competitive society we cannot have brotherhood.
15.Freedom and discipline
It is only in individual freedom that lo ve and goodness can
blossom. Only the right kind of education offers this freedom. One of the
dangers of freedom is that this system becomes more important than the
human beings. Here, discipline becomes a substitute for love. It is because
our hearts are empty that we cling to discipline. Freedom can never be
achieved through discipline. Freedom is not a goal or an end to be
achieved. Freedom is at the beginning and not at the end. A sincere
teacher will protect and help the children towards the right kind of
freedom. For this he himself should be free from ideologies and dogmas.
16.Rewards and punishments
Sensitivity can never be awakened through compulsion.
Compulsion breeds antagonism and fear. Reward and punishment in any
form only make the mind subservie nt and dull. Discipline may be an
effective way to control a child, but it doesn‘t help him to understand the
problems in living. If a child persists in disorderliness or is unreasonably
mischievous, the educator should inquire into the cause which may be
found in the wrong diet, lack of rest, family wrangles or some hidden fear.
17.Spiritual Training and not Religious Education
To him dogmas, mysteries and rituals are not conducive to spiritual
life. Religious education in the true sense is to encourage the child to
understand his own relationship to people, Things and to nature. There is
no existence without relationships. It is rather impossible to ex plain this to
a child. But the educator and parents can grasp its significance and themunotes.in

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139meaning of spirituality and convey the same to the child through their
attitude, conduct and speech. There is hope for a better world only if the
youth have the spirit of inquiry and the urge to to search out the truth of
all things.
4C.6.4 METHODS OF TEACHING ACCORDING TO
KRISHNAMURTI
We should not teach the student “what to think” and “how to think”.
Allow him freedom to think for himself.
●Study the child thoroughly and employ such methods that suit him
best.
●The student should be treated as an equal partner.
●Problem solving and explorative methods should be encouraged.
●Repetition encourages the mind of the child to be sluggish.
4C.6.5ROLE OF THE TEACHER
Understanding the child
According to Krishnamurthy ―The right kind of education
consists in understanding the child as he is without imposing on him an
ideal of what we think he should be. Ideals are an actual hindrance to our
understanding of the child and to the child‘s own und erstanding of
himself.
The right kind of teacher doesn‘t depend on a particular method.
He will study each pupil closely. He is fully aware of the fact that the
pupils are living beings who are impressionable, volatile, sensitive,
affectionate and often t imid. He knows that he should have a lot of
patience and love to deal with them. The absence of these qualities makes
a teacher mechanical in his attitude and shirks away the demands of the
profession.
1.Keen observer
The best way for a teacher to understand a child is to observe him
at play, work, and at different moods. The teacher should not be tempted
to project upon the child his prejudices, hopes and fears. The ideal teacher
will desist from molding him to fit his idiosyncrasies, prejudices and ideas
which gratify him.
2.Integrated Educator
If a lamp doesn‘t burn itself, it cannot light another lamps. If the
teacher himself / herself is not an integrated personality, we cannot expect
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1404C.6.6THE TRUE TEACHER
According to Krishnamurthy , a true teacher is not simply a giver of
information, but is the one who shows t he way to wisdom and truth. Truth
is more important than the teacher himself. The search for truth is religion.
Truth is of no country and of any creed. It is not to be found in any temple
or church or mosque. Without the search for the truth, society will decay.
To create a new society each one of us has to be a true teacher. This means
that we have to be both the pupil and the master.
If a new social order is to be established, we need teachers who do
not work merely to earn a salary. To regard education as a means of
livelihood is to exploit the children for one‘s own advantage. A true
teacher is not subservient to politicians, not bound by the ideals and
beliefs of a country, and not a power monger or after positions. He is
inwardly rich and above the compulsions of society.
There can be no real hierarchy between the staff and students.
There are, of course, differences between staff and stude nts in their
responsibilities and experience; but in all that is most important in
education, the staff and the students are really in the same boat. Staff
members may know more about academic subjects, or gardening, or
administration and therefore have a certain authority in those areas, but
these are not the central concerns of education. In the central concerns of
education, which is to do with inner liberation, both the students and the
teachers are learners and therefore equal, and this is untouched by
functional authority.
Authority has its place as knowledge is concerned, but there is no
spiritual authority under any circumstances... That is, authority destroys
freedom, but the authority of a doctor, mathematics teacher and how he
teaches doesn' td e stroy freedom. (Krishnamurthy 1975)
In thus helping the student towards freedom, the educator is
changing his own values also; he too is beginning to be rid of the "me"
and the "mine", he too is flowering in love and goodness. This process of
mutual educat ion creates an altogether different relationship between the
teacher and the student.
A good teacher must possess good conduct. Six points of good
Conduct which are specially required by a teacher are given by the Master.
They are: 1. self -control as to the mind. 2. Self -control in action.
3. Tolerance. 4. Cheerfulness. 5. One -pointed ness.6.Confidence.
1.Self-control as to the Mind
It means control of temper, so that we may feel no anger or
impatience; of the mind itself, so that the thought may alwa ys be calm and
unruffled. The calm mind also means courage and steadiness; so that we
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141us to make light of the troubles which come into everyone's life, and avoid
the incessant wo rry over little things. The Master teaches that it does not
matter in the least what happens to a man from the outside; sorrows,
troubles, sicknesses, losses -all these must be as nothing to him, and must
not be allowed to affect the calmness of his mind. They are the result of
past actions, and when they come, we must bear them cheerfully,
remembering that all evil is transitory, and that our duty is to remain
always joyous and serene. Think of what you are doing now, rather than
the past or future. Never allow us to feel sad or depressed. Depression is
wrong because it infects others and makes their lives harder. Therefore, if
ever it comes to us, we must control our thoughts and we must not let it
wander.
One must hold back one‘s mind from pride, for p ride comes only
from ignorance. The man who does not know thinks that he is great; the
wise man knows that only God is great, and that all good work is done by
God alone.
2.Self-control in Action
If your thought is what it should be, you will have little trouble
with your action. Yet remember that, to be useful to mankind, thought
must result in action. There must be no laziness, but constant activity in
good work. Leave every man to do his own work in his own way; be
always ready to offer help if need be, but never interfere in others work.
For many people the most difficult thing in the world to learn is to mind
their own business; but that is exactly what we must do. Because we try to
take up higher work, we must not forget our ordinary duties, for until they
are done we are not free for other services.
3.Tolerance
It is necessary to feel perfect tolerance for all, and a hearty interest
in the beliefs of those of another religion, just as much as one‘s own. But
in order to gain this perfect tolerance, one must first be free from bigotry
and superstition. We must learn that no ceremonies are necessary. Yet we
must not condemn others who still cling to ceremonies. Let them do as
they will; only they must not try to force upon us that which we have
outgrown. M ake allowance for everything: be kind towards everything.
Now that our eyes are opened, some of our old beliefs, our old
ceremonies, may seem absurd to us; perhaps, indeed, they really are so.
Yet respect them for the sake of those good souls to whom they are still
important. They have their place, they have their use; they are like those
double lines which guided us as a child to write straight and evenly, until
we learnt to write far better and freely without them. There was a time
when we needed them; bu t now that time is past.
A great Teacher once wrote: 'When I was a child I spoke as a child,
I understood as a child, I thought as a child; but when I became a man I
put away childish things.' Yet he who has forgotten his childhood and lost
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142them. So look kindly, gently, tolerantly upon all; but upon all alike,
Buddhist or Hindu, Jain or Jew, Christian or Mohammedan.
4.Cheerfulness
You must bear your karma cheerfully, whatever it may be, ta king it
as an honor that suffering comes to you. However hard it is, be thankful
that it is no worse. Remember that you are of but little use to the Master
until your evil karma is worked out, and you are free. Yet another point,
you must give up all feeli ngs of possession. Karma may take from you the
things which you like best -even people whom you love most. Even then
you must be cheerful -ready to part with anything and everything. Often
the Master needs to pour out His strength upon others through His servant;
He cannot do that if the servant yields to depression. So cheerfulness must
be the rule.
5.One-pointed action
The one thing that we must set before us is to do the Master's
work. Yet nothing else can come in our way, for all helpful unselfish work
is the Master's work. And we must give all our attention to each piece as
we do it, so that it may be our very best. That same Teacher also wrote:
'Whatsoever ye do does it heartily and with all might as to the Lord, and
not unto men.' One -pointed action means that nothing shall ever turn you,
even for a moment, from the Path upon which you have entered. No
temptations, no worldly pleasures, no worldly affections even, must ever
draw you aside. For you must become one with the Path; it must be so
much part of your nature that you follow it without needing to think of it.
6.Confidence
Unless there is perfect trust there cannot be the perfect flow of love
and power. We must trust ourselves. If we say we know ourselves too well
then we do not know ourselves; we know only the weak outer husk. We
are a spark of God's own fire, and because of that there is nothing that we
cannot do if we will. Say to yourself: ' I can do this thing, and I will.' Our
will must be like tempered steel, if we should tread the Path.
4C.7KRISHNAMURTHY ‘S CONCEPT OF AN IDEAL
SCHOOL
According to Krishnamurthy an ideal school should have a limited
number of students because mass instruction cannot help develop
integrated personality.
The school will have teachers who are dedicated, thoughtful and
alert. The school takes interest in a careful study to understand the child of
his potentials and limitations. The ideal school is maintained through the
spirit of self -sacrifice.
The school of his vision functions without the influence of any
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143responsibilities. There is sincere cooperation among all the teachers. A
student council is formed to discuss all matters relating to the wel lbeing of
the whole group. The school has an atmosphere where the students can
discover what is and what they are interested in. There is a provision for
proper guidance for all. An atmosphere of confidence and co -operation
prevails in the school.
Check your Progress:
Underline the option which doesn‘t suit the given statement.
a.The right kind of teacher is fully aware of the fact that the pupils are
living beings who are -------- .
(1) sensitive (2) timid (3) patient (4) impressionable.
b.A true teacher is one --------- .
1.who does not work only for a salary. (2) who is not subservient to
politicians. (3) who is not bound by the ideals of a country. (4) who
does not have self control in action.
c. According to Jiddu Krishnamurthy -------- .
1.Teachers and students are not equals. (2) Teachers and students are
learners. (3) There is no hierarchy between staff and students.
(4) Mutual education creates an altogether different relationship
between the teacher and students.
d. Kri shnamurthy’ s ideal school -------------
1.has a limited number of students. (2) Has an atmosphere of
collective responsibility. (3) Has dedicated, thoughtful and alert
teachers. (4)Is maintained through spiritual sacrifice.
4C.8 KRISHNAMURTHY’ S CONTRI BUTION TO
EDUCATION
Education was always close to Krishnamurthy ‘s heart. He
established nearly a dozen co -educational sch ools in India and abroad to
translate his ideas into practice. Ten percent of the seats in these
institutions were reserved for non -paying pupils. He used to visit them
every year for discussion with the students and teachers.
Although the ordinary curric ulum was followed in these schools,
his main objective in starting these schools was to provide children
adequate opportunities and freedom to grow up without any of the
national, racial class and cultural prejudice that build barriers between one
human be ing and another and give rise to violence.
Krishnamurthy ‘s conception of methods of teaching, school
organization and the role of a teacher is truly progressive of education. His
emphasis on the development of an integrated personality through an
integral approach to education is highly commended by almost all
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1444C.9 LET US SUM UP
Krishnamurthy was neither a religious authority nor a social
reformer. But his contribution to education is unique. As a cure for the
conflict and suffering of the world, he exhorted people to change
themselves. As part of it one should understand one‘s purpose of life and
use everything to achieve it. Knowing what one “loves” to do is part of
education. He says it is not “doing is being”, but “being is doing”.
He advocated total freedom for the child to choose what he wants
to become, not that others impose upon the child their ideas on them. We
must try to see things in totality and not in fragments. The truth should be
found not in fragments but in the totality. According to him, education is
freedom from conditioning. Man should grow above divisions to live in
peace.
Actual communication takes place when there is communication
and the whole mind and heart are involved. What is essential for us is to
be an integrated person. To be an integrated person one should understand
the total process of one‘s consciousness. Undue emphasis on intellect will
make the person disintegrated. To understand life is to understand
ourselves. Abo ut religion he says, true religion cannot be conditional. He
believed in free religion. Education should help people to become truly
religious. But his understanding of religion is different. It is not tied to any
dogmas, culture or time. He identified the shortcomings of the present
education system and suggested integrated education, integrated learning
and integrated man as a solution.
The central concern of education is to do with inner liberation.
Both the students and the teachers are learners and therefore equal. Each
child is a unique creation and allows each child to grow according to his
ability and leanings. The problem is that this aspect has not received the
attention it deserves. He has envisaged the qualiti es of a true teacher.
Teacher shouldn‘t be a giver of knowledge but should show the way to
wisdom and truth. Truth is more important than the teacher himself. The
search for the truth is religion. Without the search for truth the society will
gradually dec ay. To create a new society each one of us has to be a
teacher. A good teacher must possess self -control of mind, control on
action, quality tolerance, confidence and cheerfulness.
4C.10 UNIT END EXERCISE
1.Explai n the concept of religion acc ording to Jiddu Krishnamurthy .
2.What are the functions of edu cation according to Krishnamurthy ?
3.What is integrated educat ion as conceived by Krishnamurthy ?
4.List down the shortcomings of the present system of education.
5.Give a detailed account of a true teacher as given by Jiddu
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1456.Write short notes on the following:
1)Concept of self.
2)Listening and learning.
3)Being and doing
4)Nature of our relati onship according to Krishnamurthy .
4C.11 REFERENCES
1.Aggarwal, J. C. and Gupta, S., (2006), Great Philosophers and
Thinkers on Education, Shipra Publications, Delhi.
2.Aggarwal S., (2007), Philosophical Foundations of Education, Authors
Press, Delhi.
3.Krishnamurti, J. (1912) Education as Service. Adyar, Madras:
Theosophical Publishing society.
4.Krishnamurti, Jiddu (1953c) Education & The Significance Of Life,
London: Victor Gollancz ltd.
5.Krishnamurti, J (1929) The Dissolution of the Order of the Star, 3r d
August, at Omen, Holland.
6.Krishnamurti Foundation The "official" Krishnamurti site
Krishnamurti, Jiddu (1974) On Education, Pondicherry, Indi a: All
India Press.
7.Krishnamurti, Jiddu (1975) Dialogue on Education, at Ojai.
8.Krishnamurti, J.(1953c) Education and the Significance of Life,
London: Victor Gollancz Ltd.
9.Krishnamurti, Jiddu (1956) 5th Public Talk, 18th March, at Bombay.
Krishnamurti, Jid du (1962) 2nd Public Talk, 7th June, at London.
10.Krishnamurti, Jiddu (1964) This Matter of Culture, London: Victor
Gollancz.
11.Pandey R. S., (1997), East -West Thoughts on Education, Horizon
Publications,Allahabad.
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1465A
PLATO’S EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY
Unit Structure
5A.0 Objectives
5A.1 Introduction
5A.2 Plato‘s Academy
5A.3 Works related to Education
5A.3.1 Plato‘s Metaphysics
5A.3.2 Plato‘s Epistemology
5A.4 Formation of the society
5A.4.1 Education according to classes
5A.5 Education system
5A.5.1 Organization and curriculum
5A.5.2 Teaching Methods
5A.5.3 Objectives and functions of Education
5A.5.4 Role of the teacher
5A.5.5 Women Education
5A.5.6 Educa tion as a states function
5A.5.6 Evaluation of Plato‘s Philosophy of Education
5A.6 Unit End Exercise
5A.7 References
5A.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
1Explain the historical background of Plato‘s philosophy.
2Recognize the distinct terminology of Plato‘s philosophy
3Explain the philosophical foundation of Plato‘s educational theory
4Explain the sociological foundation of Plato‘s educational theory
5Explain P lato‘s elementary education
6Discuss the impact of Plato‘s philosophy on
a.Aims of Education
b.Curriculum and subjects
c.Role of educator
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1477The critical by evaluate of Plato‘s philosophyCompare Plato‘s
philosophy with Indian Education System especially w ith reference to
caste, class and gender study
8Draw out implications of Plato‘s philosophy on today‘s education stem
5A.1 PLATO –AN INTRODUCTION
Plato was born in Athens in 427 B.C in a wealthy and influential
family. Plato began his philosophical career as a student of Socrates.
When the master died, Plato traveled to Egypt and Italy, studied with
students of Pythagoras, and spent several years ad vising the ruling family
of Syracuse. Eventually, he returned to Athens and established his own
school of philosophy at the Academy.
About 387 BC, Plato founded a school in Athens, in a grove sacred
to the demigod Academes, called the Academy (which is wh ere we get the
word academics from today).
5A.2 PLATO‘S ACADEMY
It was, in effect, a university of higher learning, which included
physical science, astronomy, and mathematics, as well as philosophy. In
addition to presiding over the Academy, Plato delivered lectures, which
were never published. The site of the academy was sacred to Athena and
other immortals and contained a sacred grove of olive trees. Plato
possessed a small garden there in which he opened a school for those
interested in receiving his instruction. Details of the organization of the
academy are unknown, but it appears to have employ ed a method of
teaching based on lectures, dialogue, and seminars .
5A.3 THE WORKS RELATED TO EDUCATION
Republic is a dialogue which discusses the education necessary to
produce such a society. It is an education of a strange sort –he called it
paideia. Nearly impossible to translate into modern idiom, paideia refers to
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148the process whereby the physical, men tal and spiritual development of the
individual is of paramount importance. It is the education of the total
individual .
He discusses early education mainly in the Republic , written
about 385 B.C.E., and in the Laws , his last work, on which he was still a t
work at the end of his life.
5A.3.1 PLATO‘S METAPHYSICS
Plato argued that reality is known only through the mind. There is a higher
world, independent of the world we may experience through our senses.
Becaus e the senses may deceive us, it is necessary that this higher world
exists, a world of Ideas or Forms of what is unchanging, absolute and
universal. In other words, although there may be something from the
phenomenal world which we consider beautiful or g ood or just, Plato
postulates that there is a higher unchanging reality of the beautiful,
goodness or justice. The task of education is to live in accordance with
these universal standards --to grasp the Forms is to grasp ultimate truth.
5A.3.2 PLATO‘S E PISTEMOLOGY
He distinguished between the reality presented to us by our senses –sight,
touch, taste, sound and smell –and the essence or Form of that reality. In
other words, reality is always changing –knowledge of reality is
individual, it is particular, it is knowledge only to the individual knower, it
is not universal.
There are 3 sources of knowledge:
❖Knowledge obtained from senses, i.e. knowledge of objects , colors,
taste, touch etc. But Plato do es not consider this as real knowledge.
❖An opinion regarding any object, but this knowledge cannot be relied
upon as the views of every person differs regarding the same object.
Knowledge through mind or wisdom –it is the highest degree of
knowledge which includes virtues like truth, goodness and beauty. This
knowledge is idealistic and is based on original thinking. The
characteristic of knowledge is that it is found in the form of universal
truth. The highest goal of education, Plato believed, is th eknowledge of
Good ; to nurture a man to a better human being, it is not merely an
awareness of particular benefits and pleasures.
5A.4 FORMATION OF THE SOCIETY
Plato argued that societies are invariably formed for a particular
purpose. Individual human beings are not self -sufficient; no one working
alone can acquire all of the genuine necessities of life. In order to resolve
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149achievement of our c ommon goals. This succeeds because we can work
more efficiently if each of us specializes in the practice of a specific craft:
I make all of the shoes; you grow all of the vegetables; she does all of the
carpentry; etc.
Thus, Plato held that separation of functions and specialization of
labor are the keys to the establishment of a worthwhile society.
DIVISION OF THE STATE ON SPECIALIZATION OF LABOUR
When each of these classes performs its own role appropriately and
does not try to take over the function of any other class, Plato held, the
entire city as a whole will operate smoothly, exhibiting the harmony that is
genuine justice. (Republic 433e) it l eads to an ideal state.
But the smooth operation of the whole society will require some
additional services that become necessary only because of the creation of
the social organization itself —the adjudication of disputes among
members and the defense of the city against external attacks, for example,
Plato proposed the establishment of an additional class of citizens, the
guardians who are responsible for management of the society itself.
Whil e Plato's methods were autocratic and his motives
meritocratic, he nonetheless prefigured much later democratic philosophy
of education. Plato's belief that talent was distributed non-genetically and
thus must be found in children born to all classes moves us away from
aristocracy, and Plato built on this by insisting that those suitably gifted
were to be trained by the state so that they might be qualified to assume
the role of a ruling class. What this establishes is essentially a system of
selective publ ic education premised on the assumption that an educated
minority of the population are, by virtue of their education (and inborn
educability), sufficient for healthy governance.
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1505A.4.1 EDUCATION ACCORDING TO CLASSES
Faced with the problem of determining the class of each
individual, Plato suggested various kinds of tests to be conducted at
different age levels.
In the first place, primary education will be given to all between the
ages of seven and twenty, following which a test shall be administered to
everyone. Those who fail the test are to be sent to labour in the various
occupations and productive trades .
The successful candidates will be sent to the armed forces where
training will be imparted to them for the next ten years. This will again be
followed by a test; the failures will be compelled to remain in the armed
forces while the successful ones will be sent to join the government.
Then this governing class will be subjected to further education in
science. Later on, one from among the governing class will be elected as
the philos opher administrator whose task will be to look after the
government and education of the state.
This individual will occupy the highest position in the land; his word
will be the law of the land. Apart from this supreme individual, all other
members of the governing class will continue to receive education
throughout their lives, most of this education consisting of teachings in
philosophy. It is thus evident that Plato was granted highest place
Check your Progress
1.'Mind ing one's own business' has conservative implications if the
government is the business of a select few. Is specialization of
functions the basic principle in social life? Discuss.
2.Write notes on
a.Plato‘s metaphysics
b.Plato‘s concept of true knowledge
c.Education according to classes.
3.Compare Plato‘s education according to classes and varna system in
India.
5A.5 EDUCATION SYSTEM
Children enter school at six where they first learn the three Rs
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151(reading, writing and counting) and then engage with music and sports.
Plato's philosopher guardians then follow an educational path until they
are 50. At eighteen they are to undergo military and physical trainin g; at
21 they enter higher studies; at 30 they begin to study philosophy and
serve the polis in the army or civil service. At 50 they are ready to rule.
This is a model for what we now describe as lifelong education (indeed,
some nineteenth century German writers described Plato's scheme as
'andragogy'). It is also a model of the 'learning society' -the polis is
serviced by educators. It can only exist as a rational form if its members
are trained -and continue to grow.
The object of Platonic education is therefore moral and political. it is
not an apprenticeship for know -how but an education in life skills.
Since the health and beauty of both body and mind are essential goals
of Plato nic education (see Laws, 788c), education, in keeping with Greek
custom, is divided into two parts : gymnastics and music (i.e. culture).
⮚Physical education begins before birth. Pregnant women are advised to
walk around and move about as much as possible.
PLATONIC SYSTEM OF SCHOOLS
AGE SCHOOL SPECIAL DEVELOPMENT
OR STUDIES
Birth to 3years Infancy Bodily growth, sensory life, nofear, child reacts to pleasure andpain4t o6y e a r sNurseryPlay, fairy tales, nursery rhymes,
myths, get rid of self -will
6t o1 3y e a r s Elementary school Play, poetry, reading, writing
,singing, dancing, religion,
manners, numbers, geometry
13 to 16 years Instrumental Music Play the cithara, religious hymns,memorize poetry (esp religious andpatriotic), arithmetic (theory)16 to 20 years Gymnastics and the
militaryFormal gymnastics and military
training. No intellectual training.
20 TO 30 years Sciences Coordination of reason and habits;
interrelating the physical sciences
30 to 35 years Dialectic Philosophy, Psychology,
Sociology, government, law ,
education
35 t0 50 years Service to State
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1525A.5.1 ORGANIZATION AND CURRICULUM
a.Elementary. All boys and girls would be educated together. They
would study mathematics, literature, poetry, and music until they were
eighteen years of age.
b.Military Training . The next two years of the youth's life would be
devoted to physical education alone. Thereafter, the best youths would
be selected for the higher education given to future guardians of the
state
c.Higher Education . Between the ages of twenty and thirty -five, the
future g uardian would receive a higher education to prepare him for
ruling the state. His studies would include mathematics, music, and
literature. At the age of thirty he would have enough maturity to begin
his study of philosophy. At thirty -five, his formal educ ation would
cease and he would enter upon a minor administrative position, prior
to undertaking a more important governing position.
5A.5.2 TEACHING METHODS
Plato recommended a play method at elementary level; students should
learn by doing. And when he/she reaches the higher level of education,
his reason would be trained in the processes of thinking and
abstracting.
Plato wanted motivation and interest in learning. He was against
the use of force in educatio n."Knowledge which is acquired under
compulsion obtains no hold on the mind."
According to Plato "Do not then train youths by force and
harshness, but direct them to it by what amuses their minds so that you
may be better able to discover with accuracy th e peculiar bent of the
genius of each."
Plato wanted a place where children love to go and stay there and
they play with things which enhance their education by playing. Plato
gave importanc e to nursery education, as nursery education plays a vital
role in the education of man and it helps to build his moral character and
state of mind "The most important part of education is proper training in
the nursery."
TheSocratic Method is a dialecti cm e t h o do ft e a c h i n g , named
after the Greek philosopher Socrates, in which the teacher uses questions
to get the student to think about what he/she already knows and to realize
what they do not know. This question and answer session stimulates the
brain, e ngages the learner, and can bring new ideas to life.
Both the Didactic and Dialectic methods are necessary for
teaching. There are many times when telling the student what he/she needs
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153method is essential for engaging students in interactive learning, in giving
them some ownership of discovery in the learning process. The dialectic
method can provide an opportunity for debate of issues, exploration of
ideas and use of higher thinking ski lls. Since the object of learning is to be
able to discern and make decisions based on knowledge, the dialectic
method is critical for growth of the knowledge According to Plato it will
be hard to discover a better method of education than that which the
experience of so many ages has already discovered, and this may be
summed up as consisting in gymnastics for the body, and music for the
soul... For this reason is a musical education so essential; since it causes
Rhythm and Harmony to penetrate most intima tely into the soul, taking
the strongest hold upon it, filling it with beauty and making the man
beautiful -minded.
The above quotation of Plato shows how he sees education, he
wants the total development of a man, mind, body and soul by using every
possib le means.
Storytelling and literature: In Plato‘s view, Storytelling is the main tool
for the for mation of character. Stories should provide models for children
to imitate, and as ideas taken in at an early age become indelibly fixed, the
creation of fables and legends for children, true or fictional, is to be
strictly supervised. Mothers and nurses a re not to scare young children
with stories of lamentations, monsters, and the horrors of hell, to avoid
making cowards of them. (Republic, bk. 2, 377 -383).
Play: In Plato‘s view a child's character will be formed while he or she
plays. One should resort toDISCIPLINE , but not such as to humiliate the
child. There should be neither a single -minded pursuit of pleasure nor an
absolute avoidance of pain –not for children and not for expectant mothers
(Laws, bk. 7, 792). Luxury makes a child bad -tempered and ir ritable;
unduly savage repression drives children into subserviency and puts them
at odds with the world. Children and adults should not imitate base
characters when playing or acting, for fear of forming a habit that will
become second nature (Republic, b k. 3, 395).
Those being educated are to be restricted from wrong thought and
action, until such time as they are able to understand why it is favorable to
be in harmony with the good. At that time, they will be able to understand
why corruption is evil.
According to Plato Self discipline is essential, whereby a man
should be temperate and master of himself, and ruler of his own pleasures
and passions.
Teachers must provide children with miniature tools of the
different trades, so that they can use the ch ildren's games to channel their
pleasures and desires toward the activities they will engage in when they
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154Children are to be brought together for games. The sexes are to be
separated at the age of six, but girls too should attend lessons in riding,
archery, and all other subjects, like boys. Similarly, both boys and girls
should engage in dancing (for developing grace) and wrestling (for
developing strength and endurance). Plato attached much importance to .
Children's games : "No one in the state has really grasped that children's
games affect legislation so crucially as to determine whether the laws that
are passed will survive or not."
Change, he maintained, except in something evil, is extremely dangerous,
even in such a seemingly inconsequential matter as children's games
(Laws, bk. 7, 795 -797).
Physical Education : "Physical training may take two or three years,
during which nothing else can be done; for weariness and sleep are
unfavorable to study. At the same time, these exercises will provide not
the least important test of character" (Republic, bk. 7, 537). Children who
are sturdy enough should go to war as spectators, if one can contrive that
they shall do so in safety, so that they can learn, by watching, what th ey
will have to do themselves when they grow up (Republic, bk. 5, 466; bk.
7, 537). Girls should be trained in the same way and learn horseback
riding, athletics, and fighting in armor, if only to ensure that if it ever
proves necessary the women will be a ble to defend the children and the
rest of the population left behind (Laws, bk. 7, 804 -805,813).
Reading and writing, music, arithmetic : In Plato's educational system, a
child, beginning at the age of ten, will spend three years on reading,
writing, the poets and another three learning the lyre, and will study
elementary mathematics up to the age of seventeen or eighteen, all with as
little compulsion as possible, in order to learn "enough to fight a war and
run a house and administer a state" (Republic, bk. 7, 535 -541). Enforced
exercise does no harm to the body, but enforced learning will not stay in
the mind (Laws, bk. 7, 536). Special stress is next placed on the study of
the four disciplines that prepare the student for philosophy: arithmetic,
geometr y, astronomy and harmony. These disciplines lift the soul to the
level of the immutable.
Check your Progress
Answer the following questions:
1.Evaluate the curriculum as given by Plato.
2.Importance given to physical training and sports is far sightedness of
Plato‘. Discuss.
3.What is the difference between the Socratic method (Dialectic method)
and the Didactic method?
4.Examine the role of storytelling in Plato‘s system of education.
5.Plato‘s organization of curriculum satisfies modern pedagogy‘ -Do
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1555A.5.3 OBJECTIVES AND FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION
1.The first objective was state unity:
The first objective of education must be to develop esprit de corps ,
that is, the sense or feeling of community life, for the state is superior to
the individual. Every citizen must be trained to dedicate himself
unreservedly to the state and to forgo private interests. All people must be
ideal citizens.
2.Second objective was to develop virtue or civic efficiency:
Education should instill habits of tempe rance, courage and military
skill into the youth. Plato aimed to prepare for the higher duties of civil
and social life by imparting to the youth accurate knowledge of the
government and of the absolute truth. Education should train an individual
in his du ties and rights as a citizen.
3.The next objective is to establish the rule of reason in the growing life
of a child.
4.Another function is the development of aesthetic sensibility. Education
must aim to produce a love for the truth, the beauty and the goodn ess. The
child should be kept in a beautiful environment.The higher soul must learn
to place the ideal above the actual, the abiding above the transient, the
eternal above the temporal. The child must become a man with passionate
interest in ideal reality.
5.Another function of education is to teach children to live in harmony.
The school should be the greatest humanizing and socializing agency.
6.The aim of education is achieving human perfection. It involves the
total training of character and aims at produ cing a morally mature
individual. It is, in other words, fundamentally moral in nature. It involves
the total training of character. Its goal is to produce people who are
attracted to the good and repulsed by the evil.
The object of education is to turn t he eye, which the soul already
possesses, to the light. The whole function of education is not to put
knowledge into the soul, but to bring out the best things that are latent in
the soul, and to do so by directing it to the right objects. The problem of
education, then, is to give it in the right surrounding. ‖This is the insight
model of philosophy.
5A.5.4 ROLE OF THE TEACHER
In Plato‘ s plan of education, the educator is considered to have greatest
importance. He is like a torch bearer who leads a man lying in the dark
cave, out of the darkness into the bright light of the outside world. The
teacher is thus the constant guide of the stu dents. The teacher must be a
person of high integrity and must possess high self worth. He must have amunotes.in

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156pleasing personality, in -depth knowledge and professional training. He
should be deeply committed to his profession, have a high sense of
responsibility and a true role model. Teachers should lead a true moral
life. They should practice what they preach.
5A.5.5W O M E NE D U C A T I O N
Plato also emphasized on women education. Women should have
the same physical and ed ucational training; they should know the art of
war. The main aim of education was that each member of the society
should undertake his work and responsibilities.
In Socrates' opinion, in an ideal city men and women will be used
for the same purposes. 'We educated the men both physically and
intellectually; we shall have to do the same for women, and train them for
war as well, and treat them in the same way.'
Plato believed that women are equal to men and that, although
some women are physically smaller or weaker and some women are
physically equal to men. Therefore those women who are physically
strong should be allowed to learn the same skills that men do. In his book
Republic Plato describes how male and female receive the same education
and be given t he same duties in society as given to the male member.
These people are the ones who will be in charge of his republic which
would be an ideal society, where philosophers are the kings. In other
words, who knows what is good for the people and for mankind and
makes their decisions based on that knowledge.
Check your Progress
Answer the following questions:
1.What do you think of Plato's views on women?
2.What are the functions and objectives of education, according to
Plato?
3.The objectives of education aim at all round development of the
children? Do you think these aims are fulfilled? Discuss.
4.What is the role of a teacher according to Plato
5.What is an insight model of philosophy?
5A.5.6 EDUCATION AS A STATE FUNCTION
According to Plato, education is primarily a state function.
Therefore, the philosophy of education forms the heart of any discussion
of government. In the Republic and the Laws , Plato emphasized that
education should be completely under the control of the state. The state
provides the teachers, buildings, and controls the curriculum and methods
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157The failure of the old Athenian education was due to the failure of
parents to inculcate the virtues and traini ng the children. Plato was
intolerant towards tender sentiments and individualizing tendencies of
family life. His conclusion was that the family training cannot be trusted;
the good of the state demands public control of breeding, nursing and
training of the children.
In a nutshell, Plato‘s polis (state) is essentially an educational
community.
o It is created by education. It can survive only on
condition that all its citizens receive an education that enables them to
make rational political decisions.
oIt is up to education to preserve the state intact and to defend it against
all harmful innovations.
oThe aim of education is not personal growth but service of the state,
which is the guarantor of the happiness of its citizens for as long as
they allow it to be the embodiment of justice.
This state is a strict meritocracy, where the citizen body is divided
into the functions (commonly but erroneously called "classes") of
producers, auxiliaries (in charge of internal and external security), and
philosophers , the last two jointly referred to as "guardians."
The Republic is concerned with the education of the guardians, but in
the Laws, where Plato draws up an actual system of laws for a state
conforming as much as possible to that standard, the same education is
provided to all citizens, according to their abilities.
As such, he believes that the child belongs to the state and its education is
the responsibility of the state (Republic, bk. 2, 376.)
Education must be compulsory for all. State funds should pay for
gymnasiums and for instructors, officials, and superinten dents in charge of
education, both cultural and physical.
5A.5.6 EVALUATION OF PLATO‘S PHILOSOPHY OF
EDUCATION
1.Little Education for Productive Classes:
In Plato‘s scheme of education the productive c lass is granted only
primary education which implies, higher education is intended for soldiers
and governing classes and the labor class has no need for such an
education.
2.No individual differences:
Plato suggested the same kind of education be given to an entire
class of people, according to a uniform curriculum. This will lead to
creation of only one kind of citizen leading to lack of variety and static
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1583.Neglect of Literary Education:
Plato‘s curriculum also neglects training in literature by stressing
the importance in mathematics.
4.Stress on Philosophy:
Some people get the impression that Plato‘s insistence on
philosophy is exaggerated, and that it could lead to an increase in the
number of contemplative individuals at the expense of more pra ctical
members. But it must be remembered that Plato has stressed the
importance of both bodily and mental development and in this respect, he
has achieved a remarkable harmony of both.
In spite of the above defects, Plato‘s concept of education has
influenced educational philosophy in almost all ages. In particular, his
influence can be seen in the idealist philosophy of education. And, many
of the finest teachers still consider Plato as the only true guide.
5A.6 UNIT END EXERCISE
Answer the following questions:
1.Plato‘s conclusion was that the family training cannot be trusted.‘ -
Evaluate and justify your answer.
2.Explain Plato‘s Educational Philosophy.
5A. 7 REFERENCES
1.Plato. 1941 [385 B.C.E.]. The Republic of Plato. Trans. Francis
Macdonald Cornford. New York: Oxford University Press.
2.Plato. 1970 [348 B.C.E.]. The Laws. Trans. Trevor J. Saunders.
Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin.
3.Eby F., Arnowood C.F, 1940, The History and Philosophy of
Education Ancient and Medival Prentice -Hall, INC. N.J.
4.Sharma R. 2000, Textbook of Educational Philosophy Kanishka
Publishers, New Delhi.
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1595B
KARL JASPERS (1883 -1969)
Unit Structure
5B.0 Objectives
5B.1 Introduction
5B.2 Jaspers as an Existentialist
5B.3 Jaspers on Education
5B.3.1 Aims of Education
5B.3.2 Role of Teachers
5B.3.3 Education and School
5B.3.4 Education and University
5B.3.5 Education and Democracy
5B.3.6 Education and Tradition
5B.3.7 Education and Family
5B.4 Let Us Sum Up
5B.5 Unit End Exercise
5B.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will be able to:
To gain understanding into the background of Jasper‘s educational
philosophy
To justify Jasper as an Existentialist
To explain the educational aspects of Jaspers Philosophy
To evaluate the role of university in Jasper‘s philosophy of education.
To relate education to democracy, tradition and family
To critically evaluate Jasper‘s philosophy of education
5A.1 INTRODUCTION
Karl Jasp ers (pronounced ―Yaspers) was born on 23
February 1883 in Oldenburg, Germany.
After being trained in and practicing psychiatry, Jaspers turned to
philosophical inquiry and attempted to discover an innovative
philosophical system. He was often viewe d as a major exponent of
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160Among psychiatric patients, Jasp ers began to formulate a link
between psychology and philosophy. Psychoanalysis and existentialism
were also linked in the works of philosopher Jean -Paul Sartre and analysts
Viktor Frankl and Rollo May. Karl Jaspers asserted that people give
meaning to the ir lives through their choices and actions. Karl Jasper’s role
in existentialism is sometimes ignored, but he contributed significantly
towards existentialism. He coined the term ― Existenzphilosophie —a
forerunner of the term existentialism and this alone makes his
contribution unique. Jaspers viewed his philosophy as active, forever
changing.
Jasper's major work in three volumes,
Philosophy (1932), gives his view of the history of philosophy and
introduces hi s major themes. Jaspers identified philosophy with
philosophical thinking itself, not with any particular set of conclusions.
His philosophy is an effort to explore and describe the margins and limits
of experience. He used the term das Umgreifende ("the e ncompassing") to
refer to the ultimate limits of being, the indefinite horizon in which all
subjective and objective experience is possible, but which can never be
rationally apprehended.
Another important work is Existe nzphilosophie (1938; Philosophy and
Existence, 1971). The term Existenz designates the indefinable experience
of freedom and possibility that constitutes the authentic being of
individuals who become aware of the encompassing by confronting such
limit-situations as chance, suffering, conflict, guilt, and death. Jaspers also
wrote extensively on the threat to human freedom posed by modern
science and modern economic and political institutions.
Among his political works is The Question of German Guilt (1946;
trans. 1947)
DIMENSIONS OF MAN
The many different dimensions of man can be defined
conceptually as being, pure consciousness, intellect and possible
existence, without losing sight of his essential unity.
Man as pure c onsciousness: this term denotes man with the unique
possibility of moving beyond his consciousness as an individual living
creature and focusing that consciousness on the nature of being as such.
This consciousness is the =locus of valid thinking of which only man is
capable.
Man as intellect: i.e. man with the ability to generate ideas‘ which create
order among the confusing profusion of disparate knowledg e that can be
extended at will, which highlight the relationship between individual
factors and whose aim is to establish unity among the diversity of
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161Man as existence: i.e man in his unconditional resolve to become himself.
Existence is the sign that being, pure consciousness and the mind cannot
be understood on their own and do not have their own reason, that man is
not confined to immanence but remains essentially dependent on the
transcendental.
However existence is impossible without being, pure
consciousness and the mind. These are essential conditions if existence is
to come into its own and become reality. =It is embodied in being, made
clear by the pure consciousness and its content is revealed in the mind‘
JASPERS AS AN EXISTENTIALIST
Jaspers used Existenz to describe the state of freedom and possibility
for authentic beings of individuals who have become consciously aware
of ―the encompassing and confront limiting situations in human life
like guilt, conflict, and even death. Reason may create the boundaries for
contemplating the objects in life, but Existenz creates the boundaries for
contemplating the personal subject which does the contemplating.
The Transcendent is ―pure personal experience, something we can
become aware of, as we also become aware of our finite natures.
Awareness of the Transcendent produces awareness of the radical freedom
in each person —thefreedom to choose, the freedom to decide, and most
of all the freedom to commit oneself to a particular course of action that
brings meaning and purpose to life.
In this, Jaspers echoes the ideas of Kierkegaard where he emphasized
the importance of a ―leap of faith which transcends rational,
objective considerations. They shared, however, the basic idea that a
person is ultimately faced with an either -or decision without the aid of
objective proof or knowledge ab out what the right choice might be.
Check your Progress
Answer the following questions:
1.Why is Jaspers said to belong to the school of existentialism?
2.Give examples of encompassing
3.What are the different dimensions of man according to Jaspers?
5B.2 JASPE RS ON EDUCATION
Jaspers discovered the special nature of education as distinct f rom
making, shaping, tending and ruling.
By the process of “making” , something usable is manufactured from
a material.
of a rational calculation; by “shaping” ,m a nc r e a t e saw o r kw h o s e
form is infinite and impossible to calculat ein advance. In our modern
technical world, “ tending” or “ rearing” have acquired an uncanny
resemblance with “making”; nevertheless, they can only succeed by
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162
The process of “ruling” means subjecting the o ther, be it nature or a
human being, to an extraneous will and purpose.
Karl Jaspers touches on the decisive dimension of education when
he defines it as helping the individual to come into his own in a spirit
of freedom and not like a trained animal.
Education is accomplished when contents are freely acquired; but
it fails when it is authoritarian‘
Hence it follows that from an early age, children must be called
upon to act of their own free volition; they must learn through pe rsonal
insight into the need for learning and not out of mere obedience‘
The unique nature of Jaspers Reflection on education becomes
remarkably clear when he speaks of love as the driving force and true
authority as the source of genuine education. He do es not believe that
these two factors are mutually exclusive. On the contrary, they are
inseparable. Love protects education from the will to dominate and shape
pupils for finite purposes, and makes it a personal encounter instead:
=Loving communication b etween individuals embraces all love of things,
of the world and of God.
Different strokes of education:
Education is not a uniform process. It changes in the course of
history and assumes different forms in different societies. Jaspers
perceives three re current basic forms .
Scholastic education of the kind that prevailed in the Middle Ages is
confined to the transmission of a fixed subject matter, compressed into
formulae and simply dictated with an accompanying commentary.
Education by a master is a di fferent form in which a dominant
personality is honored as an unimpeachable authority by students who are
totally submitted to him.
Socratic education contains the deepest meaning since it involves
no fixed doctrine, but an infinity of questions and absolute unknowing‘
(1947, p. 85). The teacher and his pupil are on the same level in relation to
ideas.
According to Jaspers Education is maieutic, i.e. it helps to bring
thestudent‘s latent ideas into clear consciousness; the potential which
exists wi thin him is stimulated, but nothing is forced upon him from
outside‘. Here education is understood as =the element through which
human beings come into their own through interpersonal contact by
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163Check your Progr ess
Answer the following questions:
1.How is Jaspers‘ concept of education different from making, shaping,
tending and ruling?
2.What is the difference between scholastic education and Socratic
education?
5B.3.1 AIMS OF EDUCATION
Total Human Being:
Education, as an aid to becoming at o t a lh u m a nb e i n g , takes place by
allowing for the existence of the whole man. Education that is directed at
the indivisible human being is conceptually articulated into different
modes when it concerns man as a being, man as pure consciousness, man
as intellect and man as possible existence. Particular items of knowledge
must be brought together within a conceptual unity. Education has the
supreme task of helping man to achieve his selfness .
The other aims of education must necessarily be integrated into that
task within their own limits. Setting out from this highest goal, the
indispensable nature of the individual phases becomes apparent in their
own relati ve right and according to their own limited laws.
If man is understood as being , education appears to consist of,
concern for, and protection of, growing life which is to be developed,
enhanced and brought to maturity. Education seeks to consolidate
physi cal strength and mental health . It enhances vital energy through
competition, encourages the individual to attain ever -higher levels of
performance, arouses pleasure in aesthetics and secures the frame for
natural enjoyment of life. It takes care of weak a nd endangered life, tends
and cures illness. But education is not confined to the preservation,
enhancement and safeguarding of vitality as such. Education is more than
mere biological upbringing.
If man is understood as pure consciousness , education mean s
leading him on to clear perceptions, imparting usable knowledge, training
in vital thinking and disciplining him to take part in an orderly dialogue
with others. It puts across modes of thought which help to gain a
conceptual mastery of the world in its manifold manifestations. It seeks
restrained speech, clear reasoned thinking, accurate judgments and acute
conclusions.
Social aim of education -Since man as a being always lives with other
beings, education involves process integration into the forms an d
structures, groups and institutions of the society. Individuality is enhanced
through this integration into the social structure. Education imparts
familiarity with forms of social intercourse, with morals and customs, with
rules and laws. It associates the ability to adapt with the courage to resist.
Education seeks to safeguard the individual citizen in his profession and in
politics, but it is not confined to imparting familiarity with forms of public
behavior, to the acquisition of professional expert ise and to the generationmunotes.in

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164of an understanding of politics. Education extends beyond integration
into society.
Education facilitates critical thinking, using methods skillfully and
reliably to guide objective action. It sharpens the ability to distinguish and
creates a potential for objectivity that does not preclude personal
involvement. However, education is more than the creation of an ability to
behave rationally.
5B.3.2 ROLE OF TEACHERS
Jaspers was in no doubt about the fact that the value of a school is
directly bound up with the quality of its teachers who can only perform
their task of educating young people through lifelong self-education and
training. The only true educator is the on e who is permanently engaged in
ap r o c e s so fs e l f -education through communication. Education can only be
correct if its addressees acquire the ability to educate themselves through
stringent and tenacious learning‘ Neither scientist nor scholar is concerne d
with what is merely fashionable or current; they cannot let others decide if
their procedures are correct, but must rely on their own intellectual
consciences. In their teaching they recognize the need of ―teaching for
substance that only research can gi ve. Here Jaspers states that ―only he
who himself does research can really teach.
5B.3.3 EDUCATION AND SCHOOL
Children must be educated according to their own inclinations and
abilities (p. 32). Here Jaspers ob jects to the idea that psychology as a
science should be the foundation of pedagogical planning and decisions‘.
However, he does concede that it has an ancillary role to play under the
guiding hand of the educator‘.
The essential role of the school in training children to become
useful members of the community has two implications‘(p. 33). Jaspers
defines the first task as arousing the historical spirit of the community
and of life through the symbols of that community (p. 33). This may be
done throu gh consideration of the previous history of such a community
and through contact between young people and their educators, although
this aim cannot be a deliberate and reasoned intention. The second task, on
the other hand, is to learn and practice everyth ingwhich is necessary for
work and a profession (p.33)‘.
This is a matter for deliberate planning. Both tasks are
indispensable. He emphasizes the exceptionally important role of the
primary school that lays the moral, intellectual and political foundat ions
for the entire population. The intellectual renewal imparted by teachers is
the determining factor if the population at large and those in government
are to recognize the justification of the necessary financial resources.
Decisive importance attaches to the educational content that must be based
on the great traditions of the human mind.
Jaspers advocates the need for a moral content in all teaching ;
reading and writing will then cease to be mere technical attainments and
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165When that spirit is alive, effort and hard work, practice and
repetition, which are often experienced as a burden, will acquire new
meaning and become a real pleasure. Secondary schools, in all their
different forms, must also pursue the sam e goal.
5B.3.4 EDUCATION AND UNIVERSITY
Jaspers‘ University where research is its major purpose, discovery
and research is an indivisible whole and sch olarship depends on a relation
to the whole. Jaspers writes that the university is meant to function as an
―intellectual conscience of an era and is, in many respects, the
― meeting place of different disciplines and world outlooks.
Science and scholarship, as viewed by Jaspers, are meaningful
only when they are part of a comprehensive intellectual life that is ―the
very life blood of the university.
The objectives of the university are identified as research,
education, and instruction; to reach these objectives, scholars must
communicate with each other and with students who, in turn, must
communicate with each other.
Throughout his life, Jaspers remained committed to the idea that
the university does not have a mere teaching function; the student must
also learn from his professors to engage in personal research and therefore
acquire a scientific mode of thought which will color his whole existence‘.
Jaspers paints a broad canvas of the tasks of the university:
research, teaching and education; training; communication; the whole
world of the sciences.
This internal cohesion is apparent in a number of statements made by
Jaspers:
1.To the extent that the university seeks truth through science, research
is its fundamental task. Since that task presupposes the passing on of
knowledge, research is bound up with teaching. Teaching means
allowing students to take part in the research process;
2.The correct method of imparting knowledge and skills in itself
contributes to the intellectual training of the whole being;
Performance of this task is bound up with communication between
thinking beings, i.e. between researchers, between teachers and pupils,
between pupils and, in some circumstances, between all of them;
3.Science is essentially a whole. T he structure of the university must be
such that all the different sciences are represented (1923: 1961,
pp. 64 -65).
The university can only create the preconditions and foundations
required for specific vocational training if its aim is not to =impart a self -
contained body of knowledge but to train and develop scientific modes of
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166The techniques of questioning must have been practiced. A thorough
grounding must have been acquired in a particular discipline, but there is
no need for the student to memorize all kinds of specialized facts as is
demanded by foolish examinations. The emp hasis must rather be placed
on the sense of judgment which is gained through research , proves its
worth in the everyday practice of a profession, directs the gaze towards all
that is knowable and opens out onto the broadest horizon.
As Jaspers emphasizes, university education is by nature Socratic‘(p.
86) because the student‘s sense of responsibility and freedom come into
play.
It is only through freedom that we can acquire experience of the
original desire for knowledge and hence of human independence wh ich is
the gift of God and bound up with God‘ (p. 86). The freedom of learning
has as its counterpart the freedom of teaching.
While others occupied themselves with the study of philosophy,
Jaspers encouraged his students to engage in the act of ―philosophizing .
For Jaspers, debate and discussion were more important than analyzing
what was written in the past or how two famous men might relate on a
theoretical level.
Communication with the researcher and participation in the
research process can stimulate a scientific attitude in the student himself or
herself which Jaspers characterizes as objectivity, a devotion to the
subject, reasoned balance, investigation of contrasting possibilities, self -
criticism‘. It is education in reason which takes place with out deliberate
intent or planning.
5B.3.5 EDUCATION AND DEMOCRACY
A democracy that is totally formal may itself generate total
domination. He therefore constantly reminds us that confidence in the
people is e ssential and that democracy presupposes an attitude of reason
on the part of the people which it must itself take care to foster. Here
Jaspers refuses to idealize, or at the other extreme defame, the people. He
considers the people to be sovereign, but in need of self -education to attain
that sovereignty.
People become ripe for democracy by becoming politically active
and by accepting responsibility for solving concrete problems .J a s p e r s
considers it self -evident that democracy demands the education of the
entire people.
Democracy, freedom and reason all hang by that education. Only
through such education is it possible to preserve the historical content of
our existence and dep loy it as a generative force underpinning our life in
the new world situation (1958, p. 444). It may seem surprising when this
self education begins by thinning out the undergrowth of uncertainty. It
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167hearts of citizens. In all this, the vital need is to arouse an awareness in
each individual that he bears responsibility for himself (p. 52).
5B. 3.6 EDUCATION AND TRADITION
For Jaspers himself the existential appropriation of tradition was
given lasting encouragement through his personal encounter with Max
Weber, as a result of which he came to recognize the fundamental role of
the past and its consequences for education.
Education through the study of great men has the purpose of
permitting the individual‘s own existence to be rediscovered in them, to
enable him to come to fruition through them until the human being which
has become genuine and original in itself moves on to acquire objectivit y
and reach decisions without the detour of a hypothetical identification with
the other person. He who sees greatness, experiences a desire to become
great himself‘
5B.3.7 EDUCATION AND THE FAMILY
From personal experience and conviction, Jaspers ascribes to the
family the task of laying the groundwork for all education. It is in the
family that children experience, through the love of their parents and the
constant concern for their welfare, that hu manity‘ which helps them to
master the difficulties of daily life and gives the next generation courage
to pursue a responsible life in future, strengthened by all that is handed on
to them. Here children experience solidarity and piety, faith and
dependab ility in which all provide support for each other. Here the
growing child receives impressions that shape his/her life, impressions of
an order that is not constricting but grants freedom to everyone.
5B.4 LET US SUM UP
Education to achieve existence can mean only one thing: not
hiding the possibilities of becoming oneself, not missing the path towards
existence, not overlooking the need to achieve man‘s highest goal by
falling victim to cleverness and fitness. It remains impossible to predict
whether and to what extent man will gain mastery of himself in his
selfness.
5B.5 UNIT END EXERCISE
Answer the following questions:
1)Explain Karl Jasper‘s Educational Philosophy.
2)Discuss the relationship between Education and Democracy,
Education and Tradition and Education and family.
References -UNESCO : International Bureau of Education, 2000.
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1685C
PAULO FREIRE (1921 -1997)
Unit Structure
5C.0 Objectives
5C.1 Introduction
5C. 2 Paul Freire‘s Concept of Education
5C.2.1 A set of political and Pedagogical Principles
5C.2.2 Banking Education
5C.2.3 Problem Posing model
5C.2.4 Learning circles
5C.2.5 Teaching aids
5C.2.6 Dialogue
5C.2.7 National Literacy Programme
5C.2.8 Paulo Freire‘s Methodology
5C.3 Let Us Sum Up
5C.4 Unit End Exercise
5C.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
To gain understanding into the background of Freire’s educational
philosophy
To justify Paulo‘s criticism of prevalent education system
To explain the educational aspects of Freire’s Philosophy
To evaluate Banking Education.
To relate pedagogical and political principles
To gain understanding of codification
To evaluate the learning circles
To gain insight into the functioning of Literacy Program of Freire’s
To critically appreciate Freire’s phil osophy of education
5C.1 INTRODUCTION
The Brazilian educator Paulo Freire‘s is one among the most
influential educational thinkers of the late 20th century. Born in Recife,
Brazil, on September 19, 1921, Freire died of heart failure in Sao Paulo,
Brazil on May 2, 1997. After a brief career as a lawyer, he taughtmunotes.in

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169Portuguese in secondary schools from 1941 -1947. He subsequently
became active in adult education and workers' training, and became the
first Director of the Department of Cultural Extension of the University of
Recife (1961 -1964).
Freire quickly gained international recognition for his experiences
in literacy training in Northeastern Brazil. Following the military coup
d'etat of 1964, he was jailed by the new government and eventually forced
intoa political exile that lasted fifteen -years.
In 1969 he was a visiting scholar at Harvard University and then
moved to Geneva, Switzerland where he assumed the role of special
educational adviser to the World Congress of Churches. He returned to
Brazil in 1979. Finally, in 1988 he became the Minister of Education for
Sao Paulo (Rage and Hope: Paulo Freire‘s, n.d.). This position enabled
him to institute educational reform throughout most of Brazil.
5C.2 PAULO FREIRE‘S CONCEPT OF EDUCATION
Freire's most well known work is Pedagogy of the Oppressed
(1970). Throughout this and subsequent books, he argues for a system of
education that emphasizes learning as an act of culture and freedom .
Paulo Freire is neith er an idealist, nor a realist or a mechanist.
Freire denies the view that man is abstract, isolated, independent and
unattached to the world. He also denies that the world exists as a reality
apart from men. In his view consciousness and world are simultan eous.
Consciousness neither precedes the world as the idealist holds nor it
follows the world as the materialist believe, Paulo‘s position is near to the
existentialists who give much emphasis on existential man equipped with
strong will power who can tran sform the world with his own efforts . In
short, the role of man as a Subject in the world and with the world ."
Freire‘s work mainly concerned literacy and the desire to help men
and women overcome their sense of powerlessness by acting on their own
behal f. The oppressed, as he called them, could transform their situation in
life by thinking critically about reality and then taking action. Freire
believed that the educational system played a central role in maintaining
oppression and thus it had to be refo rmed in order for things to change for
the oppressed.
Knowledge is not an isolated phenomenon. It comprehends both
action and reflection. In his words the act of knowing involves the
Dialectical movement which goes from action to reflection and from
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1705C.2.1 AS E TO FP O L I T I C A LA N DP E D A G O G I CP R I N C I P L E S
AS E TO FP O L I T I C A LP R I N C I P L E S :
The principal goal of popular education is to change the power
relationships in our society
The objective is to create mechanisms of collective power over all the
structures of society
The means of attaining this goal cannot be in contradiction with the
final objective —to construct a really democratic society you cannot
use authoritarian methods
The projects, strategies and tactics used in the politi cal process have
to be produced collectively by the participants themselves
AS E TO FP E D A G O G I CP R I N C I P L E S :
The learners are the SUBJECTS, not the objects of the learning
process; through this approach they can become the SUBJECTS of
society
The educator and the learners are equal participants in the learning
process; all are the producers of knowledge
The learning process is developed by a continuous di alogue between
the educator and the learners
The objective of the learning process is to liberate the participants
from their external and internal oppression; to make them capable of
changing their reality, their lives a nd the society they live in.
Check your Progress:
Answer the following questions:
1.Describe the historical context of Pedagogy of the oppressed.
2.Why is Freire considered an existentialist?
3.Discuss the political and pedagogical principles.
5C.2.2 BANKING EDUCATION
In this form of education, it is the job of the teacher to deposit in
the minds of the learners, considered to be empty or ignorant, bits of
information or knowledge, much like we deposit money in a [empty]
bank account . This is why Freire called this model of education 'banking
education'.
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171Freire criticized this model of education because he believed that it
makes the students into passive obje cts to be acted upon by the teacher. He
argued that the goal of 'banking education' is to demobilize the people
within the existing establishment of power by conditioning them to accept
the cultural, social, political status quo of the dominant culture.
In the banking education model knowledge/education is seen as a
gift given to the student by the teacher who considers the learner as
marginal, ignorant and resource -less. Freire saw this as false generosity
from the dominant group (oppressors) and a way of dominating and
controlling the people (the oppressed) to improve or maintain their own
interests.
Freire put forward the notion that authoritarian forms of education
such as banking education prevented learners from 'knowing' the world
and from seeing it as something which can be changed. He believed that
authoritarian forms of education inhibited the liberation and freedom of
the oppressed.
The banking education maintains and even stimulates the
contradiction through the following attitudes and practice s, which mirror
oppressive society as a whole:
(a)The teacher teaches and the students are taught;
(b)The teacher knows everything and the students know nothing;
(c)The teacher thinks and the students are thought about;
(d)The teacher talks and the students listen -meekly;
(e)The teacher disciplines and the students are disciplined;
(f)The teacher chooses and enforces his choice, and the students comply;
(g)The teacher acts and the students have the illusion of acting through
the acti on of the teacher;
(h)The teacher chooses the program content, and the students (who were
not consulted) adapt to it;
(i)The teacher confuses the authority of knowledge with his own
professional authority, which he sets in opposition to the freedom of
the students;
(j)The teacher is the Subject of the learning process, while the pupils are
mere objects.
It is not surprising th at the banking concept of education regards
men as adaptable, manageable beings, the more the students work at
storing the deposits entrusted to them, the less they develop the critical
consciousness which would result from their intervention in the world.
The more completely they accept the passive role imposed on them, the
more they tend simply to adapt to the world as it is and to the fragmented
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172Freire argued that change could come through a process of
dialogue and r eflection leading on to change through action or intervention
and or political change. Freire called this process Praxis.
5C.2.3 A PROBLEM -POSING MODEL
To challenge the banking education model, Freire proposed a
problem -posing model of education. In this model, the teacher and the
learner discuss and analyze their experiences, feelings and knowledge of
the world together. Instead of the belief that learne rs' and teacher's
situation in the world is fixed, as the banking model suggests, the
problem -posing model explores problems or realities people find
themselves in as something which can be transformed.
Paulo Freire's "problem posing concept of education" is based on
his "anthropological concept of culture" which is based on Freire's
distinction between animals and humans. For Paulo Freire, "man is the
only one to treat not only his actions but his very s elf as the object of his
reflection; the capacity distinguishes him from the animals, which are
unable to reflect upon it." Animals are "beings in themselves", are
"ahistorical", are "merely stimulated", "animals cannot commit
themselves". Paulo Freire's " anthropological concept of culture" is
It is not the job of the teacher to provide answers to the problems,
but to help the learners achieve a form of critical thinking about the
situation (Freire called this conscientization). This makes it possible to
understand that the world or society is not fixed and is potentially open to
transformation. It becomes possible to imagine a new and different reality.
In order for students to be able to confront oppression, they must first
become critical think ers.
❖Freire believes that critical thinking is not possible in a banking
education framework, but only in a problem -posing educational
framework. In the banking system of education, students are primarily
asked to memorize and regurgitate often meaningless and disj ointed facts;
whereas in a problem -posing framework, students are asked to use critical
thinking skills to investigate various problems that exist in the world.
Freire made the distinction between these two types of educational
frameworks in PHOTO (Pedago gy of the Oppressed)
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173✔Whereas banking education anesthetizes and inhibits creative power,
Problem -posing education involves a constant unveiling of reality.
✔The former attempts to maintain the submersion of consciousness ;
The latter strives for the emergence of consciousness and critical
intervention in reality.
Students under this framework would pose problems and then
critically investigate why those problems exist. (For example, stud ents
may ask: Why does poverty exist in the United States? Freire believes that
ap r o b l e m -posing education will not only allow students to become critical
thinkers, but reveal that the world is constantly undergoing change.
In problem -posing education, people develop their power to
perceive the problem critically. In order to undertake this process
successfully, the people (oppressed) must challenge their own perception
of the dominant group (oppressor) Freire argued t hat the oppressed think
of themselves as 'less than' or something lacking. He suggested that they
have been conditioned to view the practices and behaviors of the dominant
groups as complete, whole and correct. To become whole, complete and
correct means t o simulate the practices of the dominant culture. To counter
this perception means engaging the learner in a process
ofdis-identification with dominant culture/oppressor and to help the
learner to imagine a new being and a new life according to their own
rationality.
5C.2.4 LEARNING CIRCLES
The learning circle is a non -hierarchical 'class' model where
participants can discuss generative themes which have significance within
the context of their lives. This involves creating a democratic space where
everyone's' voice has equal weight age. The conditions needed for this
have to be actively created as it does not often occur naturally. This can
mean challenging cultural, gender and other status related power
relationships and stratifications.
This critical and liberating dialogue, also know n as culture
circles, is the heart of Freire's pedagogy. The circles consist of somewhere
between 12 and 25 students and some teachers, all involved in dialogic
exchange. The role of the teachers in this civic education is to participate
with the people/ students in these dialogues. The correct method for a
revolutionary leadership…is, therefore, not libertarian propaganda. Nor
can the leadership merely implant in the oppressed a belief in
freedom…The correct method lies in dialogue.
Generative theme s and codifications:
As Freire worked with illiterate adult peasants, he insisted that the
learning circles use the ways of speaking and the shared
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174identify their own problems and conce rns and seek answers to them in the
group dialogue. Dialogue focuses on what Freire called codifications
which are representations of the learner's day -to-day circumstances.
Participants explore generative themes which are of interest to them. A
generative theme is a cultural or political topic of great concern or
importance to participants, from which discussion can be generated. These
generative themes are then represented in the form of 'codifications' (either
represented by a word or short phras e or a visual representation -a picture
or photograph). Participants are able to step back from these visual
representations of their ideas or history and decode or explore them
critically by regarding them objectively rather than simply experiencing
them . This makes it possible for the participants to intervene and initiate
change in society.
Freire initially concerned himself with literacy learning. The
codifications (visuals) prompted discussion, phrases and words which
learners would use to develop th eir skills.
This method of learning literacy through meaningful discussions
generated from 'codifications' has been very successful. However, Freire
emphasizes that the process should not be carried out mechanically but
through creatively awakening [the] consciousness" of the learner .
Codifications may be photographs, drawings, poems, even a
single word. As representations, codifications abstract the daily
circumstances. For example, a photograph of workers in a sugar cane field
permits workers to talk a bout the realities of their work and working
conditions without identifying them as the actual workers in the
photograph. This permits the dialogue to steer toward understanding the
nature of the participants' specific circumstances but from a more abstrac t
position. Teachers and learners worked together to understand the
problems identified by the peasants, a process that Freire calls ―decoding,
and to propose actions to be taken to rectify or overturn those problems.
The circles therefore have four basic elements:
1) Problem posing,
2) Critical dialogue,
3) Solution posing, and
4) Plan of action.
The goal, of course, is to overcome the problems, but it is also to
raise the awareness, the critical consciousness (conscientization), of the
learners so as to end oppression in their individual and collective lives.
5C.2.5 TEACHING AIDS
Some of the tools a banking education model migh t use include a
pre-prescribed curriculum, syllabus or course book, which either takes no
account or makes assumptions of learners' views or knowledge of the
world. Freire called these pre -prescribed plans and course books as
primers. Paulo Freire saw no u se for traditional primers. How does amunotes.in

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175person benefit from repetition ―Eve saw the grape, this statement
has nothing to do with reality. Freire stated that ―There will be no
significant learning if the pupil fails to establish a relationship with the
object, if he doesn‘t act towards it. ‖
❖As a result of this belief, Freire wrote cultural primers in the late
1950‘ s with the object of building a revolutionary society. His basic
objective with the primers was to present concrete reality to be
transformed. Program content should be presented to allow the pupils to
take control of it little by little rather than just r eceiving the content.
Teaching materials should be written regionally or even locally. He
believed that the universalization of teaching material to reading is an
absurdity scientifically and an act of authority politically (Gadotti, 1994).
The Freirean c ultural circle made use of slide projectors –imported
from Poland at –which were used to display film slides that were the
centerpiece of Freire‘s literacy training because of their ability to foster a
collective learning environment and amplify reflecti ve distancing (Sayers
&B r o w n ,1 9 9 3 ,p p .3 2 -33). For the slides, Freire enlisted the well -known
artist Francisco Brenand to create codified pictures‘ that were designed to
help peasants semantically visualize the culture making capacities
composed of 10 si tuations that intended to reveal how peasant life is
cultural (and not natural) and thus human (and not animal). Freire‘s film
slides were displayed on the walls of peasants‘ homes, whereupon
dialogues were conducted that analyzed the slides‘ various picto rial
elements. The pictures themselves depicted a range of premodern and
modern technologies, as well as other cultural artifacts.
Freire‘s film slides were displayed on the walls of peasants‘
homes, whereupon dialogues adopt technology pedagogically to
demonstrate people‘s inherent productive and communicative abilities, as
well as the possibility of their utilizing modern technologies critically and
as part of a means to dehumanize ends.
5C.2.6 DIALOGUE
Ac e ntral theme of Paulo Freire is that of dialogue. Dialogue is a
part of human nature, we need each other to discover and discovery is a
social process and discussion is the cement. He thought that the moment
of dialogue was the moment of transformation.
Freire saw the dialogue of the elite as vertical . He called
it―banking pedagogy.
The person who is learning only needs to listen while the
educator―deposits knowledge. This narrative form of education maintains
the division between those who kn ow and those who don‘t. Freire viewed
dialogue as a horizontal relationship based on love, respect and
tolerance. It follows then that Banking education and problematization are
opposite methods ―Finally, comments Freire, ―true dialogue cannot munotes.in

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176exist unless the dialoguers engage in critical thinking…thinking which
perceives reality as process, as transformation, rather than as a static
activity ‖(Ibid, 92).
True dialogue is for Freire what civic education must be about. If
civic education does not i nclude it, then there is little hope that the future
will be anything for the oppressed but a continuation of the present.
―Authentic education is not carried on by A for B or by A about B,
but by A with B…
Essential to such education are the experiences of the students,
whatever their ages or situations.
"The act of knowing involves a dialectical movement that goes
from action to reflection and from reflection upon action to a new action."
(Freire 1972).
"If learning to read and write is to constitute a n act of knowing, the
learners must assume from the beginning the role of creative subjects. It is
not a matter of memorizing and repeating given syllables, words and
phrases but rather, reflecting critically on the process of reading and
writing itself an d on the profound significance of language" (Freire 1985)
That power is to be used to liberate themselves from oppression . This
pedagogy to end oppression, as Freire writes, ―must be forged with,
not for, the oppressed (1970, 48; emphases in origi nal), irrespective of
whether they are children or adults. Freire worked primarily with illiterate
adult peasants in South America, but his work has applications as well to
schools and school -aged children. It is to be a pedagogy for all, and Freire
includ es oppressors and the oppressed.
Freire wanted his students, whether adult peasants or a country's
youth, to value their cultures as they simultaneously questioned some of
those cultures' practices and ethos. This Freire referred to as ―reading
the word —as in ending illiteracy —and―reading the world—the ability
to analyze social and political situations that influenced and especially
limited people's life chances. For Freire, to question was not enough;
people must act as well.
Liberation, therefore, is a ―praxis, but it cannot consist of action
alone, which Freire calls ―activism. It must be, instead, action combined
with ―serious reflection (Ibid, 79, 65). This reflection or reflective
participation takes place in dialog ue with others who are in the same
position of realization and action.
The oppressed thereby use their own experiences and language to
explain and surmount their oppression. They do not rely upon others, even
teachers, to explain their oppressed circumsta nces. ―Through dialogue,
the teacher -of-the-students and the students -of the -teacher cease to
exist and a new term emerges: teacher -student with students -teachers
(Ibid, 80). The reciprocity of roles means that students teach teachers asmunotes.in

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177teachers teach stu dents. Dialogue encourages everyone to teach and
everyone to create together.
Check your progress:
Answer the following questions :
1.What is meant by Banking Education?
2.Write short notes on:
a.Learning Circles
b.Dialogue
c.A problem posing Model
d.Codification
3.Give reasons for:
a.. Freire believed that the educational system played a central role in
maintaining oppression .
b.Critical thinking is not possible in a banking education framework.
c.Paulo Freire saw no use for traditional primers.
d.There is a difference between horizontal and vertical dialogue.
e.The Freirean cultural circle made use of slide projectors.
5C.2.7 THE NATIONAL LITERACY PROGRAM
In 1962 the mayor of Recife appointed Freire as head of an adult
literacy program for the city. In his first experiment, Freire taught 300
adults to read and write in 45 days . This program was so successful that
during the following year the President of Brazil appointed him to lead the
National Literacy Program. This program was on its way to becoming
similarly successful, with expected enrollments to exceed two million
students in 1964. Under Brazil's constitution, however, illiterates were not
allowed to vote. The O Globe, an influential conservative newspaper,
claimed that Freire's method for developing literacy was stirring up the
people, causing them to want to change society. As a consequence of a
military overthrow of the government in 1964, Freire was jailed for 70
days, then exiled briefly to Bolivia and t hen to Chile for five years.
Paulo and his group of Educators had a double task: to develop an
efficient literacy method for adults, and to raise the social consciousness
of the Brazilian workers. They found out that the workers were fatalists,
resigned t o their situation in society, and thinking that it was impossible to
change this situation.
It was only in 1969 that Paulo Freire wrote about his methodology
in his book Pedagogy of the Oppressed, when he was a political exile in
Chile. In this and his ot her books, Freire developed the theory of his
practice as a Popular Educator . They are books about the philosophy of
this work, about the concepts, the general directives, not about the
practice, the lessons, the activities in the classroom. And this has t ob es o :
for each practical experience with each group of learners is different from
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178There are no ready -made formulas to apply the Paulo Freire
methodology in the classroom and this is perhaps the biggest difficulty to
many educators. They have to free themselves of the traditional concepts
of the educational process where the educator is the sole origin of
knowledge and the students are only the receptors of this knowledge, and
the onl y way they have to learn this is also the practice.
They have to practice the Freire Methodology in order to learn to
use it. Theory and Practice are inseparable: Theory is a moment of
practice; from the practice is born the theory, and the theory goes ba ck to
the practice to be changed and reformulated.
The most important precept of this methodology is:
The learners are the Subject in the learning process, and not the
object –as they have to be Subjects of their destiny, and not objects.
The educator and the learners are equal participants in the
learning process.
This process is developed by a continuous dialogue between the
educator and the learners.
5C.2.8 PAULO FREIRE METHODOLOGY
• TO SEE the situation lived by the participants
• TO ANALYZE this situation, analyzing the root causes (socio -
economic, political, cultural, etc.)
• TO ACT to change this situation, following the precepts of Social
Justice.
PAULO FREIRE METHODOLOGY IN DEPTH
―PROBLEMATIZATION
I.FIND THE PROBLEMS (GENERATIVE THEMES)
Participants research –get to know participants and their life and work
settings
Get the background and facts about the issues that affected
READING the World in which we live together
II.PRODUCE THE CODES (CODIFICATION)
Create a material representation ( a drawing, a video, a photo, a puppet
show, an audiotape, etc. ) to capture the GENERATIVE THEMES.
Create a play or skit including many or all of the GENERATIVE
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179III.THREE STEPS INDUCTIVE QUESTIONING PROCESS
A.TO SEE THE SITUATION AS PARTICIPANTS EXPERIENCE
IT
Describe t he situation shown in the CODE define the problems in
the Situation make the link between the participants and the problems
B.TO ANALYZE THE SITUATION (The Problem Tree) Why did this
happen?
How is this perpetuated and/or sustained?
What are the immediate effects and the root causes of these problems?
(socioeconomic, political, cultural)
C.TO ACT TO CHANGE THE SITUATION
Short term ACTION (next 3 days, 3 weeks, 3 months: affecting one of
the Problem Tr ee‘s leaves)
Long term ACTION (next 3 months, 3 years: affecting one of the
Problem Trees‘ source roots)
The 3 Basic Steps of this Methodology are: to SEE, to ANALYZE, to
ACT.
These steps are repeated over and over again , following the
changes in the situation as experienced by the participants.
5C.3 LET US SUM UP
Paulo Freire is often described as a humanistic, militant educator
who believed that solutions in education are always found in concrete
context. Students should be asked what they want to learn. There must be
a collaboration, union and cultural synthesis. The educator should not
manipulate students but should also not leave them to their own fate. He
should direct tasks and study, not order students. He believed that the
liberating educator invites students to think. This allows the student to
make and rem ake their worlds and become more human. Freire believed
that communication should be simple even if the information is complex.
Simplifying, allows for deeper accessibility by the students.
5C. 4 UNIT END EXERCISE
Answer the following questions:
1.Describe Freire‘s Methodology.
2.Why did Freire‘s group of Educators have a double task?
3.What are Popular Educators?
4Critically evaluate Freire‘s philosophy of education.
Reference -
●Sinha K., 1995, Education Comparat ive Study of Gandhi and Freire,
Commonwealth Publishers, New Delhi.
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1806
POST MODERNISATION AND
EDUCATION
Unit Structure
6.0 Objectives
6 .1. Introduction : Concept of Post -modernization
6.2 Education in the Postmodern Era
6.3 Educational Challenges in Post Modern Era
6.4 Let us sum up
6.5 Unit End Exercise
6.6 References
6.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, Student will be able to,
Explain the concept of Post modernization.
Distinguish between Modern and Postmodern Education
Describe educational implications of Postmodern Education.
Enumerate Educational challenges in the postmodern era.
6.1 INTRODUCTION OF POST -MODERNIZATION
The modern period is roughly the period lasting from the sixteenth
century A.D. up to the middle of the twentieth century —the last four
hundred years or so. This period is marked by a strong confidence in
reason, particularly scientific reason. Knowledge obtained through
“scientific” methods were consi dered more reliable and higher than other
forms of knowledge.
According to postmodern thinkers, the modern period is marked by
these characteristics: rationality, dualism, the search for absolute
knowledge, belief in progress, pride of place given to scie nce, a centre -
periphery division of cultures and nations.
Postmodernism means a number of trends or movements in the
arts and literature developing in the 1970s in reaction to or rejection of the
dogma principles or practices of established modernism, es pecially a
movement in architecture and influence of the International Style and
encouraging the use of elements from historical informal styles and often
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181Postmodernism is a concept that emerged as an area of a cademic
study around the mid 1980s. It is a wide variety of concepts which
includes architecture, music, literature, fashion, technology, film etc.
In the 1980s the political climate changed. During this period,
Postmodernism involves a radical re -estimate of modern assumptions
about culture, identity, history and language. It attacks the meaning of
classifications like black or white, straight or gay, male or female etc.
Postmodernism started with architecture. It focused on ideal
perfe ction, harmony of form and function and return of ornaments, the
functional and formalized shapes of modernist movements are replaced by
aesthetic, playfulness, unusual surfaces, or kitsch style.
Postmodernism is a much -used and even overused term today in a
variety of disciplines. It is hard to define, since it is not really a doctrine,
but rather a particular type of sensitivity, a way of looking at things that
has influenced styles in literature, in art, in architecture, in religious
writings and even in moral and social practices and preferences.
To clarify this rather confusing state of affairs, it may be helpful to
know that postmodernism is used in contemporary writings in at least four
different meanings:
1.The state of affairs in a society, that is , how a particular society
actually is or works,
2.A style in art, as when we speak of a postmodern building or painting
3.A term loosely used to indicate any aspect of today’s society that is
different from how societies were in the modern period
4.The ideas an d theories that try to understand or explain this “new”
state of society and its way of organizing things.
Some people use the term post modernity to indicate the state of
society today, and the word postmodernism to mean the thinking or the
philosophy ty pical of today. Others use the term postmodernism to
mean both.
6.2 EDUCATION IN THE POSTMODERN ERA
AIM OF EDUCATION
1.Education should help students to construct diverse and personality
useful values in the context of their culture.
2.Education should assist individuals in becoming independent,
productive citizens in a system featuring multifaceted identities
3.Education helps individuals construct their identities rather than
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1824.Education aims to empower people to attain the ir own chosen goals
and only then can individuals and societal progress.
5.Education aims for a growing awareness of the radical diversity and
potential incommensurability of the different cultural forms of life that
sustain groups and individuals.
CURRICUL UM
1.A “trial and error” approach by both students and teachers ensures the
constant reshaping of the content to be learned as well as the context in
which learning occurs.
2.A curriculum that does not lead to a particular pattern.
3.It should include important values to teach which are as follows;
●Striving for diversity -does not mean that students shall be accepting
cultural practices and beliefs without question.
●Tolerance -the acceptance of the differing views of other people and
the fairness towards the peopl e who hold these different views.
●Freedom -considerable autonomy is given to both teachers (localizing
activities in the classroom) and students (in terms of their decision
making).
●Creativity -the ability to use the imagination to develop new and
original ideas or things.
●Emotions -expressing a strong feeling directly towards a specific
object which is accompanied by philosophical and behavioral changes
in the body.
●Intuition -immediate cognition or a feeling that guides a person to act a
certain way w ithout fully understanding the way.
DOLL’S MODEL: FEATURES -
●It stresses the concept of reflection
●Learning and understanding come through dialogue and reflection
●Curriculum is a process not of transmitting what is known but of
exploring what is unknown.
●Emphasizes self -organization, creative making of meaning.
●It should have richness, recursion, relation and rigor.
1.Richness -refers to a curriculum’s depth, its layers of making and to
its multiple possibilities or interpretations.
2.Recursion -refers to the re petition of an idea but to a higher, new level.
Example -Spiral curriculum.
3.Relation -refers to the connections one can draw from the lesson to his
own pedagogies and culture.
4.Rigor -the application of precise and exacting standards in the doing
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183POSTMODERNISM EDUCATIONAL AIMS AND THEIR
RELATIONSHIPS WITH CREATIVITY
Postmodern educational aims are not determined and they appear
in the educational process. These aims arise from the learning
environment and are formed step by step. With this in troduction, we can
suppose these aims for postmodern education:
TEACHING CRITICAL THINKING
Although emphasis on thinking and critique has an old history,
postmodern persistence has a deep effect on present education. Carr
(1998: 204) writes: "teaching thinking has been one of the most important
educational aims from Plato. Various philosophers like Kant, Dewey,
Shefler have emphasized on it. But in two recent decades, we can see
special consideration toward critical thinking. Critical thinking means a
process of asking and answering the analyzes and justifications. In this
way it can challenge traditions and public thinking". Giroux asserts that in
the past the role of schools was only to educate non -critical mentality and
reproduce everything which was in the society. But Giroux thinks that it is
necessary for us to think critically about the way that knowledge is formed
and appeared. Girou doesn't accept to be just a viewer. His ideas are a kind
of critical education which considers the action (Hoppenf eld 2005).
It has taken root, in which it is a central point that focuses on the
characteristics of methods and theoretical underpinning of the
postmodernism leadership model. Informal logic or critical thinking draws
upon justification and pedagogical s trategies that foster growth from the
traditional role of logic and it is aimed as a mechanism for supporting a
meaningful thought process. Cognitive remediation and intellectual
readiness for educational leaders should respond in an order in which
educati on is expanded upon. Reflecting on a variety of trends in education,
include those in developmental and cognitive psychology, curriculum
theory, problem solving, and hands on methods, in addition to elements of
formal and informal logic, has resulted in mi nimal qualified educational
leaders suited for integration of existing subject matter, particularly in K –
12 schools, as well as knowledge of comprehensive explorations of
teaching and learning. Critical thinking can be equated to the inadequacy
of educat ional reform. Teaching practices, strategies and methods, as well
as leadership, in general, remain housed within preparation programs,
leadership philosophies, teaching philosophies, communications, or
composition; generally adhere to the political integr ity, if not insularity, of
disciplinary learning in regards to competent educational leaders and
teachers.
PRODUCTION OF KNOWLEDGE
Lyotard criticizes modern institutes and believes that for progress
of science and knowledge, we should use new discourses and fresh
discussions to discover new rules. In this way creativity will appear. In hismunotes.in

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184opinion, for creativity we should prevent determined conversations (Topp,
2000).
According to him, the nature of language games and special rules
demands that people themselves try to produce knowledge and discover
new things. He believes that its role was only reproduction of knowledge.
He emphasizes production knowledge and new thoughts. It was discussed
about this subject in previous parts of this article. Clive Be ck (199 thinks
that the aim of education in the class is production of knowledge. So
scientific methods and research are a part of the creation of knowledge.
DEVELOPMENT OF INDIVIDUAL AND SOCIAL IDENTITY
Giroux (2003) believes every thought and philo sophy which
doesn't care about human social and cultural issues, fails. He also
mentions "border pedagogy". Giroux in his book "postmodern education"
investigates border pedagogy. He discusses this concept with other titles
like: "counter -text", "counter -memory" and "politics of difference". The
meaning of these concepts is that border pedagogy gives students the
ability to become familiar with cultures and context or different texts and
look at them in a critical way. Students should try to make their own
history and narrations and don’t limit themselves in a special context.
They don't accept everything which is left from their ancestors and the
search for power relations. They criticize the relation between knowledge
and power and try to clear their borde rs (Giroux, 1991, pp. 118 -132).
Hirsch (1978) thinks that transformation of culture should be the main task
of education. We have an illiteracy of culture because we are in high
levels of technology and professions but we are still strange to cultural
issues of society (Bagheri, 1996, p. 7).
Rorty (1989) believes self -creation is more practical in high levels
of education, because people are moving from sociability to individuality.
In this stage, individual beliefs wake up for new creation and they think
that everything which is fact can be changed and remake. In this way they
describe themselves again and start self -creation. On the other hand, the
concept of "becoming" in Deleuze's ideas that is linked to "rhizome" is a
symbol of cell creation. Rhizome means secondary roots and unlike main
roots, they don't have a determined and clear path. He thinks that the tree
is a symbol of "being" and rhizome is the symbol of "becoming"
(Semetsky, 2005). Rhizome presents a system which doesn't follow fixed
rules. T his system is open and nonlinear. Rhizome is an indicator of
plurality and doesn't accept any stability. "Becoming" is very important
and Deleuze asserts that thinking without it is impossible. In his view,
thinking is the result of being different from ot hers.
In fact, transforming to the other is the cause of thinking. The
existences which don't have ability for "becoming", actually they don't
have ability to think. For example plants, animals, things and we can't
think and always move in a linear way. Therefore "becoming other" is the
primary condition for thinking (Gilso 2007). Deleuze thinks that thinking
is very important in creativity. He believes in all courses and fields, withmunotes.in

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185thinkin we can be creative. He has a special view to philosophy because in
his opinion philosophy is an intelligent knowledge. For Deleuze concepts
are the main tools for philosophy and philosophy is in fact the art of
formation, invention and using concepts. The concepts don’t attend to
reproduce themselves. They have differ ent forms. Philosophy makes the
concepts in relations with the world; in this way it uses creativity. All
concepts are related to the issues and they can 1310 Afzal -os-sadat
Hossieni and Samaneh Khalili / Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences
15 (2011) 1 307–1313 exist without them. Also they are in continuous
relation with each other. If some concepts are superior from others,
because of their better justification of the world (Deleuze, 1994, pp.
16-27).
TEACHER'S ROLE IN PROCESS OF TEACH ING
Learning and accession of creativity Teaching -learning process is
one of the most important functions in educational systems. Methods of
teaching and learning are the main discussion in this process.
Postmodernism has a special view to this process. Giroux (2003) believes
that concerning increase in students' cognizance from information banks,
teachers' role should be "how to learn Holmes (1995) emphasizes on
interaction between teachers and students in the teaching process. The
main condition of impr oving relations between teachers and students is
critical discourses with students. Instead of transmission of knowledge,
teachers emphasize analysis and justification (Beheshti, 2005).
Giroux writes: "If teachers want to take an active role in raising
serious questions about what they teach, how they are to teach and the
larger goals for which they are striving, it means they must take a more
critical and political role defining the nature of their work, as well as in
shaping the conditions under which t hey work. We believe that teachers
need to view themselves as public intellectuals who combine conceptions
and implementation, thinking and practice with a political project
grounded in the struggle for a culture of liberation and justice.
First, it pro vides a referent of criticizing those forms of pedagogies
that treat knowledge as fixed and deny students the opportunity to
interrogate their own histories and voices. Second, the notion of public
intellectual provides a theoretical and political basis fo r teacher to engage
in a critical dialogue among themselves and students, in order to fight for
the conditions necessary for them reflect, read, and share their work with
others, in the interest not merely of improving the life of the mind but
engaging and transforming oppressive discursive and institutional
boundaries. Third, the category signifies the need for teachers to re define
their role as educational leaders in order to create programs that allow
them and their students undertake the language of so cial criticism, to
display moral courage, and to connect with rather than distance
themselves from the most pressing problems and opportunities of the
times" (Giroux, 1991, p. 108 -109).munotes.in

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186TEACHING METHODS WHICH ARE MENTIONED BY
POSTMODERNISM ARE:
1. Cooperative learning method -In this method which is done in group,
students help each other learn to choose and decide. Listening to each
other, increasing the power of hearing opposite opinions, reinforcement of
the ability of criticism are the resul ts of the method.
2. Independent learning method -In postmodernism, besides the
importance of cooperative methods, individual conditions are considered
too. Derrid (2001) thinks that there isn't the best method of thinking and
education. So always the s ituation and conditions indicate the best method.
According to these points, we can assert that equilibrium between
independent and cooperative learning is very important in the teaching -
learning process.
3. Dialectic method -This method is one of the int eractional methods
which pay attention to different elements about learning. Bec (1993)
believes that teacher and student should refer to information resources and
have enough cognizance for discourse In this way they will have positive
evaluation from the mselves.
4. Critical method -Critical discourse, reading and writing are kinds of
this method. In this method, it is tried to motivate students to interpret and
criticize after studying different topics. Giroux (2003) thinks that critical
thinking in le arning is dependent on individual independence and rational
justification in thinking and action. Individual independence is an obstacle
against acceptance and rational justification causes idea creation.
5. Verbal method -Postmodernism's attention towa rd the other, cosmetic
culture and discourse shows importance of language. Postmodernism
reason is replaced by language because thinking is described with
language (Bagheri, 1996 Postmodernism represents a new visage of
teacher and student. The perfect edu cation in postmodernism is the
education in which other's voices are heard. Teacher is a liberal person
who guides students to think. Also students use the ability for
interpretation and criticism (ibid).Lyotard's language games indicate that
discourses ar en’t stable and there no special frame for making discourses.
Lyotard (1984) himself explains that language games have their own rules.
If there aren't any rules, there won't b any language games. Conversations
are regarded as the movements of these games. So he tries to tell us the
humans take part in different language games and according to rules of
these games, they will have new roles.
CREATIVITY IN CONTENT AND CURRICULUM
Educational curriculum and content should be the base of
problem -solving. Bec ause in the present world the main need of learners is
having the ability to solve problems. The postmodern curriculum tries to
put students in the process of becoming. In this process teachers andmunotes.in

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187students take part in a discovery journey to investigate t hings. Also
regarding environmental, social and moral problems are suggestions of
postmodern curriculum (Pinar, 1996, Farmahini, p. 138). Palmer (2000)
explains postmodern education and curriculum with annulling structure
and specific frameworks, trying to find new possibilities for production of
knowledge which are raised from everyday experiences and memories.
Finally, we believe a postmodern curriculum which is flexible, variable
and plural and is related to factual problems in life can be a suitable
opportunity for creativity and innovation.
SELF CREATION
The idea of self Creation in this changing, ‘post modern’
atmosphere is of interest. How do individuals, in this fractured, multi -
narrative society, form their identities? This is certainly a topic t hat
continues to grow in sociological significance, as the factors and
conditions pertaining to the construction of our identities have changed,
diversified, spread and become more dynamic in this ‘post modern’ world.
Self creation is the process by which a person develops a
personality that is distinct from that of other people. This process serves to
define an individual, not only to others, but also to the individual them self
(see Levine et al., 2002). In terms of how this definition is maintained, the
identity is actuated through a process of development of uniqueness,
reinforced through continuity and affiliation (see Levine et al., 2002). The
process of self creation ultimately leads to the no tion of personal identity,
where identity is forged through individualism and an understanding of
one’s own self -concept (see Levine et al., 2002).
What is identity in a postmodern world? For many, identity is now
a fluid concept, an open question, a cons truct that is built as one moves
along, according to one’s environment and one’s interests and interactions,
be these physical or virtual. In a post modern sense, the self is shifting,
fluid, or as Berzonsky (2005) argues, identity is dynamic, multiplistic ,
relativistic, context -specific and fragmented (Berzonsky, 2005). Further,
Berzonsky (2005) states, ego identity may serve as a way in which
individuals reach out from a personal standpoint in this fractured, post -
modern world.
Dunn (1999) argues that po stmodernism has led to a shift in the
bases for self creation, something that itself, per se, marks the postmodern
era. As Lyon (2000) so eloquently phrases it: “…we are recipients of
entertainment, shopping for a self.” (Lyon, 2000, p.75). Developments in
information technology and the ability to shop anywhere, any time, have
reduced time and space, meaning that we now demand the ability to access
information in an instant.
People are on demand “24/7”, leading to reconfigurations of how
we view ourselves and our place in the world. We are in a world which we
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188of a button (or the swish of a mouse), on demand. Information on anything
anyone is interested in can be found instantly. Thr ough this open,
instantaneous, process, we feel we are part of a much larger culture than
our long -established, local selves.
For Lyon (2000), in his book Jesus in Disneyland; Religion in
Post-Modern Times,it is a complex social situation in which some of the
dynamics inherited from modernism are inherited and in which some are
distorted beyond recognition. For Lyon (2000) postmodernism has been
defined by the development of information technology and social
networking and the rise of consumerism. Informat ion technology has
made the world smaller, has made identities more fragmented and
consumerism has allowed us to express ourselves like never before.
This process, whilst connecting individuals with more people,
information and places than ever before, ca n mean that people become less
connected with real –physical, intimate, face -to-face, relationships,
leading to social isolation. McPherson et al. (2001) showed, for example,
that Americans have significantly less friends than they did two decades
ago, wi th social isolation increasing as a result of this.
However, McPherson and Smith -Lovin’s (1987) hypothesis of
homophily –that friends are similar in character and identity –still holds
for ‘virtual’ friends. Members of online forums, for example, who be come
close over cyberspace: similar people will always band together, with
people’s personal networks being homogeneous with regards to many
socio -demographic factors and interpersonal characteristics (see
McPherson et al., 2001).
“The times they are a -changin” sang Bob Dylan, and nowhere is
that truer than now, where children plug themselves in to their iPods,
downloading music as they wish, accessing information on the internet as
and when they desire. It is possible to now parcel the world into discrete
pockets, according to your own desires.
Technology has allowed individuals the choice of how, and when,
they want to communicate, closing off from other commuters with an
iPod, sharing common musical tastes with cyber -friends, again through the
iPod, joi ning in online forums if that is what they want to do. Choice is
everywhere, choice is expected, as a fundamental right of this generation.
Through choice, through the freedom of expression that is around, through
blogs, for example, and through online for ums that are available for
almost any specialist interest, from internet sites like YouTube and
Myspace, individuals can choose who they want to interact with and when
they want to interact with them.
For many young persons, this ‘artificial’, cyber life, istheir life. It
may not be a life that would be recognizable to their grandparents, nor
even understood by their parents, but that is their reality. They choose tomunotes.in

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189live like that, maintaining multiple narratives with individuals they have
actively chose n to communicate with.
EFFECTS OF POSTMODERNISM ON WAYS LEARNERS LEARN
AND INSTRUCTORS TEACH
Postmodern life is not predictable. We must live in the moment in
order to be in tune with the ever -changing conditions. We need meta -
strategies or ways of thinking about which strategy to employ. Better yet,
we need ways of knowing how to create and tailor new strategies to
respond to the learning needs in our various contexts. It is critical that we
know how to live and learn in an open system, open to ambiguity, open to
serendipitous development.
Postmodern society is inundated with information. Information has
become abundant and free during the 21st Century. Information is now
fully accessible. We live in a democratized society of digital interactivity.
Postmodern learners are required to know the difference between data,
information and knowledge. Students must develop information literacy
skills and the awareness of their own selection bias. The postmodern
instructor must be able to walk with their students through the data and
information to the knowledge that is both involved with the purposes of
the course of studies and with the meaning relative to the life of each
individu al student.
Modern thinking uses the executive brain. The executive brain is
logical and serves control functions. Life is structured, ordered and
hierarchical. There is a proper place and a proper function for everything.
If it is not ordered or logical, let’s figure it out. Deductive, scientific
thought prevails in this world -that-can-be-known. The executive brain
controls communication and actions. Modern students rely on this kind of
logic and on dogma. They rely on learning what they are told because it is
in the best interest of the role they are to play. Modern educational theory
attempts to classify and segment learning. The world is taken apart, split
into disciplines, objectified, quantified and then repackaged as courses
with learner objectives. This model relies on “the sage on stage” to parcel
out the information to learners. Learners can utilize strategies to improve
learning. A grade is assigned based on the degree to which the learner has
achieved these teacher -determined objectives.
Postmod ern life is not just about rapid and turbulent change. It is
also about fragmentation of old systems and expectations. There are
constant disruptions. It is hard to count on any one set of values or any one
paradigm. To deal with the fragmentation of the o ld paradigm, postmodern
students apply their own story and experience to the learning environment.
They learn to trust not only their own rational processes (housed primarily
in their prefrontal cortex), but also their exceptionally gifted intuition
(house d primarily in their much older, larger and more mature limbic
brain). (Lehrer, 2009) The postmodern instructor engaged with a learner
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190directions of the course or program to their person al experiences, instead
of viewing this as past baggage that should be left outside the educational
experience. Instructor/tutor and student co -create new learning and
understandings at the moment.
Postmodern learning is a creative act. It involves ever -changing
environments and learning arrangements. Individual plans can be created
wherein the learner is an active participant. The postmodern teacher and
mature student are partners in learning a body of knowledge within a
contemporary context. Other method s are not discarded, but they are used,
modified and recreated to suit the situation at hand. The postmodern
instructor is a “guide on the side” whose role is more to facilitate learning
experiences toward the meaningful aims. Alternate views and content
integration are encouraged. Ideas are brought together through a holistic
approach to form new ways of knowing the world. New learning
relationships and knowledge creation potential are heightened and become
an exciting aspect of the postmodern class.
IMPL ICATIONS OF THE POSTMODERN CONDITION FOR
ADULT EDUCATION
What are the attitudes, processes and structures that instructors
need to provide a post -modern education to adults?
Teaching and learning in the postmodern world addresses these points:
●Meta -strategies or ways of thinking about which strategy to employ;
ways of knowing how to create and tailor new strategies to respond to
the learning needs in our various contexts;
●Knowledge about ways in which to live and learn in an open system in
which there is considerable ambiguity and serendipitous development;
●Information literacy skills for students and awareness by students of
their own selection bias; the postmodern instructor leads their students
through the data and information to the knowledge that is i nvolved
with the purposes of the course of studies and with the meaning
relative to the life of each individual student;
●Relationships between the course’s and program’s directions, and the
individual’s personal experience; new learning and understandings is
co-created in the moment;
●Creation of individual plans wherein the learner is an active
participant; creation of partnerships between teachers and students in
learning a body of knowledge within a contemporary context;
●Creation of instructor role as a “guide on the side” —tutor, learning
coach and facilitator —of learning experiences toward meaningful
aims;
●Ideas are brought together through a holistic approach to form new
ways of knowing the world; new learning relationships and knowledge
creation po tential are heightened and are an exciting aspect of the
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191●Meta -strategies (or meta -cognitive strategies) are required; students
learn how to learn;
●Learners are encouraged to find personal meaning from the learning,
as the teacher is allow ed to discard the mask of authority and be more
themselves, modeling the lifelong learning value of postmodernism;
and
●Learners (living in a postmodern world) are encouraged to formulate
and engage a clear, stable, sustaining image of self.
DISTINCTIVE FE ATURES OF POSTMODERN LEADERSHIP
1. Emerges from anywhere
Postmodern leadership is based on some form of knowledge or
insight, like thought leadership, that one person or group either adopts first
to lead by example or advocates to others. Leadership has always been
based on power. Now it is the power of knowledge rather than that of
position or personality. It is an influence process where what is influenced
is a change in direction, not necessarily performance improvement.
2. Discrete leadership acts, not roles
Leadership that is a one -off act is a discrete event, not a role. This
must be the case if it can be shown by outsiders who have no role in the
follower group. When groups lead other groups by setting an example, as
does a market leader, the for mer is clearly not in charge of the latter. This
is not unusual. Influence is generally a discrete event. Such leadership can
emerge from unexpected directions. For example, in a meeting, a normally
quiet team member might feel sufficiently passionate abou t a particular
topic to speak up and persuade the others to change their minds on the
issue under discussion. But, being shy, this individual might have no
interest or talent to take charge of the group or to be regarded as even its
informal leader in a ro le-based sense.
3. Leadership ends once followers act
A car salesman doesn't keep selling to you once you sign on the
dotted line and you don't keep trying to influence your children to eat their
vegetables once they start eating them. Similarly a CEO doe sn't keep
promoting a new vision once it is accepted and acted on. Influence is only
ongoing for Model T leadership with its need to continuously motivate
employees to maintain standards of performance. In Model A leadership,
with its focus on change, the manager might need to show leadership as a
series of discrete acts to maintain momentum until the change is fully
implemented. Being a discrete act, such leadership is not an ongoing role.
4. Does not manage people or decide for them
When Martin Luther Ki ng, Jr. influenced the US Supreme Court to
outlaw segregation on buses, he was not involved in implementing
anything. He didn't convene a group of legislators to agree to changes.
Rather, he spoke over their heads directly to the population at large.
Simil arly, when the Sony employee succeeded in persuading Sonymunotes.in

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192management to develop PlayStation, he may not have had anything to do
with implementation. Many knowledge workers who show leadership
bottom -up may not have either the motivation or the talent to b ea
conventional positional leader. We need to upgrade management, making
it a supportive, facilitative function, to take care of execution.
If leadership is pure influence and can be shown by outsiders then
it can't make decisions for followers. This means that there is no such
thing as autocratic leadership. Only a person in charge can be autocratic,
but this person is a manager, not a leader. Managers can
occasionally show leadership but there are no leadership roles.
5. Can be shown by groups
Posit ional leadership is about individuals occupying the top slot in
a hierarchy. But groups such as companies and sports teams lead their
competitors by example. They influence them to change direction or strive
for higher levels of performance. Greenpeace can have a leadership impact
on communities by advocating environment friendly actions. Groups can
lead by going somewhere new first thus leading other groups to follow or
by promoting a better way.
There are benefits of highlighting such group leadership: ( 1) To
confirm that leadership is not just an individual matter, (2) To add weight
to the claim that leadership can be shown by outsiders and (3) To make the
case that being in charge of a group is only a special case of leadership,
not the whole story. Mor eover, leadership between competing groups is
clearly not a collaborative effort to achieve a joint goal. Nor is it even
intentional. Patents are a means of preventing competitors from following
too closely.
6. Fluidity
Conventional leadership is about o ne person dominating a group
for as long as possible. But in a knowledge driven world, no individual has
a monopoly on good ideas. In a brainstorming team, leadership can shift a
hundred times during the discussion and range from very small to large
impact s on the group's ultimate decision. Such fluidity is to be celebrated
as an asset of postmodern leadership because it gives more people a voice.
Not being paternalistic, it doesn't condescendingly label ideas from
employees as "suggestion box" material for the "real leaders" to decide
upon. Any suggestion that moves the group forward, even slightly, is a
discrete leadership act.
6.3 EDUCATIONAL CHALLENGES OF THE
POSTMODERN ERA
Although postmodernism has no founder nor a fixed set of doctrines,
most postm odernist thinkers and artists would raise (or have sympathy for)
for the following types of criticisms of modern thought.munotes.in

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193Critique of Meta -narratives:
Jean-Francois Lyotard, the name most associated with
postmodernism, would define postmodernism th us: “I define postmodern
as incredulity toward metanarratives.” What did he mean? Lyotard sees
any branch of knowledge as just one type of knowledge. In fact, he said,
“Scientific knowledge is a kind of discourse.” He does not see science as
inherently sup erior to others. To present one’s position or doctrine as
superior or as valid for everyone, everywhere, one needs what Lyotard
calls “metanarratives.” By meta -narratives he meant general theories or
unexamined world views that would justify a particular p osition. Thus, if I
want to promote science as the best type of knowledge, I would need a
meta -narrative that tells me that scientific truths are superior to common
sense or that all scientific work is done for the benefit of human beings.
Or, when Karl Ma rx wrote about the exploitation of workers and children
in nineteenth century mines and factories, he was narrating a fact. When
he proposed Marxism as a solution for economic exploitation everywhere,
he was claiming to have a universally valid theory, a d iagnosis and
prescription that should work in all settings. This would be, for post -
moderns, a meta -narrative, and hence suspect. In general, postmodern
sensitivity would lie in suspecting any doctrine or view that places itself
above criticism and makes absolute claims, and in listening rather to the
little stories that lie behind the big theory. This brings us to another
important movement associated with postmodernism, namely,
deconstruction.
Deconstruction:
This term, as well as the intellectual mov ement it represents, is
associated with the French thinker Jacques Derrida. Derrida’s ideas are
proverbially hard to understand or summarize. In a few words,
deconstruction would refer to a critical study of a subject, examining the
language used and the a ssumptions involved in the writing. To deconstruct
a text means to take it apart into its constitutive elements, and see how the
text itself in a way undermines the doctrines it holds. We have to use
words, since we have no other way of communicating ideas ; at the same
time, the words we use are inadequate to express what we want to. In this
sense, words are both right and wrong. They need to be used, and at the
same time, unused (he said much about the need to “erase” what we
write.)
End of the autonomous subject, of history and of absolute truth:
This is another well -known “slogan” associated with
postmodernism. The meaning is this: By “ end of history,” postmoderns
mean three things: They question the assumption that human beings are
progressing to an ev er better state of being or society. A later stage of
history can be worse than the previous one. Secondly, they look at
historiography (the writing of history) critically. What we have is not raw
history, but historiography done by particular nations or p ersons ormunotes.in

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194cultures. We do not have any one objective of knowing or writing history.
Thus, the history of the British Period in India would look different when
written by an English historian —especially one who believed in the
superiority of British culture or in the right of conquest —or by an Indian
who saw colonization as immoral. Thirdly, postmoderns do not believe
that history has a direction or unity. They think rather that the events that
make up history are of too many different kinds to fit into any one
coherent whole.
When they mention the end of the isolated subject , what they mean
is this. In Descartes, for instance, we have a philosopher claiming to
identify the nature of the thinking subject. Descartes’ claim would be that
his conclusions would be valid for all human beings, everywhere. The
same is true of other philosophers, like Kant. In these (and other thinkers),
we see an attempt to make statements about any human being, anywhere.
The abstract conclusions a particular philosopher comes to, a re held to be
valid for all human beings everywhere. This view is largely discarded by
postmodern thinkers.
Why speak of the end of absolute truth ?
This, too, is because postmodernists are in general more sensitive
to the particular situations and conditions under which a so -called truth is
developed. They are more reluctant than people in the modern period to
think that anyone can propose universally val id abstract truths which
cannot be challenged or changed, and which do not depend on the
circumstances under which they discovered or proposed.
Language games:
“Language games” is an idea mentioned earlier by distinguished
philosophers like Wittgenstein . The point made here is this: Each branch
of knowledge has its own rules. We cannot see experimental science as the
highest form of knowledge, nor judge other areas of learning by the
criteria of science. Thus, music or religious writing or architecture p lay by
different rules when compared to physics or astronomy. This idea frees
each discipline to follow its own language and rules. Science is no longer
seen as the highest discipline, nor as the arbiter of truth. Thus, how we
judge art or the truth of a m ystical statement will be different from how we
judge the validity or the veracity of scientific statements.
Periphery and center:
The center an d the periphery of the modern and colonial era have
largely lost their meaning. What was once periphery can become the
center (e.g., the United States when compared to U.K.), or the world can
be seen as having many centers of power and influence rather tha na s
having one economic or political or cultural center. This change in the
“pecking order” and the consequent change in international relations and
the perception of cultures and peoples will be welcomed as empoweringmunotes.in