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1Module I
UNIT -1
HISTORY: DEFINITIONS AND SCOPE
Unit Structure:
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Meaning and Definitions of History
1.3 Nature of History
1.3.1 A study of the present in the light of the past
1.3.2 History is the study of man
1.3.3 History is concerned with man in time
1.3.4 History is concerned with man in space
1.3.5 History is a dialogue between the events of the past and
progressive ly emerging future ends
1.3.6 Continuity and coherence are the necessary requisites of
history
1.3.7 Relevant
1.3.8 Comprehensiveness
1.3.9 Objective record of happenings
1.3.10 Multisided
1.3.11 Time and Place relevance
1.3.12 Correlation among past, present and future
1.3.13 Scientific study of past
1.3.14 Study of human struggle, development and transformation
of human civilization
1.3.15 Not only narration but, analysis and synthesis as well
1.3.16 Integration of scienc e and literature
1.4 Scope of History
1.4.1 Features of the scope
1.4.2 Limitations of the scope
1.5 Summary
1.6 Questions
1.7 Additional Readingsmunotes.in

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21.0 OBJECTIVES :
After the completion of this unit, the student will be able to:
Define and comprehend the meaning of History.
Asses the nature of History.
Evaluate the scope of History.
Know the importance of History.
1.1INTRODUCTION:
History is a dynamic and multifaceted subject. It is reckoned as the
mother of all subjects. History has its types according to place, time and
subject. Pre -historic, ancient, medieval and modern are the types of
history on the basis of ‘time’. Economic, military, social, cultural, political
etc. are the types of history according to ‘subject’. Local, regional,
national and international are the types of history on the basis of ‘place’.
International history emphases on the study of such events and happeni ngs
which made their impact on the entire human community worldwide e.g.
French revolution, world war I, world war II. Events and happenings
which made their impact on the subsequent countries are studied in
national history. E.g. in Indian context, nation al revolt of 1857, Non -
cooperation movement. Regional history focuses on the happenings and
events happening their impact limited up to a particular region or state e.g.
History of Marathas. Local history comprises of history which includes
significant h appenings limited to local area and influencing local
community. In modern times, local history research is gaining special
emphasis. Reflections of dynamic social, political, economic
transformations are replicated in local history. History in conventiona l
terms is the recognition of past events and past life with its merits and
demerits.
In this unit we will be dealing with meaning, nature and scope of
history, and importance of history. We shall consider the Auxiliary
Sciences as detailed in this unit.
1.2 MEANING AND DEFINITIONS OF HISTORY:
History is the analysis and interpretation of the human past
enabling us to study continuity and changes that are taking place over
time. It is an act of both investigation and imagination that seeks to
explain how people have changed over time. Historians use all forms of
evidence to examine, interpret, revisit, and reinterpret the past. These
include not just written documents, but also oral communication and
objects such as buildings, artifacts, photographs, and paintings. Historians
are trained in the methods of discovering and evaluating these sources and
the challenging task of making historical sense out of them. History is a
means to understand the past and present. The different interpretations of
the past a llow us to see the present differently and therefore imagine -andmunotes.in

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3work towards -different futures. It is often said to be the ‘queen’ or
‘mother’ of the social sciences. It is the basis of all subjects of study which
fall under the category of Humanities and Social Sciences. It is also the
basis of the study of philosophy, politics, economics and even art and
religion. No wonder, it is considered an indispensable subject in the
complete education of man.
The first meaning of history is ‘tale, story,’ and th e second
meaning is ‘a chronological record of significant past events.’ The
opening of tales for children -‘Once upon a time’ -captures both the story
and time nature of history.... It happens that the word ‘history’ comes from
the Greek ‘to know.’
The ori gin of the word History is associated with the Greek word
‘Historia’ which means ‘information’ or ‘an enquiry designed to elicit
truth’. Man looked at the wilderness of the past when he was brute and
savage, and even as he looked, he beheld a garden which could be created
out of a jungle. He has an eye not merely on the dizzy Heights of the past
but on the ditches and uneven surfaces as well, with the intention of
building a glorious monument for the future. The nature history is too
complex and its scope t oo vast, touching almost every domain of human
activity. Let us start with a few definitions of history.
History has been defined differently by different scholars.
Following definitions indicate the meaning of History.
Aristotle: “History contrasts research into the facts, with the logical
task of explanation.” The term ‘contrasts’ is very significant here, as it
suggests that things in history are related to one another in a systematic
and permanent manner, forming the entire stor y of man into one integrated
whole. Aristotle further suggests that history is an account of the
unchanging past the sense that human nature does not change, and that all
activities that originate with the same intentions and motives differ only in
the deg ree of details and not in their basic nature. Thus wars, conquests,
expansion and exploitation are a constant factor in history although every
age and every country had its own technique to achieve the objective.
Henry Johnson :“History, in its broadest s ense, is everything that ever
happened."
Smith, V.S: “The value and interest of history depend largely on the
degree in which the present is illuminated by the past.”
Rapson: “History is a connected account of the course of events or
progress of ideas.”
NCERT: “History is the scientific study of past happenings in all their
aspects, in the life of a social group, in the light of present
happenings.” The scientific study is promoted through explaining the
meaning of history as study of human society in diff erent times through allmunotes.in

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4the dimensions like political, social, economic, cultural, scientific etc.
Study of past happenings in the light of evidences as well as insistence for
unfolding of truth through causal relationship is of prime significance.
Sheddin g light upon truth with the help of sources is vital here along with
organizing historical facts scientifically.
Jawaharlal Nehru: “History is the story of Man's struggle through
the ages against Nature and the elements; against wild beasts and the
jungle and some of his own kind who have tried to keep him down
and to exploit him for their own benefit.” Man has made the journey of
his progress from the primitive to the modern man of today. He had to
battle against the nature and its different elements fo r his existence and
progress during the course. The society had to struggle against specific
class in every age and every place to seek justice. This struggle still
persists even today. Pandit Nehru expects the account of this struggle
throughout ages. Ac cording to Pandit Nehru history means the struggle of
human endeavour against the nature.
A novel interpretation of history is given by Carr E.H. He states :
“History is the continuous process of interaction between the historian
and his facts, and an unen ding dialogue between the present and the
past.” Carr admires history to be a continuous process, that process is the
process of interaction between historian and facts. The validity of the
event gets decided through how the historian describes the event w ith the
help of obtained facts and what interpretation he draws out. The constant
correlation between occurred events and the present conditions has been
given importance in history. Today’s situations and current happenings are
going to be the past tomorr ow. Yesterday has its influence on today and
also today on tomorrow. There is some background to every happening
and its success or failure. It leads to certain impressions e.g. the entire
world witnessed the undying evil -impacts of imperialism and nuclear
weapons during the World War II. But, even today the imperialism and
nuclear accomplishment still exists in the world. The roots of it can be
found out in the colonialism, imperialism and consequent World Wars.
The seeds of all -round accomplishments of to day’s Japan are in the
lessons they took from the demolition in World War II. That is why
history is an unending dialogue between past and present. The past and
present are closely related with each other. They have an eternal relation
between them. The ancestries of the present problems can be seen in the
past. Henceforth histo ry is reckoned to be an unending dialogue between
the past and the present. The events from the past can be experienced in
the present in different form. Human behaviour lies at the roots of these
events.
Famous historian Burk Hardt has defined history as ,“the record
of what age finds worthy of note in another.” The era of Indian freedom
movement has its unique significance in Indian history. The present
generation receives guidance for active living through cruel policy of the
British, the fight of India ns and the freedom achievement. It can be
perceived that the injustice can also be eradicated by truth and non -munotes.in

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5violence. The vitality of freedom, equity, fraternity and justice can be
grasped and the contemporary generation can get apt direction.That is wh y
here the history is referred as the record of the things of one age worthy of
note in another.
According to Herodotus ,“History means inquiry into the
interesting and memorable past events.” Here history is predestined to
be ascertainment of interesting and distinct events occurred in the past.
But, meaning of history cannot be such insular. History is the subject
which reviews all the dimensions the human life on the basis of past
events. Eminence of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj remains not in how
many b attles he won or how much exploits he performed but remains in
his accomplishment in those times and what we shall take for our lives.
“History is the lamp of experience.” Happold has given this a
visionary definition of history. Here really the penetrat ing meaning of
history is expressed. History guidesus throughout life just like the lamp in
the darkness. We can move towards appropriate direction by taking
precept from the past happenings and success along with failure of the
ancestors. Wecan be prospe rous by avoiding the mistakes made by the
ancestors and by following constructive deeds. The deterioration of
Maratha Empire can be observed in the dearth of planning, materialistic
stance and lack of unity of Peshwas, hence appropriate planning is
essenti al to be successful in life. Its execution is also crucial. Wecan
perceive that it is quite necessary mutual regards and feeling of integrity to
accomplish anytask.
While explaining the meaning of history, German thinker Herder
says, “History is the chai n of events.” According to Herder no historical
event cannot be examined secluded; in fact, there is a chain of events
behind every event. For instance, Murder of Archduke Ferdinand was not
the mere reason behind the World War I, in fact it was one of the reasons.
World War II did not begin only due to Hitler’s attack on Poland; it was
just one of the reasons.
Numerous historians made attempts to apprehend the meaning of
history by detecting and interpreting countless events from the past. The
philosophy o f history came into existence as per the establishment of
meaning of history through those efforts. Karl Marx, a German thinker
discovered the meaning of history in such philosophical form. He saw
only class conflict in history. According to Karl Marx, “The human
history is nothing but class struggle.” He firmly believes that the nature
of class conflict changed as per the time but, the conflict still continues
and we study only this class conflict through history.
“History as an entity gets generated through appropriate
offspring of various happenings.” This definition of history by V. K.
Rajwade is in quite broader sense. History does not include only political
events but, it is the study of all the dimensions of h uman life. The
happenings till yesterday come under the orbit of history.munotes.in

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6Various definitions of history gradually developed through the
attempts to answer the question of what is history. There seems to be a
common principle in all these definitions altho ugh they all seem to be
different from each other. The thread is past society. History means the
study of the past social components. The entire society is the ultimate
accomplishment whether talking about the happenings in the society, rise
or fall of the civilizations, class conflicts among them, moral values
among them or politics among them.
A broader definition can be made, “history means the graph of
various aspects of human life and his development.” The graph comprises
of thought of every field of human life. It includes notonly hispolitical
andsocial lifebutalso hisvalues, ethics, artand literary expression.
Overall, the present arises by carrying influence of past happenings,
thoughts and elements. That’s why history is the graph of human
advancement.
The above definitions explain History as a significant record of
events of the past, a meaningful story of mankind depicting the details of
what happened to man and why it happened. Mainly it deals with the
human world.
History is a growing discipline the serious study of which started
in the second half of the 18th century, so it is said that it is still in the
developing stage as a comprehensive subject. The History which is a
record of unique events in the life of mankind is the stir and vibration of
life. It is not only the conserving and understanding of what has happened,
but also the completion of what has been going on at present.
Check your progress:
Q. 1 Define History.
1.3 NATURE OF HISTORY:
The nature of history is very complex. It lends itself to various
explanations. No one branch of history is more than a single glimpse of a
vast complex of phenomena. History repeats itself in one sense but does
not repeat itself also. History has contemporaneity and it is an unending
dialogue between the past and the present. Value -judgment is an aspect of
history which we cannot ignore. It is very often coloured by the current
ideas of a period or country. It is a prophecy in reverse, as it needs to some
extent in knowing wha t to expect in future. It is regarded as linear by some
and cyclical by others. However, no one can dispute the dynamic nature ofmunotes.in

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7history, which concerns itself with an ever -changing drama of life which
has a purpose and a meaning.
History is not a descr iption of interesting stories but, it is a broad
subject which guides the life and aims for the better future. The nature of
history as a subject can be perceived through following points:
1.3.1A study of the present in the light of the past:
The present has evolved out of the past. Modern history enables us
to understand how society has come to its present form so that one may
intelligently interpret the sequence of events. The causal relationships
between the selected happenings are unearthed that help in re vealing the
nature of happenings and framing of general laws.
1.3.2History is the study of man:
History deals with man's struggle through the ages. History is not
static. By selecting ‘innumerable biographies’ and presenting their lives in
the appropriate so cial context and the ideas in the human context, we
understand the sweep of events. It traces the fascinating story of how man
has developed through the ages, how man has studied to use and control
his environment and how the present institutions have grow n out of the
past.
1.3.3 History is concerned with man in time:
It deals with a series of events and each event occurs at a given
point in time. Human history, in fact, is the process of human development
in time. It is time which affords a perspectiv e to events and lends a charm
that brightens up the past.
1.3.4 History is concerned with man in space:
The interaction of man on environment and vice versa is a dynamic
one. History describes about nations and human activities in the context of
their p hysical and geographical environment. Out of this arise the varied
trends in the political, social, economic and cultural spheres of man's
activities and achievements.
1.3.5History is a dialogue between the events of the past and
progressi vely emerging future ends:
The historian’s interpretation of the past, his selection of the
significant and the relevant events, evolves with the progressive
emergence of new goals. The general laws regulating historical
happenings may not be considered en ough; attempts have to be made to
predict future happenings on the basis of the laws.
1.3.6Continuity and coherence are the necessary requisites of
history:
History carries the burden of human progress as it is passed down
from generation to generation, from s ociety to society, justifying the
essence of continuity. It becomes thus necessary for history to be rewrittenmunotes.in

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8from time to time. The past events have got to be revalued in the light of
fresh developments and new ideas.
1.3.7Relevant:
In the study of history only those events are included which are
relevant to the understanding of the present life. The affairs of men and
nations are constantly in motion. Consequently, there has been a radical
change in recent years as to the proper nature and scope of history .I nt h e
past it was merely a catalogue of events serialised in a descriptive manner.
We have now to study history in a critical and scientific way, wherein the
historian thinks for himself instead of merely repeating the stories found in
old books. Histor y becomes a study of reality in its aspect of becoming.
1.3.8Comprehensiveness:
According to modern concept, history is not confined to one period
or country or nation. It also deals with all aspects of human life -political,
social, economic, religious, litera ry, aesthetic and physical, giving a clear
sense of world unity and world citizenship. Historical activity involves
three different types of functions which should be performed
simultaneously. The first is to get at the truth, to know the entire -human
pastas it actually happened, and to be sure that solid facts are at hand. The
second job is to interpret the facts, to assess, to evaluate and to explain
their significance. The third task is to present the ideas in a clear and
attractive manner. These three functions make the historian a scientist to
gather facts, a philosopher to interpret them and a litterateur to express
them.
1.3.9Objective record of happenings:
Every precaution is taken to base the data on original sources and
make them free from subjecti ve interpretation. It helps in clear
understanding of the past and enables us to take well informed decisions.
Objective record of events is quite crucial in history. The sources and
evidences preferred by the historian are of prime importance while writin g
the history. It is also necessary to write history bias free and neutrally with
the help of evidences. Otherwise it may lead to false information, false
interpretation and false message to the learners. Hence, objective record is
the basic feature of stu dy of history.
1.3.10 Multisided:
History is related with all the aspects of human life. As perceived
earlier, the nature of history is not only political but, history aims at all the
dimensions of human life.
Itdoes not throw light on only sole aspect ofpast human life.
Infact, history is multifaceted as being social, economic, cultural,
scientific, political, arts and literary, religious etc. Holistic view of
contemporary social systems, political scenario, economy, judiciary, arts
and literatu re, various inventions and developments in science and
technology can be seen while studying past happenings. However, it is not
confined to the study of Kings, Empires or elite social strata but, itmunotes.in

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9comprises of study of all the people from all the socio -economic -religious
strata. That is why the nature of history is diversified and eclectic.
1.3.11Time and Place relevance:
This is the main feature of history. History is time relevant and
place relevant. It means one has to understand the contemporary situatio n
and time while studying past happenings. For example, while studying
thrashing of Afzal Khan by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, contemporary
situation (Pratapgarh, its geographical significance) needs to be
understood. One has to take into consideration the then socio -political
scenario in India and specifically in Maharashtra (time) and the
significance of geographical structure of Maharashtra in his success
(place). Otherwise it will lead to misperception about him. It is not
necessary that ideology, idol s, values, principles of social life of a specific
time and place may not be applicable to other situations. Henceforth,
history is time relevant and place relevant.
1.3.12Correlation among past, present and future:
History is an unending dialogue between the past and the present.
The roots of present situations viz. present ideologies, lifestyles, problems,
success and failures are in the history. The origins of present Indo -Pak
crisis can be observed in ‘divide and rule policy’ of British and partition of
Bengal. Wewill have a bright future only by perceiving and avoiding
mistakes of the past. Past legends, their thoughts and their acts are
influential to the generations even today. The present can work positively
by taking inspirations through them and it l eads to the emergence of
legends of tomorrow. Wecannot see the present separate from the past.
Past is the background of the present. Prof. Lecky, “A study is the
understanding and estimating the present age for the betterment of the
future.”
1.3.13Scientific study of past:
History cannot be decided through rumours but, it is written on the
bases of sources. No history is written just by probing. It is impossible to
write history without the help of sources. “No documents, no history,” is
the popula r saying among historians and learners of history. Science
believes in evidences. Background and effects of any event (causal
relationship) is studied in history through the study of past events with the
help of primary or secondary sources.
1.3.14 Study of human struggle, development and transformation of
human civilization:
Man has to battle with surrounding circumstances throughout the
ages. The struggle for the human existence and development is still on.
Also, a particular social group has continued efforts to dominate on the
others for its greed in every generation. History comprises of the
description of this struggle of mankind against such social group in all
times. Human existence as community -society, various civilizations
aroused and developed through various times are the integral part of study
of history. Human life is studied through various civilizations and variousmunotes.in

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10dimensions in history. Also, history comprises of portrayal of how human
life changed and how man gained progress. History ca nb et e r m e da s
reviewing human progress.
1.3.15 Not only narration but, analysis and synthesis as well:
History does not only mean to be the report of occurred incidents.
History includes the diagnosis of events. The factors having impact on the
event are also studied. The contemporary circumstances, roles of different
people in the event and the contempora ry ideology are analyzed and the
complete portrayal of the event is expressed. That is why history isnot
only description butanalysis andsynthesis aswell.
E.g. while studying French revolution, history does not tell only how it
occurred but also, it analyses the social, political, economic and
ideological contexts as well. Also, history throws light on the values like
equity, freedom and egalitarianism which were the real output of this
revolution for the entire humanity.
1.3.16 Integration of science and literature:
History is a science as far as the study of events through causal
relationship with the help of available sources and evidences is concerned.
When one has to explain and interpret the occurred event, naturally there
come the individual difference of writing style, language and flavour.
Everybody describes the event through his own outlook. Hence, history is
an art as well. That is why history is science at the beginning and it turns
into art afterwards.
Check your progress:
Q.1. Explain the Nature of History.
1.4SCOPE OF HISTORY:
Scope means the breadth, comprehensiveness, diversity and extent
of learning experiences offered through the study of a specific subject.
Man can enhance his intellectual outlook and rationale through the study
of history. Prof. Collingwood in his book ‘Idea of History’ has explained
the scope of history. He said, “History has vital significance. Its lessons
are quite useful for human life as the tone between the current happenings
and their effects can change as between past happenings and their effects.
Significant events if remembered can be useful in decision making in
future. These cannot be shown in visible form but, they can be directive
regarding what can happen and which treats can occur in current
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11Profundity and inclusiveness of history can be seen through its
development as a faculty. Identities which were previously the ideals o fa
particular society have become a part of global history while portraying
the picture of man’s success in every field. There were times when history
as reckoned as the collection of fables and narrations of gallantry which
was studied for some entertain ment and value inculcation. Today there is
no facet of human action which does not come under the area of authority
of history. Scope of history can be perceived through the points mentioned
below;
History previously as a part of literature has now emerge da sa n
independent and complete discipline. Wesee different types of history
today such as ‛history of arts’, ‛history of culture’, ‛history of religion’,
‛history of music’, ‛history of literature’, ‛history of geography’, ‛history
ofeducation’, ‛historyofbiology’, ‛history ofatoms and molecules’,
‛history ofmathematics’, etc. We cancatch various types ofhistory
including political, cultural, social, scientific, artistic, religious, economic,
legal, constitutional, military and ideological histor y.
Nowadays interdisciplinary approach is a salient feature of history.
Other disciplines and supportive sciences are frequently referred while
writing and studying history e.g. geography, economics, sociology,
science, numismatics, anthropology, geology, astronomy, archaeology,
etc.
Focus is on time and place in the study of history. Wecan find
different types of history on the base of time as pre -historic, ancient,
medieval and modern. Types of history according to place are local
history, regional his tory, National history and world history. Today’s
history is not confined to Kings, worriers, religious preceptors, high -
brows of the society as it was previously. It instead studies different
aspects of lives of people from all strata of society. History is not the
property of one particular community. It involves every human group and
its social, economic, political, cultural, ideological evolution. History is
not circumscribed up to the narration of merely political and subjective
events. Instead it inv olves analysis of social, cultural, economic
conditions.
The aim of history is to inculcate various values on human mind.
History is not mugging up the heroics of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj,
Mahatma Gandhi, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar, Nelson Mandela, etc. bu t, it
is about nurturing the values on the future generations these icons opted.
History aims to develop sublime outlook by inculcating not the event but
the core of events, to stimulate not just patriotism but to enable the man to
think as a human species and to promote the feeling of internationalism,
global tolerance.
History is not merely reviewing past events. It has about construing
meaning to past events and living in present, solving current problems and
developing a prosperous future. Now the scop e of history has emerged inmunotes.in

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12explaining the motive behind the historical happenings through collecting
and interpreting sources. According to Prof. Trivellion, “Scope of history
is touching three different aspects namely scientific, imaginative and
literatu re.” It means history is dealing with three fields of science,
imagination and literature. It has the power of understanding many
subjects. That is why scope of history is quite.
The question is always asked about whether history as a social
science is a science or an art. Then it becomes a prime duty of a historical
researcher to enquire about this question. Bury says, “History is a science,
no less no more.” Lord Acton says, “The study of history is critical and
objective. It is a science.” History opt i ts own techniques for establishment
of facts and interpretation. History is a science in this perspective. History
just like physics, chemistry or other material science is an experience -
based study because it involves use of various methods like observati on,
categorization, formulating hypotheses and analysis of evidences before
explaining the facts. They are as follows;
1.There is collection of facts acquired from different sources.
2.Various methods of data collection are opted.
3.Collected data is carefully and systematically analysed and selected.
4.The entire world is the laboratory of history. Its various components
are acquired by different human communities.
5.Different principles and theories are established on the basis of
observation of events, analysis and comparative study. Hence, history
is a science.
But there are certain limitations while considering history as a science.
Facts in history are complex and their repetition occurs exceptionally.
Hence, it is not possible to unfold principles and generalised truth
through it.
1.Historical information is not collected through observation or
experimentation like other sciences.
2.Historical information is the output of human thoughts and acts which
are always changeable. There fore, reliable informa tion cannot be
gained for establishing generalised principles and theories.
3.Historian is never an eyewitness most of the times. That’s why history
is written on the basis of available evidences.
4.Sometimes documents accepted as evidence can be bias of write r
about the related event.
5.Actual history cannot come into light due to collective/social bias.
There arealso some distinct problems inwriting ofhistory. They areas
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131.Prompt records about the past are not easily available.
2.Deficiency of original sources is a major problem in writing ofhistory.
3.Ambiguity can be seen in available sources.
4.Bias is reflected while recording the events.
5.Individual differences can easily see as per every historian regarding
the interpretation of event.
If narr ation of historical events is done in a scientific manner, it
will seem to be uninteresting. Artistic method of presenting the history
attracts the reader towards learning of history. It is said, “The dead
presented in the dead form has no appeal.” That’s why historian has the
task of bringing dead past into a live form through his writing style.
Historian has to promote human emotions and motivations through
powerful narration, imagination and comprehension of human psychology
on the basis of norms of ava ilable evidences. Hence, historian has to
possess the quality of narrating life relevant, powerful and interesting
story in attractive and appealing style on the base of evidences. According
to Toynbee, “Dull history is false history.” It makes us clear th at history is
anart.
History is a social science. It does not possess precise and accurate
principles, facts, laws and theories etc. Although it relates with human life,
various human deeds and his physical progress, causal relationship is
established on the basis of evidences. Prof. Travellion, “History is a
science, also it is an art.” It is assured that facts searched through history
are scientific and then it has to be presented in an artistic manner in front
of the reader. Therefore, history is a sci ence in terms of and during the aim
of discovering the truth on the basis of evidences, recording of events,
unfolding through sources and analysis (Organising in the form of past,
present and future, causes and effects through arranging the events).
Histo ry is also an art in terms of interpreting the events and presenting it in
front of the readers attractively in historian’s own style. Hence, history is a
science as well as an art.
With the passage of time the scope of history has been widened,
and new a reas are included in it. History is gradually assuming all the
three dimensions viz.,
i)what happened
ii)how it happened
iii)to analyse why it happened.
Instead of the descriptive catalogue of political events relating to
the rise and fall of dynasties, king s, courts, wars and peace. Now it has a
more humanistic approach which takes into account all the multifarious
activities of man, not excluding social functions such as games, manners,
customs and all the things which constitute the substance of the daily life
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14History is no longer a branch of literature or politics or philosophy
or any other discipline. It has an independent status of its own whose main
functio n is now to study society in its aspect of promoting a culture, which
constitutes knowledge, faith, belief, art, morals, customs and any other
capabilities or habits acquired by man as a member of society.
History has mainly two functions to perform. One is the collection
of data and the other is the interpretation of the data to explain the
fundamental forces of history. The first part has to be objective and
therefore scientific. The second part is subjective and hence humanistic.
History excludes fro m its scope the study of nature and confines its
attention to the story of man's evolution from humble beginnings to
complex achievements. But nature also comes within the scope of history,
if it has anything to do with man. The scope of history includes b oth man
and nature in so far as these two play a significant part in the life of
mankind.
The scope of history includes all activities of man. The historian
must look beyond government to people, beyond laws to legends, beyond
religion to folklore and th e arts, and he must study every phenomenon,
whether intellectual, political, social, philosophical, material, moral or
emotional relating to man in society.
History has to consider all human achievements in all their aspects
such as science, technology, discoveries, inventions and adventures. But
primarily the social life of man, his political achievements, his cultural
attainment, his constitutional management and his economic endeavours
form the main scope of history, as it is through the medium of stat e and
society that man finds his identity.
The study of economic and social change is also gaining greater
importance in history in modern period. In communist countries the entire
orientation is on Marxist -dialecticism. The labour movement, the class
struggle, inland and international trade, arts, crafts, industry, business,
commerce, agriculture, peasant movement and so on are receiving greater
attention. Likewise, social reforms, caste and class distinctions, family
life, position of women, customs, m anners, and way of life are exciting the
interest of the historians. The history of institutions and ideas too are
engaging the attention of the scholars.
Besides, we have universal history which takes into account the
significant activities of entire ma nkind. The Arab historian, Ibn Khaldun
happens to be the father of universal history, and also of the science of
culture. The philosophy of history has made the subject of history very
profound, ever since the time of Voltaire who coined the phrase. Great
thinkers like Hegel, Marx, Comte, Spengler, Croce and Toynbee have
contributed much to the philosophy of history. This kind of history does
not treat isolated events or the role of individuals but takes into account
the progress and decline of societies wi th reference to all aspects of humanmunotes.in

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15culture. To a social scientist, all history is social history, though other
historians may classify it as social history, political history, economic
history, religious history, or history of some other kind.
Thus, th e scope of history is ever expanding. Herodotus the father
of history was merely an excellent story -teller, but only thirteen years
later, his successor, Thucydides happened, to be almost a scientific
historian. Surprisingly enough, he appears to be so mod ern that one could
mistake him to be a historian of either the nineteenth or the twentieth
century. Nineteenth -century historians dealt largely with governments and
great men, with the development of national consciousness and the growth
of political liber alism. The twentieth century witnessed a change in
emphasis towards economic and social history, towards people and away
from indi -viduals.
The history of other countries and regions including Africa, China,
Latin America, India and so on evoked as much interest in Europe as the
history of their own continent. The shape and content of history has also
undergone a change, depending upon the material available and the
method of treatment adopted. Anthropology has also excited the interest of
the historians and much useful work has been done in this field by
scholars who have traced historically the customs and manners of the
aborigines; social stratification of small communities who are a little
higher up than the aborigines has been greatly facilitated by the
availability of modern sophisticated techniques.
Further, the scope of history has been enlarged from objective
empiricism to historicism. Objective empiricism means the establishment
of facts as they really were. It is something like presenting a ph otographic
copy of how things really existed in the past. Historicism means tracing
the growth and development of an event from its early stages. It is like a
genetic process which takes into account evolutionary trends and how
progress has been made from age to age.
Apart from these two views history was dragged into the arena of
the 'positivists' who believed that history was qualified on every score to
have a series of general laws. The scope of history was further widened
when attempts were made parti cularly in the USA to develop a new
concept called ‘historical relativism’. This concept was the by -product of
the closer study of Freud and Einstein whose principles were applied to
historical growth and development. Thus, from the nineteenth century the
scope of history has been much widened. The nineteenth century which is
called 'the century of history has humanised history and made it a centre of
reality and of thought.
1.4.1 Features of the scope:
In order to facilitate understanding the scope of his tory, the
following features would be helpful :
(1) The scope of historical study depends upon the subject of inquiry of
the past events.munotes.in

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16(2) The scope of history is determined by the activities, experiences and
thoughts of men at different times in the past.
(3) The scope depends upon the nature of inquiry of the past such as
social, economic, political or other kind of inquiry. Thus, if w ewant to
know a single aspect of Quit India Movement of 1942 say economic
aspect, its scope is narrower than a general assessment of the
Movement from different angles.
(4) If we intend to study universal history of the progress of mankind it is
greater in extent than a local or a national history.
(5) Similarly, when we think about world history the time factor makes it
necessary to define what exactly we want to study. If we simply say
human activities it would mean a never -ending search as human
activities from the beginning to our days implies scope beyond our
human capacities.
(6) Just as the present has innumerable matters for consideration, the past
which for some generations in the past was a living present and as
such they dealt with many known and unknown matters. The scope of
our studies in general matters would be both impossible and end in a
cloud. We have therefore to fix our attention on some points.
1.4.2 Limitations of the scope:
When we say history is a study of man' s activities in time, the
scope of our inquiry is limited by the time factor, If we do not fix the time
of what happened in the past it would be a fantasy. The scope of history is
limited by our knowledge of chronological details. Man appeared on this
planet several million years ago but the recorded history of his activities
cannot be pushed back beyond five thousand years. Those records do not
give us a clear idea of his activities in civilized societies.
History in the real sense of the term began when the Greek
Statesman Warrior Herodotus wrote about Greco -Persian War in the 5th
century B.C. This was the first history of its kind in the world and the
beginning of History is thus reckoned from that time. The scope of history
of the world is thus limited to the history of man’s social activities to a
few thousand years. The activities of men before the historical period, that
is before 5th century B.C. is enveloped in the mist of ignorance.
The second factor that limits the scope of history is the
geogr aphical factor. When we talk about world history we actually refer to
few places on the earth. As everybody knows more than half the surface of
the earth is covered by water. Out of the remaining part a sizeable surface
is occupied by hills, mountains, des erts and rivers ice etc. Thus, the
habitable portion of the earth is limited. Further man grew civilizations in
a few favourable lands. The scope of history is thus limited.
Thirdly the scope of history cannot be rigidly fixed at any time.
Suppose today w e say history covers life of man and his activities in
civilized societies, a few years or centuries after our time, historiansmunotes.in

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17Would say history is concerned with activities and experiences of men and
women only in highly developed societies or they may s ay it is confined
only to the societies which are now developing.
Fourthly just as the scope of history is limited by time it is limited
by the prevailing conception of history at a given time. In communist
countries the conception of history is differen t from those of democratic
countries or countries under despotic rule. Thus, the scope of historical
inquiry responds to the necessity of knowing the truth about certain people
at certain time.
Check your progress:
Q.1. Explain the Scope of History.
1.5 SUMMARY
In the beginning of this lesson, described about definations of
history so that students become familiar with different aspects through
which history is perceived by historians and intellectuals. The sum and
substance of the nature and s cope of history can be summerised as
follows:
History is scientific as it with a problem and conducts an inquiry to
solve the problem. History is humanatic as it asks questions about things
done and experienced by men in the past. History is rational as it gives
answers to the questions based on evidence. The conclusions arrived by
historians on the basis of such evidence have to be logical and without
partiality. History reveals what man has done and so what man can do.
Purposive search for truth of man’ s activities, his thoughts and passions
give a better idea the present problems.
While reconstructing the story of man’s activities in the past, it has
to be done methodically.
We have therefore referred to Data, chronology, language, surveys,
classi fication of sources etc. So that students study and remember these
points which will be elaborated in historical research methodology.
1.6QUESTIONS
1.Discuss the meaning and scope of History.
2.Explain the Nature of History.
3.Explain the Scope of History.munotes.in

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181.7 ADDITIONAL READINGS
1.Ali B. Sheik, History: Its Theory and Method, Macmillan India
Limited, Madras, 1978.
2.Carr E. H., What is History, Penguin Books, London, 1961.
3.Collingwood R. G., Idea of History, Oxford Paperbacks, Oxford
University Press, London, 1966.
4.Dilthey W. (ed.), Meaning in History, H. P. Rickman, London, 1961.
5.Elton G. R., Practice of History, London, 1975.
6. Finberg H.P.A. (Ed), Approaches to History, London, 1962.
7. Garranghan G.H., Guide to Historical Method, 1971.
8. Gottschalk Louis, Understanding History, New York, 1956.
9. Renier G.J., History its purpose and Method, London, 1961.
10. Lal I., Research in History, Swastik Publishers & Distributors, Delhi,
2008.
11. Rajayyan K., History in Theory and Method, Madurai, 1976.
12. Webster John C.B., An Introduction to History. New Delhi, 1981.

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19Unit -2
IMPORTANCE OF HISTORY
Unit Structure :
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Importance of History
2.3 Summary
2.4 Questions
2.5 Additional Readings
2.0OBJECTIVES
After the study of this unit, the students will be able to :
1)Understand the importance of history in academic arena.
2)Understand the importance of history and it relevance in present age.
2.1INTRODUCTION
History is the basis of al l subjects of study which fall under the
Humanities and Social Science. It is often said to be the “queen” or
“mother” of the social science. According to modern concept, history does
not only contain the history of Kings an queens, war and generals, but a lso
the communities and the societies, new technological inventions done in
past are the subject of study of history as well. History is a unique subject
possessing the potentialities of both science and art. So, History is very
important subjects to under stand the past, improving the present and
guidance for future aspects in human life.
2.2 IMPORTANCE OF HISTORY
History is not confined to the study of past but, it is related to the
past, present and future. Every happening has specific context and it l eads
to specific effects. The present of today is going to be the past of
tomorrow. The origin of each contemporary problem lies in the past. The
present situation shapes up through the past and it also decides the future
direction. e.g. ‘reservation’ is o ne of the hot issues of today. It has its
grassroots in the ‘divide and rule’ policy of the British rule. History
escorts the decision making for the future. Wecan perceive the decisions
and their deeds of our ancestors, their influence from history. Wecan
create a bright future through understanding which things to follow and
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20“History is the record of the life of the societies of man, of the
changes which those societies have gone through, of the ideas which have
determined the action of those societies and the material conditions which
have helped or hindered their development.” Charles Vthexpresses the
broader view of history. He agrees that history is the record but, he also
describes the details of the records.
Importance is given to how human society developed, how
different cultures upspring (e.g. Harappa culture, Egyptian culture) in t he
flow of time. Social system is reckoned to be the core in history in every
period whether it may be ancient or modern. History also includes study of
how societies transformed, which reforms occurred (for example;
industrial revolution, globalization et c.) Study of constructive as well as
destructive actions of mankind in different times and at various levels,
their impacts and the ideologies behind them are also involved in history.
i)Diverse Human society and social life in different times, at different
levels and in different situations.
ii)Revolutions and reforms in human society during the course of time.
iii)Deeds by human society and thoughts and ideologies behind them.
iv)Physical conditions favourable and unfavorable to human
development .
It is necessary t o study the historical events on the basis of
evidences and causal relationships. It promotes research attitude. Mental
and ideological competence is fostered. One has to think divergently and
multidimensional while reaching at conclusion about an event ra ther than
just thinking convergent. History is not just a subject of study or
entertainment perhaps, it is the lamp of experience. Cromwell says, “God
manifests himself through history.” It means history shows direction
regarding deciding about right -wrong , moral way.
Martin Luther says, “History is the mirror of looking at owns self.”
“Curiosity about the past events is the feature of human nature.” This
statement of McMurry reflects the natural tendency of mankind to know
about the history. Wecome to k now about the braveries our ancestors had
done, the qualities upon which they gained success through studying
history of our ancestors. But we also understand their blunders, perceive
about their mistakes due to which their next generations had to suffer.
Subsequently we can try to avoid such blunders and mistakes.
Edmond Burk says, “History is the guide of foresight.” Weneed to
have knowledge about the past of our motherland while maturing form a
child to be an adult. Wecan gain the awarenes s about the efforts and
sacrifice made by our ancestors in the freedom and security of our Nation,
cultural tradition of our Nation, contribution of our Nation to the entire
human species, legends born in this soil, sustainable philosophy in our soil
and t he sense of responsibility on our shoulders to preserve and nurture it
as we are the future citizen of this Nation. History in this perspectivemunotes.in

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21engraves discretion, urge for truth, courage, non -violence, just, freedom
equality, patriotism, international u nderstanding, persistence,
perseverance, self -esteem on the minds of people. It also throws light on
the evil customs, blind beliefs, traditions, social revolutions and works of
legends against them. History subsequently tries to promote idological
renaiss ance through it
Study of history helps in the development of memory, imagination
and thought process as a whole. When we study the past events and
characters, we tend to see ourselves in them. Our imagination and thought
process fosters through it. Truth narration is a great gift of history. Wecan
understand the truth about what had happened in the past. Our bias,
misperceptions or wrong egos get cleared. Reader is helped by history in
the study of other subjects.
Tarmious has aptly said, “History helps to bridge the usual gulf in
education between theory and practice.” History works in bringing
theories closer to the life and reality. An individual is able to see the
educational knowledge through life -oriented outlook due to history.
History is consider ed as mother of all subjects. Study of history is directly
or indirectly supplementary to the learning of other subjects. History can
become the medium of social unity while narrating our ancestors, our
Nation, our culture and our traditions. It can assist in nurturing National
integration by bringing people closer ideologically and emotionally. While
doing this, history also gives education of humanity and international
brotherhood. It shows us that we are all humans first; we do have same
needs and same f eelings. We are all incomplete without each other.
Hence, history teaches us to look at each other with affection, love and
cooperation and not with enmity. It gives the lessons of humanity. History
strongly promotes internationalism through widening of h uman outlook.
Therefore, importance of history as the mother of all subjects, source of all
values, teacher of human mind and attitude and philosophy of living
successful life is incredible.
History is not merely the collection of events. In fact, it is t he
discovery of events in detail. History means narrating about the past
happenings as they happened. It is necessary to search history to
understand the present. If the present is not perceived properly, it will not
be possible to foresight the future. Hi story enables the prompt perception
of present on the basis of which the future can be foresighted properly.
Hence, the main jobofhistorian is notjustrecording theevents but,to
evaluate them.
The importance of history has increased in modern times. Along
with telling the occurrences, nature of history is becoming widespread
through intellectual analysis of facts and to draw conclusions for the future
on their basis. Earlier history was confined to political dynasties and
families of Kings. It was re lated only with battles, victories, defeats and
treaties. But, this nature of history has become a history. All social aspects
of common man, customs, traditions, languages, ideas, thoughts andmunotes.in

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22behaviours are considered in history in modern times. In fact, the daily of
man has now become the part of history.
Historiography has to be considered as equally responsible for the
transforming scope of history as learning of history was limited only up to
political events and incidents till 19thcentury. But toda y we deliberate
social, economic, political, moral, literature, religious, etc. aspects while
considering history as we think about human development in history.
Hence, we must have to consider these all aspects. Support of literature is
taken to make hist ory subject brighter and more attractive rather than let it
remain dull -lifeless. Historiography has continued to collect sources with
the help of above -mentioned subjects and to give insight into the events
occurred in the past.
History is reckoned as a science since 20thcentury. Prof. Bury from
Cambridge University has firmly said, “History is a science, no more no
less.” It changed the direction of study of history. Dynamics of time and
history taken into account while understanding history. History is a
discipline. Many streams have emerged through the fine study of history.
More motion is occurring in the process of regional and local
historiography. National history shapes up through regional and local
history. Hence, world history and National histo ry are called macro history
while regional history is called micro history.
The study of history is like visiting strange far -off lands. Like
travel, it takes us out of the narrowness and commonplace events of
everyday life. It presents before us an excit ing picture of the march of man
across the centuries, and the work of the multitudes of human beings
trying to pass on to us a better life than theirs. It is the story of the
development of human society, its arts and letters, philosophy and
religion, adve nture and administration, culture and way of life, and all
other aspects relating to man's significant activities. It is rightly said that
history depicts “the struggle of man to carry truth and justice into the
administration of human society, in the rise and fall of the creeds, in the
world of ideas and in the character and deeds of the great actors in the
drama of life, where good and evil fight out their everlasting battle.”
History helps us to understand how the world developed into what
it is. It makes us know interesting men and women and promotes in us a
knowledge of human nature. It links the present with the past, and enables
us to see how man has discovered better ways of living and built up
orderly societies which we call civilisation. The study of history is no
waste of time or luxury, but a pressing need. A nation that forgets history
will have no future. It is the epitome of human experience, and it makes
men wise by teaching them what is good so that it may be adopted, and
what is bad, so that it may be avoided.
History attempts to give us the meaning of life. Man starts to
search for the purpose of life. He puts such questions as why and how do I
live? Where have I come from? In this search for the reality of the past, hemunotes.in

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23comes to know that he has built institutions; he has waged wars; he has
made treaties of peace; and he has invented thousands of things to make
life comfortable. In this sense history gives us an i nsight into man's life
and action. This knowledge is very helpful to him. It offers him a mental
discipline which helps him to meet new problems soberly and
intelligently, and not emotionally and superficially. Although man now
controls nature, and possess es enough knowledge about it, he cannot
control his own emotions and ambitions. He can send a rocket to the moon
but he has not yet eradicated hunger and poverty on this earth. A
knowledge of the past as to how man has suffered because of his mistakes
may help humanity to correct itself, and thus history may meet the
demands of pressing social needs.
History has the ability to improve the understanding of man. Man
has left behind the deeds of his day for the education and the enjoyment of
posterity. Such a study will not only furnish a mental discipline but also
will enable one to know the past and interpret its significance. It will come
in time to meet our daily needs and will ultimately play an infinitely more
important role in an intellectual life. Any phenomenon or principle cannot
be understood philosophically or intelligently unless it is explained
historically. We cannot understand any issue properly unless its whole
background is furnished to us. A doctor would not be able to diagnose the
disease un less he is posted with the history of the case; and that is why the
word history appears in bold letters on top of the prescription chit.
By placing the facts of life before a person, history which is a
study of human nature enables him to live in a stat e of peace and
understanding. History in that case becomes a guide pointing in the
direction of unity and progress. As history is a voice ever sounding across
the centuries about the laws of right and wrong, it could become an
instrument to promote human u nderstanding. Those sovereigns and
statesmen who had a good knowledge of history, like Frederick the Great,
Napoleon, Churchill and Nehru, have played a vital role in history. The
true interpretation of history is to view it as the record of social, moral and
intellectual education of man, which is so essential to dispel darkness.
History not only tells us about the right principles of life, but also warns us
through concrete examples about the inevitable destruction of society, if
these principles were to be neglected
The purpose of history has been to indicate what mistakes man has
done in the past, how he could avoid them in the future and how he could
preserve the four freedoms, namely the freedom from want, freedom from
oppression, freedom of religion and freedom of expression. The moralists
required that man should put his conscience into harmony with true
historical development .
History not only educates a man, but also trains his mind. Before
we begin to understand or improve any system or idea the Best thing, we
do is to find out the history of that system or idea. A musician or a
mathematician or a philosopher could never understand or improve a newmunotes.in

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24idea until he is very clear of the antecedents of that idea. When Bertrand
Russell was asked about the need for history, he said, “I think it is
enormously important, it gives stability and it gives depth to your thought
and to your feeling.” The present is the child of the past, and has grown
out of the past. Our present social, political and economic conditions are
the result of factors that preceded them. This chain of cause and effect
goes back to the dim past. We in the twentieth century are closely affected
by what was done by Ripon, Dalhousie, Shivaji, Akbar, Babar, Harsha,
Samudragupta. Asoka, Bu ddha, Vyasa and their predecessors going back
to the cavemen of the Stone Age.
We teach history to children because it helps them in gaining
powers of memory, imagination and reasoning. It has ethical values as
history is philosophy teaching by examples . It inculcates in young minds
moral laws of right and wrong. It fosters patriotism in our youth, for they
would feel a sense of pride by the knowledge of our rich heritage and
glory of the past, which should instill these are secondary issues that come
under the importance of history.
The primary aim is to promote understanding of the present by a
knowledge of the past. To the question, “What is history for?"
Collingwood answered, “It is for human self -knowledge. Knowing
yourself means knowing what it is to be the kind of man you are; and
thirdly, what it is to be the man you are and nobody else is.”
Lord Acton explained the necessity for history thus,” If the past
has been an obstacle and a burden, knowledge of th e past is the safest and
the surest emancipation.” An objective study of history would save
humanity from bigotry, bias and obsessions. Lecky observes, “He who has
learned to understand the true characters and them a sense of love for the
motherland. But t endency of many succeeding years is not likely to go
very far wrong in estimating his own.”
Thinkers have gone to the extent of saying that all our hopes of the
future depend on a sound knowledge of the past. In conclusion it must be
said that history ha s the capacity to inspire youth to higher pursuits of life,
and to stimulate the aged to endure the inevitable. History is a delight in
itself. It is an adventure in the field of reconstructing the hazy past.
Trevelyan said that “History's chief but not th e only significance is poetic
as a great poem is an epic without beginning or end.” The importance of
history may not be so much scientific as educational, to broaden the
vision, to enlarge the understanding and to promote the pleasure of
contemplation.
Check your progress:
Q.1. Examine the Importance of History.munotes.in

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252.3SUMMARY:
The meaning and definition of history is explained here. Views of
various western as well as Indian historians are expressed here while
explaining this concept. Nature and sco pe of history is also discussed here.
Outlook towards history has changed in modern times of today.
Importance of history in human life is undisputed is also stated in the
present chapter.
While studying history it is necessary to understand problems of
civilized life or organized social life of man at different stages of his
progress.
2.4QUESTIONS:
1.Examine the Importance of History.
2.Explain the importance and relevance of history in present age.
2.5ADDITIONAL READINGS:
1.Ali B. Sheik, History: Its Theory and Method, Macmillan India
Limited, Madras, 1978.
2.Carr E. H., What is History, Penguin Books, London, 1961.
3.Collingwood R. G., Idea of History, Oxford Paperbacks, Oxford
University Press, London, 1966.
4.Dilthey W. (ed.), Meaning in History, H. P. Rickman, London, 1961.
5.Elton G. R., Practice of History, London, 1975.
6.Finberg H.P.A. (Ed), Approaches to History, London, 1962.
7.Garranghan G.H., Guide to Historical Method, 1971.
8.Gottschalk Louis, Understanding History, New York, 1956.
9.Renier G.J., History its purpose and Method, London, 1961.
10.Lal I., Research in History, Swastik Publishers & Distributors, Delhi,
2008.
11.Rajayyan K ., History in Theory and Method, Madurai, 1976.
12.Webster John C.B., An Introduction to History. New Delhi, 1981.

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26UNIT -3
HISTORY AND AUXILIARY SCIENCES
AUXILIARY SCIENCES
a) SOCIAL SCIENCES
b) NATURAL SCIENCES
c) ANCILLIARY DISCIPLINES
Unit Structure:
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Auxiliary Sciences
3.2.1 History and Social Sciences
3.2.1.1 History and Political Science
3.2.1.2 History and Sociology
3.2.1.3 History and Economics
3.2.1.4 History and Psychology
3.2.1.5 History and Geography
3.2.1.6 History and Anthropology
3.2.1.7 History and Art
3.2.1.8 History and Theology
3.2.1.9 History and Literature
3.2.2 Natural Sciences
3.2.2.1 Biology
3.2.2.2Agro -Biology
3.2.2.3 Medical science
3.2.2.4 Alchemy -Chemistry
3.2.2.5 Advanced Technology
3.2.2.6 Ethnology
3.2.2.7 Intellectual History
3.2.3 Ancillary Sciences
3.2.3.1 Chronology
3.2.3.2 Graphology
3.2.3.3 Philology
3.2.3.4 Diplomatic
3.2.3.5 Paleography
3.2.3.6 Sigillography
3.2.3.7 Numism
3.2.3.8 Archaeology and Epigraphymunotes.in

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273.3 Summary
3.3 Questions
3.4 Additional Readings
3.0 OBJECTIVES :
After the completion of this unit, the student will be able to:
1. Summarize the relationship between history and social sciences.
2.Perceive the relation between history and natural sciences.
3. Grasp the relation between history and ancillary disciplines.
3.1 INTRODUCTION:
The auxiliary sciences of History can be easily divided as 1) Social
Sciences 2) Natural sciences and 3) Anc illary disciplines. We shall
consider the Auxiliary Sciences as detailed above in this unit.History is
related to several other disciplines, and needs their assistance, just as it is
helpful to a number of other disciplines. A historian must use the result s
achieved by workers in other fields of human knowledge. They are called
ancillary disciplines such as philosophy, chronology, paleography,
graphology, sigillography, diplomatic, epigraphy, numismatics and
archaeology besides a number of social sciences w hich have already been
examined in the foregoing paragraphs.
3.2AUXILIARY SCIENCES
3.2.1History and Social Sciences:
Having discussed where history stands in its structure, either in
science or in arts or in both, we shall proceed to examine two more basic
problems of historical theory, namely the kinds of history and its relation
with other social sciences, and also history and ancillary sciences. History
being a very comprehensive subject, has many aspects such as political,
constitutional, diplomat ic, military, economic, social, intellectual, and so
on. These are not the only areas with which history is mostly concerned,
but are the major ones.
The social sciences are nothing but a short course of history,
depicting social, economic, industrial , scientific and cultural aspects of
man's life. It throws light on the inter -dependence of man and man, nation
and nation and country and country. Dr. Terevelyan says, “History is not a
subject at all but a house in which all subjects dwell.” In Ziller's opinion,
“History is the central subject round which all other subjects can revolve.”
Prof. Johnson opines, “History with or without the name, certainly has
been and is a background for other social sciences. History may indeed be
regarded as the only fie ld in which all other social sciences meet.”
Expressing his views on this Koerner says, “Occupying as it does an
intermediate position between the humanities and social sciences and
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28quantitati ve data of the behaviourist, it serves as a medium through which
student can learn something of literature and arts on the one hand, and
politics, economics and social behaviour on the other.”
3.2.1.1History and Political Science:
Political history dema nds a great share in the workshop of history,
as politics is an important activity which brings about radical, speedy and
far-reaching changes. Politics is instrumental in shaping the constitutional,
legal, diplomatic, military, economic and even social pr oblems of a
country. Politics happened to be such a favourite branch of English
historians that they went to the extent of saying that all history is political
history, that history is the root and politics is the fruit, and that past
politics is present h istory. At every turn from the earliest times down to
the present period, it is the political activity either through monarchy or
oligarchy, or aristocracy or democracy or tyranny or dictatorship that has
dominated the life of mankind. At all times and in every country, either
only one or only a few have ruled the many. Even in democracy, once the
elections are over, power rests only in the hands of a few.
As history takes stock of unique events, it is the story of the
shepherd that attracts the attention rather than the flock of sheep, whose
behaviour is steady. The king has been called the shepherd of his people.
The modern Presidents, Prime Ministers, Parliaments, Senates and other
political agencies are so much in the news that po lities happen to be the
mainstream of all history, and demands the lion's share of a historian's
attention.
Acton says that politics is like the grains of gold deposited by the
stream of history in the sands of time. Polybius says that the use of history
lies in learning the art of politics. Sir John Seeley says, “Politics are vulgar
when they are not liberalised by history, and history fades into mere
literature when it loses sight of its relation to practical politics.”
Related to politics is constitut ional history which assists in the
understanding of the political trend in any period. The development of
political institutions, rules, regulations, rights and duties, law and mode of
justice, executive, legislative and administrative functions, economic and
finan -cial implications, nature of bureaucracy, fundamental principles of
State policy are all defined under constitutional history. Certain countries
have rigid and written constitutions whereas others have flexible and
unwritten constitutions, such as in England. Constitutional history traces
the origin, development, nature and functions of political institutions. The
evolution of the principle of constitutionalism is impersonal and has a
relationship with the history of ideas.
Legal history is als o assuming importance these days, particularly
in societies where the Rule of Law is the way of life. The laws of Manu,
the Code of Hamurabi, The Code of Justinian, the Code of Napoleon, The
Indian Penal Code of Macaulay, Holds -worth's History of English Law,munotes.in

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29Blackstone's Commentaries of the Laws of England and PV Kane's
History of the Dharmasastras are all very important works on legal history.
Diplomatic history is a specialized branch of political history. It deals with
principles of international relat ions. Ambassadors are the links between
nations and they are the custodians and practitioners of diplomacy. Such
issues as balance of power, cold war, international peace, disarmament,
outlawry of war have assumed great importance in recent times. Again,
military history is an important chapter in political history, wherein wars,
battles, campaigns and conquests figure very prominently. It deals with the
causes of a war, strategy and tactics in the war, war weapons, mode of
fighting and similar topics. The History of the Peloponnesian War by
Thucydides, The Great Rebellion by Clarendon, and several histories on
the American Civil War, the World Wars, and the Indian Mutiny have all
added to historical literature. Since wars are psychological factors in the
life of man, and since no age and no country is free from warfare, military
history is as prominent in history as political history.
3.2.1. 2.History and Sociology:
Sociology has a wide scope of study. It studies the development of
the human society at la rge. Really speaking, the subject -matter of history,
geography, civics, political science etc., could very safely be included
within the broad scope of the study of sociology. In fact, sociology gives
us knowledge of the development of the society. It aims at developing
man into an ideal social being. History is very helpful in acquiring the
knowledge of the development of society under various periods and under
various conditions. The teaching of history should invariably be guided by
the knowledge of soci ology. Similarly, study and teaching of sociology
can draw a lot from the knowledge of history.
Social history deals with institutions and problems dealing with
man and society, customs, manners, habits, food, dress, amusements,
family life, group life, folklore, festivals, ceremonies, and such other
activities which are an essential part of human life.
Sociology is the latest science with which history is now
developing very intimate relations. Sociology needs history as much as
history needs sociology in order to describe social behavioural patterns.
Trevelyan's Social History of England is extremely popular. It brings to
our mind a vivid picture of how society functioned in the past in its
multifarious range of social activities.
Toynbee has gone to the extent of saying that societies are the
atoms of which history is composed and it is not individuals or nations but
societies that form the components of histories. Social history concerns
itself with the tracing of the origin and the development of i nstitutions. It
emphasises the cultural aspects of the evolution of man from savagery to
civilisation. It is the daily life of the inhabitants of the past ages, the
character of family and household life, the conditions of labour and
leisure, the attitude of man towards his fellow beings and nature, the
pattern of life as it arose from his group living, and the changing forms inmunotes.in

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30his life as a result of religion, literature, music, philosophy, art, learning,
thought or any other intellectual activity.
In short sociology is helping history to study ‘social dynamics’
which is a study not of society at rest but constantly in social change and
development. Social processes and social causation are giving a new
perspective to history enlarging our vision away fr om dynastic history. In
India too our historians are now giving increasing attention to social
history, which has already become popular in the West.
3.2.1. 3. History and Economics:
Basically, Economics is the study of wealth. But this study is in
relatio n to man and his daily life activities. Thus, a correlation between
history and economics is quite natural. Economic conditions play a vital
role in the course of history. If a country could attain a height of
civilisation in a period, it must have been be cause of good economic
conditions of a countryor various countries in various periods. To know
the economic conditions of India during reign of Akbar or Shahjahan we
shall have to go through the pages of history. In history we are also told
that certain em pires faced liquidation only because of economic reasons.
In the same vein, the course of economic events has been influenced by
historical circumstances, e.g. Mohd. Tughlak had certain plans, but the
historical conditions of his time did not favour them a nd so he could not
succeed, however, afterwards these plans were considered to be good and
scientific.
Economic history became popular in the time of Condorcet,
Comnte, Buckle, Marx and Bury. There has been a new orientation in our
historical outlook fro m the days of the materialistic interpretation of
history by Marx, and as such, class struggle, man's skill in earning his
daily bread, means of transport and communication, consumption,
distribution, production, population growth, agriculture, industry, a rts and
crafts, trade, business and commerce, land revenue, taxes and a host of all
other economic activities of the past figure very prominently in history.
Since Darwin spoke of the struggle for existence and Marx
explained it in terms of economic determinism, economic history,
particularly since the Russian Revolution of 1917 has assumed such
importance as to overshadow all other branches of man's activity. Theories
have been advanced that the mainspring of all historical activities, whether
war or conquest, colonization or imperialism, originated because of
economic motives.
Indian historians such as Hiren Mukherjee, Palme Dutt, Kosambi,
Muhammad Habib an d others were greatly impressed by Marxian thought
and have tried to present an analysis from that particular standpoint. The
institutions of slavery, feudalism, imperialism, capitalism, socialism have
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31Modern economic theory depends largely on statistical data, and
the expression of economic laws have become mathematical in nature.
Historians have not remained free from the influence of statistics, and a
new branch called Cliometrics has come into vogue, ac cording to which
the use of mathematics has come into greater play in the writing of history.
To avoid approximation, ambiguity and vagueness, historians are using
statistics to be precise in their data. But too much use of this science will
rob history of all its charm as a fascinating story of the past. It becomes
confusing and uninteresting if an algebraical formula is used. Forexample
good historical writing is described as A=a+b. Here A stands for the net
result that flows from the historian's mind and pen, a is the data or the
sources he finds in the records, and b is the imaginative, interpretative and
explanatory skill of the historian which are so essential to make history
meaningful. In other words this formula tells us that history writing is not
merely using scissors and paste to cut some information from somewhere
and put that information elsewhere, but an arduous physical and mental
work in which a laborious search for material precedes an intelligible use
of data through reflective powers to ma ke the information intelligible and
useful. The proper use of Cliometrics has resulted in what is called
Quantified History. But the very nature of historical evidence will resist
these scientific modes of expression, and history will essentially remain a
humanistic study.
3.2.1. 4. History and Psychology:
Psychology is of great help to history in training a historian in the
detection of motives and intentions and in drawing inferences from strange
behaviour. Psychology is a science of the mind some ide ntify it with the
social and others with the brain. Its main aim is to study inter actions
between living organism and environment. Thus, human behaviour is
studied with that idea in mind. These studies are useful for historical
research as activities, exp eriences and motives are the matters that are
closely studied by historians in understanding the meaning of the activities
of eminent men in history.
Aristotle the Greek philosopher of the 4th century B.C. wrote ‘De
anima’ which is considered the first g reat psychological work. Modern
psychology grew from the work of Hobbes in the 17th century. In the 19th
century experimental psychology was developed Darvin's theory of
Evolution led to the dynamic psychology as of William Janies.
Historical studies wer e enriched by the work of Sigmund Freud
(1856 -1939) who laid down the basis of psycho -analysis and widened the
scope of psychology. Previously Plutarch's Lives 5th century A.D. had
given the details of the behaviour of the great leaders like Alexander the
Great but the technique of psycho -analysis of sigmund Freud gave an
insight into the behaviour of present day public leaders.
National and universal histories are dominated by ‘outsize’ men.
The eccentricities and mysterious behaviour of the public lea ders which
many a time confounds all could be understood property if Freudian,munotes.in

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32psycho -analysis is adopted. Adolf Hitters obsession with anti -Semitism
appeared strange in the beginning but the mania to persecute Jews had its
origin in his ancestors being of Jewish extraction. History is not much
concerned with the ‘unconscious’ mind and the instincts like sex in the
reconstruction of the past but they provide useful explanation to the
pattern of behaviour of such leaders. The case history of such ‘patients’
shows us the policies that they pursued in the proper perspective, Freudian
psycho -analysis has influenced modern thought and applied psychology is
nowadays adopted in industries and commerce also.
3.2.1. 5. History and Geography:
History in intimately c orrelated to Geography. History studies
people of different times and geography deals with the people of different
places. In the words of Prof. Immanuel Kant. "Geography and history fill
up the entire circumference of our perceptions, geography, that of s pace
and history that of time." No history can be complete without some
reference to space. Similarly, no geographical account can be intelligible
without reference to development in time. So, both history and geography
are concerned with the inter -play of human and physical factors.
Geography is the stage on which drama of history is enacted and it
is the geography which determines the historical events. Andean offer
explanation for historical actions of mankind. Similarly, historical facts
can serve as a good basis for arousing interest in geographical studies. In
explanation of historical fact geographical factors are taken into
consideration. Many factors taken into consideration are physical
conditions of the life of man, climate, means of communicati on etc. All
these factors determine the direction of human life and history increased
by human life and his activities. History of each and every country is
governed by their factors. Truly speaking historical studies desired of
geographical background wou ld be inaccurate and unscientific. The story
of man's evolution since primitive stage, cannot be told without the varied
geographical settings of the world. Man's mode of living, dieting and
dressing etc., are all determined by his physical environment.
If the USA grew into a powerful nation and acquired a rich history,
it was very much due to its geographical conditions. Geographical factors
were the sole cause of the down fall of many empires. The growth of
Beijing, Lahore or Moscow can be better unders tood by considering
various geographical factors. The history of hostility between France and
Germany can be explained on the basis of existence of river Rhine and
Lorrain coal -fields.
Geography and history bear a very close relationship to each other.
Geography is one of the eyes of the beautiful maiden, history, the other
eye being chronology. Geographical factors are so important that an
American geographer, Ellsworth Huntington, insisted that no nation either
ancient or modern rose to the highest cult ural status except under the
influence of climatic stimulus. Climate, moisture, humidity and weather
are all determining factors. Even Aristotle and Montesquieu havemunotes.in

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33emphasised the influence of climate on man. The earlier epochs of history
known as the ice or glacial age related to the advance of extreme cold
from the poles towards the equator. The very survival of man as a species
in the process of evolution was conditioned by these geological and
geographical factors.
The influence of geography on histo ry is a subject with which
every treatise on history deals in its very first chapter. The physical
formation of a country, such as Britain, Japan and Greece with broken
coastlines had a very powerful impact on its history. This facilitated their
naval stre ngth empire -building activities. The Himalayas and the jungles
of Assam have acted as barriers against invasions from the north and east
of India respectively. The Himalayas and the Gobi and Mongolian deserts
were responsible for the isolation of China. Th e biting winter of Russia
has been the cause for the utter defeat of many an invader including
Napoleon and Hitler.
The geography of Egypt has preserved the remains of her ancient
civilisation. The Indus and the Ganges have played a vital role in the
history of India. The geographical discoveries of the fifteenth and the
Sixteenth centuries including the discovery of Am erica and a new route to
India determined the character of world history since the Renaissance.
Climatology has played a vital role in the formation of national character,
and influenced human endeavours and achievements, Floods, drought,
hurricanes, earth quakes, mineral deposits, fertility of the soil, rivers, lakes,
meadows, coastline and other factors are responsible for many historical
events, and hence a knowledge of geography is very essential for
historians.
3.2.1. 6. History and Anthropology:
Anth ropology is a science that studies man and his works. It is
concerned with the origin, development and varieties of mankind that is
the different races of mankind. It has two branches 1) Physical
Anthropology and 2) Cultural Anthropology. The latter emphas is the data
from non -literate people. Thus, archaeology forms a part of Cultural
Anthropology. Cultural Anthropology is useful in the study of lost
cultures. Cultural anthropology studies human institutions especially in
their early stages. It helps the hi storical study of several races of mankind.
Also, the extinct cultures could be known with the help of this science.
The problems posed by superior races, ruling races, and subordinate or
passive races can be tackled better with ‘a -scientific knowledge’ of
Anthropology.
It is worth noting that studies carried out under the leadership of
Dr. Suresh Singh of the Anthropological Survey of India from October 2,
1985 to October 1, 1990 have brought out useful information about the
composition of the Indian Soc iety today. The problems of caste -system in
the present context of socio -political hostility and the historical
background can be dispassionately and critically studied now with the datamunotes.in

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34than mere abstract theories. What is true about Indian Society is als ot r u e
about other societies in the world.
3.2.1. 7.History and Art:
Art activities are quite intimately related to history. Art is the
practical application of the scientific knowledge. This practical application
can be of two types: (a) Utilitarian, and (b) Fine. Whether the art is
utilitarian or fine, it presents a picture of the things. Various events of
history are presented before our eyes in the form of pieces of art. The
paintings of Ajanta and Ellora are presented through art. Taj Mahal
repres ents the whole reign of Shahjahan. It very clearly indicates the
history of the economic conditions of that period. Coins, arms and other
pieces of art are helpful in ascertaining the history of that period.
The history of development of art forms the su bject -matter of
history. What was the condition of the art during Gupta period or Buddha
period or Mughal period can be known to us only through history? Had
there been no history, we would not have learnt about the various styles of
art. In short, both t hese subjects are inter -linked.
3.2.1. 8.History and Theology:
History and theology are intimately related. Religion has
influenced the course of history to a very great extent. In older times, it
was the religion that guided people to make conquests an d fight certain
battles that have now become a part of the history. Many of the wars and
political upheavals were caused by religious feelings. Therefore, the
knowledge of theology is very helpful for a historian. Without the
knowledge of theology, it is d ifficult to have a thorough knowledge of
history.
Similarly, the knowledge of history is also helpful for the
knowledge of theology. The birth and growth or the establishment and
foundation of various religions and sects, are studied under history. The
causes of failure and success of various religions form the subject matter
of history. It is the history that gives us the knowledge about the spread
and importance of religion in a certain period or certain periods. In short,
it may be said that both the s ubjects are intimately related.
3.2.1. 9. History and Literature:
History and literature are closely associated. For a long time,
history was considered a branch of literature, and it is only from the
nineteenth century that history came to be regarded a s a science. However,
if history is the record of life, literature is the reflection of life -the
substance and the shadow always go together. Sometimes the shadow has
amused man much more than the substance, just as a painting or
photograph of a person app ears to be more glamorous than the person
himself.
The main theme of both history and literature is man in society.
Whereas history deals with the past, literature deals with the present andmunotes.in

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35the future, although biography, one of the branches of literatu re, deals with
the past as well. Both these disciplines use imagination as their powerful
weapon, although its use is not so liberal in history.
In both, rhetoric plays an important part, so important that in the
Elizabethan era, historians use to copy t he style of Italian drama to
enhance the effect of history. The cult was magnificent art, but no history,
and hence from the nineteenth century, the use of picturesque details in the
narration of history has been tailed. Nevertheless, the artistic presenta tion
of the result of research highly desirable.
Bury himself speaks of sympathetic imagination and psychological
imagination regarding the interpretation of the past. There are many cases
in which the truth can only be ascertained by methods which are n ot
purely scientific. It is here that the imagination plays a vital part. “The
science of history deserves to be sprinkled with dutiful hands some grains
of incense on her altar.” History would retain its graces by remaining close
to literature.
Ranke asserted that history was not an edifying branch of
literature, but in the hands of Gibbon, history attained a literary garb
unparalleled in later literature. Herodotus and Thucydides, Livy and
Tacitus, Macaulay and Trevelyan have used a literary ar t which bas
enhanced the beauty of their historical writing. The divorce of literature
from history may almost certainly do it some definite harm.
Historical novels such as Sir Walter Scott's have popularised
history and added a new dimension to historic al understanding. Alexander
Dumas, Victor Hugo and Tolstoy are eminent historical novelists. The
Mysteries of the Mughal Court on the pattern of Reynold's Mysteries of
the Court of London excited much interest in India and brought to light
many inner aspec ts of the life of Nur Jahan and Jahangir. They pertain to
social history and bring to us a vivid picture of the customs, manners, life
and conditions of the people, in a popular manner, although not within the
rigid framework of science. A successful histo rical novel can at best be
total fiction, but will have very useful grains of history. The recent
historical novel, The Sword of Tipu Sultan, by Bhagwan Gidwani, has
been a very successful attempt in this direction.
Anyway, the role of literature in hist ory can never be denied. We
have to remember that a history book must first be readable. By reducing
the gap between history and literature it should be possible to increase the
appeal of history, and thereby increase the utility of history. It is necessar y
to liberate history from dullness, which is totally foreign to its nature, and
make it fascinating by the liberal addition of all literary artifices to
precious historical truths. Besides these points we should also be borne in
mind when discussing the a spect that history combines the merits of
literature, and that it amuses our fancy.munotes.in

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36Check your progress:
Q.1. Discuss the relations between history and social sciences.
3.2.2 NATURAL SCIENCES:
As the natural sciences began to develop new visio ns were opened
up for a science like history to make use of the new knowledge and
improve the work of reconstruction of the past. In the 17th and the 18th
centuries studies in different disciplines came under the overriding
influence of these sciences. The Scientific Method which used
observation, experiment and ascertainment of facts for formulating
universal laws appeared to be the only way to acquire knowledge.
In the nineteenth century the influence of Scientific Method was
universal. Historians wante d to present their narratives so as to fall in line
with the scientific approach to the past events. Two schools of thought in
History namely Empiricist and Positivist sciences but could not make
much progress in historical thinking. History deals with thi ngs that existed
in the past and which have disappeared from the view. Natural Sciences
demand sensuous knowledge that is perception of the objects by sight,
sound, touch etc. Science can carry on experiments and repeat them
anywhere and at any time. Histo rians cannot revive the dead men nor can
they reproduce the battles, wars and revolutions of the past age. However
Natural Sciences can render great help in proving whether a solid object
which is relic of the past is a real one or a fake one. Natural Scie nces can
throw much light on the physical conditions of the place of the event and
the changes in the course of time.
The influence of Natural Sciences stimulated research in historical
process. When the researchers found that the nature of historical ev ents
was different from mere study of natural phenomenon, they began to
develop their own methods as they had to depend more on things which
disappeared now but existed once upon a time. Those things continued to
exist in the minds of men but the concrete forms perished now. Natural
sciences could hardly help historians to reconstruct the things that perished
long but once existed in their own way. For example, the Rig Vedic fire -
pit (Yajnga -Kunda) perished but its image persisted in the minds of men
who kn ow the description in the Vedas. Such images and experiences
could be reconstructed with the help of Ancilliary Sciences. We shall see
how natural sciences strengthened the base of historical research
especially while dealing with him the remote past as we ll as the recent
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373.2.2. 1. Biology
Among the natural sciences Biology is intimately connected with
human life. Both the branches of this science, namely Botany and Zoology
have helped historians to understand the flora and fauna of a place about
which we choose to know as a determinate period. The vegetation, the
animals different living species including homo sapiens and the climate
could be known by the special techniques devised by biologists. In the
19th century excavations revealed many unknown things. Biologists like
Lamarck could reconstruct the extinct animals from the remains of the
then existing animals. He boasted "give me a small bone of an animal or a
bird and I shall reconstruct them in their full original forms.” Similarly,
botanists could tell us many interesting things about the plants. In Rig
Veda there is a frequent reference to 'Soma Valli", the botanist could
locate it in the mountainous regions of the north.
A knowledge of biolo gy will be very useful to history, because
evolution is the common principle of both, and because evolutionary ideas
have been the result of the impact of history on science. Long before
Darwin enunciated the theory of evolution in ‘The Origin of Species’,
historians had traced it in the history of ideas and institutions. Evolution in
science was confirmed by the idea of progress in history. The historical or
comparative method known as Historicism has revolutionised not only the
sciences of law, mythology, language, sociology and anthropology, but
has forced its way even into the domain of philosophy and the natural
scien -ces. Will Durant rightly says, "animals eat one another without
qualm, civilized men consume one another by due process of law.”
Biology tells us about the struggle of man in which the fittest survive.
There are hereditary inequalities which are biological and these create and
sustain social inequalities. The Malthusian theory of biological
multiplication has a powerful impact on the life and conditions of man, if
our race is to survive. The warning refers to man's struggle against nature.
3.2.2. 2. Agro -Biology :
This Science of plants, nutrition and soil has helped reconstruct the
state of agriculture in the periods under study. In this regard the grains
found in the Mehenjo -Daro and Harappa excavations are very interesting.
The relics at Mohenjo -Daro in Sindh also suggest thick forest in the region
now comparatively an arid land.
3.2.2. 3. Medical science:
Medical science is helpful in d etermining the nature and possibly
the age of skeletal remains. Medical Science has contributed significantly
to historical knowledge about kings and great men in the Medieval Age.
The most sensational revelation about Napoleon Bonapate's death of St.
Helena. The medical science found from Napoleon's hair retained the
effect of some poison administered by his British captors. Medical Science
could also identify the diseases of Chhatrapati Shivaji and Peshva
Madhavrao -I from symptoms described in the docum ents. The Medical
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38havoc with lives of people. The people who believed in superstition had
regarded them as scourge of God.
3.2.2. 4. Alchemy -Chemistry:
The preservation of the Egyp tian mummies aroused the interest of
the Chemical scientists. It was a wonder for common man and also
historians how the bodies of the rulers of Ancient Egypt (pharohs) lasted
in good condition. Also, the mystery of the holy relics of St. Xavier’s gave
thescientist an opportunity to explain the treatment. This added to
historical knowledge. The Alchemy which was associated with black
magic got higher degree of success which turned the study into a
respectable science of Chemistry by European scientists. Wo hler the
German Scientist started a new era in Organic Chemistry and Louis
Pasteur the French Scientist exploded the myth of spontaneous generation.
His more famous and commonly known work was on wine, vinegar and
beer preservation which led to the process known as 'Pasteurization'. The
20th Century Chemistry -Scientist James Dewey Watson established that
the structure and function of nucleic acid (DVD) is the key substance in
the transmission of hereditary characteristics. The study of man and his
activitie s which is the main object of study of history has a new means of
understanding the contemporary public leaders and their genealogy.
3.2.2. 5. Advanced Technology:
The computation, storage and utilization of data can be efficiently
managed with the help of advanced technology of the present century. The
carbon -14 method has solved the greatest impediment of dating the
remains of the past age whether they are of human being, of animals or
any solid substance like nocks etc.
Similarly, satellite pictures of inaccessible territories, now invisible
course of rivers or changes in their courses as in the case of now invisible
"Saraswati' over in the Punjab -Rajasthan -Gujarat region provide better
understanding of the oral history. Computer, video -films and oth er devices
have revolutionized historical knowledge about the long past as well as the
present.
3.2.2. 6. Ethnology:
History owes something to Ethnology which is the study of race
and its characteristics. Race is a biological reality, and in recent years t he
Nazi party had made much of it by advocating that the Nordic race is the
most superior race and that it was destined to dominate the world. This
resulted in historical events of a catastrophic nature. Gobineau was the
philosopher of Aryan racial superio rity. The Varna system in India,
apartheid in South Africa, Nazi persecution of the Jews, colour
distinctions in America are all historical realities based on ethnic
differences. The real issues cannot be understood without a deep study of
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393.2.2. 7.Intellectual History:
The relation between creative ideas and their impact on society has
resulted in Intellectual History which has become very popular in recent
years. Intellectual history is a field of great sophistic ation dealing with
fundamental ideas and ideology which ultimately shape human history. It
seeks to review the transformation of ideas, beliefs and opinions held by
intellectual classes from primitive times to our own. Dr. Johnson has said
that no part of history was as useful as this, which is related to the progress
of the human mind. The gradual improvement of reason, the successive
advances of science, of arts, of philosophy and learning are all very
instructive and interesting.
E. H. Barnes has written An Intellectual and Cultural History of
the Western World, and it comes under the history of ideas. So also works
on history of political thought, history of economic thought, and history of
science come under this category. Schill er has said that 'the genuine
history of mankind is its history of ideas'. Colling Wood thinks that history
is the expression of human ideas. Intellectual history concerns itself with
the examination of what men say, what they think, and what goes on in
their mind. The intellectual historian attempts to judge the nature of the
effects of an idea or a cluster of ideas on human events. He is confronted
with the old problem of value -judgments, where he has to discern the
common and unique elements in ideas and attitudes.
Intellectual history is not merely a summary or synthesis of such
material as pertains to philosophy, literature, religion, science and arts, but
it is ‘the cartography of ideas' whereby an attempt is made to trace and
understand the impact o f those ideas on a given society. At its narrowest
intellectual history tells us who produced what intellectual or cultural
attainments, where, when and how.
At its broadest it comes close to a compendium of man's
knowledge about culture. Intellectual hi story seeks to explain the relation
among creative ideas and the effect they bring to bear upon non -
intellectual factors. The intellectual historian is bound to be a thinker
rather than a story -teller. In the United States intellectual history has
become v ery popular acting as a bridge between the historian and the
practitioner of social science. In England, France and Germany which
have produced Buckle, Toynbee, Comte, Hegel, Marx and Spengler,
intellectual history has attained a high degree of proficiency , and these
historians are called meta -historians.
Intellectual history requires philosophy, and it is very surprising
that India, the home of philosophy, has not yet produced a meta -historian.
If history is the cause of a nation's persistent identity, w hich links the past,
the present and the future in one integrated whole, it could do so only
through the chain of ideas, and hence one ought to pay more attention to
them. It is rightly said that through the proper study of intellectual history
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40Historical studies in the direction of what Will Durant has done in
‘The Story of Civilisation’ or Buckle in ‘History of Civilisation’ or H. G.
Wells in’ Outline of World History’ or the UNESCO in their survey of
human culture would surely take stock of intellectual history.
Check your progress:
Q.1. Asses the relations between history and natural sciences.
3.2.3 ANCILLARY DISCIPLINES:
History is related to several other disciplines, and ne eds their
assistance, just as it is helpful to a number of other disciplines. A historian
must use the results achieved by workers in other fields of human
knowledge. They are called ancillary disciplines such as philosophy,
chronology, paleography, grapho logy, sigillography, diplomatic,
epigraphy, numismatics and archaeology besides a number of social
sciences which have already been examined in the foregoing paragraphs.
These sciences provide a historian with what is called 'methodical
repertories of f acts'. They are primarily digests of practical experience.
The best way to become acquainted with them is to practise them.
Ancillary sciences are departments of knowledge in their own right, and
history makes use of them, and hence they become allies of h istory.
The need for these disciplines has arisen because all intellectual
disciplines are interrelated. Even medicine requires history, because
without a proper background of the case, diagnosis is impossible. The
nature of historical facts is such that there ar e close connections between
one fact and the other, and each fact requires special attention to establish
its validity for which the assistance of the allied disciplines would be
extremely helpful. In other words, ancillary disciplines are the handmaids.
The important ancillary disciplines of history can be described as follow.
3.2.3. 1.Chronology:
Of these ancillary disciplines, chronology which helps us to fix the
time, determines the very framework of the narrative. The time element is
central to the co ncept of history without which its real perspective would
be lost. What we appreciate in a child we do not in an adult. Space, time
and cause are fundamental to any phenomenon or experience, and these
three aspects are not things but modes of understanding and interpretation.
In history, chronology arranges the significant events which took place in
the past in their time order, and fixes the intervals that elapsed between
them. Chronology was probably invented in the early ages for two equallymunotes.in

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41utilitarian purposes, namely the fixation of dates for religious functions
and for knowing the dates for agricultural operations.
A sound knowledge of chronology has become indispensable for a
student of Indian history, as the dates and eras are so confusing in the
records that fixation of correct chronology in respect to several dynasties
of ancient Indian history has by itself become great research. For example,
the chronology of the Ganga kings of Karnataka has created several
controversies, and literature has de veloped only on this topic.
3.2.3. 2. Graphology:
Graphology is the science of estimating the character of a person
by studying his handwriting. Research has shown that an undoubted
connection exists between a person's character and his handwriting, which
betrays what sort of a person he is. Systematic study of this science helps a
historian to form an opinion about such a person.
However, before a graphologist forms a judgment about the
character of a person, he should keep an eye on a few factors such as the
material used for the writing, the place and the position of the person who
wrote, the mood or circumstances under which the writing was done, if the
aim is to know the correct character of that person. For example, a person
travelling in a moving t rain cannot write properly. Likewise, an agitated
mood, insufficient light, bad paper or pen, or ill health are bound to affect
the handwriting.
In America the widespread use of typewriters has reduced the
opportunity to cultivate good handwriting. Journ alism, medical profession
and the nature of certain other jobs such as hard labour and mining would
make people careless about their handwriting but that does not mean that
their character has anything to do with it.
The cause for bad handwriting may be excessive and speedy
writing or no practice at all in writing. Subject to these conditions’
graphology gives us certain very useful hints about the psychology of a
person, whether he is hasty or steady or rash or artistic. It may even betray
his age, sex o r mood. It may even speak about laziness, needless haste,
carelessness, avarice, or self -indulgence. A few students who are very
frugal with their own paper become very liberal in the examination hall
where there is no limit to their demand for paper
3.2.3.3. Philology:
Philology or the study of languages both in their past and present
conditions has conferred on history a lot of advantages
A thorough knowledge of language is quite essential to have a
thorough knowledge of any subject. While teaching lan guages various
stories are taken out from different pages of history. Students are quite
frequently required to write essays on topics of historical importance. Oral
and written expression is also very essential. In teaching history, wemunotes.in

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42provide opportuniti es to the students for discussing, speaking, debating,
paper reading as also of narrating their experiences in black and white.
Thus, we find a lot of correlation existing between history and language.
It studies, the etymology or the origin of words, th e proverbs and
aphorisms and common phrases. It also deals with the derivation from
various terms and the most authentic texts especially concerning classical
literature.
History is indebted to this discipline for providing a sure clue to
the past exper iences and activities of man. In fact, historical method grew
out the philological studies. G. B. Vico claimed that history as an
autonomous science mainly on the basis of Philology. The words used by
the author and his style of narration fixes his identit y in the reader's mind.
Any interpolation by another person to the narrative would be easily
detected. For example, Rig Veda has in all ten chapters but philologists
tell us that the first and the last are later additions. Physical Sciences
cannot tell us about such interpolations and additions. Philology provided
a sure instrument to determine the internal proof of the contents of the
narrative .
"The study of languages shows what kind of life a people were
leading while its language was coming into existence. Their stock of
words shows what their stock of ideas was before the new one came into
existence.” Vico had showed how new words used by lat er generations
were borrowed from agricultural vocabulary. He also showed how
mythology composed in the ancient languages reflected the domestic,
political and economic life of the people of ancient Greece and Rome. In
India the inscription of ancient and early Medieval Period provided much
material for philological studies.
3.2.3. 4. Diplomatic:
Diplomatic is the systematic study of the form of the official
pattern of behaviour and writing. The word diploma which originally
meant a piece of writing folde d double, came to be used in course of time
for a passport or letter of recommendation given to persons travelling in
pro-vinces.
It changed further in its meaning as it referred to any manuscript or
document of legal or historic or literary value, and finally to indicate any
kind of official writing. It has currently given rise to such terms as
diplomacy and diplomatic purely in the political sense. It was observed as
early as the seventeenth century that official bureaux such as the Papal
Chancery used in the composition of letters and documents issued by them
not only a rigid order of arrangement of the subject matter but also stereo -
typed formulae for every part of the document. Clearly, the clerks work -
ing in these offices possessed formularies to be copied on different
occasions. This is the procedure observed even today in the civil service.munotes.in

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43If a document presents itself as originating from a certain office
but does not follow the style prevalent in that office at the date which it
bears, it is not genuine, and has to be criticised with the aid of every
available ancillary science. On the other hand, our confidence in a
document is greatly increased if the findings of paleography and
diplomatic coincide. In other words, diplomatic is a very usefu la i dt o
history in trying to find out the real meaning of a document.
3.2.3. 5.Paleography:
Paleography is the systematic study of old handwriting. The way in
which men shaped the letters of the alphabets has varied from period to
period and from region to region. Paleography describes the evolution of
each letter in time and in space.
A paleographer can not only read old manuscripts or inscriptions
but also date them, and he can tell us the history of these characters and
how they have changed over a p eriod. In the past. as also today, education
had the effect of standardising the shape of letters used in each centre of
culture.
Even in the Roman letters used all over Europe there are
variations. The Belgians write a different handwriting from the Dut ch, and
the English write differently from the Germans. In India the problem is
still more complicated with scores of different languages and different
scripts in use, and with such continuity of its history.
Paleography also deals with the abbreviations used by the scribes
Who were more in demand before the invention of printing. There are
dictionaries which list the abbreviations used in manuscripts. Paleography
demands concentrated attention to detail. It gives scope to mental
alertness, and to the dev elopment of empirical capacities. It develops the
ability to face difficulties as they present themselves in solving puzzles
and problems which do not come under any general principles.
A man who has done a good job in paleography is less likely to be
carried away by superficial resemblances to take external appearances for
granted. Paleography sharpens critical faculties. It is a science which is
very much developed by modern technology. A team of scholars is
attempting to decipher the script of the Indu s Valley civilisation through
computer science.
The rock edicts and rare manuscripts of the remote past are
difficult to decipher. Palaeographists use their skill to give the correct
meaning of such writings. As already pointed out above researchers have
to alert in ascertaining the exact words and their meaning in the documents
before them.
3.2.3. 6. Sigillography:
Sigillography is from the word ‘sigil’ meaning a seal or signature.
Sigilliography is the science of the writings or inscriptions, on the sea l.munotes.in

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44The seals are of different kinds shape and material. Some have
impressions on clay, wax or bricks.
It also means a mark or sign supposed to exercise occult power. In
history it refers to the study of seals and can be looked upon as a
department of dip lomatic. It is also called Sphragistic meaning the study
of engraved seals including their authenticity, age, history, content and so
on.
It takes into account not only the form and aspect of the seal, but
also of the manner in which it is attached to the document, and of the
material with which it is made. Wax was commonly used and in warm
countries like Italy lead was used. The seals of th e Indus Valley
civilisation have re -mained undeciphered.
In Indian history, in particular during the Muslim rule, seals played
a very important role in the administration, without which no document
was valid. They he lp us a lot in giving us much in -formation about our
medieval Indian history on the name of the ruler, his title, the extent of his
kingdom, the date of the document, the religion or sect he belonged to, the
dynasty with which he was connected, as well as the date and era of the
issue. These seals indicate even the level of culture by the type of
calligraphy and the material used.
3.2.3. 7. Numismatics:
Numismatics is the science of coins. Numismatics as a subsidiary
of Diplomatics. In the ancient times some seals had their Significance as
symbols of spirits and Semi -Gods. In the middle Ages the talisman and the
rings with decorated stones suggested some cosmic power. Coins gave the
idea of economic condition of the people.
3.2.3. 8. Archaeology and Epig raphy:
Besides these sciences, we have a number of other disciplines such
as archaeology, epigraphy, that help history. Archaeology, epigraphy and
numismatics are the hand -maids of history, and unlike the mother -
discipline, these daughter -disciplines are scientific in character and precise
in their methodology.
Ancient Indian history owes a good deal to these three branches for
the reconstruction of many of its chapters. We owe the entire discovery of
the Indus Valley culture to Sir John Marshall and his band of
archaeologists. The exploration of archaeological sites, the method of
excavations, the copying and reading of inscriptions, the study of coins,
and determining their grains have brought to light numerous chanpers in
the history of the world, almo st in every country and more so in India.
Physics is helpful in determining possible archaeological sites,
Engineering, chemistry and photography are summoned to the aid of the
archaeologist, whose business is to dig scientifically. Archaeology is
helpfu l in the study and preservation of ancient monuments. Epigraphy ismunotes.in

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45the paleography and diplomatic of inscriptions placed upon monuments or
given to individuals on copper plates as title deeds of land gifts.
The historian should have the ability to read t hese records or get
them deciphered and translated for him by those who know the language.
In Tamil Nadu and Karnataka there are thousands of such inscriptions, and
the history of this region, particularly of the ancient and medieval period is
reconstructe d with their help. They are a veritable mine of information on
politics, literature, warfare, religion, social, economic, and administrative
details, interstate relations, heroism of individuals and a host of other
topics. One single archaeologist, Lewis R ice, collected as many as ten
thousand inscriptions in a part of Karnataka which was then known as
Mysore State. These inscriptions are found either on stone or on copper
plates. These are deciphered, translated, edited with copious notes, and
published in several volumes, such as Epigraphia Indica, Epigraphia
Karnataka, Epigraphia Indo -Moslemica, and so on.
Check your progress:
Q.1.What are the importance of Ancillary disciplines?
3.3 SUMMARY:
. The social and other sciences which are an integral part of his
intellectual life provide substantial knowledge of the nature of the
historical problems before man. Just as the social sciences help the study
of historical life of man, history also helps them by providing them with
facts of life in the past. As the natural sciences began to develop new
visions were opened up for a science like history to make use of the new
knowledge and improve the work of reconstruction of the past. Ancillary
sciences are departments of knowledge in their own r ight, and history
makes use of them, and hence they become allies of history.
The need for these disciplines has arisen because all intellectual
disciplines are interrelated. Even medicine requires history, because
without a proper background of the cas e, diagnosis is impossible. The
nature of historical facts is such that there are close connections between
one fact and the other, and each fact requires special attention to establish
its validity for which the assistance of the allied disciplines would be
extremely helpful. In other words, ancillary disciplines are the handmaids
of history.munotes.in

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463.4QUESTIONS:
1. Review the relations of History with other Social Sciences.
2. Do you agree with the view that History is the past politics?
3. Elucidate i n what way did Economics help History to study historical
problems?
4. Discuss the use of psychology in the interpretation of history.
5. Assess the influence of Natural Sciences in the work of reconstruction
of the past.
6. Discuss the contribution of C hemistry and Medical Science to historical
knowledge.
7.Write an essay on History and Ancillary disciplines.
3.5ADDITIONAL READINGS:
1.Ali B. Sheik, History: Its Theory and Method, Macmillan India
Limited, Madras, 1978.
2.Carr E. H., What is History, P enguin Books, London, 1961.
3.Collingwood R. G., Idea of History, Oxford Paperbacks, Oxford
University Press, London, 1966.
4.Dilthey W. (ed.), Meaning in History, H. P. Rickman, London, 1961.
5.Elton G. R., Practice of History, London, 1975.
6.Finberg H.P.A. (Ed) , Approaches to History, London, 1962.
7.Garranghan G.H., Guide to Historical Method, 1971.
8.Gottschalk Louis, Understanding History, New York, 1956.
9.Renier G.J., History its purpose and Method, London, 1961.
10.Lal I., Research in History, Swastik Publishers & Distributors, Delhi,
2008.
11.Rajayyan K., History in Theory and Method, Madurai, 1976.
12.Webster John C.B., An Introduction to History. New Delhi, 1981.
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47Module II
Unit -4
NATURE AND TYPES
Unit Structure :
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Nature of sources of History
4.3 Primary Literary sources
4.4 Primary Archaeological sources
4.5 Secondary Literary sources
4.6 Oral sources
4.7 Digital sources
4.8 Summary
4.9 Questions
4.10 References
4.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit the student wilt be able to
1) Understand the nature and types of the sources for Ancient, medieval
and modern History
2) Explain the primary and secondary sources of ancient Indian history
3) Explain the various types of the historical sources.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The source material is the essential part of history writing. There
are various types of the historical sources. They can be categorized
according to the ir nature. The sources play important role in the history
writings. Hence the historian carry search for it at different places like
archives, museums and institutions. A historian tries to construct a
systematic account of the past event with the help of historical sources.
They can be categorized into following ways in a broader form.
1. Archaeological sources
2. Literary sources
3. Oral tradition
4) Digital sources
These sources can also be classified into two types -munotes.in

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48Primary Sources Gottschalk def ines a primary data source as “the
testimony of any eye writers by any other of the senses.” In other words
primary sources are tangible materials that provide a description of an
historical event and were produced shortly after the event happened. They
have a direct physical relationship to the event being studied examples of
primary sources include new paper report, letters, public document, court
decisions, personal diaries, autobiographies, artifacts and eye witnesses’
verbal accounts. The primary sourc es of data can be divided into two
broad categories as follows.
1) The remains or relics of given historical period. These could include
photographs, corves skeletons, fossils tools, weapons, utensils furniture
and buildings. Though these were not origi nally meant for transmitting
information to future generations. They would prove very useful sources
in providing reliable and sound evidence about the past. These relics
provide non -verbal information.
2) Those objects that have a direct physical relationship with the events
being reconstructed. This includes documents such as laws, files, letters,
manuscripts, government resolutions, characters, memoranda, wills,
newspapers, magazines, journals, files, government or other official
public ations, maps, charts, books, catalogues, research reports, record of
minutes of meetings recording inscription, transcriptions and so on.
b)Secondary Sources : A secondary source is one in which the
eyewitness or the participant i.e. the person describin g the event was not
actually present but who obtained the descriptions or narrations from
another person or source. This another person may or may not be a
primary source. Secondary sources, thus, do not have a direct physical
relationship with the event b eing studies. They include data which are not
original example of secondary sources include text books, biographies,
encyclopedias, reference books, replicas of out objects and paintings and
so on. It is possible that secondary sources contain errors due t o passing of
information from one source to another. These errors could get multiplied
when the information passes through many sources there by resulting in an
error of great magnitude in the final data. Thus, wherever possible, the
researcher should try to use primary sources of data. However, that does
not reduce the value of secondary sources.
Primary sources can be divided into literary and archaeological sources
4.2THE NATURE OF SOURCES OF HISTORY
The term sources in reference to history covers a body of materials
vast in range and diversified in character. Written records, oral records,
remains of prehistoric villages, towns, ancient inscripations on the sides of
rocks; in short, any bit of testimony, any object that can throw light on the
huma n story. Finds place in the category “historical sources.” One may
define the term as “human remains and such products of man’s activity asmunotes.in

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49either were meant by their authors to communicate knowledge of
historical facts, or by their nature are calculated t o do so.” Let us take two
examples from Ancient Indian history to elucidate the nature of historical
sources. A standard version of ‘Arthashastra’ of Kautilya and Buddhist
Stapa at Sanchi. Arthashastra helps us to recreate an image of mauryan
empire, the o rganization of Government, the economy and social and
cultural information. The Sanchi great stupa presents a different aspects of
historical facts.
A suggestive way to look at historical sources is to regard them as
“traces” left behind by past events. The events of history are no longer
realities, though they once were. All that survives of them is the
impression they made on observes, which impression the observes
themselves, or other persons, relying directly or indirectly on the reports
of observes, fixed in writing or in the some other medium or record. The
recorded impressions are therefore, the only traces which past events have
left in their wake. The historian must work recorded impressions and
through them on the events. Heuristics is therefore in the nature or mining
process, having for its object to bring the raw material of history to light.
From this point view Niebuhr was led to describe it as a “working under -
ground”.
Nature of historical sources in relation to their utility in the
construction of the past as it was. In this respect we have to consider the
time scheme. Such as ancient, medieval and modern resources.
Historical knowledge is an indirect knowledge. It is derived by
inference from the facts as revealed through the records of the past ages.
These records are in different forms such as documents and artifacts.
Check your Progress :
1)Describe the nature of sources of History.
4.3PRIMARY LITERARY SOURCES
Primary sources are the pieces of evidence that historians use to
learn about people, events, and everyday life in the past. Just like
detectives, historians look at clues, through evidence, and reach
conclusions. Diaries, letters, certificates of birth, death, or marriage, deeds,
contracts, constitutions, laws, court records, tax records, census records,
wills, inventories, treaties, report cards, medical records, passenger lists,
passports, visas, naturalization papers, and military enlistment or
discharge paper s can be considered as primary sources.munotes.in

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50Letters
A form of correspondence between people with a first -hand
account of events, feelings, or stories. Letters are often personal in nature,
but they can also be more formal. The officials and unofficial letters are
important sources to get knowledge of contemporary events.
Memoirs
Baburnama is the name given to the memoirs of Babar, founder of
the Mughal Empire. It reflect the nature and personality of Babaur. Tuzuk -
e-Jahangiri or Tuzuk -i-Jahangiri is the autob iography of Mughal
Emperor Jahangir (1569 -1627). Also referred to as Jahangirnama, Tuzk -
e-Jahangiri is written in Persian , and follows the tradition of his great -
grandfather. Mahatma Gandhi’s ‘My Experiments with truth’ reveals the
important events in his life and the formation of Gandhi’s character from
childhood.
Court Writings:
The Ain -i-Akbari by Abul Fazal contains regulations in all
departments on all subjects and include besides some extraneous matter. It
is a valuable and mi nute statistical account of his empire with historical
and other notes. It gives details of Mughal administration and state
policies. It covers every aspect of the history of the time. The third volume
tells us about the ancestry and the biography of Abul Fazal.
Abbaas Khan Sarwani wrote 'Tarikh -i-Sher-Shahi. He was related
to Sher Shah and worked as a mansabdar of 500 under Akbar. It is more in
the nature of an autobiography. Known for his literary taste, he gives a
picture of Indo -Muslim society of the early Mughal period. Ahmad
Yadgar was the author of Tarikh -i-Shahi or Tarikh -i-Salatin -i-Afghina. It
was Daud Shah, the last prince of the Afghan race in India.
Private Records:
Private Archives Section has in its custody a rich collection of
private pape rs of eminent persons who have contributed immensely in
various fields of public life in India. These papers have been acquired
mainly through donations and gifts from individuals and institutions
across the world. They are an important source to suppleme nt the
information contained amongst the public records. Some of the most
important private papers in archives are those of Mahatma Gandhi,
Rajendra Prasad, Dadabhai Naoroji, P.D. Tandon, Maulana Azad, Minoo
Masani, Sardar Patel, K.D.Malaviya, etc. All the se private papers are
accessible as per provisions contained in the Public Records Rules, 1997
or conditions as laid down by the donor at the time of their donation to the
National Archives of India.
Dairies:
A diary would be considered a primary source. As a historian the
use of primary sources is essential to building an argument that can cite
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51thesis. The diaries of the British officers compiled in ‘India during the raj:
eyewitness ac counts Diaries and Related Records’ held at the British
Library, London, covered good evidence on contemporary issues. They
reveal the extent to which the Mutiny shook British power in India,
particularly in the north and the centre. Providing insights int o the ways in
which Britain contributed a more complex conservative system of
government with a Civil Service, Viceroy and Governors, aiming to be
fair and efficient, these source materials allow scholars to study how this
process was received and how succ essfully it was implemented.
Government documents:
Official records have been found relating to the history of the
Turko -Afghan and the Mughal rule in the India. These are obviously the
most valuable and reliable source materials for the said period. But due to
lack of proper upkeep and several other reasons much of them did not
reach us. The Factory Rec ords, as the name indicates, are records of the
commercial establishments of the East India Company in Western India
from Sind in the North to Tellicherry on the Malabar Coast. Factory also
included Commercial Residency, Mahi Commercial Residency, etc.
Factory and Residency Records mainly register the business transactions
of the Company, but incidentally refer to Political events in the country. A
document officially written by the government, like treaties and executive
orders, usually spelling out rules and laws. The constitution of India is one
example of a government document.
Newspaper Article :
A journalist’s written account of an event. Newspapers or
magazines can be local, regional, or national in circulation, so it’s
important to keep in mind how many readers a newspaper article may
actually have reached, and who the intended audience was for the
information given in the article
Records of the Historical Families and Private Papers:
The State of Maharashtra is rich in archival material. Many
histo rical families have in their possession voluminous record depicting
the velour of their ancestors. Family legends imperial and royal deeds,
public and private correspondence, and state papers in possession of the
descendants of men once high in authority, law suits and law decisions,
account papers and manuscripts of every description in Persian and Modi
bring to light unknown events in the history of a country. These records
are preserved for posterity. They are indexed or catalogued and made
available for research to scholars and students.
Interview:
Interview conducted with a person to find out more information
about an event or that person’s life and decisions. Interviews can be
conducted one on one, or they can be done in a press conference format.
Aninterview can be recorded and then transcribed to create a written
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52Questionnaire:
A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of
questions for the purpose of gathering information from respondents.
Within social science research and practice, questionnaires are most
frequently used to collect quantitative data using many scales .
Questionnaire is a set of questions. Generally it is mailed to the
respondents of collecting data. It is employed when the area of study is
wide and the subj ects are widely dispersed. In this method the researcher
does not collect the data by himself.
Maps and Photo Copies:
There are about 20,000 old maps relating to Bombay Presidency
and other provinces. Survey operations started vigorously in this Province
from 1820. Copies of the maps prepared from that period to date of the
districts of Bombay Presidency, surrounding areas and of the Mumbai
Island are found in this collection. Majority of the maps have been
prepared by the Survey of India. Plans of Indian Railway Lines since the
inception of Railways in India have been added to this collection.
Check your Progress :
1)Explain the primary literary sources.
4.4PRIMARY ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCES
Monuments:
The monuments include temples, stupas, monasteries (viharas),
palaces, forts etc. In addition to individual monuments, there are vast
remains of ancient cities. Mohenjodaro and Harappa cities produce this
type of sources. In absence of literary records the monuments play vital
role in history writings. The information about ancient dynasties like
Kushanas and western satrapas can be gathered by excavation of the sites
and studying the monuments found in excavated historical sites.
Besides the monuments an d their remains, sculptures, paintings,
pottery and other artefacts help us in reconstructing the history and culture
of ancient India. The cave paintings of Ajanta, the animal sculptures at
the Buddhist stupas at Sanchi, Bharut etc. show scenes from the life of the
Buddha and represent the Jataka stories. The South Indian temples of the
Pallavs, Chola, Chalukya and Pandya period are full of sculptures that
help us in understanding the artistic achievements of the ancient Indian
sculptors and artists. Art efacts of different kinds also help us in
reconstructing the history and culture of ancient, medieval and modern
India.munotes.in

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53Paintings:
The sultanate period, except in some regions like Gujarat and
Malwa, did not have many illustrated manuscripts. The Persian p ractice of
miniature painting was also first introduced by these regional rulers. It was
during Akbar’s reign that painting was organized by an imperial estab -
lishment which brought together Hindu and Muslim painters and arti sans
from different parts of I ndia, especially, from regions like Gujarat and
Malwa where this tradition of manuscripts and miniature paintings had
developed.Despite the objection of orthodox religious leaders, who
regarded painting as un -Islamic, the Mughal emperors patronized this ar t.
The painters, besides depicting usual scenes like war, hunting, and other
public activities, also started specializing in portrait paintings. A similar
style of painting developed in Rajasthan using Hindu mythological
themes.
Coins:
The legends and ef figies on the coins help the historian to
reconstruct the religious history of the period. The gradual Indianization
of the foreign invaders such as the Sakas, Pahlavas and Kushanas can be
understood from their coins. These foreign invaders embraced Indi an
religions, either Hinduism or Buddhism and also adopted Indian names.
The coins provide us lot of information about republican and monarchical
government in ancient India. Most of the ancient states had issued coins.
The coins had legend engraved on it. The legend on coins helps historian
to reconstruct the religious history of the period.
Inscriptions:
The archaeological sources played an important role in
constructing or reconstructing the history of a region. The archaeological
source improved our awareness about our past and also provided
important materials, which we could not have been obtained otherwise.
Epigraphy and Numismatics are the important branches of the study of
history, which has greatly enhanced the understanding of India's past. For
the reconstruction of the political history of ancient India inscriptions are
of great value. These inscriptions being engraved on stones or metals are
authentic as they are free from tampering. The inscriptions contain various
subjects. They include religious matters, decrees of rulers, records of
conquests, sale or gift of land by various rulers to individuals or religious
institutions, description of achievements etc.
Archival records:
Mumbai Archives has a collection of good number of printed
records in the form of volumes and books. The old publications consist of
Printed Abstracts of Proceedings, Government Gazettes, Reports of
various Department, Offices, Commissions and Committees, Acts, Rules
and Orders issued by the Government , Civil Lists and numerous
Government Publications published from time to time. Three copies of
each State Government publication are sent to Mumbai Archives for
preservation. Apart from the vast bulk of Public Records and Privatemunotes.in

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54Papers, the National Arch ives has a rich and ever growing collection of
Library. This has some of the oldest and rare publications on a variety of
subjects, besides contemporary published material.
Check your Progress :
1)Discuss on primary archaeological sources.
4.5SECONDARY LITERARY SOURCES
The literary sources for the study of ancient Indian history and
culture may be divided into two major categories. The literary sources to
reconstruct Ancient Indian history can be classified between two broad
categories 1) Th e Religious literature and 2) Secular Literature.
Genealogical tree:
In the medieval period, there was a tradition of preparing a
genealogical tree of the families of eminent persons. Such genealogical
trees refer to the acts of bravery, military expeditions or other
achievements of the different members of the family. Such information is
generally based on official records and hence is useful as sources of
history.
Powade and poem:
The powadas are a kind of ballad written in an exciting style and
narrate historical events in an inspiring manner. The composers and
singers o f the powadas are known as Shahir s. The early powadas are
mostly composed by the eyewitnesses of the great events celebrated in
these ballads. The earliest notable powada was the Afzal Khanacha Vadh
(The Killing of Afzal Khan) (1659) by Agnidas, which reco rded Shivaji 's
encounter with Afzal Khan. The next notable powada was the Tanaji
Malusare by Tulsidas, which gave an account of the capture of Sinhagad
fort by Tanaji.
Biography:
Certain wr iters in ancient Indian adopted the lives of their royal
patrons as the theme of their literary works. This category of secular
literature include Buddhacharita written by Asvaghosa, which gives an
account of the life and teachings of Gautama Buddha. Ban abhatta, the
great master of the Sanskrit prose wrote the Harshacharita. In the Sultanate
period Firoz Shah Tughluq wrote his biographies called Fatuhat -i-Firoz
Sahi. Sultan Mahmud and Timur had their own biographies. And Chand
Bardoi became famous for his lyrical balard called ‘Prithviraj Raso’. Themunotes.in

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55most important memories and biographies of the Mughal India are the
memoirs of Babar and Jahangir and biographical sketch of Humayun by
Gulbadan Begum.
Descriptive Writings:
Tarikh -i-Hind by Al -Beruni
Al-Beruni, came to India and took up service under Mahmud of
Ghazni. He was well acquainted in Arabic, Persian and had a great
intellectual in Medicine, Logic, Mathematics, Philosophy, Theology and
Religion. During his stay in India he learnt Sanskrit and studied Hindu
religion and philosophy. He even translated two Sanskrit works into
Arabic. His most important literary work being Tarikh -ul-Hind written in
masterly Arabic with great accuracy and scholarly presentation, gives us
an account of the literatur e, science and religion of the Hindus of the 11th
century. The book gives us an account of India at the time of Mahmud of
Gazni’s invasion of India.
Other Writings
There are lot of writings about the Sultanate and Mughal period.
"Tabaqat -i-Nasiri" of Minhaj -us-Siraj is an important contemporary
source giving first hand account of the conquests of Muhammad Ghori
and the history of the Turkish kingdom in India upto 126 0 Minjah -us-Siraj
was the chief qazi at Delhi under Sultan Nasir -ud-din Mahmud. "Tarikh -i-
Alai or Khazain -ul-Futuh" by Amir Khusrav written in Persian. He
enjoyed the patronage of several Sultans of Delhi such as Kaiqubad, Jalal -
ud-din Khilji. Ala -ud-din K hilji. Qutub -ud-din Mubarak Shah Khilji and
Ghiyas -ud-din Tughlaq. Amir Khusrav was a prolific writer of prose and
poetry. He was the poet laureate in 1290 The Khazain -ul-Futuh also
known as the Tarikh -i-Alai is a court history of the first sixteen years of
the reign of Ala -ud-din Khilji. It gives details of the Deccan campaigns of
Malik Kafur hut does not mention the murder of Jalal -ud-din or the defeats
of the Sultan by the Mongols. Amir Khusrav has several other works to his
credit. This include the "Mi ftah-ul-Futuh" written in 1291 describes the
military campaigns of Jalal -ud-din Khilji, the Tughlaqnama traces the
course of events leading to the accession of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.
Tarikh -i-Firozshahi was written by Ziauuddin Barani. The Tarikh -
i-Firozsh ahi was written about 1358. It gives us information about the
Sultans of Delhi from Balban to Muhammad -bin Tughlaq and the first six
years of the reign of Firoz Shah. He was not very accurate about dates. He
has also not described the events in their chron ological order. Fatawah -i-
Jahandari by Zia -ud-din Barani was composed in the early 14th century.
Barani wrote his views on government policies and the ideal code of
conduct which a Muslim king should follow.
Tarikh -i-Firoz Shahi by Shams -i-Siraj Afif was probably
composed in the first decade of the fifteenth century. The author was a
favourite of Sultan Firozshah. He has described the history of the long
reign of the Sultan. He has also written about the culture of this period.munotes.in

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56His account is of great sig nificance for the history of Sultan Firoz
Tughlaq.
The Muntakhab -ut-Tawarikh or Tarikh -i-Badauni was written by
Abdul Qadir Badauni. The first volume is about the rule of Babur and
Humayun. Muntakhab -ul-Lubab was written by Muhammad Hashim alias
Khafi K han. As there was a ban on the writing of history Khafi Khan
wrote it secretly. It is a complete history of the Mughals beginning with
the reign of Babur upto 1733. He has dealt with all aspects of Aurangzeb's
reign, including the aftermath of his illibera l policies.
Periodicals and newspapers
The contemporary periodicals and newspapers gives us various
kinds of information about socio political condition. Bombay Chronicle
(1825 to 1959), Bombay Courier (1797 to 1846), Bombay Telegraph and
Courier (1847 t o 1861), Bombay Times (1838 to 1859), Bombay Gazette
(1809 to 1914), Bombay Darpan (Marathi) (1832 and 1834), Marattha
(1913 to 1925), Poona Observer (1852 -53, 1861 -62, 1876 -1915), Kesari
(Marathi) (1900 to 1931, 1962 to 1973), Navjivan (1919 to 1932), You ng
India (1915 to 1932), Indian Express (1955 to Dec. 2008), Blitz (1957 to
1964), Financial Express (1961 to 1964), London times, Times of India
(1861 up -to-date), Maharashtra Times (Marathi) (1962 up -to-date),
Loksatta (Marathi) (1960 to Dec. 2008), Saka l (Marathi) (1965 to 1968)
and many others contemporary periodicals like Asiatic Journal Asiatic
Journal New Series, Bengal Obituary (Calcutta, 1848) A compilation of
tablets and monumental inscriptions from various parts of the Bengal and
Agra Presidencie s. Also includes biographical sketches and memoirs of
eminent persons in British India from the early 18th century to 1848.
Census Report
The Census Reports (1871 onwards )are a valuable and basic
source on demographic studies and contain data about the p opulation,
castes, tribes, occupation etc for the use of scholars and other users.
4.6ORAL SOURCES
Oral histories are the collections of accounts, and interpretations of
the past in their own words. They are a record of an individual’ s direct
feelings and opinions about the events in which he or she was involved.
The oral histories provide information about significant events that may
otherwise lack documentation in written or archival records. Oral histories
are obtained through inter views and are preserved on audio and video
recordings, in films, and in written transcripts. Study oral histories as
primary sources and recognize the advantages they have as source
materials. Many times, oral histories record the experiences of individual s
who were not able, or who lacked the time, to leave written accounts. The
interviewer’s questions often create spontaneity and candor that might not
be present in a personally written account. Moreover, in a recorded
interview, the informant’s voice may reveal unique speech characteristicsmunotes.in

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57and tone that could not be captured in other sources. Oral history presents
challenges in its analysis. Memory is fallible. The reliability of the
informant’s information may be in question. The informants may be
reluct ant to discuss certain topics, resulting in an inaccurate or an
incomplete record. As with all sources, oral histories must be evaluated
along with other documentation to determine whether they present
information that is exceptional or conforms to previou sly established.
Check your Progress :
1)Give an account of oral sources of History.
4.7DIGITAL SOURCES
Digitization has made it possible for libraries, archives, hist orical
societies, museums and individuals to easily share their collections with
the world. Researchers today have unprecedented access to images of
primary source materials with descriptive metadata that, in the pre -digital
age, were available only to th ose who could visit a collection in person.
1)Internet archives
Web archiving provides social scientists and digital humanities
researchers with a data source that enables the study of a wea lth of
historical phenomena. One of the most notable efforts to record the history
of the World Wide Web is the Internet Archive (IA) project, which
maintains the largest repository of archived data in the world.
Understanding the quality of archived data and the completeness of each
record of a single website is a central issue for scholarly research, and yet
there is no standard record of the provenance of digital archives. Indeed,
although present day records tend to be quite accurate, archived Web
conte nt deteriorates as one moves back in time. The Web Archives for
Historical Research (WAHR) group has the goal of linking history and big
data to give historians the tools required to find and interpret digital
sources from web archives. Our research focuse s on both web histories -
writing about the recent past as reflected in web archives -as well as
methodological approaches to understanding these repositories.
2)Word Cat
Find items from 10,000 libraries worldwide, with books, DVDs,
CDs, and articles u p for grabs. You can even find your closest library with
World Cat’s tools.
3)Google Books
Google Books (previously known as Google Book Search and
Google Print and by its codename Project Ocean is a service from Googlemunotes.in

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58Inc. that searches the full text of books and magazines that Google has
scanned, converted to text using optical character recognition (OCR), and
stored in its digital database. Books are provided either by publishers and
authors, through the Google Books Partner Program, or by Google's l i-
brary partners, through the Library Project .Additionally, Google has par t-
nered with a number of magazine publishers to digitize their archives.
4)Ancient India –The British Museum
The British Museum’s online offerings are impressive. The A n-
cient Civi lizations websites highlights achievements of some remarkable
world civilizations and explores cross -cultural themes of human develo p-
ment. Explore the people, culture, beliefs, and history of ancient India u s-
ing animations, 3D models and objects from The B ritish Museum’s colle c-
tions.
5)Exploring Ancient World Cultures: India
Another fine introduction to Ancient India, though some links are
broken. The most interesting features are an article entitled “ The Histor i-
cal Context of The Bhagavad Gita and Its Relation to Indian Religious
Doctrines, and an online translation of The Bhagavad Gita. You can also
find a whole slew of images of Harrarpa.
6)Daily Life in Ancient India
The numerous lesson plans and resources available at this popular
site have been developed by Mr. Donn and other contributors. Lessons
cover: The Mysterious Indus Civilization 3000 -1500 BCE, Aryan Civil i-
zation Daily Life 1500 -500 BCE, Vedic Period 1500 -1000 BCE, Epics
Period 1000 –500 BCE, and Age of Empires Daily Life 500 BCE -700
CE.
Audio visual sources
Audio record includes the speeches of great personalities
photographs, film, video, paintings, drawings, cartoons, prints, designs ,
and three -dimensional art such as sculpture and architecture and can be
categorized as fine art or documentary record. Some visual resources are
one-of-a-kind, while others are reproduced (like prints or illustrations in
books and magazines).
Films
Towards the experimental film, which portrays social reality in a
departure from narrative history, we can easily adopt a favourable attitude.
For instance films highlighting systemic exploitation, the underworld,
wage slavery, the emotional trauma of women o r problems of migrant
workers and the unemployed need not fictionalize history -that is the stuff
history is made of in any case. They are necessary to draw our attention to
many emotions which written history either ignores or cannot express. A
film like Shyam Benegal's 'Ankur', for example, is at once historical in its
focus on rural feudalism in a region of south India and socio -cultural in its
presentation. The same is true of Govind Nihalani's 'Aakrosh' which
underscores the exploitation of tribal by India's ruling elite and their
agents.munotes.in

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59Check your Progress :
1)Describe the digital sources.
4.8SUMMARY
Allthematerial directly reflecting thehistorical process and
providing anopportunity forstudying thepast ofhuman society is known
as source of history. Historicals ources thus comprise everything created at
anearlier date byhuman society andavailable to us in theform ofobjects
ofmaterial culture orwritten documents that permit evaluation ofthe
manners, customs, and language ofpeoples. Written historical sources,
including hand written documents (on rock, birch bark, parchment,
paper)and theprinted documents ofmore recent periods, constitute the
largest group. These written sources differ inorigin (archives ofthestate,
patrimonial estates, factories, institutions, andfamilies), incontent, andin
purpose (for example, statistical economic materials, juridical documents,
administrative records, legislation, diplomatic and military papers,
document sfrom court inquests, andperiodical sand news papers.
4.9QUESTIONS
1) Describe the natures and types of the historical sources
2) What are the types of the historical sources? Explain its nature.
3) Discuss the importance of Secondary Literary sources
4) Explain the primary sources for the historical research.
4.10REFERENCES
1) Anirudh Deshpande , Films as Historical Sources or Alternative
History , Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 39, No. 40 (Oct. 2 -8,
2004), Published by: Economic and Political Weekly.
2) Garraghan G. S., A Guide to Historical Method , New York, Fordham
University Press 1996. 2) Gottstack, L., Understanding History ,N e w
York, Al fred A. Knof 1951.
3) McMillan J. H. and Schumander S. Research in Education : A
Conceptual Introduction Boston MA : Little Brown and Company
1984.
4) Shafer R. J., A Guide to Historical Method, Illions : the Dorsey Press,
1974.
munotes.in

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60Unit-5
METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
Unit Structure :
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Difficulties in collecting Historical data
5.3 Chief sources of data collection for history
5.4 Following four methods are employed in collecting data from
primary sources
5.5 Summary
5.6 Questions
5.7 References
5.0 OBJECTIVES
1.The module aims to introduce different methods used by researchers
for collection of data.
2.The purpose of research is to make description, explanation and/or
predictions about various phenomena.
3.The efficacy of any research depends on the accuracy of the data
collected.
4.The chapter outlines different methods available for data collection in
Historical research.
5.1INTRODUCTION
Research is a highly specialised activity that is more than jus t
collecting information or writing a description. It involves collection of
information in a targeted fashion, which is further analysed thoroughly to
lead to answers of research questions and evaluate results. The collection
of data is the heart of any r esearch design, irrespective of the field of
study. Any research begins with certain questions, which need to be
answered. Data collection is the process of gathering the desirable
information carefully, with least possible distortion, so that the analysis
may provide answers that are credible and stand to logic.
5.2 DIFFICULTIES IN COLLECTING HISTORICAL
DATA
Collection of historical data is not an easy work. The researcher
has to face many difficulties while collecting authentic data. Both themunotes.in

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61primary a nd secondary sources are used for it. In fact, source means
numerous fragmentary evidences, scattered here and there. They are not
available in one single book, so a researcher will have to work hard and
tackle archaeological, epigraphical and numismatical materials for
collecting data in order to complete his research work. A good and
intelligent scholar also faces the following difficulties during the course of
data collection. In spite of once best efforts and wisdom one cannot get rid
of them.
Difficulty of Identification of Names:
A scholar or historian who has devoted himself to the task of data
collection is required to work hard. He must go through the entire
available material. No doubt, there are many names of the places in the
data, wher e many important events of history have taken place but now it
is very difficult to identify them in the present context. The name of the
place went on changing with the passing of time. Sometimes the name of
the person and place are identical but at other place they are contrasting.
Moreover, the names of the significant rulers and authors also differ in
description of different scholar; hence it becomes very difficult for the
persons involved in the work of data collection, to trace the exactness of
the m aterial collected.
Non-Availability of the Research Material:
All the historical research material is not available at one place
and some of it has been lost in the course of time. A part of the material is
eaten up by the moths, and some of it is burie d beneath the earth. The
cyclic change of weather has almost destroyed all such material, hence it
is very difficult for the researcher to establish link between the gaps which
are created due to destruction of past records. Besides this during Middle
Ages a large number of materials was either burnt or destroyed by the
foreign invaders who made invasion over India from time to time. Many
historical buildings were also razed to the ground by these invader which
if remained could have supplied much informati on regarding the art and
culture of the contemporary period. Besides this the foreign invaders
carried some fine specimen of art and literature to their own countries and
thus they deprived us of some very significant source material.
Difficulties of Deci phering:
In ancient times it was very difficult to record the historical event
for want of printing press. Moreover engraving on stone and copper plate
was not easy. Hence all the data could not be recorded and made available
to the posterity. Sometimes t he data available is recorded in a language
which has still not be deciphered, hence it did not prove to be of any
advantage to the scholars.
Subjective Writings:
One more difficulty which a research has to face is that the
recorded and available source m aterial is written subjectively. During
Ancient and Medieval period the historian and scholars were closely
connected with the royal court and whatever was written or composed wasmunotes.in

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62nothing more than the praise of their patron. Their description is chiefly
without objectivity. The patronized scholars have mixed the facts with
fiction in such a way as it had become very difficult for the scholars to
read between the lines and draw out the real conclusion. The same
problem is still harassing the modern scholars . The historians of advanced
and well to do countries have drawn a very miserable condition of the
poor nations and the colonies. Thus their cultural contribution and heritage
have been ignored altogether. Therefore the data collectors are in a state of
confusion how to find out the exact objective data in order to establish the
facts.
Difficult of Scatter Data:
All historical data is not available at one place. Therefore a
researcher has to feel much difficulty in collecting the scattered data. Most
of data pertaining to wars, kings, dynasties etc. is scattered indifferent
states and a researcher is required to make extensive tours in order to
collect the data. Some of data is scattered here and there however remains
inaccess ible, hence the researcher feels a lot of trouble. A lot of material
was taken away by the invaders and they had put in there libraries and
archives, so it is all the more difficult for the researcher to travel abroad
and collect the required data which ne eded a large amount of money and
time. So the scattered data is an intricate problem for the researcher.
Difficulty in Procuring the Confidential Materials:
The other problem is that of the confidentiality of the record. Some
of the data which is kept in the national archives or with some government
agency, it is also not made available to the research scholar on the plea
that it was confidential and it could not be shown to the researchers. In
case the confidential papers are shown to the scholar, the rel ations
between the two countries will become uncordial or it may create some
tension among the people of different religions or communities. Thus the
problem of confidentiality is also a great hindrance in the way of data
collector.
Problem of Expenditure :
Nothing can be done in this world without money. Data collection
also requires a lot of money. The researcher has to loiter here and there in
search of data and sometimes he has to stay at place for many days. It also
requires money. In case, the data is scatter at different places in the
country as well as out of the country, it becomes very difficult for the data
collector to do his work without a huge amount of money. Generally,
researcher who has not source of income feels a lot of problems during the
course of his travel, maintenance, stay and typing. Actually he does not
feel himself comfortable while collecting data without the help or support
of some institution of organization. The last but not the least problem is of
establishing relations with t he persons or institutions who possess the
required data. It is completely based on the ability and efficiency of the
scholars how he deals with them and how he extracts the data which is
lying with them. Generally people are disinterest to part from the r ecords,
letters, manuscripts etc. which theory link to be their personal property. Ifmunotes.in

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63the researcher is successful in establishing his rapport with them only then
he can achieve his mission.
Check your Progress :
1)Explain the difficulties in collecting historical data.
5.3 CHIEF SOURCES OF DATA COLLECTION FOR
HISTORY
i.Writings:
To produce a standard research work which may be called a
scholarly writing is not very easy. It not on ly requires the intelligence of
the researcher but also the authenticity of the data collected by him.
Different sources need to be tackled by the research in order to create a
fine piece of research work. Sometimes a large number of fragmentary
evidences are to be used and they are not available in one single book
only. All the material which helps in constructing the history of a
particular period is termed as source. G.R. Elton aptly remarks, “Historical
research does not consist as beginners in particul ar often suppose, in the
pursuit of some particular evidence which will answer a particular
question; it consists of an exhaustive, and exhausting review of every
thing that may conceivable be germane to a given investigation. Properly
observed, this princ iple provides a manifest and efficient safeguard against
the dangers of personal selection of evidence”.
ii.Primary and Secondary Sources of Data Collection.
The historical sources of data collection can be divided in two
categories (i) Primary and (ii) secondary. A primary source of data is one
that the researcher or scholar has created himself by his own effort. We
can also say that primary sources are original. No researcher can be called
a competent and authentic historian unless he h as worked in primary
source materials. As regards the secondary sources, we can say that it is
the testimony of someone who was not present at the time of happening of
the event. The books written by different historians are put in the category
ofsecondar y sources. In fact, the significance of the secondary sources is
not,less important than the primary ones.
In fact it is necessary for a researcher that he must go through all
the secondary sources before the collection of the primary data. It will
save duplicacy of work. Making a difference between the primary and
secondary sources a well known scholar A. Marw ick writes, “The primary
source is the raw material, more meaningful to the expert historian than to
the laymen; the secondary source is the coherence work of history, article,munotes.in

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64dissertation or book, in which both the intelligent layman and the historian
who is venturing upon a new research topic, or keeping in touch with new
discoveries in his chosen field or seeking to widen his general historical
knowledge, will look for what they want”. It depends on the purpose of
the research whether a data collected i s primary or secondary. Sometimes
a data collected can also be regarded as the primary and secondary source.
A primary source can also be used as a secondary source. The news papers
are usually considered to be a primary source but the information given in
the paper are not completely based on primary sources, therefore they
belong to secondary source.
iii.Primary Sources of Data Collection:
From the point of view of research or the establishment of a new
theory, the primary source is more important than the s econdary source
because it contained original ideas or facts in it. Generally a hand written
document is supposed to be more authentic than a typed one as it relates
and indicates close relationship between the researcher and event. But
Prof. A. Marwick do es not agree to it, he writes that some times a printed
document is of great value. A document written in one man’s handwriting
may be a genuine record of transactions which actually took place, or a
record in good faith of a statement dictated by one -man to another, or the
record of a collective decision, or it may be a complete invention on the
part of the writer. It will in any case yield answers to only certain
questions; if what one requires is final statement of government policy or
particular issue, the printed documents may well prove a much more
valuable primary source. Actually it is very difficult to draw a line of
demarcation between the primary and the secondary source material.
Some time it seems to be so faint that it becomes difficult for a r esearcher
to declare it primary or secondary. But it is sure that both of them help a
scholar in establishing the history of the particular period. An
autobiography can be both a primary and secondary source when viewed
from the point of view of the philos ophy of the writer and important event
of the period respectively.
a.Contemporary Records:
Prof. Gottschalk writes, “A contemporary record is a document
intended to convey instructions regarding a transaction or to aid the
memory of the persons immediately involved in the transaction”. An
appointment letter, an order on the battle field, a direction from foreign
office to the ambassador etc., are some significant documents for are
searcher. These papers have no doubt about their authenticity and there is
nochance of error. However a researcher should satisfy himself before
making its use. The stenographic and phonographic records are also
significant source material for a researcher. These records are important
and valuable as they give us an insight into em otional stresses. The legal
and business papers such as journals, bills, orders, tax records etc. not only
provide an insight into the working of the firm but also acquaintus with
the persons who are engaged in this work. These papers are general
prepared by some experts hence they are greatly reliable and there is very
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65habit of maintaining a private diary or note book and they keep in them the
record of his day to day activities. These note books are also trustworthy
record from the historical point of view. There is no chance of being
prejudice in these private memoranda, hence they are considered very
significant from the historical point of view.
b.Confidential Reports:
The confidentia l reports are not meant for general masses. They are not as
reliable as the contemporary records because they are written after the
event had taken place. The personal letters are also a credible source of
history. Such letters are written in a very polite way and they are full of
esteem. They may mislead a fresher who is not fully aware with the art of
letter writing. Sometimes these letters do not provide correct information;
hence a researcher has to read between the lines in order to find out the
hidden meaning of the writer on the letter.
c. Public Reports: The public reports are not as important and reliable as
the confidential reports. The Public Reports are usually divided into three
parts and each of them has a different degree of reliability.
a).The reliability of a news paper or dispatch depends on the source from
which it has been originated. If the newspaper or the journal in which the
particular information is published is not reliable, it is of no importance.
Butnow -a-days the newspapers not only on their correspondents but they
also have agencies and syndicates for reports. Thus at present the
newspaper reports and dispatches play a significant role in the field of
research.
b). Memoirs and autobiographies are also one the source material f or are
searcher. Though they are read and praised by many people however they
can not be said to be a very reliable source. Usually the memories and
autobiographies are writer by some eminent persons towards the close of
their life. At this stage the memor y of author cannot be as sharp as it was
in the earlier days, hence he writes all these events of his life on the basis
of diminishing memory so they cannot be trusted completely. Some of the
autobiographies and memories are condemned and criticized by the other
scholar on the basis of their shortcomings.
c). One another kind of public report and source material is the official or
authorized histories which are written on the basis of official records but
they too should not be taken to be completely trustworthy as they are
written by the scholars and historians who are employed by the
government, hence their writings are to be read with due care. Whatever
was written about the Second World War or the National Struggle of India
by these hired scholars, it needs to be read between the lines before
drawing any conclusion.
c. The Questionnaire Method:
It is the most significant method of data collection. In this method
the resea rcher prepare certain question pertaining to the subject of themunotes.in

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66project or thesis in order to get information and opinion on particular
subject. The questionnaires provide the researcher a fund of information.
He analyses and puts forth the final version t o the readers. No doubt, this
method of data collection is very significant but it is useful only for that
scholar whose approach is critical otherwise all the labour of the
researcher would go in vain.
d.Interview System:
Besides the questionnaire method, the researchers also resorts to
the interview system in order to draw some definite conclusions by taking
interview of the contemporary or eyewitness persons. Through this system
he has a desire to add something new to the existing knowledge of the
subject .No doubt, meeting with such personalities is very tedious job and
it requires a lot time and money to approach them but a sincere scholar
tries to leave no stone unturned in order to find out some thing new.
e.Government Documents:
The Government Document s also help a data collector to get some
vital information for his project. They are usually compiled by the scholars
and historians of great repute. The department of statistics prepares some
very useful information about census, and fiscal policy of the country.
This present information collected today becomes a useful source material
for the historians of the tomorrow. In fact, government does not want to
defame herself and provides only that information which highlights their
policies and ignores all th e information which indicates the failures and
lapses of the government. So there is every possibility of hiding the facts
and figures from the researcher. Therefore a researcher should be very
alert at the time of collection of data but look into the ins and outs before
reaching the final conclusion.
f.Public Opinions:
Newspapers are also one of the significant sources of data
collection. Historians and scholars of different parts of the world write
their opinion in the editorials, speeches, and letters to the editor and
pamphlets which are read and understood by the scholars. Besides them
the public opinion polls are also an important source for collected data.
But a historian must be very careful about the authenticity of the
information because they are often deceptive. He should also consult some
other evidence before making use of these sources. Besides the above
mentioned sources, the literature of the contemporary period is also an
important source material for the researcher. It is rightly said that the
literature holds a mirror to the society. Therefore historians are capable to
know about the social conditions, customs and tradition of the
contemporary society through the literature, but some of the historians do
not agree to this fact and they beli eve that history and literature both the
polls apart. History is based on facts while literature is full of fiction and
imagination, hence a researcher if he is making use of some literary work
he must be very careful. Folklores and provers sometimes also prove to be
a significant source material because they give a clear picture of the
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67and fictions amalgamated with one another must be removed so that a
clear picture may be presented before the readers.
Check your Progress :
1)Describe the chief sources of historical research.
5.4FOLLOWING FOUR METHODS ARE EMPLOYED
IN COLLECTING DATA FROM PRIMARY SOURCES
1)Archival research.
2)Observation
3)Interview
4)Questionnaire
1)Archival research.
a)What is Archival research:
Archival research is research involving primary sources held in an
archives, a Special Collections library, or other repository. Archival
sources can be manuscripts, documents, re cords (including electronic
records), objects, sound and audio -visual materials, or other materials.
b)What is an archives?
An archives is "an organization that collects the records of
individuals, families, or other organizations."
c)What is a repository?
A repository is "a place where things can be stored and maintained,
[including] any type of organization that holds documents, including
business, institutional, and government archives, manuscript collections,
libraries, museums, and historical societies, and in any form, including
manuscripts, photographs, moving image and sound materials, and their
electronic equivalents." Archival research can be challenging, but it can
also be tremendously rewarding (and even fun) You may not find exactly
what you wer e looking for, but you may also find much more than you
expected.
d)Special collections/archives collections.
Many primary sources that are available online are archival or
Special Collections sources which have been digitized and made available
by those in stitutions. But not every source is available online. Most
Special Collections/archival libraries are not able to digitize all of their
sources (collections) or make them publicly available. Not every
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68Collections/archival libraries do not catalog their collections by individual
item. Instead they provide descriptions to the box or folder level. Not
every collection will have an online finding aid. While most institutions
are working to ge t finding aids online, this is an ongoing process for many
organizations. You may need to contact an archivist to learn more about
which finding aids are available online, and which are not. Some archives
will create catalog records for unprocessed collect ions as a means to signal
their existence. Further, research/subject guides may also list unprocessed
collections.
Not every library (including archives and Special Collections
libraries) is registered with World Cat. World Cat and Archive Grid
(which draw s on World Cat) include information from many, many
libraries, but do not include materials from every library/repository. Not
every repository uses standardized descriptive methods. While the
majority of archives adhere to professional descriptive standar ds, some do
not. This can make it more difficult to find materials using World Cat or
other similar databases/catalogs.
Most archival/Special Collections libraries will not lend their
materials. Due to rareness, fragility, or other restrictions, most item si n
these kinds of libraries are not available for Interlibrary Loan. Researchers
may be able to request that copies of relevant records be made available
through Interlibrary Loan, however there may be a charge. If the
repository is able to offer you rep roductions (photocopies, PDFs, or
audiovisual materials) of the materials you want to look at, expect to pay a
fee. Typically there will be a charge for ordering reproductions, often
including charging by the page.
Most archival sources are in their origi nal language. Archives and
Special Collections libraries do not typically offer translations of their
materials. Other scholars or editors may have published or otherwise made
available translations of materials. Your local repositories may not have
the archival resources you need. Archives and Special Collections libraries
tend to collect deeply in specific areas, rather than widely in many areas.
Smaller repositories may also focus on collecting materials relevan tt o
their local community.
Reasons to contact a repository's archivist before planning a visit:
Archival research typically involves one or more of these options
i.Visiting the repository in person:
Some repositories offer competitive travel fellowships or other
funding. Check their website for information about funding opportunities.
Ordering reproductions (paper or electronic) of relevant materials (if
option is available)Hiring a proxy researcher ( some repositories may offer
a list of possible proxy researchers for hire Contact the repository directly
(contact information is generally available on a repository's website) to
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69Types of Archives:
College and university archives are a rchives that preserve
materials relating to a specific academic institution. Such archives may
also contain a "special collections" division (see definition below).
College and university archives exist first to serve their parent institutions
and alumni, and then to serve the public.
Examples: Stanford University Archives, Mount Holyoke College
Archives.
Corporate archives are archival departments within a company or
corporation that manage and preserve the records of that business. These
repositories exi st to serve the needs of company staff members and to
advance business goals. Corporate archives allow varying degrees of
public access to their materials depending on the company's policies and
archival staff availability.
Government archives are reposit ories that collect materials
relating to local, state, or national government entities.
Examples: The National Archives and Records Administration (NARA),
the Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum, the New
York State Archives, City of Bost on Archives.
Historical societies are organizations that seek to preserve and
promote interest in the history of a region, a historical period, non -
government organizations, or a subject. The collections of historical
societies typically focus on a state or a community, and may be in charge
of maintaining some governmental records as well.
Examples: The Wisconsin Historical Society, the National Railway
Historical Society, the San Fernando Valley Historical Society.
Museums and archives share the goal of preserving items of historical
significance, but museums tend to have a greater emphasis on exhibiting
those items, and maintaining diverse collections of artifacts or artwork
rather than books and papers. Any of the types of repositories mentioned
in this list may incorporate a museum, or museums may be stand -alone
institutions. Likewise, stand -alone museums may contain libraries and/or
archives.
Examples: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Smithsonian National Air
and Space Museum.
Religious archives are a rchives relating to the traditions or institutions of
a major faith, denominations within a faith, or individual places of
worship. The materials stored in these repositories may be available to the
public, or may exist solely to serve members of the faith or the institution
by which they were created.
Examples: United Methodist Church Archives, American Jewish
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70Special collections are institutions containing materials from individuals,
families, and organizations deemed to have significant histor ical value.
Topics collected in special collections vary widely, and include medicine,
law, literature, fine art, and technology. Often a special collections
repository will be a department within a library, holding the library's rarest
or most valuable or iginal manuscripts, books, and/or collections of local
history for neighboring communities.
Examples: Special Collections Research Center at the University of
Chicago, American Philosophical Society Library.
2. Observation:
Observation is the basic method of obtaining information about
social phenomena under investigation. All of us are constantly engaged in
observation. However, all such observations are not scientific
observations. Observations become a method of data collection when it is
planned in acc ordance with the purpose of research and recorded
systematically keeping in mind the validity and reliability of observed
data. There are numerous situations where this method of observation is
considered as most appropriate. Say for example, a researcher who is
interested in understanding the behaviour of children who cannot speak,
necessarily, has to depend on thi's method of observation. Many aspects of
our behaviour are so much a part of life that it becomes difficult to
translate it into words. Many a time, a researcher faces resistance from
respondents being studied. Sometimes, people do not cooperate with the
researcher and show their unwillingness to respond to the questions of the
researcher. Although observations cannot always overcome such
resistance, it is relatively the most appropriate method of data collection in
such situations.
The method of observations serves variety of research objectives.
Exploratory objectives are worth mentioning here. A researcher can
explore some aspects of hi s main research question or can gain insight into
the research problem and develop the basis for his hypothesis. It may also
be used to collect supplementary information that would help interpret
findings obtained by other methods.
Type of Observations:
There are several types of observations varying from completely
unstructured to structured, pre -coded, formal procedures to suit the needs
of researchers and the overall objectives of the research problems. One
way of differentiating among various types of observations is to draw
distinction on the basis of degree of structured ness. Accordingly, we get
two observational procedures:
(1) unstructured and (2) structured. The other way of classifications is in
terms of the role played by the researcher. On thi s basis observation
procedures may be classified as (I) participant observation and (2) non -
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71Structured Observations
Structured observations take into consideration a clear and specific
definition of the units to be observed and d ata to be recorded. This is
possible only when the problem is well formulated. However, in
exploratory studies the researcher does not know in advance which
dimension of the problem will be relevant. Structured observations are
mostly used in studies desig ned to describe a problem or to test causal
hypothesis. The use of structured observation procedures presupposes that
the researcher knows what aspects of the problem under study -are relevant
to his research objectives and is in a position, therefore, to p lan the
recording of observations before he starts data collection.
Unstructured Observations:
In a practical situation it is often not possible to plan out the
'observation’ process in advance. Particularly in case of exploratory
studies, the researcher does not have enough clues to structure his
observations, which may call for changes in what he observes. Such
changes are characteristics of unstructured observation. Since the
unstructured observations are flexible it allows for changes in the focus
from time to time if and when reasonable clues warrant such changes.
Participant Observations:
Participant observation involves sharing the life of the group under
study by the researcher. In other words, participant observation is an
attempt to put both the observer and the observed on the same side by
making the observer a member of the group so that he can experience
what they experience and work within their frame of reference. In
particular, the researcher becomes a member of the community being
observed by him.
Non-participant Observations:
On the contrary, non -participant observation is characterised by a
lack of participation by the observer in the life of the group that a
researcher is observing. In other words, in non -participant observations the
observer has detached role and records without any attempt on his part to
participate in the interaction process with the group being observed.
3.Interview:
The interview is a verbal interaction between the researcher and
the respondents. This method has been a widely used method of data
collection. This method involves presentation of verbal questions orally
andcollecting oral verbal responses. Many feel that the best way to find
out why people behave as they do is to question them about their
behaviour directly by interviewing them. In this method, the interviewer
asks questions in a face -to-face contact (genera lly) to the interviewee, the
person who is being interviewed who gives answers (mostly) to these
questions. Interview has been a widely used method of data collection so
far as, information about the social background, opinion, attitudes,
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72Types of Interview:
Interview has been classified in different ways. One way of
classification of interviews is based on their functions, such as diagnostic
interviews often used for clinical purposes. The other way of classification
ofinterviews is the number of persons participating in the interview
process, for example, individual interview or group interviews. Yet
another basis of classifying interviews is the format used for interview, for
example, structured and non -structured. An y one of the bases can be relied
on to classify the various types of interviews just mentioned above. Most
probably, the easiest and most convenient way to classify them is the
degree to which they are structured.
i.The Structured Interviews:
As the name su ggests, structured interviews maintain some control
over the respondents. Nevertheless, considerable flexibility is permitted
in deciding the extent to which interviews should be structured. First and
foremost area, through which an interview is structur ed, is the questions
and its responses. The questions in an interview are regulated to get
appropriate responses. In so far as responses are concerned they are
regulated and controlled by giving. I multiple choices to the interviewee.
To achieve this, firs t the questions have to be in order and focussed to get
reliable and appropriate responses; if isbeneficia1 to ask questions in same
order from one interview to another interview.
ii.The Unstructured Interviews:
In unstructured interviews questions are not o rdered in a particular
way. The I order of questions is not fixed. In other words the order of
questions followed in one interview may not be followed in the next
interview. Even the questions asked are not worded in the same way. In
sum, the interview is free of regulation and control.
iii.Group Interview:
In an interview we call for questioning each individual separately.
Where asin group interviews, we interview more than one individual at a
time. In a group interview as many as eight to ten people may disc uss the
subject matter of an investigation under the direction of an interviewer.
However, such interviews are more satisfactory as a source of hypotheses
or as a way of gathering information about the group, they do not
ordinarily yield systematic informa tion from every individual in the group
on each point covered in a personal interview.
iv.Telephone Interviews:
Telephone interviews are conducted in cases where individuals are
likely to have telephones, but who are scattered in a large geographical
area. T elephone interviews typically combine the advantages and
disadvantages of both mailed questionnaire and personal interviews. Low
cost and rapid completion with relatively high response rates are the major
advantages of telephone interview. It is possible t o conduct large scale
surveys through telephone interviews within a few hours of the occurrence
of a traumatic event in order to illicit immediate reactions. The majormunotes.in

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73reservation about telephone interviewing has -been that those people who
have telephones are not representative of the general population.
v.Questionnaire:
The preceding section discussed the observation and interview
methods of data collection. In this section we discuss the questionnaire as
a method of data collection, the contents and type o f questions followed
by the format and sequence of questions.
vi.Content of Questions:
Questionnaire enlists questions, which translate the research
objectives into specific questions. The question must also encourage the
respondent so that the necessary dat a is obtained. It is to these two ends
that the question becomes the focus around which the questionnaire is
constructed. One of the major issues involved in formulating the question
is its content. The major issues on which questions may be concerned are
facts, opinions, attitudes, respondents' motivation, and their level of
acquaintance with a research problem. By and large, questions can be
classified into two general categories, namely,
(1) factual questions and (2) opinion and attitude questions.
vii.Questions to be Avoided:
Leading Questions:
A question worded in such a manner that it appears to the
respondent that the researcher expects a certain answer, is commonly
known as leading question. A question designed to elicit general opinion
about w ork satisfaction might read, "How do you feel about your work?"
The same question worded in a leading form might read, "Are you
satisfied with your work?" This question makes it easier for respondents to
answer yes than no. In answering yes, they are agree ing with the words of
the question and are not contradicting the researcher.
As far as possible leading questions are to be avoided if one is
looking for objective responses. In some situations, particularly, where
leading questions may serve the research objective, leading questions with
suitable wordings are used with extra care.
Threatening Questions:
Threatening questions refer to behaviours that are illegal or contra -
normative or behaviours that are socially deviant and are not discussed in
public. F or example, questions that inquires about the respondent's
gambling habits, about their drinking habits, child abuse or sexual
behaviours are referred as threatening questions. Often it is necessary to
include such questions in studies, which the responden tm a yf i n d
embarrassing and thus difficult to answer. Though it is suggested to avoid
threatening questions as far as possible, in cases where it is necessary to
include such questions it is advised to use a long introduction to the
question (or may be ind irect question) rather than asking short questions
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74and, to a lesser extent, by letting the respondents pick their own words to
talk about the sensitive issues.
Double -barrelled Qu estions:
When two or more than two questions are included in one question
it is termed as double -barrelled questions.
4.Case Study method:
A case study is an in -depth investigation about a person, group,
situation or occurrence. It involves collection of data from various sources
employing a mix of different methods, whichever appropriate. Case
studies are used in researches where a deep probe and understanding of the
issue is required. This method is used widely in many social science
studies, especially in conducting research on issues relating to “education,
sociology, and community based problems such as poverty,
unemployment, drug addiction, illiteracy”, among others.
Advantages of using case studies are:
They give detailed information.
They prov ide cues for further research.
They allow probing of situations which are difficult to investigate.
Disadvantages of using case studies are :
The results cannot be generalised to a bigger population.
There are chances of researcher's own inclination s to creep in.
The study cannot be replicated.
The process is more time -consuming.
5.Ethnographical study:
Ethnography is the study of societies and cultures in a systematic
way. It observes, records and analyses people belonging to a society in
their n atural ‘environment’ settings or ‘fields’. The data is gathered by
methods aimed to capture their regular activities and social meanings
related to them. The researcher may not get involved in the activities, but
participates directly in the setting, for t he purpose of collecting data. The
information is recorded, being careful to not impose the meaning on the
participants externally .Ethnography is one of the chief methods used for
collection of qualitative data in social sciences. They provide specific an d
in-depth accounts of the customs, traditions, habits, and mutual differences
of different societies and cultures.
The basic objective of employing ethnography method is to obtain
thorough and holistic understanding of people’s actions and opinions,
along with the kind of location they live in, by way of observing and
interviewing in detail. According to Hamersley, “The task (of
ethnographers) is to document the culture, the perspectives and practices,
of the people in the settings. The aim is to ‘get ins ide’ the way each group
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75Ethnography has the following characteristics :
It observes people’s behaviour in ‘ordinary’ or ‘everyday’ settings,
instead of any artificial settings created by the researcher.
Theprincipal method of gathering data is participant -observation. Some
other methods are also used.
Any external influence on people is avoided and their natural activities
are focussed on. The mode of data collection is unstructured to make it
flexible.
A small scale group is studied at a time in one setting.
The data is aimed to describe and analyse the meanings associated with
everyday human actions.
6.Use of oral History:
Oral history is the method of recording, preserving and interpreting
historical information obtained from first -hand from people, from their
past experiences and memories. People are interviewed and their accounts
are documented, which are then preserved as an aural record for future.
The researcher can make use of audio and video tap es, and transcriptions
from interviews. The interview is carried out by the researcher by
spending extended time with the participant, listening to the accounts
through storytelling and narration.
Oral history, though seems to be similar to in -depth inter views, but
the two are different from each other. Interviews, be structured, semi -
structured or unstructured, focus a specified topic and follow an interview
guide. The questions asked to the respondents are similar or different
depending upon the requirem ent. However, oral history does focus on a
particular topic, yet it is far less organised than the interview method.
For instance, if one aims to study the body image issues in women
at workplace, it may be apt to conduct interviews to obtain their opinio ns
about the issue. In this method, they may also be able to explain
qualitatively, how and what they feel about it and related issues. In case
the researcher wants to study body image issues among working women,
as a part of their life altogether, based o n their experiences from childhood
till present, oral history may be the suitable method. This may allow the
respondent to recount personal experiences and stories.
Check your Progress :
1)What is an archives? Explain its types.munotes.in

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765.5 SUMMARY
The module presents a holistic view of the various tools and
techniques employed by researchers for collection of data. Beginning with
a description of primary and secondary data, qualitative and quantitative
data; each method of data collection has been d escribed elaborately. The
different methods that have been explained include interview, focus
groups, questionnaire and schedule, observation, case study,
ethnographies, oral history and projective techniques.
5.6 QUESTIONS
1.Discuss the difficulty whic h researchers face in data collection.
2.Bring out the chief sources of data collection for history.
3.Write short notes on the methods employed in collecting data from
primary sources.
i.Archival research.
ii.Observation
iii.Interview
iv.Questio nnaire
v.Ethnographical study
vi.Use of Oral History.
5.7 REFERENCES
1)Anirudh Deshpande, Films as Historical So urces or Alternative
History, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 39, No. 40 (Oct. 2 -8,
2004), Published by: Economic and Political Week ly.
2)Garraghan G. S., A Guide to Historical Method, New York, Fordham
University Press 1996. 2) Gottstack, L., Understanding History, New
York, Alfred A. Knof 1951.
3)McMillan J. H. and Schumander S. Resea rch in Education : A
Conceptual Introduction Boston MA : Little Brown and Company
1984.
4)Shafer R. J., A Guide to Historical Method, Illions : the Dorsey Press,
1974.
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77Unit -6
CLASSIFICAT ION AND ORGANISATION
OF HISTORY
Unit Structure :
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Information sources: Categories
6.3 Primary Sources
6.4 Secondary Sources
6.5 Tertiary Sources
6.6 Organisation of Data
6.7 Conclusion
6.8 Questions
6.9 References
6.0 OBJECTIVES
1.To understand how Historical information sources can be categorised .
2.To understand specific criteria for categorisation of Historical
information .
3.To understand the process and importance of categorisation .
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Historical information sources are many and varied. Since time
immemorial human beings are generating information by observation,
experimentation, imagination, reasoning, and experiencing through
sensory organs. The information they generated were generally
communicated to othe rs for their own interest and survival. In olden days
when a human being used to spot a wild animal in the vicinity of her/his
habitation, immediately she/he used to inform others so that the animal
could be killed to save their own lives and earn a day’s meal. Even today
this practice may be seen in remote forests of Africa, Amazon basin, etc.
The ancient habit of human beings relating to information still exists and
thus they are still powerful sources of information.
In the long path of human progress, a time came when humans
started recording information by painting or carving on cave walls and
stones. Gradually the media and methods of recording changed. From cave
walls and stones they advanced to clay tablets, papyrus, palm leaves,munotes.in

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78parchment, vellum, paper and finally to electronic media. Also, there was
transition from paintings to pictographic writings to letters and alphabets.
Prior to the invention of printing from movable types in 1450s,
handwritten books were the order of the day. Scribes in many parts of the
world used to copy the books and sell them. Obviously, this particular
process could not generate a huge number of books. With the invention of
printing, production of books increased many fold. This change gave birth
to a variety of document ary sources like books, pamphlets, journals,
newspapers, etc.
Institutions like libraries and universities started emerging more
than two thousand years ago. Even by today’s standard, the library in
Alexandria that flourished from 3rd century BC to 3rd century AD was a
huge library as it contained about four hundred thousand documents. The
library harboured almost the entire knowledge generated by human beings
till that time in the world and served a s a great source of information. It
was more or less like today’s Internet which is an unthinkable, huge
reservoir of information generated from all parts of the world. In brief, this
is the story of the birth of documentary and non -documentary sources of
information. We are all familiar with printed sources like books,
newspapers, magazines, and others. Similarly we have seen hand -written
documents called manuscripts, letters, notes, and electronic sources like
CDs, microfilms, etc. They are non -print sour ces. Some sources are
produced and distributed by publishers. They may be printed, electronic or
micro -documents (i.e. documents in micro -forms). They are usually
priced. These are published sources. Typed sources like a thesis, hand -
written sources like a letter, are unpublished sources.
When we go through the content of a documentary source, we find
that all of them do not contain the same type of information. Some sources
provide totally new information that was not known before. They may
inform about n ew discoveries, new inventions, new ideas, new concepts,
etc. These are called primary sources. Take for example a research
periodical which includes research articles that always report new
findings. Another type of information source is generated by gath ering
information from primary sources. The information gathered from primary
sources is compiled in systematic order and published in the form of a
book, journal, etc. These types of sources are known as secondary sources.
Indian Historical Review is an e xample of secondary sources of
information. Publications pertaining to tertiary sources are sometimes
produced based on secondary sources. A bibliography is a secondary
source. Now, if a bibliography of bibliographies is produced, it will be a
tertiary sou rce.Guides to reference sources are also tertiary sources as
reference sources are secondary sources. Rang Nathan divided documents
in two different broad groups macro documents and micro documents as
well as conventional and no conventional documents. We shall discuss
them at relevant places in this Unit.munotes.in

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796.2 INFORMATION SOURCES: CATEGORIES
From the discussion above we have got a fair idea about various
types of information sources such as documentary and non -documentary,
print and non-print, publishe d and unpublished, macro and micro,
conventional and non-conventional. We have also noted that documentary
sources can be further subdivided as primary, secondary, tertiary
according to content. We shall just enumerate the sources here as they will
be disc ussed in detail in subsequent units of this Block.
a)Documentary Sources:
All sources in the form of documents are documentary sources.
The connotation of the term ‘document’ has undergone sea change in
recent years and now includes books, periodicals, manu scripts, videotapes,
computer files, and databases. A selective list of documentary sources is
given below:
•Books
Treatises
Monographs
Textbooks
Reference Books
•Manuscripts
•Periodicals
•Theses
•Conference Documents
•Souvenirs
•Articles (popular, technical, research)
•Diaries
•Letters
•Office Files
•CD-ROM Recordings
•Video Recordings
•Databases
•Computer Files
•Laboratory Notebooks
b)Non-documentary Sources:
We have three types of non -documentary sources of infor mation, i.e.
humans, organisations, and World Wide Web.
Humans
• Information Professionals
• Consultantsmunotes.in

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80• Experts
• Resource Persons
• Common Men, etc.
Organisations:
• International Agencies
• Government Ministries and Departments
• Research and Development Organisations
• Academic Institutions
• Societies
• Publishing Houses
• Press
• Broadcasting Houses
• Libraries and Information
Centres
• Museums
• Archives
• Exhibitions
• Database Vendors
• Information Analysis Centres
• Referral Centres, et c.
i)Print Sources:
All sources that are in print form are print sources. Some of the
examples offprint sources are given below:
• Books
• Periodicals
• Patents
• Standards
• Conference Documents
• Souvenirs
• Reports (technical, administrative, trip)
•Articles (popular, technical, research)
ii) Non -print Sources
Documentary sources that are not printed are all non -print sources,
such as the following:
• Manuscripts(typed or hand -written)
• Theses
• Project Reports (typed)
•D i a r i e s
•L e t t e r s
•O f f i c e Files
• Laboratory Notebooks
• Microforms
• CD Recordings
• Video Recordingsmunotes.in

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81• Databases
• Computer Files
•E-publications
• Humans
• Organisations
• World Wide Web, etc.
ii)Published Sources:
These sources are documentary sources, both printed and non-
printed. They are brought out by publishers in large number of copies,
usually priced ands old. Some of the examples are as follows:
• Books
• Periodicals
• Patents
• Standards
• Conference Documents
• Souvenirs
• Festschriften
• CD Recordings
• Video Recordings
• Databases, etc.
iii)Unpublished Sources:
These documentary sources are neither published nor produced in large
number of copies, and usually are not for sale. Unpublished sources, at
times, can turn into published sources as well. For example, l etters written
byRabindranath Tagore have been published in book form by Visva
Bharati at a later date. Some of the examples of unpublished sources are
given below:
• Manuscripts (typed or handwritten)
• Theses
• Project Reports (typed)
•D i a r i e s
•L e t t e rs
•O f f i c eF i l e s
• Laboratory Notebooks
• Memoranda
• Medical Records, etc.
Check your Progress :
1)What are the documentary and non -documentary sources.munotes.in

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826.3PRIMARY SOURCES
A source will be considered as a primary source in case it carries
newly generated information, original work of research, or new
interpretation of already known facts. The document is the first and often
the only published record of original research. The information contained
in primary sources is generally scattered and unorganised.
Monographs are included here as primary sources. Monographs
are basically long research articles or a short book on a specific theme. It
is to be remembered that only resea rch monographs are primary sources
and the rest are secondary sources.
Collection of papers Sometimes articles are collected on a
particular topic, or contributed by a particular person and brought out in
the form of a book. If the articles belong to primary sources, the anthology
will also be a primary source. Under this heading both collected works and
festschriften can be accommodated.
Textbooks and manuals have been considered as primary sources
by some historians, which others have considered as secondary or tertiary
sources.
Serials, journals and magazines all figure in the list. Journals and
magazines being serials there was no need to mention all the three. It is
also a fact that all serials are not primary sources.
Newspapers are excluded f rom others’ list since they do not
pertain to scientific and technical literature. It is included here as this
categorisation covers the entire gamut of literature. Newspapers contain
primary information and its placement here is well justified.
Technical catalogues are generally manufacturers’ catalogues and
form trade literature. Similarly information leaflets supplied along with
the products, processes, etc. by manufacturers also form trade literature.
They are primary sources. However, information leaf lets based on primary
literature are secondary sources.
An invitation card is an information card . Even a letter contained
in a postcard is an information card. Information cards exist in various
fields. Even you may receive a card from a journal editor i nforming that
your article has -been accepted for publication is also an example under
this category.
Manuscripts and galleys –A manuscript may be a handwritten book or
any other document or a typed article or the like that has been sent for
publication. The galley is a printer’s proof. All these are original
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83Data files are computerised files containing data. If the data belongs to
primary sources, then the data files will be primary sources.
Check your Progress :
1)Describe the nature of sources of History.
6.4 SECONDARY SOURCES
A source which is more or less completely dependent on primary
sources for its existence is a secondary source. Information in secondary
sources is organised and arranged according to a definite plan. Indexing
and abstracting periodicals are one of the examples of secondary sources.
Indexing periodical, indexes the contents of periodicals or some other type
ofpublications usually on regular basis, whereas abstract ing periodical
along with the contents also gives the abstract. The abstract can be
indicative or informative. Indexing and abstracting periodicals may be
either general in nature or on a specific theme. In any abstracting and
indexing periodical you will notice that articles of the same topic have all
been put together, and of related topics close by. They are no more
scattered. Even if the articles are indifferent languages you will find the
abstracts in the same language. In a way it is overcoming the la nguage
barrier. As the bibliographical details of the primary sources are usually
given in the secondary sources, these sources act as a key to primary
sources. In a review article, also a secondary source, the entire information
on a particular topic for a certain period is first collected, then digested
and finally a report is written wherein the entire matter is organised
coherently. Here the entire phenomenon of scattering is done away with
and the whole matter gets well -organised. Generally most refere nce books
also draw materials from primary sources.
Check your Progress :
1)Write a note on secondary sources.
6.5 TERTIARY SOURCES
A source that is entirely dependent on secondary sources or
primary and secondary sources for its existence is a tertiary source.munotes.in

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84Sources like ‘guides to reference sources’ and ‘bibliography of
bibliographies’ are examples of tertiary sources. These sources act as key
to primary sources as well as secondary sources. Some authors have
considered directories, year books, etc. also as tertiary sources as they help
the searcher in using primary and secondary sources. There are sources,
like directory of on -going research projects, which are placed under
tertiary sources.
Macro and Micro Sources:
Documents embodying macro thoughts such as books are macro
documents, and those embodying micro thoughts such as journal articles
are micro documents. It is to be noted that documents in microforms are
not always micro documents since a microfilm can harbour a book a
macro do cument, or a journal article a micro document.
Conventional and Non -conventional Sources:
Documents such as books printed on paper as conventional
sources, and microfilm, reprograph, etc. as non -conventional sources.
Usefulness of categorisation:
i) To j udge the soundness of a collection, categorisation of documents
renders positive help. Take for example the periodical collection of are
search library. If the library contains more primary periodicals compared
to secondary, then the collection will be con sidered balanced and more
helpful for research. In any scientific library wherever there is dominance
of primary documents, it is surely the sign of a good collection.
ii) Using categorisation it is possible to determine to what extent a
particular field i s research -oriented. Take the current periodicals of a
particular field. Categorise them in primary and secondary sources, and
then find out the percentage of periodicals in each category. The
percentage will indicate to what extent the field is research -oriented. If in
a field more than 50% periodicals are primary, then the field is surely
research -dominated.
Check your Progress :
1)Define tertiary sources.
6.6 ORGANISATION OF DATA
Strong historical writing can be traced in part to effective note
taking. Historians have to select from a wide array of different possible
sources ranging from secondary literature to a variety of archival
collections when creating a narrative. And unlike a finalized narrative,munotes.in

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85primary sources in the archives rare ly have a clear beginning, middle, and
end. Part of the goal in taking notes is to effectively and clearly organize
primary source documents for later use in constructing a historical
narrative. Traditionally, historians organized their notes around a card
system. Many historians used note cards to record valuable pieces of
information gained from secondary readings or primary source materials.
A quotation from a letter, for instance, could be written on the front, with
citation information recorded on the back of the card. A historian could
then organize the notes in any way he or she saw fit, arranging and
rearranging the ideas gleaned from their sources in a different order and
eventually creating an outline for a narrative. The quotations or ideas from
each card could then be copied into a manuscript draft as it was created.
Notes might include a brief transcription of the evidence and brief
description of its significance to the overall argument or historical
question. This system had several advantages. Note cards could be
physically arranged and rearranged based on the project and your findings.
Unlike writing in a notebook, a single note or small group of notes could
easily be transferred from one point to another if doing so made sense.
Note cards als o helped historians think visually and were, in some sense, a
physical manifestation of the historian’s thoughts.
They also likely contributed to the honing of the mental recall
ability of generations of historians. Note cards, however, also possessed
numerous disadvantages. They could easily be lost or misplaced. They
lacked any sort of search function unless typed into a cumbersome
database. They were time -consuming to create. Finally, not all notes can
be fitted onto a small card. New note -taking system s, such as Zotero and
Endnote, attempt to mimicolder forms of note taking, while also making
the notes both searchable and more compatible with the web (imagine
writing down lengthy URLs on note cards!). However, a clear note taking
system does not require a new piece of software.
Above that will be noted the folder and box numbers containing
the primary source. While such a method can be useful, remember also to
save a copy of these notes in the more permanent PDF format at the end of
your visit. Later o n, when you start to move these notes around as you
construct a narrative, it can be easy to fail to transfer citation information
ifit is only listed at the top of a section of notes. Clearly define the
contents of each source and note what words are ori ginal to the source,
and what words are your own. One needs to simply use quotation marks to
highlight the original words, and bullet points with no quotation marks to
indicate the significance of the document and where it fit into your broader
claims.
Notes for your project can be based on themes, keywords, or
individuals. Your own notes can be based on the archival collections
themselves. You can try to make your own collections of notes mirror the
archival system, which, for you, can result in easy cita tions and easy
recall. You can keep your notes for manuscripts where you organize andmunotes.in

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86work through various ideas regarding your narrative ina separate
document. When taking notes on your laptop, you can note at the top of
each document the exact citat ion for the particular archival collection.
Once you have created this document, you can begin to read the archival
material. Selecting which documents to transcribe or photographs to take
is a skill you can constantly work upon and get better at. As it mi ght on
occasion be difficult for you to return to some archives, you need to err on
the side of gathering even material that might seems only marginally
relevant to your work both in terms of gathering more archival materials
and making bibliographic data as comprehensive as possible. Many
historians recommend taking amore limited number of notes, as this will
prevents you from becoming bogged down in your own materials later on.
You need to ask yourself how each document fits into your existing
narrative arc or how it might change the manner in which you tell your
basic story. Does it add detail, depth, or texture to the existing narrative?
Is this collection of documents replicated somewhere else, or is it unique
to this archive? If the document represent s something valuable for once
research, one needs transcribe it or photograph it, and record once actions
that person have taken (noting, for example, where digital images of
archival materials have been stored on once computer).
When transcribing a document, you should ask yourself if the
notes you have taken will make sense several weeks or months later, when
you are mentally and physically removed from the collection. To ensure
that your notes will continue to make sense, one ca n sometimes include an
introductory sentence or two above the document recording your notes.
The introductory sentence is not marked with quotation marks, so one
knows the sentences are in your own language. Generally, this short
introductory statement sim plysummarizes your thoughts on how this
collection might relate to the overall project. These thoughts might be
based partially on clues provided by the finding aid or a conversation with
an archivist. Later on, when transcribing a document froma collecti on, a
letter might be introduced with a brief sentence or two explaining that the
previous set of letters revolved around a philosophical argument that this
letter continued to address. You might suspect that a particular individual
was the author of an an onymous memorandum, or speculate fromother
evidence that an undated document was created at a specific time. Your
introductory notes to that document could simply remind you of your
initial suspicion. If you are lucky, collections of documents will reveal to
you a basic story that you are hoping to tell in your narrative. Remind
yourself throughout your notes of the pieces of a story as it comes
together.
a)Organizing Digital Files:
A lengthy day in the archives can result in dozens or even
hundreds of photo graphs or scans, in addition to transcribed notes. If you
are taking or transferring notes to your computer, there is the potential to
lose valuable information or misplace the correct citation for the
documents. How do you keep all of those files organize d? Just as withmunotes.in

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87basic note -taking systems, researchers will have to develop a system for
organizing files based on their own research projects and habits. One
needs to break digital files into two basic components. When you arrive
at a new archive, you n eed to create a new electronic folder labelled with
the name of the archive. If you are, for example, looking at three separate
collections on the day that you visit a new archive, within the folder
created for the large archive, you need to create three s eparate folders for
each particular collection you are planning to explore. Within the
collection folders, you need to start a new document in a word processing
program to record the photographs you have taken or to transcribe and
describe written document s. When photographing, you need to take
pictures of the outside labels of boxes, folder labels, and the documents
themselves. Then, on the master document for the collection you need to
record what photographs have been taken and assign a citation to
particular documents. The advantage of this system is that you can look
back at your notes several weeks or months later and be reminded of
exactly where a collection of transcribed documents or photographs was
originally found and provide a complete citation f or the collection. The
disadvantage, however, is that you need to recall what collection a
document was in to track it down (applications such as Google Desktop
and Windows Search can help streamline this process). While this system
works well for some, ot hers may find it confusing if they are working with
numerous collections with overlapping names and keywords. Each
historian should develop a unique system based around their strengths for
memory and recall as well as one geared to their particular kinds o f
archival materials.
b)Organizing Physical Files :
As a historical researcher, you will likely acquire a number of
photocopies of original archival documents as well as a collection of
permission forms and paperwork from archives. As you begin your work
inthe archives, consider how best to store these types of files. Will they go
in your filing cabinet? Will you choose to digitize them? Few decades ago
people used to make a large number of photocopies of original
documents. Over the past few years, histo rians have started transitioning
away from photocopies toward digital photographs, scans, and
transcriptions stored in a computer. Nevertheless, some paper documents
are simply unavoidable. As you begin your work, consider how these
types of documents will be stored alongside your growing personal
archive. If you are making a large number of photocopies, however, you
should consider creating an organizational system that is more specific to
your subject chronologically or thematically, for instance and meet s the
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88Check your Progress :
1)Explain the importance of organisation of data.
6.7SUMMARY
Records and Information Management is a tool used by managers
todetermine which records to retain, and for how long, and which records
todiscard. It also includes tools to improve access to current records such
asdocument management systems, standardized file plans, indexing, etc.
Thediscipline of Records and Inform ation Management applies tests and
standards to an organization's records, determining their value both to the
group and to other potential users. Records managers survey and
categorize records by type and function. They evaluate each category to
schedule records for retention and disposal. Some records are permanently
useful, either to the organization itself or to other interested parties. We
say these records have permanent or archival value. If properly retained,
organized, and preserved, these non current records become the
organization’s archives. They reflect the values, activities, and goals of the
organization. This body of records tells the story of the organization’s
past, and hence becomes the basis for under standing its history.
6.8 QUESTIONS
1.Bring out the various aspects of classification of Historical sources.
2.Discuss the process of organisation of sources.
3.Write a short on various primary sources.
4.Write a short note on various secondary sources.
6.9 REFERENCES
1)Garraghan G. S., A Guide to Historical Method , New York, Fordham
University Press 1996.
2)Gottstack, L., Understanding History, New York, Alfred A. Knof
1951.
3) McMillan J. H. and Schumander S. Research in Education : A
Conceptual Introduction Boston M A : Little Brown and Company
1984.
4)Shafer R. J., A Guide to Historical Method, Illions : the Dorsey Press,
1974.
munotes.in

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89Module -III
Unit -7
AUTHENTICITY & CREDIBILITY OF
SOURCES
Unit structure :
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Puzzles of Past
7.3 Socio -political & religious influences on history writing
7.4 Sources of History
7.5 Authenticity of Sources
7.6 Authenticity & Credibility of Sources
7.7 Summary
7.8 Questions
7.9 Additional Readings
7.0 OBJECTIVES
After the study in the unit the students will be able to :
1)Comprehend the meaning and features of authenticity.
2)Explain the auth enticity and credibility of sources.
3)Understand both authenticity and credibility in the Historical research.
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Although the collection and classification of sources is very
difficult task .Thecollected data must be reliable. It h eads a cautions and
special approach to source material. History needs is facts in their pure
and unblemished forms and consistency in narrative.
History deals with events in the past. It is, therefore the duty of the
researcher to show the events in th eir original forms. In this unit we will
study the ‘Authenticity’ of sources and examine the fallacies, malpractice
and falsification of documents. We will also examine few remedial
measures in order to establish authenticity of sour ces.
7.2 PUZZLES OF P AST :
To write history a leap of imagination is required. To write history
a degree of creativity, critical power of selection & analysis are essential
aspects of a historian. Since the past is not in front of us therefore, amunotes.in

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90fertile imagination reasoning &a n a l y s i sa r et h e keys which will unlock
the past cramped material. The historians from coherent shapes, present
in an interesting ways to the readers. History writing is sharply different
from fiction, as it is not only imagination, it is a hard effort of a history
writer to present the past in a perfect manner therefore his word
depends upon the various available sources from which he develops his
hypothesis then the tedious work of data collection which to be arranged
for some logical conclusions. A hi storian has to follow certain
methodological frame work, within given parameters, historical
explanations & interpretations written in a narrative form.
7.3 SOCIO -POLITICAL & RELIGIOUS INFLUENCES
ON HISTORY WRITING :
History writing is a complex phenomena , it surely many a times
comes under the socio political & religious influence. Early history was
the part of Theology. The great historian Herodotos restricted his writings
of history with the chronological order of ruling dynasties, battles and wars
victories and defeats. with the passage of time many changes came in
the history writing process. With the 18th century enlightenment
recognizably ‘modern, scientific’ versions of recounting the past began
to appear, as in Montesquieu’s “Spirit of Laws” which sought to
identify & explain in secular terms regularities & variations in types of
government. In the writings of a great German philosopher Hegel,
fundamentally religious frame work was present, the heritage of Judeo -
Christian tradition, with its notio no ft h eo r i g i n a lf a l l&p r o g r e s s i v e
struggle towards redemption in the “Final Day of Judgement” can be
clearly discerned in Hegal’s key notion of historical stages in terms of
world sprit realizing itself. Many of the great historical works of the latter
18th & 19th centuries continued to be marked by combination of moral
engagement and literary endeavor, many historical analysis were also
prompted by serious political engagement with the key issue of their time
i.e American War of Independence and the Fre nch Revolution
(Tocqueville, Bruke).
Changes in History Writing :
With the new faith in positivist conceptions of science history
was established as a University subject, worthy of study in its own right
along side with other subjects. History has often b eendefined “work of
judging the past” in order to teach the present world for the use of it
knowledge in future. Leopold Ranke promoting a notion of
“investigating the past as it actually was”. Karl Marx more radical
began as he saw it -to unlock Bourgeo is notion of history Marx tried to
show that history was at heart of record, and not some mystical “ world
spirit realizing itself but rather a collective struggle of real people, thusmunotes.in

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91Marx simply turned from metaphysics to class struggle. This Marxist
approach of history where economic exploitation, class struggle problems
of labourers was the prime focus of the historians. In the form of Marxism -
Leninism, Marx’s approach was institutionalized in the historical
academies of 20th century communist states This neo -Marxism although
with dramatic variations and much internal factionalism.
Max Weber came out with methodologically self aware approach
to problems of world history. He sought to combine the systematic pursuit
of valid historical generalizations w ith an emphasis on the need for an
interpretive understanding of the internal meaning of human behavior,
both in the sense of individual motives for action and in the wider sense
of collective belief system which could not be reduced as in Marx’s work
in the corse of 20th century, nationally defined history was viewed in the
new ways by those coming from post colonial perspectives. differences
over subject area were cross -cut by theoretical and methodological debates.
History written with prejudice was chal lenged and also traditional
historical narratives written with motives, actions contingencies,
combination of circumstances were challenged by those who wanted more
analytical approach to history. The systematic hypothesis, rational
generalization and logi cal conclusions. Thus over course of past two
centuries, a wide diversity of approaches to history have been developed
Differences in historical approach have also been linked to socio -
political environment, narratives of high politics have often been l inked to
conservatism. Social history for instance, labour history, feminist history
have been associated with self styled left wing or radical historians.
Marxist historiographical approaches (communist regimes) sustained
but the changes occurred after th e cold war 1989 -90 the collapse of
communist regimes of Eastern Europe rejected the Marxist approach, the
ideas of dictatorship have also been discredited. The changes of restructuring
of research in historiography began.
Despite of major differences am ong both post modernist historical
narrative should be transparent through which one can glimpse at least
some elements of the real past. Historians now a days think that history
should be
I) A science of answering of quarries
ii)Concerned with human beings a nd their actions
iii)Interpretation of evidence.
But tis is not the way in which always thought of history says a
historian R. G. Collingwood. History writ ten quite often difficult due to
lack of any past record, for instance the ancient Sumerians left nothin g
behind them which is to be label led as history, like wise many civilizations
have been raised or disappeared without leaving any concrete things but
even if some concrete event / evidence left over is difficult to analyze for
example the American War of Independence of 1775 have 13 different
schools of thought. Similarly the French Revolution of 1789, have beenmunotes.in

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92written from various angles for some it was rotten administration of
France which brought the Revolution where as some think that it was
due to so cio-economic conditions there was out break of the revolution.
Thus it is a difficult task for a historian to write -offthe past. A researcher for
his narratives seeks help from various accounts what it is called as sources
inhistory
Check your Progres s:
1)Assess the socio -political and religious influence on history writing.
7.4SOURCES OF HISTORY :
There are various sources of history from which a researcher
developes his narratives but broadly speaking sources are divided into two
categ ories viz., primary & secondary sources. Primary sources may include
diaries, letters, interviews, oral history, news paper articles government
document, Folk literature, songs etc. The collection and analysis of primary
sources is central to historic rese arch
Secondary source s are books, published articles ,m a g a z i n e s ,
journals, bibliographies for the further research or articulations
Historical traces are all around us, we inhabit a world full of signs of
the past survivals. Wehave been born into world which previously we lived
in. we grow up with degrees of awareness of different aspects of the past.
Every human society inhabits landscapes of memory for example a
person born and brought up in the city like Mumbai will always come
across the gothic struc tures like Victoria Terminus (C.S.T) Railway
station, Fort area Buildings which simply indicate the colonial rule.
Similarly medieval architecture in Delhi like Ref=d Fort etc. gives idea of
Mogul rule therefore, the physical representation of the past act ivities are
surrounded how ever , jumbled and lacking in organisation.
The primary sources in history are many a times eye witness
account created by a participant an event in history. Letters, diaries,
speeches, publications, some important newspaper (supporting the
research work) therefore, it is a task of a researcher to pick up the important
element which supports his preposition how much the source material is
valuable to him and how it will be utilized must be clear to a researcher .
For centuries a primary purpose of public historic reconstruction has
been emotive, to elicit a sense of sympathy with high ideals, former heros,
glorious past a common set of goals for the writers. Creation of variousmunotes.in

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93stories, statues of heros and cultural icons painting s of great battles, war
memorials showing the past in a particular way. Practically in many
countries of the world war memorials, squares, town halls dedicated to
soldiers have been created. Many a times historical representation
designed almost entirely f or the purpose of exhibition and entertainment
like quasi historical films Benhur, Ten Commandments, Gandhi & films on
world wars. Holocaust representation in Spielberg’s Schindler’s list having
extraordinary capacity to evoke the past there are many diffe rent national
and sub -structural modes of representing selected aspect of the past,
which are constantly contesting and changing.
While having a glance of museums, buildings memorials, forts
etc. we can draw some inferences of the past but to understand in a better
way minute details are to be added in order to make the history in proper
context. the academic historians think hard about the ways in which
they present their work as they do the research evaluation of the
evidence, the relationship of their findings and relevant literature.
The history writers who go through the process of authentic and
rational writings uses the sources extensively to prove their research work
a valuable one. Let us take a simple fact as historian often deals with it in
the year 49 BC Julius Ceaser crossed the Rubicon river near southern gaul
(near modern city of Italy) a familiar fact known to all obviously of
some importance. But is this fact a simple as it sounds? When we say Julius
Ceaser crossed the river we do not mea n that he crossed it alone, but with
his army, which involved many acts, thoughts and actions, that is to say a
thousand lesser facts went to make up the one simple fact that Ceaser
crossed the Rubicon river . If a history writer gathers all the facts to t his
small event a book of 500 pages will come to shape. Therefore minute
observations of any event in history gives outstanding results.
Check your Progress :
1)Explain the sources of History.
7.5AUTHENTICITY OF SOURCES
Historical sources c overs many things subject to authentication there
are many documents artifacts archaeological sites oral transmissions stone
inscriptions, paintings, photographs, folk songs, stories and so on. The
authentic sources at their most basic level supports the h istory writing the
historical sites like Mohan Jo Daro, Ajanta Caves which surely gives the idea
of past. Historians with their abilities with reasoning and analysis arrives on
certain conclusions. The secondary sources are also to be authenticated for
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94Civilization or of Mauryan age is no doubt a primary source but the
drawings done on it during 1960 -70 would be a secondary surce.
Similarly the visit of Fahean or Huntsang during the ancient ti mes may
be a primary source but when their travelogue published some where in
19th century will be a secondary source for a research scholar
similarly Babur Namah written during the medieval age is a primary
source but the commentaries and the books writte nb yt h es c h o l a r s
is sure a secondary source Sometimes a small source with authentic
knowledge gives huge information. if we look at the temples of ancient
India specialy in the southern part of the country which speaks volumes
i.e.the advanced geometrica lk n o w l e d g e ,m e a s u r e m e n t s ,b e a u t i f u la r t
and architecture simply gives the idea about the superb knowledge of
ancient Indians in architecture. many a time the architecture also gives
knowledge of the ruling elite of the time and their patronage for art and
architecture. The book writen during ancient times viz. Arthashastra by
Chanakya gives socio economic life of the people during the Mauryan
period.
Ancient sources -The relics, scriptures, carvings, pottery, coins,
temples, artifacts, weapons, autobio graphies, travelogue etc. (material
source) are considered reliable form of evidence. but if we go a step
further during the Rig Vedic age the vedic text or hymns were preserved
byreciting it from generation to generation. this is surely an oral
source of history. Similarly Powadas legendary stories, poems are
examples of oral source of history which is to be accounted far. The
another source to be considered as authentic is inscriptions which provide
valuable historical facts. the study of inscription is called epigraphy. the
study of the writings on ancient inscriptions is called palaeography. Some
inscriptions convey monarchical orders regarding administrative, religious
and major decisions which are called royal proclamations and
commandments. Others ar e the records of the followers of major religion
these followers convey their devotion on temple walls, pillars, stupas &
monasteries, but these are written by court poets (only praised the kings)
however these rocks pillars inscriptions contain most valua blehistorical
data. Political and religious matters are also gathered from such sources.
For a study of Indus Valley Civilization or Harappan culture, archaeology
is regarded as chief authentic source of information.
MEDIEVAL SOURCES
The medieval sources are archaeological remains , buildings, forts,
caves, temples etc. which are in good condition and important source of
medieval history, these remains provide lot of help to a researcher for eg.
the fort at Daulatabad by Yadavas rulers of Deovgiri the for tremainedmunotes.in

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95unconquered because of its design, the line of defense and the military
might of the kings the fort was built by king Bhillam, the fort made his
name immortal in history. Apart from forts buildings etc. lots of writen
doccuments, correspondence, official records (preserved in state archives
and libraries) which surely proved to be helpful to a researcher working
onmedieval history.
MODERN SOURCES
Modern sources in history are ample viz. written document, films,
doccumentries, photographs, speec hes war films etc. these contemporary
records mostly authenticated and preserved.
7.6AUTHENTICITY & CREDIBILITY OF SOURCES
Authentic source is a term used to refer “ to a set of data held by
ab o d yt h a th a sb e e n appointed by a legal act to manage these data which
are unauthoritative in a particular are of competence, the data must concern
natural person or legal entities or legal facts”. The adjective authentic
describes something that is real or genuine and not counterfeit. In
addition to describing som ething real and reliable based on fact. Some
sources may be considered more reliable than others but many a times
source is biased in some way or other because of this, historians read
skeptically and cross -check the sources against other evidence. a
resea rcher tries to seek someone with first hand knowledge of an event
and naturally want to corroborate the contents of the document, working
with the information from other sources that have been proven legitimate.
some time non -textual source like photogra ph information of group of
people provides more information that traditional archival cannot but that
does not mean that textual source is less important, because for number of
informations or events of the world we rely on encyclopedias.
Government paper s, diaries are often considered the most reliable
documents the main value of these sources is that people producing them
know that they can say or write what they like honestly without concern for
the view of others. How authentication of source is checke d:
What type of source is this ?
Incase of official report the writing seal etc. is to be checked
Historical account and other supporting facts to be checked
A fictional reconstruction or analysis of news paper reports
We must also ask number of signific ant questions
a) Who produced it?
b) Where were they?
c) In what condition?
d) Why did they produce this text or object & for what reason.
There is criteria for determining wether the source is reliable or not
1.Accuracy : the information gathered by a researcher again st the
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96of the content. One can also double check the information a source that a
researcher already know its trust worthy.
2.Authority : one must make sure that the source is written by a reliable
author and / or institution if one is using a web page, than can usually
identify the owner / publisher by url link or check for copy right
statement. make sure the author has proper credentials on the subject
matter.
3.Coverage : A researcher will also want to examine of the content of
source and how to fit in the research information one needs. after
identifying that it is relevant for the topic and valuable in subject
matter, one must also make sure that It provides enough information.
Histo rians work is based on an authentic sources rather than
imaginary fiction. for example Platonic Love may be a good metaphor for
a poet and a novelist but not for the historian. historian must also reject the
perceptions prevailed for example short men are cunning, people with cat
like eyes are shrewd these statements seem to be good in novels but not in
historical documents. Credibility or trust worthiness is surety that the
presented thing or a document is true and real. Therefore it is said the
records pr eserved in archives, libraries churches may not be true unless
those are verified by a historian or a researcher.
Therefore, to say what is credible in fiction may not be credible in
historic writings. Credibility of sources comes out with the content of
evidence in written form or relics of the past. the documents of the past are
surely subject to verification checks and counter checks supported by
reasoning. the researcher has to abandon unwanted part of lengthy
documents or official records and takes ou t the related information for his /
her research. The documents / records quite often torn smudged , eligible
specially manuscripts like Government orders, deeds, sanads,
correspondence hence a researcher should take at most care to handel
these documents.
According to Vico generally there are five errors (to be avoided) in
history writing :
1)Prejudice & Exaggeration .
2)Nation’s Complex presenting the past in glorious manner
3)Prefixing concept of past
4)Boasting
5) Difficulties in analyzing old documents.
Chec k your Progress :
1)Analyse the importance of authenticity and credibility in historical
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977.7SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed about methods of history writing
and also explained the authenticity of sources for historical re search.
Authenticity and credibility of sources comes out with the content of
evidence in written form or relics or the past. The researcher has to
abandon unwanted part of lengthy documents or proxy documents with
checking their authenticity and credibili ty. Authenticity and credibility has
played very crucial role for historical research. Due to this history writing
and collection of authetic document will be meaningful and useful.
Authenticity and credibility is the heart of historical research.
7.8QUESTIONS
1)Examine the authenticity of historical sources.
2)Write a detailed note on the credibility of historical sources.
7.9 ADDITIONAL READINGS
1)G. J. Garraghan, A guide to Historical Research, Fordhan University
Press, New York, 1946.
2)K.N. Chitnis, Research Methodology in History, Atlantic Publishers,
New Delhi, 2006.
3)Sreedharan E, A manual of Historical Research Methodology, centre
for South Indian Studies, Kerala, 2007.
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97Unit -8
HEURISTIC
Unit structure :
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction: Heuristic
8.2. Define Heuristic
8.3 Pólya’s Heuristic: The Model
8.4 Heuristic in Indian Context
8.5 Historical Heuristics
8.6 Analysis andsynthesis
8.7 Verification procedure
8.8 Summary
8.9 Questions
8.10 Additional Readings
8.0OBJECTIVES
After completion of this Unit, students will be able to:
Explain the meaning of Heuristic .
Understand the Historical Heuristic .
Grasp the analysis andsynthesis method of heuristic.
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Selection of a subject, preparation of a bibliography and the
development of an outline together with the realisation of necessary
requisites for research entitle scholar to take up the main tasks of research.
The term used is very significant, for the fir st task of research is not
merely to find fresh material but also to subject it to close scrutiny. It is
analytical because the whole document is not examined en -masse, but it’s
split up into its elemental parts, to its single Idea and then its validity is
tested.
Analytical operation has been divided into two branches namely
external criticism and internal criticism. External criticism is called
Heuristic which literally means inciting to find out or helping or guiding in
discovery. It is also called lowe r criticism as opposed to higher criticism.
Higher criticism is internal criticism otherwise known as hermeneutics or
interpretative criticism. Hermeneutics is the science or art of interpretation
which was special used for the scriptures the main job of t hese two types
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98even occurrences and happenings as presented in the records may or may
not be confirmed to reality, for the might have been distorted twisted or
may be represented. Their true picture will be revealed only when their
masks are lifted in order to find out the truth methodology uses two
different apprentices heuristic and hermeneutics.
8.2DEFINING HEURISTIC
Nowadays the main usages of the word ‘Heuristic’ is mostly in
adjective in the sense of “guiding discovery” or “improving problem
solving.” There might also be a silently negative meaning attached to it of
a less than a perfect method or lack of solution guarantee. The modern
picture of a search of solution, whic h might be intelligently directed but
still has its inherent uncertainly, leads to its origin an ancient Greece here
the verb “Heuriskein” means to find. In the history of science we find
attempt to formulate methods for finding proofs and for arriving new
discoveries. They belong to what sometimes called the art of discoveries
or later a heuristic.
Heuristics, a Greek word meaning aiding or guiding discovery or
external criticism is used to find out the authenticity of the document.
Before examining the c ontent of the documents, we have to make our
slaves quite sure that the document itself, which has fallen into our hands,
is a genuine one. Our operation starts with integrations. Is it what I am told
it is? These are the questions the historian should ask himself, and find
answers. He has to repeat this questions every time he finds new trace, a
new piece of information or new document to answer this question
systematically is to settle the matter of authenticity. This process is called
external criticism where the job is preparatory to the main function of
higher criticism. Heuristics checks the credentials just as a newly
appointed ambassador has first to present his credentials and establish his
bonafide appointment. Likewise, a historian makes sure that a counterfeit
spurious or fake document has not fallen into his hands. The necessity to
screen the record a rises over to the nature of historical records: some of
them are beneficial in nature like a government grant of land to an
individual or family an d institution or a temple.
In the general creativity literature, there appears to be little
distinction made between the terms problem solving technique, problem
solving strategy, and heuristic. For example, Halpern (2003) defined
heuristic to be an overa ll, rule -of-thumb strategy, technique, or process
that is used to solve problems and to make decisions. That may seem
broad, but heuristic is actually far more than this. To be sure, heuristic is a
process or a method “serving to discover” but it also refe rs to the study of
the methods and rules of discovery and invention and creative problem
solving. “Heuristic aims at generality, at the study of procedures which are
independent of the subject matter and apply to all sorts of problems”.
Furthermore, for Pó lya at least, heuristic is a pedagogical model, that is, it
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99Check your Progress :
1)Define the Heuristic.
8.3 PÓLYA’S HEURISTIC: THE MODEL
Pólya György was mathematician in Hennery. Throughout his
writings, when presenting his heuristic, Pólya paid homage to Pappus
(circa 300AD), whose concept of usually glossed as the art of solving
problems. The practical roots of Pólya’s heuristic and pedagogical
approach were apparently developed during the 1910s, and were already
quite evident in Pólya (1919), his first writings on problem solving and
pedagogy, and in Pólya and Szeg ő(1925).
Pólya’s heuristic is a model of human problem solving; it is a
model for underst anding creative expression of invention and discovery; it
is a model of active teaching. Many interpretations of Pólya’s heuristic
include only four stages of problem solving. Unlike other problem solving
models that describe a handful of how -to steps or s tages of problem
solving, to be learned mnemonically and to be applied systematically and
independently by the student, Pólya’s model provides far more: the
teacher has an important and active role in the learning and teaching
process.
Pólya’s heuristic c omprises three levels or layers, from abstract to
general guidance to descriptive application, outlining the relationship
between the teacher and the student. First, it is framed by four “phases” of
invention and discovery, or, if you will, creative proble m solving:
Understanding the problem devising a plan carrying out the plan looking
back.
Check your Progress :
1)Describe Polya’s heuristic model.
8.4 HEURISTIC IN INDIAN CONTEXT
In Indian history we have numerous instances not nearly of literary
but also of epigraphically records which have all been tampered with. The
attempt to find out the genuineness or otherwise records has become a
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100Ganga Dynasty of Karnataka were all found to be spurious. When human
nature is such that despite the strict control of the government counterfeit
currency is not unheard of with document which were very old, when
advantages to be drawn by tampering with them there are numerous, when
thepossibility of detections was merge and when forgery was easy, there
must have been a widespread tendency to tamper with historical records.
Historical records are tampered with not only for some material
advantage but also for variety of other reasons. P ride ,vanity sympathy,
antipathy, personal rivalry, political differences, social distinctions,
religious disputes or patriotic favour could induce certain individuals to
distort original records.in such cases two question to be asked is who
could carry ou t the forgery and why? Sometimes documents have been
fake to be sold for gain. A scholar might faker document to provide a
missing link in sequence of event he had imaginatively reconstructed.
Such a possibility is rare today.
Obviously, the next question is how to detect forgery. Paleography
help us in this field particularly for ancient Indian history which is
reconstructed mostly with the help of lithic and copper plate records. The
characters of writing have changed from time to time. If in a forged
epigraph the alphabet do not confirm to the type prevalent at the point of
time to which it allege belong to We suspect some foul play. Likewise the
handwriting spelling dictation style and other characteristics features to
through a hint as to whether tampe ring has taken place or not. Even the
information content in the record mainbetray its spurious nature.
In recent years textual criticism has been raised to a very high level
of refinement and there are scholars who devote their entire time and life
to ex ternal criticism. Their main job is the restoration of text in
investigation or authorship fixation of chronology, collections
classification and verification of documents and hence they help historians
enormously in providing well authenticated document. Their job is called
critical scholarship.
Critical scholarship is a part of external criticism. In the 19th
century it became very popular in Europe, because this task was most
scientific. It did not involve writing of history but merely textual cr iticism
to eliminate all possible chances of forgery. Consequently, few people did
not regard this work has very meritorious for it did not involve any
exposition or interpretation. It was mechanical to some extent as was the
application of certain princip les and technique almost to evolve kind of
text finding out the authenticity and editing the text with elaborate notes.
This kind of work did not find favor with those who were real historians
with an interest in interpreting the past.
If the building mat erial is defective the building will collapse.
Moreover if the architect is also to cut stones in a quarry for burn bricks in
a kiln the building would never be completed. Likewise, the critical
scholar who has too much of importance and declares that crit icalmunotes.in

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101scholarship has raised history to the dignity of science that its external
criticism is the whole of historical criticism, and that outside purgation’s,
emendation and classification there is nothing else to do in history is also
not correct. This is a very tall claim which is hardly justifiable and
undoubtedly and exaggerations it is psychological criticism and not textual
that deals with interpretation of the facts and also the good faith and
accuracy of authors in a way external criticism is prepara tory, however is
essential it may be. Therefore, external criticism is means and not an end
by itself. It is a temporary necessity and not a permanent feature of
historical writing.
Check your Progress :
1)Explain the importance of heuristic in context o f Indian history.
8.5. HISTORICAL HEURISTICS
There are two approaches: choosing unexplained stories, white
spots stories. Despite the many years of scientific work, there are still
many of them. The second approach: to take the story already studied, but
to look at it from a new point of view, to apply modern techniques, to
illuminate the plot with the involvement of new sources. The second
approach necessarily includes polemics with the preceding historiography,
challenging and adjusting exis ting concepts.
The selected story should be significant. There are many
unexplored questions and questions studied, whose historiographic
coverage is already largely outdated. It is necessary to choose such plots
and questions, the study of which can brin g our knowledge of the past to a
new level, help solve large, important, large -scale scientific problems.
8.6. ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS
Historical research is divided into two stages, which can be
conditionally designated as " analysis andsynthesis." Hence the phrase
that has become a catch phrase:" For synthesis minutes, you need to pay
for years of analysis." In other words, the material (first of all, the sources)
should be collected, carried out its description, research, and then proceed
to the next st age-critical analysis, as a result of which a new knowledge of
the past is synthesized.
The quality of this new knowledge directly depends on the
thoroughness of the first stage. Material on the problem being studied
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102precisely, the information contained in it, is capable of destroying the
coherent co -creation that has been created for many years.
The historian, as a rule, deals with two types of material:
historiography and sources. For bot h, you need to organize a search. In the
first case, it will be a bibliographic search, and in the second case -
archaeographic or archival and museum (depending on what kind of
sources the researcher is interested in: written or material).
For the analys is of materials, it is necessary to select the
appropriate research methodology, the information processing method that
best corresponds to the extraction of this information from the source and
all analysis, interpretation.
The methodology depends both o n the type of source (for different
sources there is a different method, for example, for narrative -historical
hermeneutics, for statistical -mathematical, quantitative methods, etc.),
and from research objectives and tasks (for study of political, soci al,
economic, etc. history will apply different research algorithms).
Applying the technique means composing a questionnaire that will
be presented to source and historiography. Each method has its own list of
issues. Examples we cited in the description of modern research methods.
Actually, the primary analysis consists in a kind of "interrogation" sources
of information, presentation of questions and fixing answers or their
absence.
It is recommended that you have complete copies of texts of
sources and monuments of historiography. One can never foresee what
new questions arise when analyzing a text, how many times it will have to
be re -addressed. The well -known United States historian S. B. Veselovsky
advised always to copy the archival source entirely -whether it is not
enough for what reason it may still be needed.
Check your Progress :
1)Describe the analysis and synthesis as past of heuristic.
8.7. VERIFICATION PROCEDURE
By collecting and systematizing the information obtained from the
sources, it is necessary to proceed to the verification procedure, that is, to
verify the information received for validity. This also includes an
explanation of the nature of the information contained in the source, the
nature of the author's vie ws, and so on. After all, the truth is not true in themunotes.in

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103historical source does not work, there are absolutely no true or absolutely
incorrect information. The nature of distortion or even falsification of
information can say a lot and is in itself a histori cal source.
After establishing the informative content of the sources and
determining the nature of this information, the synthesis phase begins, that
is, the translation of the source information into a scientific language, the
creation of scientific exp lanations, schemes, hypotheses, concepts, etc. in
accordance with this or that direction of historical research.
Our academic responsibility is to ensure that due
acknowledgement is afforded those who have gone before. Priority with
respect to modern heur istic, heuristic applied to creativity as invention and
discovery, the study of teaching and learning focusing on the nature of
invention and discovery, the study of teaching and learning through
creative problem solving, and heuristic as a model of active teaching,
clearly and indelibly rests with Pólya.
The present trend is that a close relationship should exit between
these two branches. Certain textual criticism are well done by critical
scholars, and certain analytical and synthetic operati ons are well
performed by historian. If both are interested to the same person they may
not be so well done.
In practice, when person takes to research, he will face three types
of situations. First you finds the sources for already classified and
amended . If he is a student of ancient Indian history, many his sources will
be archaeological and epigraphically which have all been edited in several
volumes. Secondly, the preliminary work is done partially but not wholly
done. A student of Mediaeval Indian hi story would be in this predicament
where some of his sources are classified whereas some have it to be done.
Thirdly, the sources are in bad state and require great labour to make them
feat for use. This is the case with sources referring to contemporary
history where many file are still in government custody. The material is so
tendentious that great care has to be taken to establish their accuracy in the
first two cases the necessity for division of labour may not arise, but first
two cases where the sour ces are scattered, corrupt and untrustworthy
assistance of specialized agency such as of critical scholars becomes and
imperative need. This, any hard and fast rule cannot be applied with
respect to this problem. A few devote such much time and labor to
preparatory works, that they dedicate their lives to editing and classifying
documents. A few combine the tasks of external criticism and historical
reconstruction, like Waitz, Mommsen and Haureau if Germany, and
Jadunath Sarkar of India. Even the tasks of c ritical scholarship is not
without its charms and scholars find supreme satisfaction in it. It is a a
good thing that a few scholars devote their entire time to critical
scholarship particularly in these days of specialization which results in
more abundan t and successful and better regulated production of material.
Critics become professional in their task and perform their duty with in
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104surely recharged a stage in their evolution where any further advance can
be made only by specialists.
A further question is 'what exactly is the job of external criticism?'
The answer is that it has mainly three function to perform. The first is the
establishment of authorship of the document to be definite as to who was
responsible for the writing of that document. The second is the
determination of the place of the document from where it original
originated. The third is the fixation of the time offer document, if possible
the exact date, month and year of writing. All this information is useful
not merely to know the genuineness of the record but also for determining
the value of the record in terms of the motives and intentions that
prompted its writing. The motives, concept, ideas and inclination s of the
author or central to higher criticism, where the good faith and accuracy of
the author are very minutely examine in order to eliminate all possibility
of error. All historical data is only obtained through the observation of the
some other or agen t in the past, it becomes very necessary to know his
psychology. If the author is not trustworthy the information we possess
would also be untrustworthy. Therefore, the first step in this direction is to
obtain a clear proof that the author is the same per son of claim in this
record. If no mention is made of the author at all, it becomes the essential
duty of the scholar to find out who the author was. It is not necessary at
this stage to examine what is contained in this record which we do at a
later stage when we have ascertain everything the author, his training,
nature attitude and the sources of his information. The author is the key to
the entire historical record as an all depends upon what sort of a man he is
and what sort of information he has furn ished.
The second question is determination of the place of the document
which we need in order to judge the value of the document. If the event
has taken place in one area and the record has been built up in another area
the value of the rec ord would be greatly reduced. An Idea as to the place
of document could be indicate the circumstances setup and surrounding in
which it was drawn up and this information is helpful in assessing the
importance of the evidence. Likewise, the time of the reco rd is also to be
ascertained. First class material is that which is contemporary recorded at
the place and time when it happened. If the event has taken place in the
3rd centuryA.D. and the document dates from the third century A.D. it’s
value would not be as much as the value of a contemporary document.
Check your Progress :
1)Enumerate the verification procedure as part of external criticism in
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1058.8 SUMMARY
Thus, external criticism (Heuristics) or critical scholarship would
enabl e a researcher to solve the problem of authenticity. The job of
criticism would be over if the author, place and time of the document are
established. At this stage only the credentials of these three elements are
checked without going into the detailed co ntents. It is as if we are having a
closer look at the postal envelope so that it would indicate who has written
it, from where and when. Imagine one's anxiety to know this details if the
latter is threatening one and if it is not signed. You would track y our brain
to find out from where the latter was posted, when by whom and why.
This is true of historical material as well for we do not know for what
purpose and motives the author undertook to write that document. In short,
Heuristics is the search for ma terial and preliminary study of that material
to know a few essential details about it.In library when we do not have
much time to decide which book would suit our interest many time we
simply glance at the cover pages of several books, just to know the au thor,
the title, the year and place of publication which would give us rough Idea
of its utility? It is only when we borrow that book that we will make a
close study of it. This task is of higher criticism.
In short, the technique of testing the degree of authenticity of
document is called External Criticism or Heuristics or Lower Criticism.
The ‘External Criticism’ is of a less intellectual type of criticism of the
documents. It includes examinations of document like manuscripts, books,
pamphlets, maps, i nscriptions and monuments. The problem of
authenticity of document arises more in case of manuscripts than the
printed documents because the printed document have already been
authenticated by the editor.
8.9. QUESTIONS FOR SELF STUDY
1. What is Heu ristic? Explain its concept and nature.
2. Write a note on Heuristic (External Criticism).
8.10. ADDITIONAL READINGS
1.B. Sheik Ali, History: Its Theory and Method, Laxmi Publications,
New Delhi, 1981.
2.Stefan Edelkamp ,Stefan Schroedl, Heuristics Search, Publisher (s):
Morgan Kaufmann, 2011.
3.R. Groner, M. Groner, W. F. Bishop, eds. Approaches to
Heuristics: A Historical Review Rutledge publication, 1983
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106Unit-9
HERMENEUTICS
Unit structure :
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction: Heuristic
9.2. Hermeneutics (Internal Criticism)
9.3 Positive interpretative criticism
9.4 Negative interpretative criticism
9.5 Errors of Good Faith
9.6 Errors of Accuracy
9.7 Summary
9.8 Questions
9.9 Additional Readings
9.0OBJECTIVES
After completion of this Unit, students will be able to:
Explain the meaning of Hermeneutics
Grasp the analysis andsynthesis method of hermeneutics.
Discuss on the internal criticism and its importance.
9.1 INTRODUCTION
External criticism naturally leads to internal criticism which is
certainly higher criticism. When we have some pain on the exterior part of
our body we nearly apply some balm. But if something is wrong inside we
must consult a good doctor so also we have to be extra careful in
scrutinizing the contents of the document with the intention of knowing
how much of it is true and how much false. This operation in mythology is
also known as interpretative criticism. Its main task is to find out whether
what is co ntained in a document may be accepted as true or not. A person
who receives a letter will not waste time looking for information on the
envelope relating to where it has come from, when posted and by whom;
but proceeds to cut open the letter to read it. Li kewise scholar after
examining the external aspect of a document proceeds to ascertain the
trustworthiness or otherwise of the contents of the document. This is
obviously a more fundamental and significant task, and hence it is known
as higher criticism. I t is on the basis of these information that historical
narrative is reconstructed, and therefore it is a pivot on which the whole of
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1079.2 HERMENUTICS (INTERNAL CRITICISM)
The technique adapted in hermeneutics for the science of
interpretation with the same critical approach whereby we analyses the
product of the author's labour in order to distinguish between operations
correctly and incorrectly performed. It has already been indicated that the
historical method is negative or indirec t in that we do not say what the
truth is, but merely find out what are the errors committed then eliminate
the errors to find out the truth. Therefore the first job be perform in the
internal criticism is a very close and minute study of each of the ideas
contained in the document. The main task is analysis which is to separate
the different ideas and cut the whole document into constituted parts.
Analysis is at the root of interpretation and it is a very important mental
activities which helps us to know the nature of the historical fact. Analysis
isolates each of the hundreds and thousands of the ideas contained in
document and puts it in the crucible of criticism in order to test its validity.
The essential point to remember is that each idea is separate ly analysed
and tested, for among all ideas contained in the document some may be
true and others may be wrong. It is the business of internal criticism to
know which one is true and which one is false. Analysis is thus necessary
of criticism and criticism begins with analysis.
Internal criticism is more complicated, more varied in range and
more intricate in technique than external criticism. There are two
operation involved here. The first is the analysis of the content of the
document which is called po sitive interpretative criticism, and the second
is the analysis of the conditions under which the document was produced
which is known as negative interpretative criticism. The purpose of
positive criticism is to know what the author really means by making a
particular statement and the purpose of negative criticism is to verify
whether what the author has said conforms to what really happened. In
other words the task of positive interpretative criticism is to get at the
literal real meaning of the author's statements and that of negative
interpretative criticism is to eliminate the possibility of error in his
statements. There is a need for internal criticism arises from the fact that
research scholar depends entirely upon the records of the pass for his
information and these records might contain both true and false
statements. It is his business to detect which of those events are true and
which of which of them are false. The sources we use might have been the
result of either observation or experience or heresy recorded by some
author in the past. Naturally this information has to carefully tested and
sooty night before we can use it. This is a certain by a process of scientific
investigation which is the main job of internal criticism which establishes
the value of document. Many of the documents are returned with
inadequate knowledge or with motivation or prejudice. The court
historians of the past have written accounts mostly to praise their patrons
either because they were employed for that purpose or because they were
personally impressed by the good or bad deeds of the rulers that they
could not resist the temptations of writing what they genuinely thought tomunotes.in

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108be reality. Abulfazl wrote the Akbarnama not to so much for any monetary
gains but because of his genuine interest in Akbar. Hear the personal
element which affects truth must be inquired into. Likewise, foreign
traveler might have been guided more by rumors and heresy than by
honest efforts to find out the truth or by his own personal experiences . The
British administrators, Civil servants and military commanders, who have
written histories of India where generally influenced by a particular
standpoint in their writing. The job of history and is to check very
carefully the records that appear Atla ntic and internal criticism helps him
in the process of finding out errors and eliminating them.
Check your Progress :
1)Define the Hermenutics (Internal Criticism).
9.3 POSITIVE INTERPRETATIVE CRITICISM
As indicated above there are two types of operations to be perform
under internal criticism, positive and negative? Positive interpretative
criticism aims at knowing the literal meaning of the document. The study
of every document should begin with and ana lysis of its content made with
the sole aim of determining the real meaning of the author. This analysis is
a preliminary operations which is distinct and independent of the other
operation where the matter is probed further. In positive analysis the
gener al sense of the text is first study and then we proceed to the object
and views of the author. To analyse a document is to tu to discern and
isolate all ideas expressed by the author. Analysis thus reduce itself to
interpretative criticism. Interpretation passes through two stages, the first
concern itself with the language of the document to know the literal
meaning of the document, and the second deals with its real meaning. To
understand or takes the language should be known. Historical material lies
scattered in different languages, and hence it is necessary first you get at
the literal meaning of the text. A general knowledge of the language is not
enough. Each language will have its own inner shades of meaning and
research requires that one should have great proficiency in the language in
order to know the real meaning. Usually the same meaning is attributed to
the same word where it occurs. But in in ordinary language in which
document are return meaning fluctuates from passage to passage. We
generally understand what is meant by the term honorable but when Mark
Antony is using the term and our honorable in respect of Brutus, it
conveys altogether a different meaning. Each word expresses a complex
and ill -defined Idea and its meaning may be manifold. It could be relative
and it is subject to variation. Therefore, the first job of positive interpreter
criticism is to know the literal or dictionary meaning of document andmunotes.in

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109secondly to know the special or real meaning of the words in the
document.
Positive criticism does requires an enormous expenditure of time
in order to know the full and real meaning of term. Every word has to be
determined with reference to the language of the time the country of origin
the author of composition and the proper context of the situation.
The second stage in positive interpretative to criticism after
knowing the literal meaning is to determine the real meaning. The author
might have counseled the real meaning under the cover of an allegory
symbolism, allusions me taphor, simile, hyperbole or an analogy.
Mediaeval miniatures show persons living in bed with crowns on their
heads. It does not mean that the monarch of those days were in the habit of
going to bed with their crowns on their head. It is merely a symbol in the
picture to indicate who the king is and what his rank is. It is necessary to
pierce the through the literal meaning to get at the real meaning which the
author has purposely discuss under the inexact form. When Rousseau says
in Social Contract that ma n is born free but everywhere he is in chains, he
is merely trying to emphasize the importance of liberty and advocacy of
the cause of democracy. It should not be inferred that a chain is hanging
around the neck of every individual. Thus, the researcher s hould absorb
the real meaning of the text.
The problem of extracting the real meaning is not simple it is very
complicated and embarrassing as there is no rigid law to do this job. In
official documents we do not made with such difficulties nor is it to b es e e
in historical charters and narratives. But when we deal with private papers,
diaries, letters, literary works and poetic compositions the possibility is
very great where the authors have hidden their ideas and have express
them only in the oblique se nse.
To make proper use of which material super special knowledge of
Sanskrit will not help; we need great proficiency. If this is the case with
only one single source of historical and material on India how about the
hundreds and thousands of lithic records, copper plates, literary sources of
varied types and so on? In short we can hardly exagg erate the importance
of sound knowledge of language for historical writing.
Thus, the art of knowing the little and real meaning has occupied a
large space in the history of hermeneutics or interpretative criticism. Only
one general principle can be laid down to detect the real meaning. When
the literal sense is absurd incoherent, contradictory then there is an oblique
sense. Today termine the sense we have to know the language well. When
we get at the real meaning the operation of positive analysis is con cluded.
It gives us the author’s conceptions the images of his mind and his general
notions. This information forms and important branch of knowledge from
which is constructed the whole group of historical sciences of history of
art literature philosophy l aw and so on. Internal criticism at the positive
stage help us to know both the literal and the real meaning of document.munotes.in

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110Internal criticism deal with the contents of the documents their probability
and the author’s veracity. Positive criticism is in int erpretative and its
result must be positive in throwing more light on obscure corners.
In short, it must be said that in positive criticism the entire
approach must be mythological. The possibilities of errors are numerous.
A researcher should always remember that he trends over the field which
is strewn all over with interested and distorted reports. The understanding
of the literal and real meaning is the first sta ge of higher criticism. Having
performed this task one has to go to the next stage namely of negative
interpretative criticism of good faith and accuracy.
Check your Progress :
1)Describe the positive interpretative criticism.
9.4 NEGATIVE INT ERPRETATIVE CRITICISM
The third stage in the analytical operations after external and
positive criticisms is negative interpretative criticism. Its main task is to
ascertain the vital problem of element of truth contained in the document.
The aim of h istorical construction is the pursuit of truth and it is this
pursuit which is the main business of the criticism. all other criticism
appear to be preliminary and secondary in comparison to this ultimate
enquiry in which we are called upon to touch the v ery substance of the
problem. Analysis and interpretation of criticism give us merely an idea of
the inner working of the mind behind a document reveling these ideas.
They merely help us to know how the author wish to represent them and
not how he really s aw them, much less how they really happened. These
are three aspects that dissolve very keen consideration. The first is the way
the author designs our understanding of the event or his own version for
our information although what he had seen heard or kno wn might be
different from what he want us to know. Secondly what the author
believed might be altogether different from what really happened,
although he might have been sincere in saying what he honestly believed.
Thirdly, what the author says and believ es main exactly true in reality and
hence the author is quite sincere and accurate in a statement. Thus, several
possibilities exit make historical fact complicated.
Negative interpretative criticism is the major to ward off this
danger of failing in to e rrors, and it has appeared as a practical necessity
for the purpose of eliminating statements which are obviously false are
erroneous. As in every science show in history the starting point must be a
methodical doubt. All that has not been proved must be r egarded as
doubtful. The historian must distrust at first every statement of the authormunotes.in

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111going to the possibilities of errors indicated above. We must not postpone
doubt till it is force upon us by conflicting statements in documents.
Therefore, each of whi ch statement must be examined separately. Internal
criticism leads us to two general rules. The first is that a scientific proof is
not established by testimony. Secondly, criticism should not be perform in
en-bloc. It must be analysed into its element to isolate and examine it
separately. If a few incurrences are perceptible in Bana's Harsha Charita
we cannot condemn the whole work. Sometimes single statement may
contain several ideas a few of which may be valid and others may not be
so. These ideas must b e separated and criticism must be applied to them
individually. However, both criticism and analysis must be perform
simultaneously and there should not be any gap in there sequence.
Therefore, criticism comprise of an enormous number of operations.
Theproblem of higher criticism simplifies itself to this. We have to
ascertain the mental operations of man who makes the statement.
Criticism does not advance beyond and indirect and provisional solutions.
Hence we have to examine the environment or extern al circumstances that
might have affected the ideas of the author. Natural Instinct when 1 points
a document is to judge its value by its form. We seek for 'the accent of
sincerity’ or 'an impression of truth'. But this is an illusion and there is a
no cri teria for good faith or accuracy. Even the ambulance and precision
of details do not give us guarantee for the accuracy of facts. Simply
because it contains, details it need not necessarily be true. Therefore, the
value of an author's statement depends on the condition under which
perform certain metal operations. We have to enquire whether the author
perform those operations correctly or not.
The whole of criticism thus reduced itself to the drawing of and
answering of two different sets of quest ion-one for the purpose of
bringing before our minds the general conditions affecting the
composition of the document from which we may deduct general motives
for this distrust or confidence and the other set of questions is for the
purpose of realizing the special conditions of each statement from which
special motives may be drawn for distrust or confidence.
What we have said above can be simplified. The whole negative
interpretative criticism comprises only of two problems. One is the
enquiry into t he good faith of the author, and other is the inquiry into the
accuracy of the author. By good faith we mean what the author really
believed for he may not have been sincere. By accuracy we mean what he
really knew, for he may have been mistaken. Historian will have to ask
'Can I trust the message which this dress appears to be carrying? Is it
really the terminal of the sequence of event which at first sight it appears
to be? Is their behind is it a less obvious sequence? The answers to this
question from t he basis of negative interpretative criticism. External
criticism tells you that the letter is from your friend as it appears his
handwriting, signature, postmark, paper ink and style of his writing. Some
external circumstances might have prevented him fro m coming. That is
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112Sardar Pannikker rightly says that medieval chroniclers should not be
taken as a trustworthy for true to the salt of their masters they might be
singing a song in t heir praise.
Check your Progress :
1)Comment on negative interpretative criticism.
9.5 ERRORS OF GOOD FAITH
The authors seeks to gain a practical advantage for himself. He
wishes to receive the readers. The official documents generally do so.
Barani, Afifi, Nizami and host of other chroniclers engage by the court to
write the history of the period suffer from this defect. They were paid
agent for their monarch and which to present him to brighter colours. They
had everything to gain by flatter ing him hiding his weakness and
exaggerating his virtues and they had everything to laws if they were
critical and honest. Therefore, we have to find out the general aim of
author in writing the documents as whole and his particular purpose. We
have to inq uire whether the author was interested in giving false
information to serve his selfish ends the motive of gaining some
advantages is at the root of this error.
The author is place in situation where he is compelled to violet the
truth. Left to himself he would have stated the truth, but certain
compelling factors prevented him from doing his job properly. The
rigidity of the caste system, dowry practices, sati system infanticide and
several such as abuses were issues on which authors had their o wn views,
but could not express themselves freely moving to the hostile public own
opinion of the time. Naturally, few of the writers willy -nilly approved of
this practices. In other words what they have express may not conform to
what they believed.
The author views with sympathy or antipathy the events or persons
and represent them as very different from the actual happenings. This is a
personal prejudice in which the author's fancy likes and dislikes are
involved. If he is well inclined was a person or event, he would praise him
or it highly or else he would condemn him or it strongly. Burke was not
well incline towards the French Revolution and hence is bitter remarks
when Gibbon, his contemporary for so highly for those events. Here the
autho r become subjective and is in client either to external a person
depending upon his likes.
The author is induced by private or collective vanity to violet truth
for the purpose of exacting credit for himself on his group. We have to inkmunotes.in

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113wire what was our author's particular vanity. We must always distrust
statements which attribute to the author for his group a high place in the
world. We can believe an author if he owns up to any mistake for he could
not mention it unless it is really present. W e have to assume that vanity is
behind such an assumption which compares it to demand some credit.
Thus the above series of questions help us to detect whether the
author has committed the error of good faith, whether his sincerity or
integrity is unde r question and whether he has not deliberately attempted
to deceive or mislead others. Author might draw from a particular
statement; the sympathy aur antipathy that prompts him to be subjective
the vanity which is responsible for is interested report; and the literary
artifice which kill historical objectivity. These factors form the basis of
historical fallacies and prejudices.
Check your Progress :
1)Explain the errors of good faith as part of internal criticism.
9.6 ERRORS OF ACCURACY
The second series of question that help us to find out the accuracy
of the statement refer to the situation in which the author is very sincere in
his intention to record what he believes to be true, but the difficulty is that
his sources of information is d efective and hence once again errors
become invertible. This fallacy can also be detected by putting a few
questions.
1.Does the author make the observation himself or does he depend on
reports furnished to him by others? In the latter case the possibility of
errors is very great.
2.Those court historians were not present in the battlefield but depend
upon the reports send by the commander do not have any access to
check the veracity of their statements and hence are guilty of giving a
distorted picture of the battle.
3.The author has himself made the observation, does he do it under
condition which were not normal? And element of fear, force
hallucinations and illusion, or prejudice might have prevented him
before observing the phenomena correctly.
4.Is the author in the habit of observing things correctly? It is likely that
a few persons are in capable of doing so owing to reasons unknown to
them. Fraud is a classic example of one who would never report and
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1145.Are there any dominant prejudice which the author suffer from? We
have to search for motives of falsehoods interest vanity sympathy and
antipathy which give rise to preserve prejudice and unknowingly the
author commits and error. James Mill belongs to the utilitarian school
of thought which pr ejudiced his mind to such an extent that he is
judged all history only from this angle. Here we have to apply the
same set of question for the purpose of finding out the accuracy as we
employed for finding out good faith, but with this difference of
knowin g whether he did it consciously or unconsciously.
6.Is the author so badly situated to observe the phenomena that he lacks
the necessary condition to observe it correctly? The external condition
that surrounded him at the time of writing must be inquired int oi n
order to know whether he was well or ill place to observe the events. If
the events were taking place in Delhi and the author was in Agra, he
could not have had a chance to report the matter correctly. Time and
place are important condition to enhance the value of the evidence.
The accuracy of the statement would depend upon how much personal
interest and exertion they evinced in collecting that information, how
they wear place to collect it and what sort of standing they had in in
political and social circle to do it. Moreover the observer should not
have any preconceived ideas or built in prejudice about the events
which would affect his observation. In history there are always several
school of thoughts ,just as in the nineteenth century there were
positivists, Marxists, Naturalist, Empiricist and so on, and historian
belong to any of these groups would approach the matter from his
preconceived notions.
Check your Progress :
1)Write a note on errors of accuracy in Hermenutics
9.7 SUMMAR Y
Let us were capitulate once again all that we do in analytical
operations. Firstly, we begin with external criticism to establish the
authenticity of the record with reference to its author place and time.
Secondly. Wipro seed to the reading of the text in order to know its literal
and real meaning which is task of positive interpretative criticism. Thirdly,
we go to the critical study of the facts contained in the document. We
begin by collecting general information about the authors and the
document to discover the epoch the place, the purpose the circumstances
of its composition, the author social status, country, sect, family, interest,
linguistic habits, methods of work, ability level of intelligence. In brief,
the author’s entire psychology or menta l makeup has to be very seriously
studied. Fourthly, as we read the document we analyse it and formulatemunotes.in

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115eating simple and precise language. We also discussed that if the error is
deliberate it is question of good faith of the author if the error is not
deliberate it is the question of the accuracy of the author. Finally, doubt is
starting point of historical reconstruction and certainly its goal. The entire
mythology is negative in nature in the sense that it really help us to
eliminate error if errors and fallacies are removed what remains is truth
which is the core and soul of history.
9.8 QUESTIONS FOR SELF STUDY
1. What is Hermeneutic? Discuss its concept and nature.
2. Write an easy on Hermeneutic ( Internal Criticism).
9.9 ADDITIONAL READINGS
1.B. Sheik Ali, History: Its Theory and Method, Laxmi Publications,
New Delhi, 1981.
2.Lawre nce Kennedy Schmidt ,Understanding Hermeneutics, Rutledge
publication, 2006

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116Unit-10
CAUSATION
Unit structure :
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2. What Is Causation?
10.3 Social Sciences and Causation
10.4 Historians and Causation
10.5 Causation: Historian Craft
10.6 Methodology of Causation
10.7 Summary
10.8 Questions
10.9 Additional Readings
10.0 OBJECTIVES
After completion of this Unit, students will be able to:
Understand causation .
Explain the historians and causation.
Grasp the methodology of Causation.
10.1 INTRODUCTION
What actually happened can never be known in its entirety, only
partial actual past is revealed in history by interpretation of written, oral,
physical sources and other past sources. A historian analyses the past
based on process of selection of surviving records in the present and
finally gives his authentication. A historian makes interpretation of
surviving facts, organizes them in a coherent way to fill up the gaps with
his empathetic understanding and imagination.
10.2 WHAT IS CAUSATION?
Even though the event is taken to be a uniq ue scrupulous,
historians nevertheless endeavor to explain its occurrence. The analysis of
an event as a scrupulous does not undermine either the effectiveness of the
offered explanation or its claim to symbolize the truth. Like other social
scientists, hi storians offer a complete explanation of the phenomenon
under consideration, and they do this by determining what caused that
event to happen. Search for causes is therefore central to historical
analysis. Up until the eighteenth century philosophers and h istoriansmunotes.in

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117commonly whispered that the cause necessity is an antecedent event -one
that occurred prior to the event that is being explained; and that the
antecedent event necessity is regularly associated with the effect. Though,
following upon the work of John S. Mill, the cause is no longer recognized
as an event that occurs before. Rather it is conceived as a condition or a set
of circumstances that are always present when the event E occurs, and
always absent when E does not happen.
The cause, in o ther languages, is a condition that is both necessary
and enough for bringing in relation to the given event E. It is said to be
necessary because its absence implies the absence of the effect E, and it is
enough because its attendance yields the given res ult E. If a revise shows
that individuals with Vitamin A deficiency suffered from night -blindness,
and in all those individuals where Vitamin A was present in enough
measure, night blindness did not happen, then all else being the similar,
we can say that deficiency of Vitamin A is the cause of night -blindness.
We can designate Vitamin A as the cause because its absence meant night -
blindness and its attendance meant the absence of the effect –namely,
night -blindness.
When as students of history we approa ch the subject of
“causation," we find ourselves in difficulties, for the problem is not one
that has received sustained consideration. In accounting for historical
events every historian has been a law to himself. As a problem, "causation
in historical ev ents" has been dis -cussed primarily by philosophers who
frankly disavow any interest in historical research. The arguments which
they advance with respect to historical knowledge are based upon the
common practice of historical writers, but what they disc over in the
procedure of historians is dictated by their own interests. Philosophy has
no guidance to offer historical students. The historian must face his own
problems without aid from philosophers, mathematicians, physicists, or
biologists.
According t o Marc Bloch, history is to be written "with integrity,
with truth, with the utmost penetration into its hidden causes and thus,
with difficulty" whereas EJ Tapp's Some Aspects of Causation in History
claims that "without a concept of causation there can b e no history”. These
two articles briefly enlighten the concept of causation in history, a
historian methodology to assign causes to events and lastly, the
implication of determinism and accident/chance theory in causation.
In the first place, the histori an endeavors to make what has
happened intelligible through emphasis on human agency. It is assumed
that, for the historian, "the individual is always the principle of
explanation"; that for him "the only concrete cause is the individual
human will."
Since, then, the historian is concerned with the activities of
individuals as causal agents, it is inevitable that he should dwell upon the
part played by great men. Even the exponents of this view, however, comemunotes.in

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118down step by step to the activities of less im portant individuals and, in the
end, to the influence of insignificant happenings and to Voltaire's theory
of "Cleopatra's nose." The great -man theory leads ultimately to the view
that chance is the dominant factor in history
Check your Progress :
1)Define causation in historical research.
10.3 SOCIAL SCIENCES AND CAUSATION
Social scientists identify causes by what John Stuart Mill described
the Way of Agreement and the Way of Disagreement or Variation. The
Way of Agreement draws an inve ntory of all those circumstances /
circumstances that are present whenever the event E occurs. It identifies a
condition that is invariably present in all instances where E has occurred.
The way of Variation, on the other hand, searches for that condition in
conditions of which the antecedent circumstances and the phenomenon
differ. That is, a condition whose absence translates into the absence of
that event. Social scientists combine these two ways to determine what
caused E to happen. They pinpoint the ca use by learning a number of
positive and negative instances: instances where event of the kind E
occurred and situations where E did not happen. If in all cases where E
occurred condition C was always present and in all cases where E did not
happen conditi on C alone was absent, then C is regarded as the cause of E.
In saying that the cause explains fully why a specific event occurred at a
given time and lay, they suggest that historians search for a condition that
was necessary under the circumstances. They create, what might be
described, singular causal assertions.
It follows from the discussion that in social sciences a cause is
recognized by learning a number of situations that are similar in
conditions of their antecedent circumstances but dissimilar w ith regard to
the outcome or phenomenon that happen. Though, what happens when
comparable contexts are not accessible? What happens when we revise
and attempt to explain events are unique? How do we then identify a
cause? One option is to say that in all s uch cases there is no satisfactory
method of identifying the causal condition. Indeed many philosophers
have, on explanation of the distinctiveness of the substance and purpose of
inquiry in history, argued that we abandon the search for causes. The
natura l sciences, they uphold, are generalizing sciences. They aim to
discover law -like generalizations. History, by comparison, focuses on that
which is unique to the case being analyzed. Further, natural sciences seek
to gain knowledge with a view to enhancing technological manage.
Causes are sought not only to explain why something happened but also to
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119and what might be controlled –manipulated or altered –to ensure that the
said event do es not happen. History, on the other hand, seeks to
understand why the event occurred. It tries to create sense of a
phenomenon by identifying the meaning that it had in a given historically
defined context. Since its aim is to enhance communication and
interaction, it is permeated by a dissimilar knowledge interest and so relies
on a dissimilar methodological orientation. In lay of identifying a
condition that causes or produces a given effect it creates sense of the
event by treating it as an expression o f a specific world -view. It, in other
languages, explores the link flanked by life, expression and a historical
weltanschauung and understands rather than explains a given event.
Here it needs to be emphasized that determining the cause of an
event that is unique, or a one -time occurrence, poses a serious challenge.
Historians, who affirm the relevance and importance of causal form of
inquiry, have met this challenge by redefining the thought of cause. In
scrupulous they have attempted to dissociate expla nation from prediction
and argued that the cause refers to a condition that made the crucial
variation in a given situation. While the cause was previously associated
with the assertion, =whenever C also E ‟, they claim that the recognized
cause C only expl ains a given event E rather than all events of the kind E.
In saying that the cause explains fully why a specific event occurred at a
given time and lay, they suggest that historians search for a condition that
was necessary under the circumstances. They c reate, what might be
described, singular causal assertions.
Check your Progress :
1)Comment on social sciences research and causation.
10.4 HISTORIANS AND CAUSATION
In offering singular causal assertions historians separate
explanations from predictions. They argue that a complete explanation
does not entail accurate predictions. In information many philosophers of
history uphold that explanation and prediction are two dissimilar types of
behaviors, involving dissimilar types of proof and just ifications. Prediction
assumes regularity and recurrence of sequence. We can say that the sun
will rise in the East tomorrow and the day after that only because we
consider that the structure of the universe and the laws by which it is
governed will contin ue to operate unchanged. It is the assumption that
patterns and regularities observed today will recur and repeat themselves
that allows us to predict the future course of events. Though, this
assumption is irrelevant for stipulating causal connections. We can
determine with reasonable accuracy what caused E to happen even when Emunotes.in

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120is a one -time occurrence, or a unique scrupulous. In the absence of the
presupposition that social reality will remain unaltered and existing
patterns will recur we cannot claim th at whenever C occurs, E will follow.
By de -linking explanation from prediction, historians not only
challenge the common law model of explanation used by positivists, they
redefine the concept of causation. In lay of conceiving the cause as a
necessary an d enough condition they see it as a condition that is necessary
under the circumstances. The need to visualize the causal condition as one
that is necessary under the circumstances is further reinforced by the
realization that mainly historical events are in excess of -determined. That
is, they are characterized by the attendance of more than one causal
condition. Since each of these circumstances could have independently
acquiesced the similar result, the analyst cannot specify a condition that
was necessar y in absolute conditions. All that can be said is that it was
necessary under the circumstances.
When historians endorse the latter path they describe the cause as
an INUS condition. That is, the cause is measured to be a condition that is
an insufficient but necessary moment of an intricate of circumstances that
is unnecessary but enough for producing the given event. Let me explain it
further. In identifying mutiny in naval ratings as the cause all that the
historian is saying is that this condition made the crucial variation. Had it
not been for this mutiny transfer of power may not have occurred in
August 1947. Further, the mutiny in naval ratings acquiesced this effect in
association with other popular assertions, such as, the Quit India
movement and p easant rebellions. Collectively these constituted an
intricate of minimal enough condition and in this intricate the mutiny in
navy was the necessary moment. Though, this intricate of circumstances
cannot be regarded as necessary for the event. Had this co ndition not
prevailed, adverse balance of payments or calculation of strategic interests
may still have led to the British leaving India, albeit not in August of
1947. Consequently, popular mobilizations cannot be regarded to be an
intricate that is necess ary in absolute conditions. All we can say with
confidence is that under the given circumstances it was enough to bring in
relation to that result. The mutiny was, in this method, a necessary
moment of an intricate of circumstances that are collectively un necessary.
The similar event could have been produced by another set of
circumstances but at this time the mutiny beside with other popular
mobilizations was enough for producing the result –namely, transfer of
power to India.
Check your Progress :
1)Explain how causation important in historians writing?munotes.in

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12110.5 CAUSATION: HISTORIAN CRAFT
If one analyses what were the causes of World War II, the answer
will be multiple major causes such as impact of the Treaty of Versailles,
rise of Italian fas cism, rise of Hitler and his Naziparty, the Great
Depression, Japanese expansionism, anti -communism, appeasement
policy, militarism, nationalism, US isolationism and so on.
Therefore, it becomes a puzzle for a common person to give
priority to which cause over another to term the "ultimate cause". Thus, a
historian tries to find out the basic questions of the five Ws and one H and
attempts to reconstruct the past after analysing all possible and speculative
facts.
Thus, an imaginative reconstruction of th e past is made with
raising new questions and minimising the existing uncertainties in the light
of fresh evidence and drawing fresh interpretations based on them.
Causation plays a vital role in providing a coherent and intelligible
explanation of the pa st.As the study of history is a study of causes, the
historian keeps asking the question "why" until he comes to a final answer
or cause.
Walsh describes a cause as "a necessary condition of some result,
picked out from the remaining conditions either bec ause it is something
which might have been produced or prevented at will because it was in
some way unusual or unexpected". It is believed that history consists of
marshalling the events of the past in an orderly sequence of cause and
effect.
James Brien' s Causation in History narrates that "causal
relationships are essential to establishing historical explanations and
aiding in the understanding of the past. Without it, historians are left with
a collection of unrelated facts". So he stated causation is c onsidered the
great central pillar of historical thinking.
The essential difficulty in the study of causation in historical
events lies in the fact that the recognized objectives of historical
explanation leave no place for the investigation of causes as a specific
undertaking. If, however, in opposition to established usage we set
ourselves to this effort, it at once appears that we are not without
resources.
What we are given in experience is not one history, but a great
number of histories. History is not unitary, but pluralistic. Every region
and area has its own history, and the investigation of causation becomes
possible when it is seen that the activities of men under different
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122Check your Progress :
1)“Causation is a very important part of historian craft”. Comment
10.6 METHODOLOGY OF CAUSATION
What does a historian do when one is confronted by the necessity
of as signing cause to an event? A historian begin by commonly assigning
several causes to the same event as one has to deal with multiplicity of
causes. Thereafter, a list of causes is compiled and endeavor made to
reduce them in order, and establish some kind of hierarchy of causes in
relation to each other and to finally decide which cause or category of
causes should be regarded as the final or ultimate cause of all causes.
Historians act as a judge to discover whose actions were the
ultimate cause of an eve nt so he analyses varied causes such as long and
short -term causes, underlying, immediate, actual, principal, essential,
general, necessary, actual and ultimate causes. Different historians have
different answers or causes to the same question, event or ac tion.
Historians may disagree over the selection and significance of any cause.
A historian, by the virtue of his urge to understand the past, is compelled
to simplify the multiplicity of his answers, to subordinate one to another
and to introduce some ord er and unity into the chaos of happenings and
the chaos of specific causes. Thus, the historian is acknowledged with "the
cause" one has given to a reason for an event or action.
In order to establish causality between two independent variables,
X results in a change in the dependent variable Y, one has to consider four
factors. Firstly, time order meaning the cause must precede effect.
Secondly, co -variation signifying if the inde pendent variable changes and
the dependent variable also changes, the independent variable may be the
cause of the dependent variable. Thirdly, rationale or theoretical
justification meaning that there must be a logical and compelling
explanation for why t hese two variables are related and lastly, non -
spuriousness refers that it must be established that the independent
variable X, and only X, was the cause of changes in the dependent
variable Y. Rival explanations must be ruled out.
Indu Banga in her artic le Historical Causation shows that causal
analysis rests on theory in the sense of a set of logically coherent
propositions with suggestive potential. A conscious use of theory as an
analytical tool enables historians to fruitfull y employ the insights,
concepts and techniques of the other human sciences, which also suggest
new questions and open up new avenues of research. Moreover, Banga
explained the "problem relating to give cause to any event like overmunotes.in

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123emphasis on a single caus e often gives it the character of an accidental
happening and secondly, sometimes the immediate causes of an event are
unduly emp hasised, looking over the larger context or the underlying
conditions.
"But really the immediate cause is merely a point in a chain of
events, trends, influences and forces at which the effect begins to become
visible. "Thus, the subject matter of history being the past society in
totality, historical causation is a complex undertaking, obliging the
historian to see k not just a cause or a few causes, but causal wave -chains.
“Two other underlying concepts that need to be emphasized in regard to
causation are determinism and chance or accident.
Scientists work on the principle and in the belief that the
investigation of causation will ultimately lead to the alleviation of human
misery and suffering. It is useless to speculate whether and how this
alleviation may in any instance be accomplished -until investigation has
been carried out. We cannot master the intricacies o f historical events all
at once, and with our eyes fixed upon the production of traditional
histories. We must undertake the investigation of some problem, however
limited in scope it may at first sight appear to be. Galileo established a
new science by in vestigating the rate of falling bodies.
Check your Progress :
1)Discuss on the methodology of causation.
10.7 SUMMARY
Cause -action explanations are teleological in nature. Here, the
desired end -state that is to be realized through the action is also the motive
or the purpose. It so logically precedes the action. In a causal explanation,
on the other hand, the effect is su bsequent to the cause. That is, it comes
after the causal condition and it follows it due to the attendance of sure
conjunctive circumstances. Historians, in offering causal explanations
seek to identify the set of circumstances that collectively yield a g iven
effect; and within that collectivity they aim to pinpoint a condition that
made the crucial variation. Such explanations are separate from
explanations based on reasons as well as the covering law model used by
the positivists. In addition, as was arg ued earlier on, these are explanations
that tell us why a specific event occurred at a given time. They are, in
other languages, singular causal statements that seek to explain and not
predict future events. The relative neglect of prediction in these
explanations though does not weaken these explanations nor does it render
them inadequate. The offered explanations are complete and their truthmunotes.in

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124can be debated by the society of historians on the foundation of accessible
proof and documentation.
History, too, is a difficult concept. We will assume, for the sake of
discussion, that 'causation' might be seen as a conceptual bridge
connecting our three disciplines. But it is a bridge which raises as many
difficulties in its construction and crossing as it appears to settle. Its help is
problematic. And 'history' is itself another bridge. We would argue that
causation in history is a phrase that refers not to these two bridges but to
one, that the two taken together may provide a way of surmounting the
differences among these various disciplines. Moreover, the accepted role
of philosophers in elucidating concepts may apply by showing us what
'causation' means and what 'history' means.
It would be a hopeful sign were historians to concern themselves
with the extraor dinarily difficult task of investigating "causation in
historical events."
10.8 QUESTIONS FOR SELF STUDY
1.Comment on the causation in History.
2.Explain the concept and methodology of causation in History.
3.Discuss the method followed in history for establishing the causation
and explaining the occurrence of an event.
10.9 ADDITIONAL READINGS
1.E. H. Carr, What is History? (Penguin Modern Classics) ,Penguin
Classic, 2018
2.G. J. G arraghan ,A guide to Historical Method, Fordham University
Press, New York, 1946
3.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315515018_Causation_In_Hist
ory_httpwwwfijitimescomstoryaspxid393850_Fiji_Times/link/58d33f
9f92851c319e56f717/download
4. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2707458/ CAUSATION IN HISTORICAL
EVENTS.pdf
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125Module -IV
Unit -11
INTERPRETATION AND
GENERALIZATION OF SOURCES
Unit Structure :
11.0 Objectives
11.1 Introduction
11.2Rational of the Generalization
11.3 Importance of Historiographical attitudes influencing the
Generalization
11.4 Importance of Generalization
11.5 Problems with the generalization
11.6 Interpretation of the historical events
11.7 Summary
11.8 References
11.9 Questions
11.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter the students will be able to
Understand generalization and its various aspects .
Explain its inevitability and objections.
Discuss the role and sources Generalizations.
Grasp the factors responsible for interpretations in history .
11.1 INTRODUCTION
A generalization is a connection or relationship between facts. It is
a natural process of simplification. The researcher encompasses the
common characteristics to all the objects which resembles each other.
Generalizations rests on a vague idea that all facts which resemble each
other are similar in all respects. It t he means through which historians
understand their materials and try to provide their understanding of facts
to others. Analysis and interpretation of events, etc., is invariably done
through generalizations.
11.2 RATIONAL OF THE GENERALIZATION
The main job of framing formula or generalization is to press all
the details of the narratives to yield a very significant results. It sum up themunotes.in

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126entire research within a few cogent, and well thought out passages. It is
the epilogue, the gist, the final assessmen t or estimate of the whole work.
Naturally it becomes the very essence of whole research. It has the same
force in history as general formulas or laws have in science.
Framing a formula is very complicated process, which involves a
very clear understandin g of all the important places in history writing.
Historical data that had been so carefully collected, examined and
scrutinized, grouped and arranged are now subject to a different type of
operation. It require a different skill, where a lot of observatio n would be
necessary to furnish historical synthesis. This operation tells us what kind
of relationship exists among the numerous facts and that have been
detailed earlier of narrative. It is the higher form of analysis which
employs general terms, deals w ith broad principles and relates to value
judgment. Its main task is the search for the binding connections among
the facts which form the ultimate conclusion of every science.
The formula that is framed should confirm to certain accepted
standard. Histor ical facts differs in precision, yet they have to deal with
situation through intensive search for fresh records whereby we will be
able to remove to the deficiency in the information. Formulas framed by
reducing a number of facts to a few generalizations and obtaining
uniformities for the whole period except for the names and dates. The
language used in formula must be simple, precise and unambiguous using
only descriptive terms. To frame a formula as generalization we should
know beforehand what element o ught to enter into it. The distinction must
be made between general facts and unique facts. General facts are those
events which are often repeated and are common to a number of men. We
have to determine the character, extent and duration. We unite under t he
same formula all the individual cases which greatly resembles each other
by neglecting the individual difference. In order to fix the precise extent of
a habit we have to know the region where it is most common. The formula
must also indicated the durat ion of the habit. We must look for the
doctrine, usage, institutions and the group.
If we are going to frame a formula as to how a particular custom or
habit has been evolved, we have to take into account the vario us it has
passed through. By comparing all the variations in the habits, it will be
possible to determine the general course of the evolution. All conclusions
confirm to a set pattern and common features indication the stages. Every
habit begins by being t he spontaneous acts of several individuals.
According to B. Shaikh Ali, when others imitate them it becomes the
usage. This is the first stage. Individual initiative is followed by general
imitation and recognition. The usage becomes tradition and is trans formed
into obligatory custom or rule. This is the state of tradition and authority.
Finally in certain societies, the rule is criticized and rational change is
affected. This is the stage of reforms and checks. A historian need to be
able to discern the s tages, find out nature and describe it in suitable terms.
This refers to the general facts which exists in time and spaces. What
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127every stage, and check that with reference to ha bit in other areas and find
the similarities exist in the pattern. If the answer is affirmative then we
can conclude that the behaviroual pattern in almost every case is the same.
If we want to know the factors responsible for war, we need to try to probe
deep human motives, intensions, ambitions, greed.
If we are in need of a formula to describe a character, there are two
natural temptations that we must take care of. One is danger of
constructing a formula out of person’s assertion in regard to himself.
When a person indulge in self -praise we ought to be careful before we
believe in all his claims. The other is risk of using imaginary characters.
Check your Progress :
1)Explain rationality of the generalization of sources.
11.3 IMPORTANCE OF HISTORIOGRAPHICAL
ATTITUDES INFLUENCING THE GENERALIZATION
Some of the historians and sociologists who have undertaken such
wide generalizations are -Karl Marx, Max Weber, Marc Bloch,
FernandBraudel, Eric Hobsbawm, Immanuel Wallerstein, According to
Comte , there was a successive progression of all conceptions and
knowledge through three stages. These stages are in chronological
sequence: the Theological or fictitious; the Metaphysical or abstract; and
the scientific or Positive. Of these three stages the f irst one is the primary
stage through which the human mind necessity necessarily passes. The
second stage is middle, and the third stage is the final and the fixed and
definite state of human understanding. According to him, the first two
stages were now p ast while the third stage, that is, the Positive stage, was
emergent. Comte measured that the Positive stage was dominated by
science and industry. Hence the medieval times concept of God dwells
into history or religious impact on history writing was repud iated by him.
The inductive way, which Comte whispered was applicable in sciences,
consisting of observation of facts, experimentation and then formulation of
common laws, should be applied in the writing of history as well.
According to the Empiricists, the knowledge acquired through
tradition, speculation, theoretical reasoning, or imagination is not the
proper form of knowledge. So, the bodies of knowledge derived from
religious systems, metaphysical speculations, moral preaching and
literature are not verifiable and so not reliable. The Empiricists consider
that the only legitimate form of knowledge is that whose truth can be
verified. Both positivists and empiricists reject the metaphysical,
unobservable, and unverifiable manners of knowledge. John Loc ke,munotes.in

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128George Berkeley, David Hume, and John Stuart Mill were the significant
empiricist historians. The point in their philosophy is that all knowledge
consists of facts derived through experiences and experiences alone. So,
any claimed knowledge of the tran scendental world or any metaphysical
speculations have no foundation in reality. The historians, according to the
Empiricists, should repose their trust in the evidences in relation to the
past that are presented for us by the contemporaries through their sense
impressions and if historians seem at these sources closely, they can
present a true picture of the past.
Ranke whispered that the past should be understood in its own
conditions and not those of the present. The attitudes and behaviour of the
peopl e of the past ages should be discerned by the incisive revise of that
scrupulous era and should not be viewed by the parameters of the
historian‘s own age. Ranke was an Empiricist who whispered that the
knowledge is derived only through the sense experienc e yet Ranke was
also critical towards the sources and did not have blind faith in them.
Marx’s immediate concern was to interpret the contradiction of the
capitalist social formation The economic interpretation of t he capitalist
mode of manufacture is the subject matter of Marx‘s Capital, which Marx
measured to be his lifework. The value of a commodity is determined by
the socially necessary labour time necessary to produce it. Labour power
is a commodity as well as exchanged for wages. The value of labour
power is equal to the value of what is needed for the survival and
maintenance of a worker and his family. The peculiarity of labour power
as a commodity is that it can make more value than what is paid in wages
asits value.
The subaltern historical school is a recent development in
historical writings. Subaltern studies bring to light the lower section of the
society hitherto unknown or neglected by elite historiography. The term
subaltern describes the lower clas ses and the social groups who are at the
margins of society -a subaltern is a person rendered without agency due to
his or her social status .Gayatri Spivak in her work “ Can the Subaltern
Speak?” goes on to elaborate the problems of the category of the subaltern
by looking at the situation of gendered subjects and of Indian women in
particular, for ‘ both as an object of colonialist historiography and as a
subject of insurgency, the ideological construction of gender keeps the
male dominant’. As the subaltern has no history and cannot speak, the
subaltern as female can not have true representation in h istorical accounts.
David Arnold has made a choice of hitherto neglected subjects like tribal
rebellions among the tribal belt and the Madras famine (1876 -78). He also
writes on peasants’ consciousness and actions in contemporary socio -
political circumstan ces. Gyan Pnadey gives an account of peasants' revolt
of Awadh during 1919 -1922 and its impact on Indian nationalism. Stephen
Hemmingham shown the duel nature of revolt in the quit Indian
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129Postmodernism professes skeptical understandings of culture,
literature, art, philosophy, history, economics, architecture, fiction, and
literary criticism. Michel Foucault (1926 —1984) gives us a great
perspective of Postmodern history. He introduced concepts such as
'discursive regime', 'episteme' and ' genealogy,in order to explain the
relationship among meaning, power, and social behavior within social
orders in his writings like The Order of Things, The Archaeology of
Knowledge, Discipline and Punish andThe History of Sexuality.
Check your Progress :
1)Describe the importance of historiographical attitudes influencing the
generatisation of sources.
11.4 IMPORTANCE OF GENERALIZATION
Generalizat ions are inherent in the very arrangement of presenting
historical facts. The historian collects the data of the past and arrange it in
chronological sequence. Where upon its meaning would emerge or reveal
itself. In other languages, the historian‘s task i s only to test the validity of
data or to certify their authenticity, and not to interpret it, i.e., generalize in
relation to it.
The selection of a particular topic or emphasize on a particular
topic is followed automatically or purposely according to the historical
nature of the research. Therefore, every historian selects the material need
to be highlighted. Furthermore, it is not even a question of selection of
facts, for even that assumes that facts are lying before the historian, in a
plate as it w ere. In reality, the historian has to search for them, and that
assumes some principle of selection.
Second, gathered facts have to be arranged and grouped. Both
involve explanation and causation, motivation and impact. In oth er
languages, analysis is vital to history as a discipline. In reality, except in a
very limited sense, information becomes information only as a result of a
generalization. For instance, a zamindar, or a peasant, or a slave, or a
capitalist looks like an information, but is the result of a generalization.
The British referred to the medieval era as an era of Muslim rule,
ancient India as Hindu rule implying the generalization that the religion of
the ruler decides the nature of the rule. But they did not describe their own
rule as Christian rule because this message directly gets spread with the
inherent generalization made by them with the division of the history on
the basis of religion. The emphasis in history on parliamentary speeches
would imply that these were the chief determinants of politics and
government policies. Recorded facts are, in any case, already the productsmunotes.in

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130of the generalization in the minds of persons who recorded them. This is
also true of what and why sure statistics were gathered. Even today, the
facts accounted by newspapers are the result of the generalizing minds of
the reporters, editors, and owners of newspapers.
1) They enable the historian to draw inferences and set up chains of
causation and consequence or effect. In other languages, they enable
him to analyze, interpret, and explain his date.
2) The generalizations lead the historian to see for new facts and sources.
Quite often new sources can be properly grasped only through new
generalizations.
3) Generalizations help a student of history whether in the case of an
essay, a tutorial, a research paper or a book. Generalizations also
enable him to discover out which of his notes are important and
relevant to the theme or subject matter of his research.
4) Generalizations le ad historians to highlight issues for discussion and
debate and to start procedures of fruitful discussion in the middle of
them. Some would agree with the generalizations presented in another
historian‘s work and discover new guides for research and think ing in
them.
Check your Progress :
1)Discuss on the importance of generalization of sources.
11.5 PROBLEMS WITH THE GENERALIZATION
1) In history, every event is unique its own way. But, the information is
that even uniqueness demands comparison. We cannot grasp the unique
unless it is compared with something we know. Otherwise the unique is
unknowable, even unthinkable. In any case, a historian is c oncerned with
the relation fringed by the unique and the common. For instance, the
Indian national revolution is unique but its uniqueness can be grasped only
by comparing it with other recognized revolutions.
2) Many thinkers are of opinion that generali zation as an assertion.
Likewise, several generalizations are inadequately tested. Several are
based on an oversimplification of data and relationships and causation.
Since other nationalist revolutions took to violence, so the Indian national
revolution a lso had to be violent. Since globalization led to
underdevelopment in some countries, it necessarily lead to the similar in
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1313) Measurements is a perfectly scientific procedure. But it can be applied
only with concrete things. The abstract t hings or ideas cannot be measured
in any parameter. It also not helpful in the case of facts of psychological
nature
11.6 INTERPRETATION OF THE HISTORICAL
EVENTS
The historian has to interpret the historical materials in order to
construct the moving pat tern of images in which the form of the historical
process is to be mirrored. And this because the historical record is both too
full and too sparse. On the one hand, there are always more facts in the
record than the historian can possibly include in his narrative
representation of a given segment of the historical process.
11.6.1 Imperialist schools interpretation of India
The imperial attack on Indian culture and civilization is clearly
seen in the books of James Mill. He in his history and the account of
Hindu civilization wrote that Indians are rude and excelled in the qualities
of slaves. In the same way, another British historian Vicent Smith in his
account of Alexander’s invasion on India tried to prove that Europeans
were superior in warfare than Indians. He further says that the perpetual
political chaos in India, their inability to unite and rule themselves
properly made the British rule absolutely permanent in India.
Mountstuar dtElphinst one mentions that the Indian foreign trade was
conducted b y Greeks and the Arabs and the Arabs easily overrun India as
Persia.
British historians often tried to underestimate the Indian culture.
Even they hinted that the Indians might have borrowed their culture from
the Greeks but they did not give any evidenc e to prove it. The Christian
missionaries highlighted deliberately the religious superstition, social
abuses and the practice of Sati in Indian society whereas they
systematically ignored the burning of heretics, practice of slavery, and
serfdom in the Eur opean societies. This led the Indian historians and
philosophers to prepare themselves to defend the imperial attack on their
culture and civilization which generated historical writings, came to be
known as the nationalist school of Indian historiography. There are
differences in the nature, quality and quantity of historical literature in
different ages and different people.
11.6.2 Reinterpretation by Indian nationalist historians
The Indian nationalist school of historiography came into existence
in th e reaction of the prejudices of the British imperialist historiography
against India. The Indian nationalist historiography aimed the most to
search out the national identity in its quest and prove India the most
nationalist state. The rising generation of Indian nationalist historians
infested with the legitimate national pride, tried to vindicate their national
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132historians against Indian nation and nationalism. R.C. Majumdar says tha t
the European historians misunderstood the several points of Indian
national interest and misrepresented them everywhere in their writings.
The Indian historians who so ever corrected them without conflicting with
the scientific approach came to be known as the Indian nationalist
historians.
The Indian nationalist School and its historians like Rajnarain,
Bankim Chandra Chatterjee and Sasadhar Tarkachudasmani defended the
Indian religion and society in their writings. The archaeological researches
carrie d out by Indians as well as European research scholars dispelled the
inferiority of Indian culture and proved that it was far ahead than the
European culture. The British historians tried to underestimate the
political and administrative system in India a t each and every step. They
said that India had several sects and creeds. Therefore, it could not qualify
to be a nation. But historian R.K. Mukharjee in his scholarly thesis, the
‘Fundamental Unity of India’ mentions that religious unity, spiritual
fellow ship among the Hindus and their ideal of an all India empire formed
the basis for Indian nationalism in the past.
11.6.3 Revolt of 1857
There are divergent views and opinion promoted by historian about
the Revolt of 1857. Whether it was premeditated and a result of organized
planning, or it was a spontaneous rising of the sepoys enraged by the issue
of contaminated cartridges. Many writers on this event have also divergent
and contradictory views regarding its nature. The argument is centre
around the questions -whether it was a mutiny or a national war of
independence. A few writers, such as S.B. Chaudhari consider the Revolt
of 1857 as ‘the first combined attempt of many classes of people to
challenge th e foreign power. Though the initiative came from the sepoys,
they call it a civil rebellion. Scholars such as R.C. Majumdar have
expressed the view that the revolt was largely the work of the sepoys,
though the general masses also played part in it. A furt her opinion had
been that the revolt was a national war of independence to drive the
foreign rulers out of the country and to make it completely independent.
To counter the attack of British on India, the Indian historians
began to reinterpret their hist ory and infuse nationalism through out the
country. V.D. Savarkar reinterpreted the history of the uprising of 1857
and called it the first war of Indian independence. S.B. Choudhary’s ‘Civil
Rebellion in the Indian Military 1857 -1859 ’, characterized the uprising of
1857 as the national war of independence. In order to counter the British
propaganda, the Hindu -Muslim differences was a major hurdle. The
process of reinterpretation of Indian history was continued further by
Tarachand, who in his book, ‘Influ ence of Islam on Indian culture’,
professed that the conglomeration of Hindu -Muslim culture cemented
them into Indian nation. Thus, the reinterpretation of Indian history
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13311.6.4 Marxist interpretation
The Marxist school of Indian historiography made conscious
efforts to bring about change in history writing from narrative and
descriptive to explanatory and interpretative. In this process of change
these historians emphasized more on larg e movements and not on events
to prove that interpretation of fact is history and not the mere description
of events.
The interpretation of those historians is derived from the historical
philosophy of Karl Marx, i.e. dialectical materialism. The essence of this
new approach is in the study of the relationship between the social and
economic organization and its effect on historical events. This new trend
did not insist and emphasis on new evidence for example, re -reading of
sources with different sets of questions in Mind. D.D. Kosambi adopted a
comparative method and interdisciplinary techniques of investigation to
study the dead past. He tried to reconstruct the past with the help of
archaeological sources as well as he used his knowledge of Sanskrit an d
etymological analysis to study the Aryan and non -Aryan elements. There
are geographical, topographical and geomorphologic pointers, which
guided him to indicate some of the urban sites.
Bipan Chandra in his ‘India’s Struggle for Independence’ differed
from the imperialist approach of the Cambridge school and the Indian
nationalist school and argued that the Indian national movement was not a
people is movement but a product of the need of the time and interest of
the educated class. He further mentions that Marxist historians call the
Indian national movement as a structured bourgeois movement. In his
‘communalism in modern India’, Bipan Chandra denied that
communalism was a mere historical accident or product of dialectical
conspiracy and says that it was one of the by -products of colonialism.
Communalism is often distorted and misrepresented as social tension and
class conflict but it is an extreme form of reaction to be fought on all
fronts. While analyzing communalism, he says that it remain ed liberal
from 1857 -1937, it became fascist after 1937 based on the politics of
hatred, fear psychosis and irrationality after the world war II, the British
played the communal card and recognized the Muslim League as the sole
advocate of the Muslim caus e.
11.6.5 Economic Interpretation of the Principle of Ahimsa
The historians of the Marxist school of Indian historiography
upheld the principle of ahimsa enjoined by Buddhism and Jainism the two
popular religions originated in the sixth century B.C. and i nterpreted that
there was one of the economic reasons behind this principle. D.D.
Kosambi on the evidence of Pali stories of royal fire sacrifices says that as
the Vedic rituals prescription large scale cattle were slaughtered, which
resulted in an incredi ble scarcity of cattle on the new iron -plough
agriculture in the Ganga basin. As a matter of fact this iron -plough
agriculture needed preservation of and augmentation of cattle wealth to
produce agricultural surpluses to feed the urban population. Kosambi
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134by requisition of increasing number of animals free of cost for Yadnya,
Jainism and Buddhism out fashioned the practice of animal sacrifice ,
cattle killing and beef -eating by t abooing it in the sixth century B.C.
11.6.6. Interpretation of caste
Irfan Habib in his Interpreting Indian History emphasized on the
interpretation and not a narration of history. He says that interpretation of
the past is necessary because the facts on which historians treat the
evidence of the past cannot recreate and verify those events. The evidence
for the past is little and keeps wide blanks. These blanks could be filled up
by understanding how societies operate and what people are motivated by
and capable of doing various things in various situations. Thus the
interpretation with the help of personal judgment and erudition of the
historian helps to understand history in a better way. In the same work, he
says that the medieval Indian economy was a s eparate social formation
different from the feudal economy on the basis of labor process, extraction
of surplus value and the distribution of surplus production. Irfan Habib in
his another work ‘Caste and Money in Indian History’ says that caste was
the mo st rigid form it division of labor, formed the part and the relations
with production. The chief beneficiaries of this rigorous form of class
exploitation were the ruling classes of the nobility and zamindars in the
medical Indian society.
11.6.7 Interpre tation of Akbar’s policies
In 1589 -1590, Akbar ordered Abul Fazal to compile the history of
his reign, beginning with an explanation of Babur and Humayun. A bureau
was recognized in which competent people were employed to assist Abul
Fazal. The whole archi val material was placed at the compiler’s disposal.
The whole archival material was placed at the compiler‘s disposal. He
presents Akbar as cosmic man, entrusted by God with sway in excess of
outward form and inner meaning, the exoteric and esoteric. His m ission is
said to liberate people from orthodoxy, lead them to the truth, and make an
atmosphere of concord so that people following dissimilar sects could live
in peace and harmony. He was shown as a light emanating from God.
Akbar employed Badauni to tr anslate Mahabharat from Sanskrit
into Persian. Badauni was also a keen student of history and literature. It is
Badauni‘s second volume that needs to be studied beside with Abul Fazl‘s
Akbarnama to have a proper understanding of Akbar’s reign. Badauni
does not gloss in excess of any uncomfortable question on Akbar‘s skill as
an administrator. For instance, Badauni records the failure of the karori
experience and the disaster it caused. Abul fazal is generous in praising
Akbar whereas Badauni is highly criti cal of Akbar’s religious policy.
11.6.8 Interpretation of the Hindvi Swarajya of Chhatrapati Shivaji
Maharaj
There are various cultural interpretations about the Hindvi
Swarajya founded by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj. Hindvi Swaraj is a
term for socio -political movements seeking to remove foreign military and
political influences from India. The political activeness of Maharashtramunotes.in

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135from the seventeenth century, the ideal of king Shivaji, and the impact of
modern education among the leaders were favourable for the emergence of
a distinctive nationalistic feeling in Maharashtra. Jotirao Phule, Bal
Gangadhar Tilak, V. D. Savarkar, V. K. Rajwade and many other thinkers
and historians have presented their interpretations regarding the Swarajya
founded by King Sh ivaji. Jotirao Phule described king Shivaji as
kulwadibhushan which literary means the king who worked for cultivators
and common people. Jotirao published his Ballad on Shivaji in June 1869.
The title of the ballad was Life of Shivaji in poetical metre . Jotirao rejected
the existing image of Shivaji as the protector of cows and Brahmins. He
was the king of masses. According to Phule, Shivaji was the Bahujan king
working for the benefit of entire subjects.
Noted historian Jadunath Sarkar notes in his Shivaji and His
Times -King Shivaji’s religious policy was very liberal. Narhar Kurundkar
has put forwards an analysis of Chhatrapati Shivaji as the Preface to
Shrimaan Yogi -Shivaji was religious; but he was not a fanatic. V. D.
Savarkar was amongst the ve ry first ones who projected Shivaji as a
national hero of Hindus. This was in line with his philosophy of
Hindutva. With his writings and his oratory, He created a predominantly
Hindu image of Shivaji for the polarization of Hindus to support his
ideolog y.
Check your Progress :
1)Examine the process of interpretation of historical events.
11.7 SUMMARY
Generalization and interpretation of the historical sources are the
key components of the historical writings. Generalizations promote a
search for fresh supporting or countervailing evidence regarding them.
Participants can at the most refute or add to th e facts presented in the
paper. Interpretation of the past in the words of a historian. It is a scholarly
study of what happened in the past without being judgmental or
subjective. The main job of a historian is to record the information and
facts based up on narratives of the past and recollect the entire sequence of
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13611.8 REFERENCES
1)B. Sheik Ali, History: Its Theory and Methods , Macmillan pub. Delhi,
1978.
2)R. G. Collingwood, the Principles of History and Other Writings in
Philosophy of History (ed. William H. Dray and W. J. van der
Dussen), 2001.
3)A. R. Kulkarni, Maharashtra in the age of Shivaji, Diamond
publication.
4)J. N. Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times.
5)https://www.scribd.com/document/207725086/Hist oriography
11.9 QUESTIONS
1) Explain the importance of generalization in history writing.
2) Enumerate the role of interpretation and generalization in history.
3) Give a brief account of factors responsible for interpretation of the
history sources.

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137Unit -12
CITATION METHODS, BIBLIOGRAPHY
AND TECHNICAL AIDS
Unit Structure :
12.0 Objectives
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Importance of Citation and Referencing
12.3 Right Method of citation
12.4 Bibliography
12.5 Care to be taken while giving a bibliography
12.6 Technical aids
12.7 Summary
12.8 References
12.9 Questions
12.0 OBJECTIVES
After the completion of this unit the student will be able to
Understand the rational and various methods of citations .
Explain the importance of referencing and various types of it .
Graspthe importance and care to be taken in bibliography .
Understand the contribution of technical aids in history .
12.1 INTRODUCTION
Acitation is a way of giving credit to individuals for their creative
and intellectual works that you utilized to support your research. It can
also be used to locate particular sources and combat plagiarism. Typically,
a citation can include the author's name, date, and location of the
publishing company, jou rnal title. Acitation style dictates the information
necessary for a citation and how the information is ordered, as well as
punctuation and formatting.
Academic institutions and scientific publications demand
references for all sources used in the cours e of writing. Students and
researchers often view this as a complicated process that requires too
much time and effort. The complexity of this exercise, to the students,
increases as there are various types of information materials consulted in
the course of writing their research and related assignments. Information
materials that could be cited or referenced to such research writingsmunotes.in

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138include all print and non -print materials such as books, journals,
magazines, newspapers, reports, students’ projects (like theses and
dissertations), dictionaries, encyclopedias, letters, lecture/class notes,
posters, manuals, brochure, directories and, photographs. Other
electronic resources include web pages, social network text, archived e -
mails and m essages, online audio and video files.
12.2 IMPORTANCE OF CITATION AND
REFERENCING
The followings are valid reasons why a student or researcher
must refer to, quote and cite sources in his or her research writing:
1)It is an evidence that research is based on facts. Citations to sources
help readers expand their knowledge on a topic. One of the most effective
strategies for locating authoritative, relevant sources about a topic is to
review footnotes or references from known s ources.
2) It shows the theoretical foundation of the research and, therefore, you
are reporting your research from an informed and critically engaged
perspective. The list of sources used increases your credibility as the
author of the work. If you disa gree with a researcher's ideas or you
believe there is a gap in understanding the research problem, your
citations can serve as sources from which to argue an alternative
viewpoint or the need to pursue a different course of action.
3) It justifies the re liability of the research findings and conclusion .
Properly citing sources prevents your reputation from being tarnished
if the facts or ideas of those cited are proven to be inaccurate or off -
base. It prevents readers from concluding that you ignored or
dismissed the findings of others, even if they are disputed.
4) It allows interested readers to track and follow the cited works for the
continuance of knowledge. In academic and the professional world, failure
to cite other people's intellectual property ruins careers and reputations
and can result in legal action. Citing sources as a student in college will
help you get in the habit of acknowledging and properly citing the work
of others.
Check your Progress :
1)Write a note on importance of citation and referencing in historical
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13912.3 RIGHT METHOD OF CITATION
Academic faculties require different referencing method. This is
also the case with scientific Journals and other professional publications.
Thestudent orresearcher should first determine the requirement of his or
her department, faculty or professional body. Ostentatiously, and in the
ambit of this chapter, some of the academic departments or disciplines and
the referencing m ethod they usually subscribe to are presented in the table
below
Sr. Methods Disciplines
1 Harvard Method All Language Studies, History,
Arts, and Literary studies,
Theology, Sociology,
Criminology, etc.
2 APA Method Social and behavioral sciences
such as Education L ibrary and
Information Science,
management Sciences, Nursing,
other behavioural and Social
Science disciplines.
3 MLA Method Linguistics and Literary
Subjects
APA (American Psychological Association) method examples
Following are the examples of some references in the form of
footnote or endnote.
An article in a print journal -Ernest Renan (1994), ‘Qu’est -
cequ’une nation?’ from Oxford Readers Nationalism , edited by John
Hutchinson and Anthony D. Smith, Oxford University Press, New York,
A book -Gail Omvedt (1976), Cultural Revolt In Colonial Society:
The Non Brahmin Movement In Western India 1873 to 1930 , scientific
Socialist Education Trust, Bombay.
MLA (Modern Language Association) style is used by the Humanities
Book in print -Omvedt, Gail. Cultural Revolt In Colonial Society: The
Non Brahmin Movement In Western India 1873 to 1930 , scientific
Socialist Education Trust, Bombay, 1976.
An article in a print journal -Renan ,Ernest .‘Qu’est -cequ’une nation?’
from Oxford Readers Nationalism, edited by John Hutchinson and
Anthony D. Smith, Oxford University Press, New York, 1994.munotes.in

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14012.3.1 Citation Methods in the written Text
There are four means according to which a student or research er
can cite a source or reference during scientific writing.
1) Referencing to the Sources: This is done by placing the citation in
brackets in the text at the precise place where the event occurs.
2) Content Referencing: Content referencing is used within the text to
provide additional explanation or discussion. The content referencing
is used to
i.Acquaint the reader to other sources that can offer more
information on a specific topic
ii.Elucidate information in the text, for example by providing more
inform ation on people or places, explain foreign words, etc.
iii.Make available extra information that, although important, cannot
be included in the text without disrupting its flow
iv.Expand on a standpoint
12.3.2 Methods of notes
Endnotes and footnotes
Endnot es appear on a separate page at the end of the
research project. They are indicated in the text by means of
superscript (raised Arabic numerals). Endnotes are more cumbersome
than footnotes because the reader has to page back and fort h to obtain the
information.
Advantages of Using Endnotes
1)Endnotes are less distracting to the reader and allow the narrative to
flow better.
2)Endnotes don't clutter up the page.
3)As a separate section of a research paper, endnotes a llow the reader to
read and contemplate all the notes at once.
Footnotes appear at the bottom of a page and are separated from
the last line of text by additional space or a line, or a smaller font. They
are also indicated in the text through superscript, which are preferably
placed at the end of the sentence and usually after the punctuate Essential
Components of Every Reference Generally, references to all kinds of
information sources have to contain some essential components
(bibliographic r ecords). The essence is to give all the information as
completely as possible to allow the reader to trace the correct sources.
12.3.3 Advantages of Using Footnotes
1)Readers interested in identifying the source or note can quickly glance
down the pa ge to find what they are looking for.
2)It allows the reader to immediately link the footnote to the subject of
the text without having to take the time to find the note at the back of
the paper.
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141Things to keep in mind when considering using either endnotes or
footnotes in your research paper:
1) Footnotes are numbered consecutively throughout a research paper,
except for those notes accompanying special material (e.g., figures , tables,
charts, etc.) Arabic numbers typed slightly above the line of text. Do not
include periods, parentheses, or slashes. They can follow all punctuation
marks except dashes. In general, to avoid interrupting the continuity of the
text, footnote numbe rs are placed at the end of the sentence, clause, or
phrase containing the quoted or paraphrased material.
2) Depending on the writing style used in your class, endnotes may take
the place of a list of resources cited in your paper or they may represent
non-bibliographic items, such as comments or observations, followed by a
separate list of references to the sources you cited and arranged
alphabetically by the author's last name. If you are unsure about how to
use endnotes, consult with your professor.
3) In general, the use of footnotes in most academic writing is now
considered a bit outdated and has been replaced by endnotes, which are
much easier to place in your paper, even with the advent of word
processing programs. However, some disciplines, suc h as law and history,
still predominantly utilize footnotes. Consult with your professor about
which form to use and always remember that, whichever style of citation
you choose, apply it consistently throughout your paper.
12.3.4 Abbreviation in footnote and endnotes.
There are two main types of information sources: print and non -
print sources. Thefirsttime any book or article is mentioned in a footnote,
all the information requested above must be provided. After that,
however, there are shortcuts tha t should be used.
If there several quotations in sequence from the same book, the
abbreviation to be used is Ibid. a Latin word meaning "in the same place."
(Notice that Ibid. is not underlined). Ibid. can be used by itself, if you are
referring to the same page as the previous footnote does, or it can be
combined with a page number or numbers.
Print Sources
The components that constitute each reference entry for print
sources include
1) Author or Authors
2) The date of publication
3) Title of the book
4) Edition
5) Place of publication
6) Publisher
7) Volume, number and/or page numbers
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142To accurately cite and reference electronic sou rces of
information, the following basic information (which must appear in
every likely credible electronic material) must be clearly visible where
available
1) Name of the Author or Editor (If provided in source)
2)Title of the page or art icle
3)Title of the web page.
4)Type of medium (for example electronic journal, online)
5) Date on which the website was updated or the copyright date
6)full internet address
7)Date on which the website was accessed
Check your Progress :
1)Explain the advantages of footnotes and endnotes in historical
research.
12.4 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Abibliography is a listing of all the sources used when researching
a paper. Generally speaking, a bibliography is a list of book s on a
particular topic or subject prepared for the reference of a particular library
user. You may include texts that you have not referred to directly in your
work, but which have had an influence on your ideas. If you find you have
a lot of works that a re not referred to directly though, you may wish to
look back over your work and check that all of the ideas are fully
referenced. In most c ases, a bibliography is a single alphabetically -ordered
list of all the sources used, regardless of format. So books, journal articles
and websites would all be listed together. This list appears in a separate
section at the end of the paper and includes s uch information as the
author(s), title, editor, and date of publication.
12.4.1 Rational of Bibliographies
The need of bibliography is to organize information about
materials on a given subject so that students of the subject may have
access to it. A d escriptive bibliography may take the form of information
about a particular author's works or about works on a given subject or on a
particular nation or period. Critical bibliography, which emerged in the
early 20th century, involves meticulous descriptio ns of the physical
features of books, including the paper, binding, printing, typography, and
production processes used, to help establish such facts as printing dates
and authenticity. Thus a bibliography is a list of books or articles related
by way of a uthorship or subject, and sometimes annotated. Largemunotes.in

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143bibliographies may be published as books in their own right. One of the
purposes of a bibliographic entry is to give credit to other authors whose
work one has consulted in research. Another objective of a bibliography is
to make it easy for a reader to find the source which has been used.
Bibliography is an important source of information for a research scholar.
It serves as a ready reference and directs him or her towards the right kind
of material whic h helps in research and studies. Bibliography helps in
organizing research material properly and saves the time of user.
Preparing a bibliography is a specialized job and requires some knowledge
and understanding of the subject.
12.5 CARE TO BE TAKEN WHIL E GIVING A
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1)Primary and secondary sources should be listed in separate sections.
Each section should be labelled "Primary Sources" or "Secondary
Sources." Journal articles and encyclopaedia articles should be listed
with secondary source s.
2)Entries are placed in alphabetical order under each author’s last name.
Because ancient and medieval authors usually do not have a last name,
you should generally list them under their first name.
3)Each entry should be single -spaced within the entry. It should be
separated from the next entry by a blank line. Information within in
each citation is separated by periods.
4)The first line of each entry should begin at the left margin. Each
subsequent line should be indented spaces from the left margin.
5)When listing more than one item by the same author, it is not
necessary to write the author’s name twice so long as the author’s
name has been printed in exactly the same way for each work (which
is not always the case). For each subsequent re ference in the
bibliography, type five dashes and a period to begin the entry. Some of
the examples of bibliography mentioned below.
12.5.1 Primary sources
Primary sources are the pieces of evidence that historians use to
learn about people, events, and everyday life in the past. Just like
detectives, historians look at clues, through evidence, and reach
conclusions. Diaries, letters, certificates of birth, death, or marriage, deeds,
contracts, constitutions, laws, court records, tax records, census recor ds,
wills, inventories, treaties, report cards, medical records, passenger lists,
passports, visas, naturalization papers, and military enlistment or
discharge papers can be considered as primary sources.
Letters
Memoirs
Court Writings
Private Records
Government documents
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144Records of the Historical Families and Private Papers
Interview
Questionnaire
Maps and Photo Copies
I.Files from Maharashtra State Archives, Mumbai
Educational Department Files of Government of Bombay.
E. D. Vol. No . 1, Compilation -35, 1825.
E. D. Vol. No. 2, 1826.
E. D. Vol. No. 3, 1827.
Home Department Files of Government of Bombay.
H. D. (Spl.) File No 575, 1922.
H. D. (Spl.) File No 363 (5), 1928.
General Department Files of Government of Bombay.
G. D. Vol. No. 3/809, 1844.
G. D. Vol. No. 4/810, 1844.
II. Official Publications
Report of The Director Public Instruction, 1857 -1858, Bombay,
Published in 1859.
Selections from the records of The Bombay Government No. CXXXII,
New Series, Poona, 1873.
IV. Newspapers And Periodicals
Nibandhmala (Marathi) (1974 to 1978)
Deenbandhu (Marathi) (1877 to 1879)
Dinmitra (Marathi) ( 1888) and (1910 -1911)
SubodhPatrika (Marathi) (1867 to 1868)
12.5.2 Secondary Sources
I.Books
Agarkar Gopal Ganesh, Nivdak Lekhva Dongaritil Turungatil Amache
101 Divas (in Marathi), Samanvay Prakashan, Kolhapur, 2012.
Dr. Ambedkar B. R., TheBudha and His Dhamma , Oxford University
Press, 2011.
Ayer A. J., Voltaire , Faber and Faber, London 1988.
Bagade Umesh, Maharashtratil Prabodhanani Vargjat iprabhutv (in
Marathi) ,S u g a v a Prakashan, Pune, 2006.
Bagade Umesh, Maharashtra Charitra Granthmala Sanch -Mahatma
Jotirao Phule (in Marathi), Shri Gandharva Ved Prakashan, Pune,
2010.
Bayly Susan, The New Cambridge History of India: Caste, Society and
Politics in India from the Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age ,
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145II.Journals and Periodicals
Critical Enquiry
Economic and Political Weekly
Encyclopedias
The New Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. 8, 17 and 25 , (Micropedia),
15thedition, London, 1974.
IV. Articles
1) Bagade Umesh, ‘ Mahatma Jotirao Phulyanche Dharamchintan’(in
Marathi), Sanshodhan Mandal , Fourth Issue, October -December 1993,
Dhule.
2)Bhagwat Vidyut, ‘A Review of the Women’ s Movement in
Maharashtra’, Paramarsh , May 1989.
12.5.3 Internet Sources
1) Steven Kreis, The History Guide: Lectures on Ancient and Medieval
European I, www.historyguide.org/ancient/lecture8b. html/ Date-
11/09/2013, 09.30 am.
2) Dr. C. George Boeree, The Ancient Greeks, part one: The Pre -
Socratics ,webspa ce.ship.edu/cgboer/greeks.html,date -13/09/2013,
02.02pm.
3)http://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/epgpdata/uploads/epgp_content/library_and_i
nformation_science/social_science_information_s ystems/09.reference_sou
rces____bibliographies,_indexes_and__abstracts/et/2158_et_m9.pdf
12.5.4 Other component of Bibliography
Abbreviations
An abbreviation (from Latin brevi s, meaning short) is a shortened
form of a word or phrase. It consists of a group of letters taken from the
word or phrase. For example, the word abbreviation can itself be
represented by the abbreviation.
Some examples of abbreviations
art.-article
cat.-catalogue
cf.-compare
ed.-edited by, editor
edn-edition
e.g.-for example
etc.-and so forth, and so on
ibid. -in the same place
i.e.-that ismunotes.in

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146ISBN -Inter National Standard Book Number
n.d-no date of publication
n.p-no place of p ublication
op.cit -in the work cited, such as a publication referred to earlier, but not
in the immediately preceding footnote.
p.-page
pp-pages
trans -translated by, translator
viz-that is to say, namely
vol-volume
12.5.5 Appendices
An appendix or appendices (more than one item) is information
that is not essential to be mentioned findings in the essay or report that you
have written. Appendices are used when the incorporation of material in
the body of the work would make it poorly s tructured or too long and
detailed. Along with above mentioned component there are many other
things related with research that can be a part of Bibliography such as
charts, tables, maps, glossary, photos etc. used widely for teaching
learners of all ages. For adult learning focused on employability and
experiential learning programs, technical aids are essential.
Apart from traditional teaching aids and tools, a wide range
of audio/visual/technological aids and tools are being used in the
teaching -learning process. The use of technological devices or gadgets
(Television LCD/Film Projector, Film Strips, Tablet, or Computer) in
the classrooms, seminars or conferences is a successful and
comfortable enviro nment to the learners as well as teachers. n the
present days many different varieties of aids and tools are available.
They may be classified three groups an the present days many
different varieties of aids and tools are avai lable.
Check your Progress :
1)Explain how care to be taken while giving bibliography.
12.6 TECHNICAL AIDS
1)Internet archives
Web archiving provides social scientists and digital humanities
researchers with a data source that enables the study of a wealth of
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147of the World Wide Web is the Internet Archive ( IA) project, which
maintains the largest repository of archived data in the world.
Understanding the quality of archived data and the completeness of each
record of a single website is a central issue for scholarly research, and yet
there is no standard re cord of the provenance of digital archives. Indeed,
although present day records tend to be quite accurate, archived Web
content deteriorates as one moves back in time. The Web Archives for
Historical Research (WAHR) group has the goal of linking history a nd big
data to give historians the tools required to find and interpret digital
sources from web archives.
2)Word Cat
Find items from 10,000 libraries worldwide, with books, DVDs,
CDs, and articles up for grabs. You can even find your closest library wi th
World Cat’s tools.
3)Google Books
Google Books (previously known as Google Book Search and
Google Print and by its codename Project Ocean is a service from Google
Inc.that searches the f ull text of books and magazines that Google has
scanned, converted to text using optical character recognition (OCR), and
stored in its digital dat abase. Books are provided either by publishers and
authors, through the Google Books Partner Program, or by Google's
library partners, through the Library Project. Additionally, Google has
partnered with a number of magazine publishers to digitize their ar chives.
4)Ancient India –The British Museum
The British Museum’s online offerings are impressive. The
Ancient Civilizations website highlights the achievements of some
remarkable world civilizations and explo re cross -cultural themes of human
development. Explore the people, culture, beliefs, and history of ancient
India using animations, 3D models and objects from The British
Museum’s collections.
Audio visual sources
The audio record includes the speeches o f great personalities
photographs, film, video, paintings, drawings, cartoons, prints, designs,
and three -dimensional art such as sculpture and architecture and can be
categorized as fine art or documentary record. Some visual resources are
one-of-a-kind, while others are reproduced (like prints or illustrations in
books and magazines).
Films
Towards the experimental film, which portrays social reality in a
departure from narrative history, we can easily adopt a favourable attitude.
For instance, films hi ghlighting systemic exploitation, the underworld,
wage slavery, the emotional trauma of women or problems of migrant
workers and the unemployed need not fictionalize history -that is the stuff
history is made of in any case. They are necessary to draw our attention to
many emotions that written history either ignores or cannot express. Amunotes.in

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148film like Satyjit ray’s ‘Shatranj Kekhiladi’ for example, is at once
historical in its focus on an anarchical rule in a region of North India and
socio -cultural in its pre sentation.
Check your Progress :
1)Write a note on the various supportive technical aids for research.
12.7 SUMMARY
Academic institutions and scientific publications demand
references for all sources used in the course of writing. Bibliographies can
organize citations in a helpful manner and make it possible to find relevant
information quickly. The best bibliographies provide subject grouping to
give some indication of the schema of the discipline with a keyword index
for quick access . The need of bibliography is to organize information
about materials on a given subject so that students of the subject may have
access to it. The use of technological devices or gadgets in the
classrooms, seminars or conferences is a successfu l and comfortable
environment to the learners as well as teachers. In the present days
many different varieties of aids and tools are available.
12.8 REFERENCES
1)Wilkinson and Bhandenkar : Methodology and Techniques of Social
Research , Himalaya Publishing House, Mumbai 1977.
2)Kumar Ranjit, Research Methodology Ed.2, Pearson Education, 2006.
3)B. Sheik Ali, History: Its Theory and Methods , Macmillan pub. Delhi,
1978.
4)Goode and Hatt, Methods in Social Research, McGraw Hill Boo k
Company, 1981 .
5)https://www.researchgate.net/publication/292869655_BIBLIO GRAPH
C_CITATION_AND_REFERENCING_METHOD
12.9 QUESTIONS
1)Explain the importance of citation with its various methods.
2)Describe the referencing methods and care to be taken while
referencing the source.
3)What are the components of bibliography?
4)Explain the importance of technical aids in history.
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149Unit -13
QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE
METHODS IN HISTORY
Unit Structure :
13.0 Objectives
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Qualitative and Quantitative Approach in history
13.3 Methods of Data collection in Qualitative research
13.4 Methods of Data collection in Quantitative Research
13.5 Usage of Qualitative and Quantitative methods
13.6 Summary
13.7 References
13.8 Questions
13.0 OBJECTIVES
After the completion of this unit the student will be able to
Understand the component of Qualitative and Quantitative Methods in
History
Grasp the Qualitative and Quantitative approaches in history
Understand the methods of data collection in Qualitative and
Quantitative
Comprehend the use of Qualitative and Quantitative in Histo rical
research
13.1 INTRODUCTION
Quantitative research is generally carried by means of scientific
methods, which can include -the generation of models, theories and
hypothesis. The development of devices and methods for measurement. In
qualitative rese arch it is proposed to find out what the people think or feel
about a certain event, person or institution. The aim of qualitative research
is to discover the objects and desires which lead people to behave in a
particular way on given situation. Qualitati ve research is mostly associated
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15013.2 QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE APPROACH
IN HISTORY
Qualitative Approach is what most common man think of as
history. The consequential history is organized chronologica lly and
presented as a factual tale as a reading text book such as biographies of
historical personalities. The sources of the qualitative history range from
manuscripts such as account book, school records, letters, diaries and
memories to imprints such a s text book, children’s books, journals, and
other books of the period under consideration.
Quantitative history is the term for an array of skills and
techniques used to apply the methods of statistical data analysis to the
study of history. The term was popularized in the 1950s and 1960s as
social, political and economic historians called for the development of a
‘social science history’, adopted methods from the social sciences, and
applied those to historical problems. These historians also called for social
scientists to historicize their research and consciously examine the
temporal nature of the social phenomena they explored. The historians
found that they needed to develop new methodical skills and data sources.
That effort led to an array of activ ities to encourage quantitative history.
Quantitative history is animated by similar goals but takes as its
subject the cumulative historical patterns of manifold events or
phenomena. Such a standpoint creates a diverse set of issues for analysis.
A stan dard historical enquiry, for example, may treat an election as a
single event. Quantitative historians consider a particular election as one
element in the universe of all elections and are interested in patterns which
characterize the universe or several units within it. The life -course patterns
of one household or family may be conceived as one element in the
aggregate patterns of family history for a nation, region, social class or
ethnic group. Recurring phenomena from the past that leave written
record s, which read one at a time would be insignificant, are particularly
useful if they can be combined, planned, converted to an electronic
database and analyzed for statistical patterns. Thus records such as census
schedules, vote tallies, vital (e.g., birth , death and marriage) records; or the
ledgers of business sales, ship crossings, or slave sales; or crime reports
permit the historian to retrieve the pattern of social, political, and
economic activity in the past and reveal the aggregate context and
structures of history. The standpoint of quantitative history also required a
new set of abilities and techniques for historians.
Quantitative research is based upon measurement of quantity and
is usually applied to subjects like export, import, population, consumption
and so forth, which can be calculated in terms of quantity. In social
sciences, quantitative research refers to the systematic empirical
investigation of social phenomena with the support of numerical,
scientific, or computational methods. The objective of quantitative
research is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories and ormunotes.in

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151hypothesis about particular phenomena. The process of quantity or
measure is central to quantitative research because it provides the
fundamental connection be tween empirical observation and mathematical
expression of quantitative relationships.
The qualitative research aims to gather an in depth understanding
of human behaviour and reason that govern such behaviour. In qualitative
researches the following met hods used to gather information such as
participant observation, structured interview, unstructured interview, field
notes and analysis of documents and materials. The most frequently used
qualitative research approaches includes the following:
Check you r Progress :
1)Define the qualitative and quantitative approach in history.
13.3 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION IN
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
a) Participant Observation (Ethnography) b) Case Study c) Focused Group
d) Content Analysis e) interview open ended
13.3.1 Participant Observation (Ethnography)
In this method, the observer himself participates in the activities of
the group which he is studying. Because of the participation of the
observer this is known as participant observation. It is not necessary for
the observer to identify himself with the group or actively take part in all
the acts. But he has to be physically present while the members of the
group perform their activities. Generally, participant observation is kind of
uncontrolled observation, in which the researcher may or may not reveal
his identity. This methods allows observation of the individual’s behavior
in the most natural condition secondly, the researcher has access to a body
of information which would not have been easily obtained by observer as
an outsider.
Researcher has the privilege of being part of the group. He gets to
share the feelings, emotions and behavior of the group. He gets to share
the feelings, emotions and behavior of the group members (subjects) and
thus records it more accurately. He is able to see not only t he actions or
behavior of the people but is also able to know why and under what
situation subjects act or behave in a given manner. Participant observation
also allows the researcher to check the truth of statements made by the
members of the group. Parti cipant observation though is an effective
method of data collection, it has its own limitations with greater degree of
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152other members of the group. This can kill investigator’s abi lity in the
group to the extent that he may forget observe certain relevant aspects of
human behavior. Affiliation with the group can also make the researcher
bias or partial towards a particular subgroup therefore hammering
scientific accuracy. In a parti cipant observation, researcher is forced to
occupy a particular position. This limits the scope of the observer to study
the phenomenon fully moreover, if the researcher comes to occupy and
strategic position in a group, he generally end up bringing about changes
in group dynamics therefore bullying the purpose of data collection.
13.3.2 Case Study method
P. V. Young defines case study as a comprehensive study of a
social unit, be it a person, a group of person, a institution, or an
community is called a case study, According to Goode and Hatt, “it is an
approach which views any social unit as a whole. It is a way of organizing
social data so as to preserve the unitary character of the social object being
studied.” the case study method is qualitative, inc lusive, intensive, insight
stimulating and comprehensive approach. The field study is comparatively
limited but has more of depth in it. It aims at studying everything rather
than something about everything as in case of statistical method. In other
words, it is study of Micro problem at macro level. The approach to a case
study research may not be based on hypothecs is or on any well -
established conclusions but the study itself may help in formulating a
well-founded hypothesis for further investigation. Th is approach to
research is , therefore, an open and objective investigation of a particular
unit with a view to develop a hypothesis in character so the researcher has
complete freedom in selecting problem that be considered as describe and
fruit bearing.
Stages in Case Study
The case study is often termed as method, sometimes as technique
and at others an approach to social reality. It is in fact, a technique which
considers all potential aspects of situation intensively investigating it. The
technique of gathering and processing data are related to three phases, viz
1) Choice of case 2) Recording of data 3) Data interpretation
The choice of case consists of two elements, first selection of
representative unit. Representative ness of the case is importa nt with a
view to studying as a specimen in a culture rather than as a definite entity,
for eg -the factors which are influencing the successful functioning of the
co-operative bank, it is needless to say that a representative group of the
sample -Second, identifying the situation thought case unit has an outlook,
the problem must be selected carefully and well defined the situation of
the case unit being studied. Organizing the social data in such a way to
preserve the unitary character of the social aim w hich is the essential
feature in recording of data. In practical sense, the wholeness of case can
be preserved as Goode and Hatt started, in for headings namely, 1)Breadth
of data, 2)Level of data, 3)formation of indices, 4)Interaction in a time
dimension. The interpretation of data is a equally and challenging as the
selection of the case and gathering information about the case. Themunotes.in

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153researcher must closely guard against the subjective interpretation of the
facts of a case being studied.
Significance of c ase study
A thorough study and careful analysis can derive various
generalizations which may be developed into useful hypothesis. A study
of relevant literature and case study are the two potent sources of
hypothesis. It helps in framing questionnaire or s chedule. It aids in
sampling, by studying the individual units thoroughly. It locate deviant
cases. The deviant case are those units that behave against the proposed
hypothesis .The tendency is to ignore them but for scientific analysis they
are important . Case study method enlarge the range of personal experience
of the researcher In statistical method, generally a narrow range of topic is
selected and the researcher’s knowledge is limited to the particular aspect
only. In case of case study, the whole of range of subjective life is studied
and the range of knowledge is naturally enlarged.
13.3.3 Content analysis
This approach uses published works as its data and subject them to
careful analysis that usually includes both quantitative and qualitative
aspect content analysis has been particularly useful in investigating
construct such as race caste etc. Content analysis is a research technique
for making inferences by objectively and systematically identifying
specified characteristic of content of documen t this a method of collection
and analysis this used to gathering data from archival records document,
newspapers diaries, letters minute of meeting and they like the content of
the written material serves as a basis of inference the analysis is made
objec tively and systematically. Objectivity refers to making analysis on
the basis of explicit roles which enable different researcher to obtain the
same result from the same documents systematic analysis refer to making
inclusion or exclusion of content accord ing to consistently applied criteria
of selection. Only materials relevant to research hypothesis are examined.
Purpose of the content analysis
Content analysis is used for various purposes such as
1) To understand the role of mass media in moulding publ ic opinion on
occasion like general election
2) The study newspaper stand toward current issue like sati, terrorism in
Punjab, India’s peace keeping force role in Srilanka etc.
3) To determine the philosophy of social reformers like Jotirao Phule, Dr.
Babasaheb Ambedkar ,Ramaswami Periyar
4) To determine social literatures.
5) To measures behavior variables like need values, attitudes,
authoritarism, creativity and so enough and analysis of both available
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1546) To study t he propaganda techniques adopted by propaganda its to
influence the public Content analysis of available materials should not
be used indiscriminately. If a researcher can gather data directly
through interviewing or projective techniques so much be the be tter if
there is no such possibility then available can be used.
Check your Progress :
1)Describe the various methods of data collection in qualitative research.
13.4 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION IN
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
a) Questionnaire b) Interview Schedule c) Scaling Techniques -Social
Distance, Sociometry, Survey
13.4.1 Questionnaire
Questionnaire is one of the important tools of data collection. It
secures standardized result that can be tabulated and tested statistic ally.
Questionnaire is a set of questions. Generally it is mailed to the
respondents of collecting data. It is employed when the area of study is
wide and the subjects are widely dispersed. In this method the researcher
does not collect the data by himself . He relies on the information provided
by the respondents.
Types of Questionnaire
1) Structured Questionnaire -This questionnaire is named before the study
is started and it is not possible to change it offer beginning the study.
2) Non Structured Questionnaire -This kind of Questionnaire is used more
like a guide. It consists of definite subject matter areas, the coverage of
which is required during the process of data collection. It is generally
used in the technique of intervie w in which case it is called an
interview schedule.
Questionnaire can also classified on the basis of nature of the
questions that it contains. They are closed, open, pictorial and mixed.
Closed questionnaire usually contains itemized answers to the ques tions
being asked various alternatives to the real answer are also given. The
respondent is only to select the answer and put it down. Open
Questionnaire is just the reverse of the closed questionnaire. It is used in
the cases where new facts are to be fou nd out. The respondent is given the
liberty to express his views freely. Pictorial questionnaire is similar to
closed types of questionnaire. Mixed questionnaire is neither completely
closed non open. It consist of both the type of questions. Since it is
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155Care to be taken in preparing questionnaire
1)The questionnaire has to be drawn up in a scientific manner. The
framer of questionnaire should keep certain things in view will
constructing this device. In this method the respondent gives his
answers from a distance.
2)A questionnaire should be contain a large number of questions. If there
are two many questionnaire, generally respondents loose interest and
start giving irrelevant answers. Thus a questionnaire should neither be
too long non to brief.
3)One should not include two or more question in one.
4) Questions should be carefully structured in order to minimize the
probability of biasing the respondents answer by leading him or her
and thus artificially increasing the probability of a particular response.
The researchers task is to avoid leading questions as for as possible or
to use neutral wordings instead.
5)Very personal questions should be avoided . Respondents are generally
unwilling to write down such information.
The successful are of questionnaire depends on devoting the right
balance of efforts to the planning stage, rather than rushing too early
administering the questionnaire. Therefore the researcher should have a
clear plan of action in mind and costs, production, organization, time limit
and permission should be taken care in the beginning when designing of
questionnaire .
13.4.2 Interview Schedule
Interview consists of dialogue on verbal responses between two
persons on between several persons. Interview is a technique of field work
which is used to watch the behaviour of individuals to second statements,
to observe the concrete results of social on group interaction. According to
Pauline Young, interview may be regarded as a systematic method by
which a person enters more or less imaginatively into the life of a
comparative stronger. It is move like a tape recorder in which past
incidences, feelings and reactions of the subjects and played back to the
living present to be listened to by the interview with a scientific approach.
The purpose of this technique of data collection is two fold a) To secure
certain information from the subject, which is known only to himself and
cannot be gathered from any other s ource. b) To study scientifically the
verbal behaviour of the subject under given circumstances. Whatever the
typology broadly speaking there are five types of interviews as given by
Pauline Young.
1) Structured interviews -These are also called control led guided of direct
interviews. These interties involve a set of predetermined question format
which is strictly followed. Structural interviews mostly involve the use of
fixed, close ended questions. Sequence of questions, language used is also
not charg ed by the interviewer. The interviewer only has the liberty tomunotes.in

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156further explain the question or repeat the question if the subject has not
understand it.
2) Un structured interviews -These are also called uncontrolled, unguided
or non -direct interviews. There is not predetermined question format in
this type of interview. The researcher is given certain broad topics upon
which the information is to be collected it is held in the form of free
discussions. This kind of interview is characterized by a far to og r e a t e r
flexibility of approach to questioning the respondents. Respondents are
encouraged to relate freely their experiences. Such interviews permit a
free flowing account of the personal and social contexts of beliefs and
feelings. The interviewer invo lved is allowed much greater freedom to ask
supplementary questions to change the sequence of questions or even offer
explanations and classifications.
3) Focused interview -These interviews are of semi standardized type
Main purpose is to focus attention of the given experience of the
respondent and its effect. The interviewer knows in advance the relevant
aspects of the issue he has to cover. The focus ed interviews have been
used effectively in the development of hypothesis. The researcher tries to
focus respondent’s attention the particular aspects of the problems and
tries to know his experiences, attitudes, emotion and responses regarding
the concret e under study.
4) Depth interviews -Dept hinterviews has a purpose of going deep into a
person life to find out his motives, ideas opinion and attitudes for this type
of interview the researcher has to be skilled and trained. He enjoys the
freedom of altering the question and further explaining them or changing
the order of it. This type of interview is often used in studying psychiatric
problems.
Preparation of the interview
The interviewer must introduce himself as though begi nning a
conversation in a friendly manner but the additional element of
professional competences should be always be maintained. Same type of
conversational statement is after useful in establishing friendly relations
with the respondent. A simple statemen t that conveys the idea that the
interviewer is not superior person, but a professional doing his job may
help to start the interview on a warm basis.
Recording the Interview -The work of recording the interview
becomes important. Additional bits of infor mation from the interviewer
helps the experts to drive at a complete picture of the phenomenon under
study. So far as possible the exact words of the respondent should be
recorded. They should not be edited for grammar or meaning. Such Things
indicated the ethics or culture of the subject. As an additional aid to
complete reporting, the interviewer may take it a practice to go directly
from the interview to a computer or a typewriter or desk in order to write
out the details while the information is still f resh in his mind. Delay of any
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157Closing the interviews -In this techniques of social research because of
face to face interaction with the respondent the researcher very often gets
involved in a situation or in the intensive interview, if fairly deep and
troubled matters are touched upon, the respondent may feel grateful and
may be unwilling to let the interviewer leave. In such situations, the
common experience for the interviewer is to find dosing of int erview more
difficult than the opening.
13.4.3 Scaling Techniques -Sociometry
The concept of measurement refers to the process of describing
abstract concepts in terms of specific indicators by assigning numbers to
these indicators in accordance with rul es. In social research measurement
of social phenomena has become an essential prerequisite because of a
number of reasons. One of the important reason for measuring social
phenomena is to allow the researcher the opportunity of using those
phenomena is hy pothesis to determine the effects of a set of variables to
others. A social phenomenon can be measured in various way, such as
asking questions or through noting behavior.
Technique in Sociometry
Sociometry is concerned with charting out the attractions and
repulsion among the members of a group among groups (miniature social
system) or sub -groups or between the sub groups and individuals.
Sociometry involves a set of aoperations that depart fundamentally from
the method employed by Emory Bogardos for the measurement of social
distance.
Generally sociometric studies employ observations questionnaires
and interview schedules. Sometimes examination of records may also be
employed to secure the relevant information. But sociometry should more
properly be con sidered a method of focusing on a particular type of
subject matter and a related method of analysis rather than simply a
method of data collection. The researcher needs to conduct observation of
the behaviour of members if he wants to know the actual happ enings in
the group. During such as observation, the researcher concentrates on how
the members he have how they interact with another what the nature of the
relationship is who initiates interaction (Orientation role) and who plays
the object role etc.
The sociometric questionnaire and interviews are employed in
securing information from each persons about the other members of the
group with whom they would like to or would not like to engage in a
particular type of interaction are also, their thoughts ab out this interactions
question included in the sociometric questionnaire or schedule are directed
toward seeking information from each person in one group. Measurement
refers to the relationship among the values that are assigned to the
attributes for a va riable. It is important to understand the level of
measurement as it helps to decide how to interpret the data from the
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15813.4.4 Survey
The Survey is defined as fact finding study dealing chiefly with
working class poverty and this the n ature in the problem of community.
Heriman N Morse defines it as ‘a method of analysis in Scientific and
orderly form for defined purpose of a given social situation activities.’
According to Mark Abrams, a social survey is a process by which
quantitative facts are collected about the social aspect of community
composition and activities from the above definition.
Survey describe the phenomena to a social scientists a survey may
have descriptive as a way of studying social condition, relationship and
behav iour for example survey communities. Socio economic survey
describes the living condition of people of a geographical area. Social
survey has intensive usage and is widely used in a number of disciplines.
In social sciences it can be used for variety of pu rpose availability of
nature of the source of information is the main and source of undertaking a
survey. Broadly the subject matter of social surveys are divided into
1) Demographic Features 2) Social conditions 3) Opinion and attitudes.
Social activities such as expenditure pattern, radio listening ,newspaper
reading ,social mobility information for example to know the expenditure
putter of a group of family house. It requires to the survey or following
knowledge on expenditure habit sa y, expenditure towards family, clothing,
education, cigarettes, cinema and other. Opinion attitude service, includes
information regarding opinion and attitudes of the people toward various
factor and the motives and the expenditure of them this informatio nm a y
be necessary as the basis of nature of question that may safety be asked for
electing rich response. For eg. The opinion or attitude person toward
social economic political, incident survey.
Check your Progress :
1)Evaluate the various methods of data collection in quantitative
research.
13.5 USAGE OF QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE
METHODS
Quantitative history involves the use of methods of statistical
analysis drawn from the social sciences, but used on historical data. It was
posited by its experts as providing a way for historians to obtain more
scientific results –for instance, allowing the scrutiny of census data to
obtain exact breakdowns of the population at a particular time, rather than
relying on the qualitative but selective reading of a variety of different
sources which had characterized the practice of history hitherto. Itsmunotes.in

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159emergence in the 1960s coincided both with the increasing popularity of
social science methodology and with the dawning of the computer age.
Critics have suggested that quantitative history makes assumptions about
the nature of historical data ignore the fact ors influencing its production,
and the cultural turn has called into question more broadly the
epistemology of the social sciences, nonetheless particularly in economic
history (cliometrics) the application of quantitative methods has become
integrated as part of a broader historical approach.
Ethnographic research is used for investigating cultures by
collecting and describing data that is intended to help in the development
of a theory. This method is also called ethnomethodology ormethodology
of the p eople . An example of applied ethnographic research is the study of
a particular culture and their understanding of the role of a particular
festival in their cultural frame work.
Historical research provides the researcher to analyses past and
present ev ents in the context of the present condition, and allows one to
reflect and provide possible answers to current issues and problems.
Ethical inquiry is an intellectual analysis of ethical problems. It includes
the study of ethics related to obligation, rig hts, duty, right and wrong,
choice etc. Critical social research: it is used by a researcher to understand
how people communicate and develop symbolic meanings. There are
various tools of qualitative and quantitative research.
These interviews contain the views of eminent historians on the
evolution of the discipline from the perspective of their own fields and
interests. It should be noted that these views are those of the individuals
themselves, and should not be seen as repres entative of those of the
research organization. They focus on changes in the practice and
profession of history, as well as on the rise and decline of different
methods and approaches, as observed over each historian’s career. Each
interview is available i n audio and transcript form and in addition the
responses of different historians to similar questions have been collated.
The technique of testing the reliability of the contents of document is
called Internal Criticism or Hermeneutics or Higher Criticism .
Hermeneutics is the art of interpretation and thus fundamental to much if
not all qualitative research.
Questionnaires are very cost effective when compared to face
interviews. This is especially true for studies involving large sample size
and large ge ographic areas. Written questionnaire become even more cost
effective as the number of research questionnaire increases.
Questionnaires are easy to analyze. Data entry and tabulation for nearly all
surveys can be easily done with many computer software pac kages.
Interview is based on a combination of facts, data are more
scientific and accurate. Scope of the technique of interview is quite wide.
It is only through this technique that the events that are not open to
observation can be studied and analyzed. E.g. Family problems, Abstractmunotes.in

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160factors like attitudes, feelings, emotions, and perceptions can also be
studied with the help of the technique of interview. As it is a face to face
interaction between the researcher and the respondent. Because the data
collection in this process is directly based upon respondent’s narration, it
is possible for a researcher to collect primary information successfully.
Primary information is more or less reliable. Data collection through this
technique is based upon verbal (w ords and phrases) as well as non -verbal
(gestures, facial expression, body language etc) indicators.
The surveyor comes in contact with the people whom he wants
study. The survey method leads is greater objectivity many field worker
use in the survey rem ove possible mistakes and collect correct
information. Survey may very well lead to the introduction of new theory
for example poverty was regarded as the course of crime for fairly long
time till increasing crime in advanced countries have falsified this theory.
4) Survey method enables to have fill knowledge of social institution. The
actual experience with the situations amounts none to any amount of
investigation.
A survey may be undertaken with the primary purpose of
formulating a programme for amelio ration of the conditions of life and
work of a community or a group, implying some frame in the mind of the
survey or as to what the conditions ideally ought to be. The purpose of a
social survey may also be to provide scientifically gathered facts or
mate rials affording some empirical basis for the social theorist to set up
their conclusions.
Check your Progress :
1)What are the usage of quantitative and qualitative methods.
13.6 SUMMARY
Historical research can take many forms nonethel ess it can usually
be separated into two types, qualitative and quantitative. In general,
qualitative research generates rich, detailed and valid data that contribute
to in-depth understandings of the context. Quantitative research generates
reliable popul ation based and generalizable data and is well suited to
establishing cause and effect relationships. The decision of whether to
choose a quantitative or a qualitative design is a philosophical question as
well as a pragmatic one. Which methods to choose w ill depend on the
nature of the project, the type of information needed, the intended
audience for the research, the context of the study, and the availability of
recourses. Merging of qualitative and quantitative research is becoming
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16113.7 REFERENCES
1)Pavline V. Young: Scientific Social Surveys and Research, Prentice,
Hall of India Private Ltd., 1984.
2)Alan Bryman, Quantity and Quality in Social Research, London;
Unwin Hymna, 1988
3)Goode and Hatt, Methods in Social Research, McGraw Hill Book
Company, 1981.
4)William Outhwaite, Stephen Turner, The SAGE Handbook of Social
Science Methodology, 2007
5)https://archives.history.ac.uk/makinghistory/themes/quantitative_
history. html
13.8 QUESTIONS
1)Explain the differences between Qualitative and Quantitative Methods
in History.
2)What are the tools used in Qualitative Methods in History ?
3)What are the tools used in Quantitative Methods in History ?
4)Write a short note on usage of Qualitative and Quantitative Methods.
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Page 163

162M.A. HISTORY
Semester I Evaluation Pattern
Internal Evaluation (40) + Semester End Examination (60) = 100
The Internal Evaluation for the Master of Arts (M.A.) History Sem I and
Sem II (CBSGS) that is 40 Marks, shall be further distribute d as follows -
20 Marks for internal Written Test and 20 Marks for written Assignment.
The Internal Evaluation of 40 Marks will be conducted by the respective
Course Teachers.
Internal Evaluation -40 Marks
Internal Written Test 20
Written Assignment 20
Semester End Examination -60 Marks will be as follows, Time Duration
Two Hours. Question Paper Pattern for M.A. History Semester I End
Examination and Semester II End Examination.
N.B.
a) Attempt all questions
b) All questions carry equal marks
SEMESTER -I SEMESTER -II
Q.1 Based on Module I
ORBased on Module I
OR
Q.1 Based on Module I Based on Module I
Q.2 Based on Module II
ORBased on Module II
OR
Q.2 Based on Module II Based on Module II
Q.3 Based on Module III
ORBased on Module III
OR
Q.3 Based on Module III Based on Module III
Q.4 Based on Module IV
ORBased on Module IV
OR
Q.4 Based on Module IV Based on Module IV
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