M.A.-Psychology-Assessment-in-Social-munotes

Page 1

1 1
BASIC ISSUES IN SOCIAL
PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT - I
Unit Structure :
1.0 Objectives
1.1 What is social psychological assessment ?
1.1.1 Common methods and tools used in social psychological
assessment
1.2 Qualitative versus Quantitative Data in Social Psychology
1.2.1 Qualitative data in social psychological assessment
1.2.2 Quantitative data in social psychological assessment
1.2.3 Comparison of qualitative and quantitative data
1.3 Methodological Problems in social psychological assessment
1.3.1 Methodological problems in qualitative data
1.3.2 Methodological problems in quantitative data
1.4 Summary
1.5 Questions
1.6 References
1.0 OBJECTIVES
 Understanding social assessment
 Learning the various methods of social psychological assessment
 Gaining deeper insight into the methodological issues in social
psychological assessment
1.1 WHAT IS SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL
ASSESSMENT?
Social psychological assessment is a process used to evaluate and
understand an individual's thoughts, feelings, and behaviours within a
social context. It involves the application of principles and methods from
social psychology to gather information about how people perceive, think
about, and interact with others, as well as the influence of social factors on
their behaviour . munotes.in

Page 2

Assessment in social
Psychology
2 Section 1.1 will explore the primary goals of social psychological
assessment , along with various methods and tools that are used in social
psychological assessment.
The primary goals of social psychological assessment include:
 Understanding individual differences: Assessments help identify
how individuals differ in their social attitudes, beliefs, and behavi ors.
This information can be valuable in predicting how someone may
respond in various social situations.

 Exploring social influences: Social psychologists examine how
various social factors, such as culture, peer pressure, social norms, and
situational context, influence an individual's behavior and decisions.

 Identifying patterns and trends: By using standar dized measures and
assessment tools, social psychologists can identify patterns of behavior
or attitudes that are prevalent within specific populations or groups.

 Predicting behavior : Social psychological assessments can be used to
predict how individuals might behave in certain social situations,
providing valuable insights for designing interventions or
understanding potential outcomes.
1.1.1 Common methods and tools used in social psychological
assessment
 Surveys and questionnaires: These are standardize d sets of questions
designed to measure attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors related to specific
social phenomena.

 Observational studies: Researchers or assessors directly observe and
record people's behavior in natural or controlled social settings to gain
insights into their interactions and responses.

 Experimental designs: Researchers manipulate certain social
variables in controlled settings to examine their effects on participants'
behavior and attitudes.

 Interviews: Structured or semi -structured interviews can be conducted
to gain in -depth insights into an individual's social experiences,
attitudes, and beliefs.

 Psychological tests: Certain standardized psychological tests, such as
the Implicit Associatio n Test (IAT), are used to assess implicit biases
and attitudes.
Social psychological assessment is utilized in various fields, including
clinical psychology, organizational psychology, educational psychology,
and market research, among others. It aids in u nderstanding the complex munotes.in

Page 3

Basic Issues in Social Psychological Assessment - I
3 interactions between individuals and their social environment, shedding
light on the factors that influence human behaviour in social contexts.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:
 What are the goals of social psychological assessment?
 State the v arious tools used in social psychological assessment
1.2 QUALITATIVE VERSUS QUANTITATIVE DATA IN
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
In this section, we will look at what are qualitative data in social
psychological assessment and what are the various methods to collect and
analyse qualitative data in social psychological assessment. We will also
look at what are quantitative data separately. Following this we will
compare both types of data in social psychological assessment. So let us
start understanding it step -by-step.
1.2.1 Qualitative data in social psychological assessment
Qualitative data in social psychology refers to information that is collected
and analysed in a non -numerical or non -statistical form. Unlike
quantitative data, which deals with measurable quantitie s and statistical
analysis, qualitative data focuses on understanding the subjective
experiences, attitudes, beliefs, and behaviours of individuals within a
social context. This type of data is typically gathered through methods that
allow researchers to g ain deeper insights into people's thoughts and
experiences.
Qualitative data is valuable in social psychology because it provides a rich
and in -depth understanding of the complexities of human behaviour and
social interactions. It allows researchers to exp lore the nuances of
individuals' perspectives and motivations, providing context and meaning
that quantitative data alone may not capture. By combining qualitative and
quantitative approaches, social psychologists can gain a comprehensive
understanding of social phenomena and human behaviour in various
contexts.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:
 What is qualitative data?
Methods for collecting qualitative data in social psychological
assessment
1) Interview Method
Researchers conduct one -on-one or group interviews with participants to
explore their perspectives, attitudes, and experiences related to specific
social phenomena.
The interview method is a widely used technique to collect qualitative data
in social psychology. It involves conducting structured or semi -structu red munotes.in

Page 4

Assessment in social
Psychology
4 interviews with individuals or groups to gain in -depth insights into their
attitudes, beliefs, experiences, and perspectives related to a specific
research topic.
Advantages of the interview method in social psychology include the
ability to explore complex and nuanced social phenomena, access
participants' personal experiences and emotions, and gain a deeper
understanding of the social context under investigation. However, this
method requires skilled interviewers who can build rapport with
participa nts and maintain a neutral attitude to avoid biases that could
influence responses.
2) Focus groups
A small group of participants engage in open discussions facilitated by a
researcher, encouraging them to share their thoughts and feelings about a
particular topic.
The focus group method is a qualitative data collection technique
commonly used in social psychology and other social sciences. It involves
bringing together a small group of participants (usually around 6 to 10)
who share common characteristics or experiences relevant to the research
topic. The participants engage in an open discussion led by a trained
moderator, allowing researchers to gather in -depth qualitative data.
The focus group method offers a valuable opportunity to explore social
phenome na from a group perspective, allowing for the exchange of ideas
and the identification of shared beliefs, attitudes, and experiences. It also
enables researchers to uncover shade s and contradictions that may not
emerge through individual interviews. Howeve r, like any qualitative
method, the success of focus groups relies on skilled moderation, group
dynamics, and appropriate participant selection.
3) Observations
Researchers directly observe and record people's behaviours , interactions,
and reactions in natura l or controlled social settings.
The observation method is a qualitative data collection technique used in
social psychology to study human behaviour and interactions in natural or
controlled social settings. In this method, researchers directly observe
participants without interfering in their actions to gain insights into their
behaviours , attitudes, and social dynamics.
The observation method offers valuable insights into real -life social
interactions, allowing researchers to explore behaviours as they naturally
occur. It is particularly useful for studying non -verbal communication,
group dynamics, and behaviours that may be challenging to capture
through interviews or surveys. However, the observation method also has
limitations, such as potential obser ver bias and difficulties in capturing
private or covert behaviours . Hence, researchers need to carefully design munotes.in

Page 5

Basic Issues in Social Psychological Assessment - I
5 their observation studies and interpret the data with an awareness of these
limitations.
4) Open -ended questionnaires
Instead of using structured, closed -ended questions, researchers may use
open -ended questions that allow participants to provide detailed responses
in their own words.
The open -ended questionnaire method is a qualitative data collection
technique used in social psychology to gather i n-depth insights from
participants. Unlike closed -ended questionnaires that offer limited
response options, open -ended questionnaires allow participants to respond
to questions using their own words and provide more detailed and nuanced
answers.
Advantage s of the open -ended questionnaire method in social psychology
include the ability to gather rich, in -depth data from a relatively large
number of participants. It allows researchers to explore a wide range of
perspectives and experiences, providing a compr ehensive understanding of
the research topic. Additionally, the method can be cost -effective and less
time-consuming compared to other qualitative data collection techniques
like interviews or focus groups.
However, there are also some limitations to consi der. Analysing a large
volume of open -ended responses can be time -consuming and challenging.
The quality of the data may depend on participants' willingness and ability
to provide detailed responses. Researchers must carefully design the
questions to ensure they are cle ar and focused to avoid ambiguity in the
data collected.
5) Written or visual materials
Qualitative data can also be obtained from analysing written documents,
such as diaries, letters, or social media posts, as well as from visual
materials like photographs or videos.
The w ritten or visual materials method is a qualitative data collection
technique in social psychology that involves analysing written texts, visual
materials, or any other form of non -verbal communication to gain insights
into individuals' attitudes, beliefs, behaviours , and experiences within a
social context. This method allows researchers to examine existing
documents or obje cts to understand the social phenomena under
investigation.
The Written or visual materials method is particularly useful when
studying historical or cultural contexts, as it allows researchers to access
rich data sources from various time periods. It als o complements other
qualitative methods, such as interviews and focus groups, by providing
additional context and depth to the research findings. However,
researchers should be mindful of potential biases or limitations in the munotes.in

Page 6

Assessment in social
Psychology
6 available materials and shoul d strive to triangulate findings with data
obtained through other methods.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:
 Define interview method and focus groups .
 What are the advantages of open -ended questionnaires?
Methods of analys ing qualitative data
Once qualitative data is collected, researchers employ various techniques
to analyse and interpret the information. Common qualitative data analysis
methods in social psychology include:
1. Thematic analysis: Identifying recurring themes or patterns in the
data to uncover underlying meanings and concepts.
2. Grounded theory: Developing theories or explanations directly from
the data, allowing new insights to emerge from the participants'
experiences.
3. Content analysis: Systematically categorizing and analysing the
content of text or visual materials to identify key themes and trends.
4. Narrative analysis: Focusing on the stories and narratives shared by
participants to understand how they construct their identities and make
sense of their experiences.
CHE CK YOUR PROGRESS:
 State the different methods of analyses of qualitative data
1.2.2 Quantitative data in social psychological assessment
Quantitative data in social psychology refers to information that is
collected and represented in numerical form, allow ing for statistical
analysis and quantification of relationships between variables. This type of
data involves measurable and objective attributes that can be expressed in
terms of quantities or numerical values. Social psychologists use
quantitative data to study and understand various social phenomena, test
hypotheses, and draw statistical conclusions.
Examples of quantitative data in social psychology include:
 Surveys with Likert scales: Surveys often use Likert -type scales to
measure participants' attit udes, opinions, and perceptions on a
numerical scale (e.g., 1 to 5 or 0 to 10).

 Numerical ratings: Participants may provide numerical ratings or
scores to indicate their level of agreement, satisfaction, or preference
on a specific topic. munotes.in

Page 7

Basic Issues in Social Psychological Assessment - I
7  Count data: Count ing the number of times a particular behavior or
event occurs, such as the number of positive interactions between
individuals.

 Quantitative behaviora l observations: Researchers use predefined
categories to quantitatively record observed behaviors during s ocial
interactions.

 Experimental data: In experimental studies, quantitative data may
include measurements of reaction times, accuracy, or performance on
cognitive tasks related to social phenomena.

 Demographic data: Information about participants' age, gender,
ethnicity, and other relevant characteristics is often collected in a
quantitative format.

 Statistical data from pre -existing sources: Social psychologists may
use publicly available datasets or data from previous studies for their
quantitative ana lyses.
Quantitative data is typically analysed using statistical methods such as
correlation, regression, t -tests, ANOVA (analysis of variance), and more
advanced techniques like structural equation model ling. These statistical
analyses help social psychologists identify patterns, relationships, and
statistical significance in the data, enabling them to make data -driven
conclusions and support or reject hypotheses.
Quantitative data is valuable in social psychology as it allows researchers
to general ize findings to larger populations, establish cause -and-effect
relationships, and provide precise and objective measurements. It
complements qualitative data, which provides more in -depth insights into
individual experiences and attitudes but may lack gene ralizability due to
its subjective nature. By combining both quantitative and qualitative
approaches, social psychologists can gain a comprehensive understanding
of the complex social dynamics and behaviours they study.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:
 What are some o f the examples of quantitative data in social
psychology?

1.2.3 Comparison of qualitative and quantitative data
Here, we will compare the qualitative and quantitative data in terms of
various parameters (Table 1.1), that will help us understand the
characteri stics of both types of data at a glance.





munotes.in

Page 8

Assessment in social
Psychology
8 Table 1.1 Qualitative and quantitative data
Qualitative D ata Quantitative Dat a
1) Nature of Data Qualitative data are n on-
numerical and consist of
textual or narrative
information. They
provide detailed
descriptions of
participants' experiences,
attitudes, and behaviours . Quantitative data are
numerical and can be
measured and analysed
using statistical
methods. They
represent measurable
attributes and allow for
objective comparisons
and quantif ication.
2) Data Collection
Methods They are often collected
through methods such as
interviews, focus groups,
open -ended
questionnaires,
observations, and content
analysis of written or
visual materials. They are collected
through methods like
surveys with closed -
ended questions,
experiments,
behaviour al
observations with
predefined categories,
and the analysis of pre -
existing numerical
datasets.
3) Sample Size Typically ,they involve
smaller sample sizes due
to the in -depth nature of
data collection and
analysis. The emphasis is
on understanding the
experiences and
perspectives of a few
individuals or groups. They o ften involve
larger sample sizes to
achieve statistical
power and
generalizability of
findings to la rger
populations
4) Analysis
Techniques They involve identifying
themes, patterns, and
insights through
techniques like thematic
analysis, grounded
theory, content analysis,
or narrative analysis. They employ statistical
methods to test
hypotheses, calculate
correlations, perform
inferential analyses
(e.g., t -tests, ANOVA),
and build predictive
models (e.g.,
regression, structural
equation modelling ). munotes.in

Page 9

Basic Issues in Social Psychological Assessment - I
9
5) Generalizability They p rioritize in -depth
exploration a nd
understanding of specific
contexts, making it
challenging to generalize
findings to larger
populations. They a im at
generalizability to
larger populations by
using random sampling
and statistical
techniques to draw
valid inferences.
6) Research
Purpose They are often
exploratory and
hypothesis -generating,
providing rich insights
into complex social
phenomena and
individual experiences. They are hypothesis -
testing and aim to
establish cause -and-
effect relationships and
make objective
comparisons.
7) Strengths and
Limitations Their s trengths include
depth of understanding,
capturing nuances, and
generating new
hypotheses. Their
limitations include
potential subjectivity,
small sample sizes, and
limited generalizability. Their s trengths include
objectiv ity, statistica l
power, and
generalizability. Their
limitations include the
potential for
oversimplification and
lack of in -depth
insights.

Social psychology assessment often benefits from utilizing both
qualitative and quantitative data, as they complem ent each other's
strengths and weaknesses. Combining both approaches allows for a more
comprehensive understanding of the complexities of human behaviour and
social interactions.
1.3 METHODOLOGICAL PROBLEMS I N SOCIAL
PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT
Social psychological assessment involves the systematic evaluation of
individuals' thoughts, emotions, attitudes, and behaviours within a social
context. While conducting assessments, researchers and practitioners
should be aware of some basic issues to en sure the accuracy, ethicality,
and usefulness of their assessments. Here are some key issues in social
psychological assessment:
1. Validity: The assessment should measure what it intends to measure
accurately. Researchers must ensure that the tools and me thods used to
gather data are valid and appropriate for the specific constructs they
aim to assess. munotes.in

Page 10

Assessment in social
Psychology
10 2. Reliability: Reliability refers to the consistency and stability of
measurement. It is essential to establish that the assessment methods
yield consisten t results over time and across different conditions.
3. Bias and Stereotyping: Social psychological assessment must be
conducted with sensitivity to potential biases and stereotypes that may
influence the interpretation of data. Researchers should strive for
fairness and inclusivity in their assessments.
4. Ethical Considerations: Researchers must follow ethical guidelines
to protect the rights and well -being of participants. This includes
obtaining informed consent, ensuring confidentiality, and minimizin g
potential harm.
5. Cultural Sensitivity: Social psychological assessment should take
into account cultural differences to avoid imposing Western norms or
values on diverse populations. Cultural sensitivity ensures that
assessments are relevant and respec tful to various cultural groups.
6. Ecological Validity: Researchers should strive to assess behaviours
and attitudes in naturalistic settings or contexts that are relevant to the
participants' everyday lives. This enhances the ecological validity of
the findings.
7. Sample Representativeness: The sample used in social psychological
assessments should be representative of the target population to
generalize findings more accurately.
8. Social Desirability Bias: Participants may provide responses that they
perceive as socially desirable, leading to biased results. Researchers
should use methods to minimize social desirability bias and promote
more candid responses.
9. Construct Validity: The constructs being measured in social
psychological assessments should be well -defined and grounded in
theory. This ensures that the assessment accurately captures the
intended psychological constructs.
10. Subjectivity vs. Objectivity: Social psychological assessments often
involve the subjective interpretation of qualitati ve data. Researchers
should strike a balance between subjective understanding and the
objective analysis of quantitative data.
11. Influence of Social Context: Assessments in social psychology
should consider the influence of social context on participants '
responses and behaviour . Social context can significantly impact how
individuals think, feel, and act.
Addressing these issues in social psychological assessment is essential for
producing reliable and valid data that contributes meaningfully to our
unde rstanding of human behaviour and social interactions. Researchers
and practitioners must remain vigilant and critical in their approach to
ensure the highest standards of quality in their assessments. munotes.in

Page 11

Basic Issues in Social Psychological Assessment - I
11 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:
 What are the basic issues of soci al psychological assessment?
1.3.1 Methodological problems in qualitative data
Qualitative data in social psychology assessment comes with its own set of
methodological issues that researchers need to be aware of and address to
ensure the validity and rel iability of their findings. Some common
methodological issues include:
1. Researcher Bias: The researcher's own beliefs, attitudes, and
preconceptions may influence the data collection, analysis, and
interpretation. Objectivity and reflexivity are crucial in addressing this
issue.
2. Sampling Bias: Qualitative studies often use purposive sampling,
which may lead to a biased selection of participants. Researchers
should carefully consider the criteria for participant inclusion to ensure
diverse and represent ative perspectives.
3. Small Sample Size: Qualitative studies usually involve smaller
sample sizes, which may limit the generalizability of findings to larger
populations. Researchers should acknowledge the scope of their study
and avoid overgeneralizing r esults.
4. Subjectivity of Interpretation: Qualitative data analysis involves
interpretation, which can be influenced by the researcher's
perspectives. To enhance rigour , multiple researchers can
independently analyse the data and compare their findings.
5. Reliability and Reproducibility: Ensuring consistency and
reproducibility in qualitative research can be challenging due to the
interpretative nature of data analysis. Researchers should document
their analytical process thoroughly to enhance transparen cy.
6. Data Saturation: Determining when data saturation is achieved (i.e.,
when new data no longer provides additional insights) can be
subjective. Researchers should carefully assess data saturation to
determine sample size adequacy.
7. Ethical Considera tions: Ethical issues in qualitative research include
ensuring informed consent, protecting participants' confidentiality and
privacy, and handling sensitive or emotionally challenging topics with
care.
8. Generalizability: The focus of qualitative researc h is often on depth
rather than breadth, which may limit the generalizability of findings to
contexts beyond the studied population.
9. Validity and Credibility: Ensuring the credibility and trustworthiness
of qualitative findings is crucial. Researchers c an enhance validity munotes.in

Page 12

Assessment in social
Psychology
12 through triangulation (using multiple data sources or methods) and
member checking (seeking participant feedback on findings).
10. Data Recording and Transcription: Accurate recording and
transcription of qualitative data are essential to avoid misinterpretation
of participants' responses. Researchers should carefully manage and
transcribe audio or video recordings.
11. Participant Reactivity: Participants may modify their behaviour or
responses due to their awareness of being observed o r studied, leading
to biased data.
To address these methodological issues, qualitative researchers should
adhere to rigorous research practices, engage in reflexivity, employ
transparency in data collection and analysis, and consider using mixed -
method app roaches to complement and validate qualitative findings.
Ultimately, the awareness and careful management of these challenges
contribute to the robustness and validity of qualitative data in social
psychology assessment.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:
 What are some of the methodological issues of qualitative data?
1.3.2 Methodological problems in quantitative data
Methodological issues in quantitative data in social psychology
assessment can have significant implications for the validity and reliability
of research findings. Researchers must be mindful of these issues to ensure
the accuracy and credibility of their studies. Some common
methodological issues in quantitative data collection in social psychology
assessment include:
1. Sampling Bias: If the samp le used in the study is not representative of
the target population, the findings may not be applicable or
generalizable to the broader population. To mitigate this issue,
researchers should use random sampling or carefully consider the
characteristics of the sample and the population they intend to study.
2. Response Bias: Response bias occurs when participants provide
answers that they believe are socially desirable or expected by the
researcher, rather than their true opinions or behaviours . To minimize
response bias, researchers can use anonymous surveys and assure
participants that their responses will remain confidential.
3. Social Desirability Bias: This bias occurs when participants provide
responses that present themselves in a more favourable light, often due
to social norms or perceived expectations. Researchers can address this
issue through the use of indirect questioning or the inclusion of items
designed to detect socially desirable respon ses.
4. Measurement Validity: Measurement validity refer s to the accuracy
with which a test or instrument measures the constructs it intends to munotes.in

Page 13

Basic Issues in Social Psychological Assessment - I
13 assess. If the measures used in the study are not valid, the findings
may not accurately reflect the variables of interest. Researchers should
use well -established and validated measures or conduct pilot testing to
ensure the validity of their instruments.
5. Reliability: Reliability refers to the consistency and stability of a
measurement. If the measures used in the study are not reliable, the
results may not be trustw orthy. Researchers can assess reliability
through methods such as test -retest reliability or internal consistency
measures like Cronbach's alpha.
6. Confounding Variables: Confounding variables are extraneous
factors that can influence the relationship bet ween the independent and
dependent variables. Failure to control for confounding variables can
lead to erroneous conclusions. Researchers should use appropriate
statistical techniques (e.g., regression analysis) or experimental design
to account for potent ial confounders.
7. Sampling Size: An insufficient sample size can lead to low statistical
power, making it difficult to detect significant effects even if they
exist. Researchers should conduct power analyses to determine the
appropriate sample size required to detect meaningful effects.
8. Experimental Design Issues: In experimental studies, issues such as
selection bias, demand characteristics, and experimenter bias can
threaten the internal validity of the research. Careful attention to the
experim ental design and procedures can help mitigate these issues.
9. Publication Bias: Publication bias occurs when studies with
statistically significant results are more likely to be published, while
studies with non -significant results are often not published . This can
lead to an overestimation of effect sizes and a lack of representation of
negative or null findings in the literature.
To enhance the quality of quantitative data in social psychology
assessment, researchers should adopt rigorous methodologies, transparent
reporting, and critical evaluation of potential biases and limitations.
Adhering to best practices in data collection, analysis, and reporting helps
ensure the reliability and validity of the research findings.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:
What are so me of the methodological issues of quantitative data?
1.4 SUMMARY
Assessment in social psychology involves the systematic evaluation of
individuals' thoughts, emotions, attitudes, and behaviours within a social
context. It aims to understand social phenomena, interactions, and the
influence of social factors on human behaviour . Researchers and
practitioners use various methods to collect qualitative and quantitative
data, including interviews, su rveys, experiments, observations, and munotes.in

Page 14

Assessment in social
Psychology
14 questionnaires. These assessments help in understanding the complexities
of human social behaviour and inform theories and interventions in the
field.
Issues in social p sychological assessment include issues regarding validity
and reliability; bias and stereotyping; ethical c onsiderations ; cultural
sensitivity; ecological validity; sample representativeness;social
desirability bias; construct validity; subjectivity vs. o bjectivity ; and
influence of social context.
Addre ssing these issues is crucial for producing reliable and valid data,
enhancing the credibility of research findings, and promoting ethical
practices in social psychological assessment. By carefully navigating these
challenges, social psychologists can gain valuable insights into the
dynamics of human behaviour within social settings and contribute to the
advancement of the field.
1.5 QUESTIONS
1. Explain social psychological assessment
2. Describe the common tools used in social psychological assessment
3. What ar e the advantages of a survey method?
4. What are focus groups?
5. Discuss in detail the methods of analyses of qualitative data
6. What are the differences between qualitative and quantitative data?
7. Describe the methodological issues of qualitative data
1.6 REFERENCES
 Breakwell, G.M. (2004). Doing Social Psychology Research. Malden,
MA: British Psychological Society and Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
 Whitcomb, S.A. &Merrell, K.W. (2013). Behavioural, Social and
Emotional Assessment of Children and Adolescents (4th ed). Oxon,
OX: Routledge.

 munotes.in

Page 15

15 2
BASIC ISSUES IN SOCIAL
PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT - II
Unit Structure :
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Ethical Considerations in Assessment
2.2 Opportunities and Challenges in Online Testing
2.2.1 Opportunities in Online Testing
2.2.2 Challenges in Online Testing
2.3 Summary
2.4 Questions
2.5 References
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 To understand the ethics of assessment
 To establish a deeper understanding of ethics in assessment in social
psychology
 To gain an understanding of online testing and the challenges in online
testing
2.1 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN ASSESSMENT
Definition of Ethics
Ethics in assessment within the context of social psychology refers to the
moral principles, guidelines, and standards that researchers and
practitioners in the field follow when conductin g studies, experiments,
surveys, or any other forms of data collection and analysis involving
human participants. These ethical considerations are crucial to ensure that
the well -being, rights, and dignity of participants are respected and
protected throug hout the research process.
Key Ethical Principles in Assessment within Social Psychology
1. Informed Consent:
Informed consent is a foundational ethical principle in the field of social
psychology, ensuring that individuals who participate in research or
assessments are fully aware of the purpose, procedures, potential risks,
and benefits of the study before they agree to take part. Informed consent munotes.in

Page 16

Assessment in social
Psychology
16 is a crucial aspect of research ethics, emphasizing respect for participants'
autonomy, rights, and well -being . It helps to protect participants from
undue influence, compulsion, or harm and establishes a transparent and
ethical relationship between researchers and participants.
The ethics of informed consent in assessment in social psychology is a
critical safegu ard that supports the rights, dignity, and well -being of
research participants. It ensures that individuals are fully informed about
the study's objectives, procedures, potential risks, and benefits, allowing
them to make an autonomous and informed decisio n about their
participation. Adhering to the principles of informed consent enhances the
credibility, validity, and ethical integrity of research in social psychology.
The following are the key elements of informed consent:
 Disclosure of Information: Resea rchers must provide participants
with clear, comprehensible, and accurate information about the
purpose of the assessment, the procedures involved, the expected
duration, and any potential risks or discomfort they might experience.
This information should be presented in a language and format that
participants can understand.

 Voluntary Participation: Participants must voluntarily agree to take
part in the assessment without any form of pressure, coercion, or
manipulation. They should be informed that their decision to
participate or withdraw from the assessment will not result in any
negative consequences or loss of benefits.

 Understanding and Comprehension: Researchers should ensure that
participants understand the provided information before agreeing to
participate. This might involve using simple language and offering
opportunities for participants to ask questions about any aspects they
do not comprehend.

 Capacity to Consent: Researchers need to ensure that participants
have the cognitive capacity to p rovide informed consent. This is
particularly important when dealing with vulnerable populations, such
as minors, individuals with cognitive impairments, or those in
compromised mental states.

 Anonymity and Confidentiality: Researchers must explain how th ey
plan to protect participants' privacy and confidentiality. This might
include the use of pseudonyms, secure data storage, and protocols for
reporting results in a comprehensive form to prevent the identification
of individual participants.

 Potential Be nefits and Risks: Researchers should provide the details
of the potential benefits of the assessment, both to the individual
participant and to the advancement of knowledge in social psychology.
Disclosing any potential risks, discomfort, or negative emoti onal munotes.in

Page 17

Basic Issues in Social Psychological Assessment - II
17 reactions that participants might experience is equally important when
talking about potential benefits and risks to them.

 Right to Withdraw: Participants should be informed of their right to
withdraw from the assessment at any point without penalty or negative
consequences. This reaffirms the principle of voluntary participation
and individual autonomy.

 Contact Information: Researchers should provide their contact
information (such as email or phone number) to the participants so that
participants c an reach out if they have additional questions or concerns
after the assessment.

 Alternative Participation: If applicable, researchers can offer
alternative methods of participation that do not involve exposure to
potentially distressing stimuli or situat ions. This helps to accommodate
participants who may have sensitivities or preferences.

 Implementation: Informed consent is typically obtained through a
written consent form that participants review and sign. In some cases,
oral consent might be appropria te, especially in situations where
written documentation is not possible (e.g., phone surveys).
Researchers should document the informed consent process to
demonstrate ethical conduct and compliance with research regulations.

2. Minimization of Harm:
The eth ic of minimization of harm in assessment within the field of social
psychology is a guiding principle that emphasizes the need to reduce or
eliminate potential negative effects and risks associated with research
activities, particularly when studying human behaviour, attitudes, and
emotions. This ethical principle emphasizes the researcher's responsibility
to prioritize the well -being and dignity of study participants while still
pursuing valuable scientific insights.
Researchers have a responsibility to mi nimize any potential physical,
psychological, or emotional harm that participants might experience
during the study. This involves avoiding practices that could lead to
distress or negative consequences.
In more detail, the ethic of minimization of harm en compasses several key
components:
 Risk Assessment: Researchers need to carefully assess potential risks
associated with the study, including psychological, emotional, social,
and physical harms. This assessment should consider factors such as
the nature of the study, the characteristics of the participants, and the
potential for unintended consequences.

 Benefit -Risk Ratio: Researchers must weigh the potential benefits of
the research against the potential risks to participants. The benefits of munotes.in

Page 18

Assessment in social
Psychology
18 the study sh ould justify any potential discomfort, stress, or harm that
participants might experience. If the potential risks outweigh the
benefits, the research design might need to be revised or the study
reconsidered.

 Confidentiality and Anonymity: Protecting part icipants'
confidentiality and anonymity is crucial for minimizing harm.
Researchers should ensure that participants' personal information and
responses remain confidential and that their identities cannot be linked
to their data. This helps prevent potenti al negative consequences, such
as social or professional repercussions.

 Debriefing: After the study is complete, researchers should provide
participants with a debriefing session. During this session, participants
are informed about the true purpose of th e study, the rationale for any
deception used, and a summary of the findings. This helps participants
understand the research process and address any concerns or
misconceptions that may have arisen during the study.

 Voluntary Participation: Participation in research should always be
voluntary. Participants should never be forced, pressured, or
manipulated to participate. Researchers should ensure that participants
feel free to withdraw from the study at any point without facing
negative consequences.

 Vuln erable Populations: Special consideration should be given to
vulnerable populations, such as children, individuals with cognitive
impairments, and individuals from marginalized or disadvantaged
backgrounds. Additional precautions may be necessary to safegu ard
their well -being and rights.

 Ethical Review: Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) or Ethics
Committees play a crucial role in assessing and approving research
protocols. Researchers should submit their proposed studies for ethical
review to ensure that potential harms are minimized and ethical
guidelines are followed.
By adhering to the ethic of minimization of harm, social psychologists
strive to conduct research that contributes to the understanding of human
behaviour while upholding the ethical standa rds necessary to protect
participants' well -being and dignity. This approach helps maintain public
trust in scientific research and promotes the responsible advancement of
knowledge in the field of social psychology.
3. Confidentiality and Anonymity:
Participant information must be kept confidential, and their identities
should be protected, unless explicit permission is obtained. Anonymity
ensures that no personally identifiable information is linked to the data
collected. munotes.in

Page 19

Basic Issues in Social Psychological Assessment - II
19 Confidentiality and anonymity ar e two important ethical principles that
guide the conduct of assessments in the field of social psychology. These
principles are crucial for maintaining the integrity of research and
protecting the rights and well -being of research participants. Let us
explore the details of each principle:
 Confidentiality:
Confidentiality refers to the obligation of researchers to protect the privacy
of the information provided by participants in a study. This principle
ensures that any personal or sensitive information sh ared by participants
during the research process is kept confidential and not disclosed to
unauthorized individuals. Researchers are ethically bound to take
measures that prevent the identification of individual participants from
their responses or data.
Key aspects of confidentiality in social psychology assessment include:
 Data Protection: Researchers must implement secure data storage and
transmission procedures to prevent unauthorized access or disclosure
of participants' data. This could involve using password -protected
databases or encryption methods.

 Anonymizing Data: Personal identifiers such as names, contact
details, and any other information that could link responses to specific
individuals should be removed or replaced with unique codes. This
prevents anyone, including the researchers themselves, from
identifying individual participants.

 Limited Access: Researchers should limit access to the collected data
to only those individuals directly involved in the research process.
This may involve usin g access controls and ensuring that only
authorized personnel have permission to handle the data.

 Anonymity:
Anonymity goes a step further than confidentiality by ensuring that
participants' identities are completely unknown and untraceable. In an
anonymo us research study, even the researchers themselves cannot link
specific responses to individual participants.
Key aspects of anonymity in social psychology assessment include:
 Unlinkable Data: Anonymity is achieved by never collecting any
personal identifi ers in the first place. Participants are identified solely
by non -identifiable codes or labels. This prevents any possibility of
matching responses to specific individuals.

 Aggregate Reporting: Findings are often reported in aggregate form,
where data fro m multiple participants are combined to present overall
trends and patterns. This further ensures that individual responses
cannot be singled out. munotes.in

Page 20

Assessment in social
Psychology
20  Securing Communication: Researchers should ensure that any
communication with participants is conducted in a way that maintains
their anonymity. For instance, if electronic surveys are used, IP
addresses and other digital traces should be carefully managed to
prevent identification.
Both confidentiality and anonymity are critical in preventing potential
harm to p articipants and in building trust between researchers and
participants. Adhering to these ethical principles demonstrates a
commitment to the well -being and rights of those who contribute to the
research process. Researchers and institutions are responsibl e for
establishing clear protocols and procedures to uphold these principles
throughout the assessment process in social psychology research.
4. Deception:
Deception should be used sparingly and justified only when necessary for
the research question. If deception is used, researchers must fully debrief
participants afterwards, explaining the true purpose of the study and
addressing any concerns or misconceptions.
5. Debriefing:
Debriefing in assessment is a crucial ethical practice within the realm of
social psychology. It involves providing participants with comprehensive
information and insights after they have participated in a research study or
experiment. This practice aims to fulfill ethical obligations, ensure
participant well -being, and maintain t he integrity of the research process.
Debriefing is particularly essential in social psychology, where studies
often involve manipulating participants' thoughts, feelings, or behaviours,
potentially leading to emotional or psychological effects.
The primar y purpose of debriefing is to provide participants with relevant
information about the study they have just participated in. This
information typically includes the study's objectives, hypotheses,
methodologies, and any potential manipulations that were em ployed.
Debriefing serves the following several critical functions:
 Informed Consent: Debriefing ensures that participants are fully
informed about the nature of the study and any deceptive elements
used during the experiment. This allows participants to make informed
decisions about their involvement and provides them with an
opportunity to withdraw their data if they feel uncomfortable.

 Transparency: Debriefing fosters transparency by clarifying the
research process. Participants gain a clear understand ing of how their
data will be used, which helps build trust between researchers and
participants.

 Ethical Responsibility: Researchers have an ethical obligation to
minimize any potential harm caused during the study. Debriefing munotes.in

Page 21

Basic Issues in Social Psychological Assessment - II
21 provides a platform to addr ess any discomfort, distress, or negative
emotions experienced by participants during the experiment.

 Educational Opportunity: Debriefing offers participants the chance
to learn more about the research field, the scientific process, and the
reasons behind the design of the study. This educational aspect can
lead to increased participant satisfaction and a positive attitude toward
research.
A comprehensive debriefing session generally includes the following
components:
 Explanation of Purpose: Researchers ex plain the objectives of the
study, its relevance to the field, and its potential contributions to
understanding human behaviour. This context helps participants see
the bigger picture and appreciate their role in the research process.

 Methodology: Researc hers provide the detailsof the methods used,
such as experimental manipulations, measures taken, and data
collection procedures. This transparency ensures that participants are
aware of what emerged during the study.

 Deception and Manipulation: If any dec eption or manipulation was
involved, researchers disclose the true nature of the study to
participants. This helps mitigate any potential feelings of distrust that
may arise due to misleading information.

 Results: While not always possible due to research design, providing
participants with general results or findings from the study can be
informative and fulfilling for them. This transparency contributes to
the educational aspect of debriefing.

 Q&A and Participant Feedback: Researchers allow participants to
ask questions, share their thoughts, and express any concerns they may
have. This interactive process reinforces the participant's agency and
addresses any misconceptions.

 Resources: Researchers offer participants information about relevant
sources, l iterature, or further reading related to the study. This
empowers participants to continue learning about the topic on their
own.
Timing of Debriefing:
Debriefing ideally occurs immediately after the participant completes their
involvement in the study. Th is prompt debriefing is particularly essential
if the study involves emotional or potentially distressing content.
However, in some cases, delayed debriefing might be necessary, such as
when it could interfere with the study's objectives or when sensitive topics
are discussed. munotes.in

Page 22

Assessment in social
Psychology
22 Debriefing in assessment within the realm of social psychology is a
multifaceted ethical practice that goes beyond mere disclosure of
information. It is a process that aims to uphold participant rights, ensure
ethical research conduct , and promote a positive research experience. By
providing participants with the necessary information, addressing their
concerns, and fostering transparency, researchers can maintain the
integrity of their studies while safeguarding the well -being of thos e who
contribute to scientific progress.
6. Fair Treatment:
Participants should be treated fairly and without discrimination. Their
involvement in research should not be influenced by factors such as race,
gender, age, socioeconomic status, or any other p ersonal characteristic.
7. Beneficence:
The ethics of beneficence within the context of assessment in social
psychology refers to the ethical principle that emphasizes the importance
of maximizing well -being and positive outcomes for individuals and
socie ty as a whole during the process of conducting assessments and
research. It is one of the fundamental principles that guide ethical
behaviour in research and psychological assessments. The principle of
beneficence ensures that researchers and practitioners prioritize the
welfare and interests of participants, striving to do good and prevent harm.
Some components include:
 Maximizing Benefits: Researchers should actively seek to maximize
the benefits that participants and society can gain from their research.
This might involve generating new knowledge that could lead to
improvements in social understanding, policies, interventions, or other
practical applications. Assessments should contribute positively to the
advancement of knowledge and societal well -being .

 Balancing Risks and Benefits: Researchers need to carefully evaluate
the potential risks and benefits of an assessment or research study. If
the potential harm outweighs the potential benefits, the study might
not be ethically justifiable. This evaluati on ensures that participants are
not subjected to unnecessary risks.

 Equitable Distribution of Benefits and Risks: Researchers should
strive to ensure that the potential benefits and risks of participation are
distributed fairly across different groups wi thin society. No particular
group should disproportionately bear the burden of risks while others
receive most of the benefits.

 Continuous Monitoring: Throughout the assessment process,
researchers should continually monitor participants' well -being and
any potential negative effects. If unforeseen harm emerges, researchers
have a responsibility to take appropriate actions to mitigate it. munotes.in

Page 23

Basic Issues in Social Psychological Assessment - II
23  Confidentiality and Privacy: Respecting participants' privacy and
confidentiality is an essential aspect of beneficence . Participants'
personal information and responses should be kept secure to prevent
any harm that might arise from the inadvertent disclosure of sensitive
information.
In summary, the ethic of beneficence in assessment within social
psychology underscores the responsibility of researchers and assessors to
prioritize the well -being of participants, maximize benefits, and minimize
potential harm. This principle guides the ethical planning, execution, and
evaluation of research and assessments to ensure that t hey contribute
positively to both scientific knowledge and the welfare of individuals and
society.
8. Respect for Autonomy:
Participants have the right to make their own decisions regarding
participation. Researchers should respect participants' choices, and
coercion or undue pressure to participate should be avoided.
The ethic of "Respect for Autonomy" is a fundamental principle in ethical
considerations, particularly in the field of social psychology and research
involving human subjects. This principle emphasizes the importance of
treating individuals as autonomous agents who are capableof making
informed decisions about their own participation in research and other
activities that may affect them. It is a foundation of ethical practice,
especially in ar eas where individuals' psychological well -being and
personal information are involved.
The ethic of “Respect for Autonomy” entails several key elements:
 Voluntary Participation: Participation in research should be entirely
voluntary, without any form of co mpulsion or pressure. Individuals
should feel free to decline participation without facing negative
consequences or judgment.

 Disclosure of Information: Researchers must disclose all relevant
information that might influence an individual's decision to pa rticipate.
This includes providing details about data collection methods,
potential risks to confidentiality, and any foreseeable consequences of
participating.

 Capacity to Understand: Researchers should ensure that participants
have the cognitive capacit y to understand the information presented to
them. This is particularly important when working with vulnerable
populations, such as minors or individuals with cognitive impairments.

 Privacy and Confidentiality: Participants' personal information,
response s, and identities should be treated with strict confidentiality.
Researchers should outline the measures in place to protect
participants' privacy and maintain data security. munotes.in

Page 24

Assessment in social
Psychology
24  Right to Withdraw: Participants have the right to withdraw from a
study at any po int without facing consequences. Researchers should
clearly communicate this right and ensure that participants understand
they can exit the study without explanation.

 Minimization of Harm: Researchers must take measures to minimize
any potential physical , psychological, or emotional harm to
participants. If there is a possibility of distress or harm, researchers
should address these concerns and provide appropriate support.

 Deception and Debriefing: If deception is necessary for the study,
researchers sh ould thoroughly debrief participants afterwards,
explaining the true purpose of the study and addressing any concerns
or misconceptions that might have arisen.

 Equitable Treatment: Researchers should ensure that all participants
are treated fairly and res pectfully, regardless of their background,
characteristics, or opinions.

 Review and Oversight: Research involving human participants
should undergo ethical review by institutional review boards (IRBs) or
ethics committees. These bodies evaluate the study' s ethical
considerations and ensure that the rights and well -being of participants
are safeguarded.
Thus, the ethic of “Respect for Autonomy” in assessment within social
psychology stresses the significance of treating individuals as independent
decision -makers and prioritizes their well -being and rights in any research
or assessment effort. Researchers must uphold this principle by seeking
informed consent, protecting privacy, minimizing harm, and ensuring
participants are treated with dignity and respect throughout the research
process.
9. Institutional Review Board (IRB) Approval:
Many research institutions require studies involving human participants to
be reviewed and approved by an IRB or an ethics review board. The IRB
ensures that the study adheres to ethical principles and guidelines.
10. Transparent Reporting:
The ethic of transparent reporting in assessment within the field of social
psychology emphasizes openness, clarity, and accuracy in the reporting of
research methodologies, findings, and re sults. This ethic is rooted in the
principles of scientific integrity, reproducibility, and the advancement of
knowledge. Transparent reporting ensures that the research process and
outcomes are clearly communicated and enables other researchers to
critica lly evaluate, replicate, and build upon the findings. This level of
transparency enhances the credibility and reliability of social psychology
research, ultimately contributing to the cumulative growth of the field's
understanding of human behaviour and so cial phenomena. munotes.in

Page 25

Basic Issues in Social Psychological Assessment - II
25 The following are the key components of transparent reporting in
assessment in social psychology:
 Methodological Transparency: Researchers are expected to provide
a detailed description of the research methods used in their studies.
This in cludes information about study design, sampling methods,
participant recruitment, measures and instruments employed, and
experimental procedures. By offering a comprehensive account of
these aspects, researchers allow others to assess the validity and
reliability of their methods.

 Data Collection and Analysis: Transparent reporting involves
disclosing information about data collection procedures, such as the
timing and conditions under which data were collected. It also entails
detailing the data analysis process, including any statistical tests or
techniques employed. This transparency helps others understand how
conclusions were drawn from the data and promotes replicability.

 Inclusion of Negative or Non -Significant Results: The ethic of
transparent repo rting encourages researchers to include not only
positive or statistically significant findings but also negative or non -
significant results. This practice prevents publication bias and ensures
that the full scope of research outcomes is available to the s cientific
community, preventing others from unknowingly pursuing unfruitful
avenues of research.

 Full Disclosure of Conflicts of Interest: Researchers must disclose
any potential conflicts of interest that could influence the research
process or its outco mes. This might include financial relationships,
affiliations, or personal beliefs that could impact the objectivity of the
research.

 Open Data and Materials Sharing: Transparent reporting also
extends to sharing the raw data, research materials, and prot ocols used
in the study. This facilitates the reproducibility of findings and allows
other researchers to verify the results independently.

 Clear Presentation of Results: The reporting of results should be
clear and accurate. Researchers should present th eir findings in a way
that is easy to understand, using appropriate tables, figures, and
statistical measures. This helps readers assess the significance and
implications of the results.

 Discussion of Limitations: Openly acknowledging the limitations of
the study is a crucial aspect of transparent reporting. This includes
addressing potential biases, methodological constraints, and any
uncertainties in the interpretation of the results. It helps contextualize
the findings and prevents overgeneralization. munotes.in

Page 26

Assessment in social
Psychology
26 The following are the benefits of transparent reporting in assessment in
social psychology:
 Enhanced Reproducibility: Transparent reporting allows other
researchers to replicate studies, confirming the validity and reliability
of the findings. This is a fou ndation of scientific progress.

 Reduced Researcher Bias: Transparent reporting promotes
objectivity by providing a clear account of the research process,
minimizing the potential for researchers to selectively report or
interpret results.

 Improved Collab oration: Researchers who share their methods, data,
and materials contribute to a culture of collaboration and knowledge
exchange within the scientific community.

 Credibility and Trust: Transparent reporting enhances the credibility
of researchers and the ir work, building trust among peers and the
wider public.

 Methodological Advancement: By openly discussing research
limitations and challenges, the field can identify areas for
improvement and develop more robust methodologies over time.
Thus, the ethic o f transparent reporting in assessment in social psychology
is a foundational principle that upholds the highest standards of scientific
rigour and integrity. By adhering to these principles, researchers
contribute to the advancement of knowledge and the es tablishment of a
solid empirical foundation for understanding the complexities of human
behaviour within social contexts.
Incorporating these ethical considerations into the assessment process in
social psychology helps ensure that research is conducted re sponsibly,
with the well -being of participants as a top priority.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:
1. Define ethics in assessment in social psychology.
2. State the various ethical principles of testing in assessment in social
psychology.
2.2 OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES I N ONLINE
TESTING
2.2.1 Opportunities in Online Testing
Online testing has brought about numerous opportunities for assessing
social psychology in a more efficient, flexible, and comprehensive
manner. This shift from traditional paper -and-pencil tests to on line
platforms has revolutionized the field of assessment, offering several munotes.in

Page 27

Basic Issues in Social Psychological Assessment - II
27 advantages for both researchers and participants. Beloware the
opportunities for online testing in detail:
1. Accessibility and Convenience:
Online testing removes geographical bar riers, enabling researchers to
reach a broader and more diverse pool of participants. This diversity
enhances the generalizability of research findings. Participants can take
tests from the comfort of their homes, reducing the need for physical
presence an d accommodating various schedules.
2. Data Collection Efficiency:
Online assessments streamline data collection processes. Researchers can
collect data from a larger number of participants in a shorter time frame
compared to traditional methods. This incre ased efficiency is particularly
valuable for large -scale studies or projects that require rapid data
collection.
3. Reduced Costs:
Online testing eliminates the need for printing materials and distributing
surveys, significantly reducing costs related to m aterials, postage, and
personnel. This allows researchers to allocate resources to other aspects of
their studies.
4. Automated Scoring and Data Management:
Online assessments often come with automated scoring systems. This not
only reduces human error in scoring but also facilitates data analysis by
automatically compiling and organizing responses, making statistical
analyses more efficient.
5. Real -time Monitoring:
Researchers can monitor participants' progress in real -time during online
assessments. This allows for early identification of any issues, such as
participants misunderstanding instructions or encountering technical
difficulties. Researchers can intervene promptly to ensure data quality.
6. Multimedia Integration:
Online platforms support the in tegration of multimedia elements such as
images, videos, and interactive content. This enables researchers to create
more engaging and ecologically valid assessments, simulating real -world
social situations more effectively.
7. Customization and Randomizat ion:
Online assessments allow for the randomization of question orders,
response options, and stimuli presentation. This minimizes order effects
and response biases, leading to more accurate and reliable data.
munotes.in

Page 28

Assessment in social
Psychology
28 8. Adaptive Testing:
Adaptive testing involve s adjusting the difficulty of questions based on
participants' responses. Online platforms can implement adaptive
algorithms, tailoring the test to each participant's skill level. This results in
more accurate and efficient assessments of individual abilit ies.
9. Longitudinal Studies:
Online testing facilitates longitudinal research by allowing researchers to
administer assessments at multiple time points to the same participants
without the logistical challenges of physical meetings. This helps study
chang es and developments in social psychological phenomena over time.
10. Ethical Considerations:
Online testing can help lessen the issues related to experimenter bias and
demand characteristics. Participants may feel more comfortable and less
susceptible to s ocial desirability bias when responding privately online,
leading to more authentic responses.
11. Data Security and Privacy:
Advances in online security protocols help protect participants' personal
information and responses. Secure data encryption and st orage reassure
participants about the confidentiality of their data, encouraging
participation.
12. Data Visualization and Analysis:
Online assessments generate digital data that can be easily imported into
statistical analysis software for visualization a nd further analysis. This
enables researchers to explore patterns, trends, and relationships more
effectively.
13. International Collaboration:
Online testing allows for collaboration across different geographical
locations, making it easier for researcher s from different parts of the world
to work together on cross -cultural or international studies.
Thus, the opportunities for online testing in social psychology assessment
are vast and impactful. From increased accessibility and efficiency to
enhanced cust omization and data security, online platforms have
revolutionized how researchers approach data collection and analysis in
the field of social psychology. However, it's important to acknowledge
that online testing also comes with challenges such as ensurin g data
quality, dealing with potential technical issues, and addressing the digital
divide that might limit access for certain populations.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:
1. Briefly describe the various opportunities in online testing munotes.in

Page 29

Basic Issues in Social Psychological Assessment - II
29 2.2.2 Challenges in Online Testing
Online testing in the assessment of social psychology presents both
advantages and challenges. While it offers convenience and scalability,
there are several significant challenges that researchers and educators must
consider:
1. Participant Authenticity and Honesty:
Online assessments may lack the face -to-face interaction that encourages
participants to be honest and authentic in their responses. Participants
might provide socially desirable answers or engage in response distortion,
leading to biased res ults. Additionally, the absence of an experimenter's
presence could reduce the sense of accountability for truthful responses.
2. Participant Sampling and Diversity:
Online testing can attract a specific demographic, potentially biasing the
sample towards certain age groups, technological backgrounds, or cultural
contexts. This can limit the generalizability of findings, as social
psychological theories often depend on the diversity of participants for
robust conclusions.
3. Controlled Experimental Environm ent:
In a traditional laboratory setting, researchers can carefully control
environmental variables to ensure the validity of their experiments. Online
testing poses challenges in controlling factors like noise, distractions, and
participants' surroundings , potentially introducing confounding variables
that can compromise the internal validity of the study.
4. Technical Challenges:
Online assessments depend heavily on technology and internet
connectivity. Technical issues, such as browser compatibility, slo w
internet connections, or device differences, can affect the reliability and
validity of the data collected. Participants who encounter technical
difficulties may drop out of the study, leading to incomplete data.
5. Ethical Considerations:
Ensuring parti cipant privacy and informed consent is crucial in online
testing. Researchers must navigate issues like obtaining proper consent,
protecting participants' personal information, and ensuring secure data
transmission and storage. The dynamic nature of the on line environment
makes it challenging to guarantee the same level of ethical oversight as in
traditional laboratory settings.
6. Experimenter Control and Demand Characteristics:
Online testing reduces the experimenter’s control over the participant's
envir onment, making it difficult to prevent demand characteristics —cues
that lead participants to infer the purpose of the study and alter their munotes.in

Page 30

Assessment in social
Psychology
30 behaviour accordingly. Participants may engage in behaviours they
believe the researchers expect, compromising the s tudy's validity.
7. Social Desirability Bias:
Social desirability bias is the bias where participants provide answers that
they believe are socially acceptable and can be intensified in online
assessments. The lack of direct interaction with an experimente r might
lead participants to assume that their responses are less likely to be
scrutinized, potentially increasing the likelihood of biased responses.
8. Data Quality and Reliability:
Online testing raises concerns about data quality and the accuracy of
participant responses. Researchers might have limited ability to verify the
veracity of participant claims or responses. The absence of experimenter
oversight can also reduce the participant's motivation to provide accurate
and thoughtful responses.
9. Respo nse Time and Attention Span:
Online participants might not devote the same level of attention and
engagement as they would in a controlled laboratory setting. Shortened
attention spans and multitasking could lead to incomplete or less
thoughtful responses, impacting the quality of data collected.
10. Replication and Validity:
Replicating social psychology experiments is essential for validating
findings. Online testing could introduce variability due to differences in
online platforms, participant backgroun ds, or technological setups, making
direct replications more challenging and potentially compromising the
overall validity of the field.
To address these challenges, researchers must implement strategies such
as careful participant recruitment, clear instr uctions, robust statistical
analyses, and thoughtful consideration of the limitations inherent to online
testing. Combining online testing with complementary methods and
acknowledging its limitations can help mitigate some of these challenges
and enhance t he validity of social psychological research conducted in
online settings.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:
1. Discuss the challenges in online testing
2.3 SUMMARY
The ethical principles of assessment in social psychology encompass
guidelines and standards that researche rs and practitioners adhere to in
order to ensure the responsible and respectful conduct of assessments and
studies involving human participants. These principles are designed to munotes.in

Page 31

Basic Issues in Social Psychological Assessment - II
31 protect participants' well -being, autonomy, and rights while advancing the
knowledge in the field.
These ethical principles guide social psychologists in conducting studies
that contribute to the understanding of social behaviour while keeping the
rights and well -being of participants. Adhering to these principles helps
maintain t he credibility and integrity of social psychological research.
Online testing in social psychology assessment offers benefits such as
accessibility, cost -effectiveness, and data collection efficiency. However,
challenges related to sampling bias, lack of c ontrol, technical issues, and
ethical concerns must be carefully considered and addressed to ensure the
validity and reliability of the collected data.
2.4 QUESTIONS
1. Define ethics in assessment in social psychology.
2. State the key principles of ethics in as sessment in social psychology.
3. Define informed consent.
4. Describe the various key elements of informed consent.
5. What is the minimization of harm? Discuss the key components.
6. Define confidentiality and anonymity.
7. Enumerate the key components of confidentiali ty and anonymity.
8. Explain the purpose and process of debriefing.
9. What are the functions of debriefing? Explain.
10. What is beneficence?
11. Which is one of the most fundamental principles of ethics in
assessment in social psychology?
12. What are the components and b enefits of transparent reporting in
assessment in social psychology?
13. Discuss the opportunities in online testing.
14. What are the challenges in online testing?
2.5 REFERENCES
 Breakwell, G.M. (2004). Doing Social Psychology Research. Malden,
MA: British Psycho logical Society and Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
 Whitcomb, S.A. &Merrell, K.W. (2013). Behavioural, Social and
Emotional Assessment of Children and Adolescents (4th ed). Oxon,
OX: Routledge.

 munotes.in

Page 32

32 3
ASSESSMENT METHODS USING
QUALITATIVE APPROACH - I
Unit structure :
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Case study of client: a method of assessment
3.1.1 The process of case studies
3.2 Focus group discussion
3.2.1 Key components of focus groups
3.2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of focus groups
3.3 Summary
3.4 Questions
3.5 References
3.0 INTRODUCTION
Qualitative assessment i n social psychology involves exploring and
understanding human behaviour and experiences through non -numerical
data, such as interviews, observations, and textual analysis. It focuses on
the de pth and richness of information which is often used to uncover
underlying meanings, attitudes, and social processes.
3.1 CASE STUDY AS A METHOD OF ASSESSMENT
Case studies are a valuable method of assessment in social psychology.
They offer an in -depth exploration of individuals or groups within their
real-life conte xt.
Case studies aim at and provide the following :
1. Detailed Insight: Case studies provide a rich, detailed insight into the
lives, behaviour s, and experiences of individuals or groups.
Researchers can investigate deeply into specific cases that uncover
those shade swhich may not be apparent through other research
methods.
2. Contextual Understanding: They allow for a thorough examination
of the social and environmental context in which the behaviour or
phenomenon of interest occurs. This contextual unde rstanding is
crucial for comprehending the factors influencing behaviour . munotes.in

Page 33

Assessment Methods Using Qualitative Approach - I
33 3. Complex Phenomena: Case studies are particularly useful when
studying complex or rare phenomena that cannot be easily replicated
or studied through quantitative methods. They off er a way to explore
unique situations.
4. Hypothesis Generation: Case studies can generate hypotheses or
theories that can be tested through further research. They often serve
as a starting point for broader investigations.
5. Mixed Methods: Researchers can use a combination of qualitative
and quantitative data within a case study, providing a more
comprehensive understanding of the subject.
6. Real -World Applicability: Findings from case studies can have direct
real-world applicability and inform interv entions, policies, or
therapeutic approaches. Th us, th ey connect academic research to
practical solutions.
7. Ethical Considerations: Conducting case studies requires careful
attention to ethical considerations, such as obtaining informed consent,
ensurin g privacy, and protecting the well -being of participants.
However , there are a few limitations to case studies.C ase studies may lack
generalizability because they focus on specific cases, which makes it
challenging to apply findings to broader populations . Additionally, they
can be time -consuming and resource -intensive.
3.1.1 The Process of Case Studies
Certainly, conducting case studies of clients is a valuable method of
assessment in social psychology. Case studies involve an in -depth
examination of an individual or a small group over an extended period.
The process involves the following steps:
1. Selection of Participants: Researchers choose clients or individuals
who have experienced a particular psychological or social
phenomenon of interest. Sele ction should be based on the relevance of
the case to the research question.
2. Informed Consent: Ethical considerations are crucial. Researchers
must obtain informed consent from the clients, explaining the purpose,
procedures, and potential risks of the case study.
3. Data Collection: Various data sources are used for data collection ,
including interviews, observations, documents (e.g., medical records
or diaries), and sometimes psychological assessments. Researchers
may employ multiple methods to gathe r comprehensive information.
4. Longitudinal Approach: Case studies often span an extended period,
allowing researchers to observe changes and developments in the
client's life or behaviour over time. This longitudinal approach
provides valuable insights. munotes.in

Page 34

Assessment in social
Psychology
34 5. Data Analysis: Researchers employ qualitative analysis techniques,
such as thematic analysis or content analysis, to identify patterns,
themes, and significant information within the collected data.
6. Triangulation: To enhance the validity of the fi ndings, researchers
may use triangulation, which involves comparing data from different
sources or using multiple researchers to analyze and interpret the data.
7. Contextualization: The case is examined within its broader social and
psychological context . Researchers consider factors like the client's
background, culture, and environment to understand the influences on
their experiences and behaviour .
8. Rich Description: The case study report includes rich descriptions of
the client's experiences, emoti ons, and behaviour s, often supplemented
with direct quotes or excerpts from interviews.
9. Theory Development: Case studies can contribute to theory
development by providing detailed, real -world examples that illustrate
and expand upon existing theories o r generate new ones.
10. Ethical Considerations: Throughout the process, researchers must
ensure the ethical treatment of participants, including maintaining
confidentiality and addressing any ethical dilemmas that may arise.
11. Findings and Implication s: The final report summarizes the findings;
discusses their implications for social psychology or clinical practice;
and may suggest recommendations for interventions or further
research.
Case studies are particularly useful when researchers aim to explo re
complex, unique, or rare phenomena, as they allow for an in -depth
examination of indi vidual experiences. However, it i s essential to
recognize that case studies have limitations, including difficulties in
generalizing findings to broader populations due to their unique and
context -specific nature.
3.2 FOCUS GROUPS DISCUSSION
Focus group s discussions are a qualitative research method commonly
used in social psychology and other fields to assess attitudes, perceptions,
and behaviour s within a group contex t.
3.2.1 Key Components of Focus Groups
1. Participant Selection: Researchers choose a group of participants
who share relevant characteristics or experiences related to the
research topic. Typically, focus groups consist of 6 to 12 participants
to encour age active discussion.
2. Moderator: A skilled moderator facilitates the discussion. This
individual guides the conversation, encourages participants to express
their thoughts, and ensures that the discussion stays on track. munotes.in

Page 35

Assessment Methods Using Qualitative Approach - I
35 3. Structured Format: Focus g roup discussions follow a structured
format with a predefined set of open -ended questions or topics. These
questions are designed to elicit participants' opinions, experiences, and
emotions related to the research topic.
4. Interactive Environment: Partic ipants engage in a dynamic and
interactive conversation with one another. This format allows for the
exploration of diverse perspectives and the emergence of shared or
conflicting viewpoints.
5. Group Dynamics: Focus groups influence group dynamics to unc over
social influences, normative behaviour s, and consensus or dispute
within the group. Participants often react to each other's statements,
providing insights into social processes.
6. Anonymity and Disclosure: Participants may remain anonymous to
each other or choose to disclose their identities, depending on the
study's design. Anonymity can encourage honest and open discussion,
especially on sensitive topics.
7. Recording and Analysis: Focus group discussions are typically audio
or video -recorded for later analysis. Researchers transcribe the
recordings and analyze the data using qualitative methods like
thematic analysis or content analysis.
8. Data Synthesis: The researcher identifies themes, patterns, and
commonalities within the discussions. Thes e findings can provide
valuable insights into shared beliefs, attitudes, or cultural norms within
the group.
9. Generalization: While focus group findings are not typically meant
for generalizing to larger populations (as in quantitative research), they
can provide a deeper understanding of specific social phenomena and
help generate hypotheses for further research.
10. Report and Interpretation: The results of focus group discussions
are reported in a narrative format, often with illustrative quotes from
participants. Researchers interpret the findings within the context of
the objectives of the study .
3.2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Focus Groups
Focus groups have distinct advantages and disadvantages when used in
assessment within the field of soc ial psychology:
Advantages:
1. Rich Data: Focus groups generate rich, qualitative data, allowing
researchers to explore participants' experiences, attitudes, and
emotions in -depth. munotes.in

Page 36

Assessment in social
Psychology
36 2. Group Interaction: They capture group dynamics and social
interaction s, shedding light on how individuals influence one another's
opinions and behaviour s.
3. Diverse Perspectives: Focus groups can reveal a range of
perspectives, including shared beliefs and disagreements, which can
deepen the understanding of social phenom ena.
4. Exploratory Nature: Focus groups are well -suited for exploratory
research, generating hypotheses and insights for further investigation.
5. Quick Data Collection: Compared to individual interviews, focus
groups can collect data from multiple part icipants in a shorter time
frame.
6. Cost -Effective: Conducting one focus group session can be more cost -
effective than interviewing participants individually, especially when
exploring collective experiences.
7. Contextual Insights: Researchers can gain insights into the social and
cultural context of participants, enhancing the understanding of
behaviour s and attitudes.
Disadvantages:
1. Limited Generalizability: Findings from focus groups are typically
not generalizable to larger populations due to th e small sample size
and non -random participant selection.
2. Social Desirability Bias: Participants may conform to social norms or
provide socially desirable responses, limiting the accuracy of their true
opinions.
3. Dominant Voices: Some participants m ay dominate the discussion,
while others may be hesitant to speak, potentially skewing the data.
4. Moderator Effect: The effectiveness of the moderator can
significantly impact the quality of the data. A biased or inexperienced
moderator may introduce bi as into the discussions.
5. Time -Consuming: Analyzing data from multiple focus groups can be
time-consuming, especially when transcribing and coding recordings.
6. Resource Intensive: Focus groups require facilities, recording
equipment, and skilled mode rators, making them resource -intensive
compared to some other assessment methods.
7. Limited Privacy: Participants may be less willing to share sensitive or
personal information in a group setting, limiting the depth of
exploration.
8. Sampling Challenge s: Selecting appropriate participants with the
right characteristics and experiences can be challenging and may
require careful consideration. munotes.in

Page 37

Assessment Methods Using Qualitative Approach - I
37 In a nutshell, focus groups offer valuable insights into social psychology,
but they are most effective when use d in combination with other research
methods to complement their strengths and address their limitations.
Researchers should carefully consider their research goals and the specific
advantages and disadvantages of focus groups when deciding on their use
in assessment.
3.3 SUMMARY
The qualitative approach in social psychology provides a deeper
understanding of human behaviour by exploring the subjective
experiences, meanings, and context that quantitative methods may not
capture as effectively. It compleme nts quantitative research and is
particularly valuable when studying complex social and psychological
phenomena.
Case studies offer an in -depth, context -rich method for assessing social
psychological phenomena. They are particularly valuable when explorin g
complex, real -world situations and can contribute to both theory
development and practical applications. However, researchers must
carefully consider ethical concerns and acknowledge the limitations
associated with this method.
Focus group discussions a re particularly useful in social psychology for
exploring group norms, collective experiences, and social influence
processes. They can help researchers gain an understanding of how
individuals interact and influence one another within a social context,
contributing to the broader understanding of human behaviour and
attitudes.
3.4 QUESTIONS
1. Discuss case study as a method of assessment .
2. Explain the process of case studies .
3. What are focus groups?
4. Enumerate the advantages and disadvantages of focus groups .
3.5 REFERENCES
1. Breakwell, G.M. (2004). Doing Social Psychology Research . Malden,
MA: British Psychological Society and Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
2. Whitcomb, S.A. &Merrell, K.W. (2013). Behavioural, Social and
Emotional Assessment of Children and Adolescents (4th ed). Oxon,
OX: Routledge.

 munotes.in

Page 38

38 4
ASSESSMENT METHODS USING
QUALITATIVE APPROACH - II
Unit structure :
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Implicit methods in social psychology
4.1.1 Implicit Association Test
4.1.2 Implicit Measures of Attitudes
4.1.3 Priming
4.1.4 Evaluative Conditioning
4.1.5 Implicit Memory Tests
4.2 Sociometry: importance and overview of sociometric assessment
procedures
4.2.1 Importance of Sociometry
4.2.2 Sociometric Assessment Procedures
4.3 Summary
4.4 Questions
4.5 References
4.0 INTRODUCTION
Implicit methods are widely used in social psychology as assessment tools
to uncover unconscious or automatic attitudes, biases, and cognitive
processes that people may not be aware of or may not be willing to report
explicitl y.
4.1 IMPLICIT METHODS IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Mentioned below are some key aspects of implicit methods in social
psychology:
1. Definition: Implicit methods assess implicit cognition, which refers to
automatic and subconscious mental processes that influ ence
judgments, attitudes, and behaviours .
2. Implicit Association Test (IAT): The IAT is a well -known implicit
method. It measures the strength of associations between concepts and munotes.in

Page 39

Assessment Methods Using Qualitative Approach - I
39 evaluations by assessing the speed of categorizing words or images
into d ifferent categories. For example, it can reveal implicit racial
biases by measuring how quickly participants associate positive or
negative words with different racial groups.
3. Implicit Measures of Attitudes: Implicit methods can assess implicit
attitud es towards various topics, such as race, gender, or political
affiliation. These measures are based on reaction times or error rates
when participants perform tasks related to these topics.
4. Priming: Priming experiments involve exposing participants to a
stimulus (e.g., words, images , etc. ) that can influence subsequent
attitudes or behaviours without their conscious awareness. For
instance, showing words related to ag eing before asking participants to
walk at a certain pace can affect their walking spee d.
5. Evaluative Conditioning: This method assesses changes in attitudes
by pairing a neutral stimulus with a positive or negative stimulus
repeatedly. Over time, the neutral stimulus can become associated with
the emotional valence of the positive or neg ative stimulus.
6. Implicit Memory Tests: These tests assess the unconscious retrieval
of information from memory. Participants might be exposed to words
or images and later tested on their memory of those items, even if they
were not consciously aware of seeing them.
7. Physiological Measures: Some implicit methods use physiological
responses, such as skin conductance or eye tracking, to gauge implicit
reactions to stimuli.
8. Applications: Implicit methods are used to study various topics in
social psyc hology, including prejudice, stereotypes, attitudes, self -
concept, and decision -making. They provide insights into implicit
biases and can help researchers understand how these biases influence
behaviour .
9. Controversies: There is ongoing debate about th e reliability and
validity of implicit measures, as well as ethical concerns related to
privacy and the potential for reinforcing stereotypes.
10. Complementing Explicit Measures: Implicit methods are often used
alongside explicit measures (e.g., self -report questionnaires) to provide
a more comprehensive understanding of attitudes and behaviours . The
combination of implicit and explicit assessments can help reveal
discrepancies between what people consciously report and their
automatic, implicit responses .
4.1.1 Implicit Association Test
The Implicit Association Test (IAT) is a widely used psychological
assessment tool that measures implicit attitudes, biases, and associations
between concepts. It was developed by Anthony Greenwald and
colleagues in th e 1990s and has since been employed in numerous studies munotes.in

Page 40

Assessment in social
Psychology
40 across various fields, including social psychology. Here's an explanation
of how the IAT works:
Purpose: The IAT is designed to uncover implicit, subconscious attitudes
or biases that individuals may not be aware of or may not readily disclose
through explicit self -report measures.
Procedure:
1. Task Setup: Participants are presented with a computer -based task in
which they categorize words or images into different categories. The
categories are typ ically displayed at the top of the screen.
2. Category Pairings: The key feature of the IAT is the manipulation of
category pairings. For example, in an IAT examining racial biases,
participants might be asked to categorize words related to "African
Ameri can" and "European American" along with positive and negative
words.
3. Trials: Participants perform a series of trials where they quickly
categorize words or images by pressing specific keys. For instance,
they might be instructed to press one key when t hey see words related
to "African American" or positive words and another key when they
see words related to "European American" or negative words.
4. Block Structure: The IAT consists of several blocks, each with a
different category pairing. Importantly , the order of category pairings
is manipulated to measure the ease of association between concepts.
There are typically two critical blocks, where the categories are paired
in ways that reveal potential biases. For example, one critical block
may pair "Af rican American" with "negative," and the other may pair
"European American" with "positive."
5. Response Times: The IAT records participants' response times and
errors as they categorize items in each block. Faster response times are
interpreted as strong er associations between the paired concepts.
Slower response times or more errors suggest weaker associations or
potential biases.
Scoring and Interpretation:
The IAT generates a numerical score that reflects the strength of the
associations between conc epts. The larger the score, the stronger the
implicit bias or attitude. Scores can range from strongly negative to
strongly positive, indicating the direction and magnitude of the bias.
Interpretation: A positive IAT score may suggest an implicit bias in favour
of one concept over another, while a negative score may suggest bias in
the opposite direction. However, it is important to note that a single IAT
score is not diagnostic of individual beliefs or behaviours , and results
should be interpreted in conj unction with other information.
munotes.in

Page 41

Assessment Methods Using Qualitative Approach - I
41 Applications:
The IAT has been used to study implicit biases related to race, gender,
age, and many other social and cultural factors. It has also been employed
in fields such as marketing, health, and education to understa nd implicit
preferences and attitudes.
It is crucial to acknowledge that the IAT has faced criticism regarding its
reliability, validity, and the implications of individual scores. Despite
these challenges, IAT remains a valuable tool for exploring implic it
attitudes and biases, contributing to our understanding of human cognition
and behaviour .
4.1.2 Implicit Measures of Attitudes
Implicit Measures of Attitudes refer to assessment methods used in
psychology to uncover individuals' implicit or subconscio us attitudes and
biases toward various concepts, objects, or groups. These measures are
designed to reveal attitudes that people may not be aware of or may not be
willing to report explicitly through self -report measures. Here is a brief
description of various tasks involved in Implicit Measures of Attitudes:
1. Reaction Time -Based Tasks: These tasks assess the speed of
participants' responses wh ile categorizing stimuli (e.g., words, images)
into different categories. The assumption is that faster response s indicate
stronger associations between concepts. Common tasks include:
 Implicit Association Test (IAT): As explained earlier, the IAT
measures the strength of associations between pairs of concepts (e.g.,
race and positive/negative words) by comparing r esponse times when
categorizing them.
 Go/No -Go Association Task (GNAT): Similar to the IAT,
participants quickly categorize stimuli into different categories, but in
this task, they need to inhibit responses to certain combinations of
categories, making them sensitive to implicit biases.
2. Error Rate Tasks: Instead of measuring response times, these tasks
assess the frequency of errors when participants categorize stimuli. Higher
error rates may suggest implicit biases. An example is the Affective
Misatt ribution Procedure (AMP), where participants misattribute their
feelings toward one stimulus to another stimulus presented subsequently.
3. Implicit Memory Tasks: These tasks assess participants' implicit
memory of stimuli that they were exposed to earlie r but may not
consciously remember. For instance:
 Word Stem Completion Task: Participants complete word stems
(e.g., "h_t") with the first word that comes to mind. Unconscious
exposure to certain words can influence their word choices.
 Priming: Priming e xperiments expose participants to a stimulus (e.g.,
words, images) that can influence subsequent attitudes or behaviours munotes.in

Page 42

Assessment in social
Psychology
42 without their conscious awareness. For example, showing words
related to "trust" before asking participants to evaluate a person can
affect their judgments.
4. Physiological Measures: Some implicit measures use physiological
responses, such as skin conductance, to gauge implicit reactions to stimuli.
For example, changes in skin conductance can indicate emotional arousal
in response to s pecific stimuli.
5. Implicit Association Tasks in Social Cognition: These tasks examine
implicit social attitudes and stereotypes. They involve categorizing images
or words related to social groups (e.g., gender, race) and attributes (e.g.,
good, bad) to assess implicit biases.
Implicit Measures of Attitudes are valuable in understanding the automatic
and unconscious processes that influence human behaviour . They have
been used to investigate implicit biases related to race, gender, age, and
various socia l and cultural factors. However, it is important to recognize
that these measures have limitations and should be used in conjunction
with explicit self -report measures to provide a more comprehensive
understanding of attitudes and biases.
4.1.3 Priming
Priming is an implicit method of assessment in social psychology that
involves exposing individuals to a stimulus (e.g., words, images, or ideas)
to influence their subsequent thoughts, attitudes, or behaviours related to
that stimulus, often without their conscious awareness. Priming operates
on the idea that exposure to specific cues can activate associated mental
representations, affecting individuals' subsequent responses. Here is a
description of priming as an implicit method:
Procedure:
1. Priming St imulus: Participants are exposed to a priming stimulus,
which can be presented in various forms, such as words, images, or
concepts. This stimulus is chosen based on the research question and the
desired effect on participants' subsequent cognition or beha viour .
2. Delay: There is often a short delay between the presentation of the
priming stimulus and the subsequent task or evaluation. This delay can
range from a few milliseconds to several minutes.
3. Target Task: Participants engage in a target task or evaluation that is
related to the priming stimulus. The goal is to assess whether the priming
stimulus has influenced their responses.
Examples:
 Semantic Priming: In this form of priming, participants are exposed
to a word or image that is related in me aning to the subsequent task. munotes.in

Page 43

Assessment Methods Using Qualitative Approach - I
43 For example, if participants are primed with the word "ocean,"
they may subsequently rate a picture of a beach more positively
than if they were primed with a neutral word.
 Affective Priming: Affective priming involves using emotionally
charged words or images to influence subsequent emotional
judgments.
For example, i f participants are primed with positive words like "joy" or
"happiness," they may subsequently rate neutral stimuli more positively.
 Stereotype Priming: Stere otype priming assesses how exposure to
stereotypes can affect individuals' perceptions and judgments.
For instance, if participants are primed with words related to a particular
stereotype (e.g., "athlete" for African Americans), they may subsequently
evaluate a person from that group based on the stereotype.
Key Points:
1. Priming can occur consciously or unconsciously, depending on the
design of the experiment. Subliminal priming involves presenting
stimuli too quickly or faintly for participants to consc iously perceive.
2. The effects of priming can be short -lived, lasting only for a brief
period after exposure to the priming stimulus. However, in some cases,
priming effects can be more enduring.
3. Priming has been used to investigate a wide range of phenome na,
including memory, decision -making, social judgments, and stereotype
activation.
4. It highlights the flexibility of cognitive processes and the ways in
which environmental cues can shape our perceptions and behaviours .
5. Researchers use priming to explore the automatic and unconscious
aspects of human cognition, revealing how subtle cues in the
environment can influence our thoughts and actions.
Priming studies have contributed significantly to our understanding of
how context and subtle cues can impact h uman behaviour , often revealing
implicit biases and cognitive processes that people may not be consciously
aware of.
4.1.4 Evaluative Conditioning
Evaluative Conditioning is an implicit method of assessment in social
psychology that explores how associat ions between stimuli can influence
individuals' attitudes and evaluations, often at an implicit or subconscious
level. This method is used to investigate how pairing neutral stimuli with
positive or negative stimuli can affect people's emotional responses and
evaluations.
munotes.in

Page 44

Assessment in social
Psychology
44 Procedure:
1. Stimulus Pairing: In Evaluative Conditioning, researchers typically
start with a neutral stimulus (e.g., a picture, word, or brand) that
doesn ot inherently evoke positive or negative emotions or evaluations.
2. Pairing wi th Affective Stimuli: The neutral stimulus is repeatedly
paired with either positive or negative affective stimuli.
For example, a neutral picture might be presented alongside pleasant
images or words to create a positive association. Alternatively, it co uld be
paired with unpleasant images or words to create a negative association.
3. Repeated Exposure: The pairing of the neutral stimulus with the
affective stimuli is typically done multiple times to reinforce the
association. Participants are exposed to these pairings without being
explicitly told the purpose of the study.
4. Post-Conditioning Evaluation: After the conditioning phase,
participants are asked to evaluate the originally neutral stimulus. This
evaluation can be done using various measures, s uch as self -report
ratings or reaction time tasks.
Key Concepts:
1. Transfer of Affect: The underlying idea is that the positive or
negative affect associated with the affective stimuli transfers to the
initially neutral stimulus. As a result, the neutral s timulus is now
evaluated more positively or negatively, depending on the pairing.
2. Automaticity: Evaluative Conditioning is considered an implicit
method because the change in evaluation is often unconscious and
automatic. Participants may not be aware of the influence of the
conditioning process on their evaluations.
Applications:
Evaluative Conditioning has been used in various areas of social
psychology and beyond:
1. Advertising and Branding: Marketers use Evaluative Conditioning to
associate their p roducts or brands with positive emotions, aiming to create
more favour able attitudes among consumers.
2. Prejudice and Stereotyping: Researchers have employed this method
to examine how associations between social groups and affective stimuli
contribute t o prejudice and stereotyping.
3. Attitude Change: Evaluative Conditioning has been used to study how
subtle conditioning processes can influence people's attitudes on various
topics, such as politics or social issues.
munotes.in

Page 45

Assessment Methods Using Qualitative Approach - I
45 Limitations:
1. Limited Longevity: The effects of Evaluative Conditioning can be
relatively short -lived, particularly when participants are aware of the
conditioning process.
2. Individual Differences: Not everyone responds to conditioning in the
same way, and the effectiveness of this method ca n vary among
individuals.
In summary, Evaluative Conditioning is an implicit method used to
investigate how repeated pairings of neutral stimuli with affective stimuli
can lead to changes in individuals' evaluations or attitudes. It sheds light
on the aut omatic and unconscious processes that influence our emotional
responses and judgments.
4.1.5 Implicit Memory Tests
Implicit Memory Tests are a category of implicit methods used in social
psychology and cognitive psychology to assess individuals' implicit or
unconscious memory of information, typically involving words, images,
or stimuli they have been exposed to previously. These tests aim to reveal
memory processes that operate without conscious awareness. Here is a
description of Implicit Memory Tests i n the context of social psychology:
1. Word Stem Completion Task: In this task, participants are presented
with word stems (e.g., "h_t") and asked to complete them with the first
word that comes to mind. Unbeknownst to participants, some of these
stems ar e related to words they were previously exposed to in a separate
context. The completion of word stems with words related to the
previously presented information indicates implicit memory of those
words.
2. Word Fragment Completion Task: Similar to the wo rd stem
completion task, participants are given incomplete words (e.g., "h _ p _ _ t
_ _") and are asked to fill in the missing letters to complete the word.
Implicit memory is demonstrated if participants are more likely to
complete the word with the lett ers associated with previously presented
words.
3. Priming: Priming is a broader category of implicit memory tests that
involves exposing participants to a stimulus (e.g., words, images) that can
influence subsequent attitudes, behaviours , or judgments wi thout their
conscious awareness.
For example, if participants are shown words related to "honesty" before
evaluating a person's trustworthiness, they may rate that person more
positively without realizing the influence of the prime.
4. Affective Priming: In this variant of priming, participants are primed
with emotionally valenced stimuli (e.g., positive or negative words) before
performing a task, such as evaluating a social stimulus (e.g., a person's munotes.in

Page 46

Assessment in social
Psychology
46 face). Implicit memory is demonstrated when the emoti onal valence of the
prime influences participants' evaluations of the subsequent stimulus.
5. Semantic Priming: Participants are exposed to words or images related
to a particular concept or category (e.g., "ocean" before evaluating "fish").
The primed co ncept can unconsciously influence their judgments or
associations with the subsequent stimulus.
6. Repetition Priming: This test measures implicit memory by presenting
participants with stimuli they have encountered previously. The speed or
accuracy of pa rticipants' responses to previously seen stimuli is used to
assess their implicit memory for those items.
Implicit Memory Tests are valuable tools in social psychology because
they reveal unconscious influences on perception, judgment, and
behaviour . They can be used to investigate how exposure to specific
information or concepts can shape individuals' implicit attitudes,
stereotypes, and reactions to social stimuli. However, it is essential to
recognize that implicit memory tests provide insights into aut omatic
cognitive processes but do not necessarily reflect explicit or consciously
held beliefs or memories.
4.2 SOCIOMETRY: IMPORTANCE AND OVERVIEW
OF SOCIOMETRIC ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES
Sociometry is a field of social psychology that focuses on the
measur ement and analysis of social relationships within groups. It was
developed by Jacob L. Moreno in the early 20th century and has since
been used to study social dynamics, group interactions, and interpersonal
relationships.
4.2.1 Importance of Sociometry
1. Understanding Social Structure: Sociometry helps researchers and
practitioners understand the structure of social relationships within a
group. It provides insights into who interacts with whom and how those
interactions influence the group's functioning .
2. Identifying Group Dynamics: By examining patterns of social
connections, sociometry can reveal group dynamics such as leadership,
cliques, social isolation, and conflict.
3. Improving Group Processes: Sociometric assessments can be used to
identify and address issues within a group, leading to improved
communication, cooperation, and overall group effectiveness.
4. Research Tool: Sociometry is a valuable research tool for studying
social behaviours , decision -making processes, and the impact of socia l
networks on individual and group outcomes.

munotes.in

Page 47

Assessment Methods Using Qualitative Approach - I
47 4.2.2 Soc iometric Assessment Procedures
1. Questionnaires: Participants in a group are asked to provide
information about their social relationships, such as whom they like, trust,
or prefer to work with. These questionnaires can be structured to gather
data on various aspects of social relationships, including attraction,
friendship, and collaboration.
2. Ranking and Rating Scales: Participants may be asked to rank their
group members or rate them on various d imensions, such as popularity,
leadership, or contribution to the group. These rankings and ratings can
provide insights into social hierarchies and group roles.
3. Nomination Procedures: In nomination -based sociometry, group
members nominate others based on specific criteria. For example,
participants might be asked to nominate peers they consider their best
friends or those they find most influential.
4. Social Network Analysis (SNA): SNA is a quantitative approach to
sociometry that uses mathematical a nd graphical techniques to analyze
social networks within a group. It visualizes connections, identifies key
players, and measures the strength and centrality of relationships.
5. Sociogram: A sociogram is a visual representation of social
relationships w ithin a group. It typically uses symbols and lines to depict
connections between group members. Sociograms can reveal patterns of
affiliation, isolation, or conflict.
6. Data Analysis: After collecting sociometric data, researchers can
analyze it to ident ify central figures (popular individuals), isolate
individuals (those with fewer connections), and identify subgroups or
cliques within the group.
7. Intervention: Based on the findings from sociometric assessments,
interventions can be implemented to imp rove group dynamics.
For example, addressing conflicts, promoting inclusivity, or facilitating
communication between isolated individuals.
4.3 SUMMARY
Implicit methods have contributed significantly to the field of social
psychology by uncovering hidden biases and shedding light on the
complex interplay between conscious and unconscious processes in human
behaviour and cognition.
Sociometry plays a significant role in understanding and improving social
interactions within various settings, including sch ools, workplaces,
therapy groups, and communities. It helps researchers and practitioners
gain insights into the social fabric of groups, which, in turn, can lead to
more effective interventions and strategies for building positive and
cohesive social envi ronments. munotes.in

Page 48

Assessment in social
Psychology
48 4.4 QUESTIONS
1. Define implicit methods of assessment .
2. Describe the Implicit Association Test .
3. What are the implicit measures of attitudes ?
4. Describe the process of priming .
5. Discuss evaluative conditioning .
6. What are the Implicit Memory Tests ?
7. What is sociometry?
8. What is the importance of sociometry?
9. Explain the sociometric assessment procedures .
4.5 REFERENCES
1. Breakwell, G.M. (2004). Doing Social Psychology Research . Malden,
MA: British Psychological Society and Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

2. Whitcomb, S.A. &Merrell, K.W. (2013). Behavioural, Social and
Emotional Assessment of Children and Adolescents (4th ed). Oxon,
OX: Routledge.


munotes.in

Page 49

49 5
TOOLS FOR ASSESSMENT IN THE
AREAS OF CHILDREN AND ADULTS - I
Unit Structure :
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introductio n
5.2 Children: Tools for Assessment
5.2.1 Coloured Progressive Matrices (CPM)/
Standard Progressive Matrices (SPM)
5.2.2. Wechsler’s Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)
5.2.3 Children’s Personality Questionnaire (CPQ)
5.2.4 Children’s Apperception Test (CAT)
5.2.5 Draw -a-man
5.3 Adults: Tools for Assessment
5.3.1 Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
5.3.2 The House -Tree-Person Test (HTP)
5.4 Summary
5.5 Questions
5.6 References
5.0 OBJECTIVES
 To know the tools for assessment used with children.
 To know the tools for assessment used with adults.
5.1 INTRODUCTION
This unit focuses on various assessment techniques used for children and
adults. Here, we will try to have a better and more in -depth understanding
of the tools used to assess the intelligence and personality of children and
adults. We will concentrate on six tools (i.e., CPM/SPM, CAT, Draw -a-
man, CPQ and WISC) altogether used with children. Also, we will focus
on two tools (i.e., TAT and HTP) that are used with adults. munotes.in

Page 50

Assessment in social
Psychology
50 Let us begin by discussing these tests one by one. For our convenience, we
will look at these test s in two separate categories as measuring intelligence
and personality and in the sequence, accordingly, particularly in Section
5.2, which describes the tools used with children. First, we will try to seek
some basic knowledge of intelligence and personal ity with some of their
important aspects.
5.1.1 Intelligence
Conventional intelligence tests (IQ tests) have enormous potential for both
use and misuse in assessing intelligence. They can be used to examine and
treat children who were previously labelled as "st upid." On the other hand,
such IQ tests also can be used for illegal and unethical purposes, such as
categorizing people falsely, creating a bad impression about them or
particularly people of some gender or belonging to some community/ies,
etc. Thus, thes e tests are equally vulnerable to being misinterpreted to
support racism and gender -/ sex -biased ideologies. This unit will briefly
discuss intelligence assessment.
Classification of Intelligence Tests
Intelligence tests are classified on several bases.
1. Individual and Group tests - Intelligence can be measured using
individual or group tests. Individual and group tests are first classified
according to how they are administered. An individual test, according to
Simon -Binet, is the one that can only be giv en to one person at a time.
Such tests were insufficient to classify army personnel quickly and in
large numbers during World War I. As a result, group intelligence tests
that could be administered to a large group of people at once such as the
Army Alpha and Army Beta were developed.
In contrast to individual intelligence tests, group tests can be administered
to multiple people at the same time. As a result, a group intelligence test
enables us to assess the intelligence of a large number of people —up to
hundreds at once —in a timely and effective manner.
2. Verbal, Non -verbal/ Performance tests - There are other two types
of intelligence tests based on the form and content of the test items,
namely, verbal/paper -pencil tests and nonverbal/performance tests.
Because verbal tests use written language as items, the examinees/ test
takers must be literate.
A verbal test, as the name implies, requires language proficiency to pass.
The ability to comprehend and address language -based problems is
referred to as v erbal intelligence. The test takers must have the ability to
analyse verbal information as well as language -based reasoning to solve
problems presented in such tests/sub -tests, such as verbal analogies.
Because of the overemphasis on verbal skills, psychol ogists realised that
these tests were inappropriate for those who did not know English or had
limited language ability, such as illiterates, children, and people with munotes.in

Page 51

Tools for Assessment in The
Areas of Children and Adults - I
51 speech and hearing impairments. As a result, several
nonverbal/performance intelligence t ests were created.
Performance test questions are manipulative in nature and do not use any
language at all. Examinees must manipulate the objects in a specific and
desired manner. As a result, these tests can be successfully administered to
people who ar e blind, deaf, or illiterate. Nonverbal intelligence tests assess
a person's ability to analyse visual information and solve problems without
using language. To complete the tasks, it may be necessary to perform
visual analogies, comprehend and recognise r elationships between visual
concepts and situations, and recognise visual sequences.
The first nonverbal/performance assessment was the Seguin Form Board.
The Kohs Block Design test (Kohs, 1920) and the Porteus Maze Test
(Porteus, 1915, 1919) are two well -known early twentieth -century
performance tests. The Kohs Block Design test requires one to create a
pattern out of painted blocks. The Porteus test consists of a series of
graded mazes. Although this test is still available, it is not widely used.
Some pe rformance tests claim to be appropriate for use with people from
various cultures and prefer to be referred to as culture -free, culture -fair,
culture -reduced, and cross -cultural tests . Some tests that include nonverbal
subtests along with a verbal compone nt are:
 Wechsler scales,
 Kaufman scales,
 Das-Naglieri test,
 Otis Quick -scoring Intelligence Test, and
 Multilevel Ability Test.
There are several well -known nonverbal intelligence tests, such as the
Culture -fair Intelligence Test (Cattell, 1940; IPAT, 1973) and Raven's
Progressive Matrices (Raven, 1938, 1986, 1992, 1995).
Measures of Intelligence
There are hundreds of tests that claim to assess intelligence or cognitive
ability. Various tests have been developed for use with a variety of
populations, i ncluding children, adults, members of ethnic minority
groups, the gifted, and the disabled (e.g., visually, hearing, or motorically
impaired people).
Some tests are administered individually, while others are administered in
groups. Some tests have a larg e body of research to back up their
reliability and validity, while others have very little. Some are easy to
administer and score, while others are extremely challenging.
Although there are numerous intelligence tests to choose from, most
psychologists u se only a few of them on a regular and widespread basis.
Some of these widely used tests are:
 The Wechsler Scales : the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale -Third
Edition [WAIS -Ill], the WAIS -R as a Neuropsychological Instrument munotes.in

Page 52

Assessment in social
Psychology
52 [WAIS -R NI], the Wechsler Intel ligence Scale of Children -Fourth
Edition [WISC -IV], and the Wechsler Primary and Preschool Scale -
Third Edition [WPPSI -III]) are unquestionably the most popular and
widely used tests.

 The Stanford -Binet(Fifth Edition) : It is the second most popular
intell igence test.

 Some other tests: Popular alternatives include the Kaufman
Assessment Battery for Children (K -ABC), the Woodcock -Johnson
Psycho -Educational Battery, and Raven's Progressive Matrices.
Culture -Fair Tests
Intelligence tests, according to critic s, are biased towards the majority
group in society. Minorities and the underprivileged are frequently at a
disadvantage. There are cultural differences between any two groups.
Different cultural groups place different values and demands. Thus, they
motiva te different behaviours.
As a result, culture -free tests are required to assess individuals from
various cultures. During the 1910s, some of the earliest cross -cultural tests
(Knox, 1914) were developed. Generally, cultures differ along the
following dime nsions:
 Language – Different cultural groups speak different languages.
 Reading experience – Different cultures have different educational
backgrounds. In some cultures, illiteracy is widespread.
 Speed – The tempo of daily life, motivation to hurry, and the value
placed on speed of performance vary greatly among different cultural
and ethnic groups, even within a single country.
 Environmental experiences – Different natural and social phenomena
are experienced by people from various cultures. Many cultur es, for
example, have no experience with snowfall. They may be unable to
provide information about snowfall if questioned.
Earlier, the classic culture -free tests attempted to control these cultural
parameters. The authors strive to make the test content as culture -free as
possible. However, it is recognised that the impact of culture cannot be
completely eliminated from these tests.
As a result, the term 'culture -fair' is used instead of 'culture -free' tests.
Raven's Progressive Matrices (RPM -Raven, 193 8, 1986, 1995) sets itself
free from the effects of language and speed. The test includes abstract
figures that are thought to be neutral to any culture.
5.1.2 Personality
In this section, we will proceed to learn about personality assessment. Our
persona lity has a large influence on our behaviour, social interactions, and munotes.in

Page 53

Tools for Assessment in The
Areas of Children and Adults - I
53 relationships. As a result, it is critical to understand and assess our
personality in order to understand its implications in various aspects of our
lives. This will allow us to develop , modify, and improve our personalities
in order to function more effectively.
Personality assessment is a major area of research, and various theories
have influenced the development of personality assessment. The way
various theories conceptualise perso nality has an impact on how
personality is assessed.
For example, trait theorists are more concerned with identifying specific
traits in individuals, whereas psychoanalysts will use projective techniques
to assess one's personality. However, when it comes to measuring or
assessing one's personality, psychologists use a comprehensive approach
that combines various assessment techniques.
In this Unit, we will look at some of the personality tests most commonly
used with children (i.e., CPQ, CAT and Draw -a-Man) and adults (i.e.,
TAT and HTP), including projective tests.
Application of Personality Assessment
Personality assessment aims to measure an individual's personality traits
and characteristics in the following different areas:
 Educational - It has a w ide range of applications in schools and
educational settings. The child's performance is linked to his or her
personality.
 Career - Personality assessments are also commonly used in career
decisions and in determining the fit between job requirements and
personality traits.
 Clinical - The clinical application of personality assessment is
reflected in the use of personality tests for personality disorder
diagnosis.
 Counselling - It also has implications for counselling.
 Health and well -being - Personali ty can influence our health and
well-being, and understanding one's own personality can help us
modify our health behaviours and practises.
 Industrial and organisational - Personality assessment is crucial in
the industrial and organisational contexts. W e must understand how
our personality affects both ourselves and others in the workplace.
 Sports and military - Personality assessments are also used in many
other fields, such as sports and military settings.
Thus, personality assessment is relevant and useful in a variety of settings.
Because personality is an integral part of who we are, it has consequences
for everything we do, and thus the importance of personality assessment munotes.in

Page 54

Assessment in social
Psychology
54 cannot be overstated. Multiple methods are used to assess personality, and
they can be broadly classified into two categories:
1. Direct Methods - Direct methods include Observation, Interviews,
Personality Inventories/Questionnaires, Rating scales, Behavioural
data and Situational tests.
2. Indirect Methods - Indirect methods include Projective techniques.
Personality tests or inventories are often in the form of questionnaires or
scales that contain questions/statements that the individual or test taker
must answer in a specific standardised format. Therefore, these tests are
referr ed to as paper -and-pencil tests. They can also take the form of a
computerised test. Inventories are the most widely used method of
personality assessment.
Before moving to our main content of the unit, let us understand the
projective tests briefly, which can be considered to be an extension to the
self-report personality measures like inventories and questionnaires and
are extremely helpful in personality assessment.
Projective Tests
Projective measures of personality are popular tools for assessing
personality. Unlike self -report measures, where the individual is given
structured test stimuli, projective tests require the individual to respond to
unstructured or ambiguous stimuli. The basic assumption behind using
unstructured test stimuli in projective tests is that the individual projects
his or her latent or unconscious feelings, needs, emotions, motives, and so
on to the ambiguous stimulus. Individual responses in the form of
projection reflect the nature of his/her personality.
Projective technique s are based on the psychoanalytic view of personality,
which holds that the true nature of personality is hidden deep within the
unconscious. As a result, responses to questions in inventories or
interviews may not accurately reflect the individual's true personality
characteristics. Direct methods, according to projective techniques, are
incapable of assessing one's personality, and they can only be revealed
through indirect methods.
Furthermore, social desirability may operate when the person is on guard
and knows what is being asked, and the person may not even be aware of
his true personality to answer correctly. As a result, indirect measures such
as projective techniques are more effective in assessing an individual's
true personality.
While projecti ve tests tap the unconscious and reveal the subject's
personality through the interpretation of their responses, such
interpretation requires extensive training. Making up a story based on
some pictures or drawings is an example of a projective technique. The
unconscious feelings, emotions, or thoughts are projected onto these munotes.in

Page 55

Tools for Assessment in The
Areas of Children and Adults - I
55 drawings, pictures, or stories, which are then analysed to determine the
individual's personality.
As mentioned previously, we will learn about four of such projective tests
(i.e., CA T, Draw -a-person, TAT, and HTP) that are used with children and
adults.
5.2 CHILDREN: TOOLS FOR ASSESSMENT
5.2.1 Tools for Assessing Intelligence
We will cover three intelligence tests used with children, called Coloured
Progressive Matrices (CPM), Standard P rogressive Matrices (SPM), and
Wechsler’s Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC).
1) Coloured Progressive Matrices (CPM)/ Standard Progressive
Matrices (SPM)
These two tests are the two variations of a single intelligence test, called
Raven's Progressive M atrices (RPM). Therefore, they share most of the
characteristics of this test in common. So it is important for us to know
about RPM along with its brief history. A few of their independent
characteristics that are not common are noted down separately belo w
under their respective headings.
Raven's Progressive Matrices have a long and illustrious history as one of
the most widely used culture -reduced tests. Factor analyses carried out in
Spearman's lab in the 1930s showed that tests based on straightforward
pictorial analogies had high correlations with a number of other
intelligence tests and, more importantly, had high loadings on Spearman's
‘g’ factor.
Raven's Progressive Matrices (available in both paper and computer
formats) are a collection of multiple -choice items that all adhere to the
same basic principle. Each item represents a perceptual analogy as a
matrix. Some valid relationships link items in each row of the matrix, and
others link items in each column of the matrix. Each matrix is presented
with a portion of the matrix missing in the lower -right corner. The subject
must choose the piece that best completes each matrix from a set of six or
eight alternatives, i.e. the test taker must choose the missing part of the
matrix from the options listed below it.
The RPM test is a nonverbal test. Language is only used to give
instructions to the test taker. When a test taker understands his task, he no
longer needs to solve problems using language. As a result, the RPM is
best suited for testing non -Engli sh speakers. As a result, the influence of
culture is kept to a minimum. The test can be administered either
individually or in groups. The test has lower predictive validity against
academic criteria than traditional verbal intelligence tests. munotes.in

Page 56

Assessment in social
Psychology
56 Raven's Pro gressive Matrices are available in three variations. We will be
focusing on two of its variations CPM and SPM, which are widely used
with children.
 Coloured Progressive Matrices(CPM)

 This variation appears to be better suited for younger children (ages 4
to 10) as well as slightly older children and adults who exhibit signs of
retardation.

 It consists of three sets (A, Ab, and B) of twelve matrices that use
colour and are significantly easier than the Standard Progressive
Matrices.

 This test is designe d for younger children aged 5 ½ to 11 ½ years.

 It is a culture test with simple, straightforward instructions. It is made
up of 36 items divided into three subtests that evaluate abstract and
reasoning abilities.

 Standard Progressive Matrices(SPM)

 This variation is the most common form, consisting of 60 matrices
organised into 5 sets.

 Each of the five sets includes 12 matrices with solutions that follow
similar principles but differ in difficulty.

 The principles involved in solving the five sets of matrices include
perceptual discrimination, rotation, and pattern permutations.

 The first few items in each set are fairly straightforward, but later
matrices may involve extremely subtle and complex relationships.

 The Standard Progressive Matrices are appropriate for people aged 5
to 80, and because this test has a low floor and a relatively high
ceiling, the Standard Matrices are also appropriate for the majority of
ability levels.
The third variation of this test is Advanced Progressive Matrices whic h
is suitable for intellectually superior persons who find the Standard
Matrices to be too simple. The Advanced Matrices are made up of three
sets of 12 matrices, the solutions to which frequently rely on extremely
subtle concepts. The test effectively dis tinguishes those with extremely
high Standard Progressive Matrices scores.
Since CPM and SPM are variations of the same non -verbal or
performance intelligence test, they share more or less the same strengths
and limitations along with their applications.
munotes.in

Page 57

Tools for Assessment in The
Areas of Children and Adults - I
57 Strengths, Limitations, and Applications of CPM/SPM:
Strengths -
 CPM/SPM are not only simple to administer, but they also provide the
test giver/administrator/user with extensive norming, validation, and
standardisation data that allows inferences about th e examinee to be
drawn.
 They come with excellent support documentation, such as a technical
manual and an administration and scoring manual
 Scores are relatively unaffected by linguistic and ethnic background.
 They are very economical tests to administer .
 One of the most significant advantages of these Matrices tests is the
speed with which they provide valid information about an adult's or
child's cognitive functioning.
 A computerised version of these tests is also available to expand the
test's usage.
Limitations –
 Scholars and clinicians frequently hold polarised views on the
suitability of CPM/SPM to determine cognitive abilities in cross -
cultural populations;
 They do not take into account one’s verbal and emotional intelligence.
Applications -
 CPM /SPM tests are one of the most widely used instruments for
assessing analogical reasoning, abstraction capacity, and
perception.
 They are usually given on a regular basis in schools and during the
hiring process. In fact, it is now a standard component of psycho -
technical tests used in the selection of certain professions.
 They are also helpful in situations where one would like to know
beforehand how intelligent students or job candidates "in general"
are.
 They work for both children and adults, regardless of whether they
have communication or motor issues. Individuals with speech and
hearing impairments, as well as non -English speakers, can benefit
from it.
 They require “Gestalt” attention as well as analogical reasoning
where the person must use explorat ory behaviour. They must also
make comparisons and use multiple sources of information to
complete the matrices. munotes.in

Page 58

Assessment in social
Psychology
58  They are used as a psycho -educational tool to obtain a comprehensive
assessment of general cognitive functioning.
 They are also beneficial in p roviding reliable and valid data in
academic and educational settings as well as for research purposes.
 They help in identifying cognitive strengths and weaknesses in a
variety of neurological conditions, as well as providing useful
information for clinica l and neuropsychological evaluations. This
helps in treatment planning and placement decisions.
 They can also be used as part of a battery of assessments to identify
learning disabilities and giftedness.
2) Wechsler’s Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)
Before knowing about Wechsler’s Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC),
let us know briefly about Wechsler’s scales of intelligence since WISC is
also a part of it being one of its versions.
David Wechsler saw intelligence as a collection of specific, qu alitatively
distinct abilities as well as a global entity. Intelligence is a global concept
because it characterises an individual's overall behaviour. According to
Wechsler, brain damage, psychotic deterioration, and emotional
difficulties may have a grea ter impact on some cognitive functions than
others. As a result, he argued that a person's performance on various
subtests should be examined in order to diagnose various psychiatric
conditions. Therefore, his tests contain a variety of subtests from both the
verbal and nonverbal domains.
The Wechsler scales are comprised of several verbal and performance
subtests. Some of the subtests are core tests, while others are
supplemental. These subtests can be used to compute the Verbal IQ,
Performance IQ, and Fu ll Scale IQ. They can generate four Index scores in
addition to IQ scores. The first Wechsler intelligence scale was introduced
in 1939. Following that, the Wechsler scales were revised several times
for three different categories:
 for adults (16 -90 years ),
 for school -going children (6 -16 years) and
 for pre -schoolers (2½ - 7 years).
These scales are used to evaluate general intelligence, but they can also be
used in psychiatric diagnosis. The evolution of these scales over time is
depicted below:


munotes.in

Page 59

Tools for Assessment in The
Areas of Children and Adults - I
59
Wechsle r Adult
Intelligence Scale
(WAIS) Wechsler
Intelligence Scale for
Children (WISC) Wechsler Preschool
and Primary Scale
of Intelligence
Wechsler -Bellevue -
I:1939 Wechsler -Bellevue -
II:1946 WPPSI: 1967
WAIS: 1955 WISC: 1949 WPPSI -R: 1989
WAIS -R: 198 1 WISC -R: 1974 WPPSI -III: 2002
WAIS -III: 1997 WISC -III: 1991
WAIS -IV: 2008 WISC -IV: 2003

Since their publication, the Wechsler intelligence scales have been the
most widely used instruments among clinical and school psychologists for
assessing the cognitive abilities of children, adolescents, and adults. Let us
now move to the WISC.
The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) is an intelligence
test for children aged 6 to 16. The most recent version is the WISC -V
Fifth Edition (Wechsler, 2014). The WISC -V has both verbal and
nonverbal subscales. The WISC -V typically takes 45 to 65 minutes to
administer. WISC has been translated or adapted into numerous
languages, and norms for several countries have been established.
In India, the Malin' s Intelligence Scale for Indian Children (MISIC), a
WISC adaptation developed by Arthur J. Malin, is used. However, the
MISIC norms are out of date (they have not been updated in 50 years), and
many clinical psychologists do not use it in their practice be cause of the
possibility of Flynn effect errors in measured IQs.
Because Indian children are from a developing country, their intellectual
abilities have changed dramatically over the last five decades, making the
use of MISIC obsolete, though some psycho metricians argue that such
changes are minor and thus the test remains valid. Clinicians prefer the
fourth edition of the WISC to the MISIC, which was adapted and
standardised for India in 2012.
It is suggested that MISIC's standards must be updated becau se it is
currently India's most popular intelligence test as a WISC adaptation.
MISIC continues to have supporters and will be used by clinicians across
the country.
 Subtests - Each of these four domains of intellectual functioning
includes both "core" or mandatory subtests that must be administered
in order to calculate an index or IQ score and at least one
"supplementary" or optional subtest that is not used to calculate the
index or IQ score.
munotes.in

Page 60

Assessment in social
Psychology
60  The Verbal Comprehension category includes two supplemental
subtests - Information and Word Reasoning, in addition to the three
core subtests of Similarities, Vocabulary, and Comprehension.
 The Perceptual Reasoning category also consists of three core
subtests - Block Design, Picture Concepts, and Matrix Reasoning, as
well as one supplementary subtest of Picture Completion.
 The Working Memory category includes two core subtests, Digit
Span and Letter -Number Sequencing, as well as one supplemental
subtest – Arithmetic; and
 The Processing Speed category includes one supplemental subtest
called Cancellation in addition to the two primary subtests of Coding
and Symbol Search.
 Indices and scales - There are four index scores that correspond to the
main areas of intelligence:
 Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI)
 Perceptual Reasoning Index (PRI)
 Working Memory Index (WMI)
 Processing Speed Index (PSI)
There are also two broad scores generated that can be used to summarise
general intellectual abilities:
 Full-Scale IQ (FSIQ), based on the total combined performance of the
VCI, PRI, WMI, and PSI
 General Ability Index (GAI), based only on the six subtests that
comprise the VCI and PRI
As previously stated, the WISC -V provides four index score IQs as well as
an overall or full -scale IQ based on the results of all four index s cores. The
mean of these IQ scores is 100, with a standard deviation of 15.
To reflect human intellectual functioning, the four -factor scores (Verbal
Comprehension, Perceptual Reasoning, Working Memory, and Processing
Speed) were created using factor anal ysis techniques and a wide range of
research studies. Each subtest has a mean of 10 and a standard deviation of
3. The WISC - V has high reliability, validity, and stability, according to
Wechsler (2014).
Key Features of the WISC:
 The test assesses verbal c omprehension, perceptual reasoning, working
memory, processing speed, and fluid reasoning, among other cognitive
abilities. This allows for a thorough evaluation of a child's cognitive
abilities and aids in identifying areas of strength and weakness. munotes.in

Page 61

Tools for Assessment in The
Areas of Children and Adults - I
61  The t est is standardised, which means that it was given to a large
representative sample of children and the results were analysed to
create norms. The results of a child's test can then be compared to
those of their peers, providing a clear picture of their co gnitive
abilities.
 The test is administered individually, that is, one -on-one by a trained
psychologist, allowing for a personalised assessment of a child's
abilities.
 The WISC has been thoroughly researched and has proven to be
highly reliable and valid. This means that the test accurately measures
what it is supposed to measure and yields consistent results over time.
 The WISC is used as a clinical tool in addition to an intelligence test.
The WISC -V is used by some practitioners to diagnose intellectua l
disabilities, giftedness, specific learning disabilities, placement in
specialised programmes, and clinical intervention.
 The WISC can be used to identify gaps between a child's intelligence
and academic performance. Learning disabilities can be diagnos ed in a
clinical setting by comparing intelligence scores to achievement test
scores.
 In general, the WISC is a useful tool for assessing children's cognitive
abilities and can provide useful information for educational and
intervention planning. It shoul d be noted that the WISC is only one
tool in a larger assessment process and should be used in conjunction
with other assessment measures and information sources. Furthermore,
the test must be administered in a standardised and appropriate manner
by a trai ned professional.
5.2.2 Tools for Assessing Personality
The Children's Personality Questionnaire (CPQ), is one of the most
commonly used personality inventories with children. Let us study the
same in some more detail.
1) Children’s Personality Questionnair e (CPQ)
Personality inventories typically assess several traits. The Children's
Personality Questionnaire (CPQ)(Porter & Cattell, 1985)is a self -report
personality inventory for children aged 8 to 12. It can be used to assess
their personal, social, and ac ademic development, as well as aspects of
their personality that influence academic performance and social
adjustment both inside and outside of the classroom. Because the findings
supplement standard academic aptitude measures, they can be used to
improve the accuracy of academic achievement prediction. They have also
been used to evaluate candidates for scholarships and to assist school and
occupational counsellors in career guidance.
The questionnaire assesses 14 personality dimensions based on a factor
analysis of personality conducted by Cattell in 1950. There are four forms munotes.in

Page 62

Assessment in social
Psychology
62 to choose from: A, B, C, and D. Each form has 140 items, with ten for
each dimension. Each form contains 140 items, with 10 items per factor
per form. Each form is divided into tw o parts. Thus, Form A is composed
of Parts A1 and A2, each of which contains 70 items. Forms B, C, and D
are divided similarly. Except for the items in factor B, intelligence, each
item has a forced -choice, "yes" or "no" answer.
The items were designed to be as "neutral" in terms of social desirability
as possible. It is designed to require only a normal reading vocabulary of
an average child of eight. The test is given without a time limit, and for
younger children, the testing time can be divided into tw o parts for a given
form; however, one test session should not last more than 50 minutes.
Answer sheets can be machine -scored by the publisher or hand -scored by
the test administrator. There are two separate stencils available for scoring
the answer sheet . These two stencils are required to obtain the 14 raw
scores from each of the test forms.
Scores are displayed as normalised stens (N stens), standard deviation
stens (S stens), and percentile ranks. The manual includes separate norms
tables for boys and girls because several personality factors have
significantly different means between the groups.
Applications and Uses of the Test
WISC has several applications and uses for the following purposes:
 To gain a better understanding of children whose educatio nal progress
is clearly hampered by personality issues.
 To identify children who require individual attention and to guide
those children who have emotional conflicts or behavioural disorders.
Because of this earlier recognition, many behavioural issues ca n be
avoided or handled before they develop into defensive habits and other
complications that are resistant to treatment.
 To assist the student in making future educational and vocational
decisions.
 When appropriately weighted personality measures are used, future
school achievement and creativity can be predicted and understood
more precisely.
 To encourage the keeping of meaningful developmental records for
children. Clinical practice and work with delinquents and children
courts all require a diagnosti c instrument which operates with these
basic personality concepts.
 To assess the progression of character and personality development. If
schools keep test and criterion records of emotional maturity, self -
control, anxiety level, concentration capacity, so cial learning, and
other such traits, these traits may eventually receive as much
intelligent attention as academic grades do now. munotes.in

Page 63

Tools for Assessment in The
Areas of Children and Adults - I
63  It can be used as an individual test in the clinic or as a group test in the
classroom.
 In general, it can be used to assess, comprehend, and predict personal
adjustment, social development, and academic performance.
We have learned briefly about projective tests in Section 5.1.2. Some
commonly used projective techniques are discussed further below.
2) Children’s Apperception Tes t (CAT)
The Children Apperception Test (CAT)was developed and published in
1949 by psychiatrist and psychologist Leopold Bellak and Sonya Sorel
Bellak. It is based on the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), a picture -
story test designed for adults. The India n version of CAT is also available.
The Children's Apperception Test (CAT) is a projective personality test
used to assess individual differences in children's responses to
standardised stimuli presented as pictures of animals (CAT -A) or humans
(CAT -H) in common social situations. The stimuli in the CAT -S, a
supplement to the CAT, include images of children in common family
situations, such as prolonged illnesses, births, deaths, and separations from
parental figures.
The CAT is used to assess personality, maturity level, and, in some cases,
psychological health. The theory is that a child's responses to a series of
drawings of animals or humans in familiar. According to the theory, a
child's reactions to a series of drawings of animals or humans in familia r
situations will reveal significant aspects of the child's personality.
Some of these personality dimensions include:
 reality testing and judgement,
 control and regulation of drives,
 defences,
 conflicts, and
 autonomy.
Because the CAT cards are inte nded for children aged three to ten, animal
figures are used instead of human figures. It was assumed that children
aged three to ten would identify more easily with animal drawings. These
animal images are more like human situations involving -
 feeding issues,
 sibling rivalry,
 parent -child relationships,
 aggression,
 toilet training, and
 other childhood experiences.

munotes.in

Page 64

Assessment in social
Psychology
64 CAT supplementary cards depict various scenarios such as –
 the classroom,
 playground interaction, and
 reactions to illness.
A train ed professional should administer the CAT, which usually takes 20 -
45 minutes. The test can be used in therapy directly or as a play technique
in other settings. After carefully establishing rapport with the child, the
examiner shows the child one card afte r another in a specific sequence
(although fewer than ten cards may be used at the examiner's discretion)
and encourages the child to tell a story about the characters, complete with
a beginning, middle, and end.
The examiner may ask the child to describe the scene depicted, the
emotions of the characters, and what might happen in the future. There are
no correct or incorrect answers in a projective test like the CAT. As a
result, the test has no numerical score or scale. On the provided form, the
test adm inistrator records the essence of each story told and indicates the
presence or absence of certain thematic elements.
Each story, like the TAT, is carefully analysed to reveal the child's
underlying needs, conflicts, emotions, attitudes, and response patt erns.
The creators of the CAT recommend a set of ten variables to consider
when interpreting the results. The major theme of the story, the major
character's needs, drives, anxieties, conflicts, fears, and the child's
conception of the external world are a mong these variables.
The CAT, like other projective measures, has been criticised for lacking a
standardised method of administration as well as standard norms for
interpretation. Studies of interactions between examiners and test subjects
have discovered , for example, that the race, gender, and social class of
both participants influence the stories told as well as how the examiner
interprets the stories.
Applications and Uses of the Test
CAT has several applications and uses for the following purposes:
 To learn about the child's personality structure, his dynamic way of
reacting to problems, and how he would handle his developmental
problem.
 The CAT, which is intended for use in clinical, educational, and
research settings, provides the examiner with da ta based on the child's
perceptions and imagination, which the examiner can use to better
understand the child's current needs, motives, emotions, and conflicts,
both conscious and unconscious. It is typically used in clinical
assessment as part of a large r battery of tests and interview data.
 The test's images elicit a child's anxieties, fears, and psychological
defences.
 This test also tells us about the child's structure and his dynamic
method of reacting to and dealing with his developmental problems. munotes.in

Page 65

Tools for Assessment in The
Areas of Children and Adults - I
65  The CAT may be clinically useful in determining which dynamic and
structural factors are associated with a child's behaviour and problems
in a group, at school, kindergarten, or at home.
 The CAT could be used as a play technique in therapy.
 CAT can be used to make informed decisions about differential
diagnosis and treatment recommendations.
3) Draw -A-Man
Florence L. Goodenough created the Draw -A-Man Test of Intellectual
Maturity (DAM) in 1926, and Dale B. Harris revised it in 1963. It has
been widely used to a ssess children's intellectual maturation, to elicit
personality type and unconscious material, and as part of
neuropsychologic test batteries.
Florence Goodenough, a child psychologist, pioneered the formal use of
drawing for psychological assessment in 1 926. When Goodenough wanted
to find a way to supplement the Stanford -Binet intelligence test with a
nonverbal measure, she became interested in drawing. She believed that
children draw what they know rather than what they see and that the
nature and conten t of a child's drawing are more closely related to their
mental development than to anything else. Many changes can be seen in
different ages of children's drawings, and these changes are directly related
to a child's general intelligence. Her extensive re search on children's
drawings resulted in the first drawing intelligence test, known as the
Goodenough Draw a Man test.
Among the other psychologists interested in children's development was
Piaget (1956 -1970), who conducted numerous studies on human draw ing.
Though the test's initial purpose was to provide an easily scored, relatively
culture -free measure of the pre -adolescent child's intellectual functioning,
subsequent research has shown that it serves this purpose well.
However, Goodenough proposed a second application of the test: using the
DAM to assess personality adjustment. In fact, the test has evolved into a
valuable tool for detecting and diagnosing behavioural disorders and
individual maladjustment in children. On the theoretical foundation of
Goodenough's original effort, several other tests have been developed and
validated.
The test guidelines, as established by Goodenough and later revised by
Harris, appear to suggest the possibility of analysing personal adjustment
with the DAM. The follo wing is the test's central premise: A child's
drawing of an object reveals his discrimination about that object as a
concept. When expressed, this concept becomes a useful index to the
complexity of his concepts in general.
According to Harris, the followi ng three fundamental factors contribute to
concept formation:
 The ability to Perceive , i.e., to discriminate likenesses.
 The ability to Abstract to a new situation this discrimination.
 The ability to Generalize from a given context to a new context. munotes.in

Page 66

Assessment in social
Psychology
66 Each of these statements appears to imply that the child must accurately
perceive his surroundings in order to be considered adequately adjusted
and, as a result, to perform well on the DAM.
The Draw -A-Man Test contains no actual items. Patients are given a b lank
piece of paper (8.5 x 11) labelled "Draw an Entire Man" and a pencil, and
they are instructed to draw an entire man from memory. The Draw -A-Man
Test usually takes less than 5 minutes to complete.
Applications and Uses of the Test
DAM has several appli cations and uses for the following purposes:
 Apart from children, the test has also been used to detect unilateral
spatial neglect (USN) in adult stroke patients.
 It can also be used with stroke patients.
It is recommended, however, that it not be used w ith patients who have
had a left stroke or who are left -handed and need to rule out the presence
of apraxia, as this may impair the validity of testing results. The Draw -A-
Man Test should be used for screening purposes only, not for clinical
diagnosis of U SN.
5.3 ADULTS: TOOLS FOR ASSESSMENT
In this section, we will learn about two more projective tests which are
helpful in personality assessment that are used with adults. They are the
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) and the House -Tree-Person Test
(HTP). Let us now explore them briefly one by one.
1) Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
Henry A. Murray and Christina D. Morgan (1930) created the Thematic
Apperception Test (TAT), a projective psychological test. Proponents of
the technique argue that subjects' r esponses to ambiguous images of
people reveal their underlying motives, concerns, and perspectives on the
social world.
Historically, the test has been one of the most widely researched, taught,
and used techniques of its kind. The test aims to assess a p erson's
motivational traits, patterns of thought, attitudes, observational capacity,
and emotional responses to ambiguous test materials as reflected in the
stories.
In the case of the TAT, the ambiguous materials are a set of cards
depicting human figure s in a variety of settings and situations. The TAT is
made up of 31 black -and-white images depicting various social and
interpersonal situations. The subject is asked to tell the examiner a story
about each picture. Ten of the 31 images are gender -specific , while the
remaining 21 can be used with adults of either sex as well as children. munotes.in

Page 67

Tools for Assessment in The
Areas of Children and Adults - I
67 The subject is asked to tell the examiner a story about each card that
includes the following elements:
 the event shown in the picture;
 what led up to it;
 what the chara cters in the picture are feeling and thinking; and
 the outcome of the event.
TAT is widely used in psychology research to investigate topics such as –
 dreams and fantasies,
 mate selection,
 the factors that influence people's occupational choices, and
 similar topics.
Even though it is not a diagnostic test, it is sometimes used in psychiatric
evaluations to assess disordered thinking and in forensic examinations to
evaluate crime suspects. The TAT can be used to help people better
understand their own personalities and use that knowledge to make
important life decisions.
Finally, it is sometimes used as a screening tool in psychological
evaluations of candidates for high -stress occupations (for example, law
enforcement, the military, and religious min istry). There is no specific
preparation required before taking the TAT, though most examiners prefer
to schedule sessions (if more than one) over two days.
Except for the fact that it is a one -on-one test, there is no standardised
procedure or set of car ds for administering the TAT. It cannot be given to
groups. In one common method, the examiner only shows the subject ten
of the 31 cards at each of the two sessions. The sessions are not timed, but
they last about an hour on average.
The TAT has been crit icised for lacking a standardised administration
method as well as standard norms for interpretation. Studies of
interactions between examiners and test subjects have revealed that the
race, gender, and social class of both participants influence both the stories
told and how the examiner interprets the stories. TAT card sets for African
American and elderly test subjects have been attempted, but the results
have not been encouraging. Furthermore, the 31 standard images have
been criticised for being too gl oomy or depressing, which may limit the
range of personality traits that the test can assess.
The Indian adaptation of TAT was developed by Uma Choudhary in 1960.
It consists of 14 cards as modified for the Indian population. munotes.in

Page 68

Assessment in social
Psychology
68 Applications and Uses of the Test
TAT has the applications and uses for the following purposes:
 The TAT is a popular projective test for assessing children and adults.
It is intended to reveal a person's perception of interpersonal
relationships.
 Thirty -one picture cards are used as p rompts for stories and
descriptions of relationships or social situations.
 The TAT is useful in the interpretation of behaviour disorders,
neuroses, psychoses, and psychosomatic illnesses, as well as in any
comprehensive study of personality. As a result, the test can aid in a
person's greater understanding and awareness. TAT, like RT
(Rorschach Inkblot Test), is a projective test that is especially effective
when combined with other forms of analysis, such as
psychotherapeutic interviews or brief psychoana lysis.
 TAT is also used as a professional evaluation service. Professional
psychologists use the test to help clients better understand themselves.
This can assist clients in working on themselves and recognising their
own personality, thereby enhancing pe rsonal growth.
Therapists can use the TAT in a variety of ways. Among these are:
 To learn more about a person - In this way, the test serves as an
icebreaker while also providing useful information about potential
emotional conflicts that the client may ha ve.
 To help people express their feelings - The TAT is frequently used as
a therapeutic tool to allow clients to express their feelings in an
indirect manner. A client may not be able to express a specific emotion
directly, but they may be able to identify the emotion when viewed
from a distance.
 To explore themes related to the person's life experiences - Clients
dealing with issues such as job loss, divorce, or health issues may
interpret the ambiguous scenes and relate them to their specific
circumstance s, allowing for deeper exploration during therapy.
 To assess someone for psychological conditions - The test is
sometimes used to assess personality or thought disorders.
 To evaluate crime suspects - Clinicians may administer the test to
criminals in ord er to assess the risk of recidivism or to determine
whether a person fits the profile of a crime suspect.
 To screen job candidates - This is sometimes used to determine
whether people are suited to specific roles, particularly positions that
require dealin g with stress and evaluating ambiguous situations, such
as military leadership and law enforcement.

munotes.in

Page 69

Tools for Assessment in The
Areas of Children and Adults - I
69 2) The House -Tree -Person Test (HTP)
The House -Tree-Person Test (HTP) is a projective test that is used to
assess various aspects of personality. Participan ts in the test are asked to
draw a house, a tree, and a person. These drawings are interpreted to
create a picture of the person's cognitive, emotional, and social
functioning. John Buck, an early clinical psychologist, developed the HTP
test in 1948. It w as originally designed to assess children's intelligence and
was based on Florence Goodenough's 1926 Draw -A-Man personality test.
Buck and psychologist Emanuel Hammer revised the HTP test again in
1969.
HTP is The house -tree-person test is one of the most widely used
projective tests for children and adults, and it is appropriate for anyone
aged 3 and up. The child must draw a house, a tree, and a person in a
specific order. The examiner takes notes on the spontaneous comments
and behaviour during the draw ing, followed by a planned interview
eliciting details, clarification, and material with symbolic significance.
This is a very simple test, but it reveals a lot of information about the child
and his interactions with his parents. Clinical psychologists, occupational
therapists, and educators all use the test. It is also used as part of a battery
of personality and intelligence tests, including the Rorschach, TAT, and
WAIS, to assess personality.
Furthermore, the HTP test is an effective tool for assessin g brain damage
in schizophrenia patients. The house -tree-person test takes about 150
minutes to complete on average. Therapists can choose between a one -
phase test in which they draw with a pencil or crayon and a two -phase test
in which they draw with a cr ayon in the first phase and a pencil in the
second. Each phase is divided into two parts, with the first being
nonverbal and creative, and the second being structured and verbal.
On separate sheets of paper, test takers are instructed to draw a house, a
tree, and a person as accurately as possible. Following that, they are asked
a series of questions about their drawings. Buck proposed a list of 60
questions, but trained test administrators are free to create their own
variations and follow -up questions. He re are some examples of the
questions that might be asked:
The house The tree The person
Who lives in the house? What kind of tree
is it? Who is the person?
Do people visit the
house? How old is the
tree? How old is the person?
Is it a happy ho use? What season is it? How does that person
feel?
What is the house made
of? Is the tree alive? Is the person happy?
What goes on inside the
house? Who waters the
tree? What does the person like
doing? munotes.in

Page 70

Assessment in social
Psychology
70 After the respondents have answered the questio ns, their drawings are
analysed and interpreted. It is based on the idea that drawings reflect
feelings. The details of a drawing are interpreted as representations of
various personality traits. Thus, Drawing a house is thought to express
the respondent's family relations and family values, whereas drawing a
tree is thought to suggest the deepest, unconscious aspects of the
personality. Drawing a person , on the other hand, is a symbolic
representation of one's ideal self and social interactions.
Other aspe cts of drawings include the dimensions of objects, the level of
detail, the placement of objects on the page, and the pressure, firmness,
and solidity of strokes and lines, which indicate determination and
decision -making abilities. In addition to the abov e factors, therapists
consider the test taker's attitude, words, and gestures while drawing. Any
expression of frustration, anger, or satisfaction is taken into account in test
analysis.
A house -tree-person test can be scored objectively or subjectively. In
administering and scoring the HTP tests, trained therapists rely on John
Buck's 350 -page manual and interpretive guide. Quantitative scoring
provides a general assessment of intelligence. According to research, the
quantitative assessment correlates str ongly with other well -established
intelligence measures.
Applications and Uses of the Test
HTP has the applications and uses for the following purposes:
 The HTP's primary goal is to assess aspects of a person's personality
through the interpretation of dra wings and responses to questions.
 It is also occasionally used to assess brain damage or overall
neurological functioning.
5.4 SUMMARY
We learned about the various types of intelligence and personality
assessments used with children and adults in this unit. W e also discovered
that there are a variety of other individual and group intelligence tests. An
individual test is given to one person at a time, whereas a group test can be
given to more than one person at the same time.
There are two types of intelligen ce tests: verbal and nonverbal. A verbal
test is one that requires the use of language in order to be successful.
Nonverbal tests, which do not require the use of words, rely on the ability
to analyse visual data to solve problems.
Psychologists also ackn owledged that intelligence tests designed for
Westerners are not appropriate for use with non -Westerners. As a result,
they created many culture -fair tests for cross -cultural use. Though
intelligence tests have gained popularity, their widespread use is fr aught
with controversy. IQ tests can be abused, and if they are, they can be more
harmful than helpful. munotes.in

Page 71

Tools for Assessment in The
Areas of Children and Adults - I
71 We also learned that because personality is not a one -dimensional
characteristic, personality assessment cannot be based on a single
technique. If we w ant to have a comprehensive, better, and more accurate
understanding of an individual's personality, we must combine the various
methods of assessing personality. Personality assessment is a field with
numerous applications ranging from education to career counselling to
clinical settings. Following that, various methods of personality
assessment, including direct and indirect techniques, were described.
5.5 QUESTIONS
1. Discuss two tests used to measure intelligence (Intelligence Quotient -
IQ).
2. Discuss Coloured Progressive Matrices (CPM) and Standard
Progressive Matrices (SPM) in detail.
3. What is a culture -fair test? Give some examples of culture -fair
intelligence tests.
4. Describe the Wechsler’s Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC).
5. Write a note on the classif ication of intelligence tests.
6. Give examples of any two projective tests and discuss.
7. Write a note on the applications of personality assessments.
8. Discuss CPQ and its applications.
5.6 REFERENCES
1. Bellak, L., &Bellak, S. S. (1949). Children's Apperception Test. C.P.S.
Co., P.O. Box 42, Gracie Sta.
2. Buck, J.N. (1948). The H -T-P test. Journal of Clinical Psychology , 4:
151-159.
https://doi.org/10.1002/10974679(194804 )4:2<151::AIDJCLP227004
0203>3.0.CO;2 -O
3. Goodenough, F. (1926). Measurement of intelligence by drawings .
New York: World Book Co.
4. Morgan, C.D., & Murray, H.A.(1935). A Method for Investigating
Fantasies: The Thematic Apperception Test. Archives of Neurology &
Psychiatry , 34(2):289 –306.
https://10.1001/archneurpsyc.1935.02250200049005
5. Porter R. B. Cattell R. B. & Institute for Personality and Ability
Testing. (19851975). Handbook for the children' s personality
questionnaire : (CPQ)(1985th ed.). Institute for Personality and Ability
Testing.
6. Raven, J. (1981). Manual for Raven's Progressive Matrices and
Vocabulary Scales. Research Supplement No.1: The 1979 British
Standardisation of the Standard Prog ressive Matrices and Mill Hill
Vocabulary Scales, Together With Comparative Data From Earlier
Studies in the UK, US, Canada, Germany and Ireland. San Antonio,
Texas: Harcourt Assessment.
7. Raven, J. C. (1936). Mental tests used in genetic studies: The
perfor mance of related individuals on tests mainly educative and
mainly reproductive. MSc Thesis, University of London. munotes.in

Page 72

Assessment in social
Psychology
72 8. Raven, J., Raven, J.C., & Court, J.H. (2003). Manual for Raven's
Progressive Matrices and Vocabulary Scales. Section 1: General
Overview . San Antonio, TX: Harcourt Assessment.
Wechsler, D. (2014). Wechsler intelligence scale for children -fifth edition .
Bloomington, MN: Pearson.


munotes.in

Page 73

73 6
TOOLS FOR ASSESSMENT IN AREAS OF
FAMILY AND INDUSTRY - II
Unit Structure :
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Family : Assessment Tools
6.1.1 Kinetic Family Drawings (KFD)technique
6.1.2 Couples Satisfaction Index (CSI)
6.2 Industry : Assessment Tools
6.2.1 FIRO -B
6.2.2 Cognitive Mapping
6.3 Summary
6.4 Questions
6.5 References

6.0 OBJECTIVES
After you go through this unit, you will be able to:
 Know the tools – Kinetic Family Draw ings technique and Couples
Satisfaction Index (CSI) and discuss their importance .
 Assessment tools used in the industry setting – FIRO – B and
cognitive mapping technique and discuss their beneficence.
6.1 FAMILY : ASSESSMENT TOOLS
We learned about a few intel ligence and personality assessments used with
children and adults in the previous unit. In this unit, we will progress and
learn about assessment techniques that focus on the family as a whole. We
will also concentrate on assessment techniques used in indu strial settings.
In counselling, assessment is the process of gathering vital information
about a person and his family. According to Kline (2000), assessment is
used to help understand and predict behaviour. Typical assessment
methods include history int erviews with a person and his or her family,
behavioural observations, and formal tests to gather information about the
person and family (Lovler, Miller, & McIntire, 2010).
Family counselling without assessment is similar to driving without a
map. The counselors must be aware of where all family members have
been, where they are now, and where they intend to go in the future munotes.in

Page 74

Assessment in social
Psychology
74 (Deacon & Piercy, 2001).Couple s and family counselling meetings are
attended by clients for a variety of reasons. Some may seek prem arital
counselling to help prepare for an upcoming marriage; others may seek
couples' counselling to understand why they feel distant from each other
after years of marriage; and still others may seek premarital counselling to
help prepare for an upcoming marriage.
Professional counselor s can use assessment techniques effectively in each
of these cases to gather information, develop hypotheses, evaluate
treatment progress and outcomes, and facilitate change. As a result,
developing treatment interventions for couples, families, and children
requires an accurate assessment of family relationships and functioning. In
family interventions and individual psychotherapy, the success of a
treatment plan is frequently dependent on a careful assessment of the
nature of the problem and the potential for a solution (Bray, 2010).
The assessment process involves gathering, analysing, and synthesising
relevant data about the family context in order to not only identify stresses
and problems, as well as the resulting adap tation, but also to evaluate
strengths and resources. We begin with a projective technique of family
assessment - the Kinetic family drawings technique (KFD) - and then
move on to a self -report inventory known as the Couples Satisfaction
Index (CSI). The K FD is similar to other psychometric projective
techniques studied in previous units, such as Goodenough's Draw -A-Man
Test and Buck's House -Tree-Person (HTP) technique.
6.1.1 Kinetic Family Drawings (KFD) Technique
Kinetic Family Drawing (KFD) is a crea tive draw ing technique. The KFD
was created by clinical psychologist and psychiatry professors Burns and
Kaufman (1971) at the University of Washington. It requires the test -taker
to draw a picture of his or her entire family. Children are asked to draw a
picture o f their family, including themselves, "doing something." This
image is intended to elicit the child's attitudes towards his or her family as
well as the overall family dynamics.
The KFD is sometimes used to assess child abuse. The goal of the KFD is
to ex plore and access a child's view of self in the context of the family
system by interpreting meaning from what was projected onto the
drawing. The inspiration for this tool came from a desire to gather more
information from the "family drawing." The argumen t is that including
kinetic action would be more informative than drawing a family with
akinetic action.
Figure drawings are projective diagnostic techniques in which a person is
instructed to draw a person, an object, or a situation in order to assess
cognitive, interpersonal, or psychological functioning. The KFD is based
on the premise of object relations theory, which views parents as the
objects that mediate self -identification in an automatic and unconscious
manner. These objects are expressed in the drawing through characteristics
that can provide meaning through styles, actions, symbolism, and
chronological timing. munotes.in

Page 75

Tools for Assessment in The
Areas of Children and Adults - II
75 The original KFD text acknowledges that interpreting children's drawings
is not a concluding part and it suggests further reading on sym bolism. It
also emphasises the significance of inquiry in clarifying features, as well
as the importance of context and prior knowledge.
The K -F-D method is a type of reflective testing tool; the children's works
can be used to gain insight into the inter action of individual family
members as well as the development of the child's sense of self within the
family.
The K -F-D self is an expression of the nuclear self, which is formed in
family life (Fan, 2006). The K -F-D method reflects the inner self of the
individual; it is an extremely detailed representation of the childhood self.
The K-F-D drawing analysis focuses on the depiction of the interaction
between the individual child and other family members, with the drawing
serving as a reflection of the in ner self. The K -F-D drawings can be used
to gain a better understanding of the child's sense of self within the family
and of the psychological interaction between family members by
observing and interviewing the children about the characteristics of the
human figures portrayed in their drawings, the interaction between family
members, the symbols used, the spatial layout of the pictures, and the
omission of specific members of the family from the drawings (Fan,
2006).
Description of Kinetic Drawing System
To use the Kinetic Drawing System, all we need is -
 a pencil,
 blank paper,
 a scoring booklet, and
 about 20 minutes with the child.
Procedure with Instructions:
The evaluator hands over to the client a piece of p aper and a pencil and
instructs -
"Draw a picture of everyone in your family, including you, DOING
something. Try to draw whole people, not cartoo ns or stick figures.
Remember, make everyone DO something - some kind of action" (Burns
& Kaufman, 1972, p.5).
There is no time limit, but the evalua tor should keep track of the time
spent. There is no specific post -drawing inquiry, but the evaluator could
ask an open -ended question or request about the drawing.
Scoring Procedure:
Scoring is simple. Each drawing is examined by the examiner for the
presence or absence of specific characteristics, which are all listed in the
Scoring Booklet of the test . Once scored, the drawings can be easily munotes.in

Page 76

Assessment in social
Psychology
76 interpreted by the evaluator by using an interpretive manual to investigate
the drawing's style, symbols used, in dividual actions, and interactions
between individuals.
The evaluator also takes into account the distance between figures, the size
of the figures (as measured on a grid provided in the interpretive manual),
barriers, and figure combination s. Defence mec hanisms depicted and
omitted body parts should be investigated further.
Strengths ,Weaknesses and Application of Kinetic Family Drawing:
Strengths :
 In a single drawing, this assessment provides a lot of information
about a person and his or her perception of the familial dynamic.
 The interpretive manual depicts actions, styles, and symbols with
illustrations.
 It enables information to be gathered in ways that clinical interviews,
observation s, or questionnaires cannot.
Limitations :
 Because it is necessa ry to draw human figures in action, this drawing
may be perceived as artistically challenging and relatively
threatening.
 The manual's organisation makes it difficult to use.
 This assessment is not supported by empirical research.
Applications:
 The KFD is a projective tool for determining a client's self -concept
and interpersonal relationships. In this sense, the Kinetic -Family -
Drawing (K -F-D) is a tool for measuring family dynamics, including
self-development within various family matrices.
 If we speak the language, K -F-Ds can tell us a lot about family
interactions. Most of us, however, are visually illiterate and miss the
valuable, rich, documented sources of personal and interpersonal
information that are captured and fixed in K -F-Ds. The K -F-D
repre sents how one perceives himself/herself in the context of
his/her family.
 The goal of a KFD is not to find a solution to a problem; rather, it
should supplement interview s and therapy, which can investigate
deeper into the context.
 Interpretations of KFD without validation or triangulation are
misleading because the content is heavily subjective .
 While it is acknowledged that the KFD is best administered in
conjunction with an interview, there appears to be no specific
guidance on the process in the litera ture. munotes.in

Page 77

Tools for Assessment in The
Areas of Children and Adults - II
77  The KFD is being studied as part of the projective techniques in
clinical psychological assessment research.
 In the United States, the KFD is frequently used as part of the formal
clinical psychology assessment process.
 In contrast, UK clinical ps ychologists preferred interviews, and
when the KFD was used, it served two functions. It was 'rarely used'
in formal assessment and 'frequently/always used' in informal data
collection.
 The tool can be used to build rapport and as an informal technique
that children enjoy and find accessible.
 KFDs can also be used in family therapy by assigning a task to
everyone in the room.
Next, we move on to the Couple Satisfaction Index (CSI).
6.1.2 Couples Satisfaction Index (CSI)
Marriage is one of the most intimate rel ationships. Marriage is the primary
source of adult intimacy, support, companionship, and personal growth for
many couples. A satisfying romantic relationship is one of the strongest
predictors of life satisfaction and well -being, which translates to bette r
physical health and a longer lifespan.
Couples in troubled relationships are more prone to mood and anxiety
disorders, as well as drug abuse. Relationship satisfaction has emerged as
a primary goal in relationship research as well as couple therapy lite rature,
and it serves as the foundation for understanding how relationships or
marriages function.
However, there is conceptual confusion in this f ield, and many terms, such
as satisfaction, adjustment, succes s, happiness, and companionship have
been used in literature. As a result, these terms are frequently used
interchangeably.
Couple satisfaction is a subjective evaluation of one's relationship; it is
interpreted by assessing one's positive feelings for one's partner,
satisfaction with the relationshi p, and overall evaluation of couple
satisfaction . Many factors influence it, including depression, relationship
education, sexual communication, sexual satisfaction, and an individual's
educational level.
Another factor that influences relationship satisf action is cultural diversity;
collectivistic cultures are characterised by fidelity, support, and
partnership, which have an impact on the couple's relationship. In contrast,
in individualistic cultures , such as those found in Western countries,
satisfacti on is associated with achieving the couple's goals rather than
meeting individual obligations. munotes.in

Page 78

Assessment in social
Psychology
78 Health care professionals essentially have to access valid and reliable tools
for assessing the qu ality of romantic relationships.Such tools have been
seen to be related to psychological and physical health outcomes on
numerous occasions. Funk and Rogge (2007) created the Couples
Satisfaction Index (CSI) to address the shortcomings of the most widely
used measures of satisfaction by increasing precision and power o f
measurement.
Description of the Couples Satisfaction Index (CSI)
Couples Satisfaction Index (CSI) is a 32 -item scale designed to assess
satisfaction in an intact (married, cohabiting, or dating) couple's
relationship. The items are designed to assess th e presence of interpersonal
problems and the severity of such problems. This measure was originally
designed to be used with married or cohabiting couples in large studies
with large samples and in studies that can only accommodate measures
with a few item s.
The scale is a self -report version with various items with varying response
scales and formats. The authors have also specified that the scale can be
safely shrunk to a 16 -item format or even a 4 -item format, depending on
the needs of the researcher.
The CSI scales are freely available for research and clinical use, and no
additional permission is required beyond the form, nor do the authors
generate study -specific permission letters. This test can be taken in person
or online.
Procedure with Instruct ions:
Item 1 on the CSI -32 uses a 7 -point scale.
"Please indicate the degree of happiness, all things co nsidered, of your
relationship, with 0 being extremely unhappy and 6 being perfect.
The other 31 items, on the other hand, used a variety of response a nchors,
all with 6 -point scales. For example -
"I feel I can confide in m y partner about almost anything ".
Participants are given circles to fill in (on paper versions) or radio buttons
to click (on online surveys) wh ile administer ing the scale.
CSI score s have a strong correlation with other measures of relationship
satisfaction (including all of the measures that influenced its development)
and can distinguish between distressed and non -distressed relationships.
Cronbach's coefficient was 0.98 for the en tire scale.
Scoring and Interpretation:
To score the CSI -32, simply add the responses from all of the items. The
CSI-32 score ranges from 0 to 161. Higher scores indicate more
relationship satisfaction. CSI -32 scores less than 104.5 indicate significant
relationship dissatisfaction. munotes.in

Page 79

Tools for Assessment in The
Areas of Children and Adults - II
79 Strengths and limitations of the CSI
Strengths:
 The CSI is a reliable metric with high internal consistency.
 The measure can be used with a variety of intact couples (married,
cohabiting, exclusive but not living together, an d so on).
 Apart from the original 32 -item one, which is free to access and easy
to score, it has two short measures (16 -item and 4 -item).
Limitations:
 There is little information on the CSI -16's test -retest reliability .
 There is insufficient evidence to establish that the CSI -16 is sensitive
to change in short interventions.
 Due to a lack of translated versions, the use of this questionnaire is
restricted.
6.2 INDUSTRY : ASSESSMENT TOOLS
No human wants to live alone because their instincts are driven or
triggered by socialisation, and they want to interact and share their social
cravings with others - whether at work, at home, or in social settings. As a
result, people face some subtle challenges in maintaining healthy or
cordial relationships over time. Rel ationships can be harmed or damaged
as a result of minor annoyances or misunderstandings. As a result, the by -
products of strained workplace relationships such as stress, anxiet y,
jealousy, unfair competition , frustrations, and so on contribute to a
decrea se in employee work efficiency.
Because many of these issues would affect the entire group, they could
lead to personal incompatibility . As a result, using the
personalityinventory scores to determine team membership appears
logical. There are numerous su ch instruments available, but the cost,
intrusiveness, and requirement for a counselor’s interpretation make many
of them burdensome.
To avoid such complications, the Fundamental Interpersonal Relations
Orientation -Behaviour (FIRO -B; Schutz, 1992) is freq uently chosen for
use in assigning members to writing teams. Everyone has different
requirements for participation, influence, and closeness. These needs
shape how we interact with others. The FIRO -B instrument is designed to
measure personality characteris tics on six dimensions — Expressed
Affection, Wanted Affection, Expressed Inclusion, Wanted Inclusion,
Expressed Control, and Wanted Control.
6.1.3 Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation -
Behaviour( FIRO – B)
William Schutz, PhD developed the Fundamental Interpersonal Relations
Orientation -Behaviour TM (FIRO -B®) instrument in the late 1950s and
published it in 1958 in the book FIRO: A Three -Dimensional Theory of munotes.in

Page 80

Assessment in social
Psychology
80 Interpersonal Behaviour. Schutz created the FIRO -B theory to help
understand and predict how high-performance military teams would
collaborate.
Schutz began developing the FIRO -B theory with the premise that "people
need people." His theory's basic premise was simple: "People need
people," and people's interpersonal needs motivate their behaviours. He
used the term interpersonal to refer to any interaction between people, real
or imagined. He used the term "need" to describe a psychological
condition that, if not met, causes discomfort or anxiety.
Schutz was influenced by psychological literature, including the works of
Freud, Adorno, Fromm, Adler, and Jung, among others, in addition to his
own observations of group behaviour. He proposed categorising
interpersonal needs into three categories: inclusion, control, and affection.
The FIRO -B model descri bes how these three types of interpersonal need s
interact along two dimensions: expressed and wanted.
Description of FIRO -B
For over 40 years, the FIRO -B assessment has assisted people all over the
world in unravelling the mysteries of human interaction at work and in
their personal lives.
This 54 -item self -scorable instrument is simple to complete and
administer, and it quickly gathers critical insights into how an individual's
needs for inclusion, control, and affection can shape his or her interactions
with others.
The FIRO -B tool kit includes –
 some narrative and graphic reports,
 a technical guide,
 booklets and
 other resources that highlight ways to use the assessment as an integral
part of team -building initiatives, management training programmes,
and communication workshops.
It is ideal for use in one -on-one coaching, small groups, or teams. The
FIRO -B instrument assesses the individuals’ interpersonal needs as well as
the impact of their workplace behaviour.
Three needs are assessed along two di mensions: "expressed" behaviour
(how much we initiate behaviour) and "wanted" behaviour (how much we
prefer others to initiate behaviour).
The FIRO -B reports help the individuals manage their behaviour, identify
stagnation and conflict, and find possible solutions, as well as increase
productivity by being aware of interpersonal dynamics at work.
munotes.in

Page 81

Tools for Assessment in The
Areas of Children and Adults - II
81 Scoring and Interpretation:
 A high "expressed" score indicates that the individual believes he or
she exhibits this behaviour, whereas -
 a high "wanted" score in dicates that the individual wishes for others to
act in this manner in relation to him or her.
 Affection and Inclusion are similar, but Control is very different.
Uses of FIRO -B:-
The FIRO –B assessments are appropriate for a variety of applications,
inclu ding the following :
 Team building —To accelerate team formation and enable members to
overcome obstacles and progress to higher levels of performance .
 Leadership and executive development —to identify leadership
styles and assist leaders in unlocking greater team performance by
meeting managers ’, peers ’, and direct reports ’ interpersonal needs .
 Relationship building —to help employees understand how to meet
the interpersonal needs of customers and stakeholders in order to get
the most out of working relationsh ips.
 Professional development —to raise employees' self -awareness in
order to better understand how positive behavioural changes boost
morale, productivity, and engagement .
 Conflict management —to enhance abilities in assessing various types
of conflict and employing emotionally intelligent strategies .
The FIRO -B instrument can also be used in conjunction with the MBTI®
instrument for leadership development, as demonstrated by the Leadership
Report Using FIRO -B® and MBTI®, as well as in team -building
worksho ps.
Strengths:
Apart from improving workplace interactions, this test is -
 Simple - Easy to use in helping individuals, teams, and organizations;
easy to incorporate into training, consulting, and coaching.
 Powerful - For understanding human behaviour and motivation in a
wide variety of situations.
 Comprehensive - The three basic dimensions —inclusion, control, and
openness —describe the dynamics of individuals, pairs, teams &
organizations, eliminating the need for multiple models

munotes.in

Page 82

Assessment in social
Psychology
82 6.1.4 Cognitive Mapping
In the 1 930s ,the groundbreaking psychology experiment took place in a
Berkeley University lab .They revolutionise d design process thinking and
UX research and taught the world about latent learning and cognitive
mapping .They also laid the groundwork for what is known as mental
models.
Edward Tolman, the scientist who pioneered the concept of cognitive
mapping in psychology, was a strong supporter of latent learning. This is
defined as a type of learning that is not necessarily visible or apparent
during the process of information input but becomes apparent later on
when appropriate situations or motivations enter the picture.
In other words, the brain engages in the process of learning not only by
responding to positive or negative reinforcement, but also at a
subconscious level.
For example, you may not consciously try to learn and remember the route
to work, including the buildings, shops, trees, and even people's faces, but
if asked to draw a map of the same route from memory, you will be able to
do so in most c ases.
Tolman (1948) coined the term "cognitive mapping" in his paper
"Cognitive Maps in Mice and Men". However, social and behavioural
scientists did not adopt the ideas until the 1970s (Eden, 1988).
Most early cognitive mapp ing research focused on proble m-solving with
individuals, where cognitive mapping was used as a "reflective device,"
and it was broadly classified as part of the "counselling paradigm." As a
result, the goal of using cognitive maps was to guide careful problem
construction and assist i ndividuals in "changing their minds" in a creative
way.
Cognitive mapping is defined as "a process of a series of psychological
transformations by which an individual acquires, codes, stores, recalls, and
decodes information about the relative locations a nd attributes of
phenomena in their everyday spatial environment."
This is best understood as a neuropsychological process in which both
conscious and subconscious levels of learning are involved, and where
conscious intent is not always present. This map ping produces a graphical
layout or diagram form of the information that is "mapped" by the brain,
also known as a cognitive map.
In layman's terms, a cognitive map is an overall mental image or visual
representation of a setting's spatial layout. Cogniti ve mapping is the
process by which the brain forms a mental structure based on memory and
instincts, which can then be represented by a physical visual diagram or
schema.
munotes.in

Page 83

Tools for Assessment in The
Areas of Children and Adults - II
83 The Psychology of Cognitive Mapping
Many people remember things and past events in a very different light
than they did at the time. When we recall events, situations, or even
people's faces and how they sounded, we tend to identify, portray, and
retell them using our subjective beliefs.
Through his experiments on rats, Edward Tolman disc overed that each
person's cognitive maps are unique, and they not only provide insights into
an individual's mental representation of concepts, but also the
relationships between these concepts.
In other words -how we each perceive and represent the "maze " in our
brain. These cognitive maps are used by psychologists to gain a better
understanding of a person's psyche in terms of what that person knows and
believes.
From the perspective of the design process, cognitive mapping is a
comprehensive, all -encomp assing process that includes visual
representations of mental models (diagrams, schema, flowcharts, etc.). A
cognitive map is as simple as taking a piece of paper and a pencil or
crayon and drawing a map of your work route.
Characteristics of Cognitive Map ping
 Diverse in nature and purpose : Cognitive mapping is used for a
variety of purposes across many disciplines. The most general type of
mental -model visualisation is cognitive maps.
 No restrictions on structure or form : Cognitive maps are not
required to follow a specific format. As a result, they are frequently
abstract and lack a consistent hierarchy. They are adaptable and can
accommodate a broad range of concepts or situations that must be
represented.
Benefits of Using Cognitive Mapping Technique
1. Cognitive scientists typically seek to describe and comprehend the
behaviour of actors or social systems by analysing action units or
broad action techniques. In light of this, a cognitive map can serve
as a rough approximation, or even as a simulation too l, for the
thought patterns and bases that are assumed to underpin managerial
decision -making.
2. Cognitive maps contain more information and can help to capture
more richness and shade of what is said than conventional notes.
3. Cognitive mapping can assist i n organising people's jumbled
thoughts in a more meaningful way. And, once thoughts are properly
structured, mapping can assist in distinguishing between goals,
options, or central ideas and peripheral ideas.
4. Discussing interviewees' cognitive maps can he lp to explore and
develop the argumentation beyond the often superficial points
initially made. Furthermore, researchers discovered that cognitive
maps were easier to understand than a matrix or some mathematical
notation. munotes.in

Page 84

Assessment in social
Psychology
84 5. Cognitive maps are viewed as too ls that can be used to examine and
improve managerial judgement. The use of graphics aids in the
simplification of ideas and the transmission of complex ideas from
individual to individual and organisation to organisation. This assists
managers in making s ense of complicated organisational issues.
6. Maps can help to highlight priorities, particularly when the decision -
maker is overwhelmed with information. On the other hand, if there
is less available information, maps can provide missing information
based o n existing patterns, thereby facilitating decision -making.
7. Individuals are given feedback using cognitive maps; this procedure
facilitates self -examination and leads the individual to modify his
attitudes and behaviour. Managers could use it as a whiteboa rd to
record and reveal critical system elements (of employees) and their
influence links for analysis and discussion. As a result, cognitive
mapping can also be used as a communication or training tool.
Limitations of Cogn itive Maps

1. It is difficult to r epresent normative beliefs or operational maxims in
terms of a cognitive map, that is, what it is or what should be done. In
this regard, a cognitive map is indeterminate because such assertions
cannot be read directly from a map and then used to accuratel y
describe or predict the behaviour of organisational actors (Laukkanen,
1990). As a result, if accurate prediction of outcomes or action
dynamics is critical, the cognitive mapping technique may not be
appropriate.
2. Furthermore, in terms of labour (effort s) and economics (costs),
cognitive maps are typically more expensive to produce than a set of
sentences covering roughly the same area.
3. In addition, if the data and the resulting volume of cognitive detail to
be represented and analysed are inherently la rge, the use of a
computer -based programme becomes ne cessary, which is not only
time-consuming but also requires expert handling.
4. Furthermore, analysing cognitive maps is difficult because there are
few prescriptive methods.
6.3 SUMMARY
This unit helped us u nderstand how a family works, why it is critical to
use assessment strategies that are appropriate to the family's cultural
background and socioeconomic level, and how assessment techniques
assist counselor s in gathering information about family problems.
Typically, a single method cannot provide a complete picture.
As a result, a multidimensional assessment from the perspective of family
members to each other is required for family assessment. Couple and
family therapy employs a variety of assessment meth ods, including
observational methods, interviews, self -reports of family interaction, and
graphic representations of relationships. munotes.in

Page 85

Tools for Assessment in The
Areas of Children and Adults - II
85 Furthermore, we looked at how individuals perceive themselves to be
behaving in interpersonal relationships, as well as whi ch instruments can
be used to facilitate effectiveness in those relationships.
FIRO -B has been widely used in a variety of settings, including the
investigation of individual personality dynamics, sensitivity training,
marriage counselling, personnel sele ction and assignment, team building,
and, most importantly, managerial relationships. FIRO -B focuses on three
aspects of human relationships: inclusion, control, and affection.
In addition to these, this chapter also helped to understand the concept of
"cognitive mapping." Cognitive mapping is a type of mental
representation that allows people to acquire, code, store, recall, and decode
information about the relative locations and characteristics of phenomena
in their everyday or metaphorical spatial envir onment.
6.4 QUESTIONS
1. Discuss in detail a projective technique used in family assessment –
the Kinetic Family Drawings (KFD) test.
2. Write a note on the uses and applications of KFD.
3. Write a note on the Couple Satisfaction Index.
4. Write a note on FIRO – B an d how is it useful in improving
workplace - interaction.
5. What is cognitive mapping?
6. What are the benefits and limitations of Cognitive mapping?
6.5 REFERENCES
1. Burns, R. C. & Kaufman, S. H. (1972). Actions, Styles, and Symbols
in Kinetic Family Drawings (KFD) : An Interpretative Manual. New
York, New York: Brunner/Mazel, Inc.

2. Burns, R. C. and Kaufman, S. H. (1987). Kinetic Family Drawings (K -
F-D): An Introduction to Understanding Children Through Kinetic
Drawings , New York : Brunner/Mazel.

3. Burns, R., & Kaufman, S. (1970). Actions, Styles and Symbols in
Kinetic Family Drawings (KFD): AnInterpretive Manual. New York:
Brunner/Mazel.
4. Funk, J.L., & Rogge, R.D. (2007). Testing the ruler with item response
theory: Increasing precision of measurement for relationship
satisfaction with the Couples Satisfaction Index. Journal of Family
Psychology , 21(4), 572 - 583.
Schutz, W.C. (1958). FIRO: A three -dimensional theory of interpersonal
behavior . New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.

 munotes.in

Page 86

86 7
TOOLS FOR ASSESSMENT IN AREAS OF
ATTITUDE AND WELL -BEING – I

Unit Structure :
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Attitude
7.3 Measurement of Attitudes
7.4 Implicit Association Test (IAT)
7.5 Well -being
7.6 Assessment of Psychological and Social W ell-being
7.7 Summary
7.8 Questions
7.9 References
7.0 OBJECTIVES
 To understand what is attitude, its components, and its development.
 To know the characteristics and types of attitudes.
 To know different methods of measuring attitudes.
 To understand the concept of well-being and its classification.

7.1 INTRODUCTION
Humans are social animals influenced by their social interactions and
society as a whole. As a result of these social interactions, they form
opinions about people and various issues in life. Attitudes ar e formed
when these views are more than just thoughts and include emotional
and action components.

Attitudes are very important in our lives because they determine how
we react to people and objects in our environment. Attitudes are our
expressions of ou r likes and dislikes for people and things. They
influence or direct our behaviour in social situations. For example, you
have probably noticed that your behaviour differs when you are nursing an
elderly man versus a child, or when you're nursing a critica lly ill patient
versus one with a minor illness. These behavioural differences are the
result of your attitudes towards the elderly and children. How you interact munotes.in

Page 87

Tools for Assessment in
Areas of Attitude and Well -Being – I
87 with a patient suffering from these diseases is determined by your attitude
towards a critica l, terminally ill patient.

Attitude is a point of view or thought about any topic (attitude object) that
is accompanied by an emotional component and an action component that
causes us to behave in a specific way in relation to an attitude object.

The cognitive aspect refers to the thought (or viewpoint) component. The
affective aspect refers to the emotional component, and the behavioural
aspect refers to the action component. These three elements are known as
the A -B-C components of an attitude.

 Affe ctive aspect: Emotional or feeling component (How he feels
about it.)

 Behavioural aspect: Action component (Behavioural tendency
both verbal and nonverbal towards the object).

 Cognitive aspect: Thought component (What a person knows of it
and his belief a bout it ).

Attitudes are a predisposed tendency to respond in a specific way rather
than a fixed response. A variety of factors influence attitudes. Attitudes
are evaluations of a wide range of attitudinal items such as likes/dislikes,
anti-pro, positive o r negative. An object of attitude is anything that elicits
evaluative feelings.

A distinction is often made between attitude and opinion. An opinion is a
belief that a person has about something in his environment. It differs
from attitude in that it lac ks the affective component that is central to
attitude. Attitudes differ from value systems in that attitudes are thought of
as being about a single object, even if that object is abstract.

Value systems, on the other hand, are orientations towards entir e object
classes. Value systems are frequently formed from individual attitudes.
Attitudes are frequently functional in the sense that they provide emotional
satisfaction to the individual. The entire personality structure of an
individual, and thus his be haviour, can be thought of as organised around a
central value system composed of many related attitudes.
7.2 ATTITUDES
Development of Attitudes

Attitudes can develop in a variety of ways. Heredity may play only a
minor role in differences in physical chara cteristics and intelligence.
Environmental factors are primarily responsible for the formation of
attitudes. They are as follows:

munotes.in

Page 88

Assessment in social
Psychology
88 Figure 7.1 Responsible Factors For the Development of Attitudes

 Parents :- Family is the first place where attitudes are fo rmed. Parents
initiate the information flow that shapes beliefs and attitudes towards
things. Based on early information, we form categories in our heads.
Sullivan has discovered that the information provided by parents in the
early stages of life is extre mely difficult to reverse. Parental feedback
shapes incorrect and non -adaptive attitudes, with huge implications for
future personality development.

 Peers: -Other people, such as friends and group members, tend to
influence us as we grow. They act as a ref erence group in the
formation of attitudes. One identifies with friends and shapes his or her
attitudes in relation to the dominant norms of the group in question.

 Conditioning: -

a) Classical Conditioning: The association of a conditioned stimulus with
an u nconditioned stimulus is referred to as classical conditioning.
According to Staats and Staats (1958), words that have acquired
affective meaning can generate either positive or negative attitudes.

The general implications of classically conditioned atti tudes were
demonstrated by Zanna, Kiesler, and Pilkoris (1970). Many attitudes
formed through classical conditioning are found to be irrational
because they were paired with an emotion -producing unconditioned
stimulus, either accidentally or in a completel y unrelated situation.
Classical conditioning can also be used to develop appropriate
attitudes.

b) Instrumental Conditioning: Instrumental conditioning can be used to
teach an attitudinal response by reinforcing a response that occurred in
the presence of a discriminated stimulus. Insko (1965) demonstrated
the long -term persistence of conditioned attitudes.

 Forming Attitudes by Balance: -According to balance theory (Heider,
1946, 1950; Newcomb, 1953), people prefer consistency or harmony
in the relationship between their cognitions. Because everyone prefers
balance, people develop attitudes that are compatible with other
existing sentimental relationships. munotes.in

Page 89

Tools for Assessment in
Areas of Attitude and Well -Being – I
89 Characteristics of Attitudes
 People can have either a positive or negative attitude. For example,
some people may believe that climate change is real, whereas
others do not.

 Similarly, attitudes towards objects, specific people, an entire
cultural group, or a social group can be positive or negative. They
are the result of people's experiences and exposur es.

 Some attitudes are very stable and resistant to change, whereas
others are unstable and vary greatly depending on the situation.

 We may have strong feelings about some things, but our feelings
about other things or issues may be hazy or uncertain (Torm ala&
Rucker, 2007).

 When we do not have a specific attitude towards something,
attitudes related to that topic may influence the attitude we develop
towards that specific issue.
Types of Attitudes
In general, attitudes can be classified into two types:
 Explicit attitudes: These are the attitudes that we are consciously
aware of and can easily communicate to others.

 Implicit attitudes: These are attitudes that we do not consciously
possess. They are more difficult to control and are not self -
reported.

7.2.1 Measurement of Attitudes
The term attitude was coined to describe some underlying response
tendencies. Attitudes cannot be precisely measured because they are
hypothetical constructs. Any attempt to assess them must be inferential,
which means we can only e xamine behaviour that is logically inferred to
indicate the attitudes to be measured and quantify these indications to get
a sense of how much individuals or groups differ in their psychological
orientations towards a specific object or issue.

As previou sly stated, attitudes are measured using inference. However,
some data are required to support the inference. Several techniques are
used to collect this information. Respondents may be explicitly
questioned about their feelings about the study's topic, gi ven a task with
specific instructions, and their recorded performance.

Let us go into detail about some techniques. Attitudes are assessments.
Attitudes can be measured in a variety of ways. Some are very simple,
while others are quite complex. In genera l, attitudes can be measured by munotes.in

Page 90

Assessment in social
Psychology
90 using the techniques depicted in Figure 7.2. Let us explore them one by
one.

Figure 7.2 Measurement of Attitudes


 Self-Report Methods
The respondent is given a questionnaire or a list of statements related to
the attitu dinal object in the self -reporting method. The response format is
either fixed, in which response categories such as agree -disagree, like
dislike, favourable unfavourable are named; or left open -ended, in which
respondents can use their own words, in which an individual's attitude is
measured simply by asking him/her about the attitude object.

Thus, self -report measures contain straightforward and direct questions.
However, attitudes cannot be measured simply by asking a single
question. As a result, anot her tool, attitude scales, is used to measure
attitudes.

Self-report has several drawbacks. People are sometimes more concerned
with making a good impression, which makes it difficult for them to admit
their prejudices, stereotypes, weaknesses, and failur es. It is also related to
social conformity, as people may respond differently than they believe.
Another disadvantage of this type of measurement is that a question may
mean different things to different respondents, resulting in inaccurate
measurements. Another disadvantage of this method.
 Attitude Scales
Attitude scaling is the process of creating a scale to serve as a foundation
for assigning a numerical value to a person's attitude and comparing him
or her to others. When an attitude is conceived of a s measurable on a
single scale, this is possible. In theory, such a scale can be nominal,
ordinal, or interval, but most are built and used as interval scales (even
when they are ordinal).

The attitude scale can be said to be another type of self -report, which
consists of many questions grouped to form a questionnaire. These all
questions revolve around the same attitude object.

There are several established procedures for attitude scaling, including the
Thurstone, Likert, and Guttman methods. Among thes e, the Likert scale is
the most commonly used tool. The respondent is given a questionnaire to munotes.in

Page 91

Tools for Assessment in
Areas of Attitude and Well -Being – I
91 fill out, and the total score is computed based on the responses. The score
is then used to assess a person's attitude.

Although some attitude questionnaires me asure more than one dimension,
the scores on the various individual questions are all assigned to one or the
other dimension. The Eysenck Personality Inventory's extroversion and
neuroticism scales, the Machiavellianism scale's Tactics and Views
dimensions , and the Telic Dominance Scale subscales are all examples.
The four methods of constructing attitude scales viz.
a) Thurstone type scale – A Thurstone scale is an attitude scale made up
of items (statements) with which the respondent must either agree or
disagree. Only items on which they both agree are scored. Each item
has a value, and the respondent's scale score corresponds to the mean
of the items with which the respondent agrees.

The item scores are usually calculated by asking some judges to rank ea ch
item on the scale using an eleven -point scale that reflects the attitude being
measured. Each item's final score is the median of the individual scores of
all judges.

Typically, more items are judged than are used, and the final selection is
based on two criteria: first, that items covering the entire eleven -point
range are included, and second, that items have a small variation (between
judges).


b) Likert type scale - Likert scaling is a method of attitude scaling in
which respondents indicate their level of agreement with each item on
a scale (e.g., a five - or seven -point scale). Their scale score is the sum
of their scores for each item.

Likert scales were developed in 1932 as an extension of Thurstone scales,
with the goal of eliminating the unre liability of using intermediary judges
in scale construction. Original Likert scales lacked a neutral or middle
point, and respondents were 'forced' to agree or disagree with the scale
item.

Most current users of Likert -type scales do not adhere to this specification.
Although Likert scales are not always unidimensional, the approach
assumes a single dimension. It has been argued that analysing a Likert
scale can identify clusters that are indicative of multiple dimensions, but
this is far weaker than the multi -dimension identification claimed for
Guttman scaling.

c) Guttman’s scalogram - This is a unidimensional scalogram. The
overall position on the attitude dimension is consistent with the
responses to each item. Guttman attitude scales entail the researc her munotes.in

Page 92

Assessment in social
Psychology
92 creating a series of hierarchical statements about the concept under
consideration. These statements should demonstrate a growing
intensity of attitude. The point at which a respondent disagrees with a
statement reflects the scale position of the respo ndent.

The ideal Guttman scale is constructed in such a way that if the respondent
disagrees with statement 5 (after agreeing with statements 1 –4), the
respondent will also disagree with statements 6 and 7, and so on, as these
represent more extreme expre ssions of the attitude under investigation.

Guttman scales are not perfect in practice. The researcher, the subject, and
independent judges may not all interpret the rank order of the statements
in the same way. Typically, pilot research indicates a coef ficient of rank
ordering reliability.

The Guttman method's strength is its ability to identify more than one
dimension on the scale. The reproducibility coefficient indicates how
closely the material relates to a single dimension. Furthermore, the
Guttman approach does not draw any conclusions about the latent nature
of the data, but rather manipulates the empirical data directly to determine
an attitude.

d) Osgood’s semantic differential type - In Osgood's semantic
differential scale, each statement is given two opposing responses,
such as good -bad or fair -unfair. This is a relatively simple structure to
build. This method appears to be useful for some types of scaling
problems.

Semantic differential scaling is a versatile method of attitude scaling in
whic h subjects rate concepts of interest to the researcher on a bipolar
(usually) seven -point scale. The scale's two ends are defined by pairs of
adjectives with ostensibly opposing meanings (e.g., good/bad, etc.).
Involuntary Behaviour Methods/ Covert measur es
Attitudes can be measured indirectly, inwardly, and covertly. Direct
questions are not asked in this case, but attitudes are measured
indirectly. Observing behaviour, such as facial expressions, tone of
voice, or body language, is one option in this re gard. Although
behaviour gives us hints, it is not a perfect way to assess attitudes. One
body movement cannot always convey the same meaning.

For example, we nod our heads when we agree; other times, we nod to
be polite. People can also manipulate thei r outward behaviour in the
same way that they can manipulate information in self -reports.

Physiological measures are used in these. Previously, galvanic skin
response and pupil size were used to measure attitudes as indicators of
arousal. These have not b een particularly successful because only the
extremes of attitudes can be measured, and the direction of attitude cannot
be specified. Electromyographic recordings from the major facial muscles munotes.in

Page 93

Tools for Assessment in
Areas of Attitude and Well -Being – I
93 have recently been used to measure attitudes, but this has yet to be proven.
In recent years, some exciting inventions have been made to measure an
individual's covert behaviour. Among them, here are the following:
 Facial Electromyograph (EMG)
A facial electromyograph is a device that measures the activity of the
facial muscles, which is linked to emotions and attitudes. College
students' facial muscle activity was recorded by John Cacioppo and
Richard Petty (1981) as they listened to a message with which they
agreed or disagreed. The pleasant message increased acti vity in the
cheek muscles, a facial pattern associated with happiness. The
unpleasant message triggered activity in the forehead and brow area,
which are associated with sadness and distress. These subtle changes
were missed by outside observers who later observed the participants.
We will see another covert technique called the Implicit Association
Test (IAT) in detail (Section 7.2.2), which is also used for measuring
attitudes.
Indirect versus Direct Measures

In contrast to direct measures, indirect measures do not rely on verbal self -
reports to infer attitudes. Instead, they rely on more indirect measures of
attitude, such as differences in reaction times, facial expressions, or
specific brain activation. Indirect measures can be further classified a s
physiological or latency -based.

Techniques such as electro -dermal activity (EDA), pupillometry, eye -
tracking, and electromyography (EMG) are examples of physiological
measures, as are various brain imaging techniques such as functional
magnetic resonan ce imaging (fMRI), which allow direct observation of
brain activity during mental tasks. These physiological measures, while
promising in their own right, do not yet provide standardised forms of
attitude assessment.

Furthermore, they necessitate (expens ive) equipment and considerable
expertise in the field of cognitive neuroscience, rendering most of these
research techniques inaccessible and/or unsuitable for more applied
research. This is much less true for indirect measures based on response
times (or latencies).

Affective priming, the Extrinsic Affective Simon Task, the Go/No -Go
Association Task, and, most notably, the Implicit Association Test (IAT)
are relatively standardised forms of attitude assessment that require little
more than a computer an d a testing environment free of external
distractions.



munotes.in

Page 94

Assessment in social
Psychology
94 7.2.2 Implicit Association Test (IAT)

The concept of an attitude towards an object or person is central to social
psychology. Psychologists have traditionally measured attitudes by simply
asking people to self-report their beliefs, opinions, or feelings. When
measuring socially sensitive attitudes, such as racial prejudice, this
approach has limitations because people are often motivated to self -report
unprejudiced, egalitarian beliefs (despite harbouring negative
associations). To avoid this social -desirability bias, psychologists have
devised several tasks aimed at measuring implicit attitudes that are less
willing to deliberate control (and potential distortion).

One of the most influential measures of these unconscious attitudes is the
Implicit Association Test (IAT). Anthony Greenwald, Debbie McGhee,
and Jordan Schwartz published the IAT in the scientific literature in 1998.
IAT is a covert measure of unconscious attitudes derived from how
quickly peo ple respond to concept pairings such as black or white with
good or bad.

The IAT test is based on the fact that we associate various social objects
with positive or negative description words more or less readily. IAT is a
test that looks for subconsciou s associations between mental
representations of objects (concepts) in memory. Its most well -known
application is the evaluation of test subjects' implicit stereotypes, such
as associations between specific racial categories and stereotypes
about those gro ups.

The test has been applied to a wide range of belief associations,
including those involving racial groups, gender, sexuality, age, and
religion, as well as the test taker's self -esteem, political views, and
predictions. The validity, reliability, an d usefulness of the Implicit
Association Test in assessing implicit bias have been the subject of
significant academic and popular debate.

The IAT is now widely used in social psychology research, as well as
clinical, cognitive, and developmental psycholo gy research to a lesser
extent. The IAT has recently been used as an assessment in implicit
bias training programs, which aim to reduce participants' unconscious
bias and discriminatory behaviour. IATs are increasingly being used in
applied micro papers.

While IATs are available off -the-shelf, creating your own IAT may
allow you to tap into respondents' implicit attitudes towards something
more contextual. The purpose of an IAT is to assess a respondent's
implicit attitudes. While asking someone how they feel about
something yields an explicit attitude that may be influenced by
response biases, the IAT seeks to reveal implicit attitudes. Each
respondent is shown a series of stimuli (words and/or images) and is
required to sort them into two categories.
munotes.in

Page 95

Tools for Assessment in
Areas of Attitude and Well -Being – I
95 The central premise of any IAT is that the stronger the association a
respondent forms between two concepts, the faster they form these
associations. Each IAT includes several rounds of training, a stereotypical
("easy") paired test, and a non -stereotypica l ("hard") paired test. The two
categories in which stimuli must be sorted with a keystroke to the right or
left are at the top of the screen. A stimulus can be words or images
displayed in the middle of a screen.

7.3 WELL BEING
The composite measure of health is well -being. It encompasses all aspects
of health in their entirety: physical, social, mental, and sexual, which
denote both objective and subjective life conditions. Well -being has been
defined as an individual's or other social unit's quality o f life, and it can be
assessed through the lens of an individual's subjective assessments of his
or her experiences, such as perceptions of emotional or spiritual well -
being, or through objective measures such as those that index physical
health (e.g., blo od pressure).

Furthermore, cultural definitions of well -being or positive functioning are
frequently found at work within societies. Individuals may be considered
to have an adequate quality of life if they are gainfully employed and
financially self -sufficient. Regardless of who defines – individuals,
researchers, policymakers, or society at large – all definitions carry
implicit or explicit values about the components of positive well -being,
and definitions of different entities may differ or even confli ct.

For example, some people associate luxury with a high quality of life, but
groups concerned with social justice may see such a lifestyle as self -
indulgent and call its quality into question.
According to Veenhoven (2004), the term "well -being" broad ly "denotes
that something is in a good state,". Though the term does not specify what
is in good condition or what constitutes that good condition, there were
primarily two approaches to defining happiness. The hedonic and the
eudaimonic traditions. Happi ness, positive emotions, and life satisfaction
are all central to the hedonic tradition. In contrast, the eudaimonic
tradition defined happiness as effective and positive psychological
functioning and development.

Despite these opposing viewpoints, well -being as a construct is viewed as
multi -dimensional (Dodge et al, 2012). Let us now look at various
definitions of well -being.

 Shin and Johnson (1978, pg. 478) stated that “well -being is a global
assessment of a person’s quality of life according to his o wn chosen
criteria”.

 Shah and Marks (2004, pg. 2) explained that “well -being is more than
just happiness. It is feeling satisfied and happy. Well -being means munotes.in

Page 96

Assessment in social
Psychology
96 developing as a person, being fulfilled, and making a contribution to
the community”.

 Accordin g to Dalal and Misra (2006), the concept of well-being is
closer to the concept of mental health, life satisfaction, and happiness.

The concept of well-being refers to a subjective feeling, which involves an
evaluation of those affective and cognitive as pects of life which are
getting affected by disease and illness directly or indirectly. Often it
involves an evaluation of happiness, sense of contentment, sense of
belongingness, achievement and being without any distress and
discomfort.

Well -being is d efined by researchers as the emotional and cognitive
understanding of one's own abilities and characteristics, adaptive
collaboration with one's community and the world, and lifespan growth
and development, which includes life satisfaction and positive ene rgy and
mood.

For many decades, the study of well -being has been centred on two
concepts of positive functioning:

 One is based on Bradburn's (1969) happiness research, which defined
positive functioning as a balance of positive and negative affect.
Howe ver, this aspect appeared to be primarily related to affective
aspects of well -being.

 Diener (1984) provided the second perspective, which was based on
cognitive dimensions but lacked an affective dimension of happiness,
emphasising life satisfaction as t he primary indicator of psychological
well-being.
Diener's perspective on subjective well -being emphasises individual
strengths and assets rather than illness and weakness. People have an
abundance of subjective well -being (SWB) when they have many pleas ant
and few unpleasant emotions; when they are engaged in interesting
activities; when they have many pleasures and fewer pains; and when they
are satisfied with their lives (Diener & Oishi, 2000).

However, Ryff (1989), who was also working on conceptual ising well -
being, argued that this three -component SWB model (happiness, life
satisfaction, and positive affect) fails to describe the aspects of a person's
life that provide the foundation and meaning of well -being. Ryff defines
well-being as more than ju st happiness with life.

Classification of Well -Being
An individual's or a group's well -being includes both objective and
subjective components.
munotes.in

Page 97

Tools for Assessment in
Areas of Attitude and Well -Being – I
97  Subjective well -being: It is that aspect of one's well -being that can
only be measured directly by asking pe ople about three aspects of
well-being:

 evaluative well -being (life satisfaction),
 hedonic well -being (positive emotions such as feelings of happiness,
sadness, and so on), and
 eudemonic well -being (sense of purpose and meaning in life).

Subjective w ell-being is made up of three interconnected components: life
satisfaction, pleasant affect, and unpleasant affect. Affect refers to pleasant
and unpleasant moods and emotions, whereas life satisfaction refers to a
cognitive sense of satisfaction with life (Diener & Suh, 1997, p. 200).

 Objective well -being: This type of well -being has its origins in the
discipline of economics. It can be measured using self -reports as well
as objective measures such as mortality rates, life expectancy, and so
on. This typ e of happiness assesses whether people have access to
basic human needs and rights such as education, food, water, and
health care.
Well -being can also be classified as emotional well -being, physical well -
being, social well -being, workplace well -being, a nd societal well -being
(Davis, 2019).
 Emotional well -being refers to a person's ability to cope with stress,
be resilient, and express positive emotions.

 Physical well -being is defined as improving one's bodily functioning
through exercise and a healthy diet.

 Social well -being is defined as effective communication, the ability to
form relationships, and the availability of adequate social support.

 Workplace well -being refers to an individual's ability to advance in
his or her profession, pursue one's i nterests and values, and find
meaning and happiness.

 Societal well -being entails active participation in community and
environmental activities.
Ryff’s Model Of Well -Being
Ryff (1989) clarified the conceptualization and assessment of well -being,
also known as positive functioning. She contended that happiness and
well-being are founded on human strengths, personal striving, and growth.

Ryff and her colleagues developed a model of well -being based on
descriptions of positive psychological and social functioning, drawing on
theories of positive mental health from personality and clinical psychology
(Ryff, & Keyes, 1995). This conceptualization was originally used to munotes.in

Page 98

Assessment in social
Psychology
98 describe positive functioning across the lifespan, but it has since been
extended to d escribe positive mental health (Keyes, 2002).

These researchers developed a definition of happiness that emphasised the
positive aspects of mental health. In other words, just as mental illness is
defined by symptoms that reflect underlying pathology, th ese researchers
identified markers that reflect underlying mental health and well -being.

According to Ryff's model (1989), well -being is the process of optimally
realising one's talents and potential. It also includes people's evaluations of
their own liv es, both affective and cognitive. It reflects positive
functioning, personal strengths, and mental health and serves as a source
of resilience in the face of adversity. Here are the three dimensions of
well-being as mentioned below:

Emotional Well -Being:

Emotional well -being is defined as having more positive emotions such as
joy and happiness and fewer negative emotions such as hatred and
jealousy. Three components that explain the emotional well -being are as
follows:

 Positive Affect : It refers to the presence of positive emotions such as
joy and happiness.

 Negative Affect : It refers to the absence of negative emotions such as
hatred and anger.

 Life Satisfaction : It is defined as a feeling of contentment and
satisfaction with one's life.

Psychological Well -Being:

Contentment and happiness with one's own life are examples of
psychological well -being. CarollRyff (1989) proposed the six -factor
model of psychological well -being. She developed a multi -component
framework of psychological well -being based o n developmental theories
such as –

 Jung's (1933) formulation of individuation,
 Jahoda's (1958) positive criteria of mental health,
 Allport's (1961) conception of maturity,
 Roger's (1961) perspectives on fully functioning individuals, and
 Maslow's (1 968) conception of self -actualization.

Based on the aforementioned perspectives on positive psychological
functioning, Ryff (1989) developed her own conceptualization for
describing psychological well -being. She included "autonomy" and
"personal growth" dimensions from Jahoda's criteria for positive mental munotes.in

Page 99

Tools for Assessment in
Areas of Attitude and Well -Being – I
99 health, as well as "positive relations with others" from Allport's
conception of maturity, in her definition of psychological well -being.

The six dimensions of psychological well -being that Ryff and h er
colleagues developed based on developmental theories of positive
psychological functioning are as follows:

 Self-Acceptance : It refers to having a positive attitude towards
oneself, accepting different aspects of oneself, and feeling good about
one's pa st life. This is the most important aspect of optimal functioning
and maturity.

 Personal Growth : To achieve optimal psychological well -being, one
must continue to develop one's potential, to grow and expand as a
person. This includes feelings of continued growth and effectiveness,
as well as openness to new experiences and challenges.

 Purpose in Life : A person with a strong sense of purpose in life has
goals and beliefs that give me aning and purpose to their life .

 Environmental Mastery : This refers to a per son's ability to select or
create environments that are appropriate for his or her psychological
characteristics. People who have a high level of environmental mastery
feel competent, can manage complex environments, and can create
personally suitable livi ng situations. Positive psychological capital
requires active participation and mastery of one's surroundings.

 Autonomy : It consists of self -determination, independence, and
internal control over one's behaviour. People who have autonomy are
at ease with s elf-direction. They do not seek approval from others,
have internal standards, and resist mass laws or negative social
pressures from others.

 Positive Relations with Others : Interpersonal relationships that are
warm, satisfying, and trusting are examples o f this. The ability to
empathise and love is regarded as a critical component for maintaining
positive relationships with others, which contributes to flourishing
mental health.

Social Well -Being

In today's terrorised world, social health is a major co ncern. The appraisal
of one's circumstances and functioning in society is referred to as social
well-being. Five dimensions of social well -being proposed by Keyes
(1998) are as follows:

 Social Acceptance : Individuals who demonstrate social acceptance,
trust others, believe others are capable of kindness, and maintain
positive attitudes towards others while understanding their
complexities. Others' social acceptance appears to be the social
counterpart of self -acceptance, which is included in psychological
well-being . munotes.in

Page 100

Assessment in social
Psychology
100  Social Actualization : This is the belief in society's evolution and the
sense that society has potential that is being realised through its
institutions and citizens. It also includes the belief that people have
potential and that society can e volve positively .

 Social Contribution : It is an assessment of one's worth. It entails
believing oneself to be an important member of society and believing
that one's life is not only useful to society but also valued by others.

 Social Coherence : It consist s of an interest in society and the belief
that society is understandable, logical, predictable, and meaningful. It
is the perception of the social world's quality, organisation, and
operation, and it includes a desire to know about the world.

 Social Inte gration : This is an assessment of one's relationship with
society and community. Integration is the degree to which people feel
they have something in common with others and a sense of belonging
to their communities and society. This includes a sense of be longing to
a community, as well as a sense of comfort and support from the
community.

Social well -being entails assessing one's own circumstances and
functioning in society. Humans are a social species. How one gets along
with others, family members, and society members is determined by social
well-being. It refers to how much one feels connected to and included by
society.

Despite the complexity of the well -being model (with three components of
emotional well -being, six components of psychological well -being, and
five components of social well -being), measures of emotional,
psychological, and social well -being have high internal reliability and
validity. According to research, all three components are related, but each
contributes to well -being in its own way. These three well -being measures,
which include emotional, psychological, and social well -being, are
negatively related to symptoms of mental illness.

As a result, this expanded model of well -being appears to be particularly
relevant for investigating the relationship between well -being and mental
health. The elements of emotional, psychological, and social well -being
are summarised in Figure 7.3.

Figure 7.3 Elements of emotional, psychological and social well -being

munotes.in

Page 101

Tools for Assessment in
Areas of Attitude and Well -Being – I
101 7.3.1 Assessment Of Psychological a nd Social Well -Being

 Assessment Of Psychological Well -Being (The Ryff Scales Of
Psychological Well -Being Scale)
Before 1989, there was a lot of research on the concept of happiness,
which coincided with the rise of the positive psychology movement.
Whil e research on these concepts revealed overlapping themes related to
well-being and optimal functioning, none of them fully encapsulated the
concept of psychological well -being on its own.

Description of the Ryff Scales Of Psychological Well -Being Scale

Today, psychological well -being is a distinct construct with six core
dimensions (adapted from Ryff& Keyes, 1995). The Ryff Scales of
Psychological Well -Being constitute a theoretically grounded instrument
that measures multiple aspects of psychological we ll-being. Among these
aspects are the following:

 Self-acceptance – acceptance of the self
 Relation with Others - the establishment of quality ties to other
 Autonomy - a sense of autonomy in thought and action
 Environmental Mastery - the ability to manage complex environments
to suit personal needs and values
 Purpose of Life - the pursuit of meaningful goals and a sense of
purpose in life
 Personal Growth - continued growth and development as a person.

Let us take a look at the various scale variations. The most commonly
used version of the Psychological Well -being Scales has 42 items that are
both positively and negatively worded. The measure is also widely used in
an abbreviated, 18 -item form. This scale is appropriate for adults with a
basic reading level of 6th - 8th grade. The scale usually lasts 3 -5 minutes
for the 18 -item version and 6 -8 minutes for the 42 -item version.

On a 7 -point scale, respondents rate how strongly they agree or disagree
with 42 statements (1 = strongly agree; 7 = strongly disagr ee).

Scoring and Interpretation

To compute subscale scores for each participant, add the responses to each
subscale's items. Higher scores indicate greater psychological well -being
(a high score indicates that the respondent has mastered that area in hi s or
her life). Certain items, however, have reversed scores because they are
worded in the opposite direction of what the scale is measuring.

A low score, on the other hand, indicates that the respondent is
uncomfortable with that particular concept. Ry ff and colleagues have not
published global cut -offs for what constitutes a 'low' or 'high' score on
these scales. Instead, assuming a normal sample distribution, researchers munotes.in

Page 102

Assessment in social
Psychology
102 may wish to classify the lower and upper quartiles (25%) of responses as
low and high. You could also determine cut points for the lower -, middle -,
and upper -scoring groups by randomly assigning respondents to these
groups based on their total scores.

The 42 - and 18 -item Psychological Well -being Scales are described in
detail above. W hile these scales are quick to administer, practitioners
looking for a particularly high -quality assessment of well -being may want
to use the longer versions of these scales to ensure greater internal
consistency. For this purpose, two questionnaires are a vailable: the long
(84-item) questionnaire and the medium (54 -item) questionnaire.
 Assessment of Social Well -Being
Individuals are intertwined with social structures. They must face social
challenges and compare their life quality and personal functioni ng to
social criteria (Keyes and Shapiro, 2004). However, in the hedonic and
psychological well -being models, research on social well -being has been
almost completely ignored (Keyes, 2002; Joshanloo et al., 2012).

Keyes (1998) proposed social well -being as a measure of how well
individuals function in the social world in which they are embedded. It is
the ability to carry out social roles effectively and efficiently, as well as
the monitoring and evaluation of how they operate in the community and
the qua lity of relationships with others, relatives, and social groups.

Lower levels of social well -being were discovered to be the most powerful
predictors of poor mental health. Social health indicators include –

 Social contribution (a belief that one's li fe is useful to society and that
the output of one's own activities is valued by others),

 Social integration (a sense of belonging to a community from which
one derives comfort and support),

 Social acceptance (a positive attitude towards others while
acknowledging and accepting people's differences),

 Social actualization (belief in the potential of people, groups, and
societies to evolve or grow positively), and

 Social actualization (belief in the potential of people, groups, and
societies.

Individual s who are socially well -adjusted can deal with problems in their
social roles more successfully. Because of the social nature of human life
and its challenges, it is impossible to ignore the social aspect of health.

Description of Social Well -Being Scale

One of the most commonly used questionnaires is the Social Well -Being
(Keyes, 1998) scale, which measures social health in above mentioned munotes.in

Page 103

Tools for Assessment in
Areas of Attitude and Well -Being – I
103 five domains: social integration (seven items), social acceptance (seven
items), social actualization (seven items) , social contribution (six items),
and social coherence (six items). Thus, the questionnaire contains 33
items, each of which was answered on a five -point Likert scale (1 =
"completely disagree" to 5 = "completely agree").

Scoring and Interpretation

Each item was assigned a score between 0 and 4. As a result, the total
range of the questionnaire's total score is 0 -132. The obtained scores are
classified as low (0 -44), moderate (44 -48), and high (89 -132) social well -
being.

Higher scores indicate that so cially healthier people do not view society
negatively and regard themselves as valuable members. They should be
concerned about and feel safe in their community, leading a consistent
life.

Reliability and Validity

Several studies confirmed the validit y and reliability. Cronbach's alpha
was 0.81 in Hashemi et al.'s stud y, which was designed to evaluate the
psychometric properties of the questionnaire's short form. Cronbach's
alpha (α = 0.86) was used to calculate the internal consistency reliability in
our study.

In summary, social well -being focuses on individuals' per ceptions of and
attitudes towards society as a whole. Prior research has found that a sense
of community (Sohi et al., 2017) and social participation (Albanesi et al.,
2010) have an impact on social well -being.

Furthermore, some studies have demonstrated the outcomes of social well -
being, such as anxiety issues (Keyes, 2005), general mental and physical
health (Zhang et al., 2011), and prosocial behaviours (Keyes and Ryff,
1998).
7.4 SUMMARY
We covered two topics in this unit: attitudes and well -being. Att itudes
are a proclivity to behave or act in response to some aspect of the
environment; the intensity of positive or negative affect for or against
a psychological object; or an expression of likes and dislikes.

Attitudes are divided into three categorie s: cognitive, affective, and
conative. Parents lay the groundwork for attitude formation by
providing information. Conditioning later influences this. According to
the Balance theory, developing a harmonious attitude is simple. Many
different techniques fo r measuring attitudes have been developed, with
self-report questionnaires being the most common. Attitude scales allow
for precise and quantitative measurement. The IAT is now widely used in munotes.in

Page 104

Assessment in social
Psychology
104 social psychology research, as well as clinical, cognitive, and
developmental psychology research to a lesser extent. It is a covert
measure of unconscious attitudes derived from how quickly people
respond to concept pairings such as black or white with good or bad.

Happiness, a sense of contentment, a sense of belong ing, achievement, and
being free of distress and discomfort are all components of well -being.
Subjective well -being and objective well -being are two broad categories
of wellness. According to Ryff's (1989) model, well -being is the process
of optimally real ising one's talents and potential. There are three
dimensions to happiness: Well -being on all levels: emotional,
psychological, and social. Emotional well -being is defined as having more
positive emotions such as joy and happiness and fewer negative emotio ns
such as hatred and jealousy. Contentment and happiness with one's own
life are examples of psychological well -being. Social integration, social
contribution, social acceptance, social coherence, and social actualization
are all dimensions of social well -being.
7.5 QUESTIONS
1. Define attitude and discuss its components.
2. Discuss the development of attitudes.
3. What are the characteristics of attitude?
4. Write a note on the types of attitudes.
5. List the methods of measuring attitudes.
6. Write a note on the covert measures of attitude.
7. Discuss the concept of well –being.
8. How is well -being classified?
9. Write a note on Ryff’s model of well -being.
10. What is social well -being and why is it important?
11. Elaborate on the assessment techniques of psychological and social
well–being.
7.6 REFERENCES
1. Albarracin, D., Jonson,B.T., Zanna, M.P.(2014). The Handbook of
Attitudes . New York, NY: The Psychology Press.

2. Dalal, A. K., & Misra, G. (2006). Psychology of Health and Well -
being: Some Emerging Perspectives. Psychological Studies .

3. Ghosh, M. (2015). Health Psychology: Concepts in Health and Well -
being . New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd.
munotes.in

Page 105

Tools for Assessment in
Areas of Attitude and Well -Being – I
105 4. Keyes, C. L. M., Shmotkin, D., &Ryff, C. D. (2002). Optimizing well -
being: The empirical encounter of two traditions. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology , 82, 1007 –1022.

5. Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on
the meaning of psychological well -being. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 57, 1069 -1081.

6. Ryff, C. D., & Keyes, C. L. M. (1995 ). The structure of psychological
well-being revisited. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology , 69(4), 719 –727.

7. Ryff, C. D., Almeida, D. M., Ayanian, J. S., Carr, D. S., Cleary, P. D.,
Coe, C., … Williams, D. (2007). National Survey of Midlife
Develo pment in the United States (MIDUS II), 2004 -2006:
Documentation of the Psychosocial Constructs and Composite
Variables in MIDUS II Project 1 . Ann Arbor, MI: Inter -university
Consortium for Political and Social Research.

8. Ryff, C. D., Keyes, C. L. M., & Hugh es, D. L. (2003). Status
inequalities, perceived discrimination, and eudaimonic well -being: Do
the challenges of minority life hone purpose and growth? Journal of
Health and Social Behavior , 44(3), 275 -291.
Veenhoven, R. (2004) “Subjective Measures of Well -being.”
Discussion Paper No. 2004/07. United Nations University: WIDER.



munotes.in

Page 106

106 8
TOOLS FOR ASSESSMENT IN AREAS OF
ALCOHOL AND DRUGS,
DISABILITIES -II
Unit Structure :
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.1.1 Alcohol and Drug Abuse
8.1.2 Disability
8.2 Alcohol and drug speciality: Assessment instrument and drug
detection testing

8.2.1 Patient history areas
8.2.2 Standardised assessment and screening tools
8.3 Disability: Psychological and Vocational Assessment
8.3.1 Psychological Assessment
8.3.2 Vocational Assessment
8.4 Summary
8.5 Questions
8.6 References

8.0 OBJECTIVES
 To understand the concepts of alcoholism, drug abuse, drug
dependence -physiological and psychological, drug addiction and drug
tolerance.
 To understand the screening for alcohol problems and tools for
assessment of dependence.
 To learn the c oncept of disability.
 To know the different kinds of impairments covered by the RPWD Act
2016.
 To know the psychological and vocational assessment of disability.
8.1 INTRODUCTION
We learned about attitudes and well -being in the previous unit. This unit
will focus on the assessment of alcohol, drugs, and disability. Let us first
understand these three concepts in this section. In the next sections, we
will focus on the assessment part for each of them.

munotes.in

Page 107

Tools for Assessment in
Areas of Alcohol and
Drugs, Disabilities -II
107 8.1.1 Alcohol And Drug Abuse
Adolescents, young adul ts, and others are particularly vulnerable to
alcoholism and drug abuse. The use of drugs causes a variety of biological
and psychological problems in the individual. The accurate assessment of
clients' drug use habits is a major responsibility of the comm unity health
nurse. Alcohol and drugs have been used in India since the beginning of
time. Their primary goal was to find pleasure or to avoid or reduce pain,
discomfort, and frustration.

As we are all aware of the fact that alcohol and drug abuse is curr ently
widespread, and this has become a major concern. The misuse of harmful
or addictive substances such as alcohol, illegal or street drugs, prescription
and over -the-counter medications, and volatile chemicals leads to
alcoholism and drug abuse.

As a result, problems such as mental and physical illnesses, as well as
family, housing, employment, and legal difficulties (associated with social
issues such as broken families, child abuse and delinquency, ruined
careers, homicide, suicide, etc.) arise. Canc er, heart disease, AIDS,
gastrointestinal and neurological disorders are all known to be linked to
alcohol. Thus, this problem is causing so much loss to the country and the
world at large.

The prevalence of drug abuse varies by location, whereas alcohol abuse is
a nearly universal problem. In fact, drug addiction has reached epidemic
proportions in many countries. Drug trafficking is a serious crime against
which legal action must be taken. Treatment of substance abuse disorder is
complex and difficult b ecause each abuser's reason for substance abuse
and addiction is unique. Furthermore, each abuser's family environment
and situation are unique.

All of these factors must be considered in the treatment and management
of substance abuse. Psychological and pharmacological interventions,
such as detoxification and substitute prescribing, are used. Drug use and
abuse are on the rise, affecting our children, youth, men and women, and
the elderly. To understand these as one of the emerging societal problems,
we will now learn the definitions of various terms such as alcoholism,
drug abuse, dependence, addiction, and tolerance.

Definition of the terms
 Alcoholism is a chronic disease or behavioural disorder characterised
by the uncontrollable and repetitive consu mption of alcoholic
beverages. The drinker's body suffers functional and structural damage
as a result of this addiction or habit. The WHO Experts Committee on
Mental Health recognises alcohol as a distinct type of drug. Its
addiction must be considered as one of the problems associated with
drug abuse. munotes.in

Page 108

Assessment in social
Psychology
108  Drug Abuse is defined as the self -administration of a drug for non -
medical reasons in amounts and frequencies that may impair an
individual's ability to function effectively and result in social, physical,
or emotional harm. These drugs cause both psychological and
physiological dependence. That is, when a person takes a drug, he or
she experiences a sense of well -being (which is actually a pathological
state of well -being) and is unable to function mentally or physically.

 Drug dependence is described as "a state, psychic and sometimes also
physical, resulting from the interaction between a living organism and
a drug; characterized by behavioural and other responses that always
include a compulsion to take th e drug on a continuous or periodic basis
in order to experience its psychic effects and sometimes to avoid the
discomfort of its absence."

 Physical dependence occurs when a drug abuser's body becomes so
accustomed to a specific drug that he can function normally only when
he takes drugs. When a person stops using drugs, they may experience
a range of physical withdrawal symptoms ranging from mild
discomfort to convulsions, depending on the type of drug.

 Drug use is defined as the use of drugs in accordan ce with a
physician's orders or experimental use without a prescription that has
no long -term negative consequences for the individual.

 Drug Addiction is defined as the use of drugs for a long enough
period of time and at a high enough dosage that the ind ividual's body
develops tolerance and dependence on the chemical.

 Tolerance is the physiologic need for a drug in increasing amounts to
achieve the same psychologic effect, whereas dependence is the
physiologic need for a drug in order for the body to fun ction.
Withdrawal symptoms occur when such a drug is removed or
discontinued.

 Substance abuse is a term that is becoming more common in the
literature to describe the use of any chemical, drug, or alcohol that
causes individual, familial, social, occupati onal, financial, medical, or
legal problems. This term is useful in describing a similar set of
problematic behaviours of abusers, but because of the differences in
the legalities of alcohol and drug use, it is frequently necessary to
separate drug use fro m alcohol use or abuse in order to adequately
discuss the topic.

 Psychological dependence occurs when a drug becomes so ingrained
in a person's thoughts, emotions, and activities that stopping using it,
or even thinking about it, becomes extremely difficu lt. An intense
craving and abnormal obsession for the drug and its effects
characterise psychological dependence. munotes.in

Page 109

Tools for Assessment in
Areas of Alcohol and
Drugs, Disabilities -II
109 Section 8.2.1 of this unit will deal with alcohol and drug speciality
assessment instruments. Now we will understand another important
concept which will be learning in the same unit, that is, disability.

8.1.2 Disability

The term "disability" refers to a general absence or lack of one or more
capacities that the majority of human beings possess and without which
our physical or mental activit ies are limited partially or completely.
Disability is much more complex and is not always readily apparent. It
may be either temporary or permanent in different forms, such as a broken
limb or chronic migraines that make it difficult to speak. Accordingly , the
needs, rights, and provisions centred on disabilities also should not be well
taken care of while providing "equal access to all." The question then
becomes, what exactly is disability?

Our understanding of what disability is, its consequences, fac tors that
make it worse or help to alleviate it, our approach to disability, and other
aspects have evolved over time. At the same time, it remains highly
contested. Let us understand the definition of disability given by the
World Health Organisation (WHO ).

According to WHO (2001), "[a] disability is any condition of the body or
mind (impairment) that makes it more difficult for the person with the
condition to do certain activities (activity limitation) and interact with the
world around them (participat ion restrictions)".

Three key points in the preceding statement should be highlighted for our
attention. The World Health Organisation defines disability as having the
following three components:
 Impairment in a person’s body structure or function, or me ntal
functioning; examples of impairments include loss of a limb, loss of
vision or memory loss.

 Activity limitations , such as difficulty in seeing, hearing, walking, or
problem -solving.

 Participation restrictions in normal daily activities, such as work ing,
engaging in social and recreational activities, and obtaining health care
and preventive services.




munotes.in

Page 110

Assessment in social
Psychology
110 Table 8.1 Difference between the three terminologies  Impairment – It refers to a loss (or a form of abnormality) in
physiological, psychological o r anatomical structure or
function. Impairment can be corrected with the help of aids
and/or appliances and does not always lead to a disability or
handicap.
 Disability – It results from impairment, and refers to a lack of
ability to perform functions tha t fall within the normal range of
activities carried out by people of a specific age group.
 Handicap – It results from impairment or disability. It refers to
the disadvantage faced by an individual that causes an inability
to perform normal roles as per hi s/her age, gender, and
educational status. Handicap occurs as a result of social,
cultural and physical barriers that prevent individuals with
disability or impairment in a function within the regular
systems of society.

There is also disagreement over t erminology. Some people and activists
prefer the term "differently abled," while others prefer "disabled."
Previously, the term 'handicap' was used, and some people still use it
today. However, the term 'handicap' is problematic.

In the early 1900s, when the new fields of sociology and social work
began to look at people in terms of their place in society as a whole, the
term handicap was applied to physical and mental differences. More
offensive terms, such as crippled, lame, imbecile, invalid, etc. were also
used.

However, with the beginning of the disability rights movement, things
began to change. The term 'disabled' was coined as part of the self -
determination process. This evolution in terminology also reflects the
struggle for asserting rights.
Table 8.2 Terminologies: Earlier and Current

Earlier Terms Current Terminology
Disabled people People with disability
Blind people People with visual impairment
Mental retardation Intellectual disability
Deaf Hearing impairment
Crippled Physical impair ment


munotes.in

Page 111

Tools for Assessment in
Areas of Alcohol and
Drugs, Disabilities -II
111 Classification of Disabilities

The Right of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016 (RPWD, 2016) has
increased the number of disability conditions from 7 to 21. The updated
list of disabilities also includes three blood disorders and acid attack
survivors. Following is the list of 21 disabilities, recognised under the
RPWD Act 2016:

Table 8.3 List of 21 disabilities recognised under the RPWD Act, 2016
1. Blindness
2. Low-vision
3. Leprosy Cured persons
4. Hearing Impairment (deaf and hard of hearing)
5. Locomoto r Disability
6. Dwarfism
7. Intellectual Disability
8. Mental Illness
9. Autism Spectrum Disorder
10. Cerebral Palsy
11. Muscular Dystrophy 12. Chronic Neurological conditions
13. Specific Learning Disabilities
14. Multiple Sclerosis
15. Speech and Language disability
16. Thalassemia
17. Haemop hilia
18. Sickle Cell diseases
19. Multiple Disabilities including deaf-blindness
20. Acid Attack victim
21. Parkinson’s disease

8.2 ALCOHOL AND DRUG SPECIALTY:ASSESSMENT,
INSTRUMENT AND DRUG DETECTION TESTING
Evaluation is not a one -time event. This happens in sta ges. Thus, the
stages of evaluation are as follows:

a) Preintervention : The purpose of the assessment is to define the
problem, formulate a treatment plan, select an appropriate treatment
from a variety of options, and motivate clients to participate in
treatment.
b) Intervention : Here, the assessment is done to monitor progress.
c) Post-intervention : This assesses the maintenance and self -discipline
status.

There can be different levels of assessment depending on the reasons for
the assessment and the settings in which the assessment is performed
(inpatient vs. outpatient). This can range from brief screening and basic
assessment for diagnosis to specialised assessment for making clinical
treatment decisions and re -assessment for ongoing care.


munotes.in

Page 112

Assessment in social
Psychology
112

Table 8.1 Various Stages of Assessment
The key to approp riate management is a thorough history, proper physical
examination, neuropsychiatric examination and relevant lab - investigation.
Important aspects from the alcohol use misuse perspective are as follows:
Phase 1 – Ask

 Inquire with all patients about th eir use of alcohol and other
substances, including prescription and over -the-counter medications.
Clinical indicators for screening include:

 Patients who are pregnant or trying to conceive.
 Patients who are prone to heavy drinking, such as smokers,
adolescents, and young adults.
 Patients with alcohol -related health problems, such as cardiac
arrhythmia, dyspepsia, liver disease, depression or anxiety, insomnia,
or trauma.
 Patients have a chronic illness that is not responding appropriately to
treatment, such as chronic pain, diabetes, gastrointestinal disorders,
depression, heart disease, or hypertension.

 Differentiate between alcohol use, harmful use and dependence.
 Conceptualise assessment as ongoing and not necessarily “one -off”
and record the inf ormation.
 Recognise that the manner and style in which this is done can be a
powerful determinant of both the amount of relevant information
elicited and engagement in the therapeutic process. It is usually best to
ask about alcohol consumption alongside other health behaviours like
smoking, diet, and exercise.
Some clinicians have discovered that prefacing the alcohol questions
with a non -threatening opener like "Do you enjoy a drink now and
then?" can encourage reserved patients to speak up. In some cas es,
you may want to include the questions "How often do you buy
alcohol?" and "How much do you buy?" to help you create an
accurate estimate.
 Recognise and respond to the ambivalence that alcohol -abusing
patients may experience.
 Be non -judgmental and non -confrontational in your actions. Specificity / Cost
Stages of
Assessment Levels of
Assessment
1. Preintervention 1. Brief Screening
2. Intervention 2. Basic Assessment
3. Post-intervention 3. Specialized
Assessment
Source: - (Rao. Mohan & Lal, 2005) Broad Focus /
Inexpensive
Narrow Focus /
Costly
munotes.in

Page 113

Tools for Assessment in
Areas of Alcohol and
Drugs, Disabilities -II
113 Phase 2 – Assess

 Assess the degree of dependence.
 Use the assessment process to educate patients about the effects of
alcohol.
 Inform about withdrawal symptoms.
 Make some assessment of the level of motivation or “stag e of
change” at which the patient may be.

Phase 3 – Advice

 Continue the assessment within a brief 5 - to 10 -minute “motivational
interviewing” framework.
 Provide the patient with the opportunity to express anxieties and
concerns.
 Offer personalised fe edback about clinical findings, including
physical examination and biochemical and haematological tests.
 Discuss and outline the personal benefits and risks of continued
drinking and safe levels of drinking.
 Provide self -help materials (e.g. manuals).

Phase 4 – Assist

 Offer encouragement and support while instilling positive success
expectations.
 Acknowledge that previous attempts may have caused a loss of
confidence and self -esteem.
 Suggest that if the goal is self -discipline, a “quit date” is set, so the
patient can plan accordingly to rid of any alcohol in the house and
safely (is it safe to stop drinking abruptly or not?). Certain conditions
warrant advice to withdraw as opposed to cutting down. These
include when drinkers:

 Are or may become pre gnant.
 Are taking a contraindicated medication.
 Have a medical or psychiatric disorder caused by or exacerbated by
drinking.
 Have an alcohol use disorder.
If patients with alcohol use disorders are unwilling to commit to
abstinence, they may be willing t o cut down on their drinking. This should
be encouraged while noting that abstinence, the safest strategy, has a
greater chance of long -term success.

For heavy drinkers, who do not have an alcohol use disorder, use
professional judgment to determine whet her cutting down or abstaining is
more appropriate, based on factors such as these:
 A family history of alcohol problems
 Advanced age munotes.in

Page 114

Assessment in social
Psychology
114  Injuries related to drinking
 Symptoms, such as sleep disorders or sexual dysfunction
It may be beneficial to discuss v arious options, such as reducing to
recommended limits or abstaining completely for a month or two before
reconsidering future drinking. If cutting back is the first step, but the
patient is unable to do so, suggest abstinence.
 Go over a variety of altern ative coping strategies, including
identifying cues that may help distract the patient.
Phase 5 – Arrange
 Be prepared to refer or organize admission to a specialist or
appropriate unit if the patient is,
 In severe withdrawal, including delirium tremens;
 Experiencing unstable social circumstances;
 Likely to develop serious withdrawal due to a severe degree of
dependence or a previous episode of severe withdrawal, including
delirium tremens;
 Severely dependent;
 Has a severe comorbid physical illness;
 Has comorbid mental illness, including suicidal ideation;
 Using multiple substances;
 Has a history of frequent relapse.

During all phases, close attention should be paid to the appropriateness of
various options for the particular individual – “tailor -made” where
possible.
1) Patient History Areas
In most cases, a routine psychiatric interview will include a review of a
patient's drug history. Furthermore, when interviewing patients for other
reasons, all doctors should consider the possibility of comorbid drug
misuse and be prepared to ask about it. The more detailed assessment
described here is appropriate for patients whose primary clinical concern
is drug use and who are being evaluated for entry into a treatment
programme.

A detailed assessment of a p atient with drug use issues will usually take
more than one consultation. Only in a few cases (such as an opiate -
dependent patient presenting with an acute medical emergency) should
treatment be considered before a full assessment. History should include
the following topics:
 Background information: Name, address, next of kin, GP, names of
other professionals involved (e.g. social worker, probation officer).

 Reasons for consultation now: Why has the drug user presented
now, (e.g. pressure from family, pe nding conviction, had enough, munotes.in

Page 115

Tools for Assessment in
Areas of Alcohol and
Drugs, Disabilities -II
115 increasing difficulty injecting)? What does the user seek from the
program? In females, is there a possibility of pregnancy?

 Current drug use: Enquire about each drug taken over the previous
4 weeks. Describe the frequency o f use (e.g. daily, most days, at
weekends); and the number of times taken each day. Record the
amount taken and the route. Ask the user about episodes of
withdrawal. Include alcohol, tobacco, and cannabis. If there is IV use,
inquire about needle or other equipment sharing.

 Lifetime drug use: Record the age at first use of drugs and the
changing pattern of drug use until the most recent consultation.
Enquire about periods of abstinence or stability and the reasons for
this (e.g. prison, relationship, trea tment programme).

 Complications of drug use: Overdoses deliberate or accidental.
History of cellulitis, abscesses, or phlebitis. Hepatitis B and C and
HIV status if known.

 Previous treatment episodes: Timing, locus, and type of previous
drug treatment. How did the treatment attempt end? Was the
treatment helpful?

 Medical and psychiatric history: All episodes of medical or
psychiatric inpatient care. Contact with hospital specialists. Current
health problems. Relationship with GP.

 Family history: Are th ere other family members with drug or alcohol
problems? Family history of medical or psychiatric problems.

 Social history: Current accommodation. How stable is this
accommodation? Sexual orientation and the number of sexual
partners. Enquire about safe se x precautions. Describe the user’s
relationship: sexual, personal, and family. Note how many of these
individuals currently use drugs.

 Forensic history: Previous or pending convictions. Periods of
imprisonment. Enquire about continuing criminal activity t o support
drug use (remind the patient about confidentiality).

 Patient’s aims in seeking treatment: What is the patient’s attitude to
drug use? What treatment options do they favor?

 Mental status examination (MSE): Observe for history or objective
signs of depressed mood or suicidal thoughts or plans. Inquire
directly about generalized anxiety and panic attacks (a
benzodiazepine user may be self -medicating a neurotic condition).
Inquire directly about paranoid ideas and hallucinatory experiences
and the d irectness or otherwise of their relationship with drug use. munotes.in

Page 116

Assessment in social
Psychology
116
 Physical examination: General condition. Weight. Condition of
teeth. Signs of IV use (examine particularly arms for signs of
phlebitis, abscess, or old scarring). Examine for enlarged liver. Sig ns
of withdrawals on assessment.

 Urine screening: This is essential. Several specimens should be
taken over several weeks. Repeated absence of evidence of a drug on
screening makes its dependent use unlikely. Occasionally, testing
errors do occur so do n ot take action (e.g. stopping maintenance
prescription) on the basis of the results of a single sample.

 Blood testing: FBC, LFT, discuss with patient the need for HIV and
Hepatitis screening.
2) Standardised Assessment and Screening Tools:

Such tools can be effective data collection tools because they provide an
objective (reliable and valid) view of the client's difficulties and current
life situation (Ries, 1995; Winters, 1999). Furthermore, when done
correctly, standardised assessment can be a source o f rapport building.
Table 8.2 presents information on the available screening and assessment
tools, in terms of their utility, administration, strengths, limitations and
cost involved in using them.

























munotes.in

Page 117

Tools for Assessment in
Areas of Alcohol and
Drugs, Disabilities -II
117 Table 8.2 Summary of available sc reening and assessment measures

















































munotes.in

Page 118

Assessment in social
Psychology
118

















































munotes.in

Page 119

Tools for Assessment in
Areas of Alcohol and
Drugs, Disabilities -II
119
















































munotes.in

Page 120

Assessment in social
Psychology
120 8.3 DISABILITY: PSYCHOLOGICAL AND
VOCATIONAL ASSESSMENT
8.3.1 Psycho logical Assessment
Psychological tests used to assess disability can be divided into two types:
criterion -referenced tests and norm -referenced tests. Several such norm -
referenced and criterion -referenced tests are used for diagnosis and
intervention. Norm -referenced tests are those that use normative or
standard scores from the normal population to compare a given score from
an individual, whereas criterion -referenced tests do not use a norm or
standard to compare.

Individual performance is used to compar e with future performance in
order to measure change, which may be in response to education or
training. A variety of tests are now commercially available to identify and
diagnose disabled children.
1) Interview

The most commonly used technique for diagnosi s is the interview,
particularly in the early stages of assessment (Hawkins, 1979). It is a
technique in which an interviewer gathers verbal information from an
interviewee by interacting with them. Parents, family, carers, or significant
other of the pers on with a disability provide excellent background data on
important areas of behaviour that the therapist would not have access to
otherwise.

2) Behavioural Assessment

Behavioural assessment is the process of objectively observing and
measuring behaviour in a natural or defined setting. This is a method of
objectively observing and measuring behaviour. It is necessary to define
the behaviour under study when assessing people with disabilities. In this
context, behavioural observation is important.

Behaviou ral assessment is the process of objective observation and
measurement. It is essentially a funnel -shaped process with a broad scope
that eventually narrows to a narrow and constant focus on specific
behaviour (Hawkins, 1979; Cone & Hawkins, 1977). The fiv e main
functions of behavioural assessment are as follows: (1) screening and
general disposition, (2) definition and quantification of problems of
desired achievement, (3) pinpointing the target Behaviour(s), (4)
monitoring progress, and (5) follow -up (Haw kins, 1979).

 Direct Observation: Direct behaviour observation is the process of
simultaneously observing and recording target behaviours (Repp,
1983). The goal of direct observation is to set up learning conditions in
such a way that each occurrence of a response can be recorded
reliably. munotes.in

Page 121

Tools for Assessment in
Areas of Alcohol and
Drugs, Disabilities -II
121
 Role Play: Role Play is frequently used to assess individual client
behaviour in a social setting, where the therapist or teacher attempts to
elicit the target behaviour by asking the client to play specific roles.
Such role-playing situations provide an excellent opportunity to
observe certain behaviours that are difficult to observe in the natural
environment. The most extensive use of role -play is found in the
assessment of retarded individuals' social skills.

 Self-report: Another indirect method of assessing individual
behaviour is self -report or self -observation. This method is used to
assess behaviour that cannot be observed by an assessor. The client is
asked to objectively and quantitatively record his or her own
behaviour. Despite its drawbacks, it is a unique method of obtaining
information about the client's private behaviour.

3) Standardised Assessment and Screening Tools

As mentioned previously in the case of alcohol and drugs (Section 8.2),
some tools can be effective data collection tools because they provide an
objective, reliable and valid view of the client's difficulties and current life
situation (Ries, 1995; Winters, 1999). When they are done correctly,
standardised assessment can be a useful source of rapport building. Here
are a few of such tests listed below (Table 8.4) for the screening of
persons with disability:
Table 8.4 Assessment Measures for Disability

Instrument Utility / Measure
Stanford -Binet Scale (The Stanford -
Binet Scale of Intelligenc e was
adapted for the Indian population by
V. V. Kamath, popularly known as
the Binet -Kamath Test for General
Mental Ability). To differentiate the children with
mental retardation from others.
This is determined by his
performance on age -appropriate
tasks.

Wechsler Scales (WISC has been
adapted for Indian children by A. J.
Malin, called Malin’s Intelligence
Scale for Indian Children (MISIC). To assess the intelligence of
adults and children. In diagnosis
of mental retardation, Wechsler
Scales of Intel ligence have been
recognised as a standard tool
(ICD -10, 1989) and are one of the
most widely used scales for
screening mental retardation. munotes.in

Page 122

Assessment in social
Psychology
122 Seguin Form Board Used for assessing general
intellectual functioning for
children in the age group of 3.5
years t o 10 years. Although the
test primarily measures the form
perception and motor
coordination of children, this can
also be used as a measure of
intelligence for children in the
above age group for screening out
mental retardation.
Vineland Social Maturity Scale
(India adaptation by A. J. Malin)
The scale primarily focuses on
the ‘social maturity’ of the
individual, which roughly
indicates the adaptive behaviour
between 0 -15 years of age. These
scales are useful for diagnosis of
people with mental retardat ion.
Diagnostic Test of Learning
Disabilities This diagnostic test of learning
disability is used primarily for
screening out children. The test
consists of 100 items in 8
different core areas, which
included visual processing,
auditory processing, motor -
coordination, cognitive, language,
memory functions, perseveration
tendencies and disorders in the
affective domain.
Behavioural Checklist for Screening
Children with Learning Disability
(BCSLD) A tool for general screening to
identify children with le arning
disability.
Comprehensive Test of Basic Word
Skills Word usage, mechanics and
grammatical structure

California Achievement Tests Word usage, mechanics, and
grammatical structure
Stanford Achievement Tests Mechanics and grammatical
structur e
Iowa Test of Basic Skills Word usage and mechanics
SRA Achievement Series Mechanics and grammatical
structure
Picture -Story Language Test To study written expression.
Kaufman Test of Educational
Achievement - Normative
Upgrade(K -TEA -NU) Tests m athematical abilities munotes.in

Page 123

Tools for Assessment in
Areas of Alcohol and
Drugs, Disabilities -II
123 8.3.2 Vocational Assessment

Vocational Rehabilitation

Vocational rehabilitation (VR) is a set of services designed to help people
with disabilities or the elderly enter or return to work in order to maintain
functional abilities or capacity. These services include comprehensive
vocational assessment and evaluation, training, general skill enhancement,
refresher courses, on -the-job training, career counselling, job searches, and
consultation with potential or existing employers re garding job
accommodations and modifications.

The structure of such services may differ depending on the target
populations and those who are currently unemployed. Other terms for this
type of service include work rehabilitation, occupational rehabilitat ion,
vocational practice, work practice, etc.

Regardless of the setting, the vocational rehabilitation process includes
assessment, planning, intervention, and evaluation. A critical component
of the VR process is assisting the client with an age -related disability or
health condition to understand and manage how it affects their
occupational participation in work. The details of the VR process shown in
Figure 8.1 guide professionals in assisting clients to return to work.

Figure 8.1 Vocational Rehabilit ation Process

This process can be completed in a matter of days or over a period of
months. The sa me VR process pattern is followed whether the person is
currently unemployed and looking for work or has a job that is still open
for them to return to. We will now go over each of these eight stages to
help you understand what is involved in each step of the process.

Stage 1: Referral

The VR process begins when a referral is received. After all, there is no
service to provide if there are no referrals! This referral could come from a
variety of sources, but it is most likely from a medical practitioner. The
referral source influences the outcome you hope to achieve with your
client to some extent.

Stage 2: The Initial Assessment

An occupational therapist conducts a thorough assessment of the clients at
this stage. The first step is to choose the best location for the initial
assessment. This initial contact may take place at the client's home, their munotes.in

Page 124

Assessment in social
Psychology
124 proposed place of employment, a community venue, or a primary care
centre. The purpose of the meeting is then explained, and consent for the
assessment is obtained.

The assessment meeting will most likely take the form of a semi -
structured interview because it is a two -way information -sharing
procedure. Setting goals or developing an action plan is often the final
part of the initial meeting. The formali ty and specific details of this plan
will differ from person to person and setting to setting. In most cases, after
completing the initial assessment, you will be required to complete an
assessment report and documentation that outlines your findings,
recommendations, and any goals you may have set with your client.

Stage 3: The Pre -Vocational Phase

If the individual wishes to return to work but is currently unable to do so, a
pre-vocational programme may be recommended. Pre -vocational training
takes pl ace in light and heavy workshops, which are frequently located in
the hospital rehabilitation department. They help develop and improve
occupational work skills, behaviours, habits, and routines.

The potential level of risk involved in the person enterin g or returning to
work can also be assessed during this phase. As a result, an additional
assessment may be required for greater standardisation and
generalisability. It ensures that the risk of harm to your client or others is
minimised before they are re ady to resume work. This is a comprehensive
risk management procedure that includes hazard identification, risk
assessment, and risk elimination.

Stage 4: The Worksite Visit
Following a basic understanding of the client, both as workers and as
occupation al demands, it is critical to understand their actual worksite and
work environment in order to facilitate the return to work process.

One should gather information about the types of jobs and the work
environment during the worksite visit. There are wel l-established job
categories available all over the world that will help us understand the
actual work tasks of a specific position or type of work.

Stage 5: The Return to Work Plan

This stage is designed in collaboration with the client and the employ er to
prepare the worker for vocational responsibilities. The therapist may make
a few suggestions for changes to the workplace environment, a list of tasks
that should be avoided on the job site, indicated activity that requires
supervision and provision, or any additional training and support needed
while on the job. A return to work plan specifies the timing and tasks for
both the employee and the employer.
munotes.in

Page 125

Tools for Assessment in
Areas of Alcohol and
Drugs, Disabilities -II
125 Stage 6: Intervention
At this stage, we will look at a variety of potential interventions that
experts could use, such as developing a coping mechanism, mentoring,
peer support groups, etc. Many occupational therapists use an ergonomics
approach to make work easier, such as using the latest equipment, proper
lighting, and computers, as well as using correct working posture and
easing the body's load, thereby reducing work -related musculoskeletal
disorders.

The intervention is designed to ensure that workers are well -matched to
their jobs and that the workplace is positive and healthy. A healthy
work place is associated with higher productivity and performance, lower
absenteeism, fewer injuries, higher employee morale, and other benefits.

Stage 7: Evaluation/Outcome

Outcomes, such as whether or not the person enters or returns to work, are
frequent ly used to assess the success of the VR process. Through surveys
and qualitative interviews, these outcomes include improved work quality
and increased job satisfaction.

Stage 8: Discharge

This is the final stage of the VR process, which should take pla ce about
three weeks after an employee resumes full -time hours and duties. The
appropriate time to discharge a client frequently necessitates sound
judgement. Ideally, this should occur when the client's objectives have
been met and no additional assistanc e from various stakeholders is
required.

Surprisingly, older adults who have returned to work after a long absence
may require ongoing long -term support. For this subpopulation, discharge
should be gradual and extended over time, with alternative support s in
place as needed.

Vocational Rehabilitation (VR) Team

The VR team is a working group of people who will engage in a planned,
collaborative effort to overcome the barriers and enable the individual in
question to successfully achieve their goal of en tering, returning to, or
remaining in work. The goal of a VR team is to give the individual the
best chance of achieving their work goal.

Because older workers frequently have chronic health conditions and
multiple health risks, they frequently require m ore multidisciplinary care.
This entails involving those professionals who are most likely to aid in the
achievement of this goal.
munotes.in

Page 126

Assessment in social
Psychology
126 As part of the VR team, the approach should be client -centred,
coordinated, and collaboratively worked with other key agenc ies and
service providers. The client, the employer or employee representative,
and health and vocational professionals will make up the most basic VR
teams.

Rehabilitation case managers, geriatricians, nurses, VR consultants,
occupational hygienists, an d rehabilitation experts are among the health
and vocational professionals. Rehabilitation professionals also include
physiotherapists (PT), occupational therapists (OT), psychologists, and
kinesiologists. Family members, friends, union representatives, an d
supervisors are among the other stakeholders.

Figure 8.2 Vocational Rehabilitation Team


Certification
In December 2009, the Central Government amended the (Central)
Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights, and
Full Participation) Rules. As a result, the issuance of a Disability
Certificate is now a mandatory requirem ent for Persons with Disabilities
to receive benefits under various government schemes and concessions.

There are prescribed assessment and certification criteria for people with
various disabilities. The Rehabilitation Council of India is the governing
body that determines the qualifications of rehabilitation professionals for
various types of disabilities. Such professionals can register themselves in
a Central Rehabilitation Register which is an online procedure.

One can find the norms and guidelines for certification for various
professionals working in the field of disability on the website link
(https://rehabcouncil.nic.in/norms -guidelines) for Registration in Central
Geriatrician, Nurse,
Medical Specialists
Psychologist,
Kinesiologist,
Occupational Hygienist
Vocational Rehabilitation
Team, Physiotherapist s,
Occupational
Therapists,Vocational Consultant munotes.in

Page 127

Tools for Assessment in
Areas of Alcohol and
Drugs, Disabilities -II
127 Rehabilitation Register (CRR) on the website of the Rehabilitation
Council of Ind ia (RCI), which is a statutory body of the Ministry of Social
Justice and Empowerment and is looked after by the Department of
Empowerment and Persons with Disabilities (Divyangjan), Government of
India.

8.4 SUMMARY
We are all aware that alcoholism and drug a buse are a complex social
problem. It is a societal, family, and individual problem that requires the
collaborative efforts of government institutions such as health education
and social welfare, voluntary organisations, legislative and political
bodies, t he community at large, and affected families to find solutions.

We, as psychologists, can make a significant contribution to the
prevention and control of this problem by sensitising people and raising
awareness among parents about the psychosocial devel opment of their
children, early detection, and appropriate treatment for one -time drug
abusers and alcoholics.

We also learned in this unit that psychological assessments of people with
disabilities are important because they provide supplementary data fo r
diagnosis and evaluation. Interviews, behavioural assessments, and
psychological testing are all methods of psychological assessment. Each
one has advantages and disadvantages.

Regardless of the setting, the vocational rehabilitation process includes
assessment, planning, intervention, and evaluation. Importantly, the VR
team focuses on the individual's strengths and abilities rather than their
limitations and weaknesses.
8.5 QUESTIONS
1. Define the following terms:
a) Alcoholism
b) Drug Abuse
c) Drug dependence
d) Physical dependence
e) Drug use
f) Drug Addiction
g) Tolerance
h) Alcoholism
i) Substance abuse
j) Psychological dependence
2. What information is collected as part of history during the assessment
of the drug abuser?
3. What are the stages of assessment of alcohol abuse and dependence?
4. Write a note on a few screening and assessment measures available
for drug and alcohol abuse. munotes.in

Page 128

Assessment in social
Psychology
128 5. Define and differentiate the terms, disability, impairment and
handicap.
6. Describe the five principal functions of behavioural assessment.
7. Write a n ote on Behavioural assessment and interview techniques.
8. Write a note on available assessment measures for disability.
9. Explain Vocational Rehabilitation and its process.
8.6 REFERENCES
1. Gawali, G. (2012). Vocational Rehabilitation of Persons with
Disabili ty: Psychosocial and LegalPerspectives (Ed.). Mumbai:
Himalaya Publications.

2. Geneva, 2001. World Health Organization, International Classification
of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF).

3. Hawkins, R. P. (1979). The function of assessment: Implications for
selection and development of devices for assessing repertoire in
clinical, educational and other settings. Journal of Behavioural
Assessment, 12, 501 -516.

4. Juhnke, G.A. (2002). Substance abuse assessment and diagnosis: a
comprehensive guide for counse llorsand helping professionals. New
York, NY: Brunner - Routledge

5. Rao, R. Mohan & I., Lal, R. (2005). Assessment and Diagnosis in
Substance Use Disorder. In Rakesh Lal (Ed.), Substance Use
Disorders: Manual for Physicians, 2, pp. 1 - 2. National Drug
Depende nce Treatment Centre. All India Institute of Medical Sciences.
New Delhi.

6. Repp, A. C. (1983). Teaching the mentally retarded. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice Hall.


munotes.in