Geography-Paper-V-Population-Geography-Englsih-Version-munotes

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1 1
INTRODUCTION TO POPULATION
GEOGRAPHY
After going through this chapter you will be able to understand the
following features:

Unit Structure
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Subject discussion
1.4 Population Geography
1.5 Population Geography and oth er Social Sciences
1.6 Historical Development in Population Geography
1.7 Summary
1.8 Check your Progress/Exercise
1.9 Answers to the self -learning questions
1.10 Technical words and their meaning
1.11 Task
1.12 References for further study
1.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you will be able to –
 Understand the concept, definition, nature, scope and importance of
Population Geography
 Know about Population Geography and other Social Sciences
 Understand the Historical Development in Population Geography
1.2. INTRODUCTION
In this Chapter we will study Population geography, a division of human
geography, and have an idea about the concept, definition, nature, scope
and importance of Population Geography. Although Population
Geography is a branch of Human Ge ography we will learn its relation with
other Social Sciences also. Historical Development in Population
Geography is an interesting part that has been dealt in this chapter.
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2 1.3. SUBJECT -DISCUSSION
Population geography focuses on how the migration, distr ibution, and
growth of population are affected by the nature of a place. It also put rays
at the ideas of how many people live where and what impact it has on the
world system.
Population geography has two distinct categories such as demography and
spatial demography. By demography we understand the measurement of
human characteristics. This includes the basic statistics on race, age, and
gender, as well as measurements of education, housing, income, and
employment. Demography also encompasses characteristi cs of a specific
area, like population density, crime rate, and unemployment rate.
Generally, populations grow over an extended period of time. To
effectively analyze population growth, geographers use a variety of
measurements namely, Crude Birth Rate (CB R), Crude Death Rate
(CDR), The Rate of Natural Increase (RNI) and TFR (Total Fertility
Rate). These four measurements provide valuable data to population
geographers. This again helps them to analyse why populations grow or
decline in specific time period s. But History tells a different story. Down
the ages numerous external factors such as famine, war, disease, and
natural disasters have affected these numbers. Population Geography is
heavily reliant on data collection in order to make accurate conclusion s.
The most important feature in the study of population is location that
determines the development of a certain area whether it is rural, suburban
or urban. It has a control over the local economy too. Cultural traditions
are also crucial in understandi ng these varied statistics for if a woman has
easy access to birth control the growth of population will be less.
1.4. CONCEPT, DEFINITION AND NATURE OF
POPULATION GEOGRAPHY
Population Geography is one of the modern branches of Geography. It is
the study o f the human population with respect to size, composition,
spatial distribution and changes in the population that occur over time.
Populations are altered by three basic processes: fertility (births), mortality
(deaths), and migration (movement of people a cross space). Population
geographers seek to understand the society around them, the structure of a
population and how it changes through births, deaths and migration.
Glenn T. Trewartha of United States was perhaps the most important
personality to elevat e population studies to the status of a systematic
branch of geography. According to Trewartha, man was the pivotal point
from which all other elements are observed and derive their meaning and
significance. Thus, it is population that provides the focus. While defining
population Trewartha stressed that it was concerned with understanding
the regional differences in the earth’s covering of people. Such argument
of Trewartha was to be viewed in the context of our science, wherein
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Introduction to Population Geography
3 Trewartha’s contention, as the definition of population geography has to
be formulated in the context of the nature of geography. Area
differentiation is the central theme of geography in general and of
popu lation geography in particular. Since man is an important component
of physical earth as well as the creator of cultural earth, Trewartha was
justified in placing man at the centre of geographic thinking. As
population geography constitutes one of the rece ntly developed branches
of geography, the subject matter and full content of this sub -field have
been debatable. However, man has been considered the most undisputed
and well established core of population geography and the various aspects
of man have come to emerge as its subject matter.
Scope of Population Studies
The scope of Population Geography expanded during the middle of the
previous century with increasing improvement in the quality and quantity
of statistical data. While the scope for demographic research increased the
field of study became diversified too. Urban studies, fertility studies,
mortality studies etc. became fields of specialization. The discipline of
population studies is no longer confined to statistical analysis alone but
included so cial and economic aspects of population change too. Major
advances in population studies could take place because of improvements
in the methodology and techniques of population analysis. Important
among these were techniques of estimating birth and death rates,
population projections analysis of fertility data, intensive studies in the
area of family planning and development of theoretical frameworks for
better understanding of population phenomenon.
Importance of Population Geography
Population Geography is a branch of Human Geography. Population
Geography involves demography in a geographical perspective.
Population Geography focuses on the characteristics of population size
and distribution. It also studies the population dynamics which include the
past and present trends in growth and its spatial manifestation,
components of population change i.e. fertility, mortality and migration. It
also gives importance to population composition and structure. Population
Geography also focuses on the movement and mo bility of population,
occupational structure and immigration of population. This branch of
geography gives importance to every demographic phenomenon and here
lies its importance.
1.5. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN POPULATION
GEOGRAPHY AND OTHER SOCIAL SCIENCES
Population studies are not the exclusive domain of any single social
sciences. Apart from geography, demography, sociology, anthropology,
economics, history etc. have been making positive contributions of their
own in understanding various aspects of populati on. The discipline of the
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Population Geography
4 a. Population studies and
b. Demography
Population studies can be understood easily as studies concerned with
population, whereas demography can be explained by pointing out that it
is derived from the Greek word demos meaning people and hence is the
science of population. Though these terms are often used interchangeably,
scholars have tried to distinguish between “Demographic Analysis” and
“Population Studies” . While the former deals w ith the components of
population variation and change, the latter is concerned with the
relationships between population changes and other variables - social,
economic, political, biological, genetic, geographical and so on. The
boundary lines between popul ation geography and other social sciences
also having their concern with population however cannot be drawn
precisely.
The overlap is much more pronounced between demography and
population geography. Traditionally, demography is concerned with
statistical analysis of vital rates. Demographers have considered
themselves more with the statistics of birth, deaths and marriages and have
ignored the influence of migration and spatial variations in general.
Demography has often been considered as quantitative stu dy of human
population. Demographers have shown greater concern for sources of
data, their quality and availability, and mechanism of analysis. However, it
would be totally improper to refer to demographers as population
statisticians who lack sense of spa ce. In recent years, the contribution of
demographers include many examples where regional and national levels
of mortality or fertility have been the subject of discussion or where
fertility, mortality and migration have been combined to generate
interreg ional population growth models. Infact, demography and
population geography are so intimately related with each other that these
can be merged together if the population geographers adopt the
demographer’s analytical sophistication and the demographer, in return
becomes more spatial.
Other disciplines look at population geography from their own
perspective. A sociologist finds his greater concern with the studies
relating to social groups in their institutional organization. The
anthropologist’s main concer n on the other hand lies in three major
problems of man:
a. the evolution of man
b. the ontogenetic development of man and
c. the classification of human races.
For an economist the main concern is only the incidental and economic
implications of any demographic patterns. Historians , on the other hand
have been more interested in tracing the population trends through time.
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Introduction to Population Geography
5 Thus, geography is unique vis -a vis other social sciences with regard to
population studies as it has an emphasis upon spatial perspective. I t is this
distinguishing feature of geography that sets it apart from other social
sciences, which also deals with population phenomena. While it is true
that population geography distinguishes itself from other social sciences
dealing with population main ly on the basis of its chronological approach,
there are also significant differences in the spectrum of population
phenomena being covered by various social sciences. This is so because
each social science has its own objective to achieve.
1.6. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT IN POPULATION
GEOGRAPHY
It was in the middle of the seventeenth century that population studies
emerged as a discipline in England. Most of its early development took
place in European countries. Later, the United States of America
contributed substantially towards the development of this discipline. The
credit for initiating a new field of empirical research in population studies
goes to John Graunt who is acclaimed as the “ Father of Demography
and Population Studies” . Graunt’s study is monume ntal in several
respects. He considered many aspects in the field of population studies,
which are regarded as important even today. He critically examined the
data on mortality and fertility and pointed out their weaknesses, biases and
inadequacies. He is therefore deemed to be a pioneer as he started an
important tradition of evaluating any population data for various biases
and lacuna and of devising adjustments in them before using them for
research purposes. Some of Gaunt’s English contemporaries and
successors share with him the credit of founding population studies.
Among them mention may be made of Sir William Petty (1623 -1687)
whose “ Political Arithmetic” has considerably influenced the future
development of population studies. Sir Edmund Halley (16 65-1742) was
an English astronomer who made sufficient contribution to population
studies. In 1693 , he constructed the first empirical life table, based on the
data of births and deaths. It was he who coined the term “Expectation of
Life” .
The works of Gra unt, Petty and Halley inspired further research in other
European countries like Germany, Netherlands and Sweden. In 1798 , the
publication of an essay entitled, “An essay on the principles of
population as it affects the future improvement of Society” by Thomas
R.Malthus attracted great deal of attention and gave rise to controversy.
The main theme of this essay was that while man could increase his
subsistence only in arithmetic progression his numbers tended to increase
in geometrical progression. Populat ion growth was therefore to be
regarded as the principal cause of poverty. This was an important
landmark in the history of population studies.
In the early years of twentieth century, demographers in England and other
European countries started taking kee n interest in the study of fertility
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Population Geography
6 countries. In 1922 , A.M Carr -Saunders , a biologist published his book
“The Population Problem” containing a systematic statement of the
problems of pop ulation size and growth and a discussion of the genetic
question.
In 1953 , when Trewartha offered a tentative scheme of the content and
organization of materials in population geography, he confined it to
a. geography of population in the past;
b. population numbers including distribution density, migration, growth
etc. and
c. qualities of population and their regional patterns of distribution
Later, in 1969 , when Trewartha’s book on “ A Geography of Population:
World Patterns” was released, he had altered the c ontents slightly by
dividing the book into two parts, the first part dealing with geography of
population in the past and the second part with the characteristics of
population.
Apart from Trewartha, John .I Clarke (1965), Wilbur Zelinsky (1966),
J. Beauje u-Garnier(1966), Gary .L.Peters and Robert P.
Larkin(1979), Robert Woods(1979) , as well as R.C.Chandna(1980)
have also contributed to the growth of this subfield by way of bringing out
texts on the subject in their respective countries.
John I. Clarke , for mer Chairman, Population Commission of
International Geographical Union, is credited with bringing out the first
text on Population Geography in 1965 . According to him, geography of
population was concerned with “demonstrating how spatial variations in
distribution, composition, migration and growth are related to the spatial
variations in distribution, composition migration and growth are related to
the spatial variations in the nature of places”. Although Clarke’s definition
of population geography was no t very much different from that of
Trewartha, yet it reinforced the emphasis upon spatial aspect of population
and its correlates. Such reinforcement did help population geography in
maintaining its focus upon the spatial perspective in the analysis of
demographic phenomena and the processes involved in their spatial
organization.
Another attempt was made by Wilbur Zelinsky who in his book, “ A
Prologue to Population Geography” defines population geography as a
science that deals with the ways in which the geographic character of a
place is formed by, and in turn reacts upon, a set of population phenomena
that vary within it through both space and time as they follow their own
behavorial laws, interacting one with another and with numerous non
demographic ph enomena.
In France, Beaujeu -Garnier brought out a volume on “ Geography of
Population” in French (1956 -58) which was later translated in English by
S.H.Beaver(1966) whereby she considered the description of munotes.in

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Introduction to Population Geography
7 demographic facts in their present environment con text, studying also their
causes, their regional characteristics and possible consequences as the
foremost business of population geographers. According to her,
geographic analysis of population was confined to three main aspects:
a. the distribution of peop le on the globe
b. the evolution of human societies and
c. the degree of success which they have achieved.
The aspects covered by the authors in their book include population
distribution, fertility, mortality, movements and occupations.
Gary L. Peters and Robert .P.Larkin(1979) who brought out their
“Population Geography: Problems Concepts and Prospects” however
do not offer any definition of the sub -field and feel satisfied with a simple
mention of various definitions of the subject forwarded by earlier
contributors. The contents of the book cover a vast variety of population
characteristics including distribution, composition, change, fertility,
mortality, mobility, residence, population policy, population and food
supply etc.
The publication of Population Analysis in Geography(Woods,1979)
added a new dimension to the study of population in geography. Although
the book begins with a differentiation between population geography and
demography and ends up with future developments in population studies
and popu lation geography, yet the book is greatly oriented towards the use
and development of models in analyzing population behaviour. True to the
spirit of its title, the book is devoted to the analysis of various population
attributes like fertility, mortality and mobility.
In the former Soviet Union no such attempt has been made to date to bring
out a book on population geography. The Soviet geographers did not
admit of any environmental determinism and pleaded that man was more
an economically productive being . It is in this light that in Soviet Union
population studies constitute a part of economic geography. Their concept
of population geography included within it the geography of settlements,
history of settlements, labour sources, etc.
1.6.1 Historical Deve lopment of Population Geography in India
The earliest reference to population data appears in Kautilya’s
Arthashastra where a detailed description of how to conduct a
population, economic and agricultural census is mentioned. The Ain-I-
Akabari b y AbulFazal too contains comprehensive data on population,
industry, wealth and characteristics of population. Data on population in
modern India became available only after the system of decennial census
in 1872. This may be considered as the starting point of popul ation studies
in India. Based on census reports from 1872 -1941, Kingsley Davis , the
well known demographer, produced his monumental work The munotes.in

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8 Population of India and Pakistan which is valued till date for its
contribution to the progress of population studi es in India.
While tracing the development of population studies in India, it is worth
mentioning the role of Imperial Gazetteers which contain a thorough and
exhaustive account of India and her people. The Imperial Gazetteers were
first published in nine volumes in 1881 at the initiative of W.W.Hunter .
P.K.Wattal’s book Population Problems in India was pioneer in its
attempt to focus the attention of Indian intelligentsia on population
problems in India. The book first appeared in 1916 but a revised editio n
appeared in 1933 . In 1938 , Dr. Radhakamal Mukherjee emphasized the
need for agricultural development to cope up with growing population in
his book Food Planning for Four Hundred Million .
Although population geography in India had a late start (early 196 0), yet
it has made remarkable progress during its short life span of about 50
years. In early days of development of geography in India, urban
geography and agricultural geography remained relatively more favoured
branches of systematic geography. The ini tial framework of India’s
population geography was provided by doctoral work of Gosal (1956)
supervised by Glenn Trewartha .
The Department of Geography at the Punjab University, Chandigarh was
the first in India to introduce teaching and research in popula tion
geography at the post graduate level in early 1960s . It is to be mentioned
here that the Indian demographic scene is diverse and complex and
therefore it is possible for Indian geographers to use sophisticated
quantitative techniques in the study of p opulation geography. The
quantification and use of sophisticated techniques shall not only bring
precision in interpretation but also shall help in the development of
theories. The demographic scene in India provides a rich laboratory to
population geograp hers for the development of models and theories that fit
into spatial -cultural -political -historical context of India.
Some credit for the progress in population geography must be given to the
Census of India which is more than a hundred years old. The var iety of
information being collected, the reliability and the efficiency with which
the basic data are released are all commendable. An easy access to the vast
treasure of Indian Census data did encourage geographers to take up
geographic analysis of popula tion for almost all parts of the country both
at micro and macro levels. It promoted the development of population
geography in India. However, Census alone is not sufficient for detailed
study of population geography. Fieldwork is necessary not only for
supplementing the work with additional primary data but also for
understanding the processes that create existing spatial distributions. It is
only through fieldwork that one can feel the pulse of the region.
The dearth of data on various social, economic a nd population aspects was
keenly felt when the Five Year Plans were being drafted. Reliable
estimates of births and deaths were missing because of inadequacy of vital
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Introduction to Population Geography
9 System was therefore est ablished in 1949 to meet this need and produce
data for the evaluation of development plans. The NSS started collecting
data on birth and death rates and on the rates of population growth from its
fourteenth round taken in 1958 -59. It also collected data o n differential
fertility, family planning knowledge, attitude and practice for rural and
urban areas, internal migration, employment etc.
As far as the content of population geography is concerned, there are core
and peripheral issues. Those at the core ar e largely concerned with the
major issues of distribution and structure of population, mortality, fertility
and migration, their cause and consequences over space and time and how
they affect other socio -cultural, economic, political and environmental
issues. At the periphery lie issues that are central to other specializations
such as urbanization social segregation etc. Indian geographers have
limited their study of population to certain attributes such as growth of
population, literacy, sex composition, working composition etc. A
neglected area has always been that of vital rates like fertility and
mortality perhaps due to non availability of census data on vital rates. The
redeeming feature is that a few studies on fertility and its determinants at
micro level have recently been taken up by Indian geographers.
Publication of text books is another measure of the growth of
specialization. The first introductory text in Population geography in India
appeared in 1980 by Chandna . Again, the first book dealing exclusively
with various attributes of scheduled caste population of India was brought
out in 1989 .
1.7. SUMMARY
Population Geography is a subset of Population Studies that focuses on,
spatial patterns and processes. Geographers tend to study migration m ore
than fertility and mortality along with the environmental impacts on
population. Population is not uniformly distributed throughout the world
or any country. The same is true about India too. Some parts of the
country are densely populated, some parts moderately populated and some
parts are sparsely populated. The growth of population in a region depends
upon fertility, mortality and migration. The growth rate of population may
be positive or negative. A positive growth rate of population means an
incre ase in the number of people living in a region whereas negative
growth rate means declining population. The population of India has been
increasing steadily since 1921. The major factor responsible for it has been
a very rapid decline in the death rate. Ot her disciplines look at population
geography from their own perspective. A sociologist focuses on the
studies relating to social groups. The anthropologist’s main concern lies in
the major problems of man. For an economist the main concern is only the
incidental and economic implications of any demographic patterns.
Historians, on the other hand have been more interested in tracing the
population trends through time. On the contrary in ‘Essay on the Principle
of Population’, Malthus proposes the principle t hat human populations
grow exponentially i.e., doubling with each cycle while food production
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Population Geography
10 1.8. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS/ EXERCISE
1. True and false
a. Population Geography focuses on the characteristics of population size
and distrib ution.
b. The word demography has been derived from the Greek word demos
meaning society.
c. The anthropologist’s are concerned about the evolution, the
ontogenetic development of man and the classification of human races.
d. Historians have been interested in tra cing the population trends
through time.
e. Sir William Petty(1623 -1687) wrote “Political Science”

2. Fill in the blanks
a. For an ______________ the main concern is only the incidental and
economic implications of any demographic patterns
b. The earliest reference t o population data appears in Kautilya’s
_______________ where a detailed description of how to conduct a
population, economic and _________ census is mentioned.
c. ____________ _________ by AbulFazal contains comprehensive data
on population, industry, wealth and _____________ of population
d. Populations are altered by three basic processes: __________,
_________ and __________.
e. Trewartha placed ___________ at the centre of geographic thinking.
3. Multiple choice question

a. Population Geography is a branch of
i. Human Geography.
ii. Economic Geography
iii. Physical Geography
b. This man is acclaimed as the “Father of Demography and Population
Studies”.
i. Beaujeu -Garnier,
ii. John Graunt
iii. S.H.Beaver munotes.in

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Introduction to Population Geography
11
c. Ain-I-Akabari is written by
i. Amir Fazal
ii. Ahmad Fazal
iii. AbulFazal
d. A.M Carr -Saunders, a biolo gist published his book
i. “The Population Problem”
ii. “The Demography Problem”
iii. “The Population Solution”

e. “An essay on the principles of population as it affects the future
improvement of Society” is written by
i. Harry R. Malthus
ii. Simon R. Malthus
iii. Thomas R. Malt hus
4. Answer the Following Questions
1. Discuss the Nature and scope of Population Geography
2. Discuss the scope and importance of Population Geography
3. Describe the relationship between Population Geography and other
Social Sciences
4. Give the Historical Developmen t in Population Geography in the
world and in India
1.9. ANSWERS TO THE SELF LEARNING QUESTIONS .
1.a .true
1.b. false, people
1.c. true
1.d. true
1.e. false, Arithmetic

2.a. economist
2.b. Arthashastra, agricultural
2.c. Ain -I-Akabari, characteristics
2.d. fertility, mortality, and migration.
2.e. man

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12 3.a.i
3.b.ii
3.c.iii
3.d.i
3.e.iii

1.10. TECHNICAL WORDS:

 Crude Birth Rate (CBR) -measures all live births per 1000 people.
 Crude Death Rate (CDR )-measures all deaths per 1000 people. In
this case, the a ge or cause of death does not matter.
 The Rate of Natural Increase (RNI) -is calculated by subtracting the
Crude Death Rate from the Crude Birth Rate (CBR – CDR = RNI)
 TFR (Total Fertility Rate) -measures the number of children a
woman is potentially able to have.
 Migration -migration refers to the movement of people from one area
to the other or from one country to another.
 Arithmetic Rate -the repeated addition of a uniform increment in each
uniform interval of time
1.11. TASK
1. In a chart show the books and name of the authors of population
geography
1.12. REFERENCES FOR FURTHER STUDY
 Population Geography, Deplane Roy
 Population Geography: Tools & Issues, K. Bruce Newbolt
 The Population of India and Pakistan, Davis, Kingsley
 The study of Population, Duncan(ed )
 Oxford English Dictionary

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13 2
POPULATION DYNAMICS
After going through this chapter you will be able to understand the
following features:
Unit Structure
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Introduction
2.3 Subject discussion
2.4 Popu lation Growth
2.5 Distribution- Factors affecting the distribution of population in
World and India
2.6 Density – Zones of the density of population the in world.
2.7 Summary
2.8 Check your Progress/Exercise
2.9 Answers to the self-learning questions
2.10 Technical words and their meaning
2.11 Task
2.12 References for further study
2.1. OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you will be able to –
 Understand the Population Growth, Distribution and Density
 Know about definition, causes, effects and remedies to control the
growth of population.
 Understand the zones of density of population in world.
2.2. INTRODUC TION
In the previous chapter we have studied the definition, nature, scope
and importance of Population Geography. We have also learnt its
relation with other Social Sciences along with historical development
in Population Geography. In this chapter we are going to study the
Population Growth, Distribution and Density as well as definition,
causes, effects and remedies to control the growth of population. Zones munotes.in

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Population Geography
14 of density of population in world will also be learnt in the following
chapter.
2.3. SUBJECT-DISCUS SION
Popu lation geography is an independ ent sub-field of human geog raphy.
It is a comparatively recent phenomen on. In the term ‘population
geography’, the word ‘population’ signifies the subject matter and
‘geog raphy’ refers to the perspective of investigation. Hence, population
geography can be interpreted as the study of population in spatial
perspective. The concept of population change or growth of population is
often used to connote the change in the number of inhabitants of a
territory during a specific period of time, irrespective of the fact whether
change is positive or negative. Such a change can be measured both in
terms of absolute number and in terms of percentage.
2.4. POPULATION GROWTH
2.4.1. Definition of Growth
The term “growth” loosely refers to change in population over time
and space. Growth may be e ither positive implying an increase in
population number or it may be negat ive corresponding to a decrease in
the number of people. The three components of growth are: fertility,
mortality and mobility. Fertility refers to the occurrence of birth.
Various methods of fertility have been coined. These include crude birth
rate, general fertility rate, child woman ratio, fertility ratio, age specific
birth rate, total fertility rate, reproduction/ replacement rate etc.
Mortality is defined as permanent disappearance of all evidence of
life at any time after birth has taken place. Various indices of mortality
have been coined including crude death rate, age specific death rate,
infant mortality rate, maternal mortality rate amongst others. The third
major component of growth or mobility is the most difficult to be
measured due to lack of data. Measurement of mobility or migration is
difficult due to lack of proper documentation. All three
components influence growth of population and a positive growth will
lead to numerical increase of population.
2.4.2. Causes of Growth of Population
a. Decline in the Death Rate
The fall in death rates that is decline in mortality rate is one fundamental
causes of growth of population. Owing to the advancements in medical
science the life expectancy of man has increased. Mortality rate has
declined leading to an increase in pop ulation.
b. Rise in the Birth Rate
Medicines of today can enhan ce the reproductive rate in human beings.
There are med icines and treatments, which can help in conception.
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Population Dynamics

15 c. Migration
Immigration is a problem in some parts of the world. If the inhabitants of
various countries migrate to a particular part of the world and settle over
there, the area suffers from growth of population.
d. Lack of Education
Illiteracy is another important cause of growth of population. Those
lacking education fail to understand the need to prevent excessive
growth of popu lation. They are unaware of the ways to control
population. Lack of family planning is commonly seen among the
illiterates. This is one of the major factors leading to the growth of
population.
2.4.3. Effects of Growth of Population
a. Depletion of Natural Resources
The effects of growth of population are quite severe. The first of these is
the depletion of resources. More popu lation means more needs. The Earth
can only produce a limited amount of water and food, which is falling
short of the current needs. Most of the environmental damage being seen
in the last fifty years is because of the growing number of people on the
planet.
b. Degradation of Environment
With the overuse of coal, oil and natural gas, there are certain
serious effects on our environme nt. Rise in the number of vehicles and
industries have badly affected the quality of air. Rise in amount of
CO2 emissions leads to global warming. Melting of polar ice caps,
changing climate patterns, rise in sea level are few of the consequences
that we might have to face due to environment pollution.
c. Rise in Unemployment:
High growth of population leads to unemployment. Rise in
unemp loyment gives rise to crime.
d. High Cost of Living
As d ifference between demand and supply continues to expand due to
high growth of population, it raises the prices of various commodities
including food, shelter and healthcare. This means that people have
to pay more to survive and feed their families.
e. Pre ssure on Infrastructure
Development of infrastructural facilities cannot keep pace with the
high growth of population. The result is lack of transportation,
communication, housing, education, healthcare etc. There is an increase in
the number of slums, overcrowded houses, traffic congestion etc. munotes.in

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16 2.4.4. Remedies to Control the Growth of Population
a. Better Education
Educating the masses is the first step to control high growth of
population. Families who choose to have four or five children should be
discouraged. Female literacy programmes must be promoted in all states.
b. Making People Aware of Family Planning
As population of this world is growing at a rapid pace, raising
awareness among people regarding family planning is the need of the
hour.
c. Tax Benefits or Concessi ons
Government of various countries should have policies related to
tax exemptions to control the growth of population. There should be low
rate tax concessions for those who have single or two children.
d. Assistance to States
Central assistance to states must be linked with their genuine
performance in family planning.
2.5. WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION
The study of world popu lation trends shows that in most parts of
the world, population is distributed unevenly and that the total
population of the world has been increasing continuously. The total global
population was 100 crore (one billion) in 1830. By 1930, it rose by
another 100 crore, making the total population 200 crore. But after 1930,
population increased by 100 crores in 1960 in just30 years while after
15 years the world’s popu lation became 400 crores in 1975. In 2001 the
population had grown to 613 crores and is expected to grow to a round
830 crores in 2025. Yet, population is very unevenly distributed. China
with 1333 million inhabitants (2008) was the most populous country of
the world. Its population was more than the total population of all the
developed countries put together. India with a popu lation of 1140
million (2008) ranked second and was followed by USA 304 million
(2008), Indonesia 228 million (2008), Brazil 192million (2008 ), Pakistan
166m illion (2008). While India is experiencing the demographic trap,
China has almost succeeded in stabilizing its population while Pakistan,
Bang ladesh, Nigeria and Brazil are still held up in the explosive
stage of demographic transition. Very soon it has been estimated that
India would become the most populous country and China will become a
distantly placed second ranking country and Russia and Japan will no
longer have a place in the top ten most populous countries of the world.
Instead Congo Democratic Republic and Philippines will rank among
the top ten most populous countries of the world. It is estimated that by
2025, China’s population will reach 1458 million and India’s popu lation munotes.in

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17 will be 1398 million .Thereafter India’s population will exceed that of
China.
2.5.1. Unequal Distribution of World Population
Since the beginning of human civilization there has been inequality
in the distribution of the world’s resources. The factors responsible for
this are the availability of natural resources, favourable environment and
related factors like transport and communication, and other facilities
which play pivotal role in determining density of population. The
distribution of population all over the world is not ubiquitous as
there are vast regional disparities. According to Clarke ¾th people
live within a height of 2000 m above sea level and 2/3rd of them
live within a height of 500m above sea level. Only about 20% of the
total land area is habitable and almost 80% of the world’s population is
concentrated here. Those areas fit for human habitation or those occupied
by human settlements have been termed “ecumene” while those
uninhabitable areas that are either too hot or too wet or too cold and
dry have been termed “non-ecumene”. Three fourth of the world
population is concentrated in four continents of Asia, Europe and the
Americas in the major human agglomerations of East Asia, South Asia,
North West Europe and North East America.
The world's popu lation is unevenly distributed, with six of Earth's
seven continents being permanently inhabited on a large scale. Asia is by
far the most populous continent, with its 4.1 billion inhabitants
accounting for over 60% of the world population. The world's two most-
populated countries a lone China and India are situated here and
together they, constitute about 37% of the world's population. Africa is
the second-most-populated continent, with around 1 billion people, or
15% of the world's population. Europe’s 733 million people make up
11% of the world's population, while Latin America and Caribbean
islands are home to 589 million (9%). North America has a pop ulation of
around 352 million (5%), and Oceania, the least-populated region,
has about 35 million inhabitants (0.5%)
2.5.2. Reasons for Unequal Distribution of World Population
In many parts of the world, the density of population is high while in
others it is very low. There are several factors for unequal distribution of
world popu lation. The main factors responsible for this are as follows:
 Landforms
Landforms influence the distributional pattern of population both at
macro and micro level. It is normal to have high density in the plains
moderate density in the plateau and low density in the mountains but on a
micro level other factors like altitude, slope, drainage, subsoil, water table
which also affect population distribution. Apart from altitude, slope plays
a major deterrent to human settlement s. The steepness of slope not only
delimits extent of arable land, but the cost involved in construction of munotes.in

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Population Geography
18 houses and roads on them is highly prohibitive. Drainage conditions also
play a major role in influencing the pattern of distribution of human
settlement. Swampy areas and marshes forbid human settlements. The
Rann of Kutch region of Kathiawar peninsula continues to remain
relatively less densely populated mainly due to the conditions of
poor drainage.
 Fertile land
Human settlements on large scale are at places which are more fertile
and where with less effort the agricultural yield is more. On the other
hand, places which are less fertile have less density of population. As
such, hilly and rocky regions are less densely populated. Hence the Indo
Gangetic plains and the Ganga Brahmaputra delta are the most populated
areas of the world. In regions of uniform landform and climate, variation
in soil structure may result in local variation in landuse and hence
population distribution. So while volcanic soils as in Deccan Plateau of
Maharashtra and deep alluvium deposits of Ganga Brahmaputra Basin
have immense capacity for supporting large population.
 Favourable Climate
Climate plays a very important part in the distribution of
population, through temperature conditions, amount of rainfall as well
as the length of growing season. From the beginning of human
civilization, favourable climate is considered as an important factor
responsible for human habitation. Man has always been averse to settling
in those lands which have extremes of temperature and precipitation.
The wet tropics with their abundan ce of solar energy and precipitation
have maximum density. Asia’s densest human habitations are found in
areas influenced by the monsoon. South East Asia with its long
growing season is rightly termed as the land of “rice culture”.
 Availability of water supply
Water is essential for life. The places which have abundant water for
daily consumption and for agricultural purposes are moderately to
densely popu lated. In the present era, even industries are established
at places which have sufficient supply of water.
 Minerals and Energy Resources
Every nation possesses some type of mineral wealth. The importance
of minerals as raw material for industry has always encouraged
human settlement. The growth of urban settlements after setting up of
industries like the steel plants reaffirm the fact that population
concentration is high on those places where minerals are available.
 Space relationship
The location of a place in relation to other areas and to major
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19 population. At p laces where transportation costs are low, we find
localization and centralization of industries and concentration of
population. Consequently the density of population increases.
It can be concluded that there are a number of combinations of ph ysical
situation found on the earth’s surface which make it almost impossible to
prepare an exhaustive list of physical determinants. The degree of
influence of each physical factor may vary both in time and space
depending on its temporal-spatial peculiarities. There is no clear cut cause
and effect co-relation between any individual physical factor and
population density because whatever we see is not a single set of cause
and effect relationship. Hence, it would be foolish to search for the role of
any single physical factor in isolation from cultural and demographic
factors.
 Socio-Cultural Factors
Among various cultural factors that have controlling effect upon the
population spread are history of settlement, type of economy,
advancement in technology, political decisions and social organization.
Social factors also effect the distribution and concentration of population.
Where social customs and taboos are extreme, people tend to migrate
outside so the density of population of that area changes. Migration
is also induced by educational factors. Students often tend to migrate for
attaining higher education and if the environment of the new country is
adaptable to them, they tend to settle there permanently. At present lakhs
of youth from Asia and Africa have migrated to America, Canada and
European countries for higher studies and after getting they have settled
there permanently.
 Economic Factors
This has been considered an important factor affecting the distribution
and concentration of popu lation at one place. The places which have
good opportunities for employment and possibilities of trade in industrial
products attract migrants from different areas. As migration takes
place on a large scale, the density of population increases at the
migrated place. Generally, during the process of econom ic development,
migration of population takes place on a large scale from rural to urban
areas.
The economic viability of an area lies in its carrying capacity and its
ability to provide employment opportunities. This in turn would
affect not only the size of population but also its spacing. The type of
economy of an area has, governs to a large e xtent its supporting
capacity. A network of settlements in a primarily agrarian
society is bound to be different from that in an industrialized
society due to basic differences in the needs of the two situations.
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20 In an industrialized society not only the size of settlements is large but
also the density of population is conspicuously high when compared with
agrarian societies. Small sized closely spaced settlement is usually
common in agricultural tracts.
The technological advancements do add other dimensions to the controls
of population distribution and density. Technology may increase
supporting capacity of areas and lead to higher density of population.
Technological innovations may also make human habitation possible in
areas which formerly had been devoid of human population. The best
example of technological innovation is evident in Ganganagar district
of Rajasthan where an erstwhile desert region has been transformed
into an agricultural tract.
 Political factors
In recent times political factors have played a major role in changes of
world population distribution. If the people feel that their expectations are
not fulfilled by the government, or if the public is dissatisfied with the
political system, then they migrate from the country and settle in
another. A variety of political factors have also affected population
distribution and density in different areas at different times. The partition
of India in 19 47 did generate redistribution tendencies in certain areas.
The aftermath of partition in 1947 and the subsequent war in 1971 saw
people from Bang ladesh settling down in Dandakaranya. The political
decisions also play a decisive role in channelizing currents of migration
and in generating redistribution tendencies within their own territories.
At micro level, factors like social organization and inter group antipathies
can also influence the distributional patterns of population in
specific positions. The distribution of population is quite often
affected by the objectives which a society strives to achieve and by
the form of social status which are taken to achieve the said objectives.
So while in capitalist societies the population clusters around sources of
energy and raw mate rials, in socialist societies planned relocation of
population tends to produce more even distribution.
 Demographic factors
The change in the distribution of population in the world takes
place through variation in the rate of natural increase and also
through medium of migration between areas. Thus, the demographic
factors of vital rates and migration introduce another dimension to the
inventory of determinants of po pulation distribution and density. There
are wide regional variations in the patte rs of fertility, mortality and
mobility which give rise to varying patterns of population increase.
From the preceding discussion it is obvious that population distribution
and density in an area is the product of interplay between the
physical milieu and society through the matrix of time. According to
Zelinsky (1966,p53) in order to understand the meanings lying behind the
contemporary pattern of population one must wield encyclopedic munotes.in

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21 knowledge of area’s physical setting, the minutes of the economic
behaviour, the broader lineaments of its cultural and social structure and
virtually all aspects of its human geog raphy.
2.6. DENS ITY OF POPULATION
The terms “distribution” and “density” may not be identical while
referring to popu lation concentration but are intimately related.
Therefore, the need arises to discuss both the concepts simultaneously in
this chapter. The first point of differentiation between the two is that
while distribution is a locational concept density is a proportional one. In
simple words, population concentration is the ratio between the size of
population and the area. While dealing with distribution the concern is
more for the pattern of spread of popu lation. Density on the o ther hand is
also some kind of man-land ratio and hence cannot be separated
entirely from distribution.
In terms of density of population, Asia remains at the top. In 1970 -71
the density of Asia was 75 persons/sq km. while in 2011 it was
86.7persons/sq km. Such addition is really staggering particularly
because the continent has limited resource with very slow pace of
socio-economic development.
The world's popu lation is 7 billion, and Earth's total area (including
land and water) is 510 million square kilometers (197 million square
miles). Therefore the worldwide human population density is 6.8 billion
÷ 510 million = 13.3 per km2 (34.5 per sq. mile). If only the Earth's land
area of 150 million km2 (58 million sq. miles) is taken into account
then human population density increases to 45.3 per km2(117.2 per sq.
mile). This calculation includes all continental and island land area,
including Antarctica. Antarctica, we know is not fit for human habitation
due to various reasons. If Anta rctica is also excluded, then population
density rises to 50 people per km2 (129.28 per sq. mile).Considering
that over half of the Earth's land mass consists of areas inhospitable to
human inhabitation, such as deserts and high mountains, and
that population tends to cluster around seaports and fresh water
sources, this number by itself does not give any meaningful measurement
of human population density.
Population Concentration in Different Continents 2011
CONTINENTS POPULATION(in millions) DENSITY (persons/sq.km) Asia 4216 78 Europe 740 51.5 North America 546 12.3 South America 396 28 Australia 37 2.7 Africa 1051 25 World 6986 13.3 munotes.in

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Population Geography
22 Geographers have been making more frequent use of the concept of
density of population. It is a simple concept of relating population size to
the land area with a view to assessing crudely the pressure of
population upon the resources of the area. Thus, it is a measure of the
incidence of population concentration and is gene rally expressed in
terms of persons per square km or per square mile of land area rather
than of gross area (land and water).
D=P/A, where P=Population
A=Area per sq km of land.
2.6.1. Types of Densities
Geographers, by way of manipulating numerator or denominator have
derived various types of densities having a varying degree of utility in
different situations. The object has been to arrive at a bett er
unde rstanding of population –resource relationship. These are
“arithmetic density”, “physiological density” or “nutritional density”,
“agricultural density”, “economic density” etc.
Arithmetic density as suggested by Glenn.T.Trewartha is the simple
ratio between total popu lation and total land area and expressed in terms
of persons per unit of area. It is a good measure to gauge the
pressure of population upon agricultural resources in an agrarian
economy. In computing agricultural density only the agricultural
population is related to the total cultivable area. Therefore agricultural
density is expressed in terms of agricultural population per unit of
cultivable area. More meaningful densities have been obtained by
relating size of population to the area under cultivation. Nutritional
or physiological density is the ratio between t otal population and
total cultivated area and is expressed in terms of persons per square
km of cultivated land. Here uncultivated land has been consciously
excluded to arrive at a better man-land ratio. This ratio is particularly
significant for agrarian economies in the developing world. But this type
of calculation has serious drawbacks. Firstly it assumes that all
cultivated land is of equal quality. Secondly, it considers uncultivated
as unproductive. Thirdly, it neglects the fact that non arable land may be
put to diverse uses which in turn might yield eno rmous economic
returns. Economic density is considered as a ratio between requirement
of population and resources made available to it by production in the area
it occupies.
It is calculated by the formula
ED=NK/SK' where N is no. of inhabitants
K' is per capita quantity of requirement
S is area in sq .km
K is quantity of resources produced/km² munotes.in

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23 All the three types of densities, wherever data permitted have been
computed and represented cartographically by geog raphers. However,
arithmet ic density or general density is much preferred over the other
two types due to availability of data. It is very difficult to study
population on a micro scale without the use of the concept of density.
2.6.2. Density of Population in India
Density of population in India is not uniform; it varies from state to
state. This depends on several factors. In states where climate is
congenial density is more than in other states which have extremes of
climate. The Indo Gangetic plain is the most densely populated part of the
country but here too density lessens as one moves from east to west
along the Ganges due to decrease in rainfall. The northern plains of
Bihar are subjected to annual floods but these floods also deposit large
tracts of alluvium. Hence these are the most fertile lands and much in
demand for human settlements. Along with ph ysical factors, socio
econom ic and demographic factors too play an important part in
influencing density of population in India. Those areas that are well
connected or more accessible attract more people and therefore appear
to be densely populated.
Some of the typical characteristics of India’s population and its
distribution that carry wide range political, social and economic
implications both at national and international levels include huge
population base, ethnic multiplicity, rural bias and unevenness of
distribution. In its distribution Indian popu lation has an overwhelmingly
rural bias. Nearly three fourth of the population lives in the
countryside in agg lomerated settlements and it is only in Kerala and the
Himalayas that dispersed settlement occur (Spate and Learmouth,
1954,p198). Unevenness of distribution is another feature of India’s
population. While sparsely populated districts are confined largely to
interior heartland and the Himalayas, the crowded districts are largely
confined to the alluvial tracts.
Population Density in Different States of India-2011
State Population Area(in
sq.km) Density(people/sq.km)
Uttar Pradesh 1995 81520 240928 828
Maharashtra 1123 72972 307713 365
Bihar 103,8 04,637 94163 1102
West Bengal 91347736 88752 1030
Andhra
Pradesh 84665533 275045 308
Madhya
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Population Geography
24 TamilNadu 72138958 130058 555
Rajasthan 68621012 342239 201
Karnataka 61130704 191791 319
Gujarat 60383628 196024 308
Orissa 41947358 156707 269
Kerala 33387677 38863 859
Jharkhand 32966238 79714 414
Assam 31169272 78438 397
Punjab 27704236 50362 550
Chhatisgarh 25540196 135191 189
Haryana 25353081 44212 573
Jammu & 12548926 222236 56 Kashmir Uttrakhand 10116752 55673 123
Tripura 3671032 10486 350
Meghalaya 2964007 22429 132
Manipur 2721756 22327 122
Nagaland 1980602 16579 119
Goa 1457723 3702 394
Arunachal Pradesh 13826111 83743 17
Mizoram 1091014 21081 52
Sikkim 6076 88 7096 86
Source: Census of India, 2011
The whole of North India stretching from Jammu and Kashmir in the
West upto Arunachal Pradesh in the East has the Himalayan ranges and
the Trans Himalayan mounta in ranges. They are inaccessible, forested,
with harsh climate and therefore uninhabitable. Population is
concentrated mostly in plains formed by rivers and coastal plains. As
a result states like Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal have
highest density of population. Kerala, in the Malabar coastal region gets
sufficient rainfall from South West monsoon which help to boost up
the agricultural produce of the state. The economy of all the above
mentioned states is based on agriculture and being endowed with a
long growing season indirectly helps in fostering huge popu lation base.
Apart from physiographic reasons, demographic factors like high birth
rate is responsible for huge concentration of population in Bihar and
Uttar Pradesh and migration in the form of cross border infiltration is
responsible for the huge influx of population in West Beng al. Other
reasons for high birth rate may be sociological as in case of Muslims and
Christians who do not believe in practicing family planning measures. munotes.in

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25 This leads to high birth rate and therefore higher concentration of
population. Political disturbance often leads to large scale o ut
migration of population in certain areas thereby inducing low density
of population.
2.7. SUMMARY:
Popu lation Geography is a well established branch of Human
Geography. The concept of population change or growth of population is
often used to connote the change in the number of inhabitants of a
territory during a specific period of time, irrespective of the fact whether
change is positive or negative. Although the rapid growth of the
world’s population over the past one hundred years results from a
difference between the rate of birth and the rate of death it reminds
geographers that population characteristics are a key ingredient in the
character of places. If we look at the population statistics of our country
we find that after indepen dence we almost added a few India in terms
of population. Population explosion around the world is causing
severe resource depletion and environmental degradation. Decline in
the death rate, rise in the birth rate, migration, lack of education are the
main causes of growth of population. The density of population is defined
as the number of persons per square kilometer. The popu lation density of
India has gone up to 382 persons per square kilometre in 2011 from
325 persons per square kilometre in 2001.
2.8. CHECK YOUR PROGRES S/ EXERCISE
1. True and false
a. In population geography Fertility refers to the occurrence of
death.
b. The fall in death rates that is decline in mortality rate is one
fundamental causes of growth of population.
c. Medicines of today can enhance the reproductive rate in human
beings
d. Rise in amount of Oxygen emissions leads to global warming. e.
High growth of population leads to employment.
2. Fill in the blanks
a. Rise in gives rise to crime.
b. the masses is the first step to control high
growth of population.
c. The distribution of population all over the world is not ubiquitous as
there are vast _____________ sparities.
d. Those areas fit for human habitation or those occupied by
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Population Geography
26
e. is by far the most populous continent.
3. Multiple choice question
a. The aftermath of partition in 1947 and the subsequent war in 1971
saw people from Bang ladesh settling down in
i. Dandakaranya
ii. Assam
iii. Patna
b. Illiteracy is an important cause of growth of population
because
i. those lacking education fail to understand the need to procure food
for growth of population.
ii. those lacking education fail to unde rstand the need to prevent
excessive growth of population.
iii. those lacking education fail to unde rstand the need to prevent
excessive growth of poverty.
c. Landforms influence the distributional pattern of population
i. both at macro and micro level
ii. only at macro level
iii. only at micro level
d. The Rann of Kutch region of Kathiawar peninsula continues to
remain relatively less densely populated
i. mainly due to the conditions of heavy rainfall.
ii. mainly due to the conditions of poor crop production.
iii. mainly due to the conditions of poor drainage
e. Asia’s densest human habitations are found in areas
i. influenced by the high temperature.
ii. influenced by the monsoon.
iii. influenced by the draught.


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27 4. Answer the Following Questions
1. Discuss the causes and effects of high growth of population.
2. Explain the factors affecting the distribution of population in the
world.
3. Write a note on density of population in India.
4. Write a short note on remedies to control the growth of
population.
2.9. ANSWERS TO THE SELF LEARNING QUESTIONS.
1.a. false, birth
1.b.true
1.c.true
1.d. false, CO2
1.e. false, unemployment
2.a. unemployment
2.b. Educating
2.c. regional
2.d. “ecumene”
2.e. Asia
3.a.i.
3.b .ii.
3.c.i
3.d. iii.
3.e.ii
2.10. TECHN ICAL WORDS:
 Population Growth-An increase in the number of people that
reside in a country, state, county, or city
 Distribution of population-the arrangement or spread of
people living in a given area according to variables such as age, race,
or sex
 Density of population-is the number of people per unit of area
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28 2.11. TASK
1. In a world map mark the continent having highest density of
population.
2. In a chart show the causes of growth of population.
3. In a chart show the effects of growth of popu lation.
2.12. REFERE NCES FOR FURTHER STUDY
 Popu lation Geography, Debjani Roy
 Clarke, J.(1965). “Population Geography”
 Trewarta, G. (1969). “A geography of population”
 Census of India, 2011
 Popu lation Geography: Tools & Issues, K. Bruce Newbolt
 The Population of India and Pakistan, Davis, Kingsley
 The study of Population, Duncan(ed)
 Oxford English Dictionary



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29 3
THEORIES OF POPULATION GROWTH
After going through this chapter, you will be able to understand the
following features:

Unit Structure
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Introduction
3.3 Subject discussion
3.4 Demographic Theories
3.5 Summary
3.6 Check your Progress/E xercise
3.7 Answers to the self learning questions
3.8 Technical words and their meaning
3.9 Task
3.10 References for further study
3.1. OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you will be able to –
 Understand the Demographic Transition Theory
 Know about Malthus T heory
 Understand the Karl Marx Theory
3.2. INTRODUCTION
 In the previous two chapters we have studied the definition, nature,
scope and importance of Population Geography, its relation with other
Social Sciences along with historical development of the sam e. The
Population Growth, Distribution and Density as well as Zones of density
of population in world have also been learnt earlier. In this chapter we are
going to learn Demographic Theories such as Demographic Transition
Theory, Malthus Theory and Karl M arx Theory.
3.3. SUBJECT -DISCUSSION
Population geography is a comparatively recent phenomenon and an
independent sub -field of human geography. Scholars and intellectuals
have discussed the question of population since times in memorial. Very
often their vi ews have differed, especially as they related to the size and munotes.in

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Population Geography
30 growth of human population. A large and rapidly growing population has
sometimes being considered to be desirable as a source of the nation’s
strength and wealth and as an essentially useful fac tor underline
technological development. A population theory has emerged only in the
eighteenth century when the well -known work of Thomas Malthus was
published. Since then, impressive contributions have been made to the
population theory. The theories can be classified according to their age
into three categories that is Pro Malthusian, Malthusian and Post
Malthusian theories.
3.4. DEMOGRAPHIC THEORIES
3.4.1. Demographic Transition Theory
In 1929, Warren Thompson first suggested that a co relationship exi sts
between declining birth rate and economic growth but it was due to the
cumulative efforts of Thompson (1929), Notestein (1945) and Blacker
(1947) that the theory of demographic transition or of population stages
was propounded. W.S. Thomson and F.W. No testein based their
statements on the trends in fertility and mortality being experienced by
Europe, America and Australia. The theory postulates a particular pattern
of demographic change from a high fertility and high mortality to a low
fertility and low mortality when a society progresses from a largely rural
agrarian society to a dominantly urban, industrial and literate society. To
put it simply, high birth rate coupled with high death rate represents an
agrarian society with a backward economy, while high birth rate with low
death rate represents a transitional phase that is the beginning of
industrial development. Likewise low birth rate and low death rate
represents modern society that is economically stable while low birth rate
with very low death r ate signifies an economically stable society on the
threshold of instability. During this course of progression, all societies
experience an intermediate stage when there occurs a wide gap between
fertility and mortality giving rise to not only huge increm ents in
population numbers but also to significant changes in their demographic
structure. The demographic transition theory is characterized by copious
stages and Notestein suggested the existence of three stages in transition.
Beaujeu -Garnier (1966) too, categorized the Demographic Transition
Theory into three phases . Beaujeu -Garnier’s three phases of
Demographic Transition may be explained as follows:
a. The first phase is that of high birth rate and high death rate where the
growth rate of population is ma rginal.
b. The second phase is characterized by rapidly increasing population
initially due to fall in death rate while birth rate remains high followed
by gradual decrease in growth rate when birth rate begins to decline
along with decline in death rate.
c. The third phase is characterized by fall in growth rate due to rapidly
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Growth
31
Stage Birth rate Death
rate Growth
rate Economy
I) Pre industrial High High Static to
Low Agrarian
II) Early Western High Declining High Mixed
III) Moder n Western Low to
Medium Low Low to
Medium Industrial
society and
mixed economy

Some geographers have divided the Demographic Transition into four
stages . In the first stage both birth rate and death rate are high. Here the
growth is nominal. The second s tage has high birth rate and low death
rate leading to high growth rate. Developing economies like India are in
this stage. The third stage is characterized by stable population growth. It
is also known as the plateau stage. Spain, Italy etc. fall in this stage where
both birth rate and death rate is low. The fourth stage is one of declining
population growth where death rate is low but birth rate is very low and
sometimes even negative. Countries like Sweden, Denmark and Germany
fall in this category. Denm ark, Japan, Norway and Germany have very
low growth rate. It is notable that these countries do not have joint family
system.
The original theory of demographic transition was subsequently refined
and reformulated with the passage of time. One of the most accepted
versions is C.P. Blacker’s five stages of population growth. The theory of
demographic transition explains the changes in birth rate and death rate
on the growth rate of population. According to E.G. Dolan,
“Demographic Transition refers to a popu lation cycle that begins with a
fall in death rate, continues with a phase of rapid population growth and
concludes with a decline in birth rate.”
The theory of demographic transition is based on the actual population
trends of the advanced countries in th e world. This theory states that
every country passes through different stages of population development.
According to C.P. Blacker, they are: (1) high stationary phase marked by
high fertility and mortality rates (2) the early expanding stage marked by
high fertility and high but declining mortality (3) the late expanding
phase marked by declining fertility but mortality declining more rapidly
(4) the low stationary phase marked with low fertility balanced with
equally low mortality, and (5) the declining phase with low fertility, low
mortality and an excess of deaths over births.
These stages are explained in the following figures. In the figures the
time for different stages is taken on the horizontal axis and annual birth
and death rates on vertical axis . The curves BR and DR relate to birth rate munotes.in

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32 and death rate respectively. P is the population curve in the lower portion
of the figure.
First Stage
In this stage the country is backward and is characterized by high birth
rate and death rate with the result that the growth rate of population is
low. People mostly live in rural areas and their main occupation is
agriculture which is in a state of backwardness. There are a few simple,
light and small consumer goods industries. The tertiary sector is
underdevelo ped. Large family is regarded as a necessity to augment low
income. Children are considered as assets to the family and the system of
joint family system provides employment to all children in keeping with
their ages.
Along with high birth rate death rate is also high due to non –nutritional
food, lack of medical services and lack of any sense of cleanliness and
hygiene. Mortality rate is the highest amongst children and among
women belonging to the child bearing age. According to Blacker, this
stage contin ued in Western Europe approximately upto1840 and in India
and China upto1900. This is illustrated in figure 1 by the time period HS
(High Stationary) stage and by the horizontal portion of the population P
curve in the lower portion of the figure.
Second S tage
In the second stage, the economy enters the phase of economic growth.
Agricultural and industrial productivity increases, and means of transport
develop. There is greater mobility of labour. Education expands and
incomes increase. People get more and more and better quality of food.
Medical and health services are expanded and modern drugs are
introduced. All these factors bring down the death rate while birth rate is
almost stable. People have no inclination of bringing down birth rate
because with in creased employment opportunities children are able to
supplement the family income. Also with improvements in living
standards and dietary habits of people life expectancy also increases.
Family planning measures are not adopted due to social customs
institutions, customs and beliefs. As a result birth rate continues to
remain high.
With the decline in the death rate and no change in birth rate, the
population increases at a rapid rate. This leads to population explosion .
This is an Early Expanding stage (E E) in demographic transition when
the population growth curve is rising from A to B as shown in fig (B).
According to Blacker, 40% of the world’s population was in this stage up
to 1930. Many countries of Africa are still in this stage.
Third Stage
In this stage, birth rate starts declining accompanied by death rates
declining rapidly. With better medical facilities, the survival rate if
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33 country is burdened with growing population. Pe ople adopt family
planning techniques to limit the size of family. Birth rates begin to
decline especially in urban areas but death rate declines more rapidly.
Growth in health services brings down death rate and also increases life
expectancy. With death rates declining rapidly, population grows at a
diminishing rate. This is Late Expanding stage as shown by LE in fig
9.1(A) and BC in fig 9.1 (B). According to Blacker, 20% of the world’s
population was in this stage in 1930.
Fourth Stage
In this stage the fertility rate declines and tends to equal the death rate so
that the growth rate of population is stationary. As growth gains
momentum and people’s level of income increases, their standard of
living rises. The leading growth sectors expand and lead to a n expansion
in output in the other sectors through technical transformation. Education
expands and permeates the entire society. People discard old customs,
dogmas and beliefs and develop an individualistic approach towards life.
Men and women marry late a nd plan their families using family planning
techniques. All this tends to reduce the birth rate which, with already low
death rate brings a decline in the growth of population. Countries like
Denmark, Japan, and Norway, Germany fall in this category where low
birth and death rate have led to a compounded effect of low growth rate.
These countries have nuclear family system and adult female population
is more than male population. It may be mentioned here that most
advanced countries of the world are passin g through this Lower
Stationary (LS) stage of population development as shown in Fig (A) and
CD in Fig (B). Population growth is curtailed and there is zero population
growth .
Fifth Stage
In this stage, death rate exceeds birth rate and population growth
declines. This is shown as D in fig (A) and the portion DP in fig (B). A
continual decline in birth rate when it is not possible to lower death rates
further in the advanced countries leads to “declining stage” of population.
The existence of this stage in any developed country is a matter of
speculation, according to Blacker. However, France appears to approach
this stage.
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34

Fig - 3.1
The theory of demographic transition is the most acceptable theory of
population growth. It does not lay emphasis on food s upply like the
Malthusian theory, nor does it develop a pessimistic outlook towards
population growth. It is also superior to the optimum theory which lays
an exclusive emphasis on the increase in per capita income for the growth
of population and neglects other factors that influence it. The biological
theories are also one sided because they study the problem of population
growth simply from the biological angle. Thus the demographic munotes.in

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35 transition theory is superior to all the theories of population because it is
based on actual population growth trends of the developed countries of
Europe.
However, this theory is not free from criticisms . Critics point out that the
sequences of demographic stages have not been uniform. For example, in
some East and South Eur opean countries, and in Spain particularly,
fertility rates declined even when mortality rates were high. But in
America, the growth rate of population was higher than in the second and
third stage of demographic transition. Secondly, the assumption that b irth
rate declined initially in urban areas has not been supported by empirical
evidence. Countries like Sweden and France with predominantly rural
population experienced decline in birth rates to the same extent as
countries like Great Britain with predom inantly urban population.
Thirdly, the theory fails to give the fundamental explanations of decline
in birth rates in Western Countries. Infact, the causes of decline in birth
rate are so diverse that they differ from country to country. Thus,
according to critics, the demographic theory is a generalization and not a
theory.
The theory of demographic transition is equally applicable to the
developing countries of the world. African countries are still in the first
stage while India has entered the third sta ge where death rate is declining
faster than birth rate due to better medical facilities and family welfare
schemes of the government. But the death rate is declining very slowly
with the result that the country is experiencing population explosion. It is
on the basis of this theory that economists have developed economic -
demographic models so that developing countries should enter the fourth
stage. Thus this theory is universally acceptable.
The scheme of describing demographic transition serves a useful p urpose
because it describes in a simple manner the historical trends of population
growth with the help of a classification scheme. Its value as a
demographic theory, and its ability to predict future events however have
been challenged. Yet, it remains an important theory in the study of
population geography.
3.4.2 Malthusian Theory of Population
Malthusian Theory is the most well -known theory of population growth
that argues that rapid population growth would outpace food production
leading to social chao s. Thomas Robert Malthus was the first economist to
propose a systematic theory of population. He articulated his views
regarding population in his famous book, Essay on the Principle of
Population (1798). His collection of empirical data supported his th esis.
He incorporated his researches in the second edition of his book published
in 1803. Malthus modified some of his views in this edition but essentially
his original thesis did not change. Malthus revolted against the prevailing
optimism shared by his father and Godwin that a perfect state could be
attained if human restraints were removed. Malthus’ objection was that the
pressure of increasing population on the food supply would destroy munotes.in

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36 perfection and there would be misery in the world. Malthus was sev erely
criticized for his pessimistic views which led him to travel in the continent
of Europe to gather data in support of his thesis.
In Essay on the Principle of Population , Malthus proposes the principle
that human populations grow exponentially (i.e., doubling with each
cycle) while food production grows at an arithmetic rate (i.e. by the
repeated addition of a uniform increment in each uniform interval of time).
Thus, while food output was likely to increase in a series of twenty -five
year intervals i n the arithmetic progression 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and so
on, population was capable of increasing in the geometric progression 1, 2,
4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, and so forth. This scenario of arithmetic food
growth with simultaneous geometric human population growth predicted a
future when humans would have no resources to survive on. To avoid
such a catastrophe, Malthus urged controls on population growth.
Malthus’ doctrine is illustrated below.
Fig - 3.2
According to Malthus because of this unequ al power between production
and reproduction, "population must always be kept down to the level of
the means of subsistence.” The key word in the principle is “always.”
On the basis of a hypothetical world population of one billion in the early
nineteenth century and an adequate means of subsistence at that time,
Malthus suggested that there was a potential for a population increase to
256 billion within 200 years but that the means of subsistence were only
capable of being increased enough for nine billio n to be fed at the level
prevailing at the beginning of the period.
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37 According to Malthus, there are two types of “checks” that can reduce a
population’s growth rate. Preventive checks are voluntary actions people
can take to avoid contributing to the popu lation. Due to his religious
beliefs, he supported the concept he called moral restraint , in which
people resist the urge to marry and reproduce until they are capable of
supporting a family. This often means waiting until a later age to marry.
He also wro te that there are 'immoral' ways to check a population, such as
vices, adultery, prostitution, and birth control. Due to his beliefs, he
favored moral restraint and didn't support the latter practices.
He saw positive checks to population growth as being t he causes that
contributed to the shortening of human life spans. Malthus classified
positive checks into two categories, the first which were brought by
natural causes. Here he spoke of famine, disease, war and poor living and
working environments. The ot her being that which mankind brought upon
him. He explicitly demanded artificial means of birth control and
suggested as an alternative that birth rate be decreased through preventive
measures such as late marriage, self -restraint and abstinence from sex.
However, in all societies, some of these checks are in constant operation
although in varying magnitudes of effectiveness. Malthus believed that
despite these checks, the inability of increased food supply to keep abreast
of population increase always resu lts in some kind of a situation of
overpopulation.
Malthusian theory has been explained with the help of the following
graphs:
Malthus said that Population grows faster than food supply because
according to him food supply can only grow arithmetically, fo r example, 1
then 2 then 3 -4-5-6-7-8 but, population grows geometrically 2 -4-8-16-32-
64.Consequently, there is no way food supply can keep up with population
growth.









Fig - 3.3
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Population Geography
38 Population grows exponentially, for example, 1 -2-4-8-16-32-64.
Food sup ply grows arithmetically, for example, 1 -2-3-4-5-6.
Therefore, population will inevitably exceed food supply.
He then went on two say that there are two possible outcomes.
Firstly, he said population could exceed food supply only to be positively
"checked " (reduced) by famine, war, and disease.









Fig - 3.4
 Population exceeds food supply and is kept in check by war, famine,
or disease. It then drops below the food supply. As the population
recovers, so the cycle continues. Alternatively, slow popula tion growth
will be within the limits of food supply. Malthus called these negative
checks. These negative checks would include later marriages and
abstinence from sex.









Fig - 3.5
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Theories of Population
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39 * Here, as population starts to approach the limits of the food sup ply, so
growth slows. Malthus says this slowing is caused by delayed marriage.
Criticism
The Malthusian theory of population has been the subject of a keen
controversy. The following are some of the grounds on which it has been
criticized: —
a. It is argued t hat population has rarely grown in geometrical
proportion and means of production have rarely multiplied in arithmetic
progression. He underestimates the possibilities of increased food supply.
There is no ground for making the general assertion that as po pulation
increases from two to four, food supply can increase only from two to
three. Population has failed to grow as rapidly as predicted by Malthus and
production has increased tremendously because of the rapid advances in
technology. As a result, livin g standards of the people have risen instead
of falling as was predicted by Malthus.
b. Malthus overemphasized the ‘positive’ checks and did not visualize
the role of ‘preventive’ checks like contraceptives and family planning.
Neo-Malthusists argued for the adoption of birth control within marriage.
Human inventions in the fields of birth control, health, nutrition and
agriculture have helped to a great extent to strike a balance between
human reproduction and food supply. The civilized world has kept the
population in check. It is, however, to be regretted that population has
been increasing at the wrong end. The poor people, who can ill -afford to
bring up and educate children, are multiplying, whereas the rich are
applying brakes on the increase of the size of their families.
c. Malthus was also severely criticized for ignoring the role of
changing technology and the consequent transformation in socio -
economic set -up of a society. He did not fully appreciate the extent to
which improved agricultural technology a nd crop fertilization could
sustain large population.
Malthusian theory has been severely criticized on several grounds. Yet,
despite its numerous weaknesses it has been revived time and again. The
theory was rejected in the 1900 but was revived once again in the second
decade of the twentieth century.
3.4.3. Karl Marx's Theory of Population
Karl Marx (1818 -1883) was a German philosopher and founder of
modern communism. His theory of population was christened as theory of
surplus population. He did not se parately propose any theory of
population, but his surplus population theory has been deduced from his
theory of communism. Not only was he one of Malthus's main nineteenth -
century critics, but his own "law of population" is interesting in its own
right. M arx opposed and criticized the Malthusian theory of population.
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40 According to Marx, population increase must be interpreted in the context
of the capitalistic economic system. A capitalist gives to labour as wage a
small share of labour's productivity, an d the capitalist himself takes the
lion's share. The capitalist introduces more and more machinery and thus
increases the surplus value of labour's productivity, which is pocketed by
the capitalist. The surplus is the difference between labour's producti vity
and the wage level. A worker is paid less than the value of his
productivity.
By installing labour saving machinery a capitalist wants to have maximum
surplus value out of that. As a result unemployment increases, wage
declines and poverty increase s and, consequently, a reserve army of labour
is created. This reserve puts pressure on those who are employed by
making them submit to over work and a low level of wages. The numbers
in this reserve army fluctuate with business or trade cycles. During ti mes
when business is depressed, workers are laid off and eventually profits
begin to rise again. Thus business (capitalism) benefits by exploiting
labour. While wages are kept low everywhere, the members in this surplus
labour army are destined to have the lowest wages. Under these
circumstances, as the wage level goes down further, the poor parents
cannot properly rear their children on account of their poverty and a large
part of the population becomes virtually surplus. Poverty, hunger and
other social ills are the result of socially unjust practices associated with
capitalism. Thus the working class produces wealth (capital), but because
there is a constant oversupply of labour, it will never share in much of the
wealth it produces. Since this means tha t most working people are kept
poor, their birth rates will remain high and the labour surplus will continue
to grow. Marx held that poverty and unemployment were not due to
increased population, but on due to capitalist system which failed to
provide jobs . Surplus population was the consequence for real production
and uneven distribution of wealth and for providing jobs to only few
persons.
Population growth, according to Marx, is therefore not related to the
alleged ignorance or moral inferiority of the p oor, but is a consequence of
the capitalist economic system. Marx points out that landlordism,
unfavourable and high man -land ratio, uncertainty regarding land tenure
system and the like are responsible for low food production in a country.
Only in place s where the production of food is not adequate does
population growth become a problem.
Marx’s Response to Malthus’ Thesis:
The debate on the Malthusian theory is continuing till today. While his
theory is supported by economists such as J.S. Mill and J.M . Keynes,
others, especially, sociologists, have argued against it. According to them,
an eternal law of nature as propounded by Malthus is not responsible for
the widespread poverty and misery of the working class people. This
burden lies on the misconcei ved organi zation of society.
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41 Karl Marx argued that the unequal distribution of the wealth and its
accumulation by capitalists is the reason behind starvation and it has
nothing to do with the population. Population is dependent on economic
and social org anization. The problems of overpopulation and limits to
resources, as enunciated by Malthus, are inherent and inevitable features
associated with the capitalist system of production.
Marx opined that food production could not increase rapidly. This idea
was also debated later when the application of new technology gave
farmers much greater yields. French sociologist E. Dupreel (1977) argued
that an increasing population would spur rapid innovation and
development to solve problems, whereas a stable populati on would be
complacent and less likely to progress.
During the depression of the 1930s, the debate changed somewhat because
the birth rate fell sharply in industrial (western) nations. Some predicted
that human species would die out. Schemes were proposed to encourage
families to have more children by giving them allowances for each child
born. The birth rate rose sharply after World War II, especially in the
underdeveloped nations like India, Africa and Bangladesh. Birth control
programmes were instituted to control the population so as to eliminate
starvation.
Critical Evaluation:
It is true to great extent that in capitalist society there is surplus population
on account of unemployment. But it is not correct to presume that under
socialist system there w ill be no need to check population growth at any
stage. Even in communist countries population growth is checked on the
plea that no mother should have more children so that her health does not
deteriorate. In erstwhile USSR factory workers were provided
contraceptives in their factories so that birth rate was kept low.
If economic inequality is the main cause of birth rate then in these
countries these rate should not differ.
In his theory of population, Marx has criticized Malthus but his criticism
does not appear to be very reasonable. Lewis and Thompson opined,
“There can be no question of sincerity of Marx’s belief in the evils of
capitalism as the sole basis of poverty. Marx must have had deep -seeded
doubts that Malthus views could be sufficiently dis posed of by an appeal
to facts and reason.”
The Marxist theory is based on the idea of history of class struggle. Those
who do not believe in Marxist theory of change would also not accept his
theory of population. Moreover, the population reality of today is complex
and in many important aspects different from what it was during the times
of Malthus and Marx. The two lived in an age in which both birth and
death rates were high (death rates had only begun to fall in the industrially
advanced countries) and the rate of population growth was very low.
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42 3.5 OPTIMUM THEORY OF POPULATION
The Optimum Theory of Population appeared as a reaction to the
Malthusian theory.
Criticizing the appro ach of the Malthusian Theory of Population, modern
economists Edwin Cannan and Carr Saunders of London School of
Economics have developed a new theory known as Optimum Theory of
Population.
It is also called modern theory of population. In recent years, Pr of.
Robbins, Dalton and Carr - Saunders have refined and polished the theory
and put it in a more presentable form. This theory is an improvement over
the Malthusian Theory.
Statement of the Theory:
The founders of the theory state it as “Given the natural resources, stock of
capital and the state of technical knowledge, there will be a definite size of
population with the per capita income. The population which has the
highest per capita income is known as optimum population”.
Optimum Population:
The econom ists like Carr Saunders considered ‘optimum population’ as
that which produces maximum welfare. On the other hand, Prof. Cannan
defined this theory in terms of ‘return to labour’. He remarked,
“Knowledge and circumstances remaining the same, there is what may be
called maximum return when the amount of labour is such that both an
increase and decrease in it would diminish proportionate return.”
Similarly, Bounding has rightly observed, “Optimum population is that at
which standard of living is maximum.
1. Unde r Population:
If the actual population in a country is less than the optimum or ideal
population, there will not be enough people to exploit all the resources of
the country fully. Thus, the population and the per capita income will be
lower. In other word s, if the per capita income is low due to too few
people, the population is then under population.
2. Over Population:
If the actual population is above the level of optimum population, there
will be too many people to work efficiently and produce the maxi mum
goods and the highest per capita income. As a result, the per capita income
becomes poorer than before. This is the stage of over population. In other
words, if the per capita income is low due to too many people, the
population under these circumstanc es would be over population.

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43 Assumptions :
The optimum theory is based on two important assumptions:
1. The proportion of working population to total population remains
constant as the population of the country increases.
2. As the population of a countr y increases, the natural resources, the
capital stock and state of technology remain unchanged.
Diagrammatic Representation of the Theory :
In the diagram I volume of population is shown along OX axis and income
per head along OY -axis. OS is the income per head which gives only
subsistence wage rate to the population. This level of wages puts the
minimum limit to the income per head.
The subsistence income per head can prevail with two levels of
population:
1. When population is too small to exploit the coun try’s resources with
maximum efficiency. This is the level of OA population.
2. When population is too large and the efficiency falls to give only a
subsistence income to the labour force. This is the level of OC population.
OB shows optimum population whi ch uses the available resources to give
itself the maximum income per head. For a population less than OB,
income per head increases with the increase in population. For a
population higher than OB, income per head can increase with the
decrease in populat ion through preventive checks.
The dotted curve in the diagram shows the level of income per head with
an improvement in technology or expansion of foreign trade. This will
help to raise the income curve and generate population growth until wages
are once again equal to subsistence level.
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44 The critics have criticized the theory on the basis of the following
grounds:
1. Difficult to Determine Optimum Population:
It is extremely difficult to know the optimum population of a country at
any time. Many factors like technical knowledge, stock of capital, per
capita income and natural resources etc. have to be taken into account for
this purpose.
2. A Static Theory: The optimum theory is criticized as a static short
period theory. It ignores changes in natural and human resources which
affect per capita income. This theory is also silent about the important
questions of the determinants of population growth.
3. Neglects Biologic al and Sociological Factors: Some critics also argue
that this theory has not taken into account the biological and sociological
factors which govern the size and growth of population. Strictly speaking,
this theory is not a theory of population. It simply explains the state of
population with reference to per capita income.
4. Not a Realistic Theory:
It is pointed out that two assumptions on which the theory has been based,
are not realistic. So, the practical value of this theory is reduced. In fact,
natural resources, technical knowledge and production methods are
generally changeable.
5. Only Economic Factors Considered:
The critics point out that the theory takes into account purely economic
factors which determine the optimum size of the population of a country.
This is one side of the picture. We should also consider the social, political
and other non -economic factors.
6. Not Practicable: The optimum theory is not practicable as it is not
fixed. Thus, it is unable to guide to the formation of any pol icy. Prof.
Robbins says that this theory is the most sterile idea of economics.
7. Distributional Aspect Neglected:
The theory neglects the distributional aspect of the problem. This theory
considers simple population to income per head. This increase of
population and national income cannot be useful to a country if the
increased national income is not properly and equitably distributed among
the various sections of the society. Therefore, realistic theory must account
for income distribution as a factor i n determining the optimum population.
Despite of so much criticism leveled against optimum theory, it is surely
said that it is an improvement over Malthusian Theory. The optimum
theory is an important landmark in the science of demography. It is
valuable because it enables us to overcome the bogey of Malthusianism
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45 useful in social life due to its static nature. Thus, it is not a guiding
principle to any economic policy. It requir es to be re -casted in a dynamic
setting for making it more successful.
3.6. SUMMARY:
With the help of the different demographic theories it has been easier to
understand population growth. We must separate the rate of growth from
the total numbers themselv es to have a clear idea of the population
growth. Down the ages the world population has continued to rise in
number, the rate at which the population is growing has slowed.
Among several models for observing and predicting the world's population
growth t he most commonly accepted is the demographic transition model
(DTM) which describes a progressive movement from high birth and
death rates to low birth and death rates. The demographic transition theory
argues with the advancement of society in its usage o f technology, in
every field from industry, healthcare to crop production, its birth and death
rates shift. This has a direct impact on the population numbers and growth
rates. Hence population growth is inextricably tied to a society's level of
technolo gy.
Malthus employed two different ratios in order to establish his argument,
the first of which states that human population grows at a geometric rate.
His second principle points to the difference between this geometric rate
of growth for human populatio ns and the arithmetic rate of food
production, which means that with each generation, the food supply will
only increase by the same set number.
Karl Marx rejected Malthusian theory completely as it did not fit in a
socialist society. His belief lied in th e system of capitalism and according
to him capitalism has the capacity to produce food and other necessities.
To Marx, in a capitalist society, production is controlled by the capitalist
class. He opined that the unequal distribution of social and economi c
wealth undetermined production. His theory of population was named as
theory of surplus population.
To conclude it may be said that these theories of population has been
criticised and many of us do not belief them because the population reality
of today is complex. Even it is different from what it was during the times
of Malthus and Marx.
3.6. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS/ EXERCISE
1. True and false
a. Malthusian Theory is the most well -known theory of population
growth that argues that rapid population growth would outpace food
production leading to social chaos.
b. Low birth rate and low death rate represents modern society. munotes.in

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46 c. Beaujeu -Garnier categorized the Demographic Transition Theory into
six phases.
d. Karl Marx (1818 -1883) was a French philosopher and founder of
moder n communism.
e. In the first phase of Demographic Transition there is high birth rate
and high death rate so the growth rate of population is marginal.
2. Fill in the blanks
a. Low birth rate with very __________ death rate signifies an
economically stable society on the threshold of instability.
b. The second phase of Demographic Transition is characterized by
rapidly increasing population initially due to fall in ____________ rate
while birth rate remains high followed by gradual _____________ in
growth rate when bi rth rate begins to decline along with decline in
death rate.
c. Malthus said that population grows faster than food supply because
according to him food supply can only grow _________________.
d. Karl Marx’ s theory of population was christened as theory of
_____ _____ ________.
e. Marx opposed and criticized the ___________ theory of population.
3. Multiple choice question
a. The third phase of Demographic Transition is characterized by
i. fall in growth rate due to rapidly falling birth rate and death rate.
ii. fall in death rate due to rapidly falling birth rate and death rate.
iii. fall in birth rate due to rapidly falling death rate and death rate.

b. Critics point out that the sequences of demographic stages have
i. been uniform.
ii. not been uniform.
iii. not bee n unstable.

c. With better medical facilities,
i. the survival rate of children increased.
ii. the survival rate of children decreased.
iii. the death rate of children increased.

d. Karl Marx argued that the reason behind starvation
i. is the equal dis tribution of the wealth and its accumulation by
capitalists, and it has nothing to do with the population.
ii. is the unequal distribution of the food and its accumulation by
socialists, and it has nothing to do with the population.
iii. is the unequal d istribution of the wealth and its accumulation by
capitalists, and it has nothing to do with the population.
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Theories of Population
Growth
47 e. Critics argued that
i. Malthus over emphasized the ‘positive’ checks and did not visualize
the role of ‘preventive’ checks like contraceptives an d family
planning.
ii. Malthus over emphasized the ‘preventive’ checks and did not
visualize the role of ‘positive’ checks like contraceptives and family
planning.
iii. Malthus over emphasized the ‘positive’ checks and did not visualize
the role of ‘preventive’ ch ecks like food storage.
4. Answer the Following Questions
1. Discuss the Demographic Transition Theory in detail.
2. Discuss C.P. Blacker’s five stages of population growth.
3. Discuss the criticism of Demographic Transition Theory.
4. Define Malthusian theor y of population.
5. What is the Opinion of the Neo -Malthusians?
6. Define Karl Marx's theory of population.
7. Crticise Marx's theory of population.
8. What is Marx’s Response to Malthus’ Thesis?
3.7. ANSWERS TO THE SELF LEARNING QUESTIONS
1.a.true
1.b.tru e
1.c.false, into three phases.
1.d. false, German
1.e. true

2.a. low
2.b. death, decrease
2.c. arithmetically
2.d. surplus population.
2.e. Malthusian

3.a.i
3.b.ii
3.c.i
3.d.iii
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48
3.8. TECHNICAL WORDS:

1. Birth rate -the number of live births per thou sand of population per
year
2. Death rate - the number of deaths per one thousand people per year.
3. Growth rate -the rate at which something, in particular an economy or
business, grows.
4. Demographic Transition - it refers to the transition from high birth
and dea th rates to lower birth and death rates as a country or region
develops from a pre -industrial to an industrialized economic system.
5. Malthusian Theory - population tends to increase at a faster rate than
its means of subsistence and if it is not checked wide spread poverty
and degradation will result inevitably
6. Karl Marx - Born in Trier to a middle -class family was a Prussian -
born philosopher, economist, sociologist, journalist, and revolutionary
socialist.
3.9. TASK
1. In a chart show the three stages of Demogr aphic Transition Theory.
2. In a chart write the criticism of Malthusian Theory.
3.10. REFERENCES FOR FURTHER STUDY
 Population Geography, Debjani Roy
 Clarke, J. (1965). “Population Geography”
 Trewarta, G. (1969). “A geography of population”
 Census of India, 2 011
 Population Geography: Tools & Issues, K. Bruce Newbolt
 The Population of India and Pakistan, Davis, Kingsley
 The study of Population, Duncan(ed)
 Human Geography by Majid Husain
 Economic and Social Geography - Made Simple, Rupa Publishers
 A Geograph y of Population by R.C. Chandna
 Oxford English Dictionary
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49 4
MIGRATION
After going through this chapter you will be able to understand the
following features:

Unit Structure
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Introduction
4.3 Subject discussion
4.4 Migration
4.5 Recent Trend of Migration of Population in India
4.6 Summary
4.7 Check your Progress/Exercise
4.8 Answers to the self learning questions
4.9 Technical words and their meaning
4.10 Task
4.11 References for further study
4.1. OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you will be able to –
 Understand the definition of Migration
 Know a bout the types, causes and effects of Migration
 Understand the recent trend of Migration of Population in India
4.2. INTRODUCTION
In the earlier chapters we have already studied the definition, nature, scope
and importance of Population Geography, and the relation it shares with
other Social Sciences along with its historical development. The
Population Growth, Distribution and Density as well as Zones of density
of population in world have also been learnt in previous chapters. In the
last chapter we lear nt different Demographic Theories. Migration, its
types, causes, effects and recent trend of migration of population in India
are the main topic which will be studied in the following chapter.

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50 4.3. SUBJECT -DISCUSSION
Migration in population geography gen erally refers to the movement of
humans from one place to another. It has occurred as long as mankind has
existed and has a connection with economic growth, poverty, human rights
and many other global issues. Having many social and economic benefits
migrat ion is not free from challenges. It occurs when the perceived
interaction of Push and Pull factors overcome the friction of moving.
Human migration is a well known phenomenon. Migration and
displacement affect societies around the world. People move in sea rch of
profit, protection and passage hence migration plays an important role in
shaping the new lands politics, economies, and societies.
4.4. MIGRATION
4.4.1. Definition
Migration is a fact of life. Migration does not mean a short trip for
pleasure or bu siness nor does it mean shifting residence from one locality
in a town to another. It means a permanent or at least for a considerable
period of time departure for a place which is not just nearby. According to
the Demographic Dictionary of United Nations, “Migration is such an
event in which people move from one geographical area to another
geographical area. When people leaving behind their place of residence go
to live permanently in another area it is called migration.”
4.4.2. Types of Migration
a. Interna l Migration : Internal migration takes place within the
administrative boundaries of a country. It may be a) inter district b)
inter regional or c) interstate migration.
b. International/External Migration : External migration takes place
outside the administra tive boundaries of a country.
c. Emigration : When people leave one country to move to another
country, for example if people from USA move in India it is termed as
emigration
d. Immigration : When people from one country move permanently to
another country, for example if people from India move to U.S.A, it is
termed as immigration
e. Population Transfer : When a government forces a large group of
people out of a region, usually based on ethnicity or religion it is called
Population Transfer. This is also known as a n involuntary or forced
migration.
f. Impelled Migration (also called "reluctant" or "imposed" migration):
Individuals are not forced out of their country, but leave because of
unfavourable situations such as warfare, political problems, or
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Migration
51 g. Step Migration : A series of shorter, less extreme migrations from a
person's place of origin to final destination —such as moving from a
farm, to a village, to a town, and finally to a city.
h. Chain Migration : Here there is a series of migrations with in a family
or defined group of people. A chain migration often begins with one
family member who sends money to bring other family members to
the new location.
i. Return Migration : Return migration is the voluntary movements of
immigrants back to their plac e of origin. This is also known as circular
migration.
j. Seasonal Migration : The process of moving for a period of time in
response to labour or climate conditions (e.g., farm workers following
crop harvests or working in cities off -season; "snowbirds" movi ng to
the southern and south -western United States during winter).
 People Who Migrate
a. Emigrant : A person who is leaving a country to reside in another.
b. Immigrant : A person who is entering a country from another to take
up new residence.
c. Refugee : A perso n who is residing outside the country of his or her
origin due to fear of persecution for reasons of race, religion,
nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political
opinion.
d. Internally Displaced Person (IDP) : A person who is forced to l eave
his or her home region because of unfavourable conditions (political,
social, environmental, etc.) but does not cross any boundaries.
e. Migration Stream : A group migration from a particular country,
region, or city to a certain destination.
 Theories of Migration
Economists and sociologists have propounded several theories and
constructed models of migration from time to time. The most accepted
theory is Lee’s theory of migration. Everett Lee in his “ A Theory of
Migration ” divides the factors that deter mine the decision to migrate and
the process of migration into four categories.
a. Factors associated with the place of origin : They motivate people to
leave their place of origin and move out and are better known as
“push ” factors.
b. Factors associated with th e area of destination : These are attractive
forces at the area of destination to which the proportion of selectivity
migrants is high. According to Lee, “ pull” factors are present in such
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Population Geography
52 c. Intervening obstacles : There are several intervening obstacle s such as
distance and transportation which increase migrant selectivity of the
area of destination. Although these obstacles have lessened with
advanced technology yet there still exist political factors or ethnic
barriers that obstruct migration.
d. Persona l factors : Lastly, it is the personal preference of the migrant
which influences his decision to migrate. In fact, it is an individual’s
perception of pull and push factors which influences actual migration.
He categories these forces into “ pluses ” and “ minuses ” respectively,
plus representing “ pull” factor and minus the “ push ” factor. In
between them are “ zeros ” which balance the competing forces.







Fig 4.1
These are explained in Fig 1 where the first circle represents the area of
origin and the s econd circle the area of destination. The sign “pluses’
represents the forces that attract people to a place (pull factors) and that of
“minuses” represent the forces that push people from the area (push
factors). Zeros represent the indifference of the pe ople towards migration.
In between these forces are the intervening obstacles. According to Lee, it
is the personal factors such as age, sex, race and education which along
with the pull -push factors and intervening obstacles that determine
migration.
4.4.3. Causes of Internal Migration
There are a number of causes which lead to the migration of people within
a country. We explain them under pull and push factors.
Push factors : Push factors are those which push people to move from one
place or region to ano ther within a country. They include:
a. Lack of employment at the place of residence and moving out in
search of jobs or/and better employment opportunities.
b. Low income
c. Shortage of land.
d. Poor quality of land. Intervening Obstacles
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Migration
53 e. Unequal distribution of land
f. Lack of modern facili ties.
g. Lack of educational and training facilities.
h. Natural calamities like earthquakes, famines or floods
i. Fear of persecution by law.
j. Deteriorating law and order conditions leading to insecurity of life and
property.
k. Discrimination on the grounds of race and religion.
l. Political victimization.
m. Breakup of Indian joint family system.
n. Prevalence of individualistic spirit in modern times.
Pull factors: Pull factors are those which attract or pull people from other
areas or regions within a country. They includ e:
a. Large employment opportunities.
b. Health or educational facilities or both.
c. Favourable climate
d. Opportunities for development of trade and industry.
e. Access to means of transport and communication.
f. Political stability and personal security.
g. Presence of kin and relatives.
h. Absence of discrimination on the basis of race, caste, religion or
politics.
i. Establishment of new industrial estates, growth centres power projects
etc.
j. Attraction of modern living conditions.
 Factors Retarding Internal Migration
It is ofte n observed that some factors stand in the way of migration of
people within the country.
a. Family Attachment : Family attachment plays an important part in
traditionalistic societies. In India where joint family system still prevails,
emotional family atta chment often prevents migration from place of their
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54 b. Higher Cost of Living and Maintaining More Than One
Establishment : The high cost of living in the place of new destination
often retards migration. When people move from thei r place of origin to a
new place, they do so alone without their family. If they do not find
suitable accommodation at the new place, they have to bear the cost of two
establishments which prevents them from migrating.
c. Distance and Transportation Cost : Distance plays a very important
role in preventing the process of migration. In recent times with rapid
economic development and increased means of transportation one can
reach his destination quickly but the process may be costly. Hence, high
transportati on may deter people from migrating.
d. Socio Cultural Conditions : People are reluctant to migrate to such
places where they have to face different social customs, cultural traditions,
religious attitudes and alien language. They find it difficult to adjust
themselves to such an environment. Differences in language are a main
problem especially in international migration.
 Determinants of Migration
Migration is a complex process and several factors are associated with it.
For the sake of convenience the deter minants may be categorised into
social, economic and demographic determinants.
a. Social Determinants - There are certain social customs that generate
specific type of migration. For instance females move from their parent’s
residence to the residence of their spouses after marriage. This type of
migration owes nothing to the desire of economic gains.
b. Economic Determinants - Economic motives constitute the most
vital determinants of population movement. Included among the various
economic determinants which gov ern the magnitude and direction of
migration are the general economic conditions of the area, the availability
of good agricultural land, size of landholdings, the rate of growth of
employment opportunities etc. The depressed economic conditions in an
area generate tendencies of outmigration whereas condition reflecting
economic prosperity offer greater economic prosperity offer greater
employment potential and attract immigrants.
c. Demographic Determinants -A number of demographic factors also
play a determi ning role in the migration propensity spectrum. For
example, age has been recognized as one of the important demographic
factors controlling the degree of desire to move among the potential
migrants. Young adults are more migratory than other groups. Simil arly it
is the rate of growth of population that determines the extent of population
pressure in an area. The great historic movement of European population
across the Atlantic was an expression of increasing stress upon the
resources of Europe. Large scal e outmigration from intensely crowded
parts of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh is largely due to a poor population –
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Migration
55 4.4.4. Effects of Migration
Internal migration affects the place where from people migrate and the
place to which the y migrate. When the migrants move from rural to urban
areas, they have both positive and negative effects on the society and
economy.
a. Effects on Rural Areas
Migration affects rural areas (the place of origin) in the following ways:
i. Economic Effects : When p eople migrate from rural areas it reduces
the pressure of population on land, the per worker output and productivity
on land increases and so does per capita income. Those who migrate are
usually in the age group18 -40 years. They live alone, work and earn and
remit their savings to their homes in villages. Such remittances are good
for the economy of the village especially when emigrants in foreign
countries send large sums back home. This in turn raises the standard of
living in the village people as they have easy access to consumer durables
that can be purchased with the money remitted to them. This leads to
increasing inequalities amongst the rural people. Further, with the
migration of working age persons to urban areas the number of farm
workers is red uced. This leads to employment of underemployed family
members on the farm such as women, older persons and even juveniles.
ii. Demographic Effects : Migration reduces population growth in rural
areas. Long periods of separation from spouse helps in controlling
population growth. Also living in urban areas often helps in raising the
expectation of migrants who prefer to settle down and then marry, thereby
decreasing the period of active cohabitation amongst couples. Living in
urban areas makes migrants health co nscious and they begin to emphasize
on health care, hygiene and cleanliness which in turn reduces fertility and
mortality rates.
iii. Social Effects : Migration also affects the social setup of rural
communities. It weakens the joint family system if the migrant s settle
permanently in urban areas. With intermingling of the migrants with
people of different castes and regions in cities, they bring new values and
attitudes which gradually change old values and customs of ruralites.
Women play a greater role in the social setup of the rural life with men
having migrated to towns.
b. Effects on Urban Areas
i.Demographic Effects : Migration increases the population of working
class in urban areas. Most of the migrants are in the productive age group.
Leaving their families b ehind in the villages keeps the fertility low in rural
areas as well as in urban areas where they prefer to keep the family size
small due to high costs involved in rearing small children. Also, the
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Population Geography
56 ii. Economic Effects : The effects of migration on income and
employment in urban areas are varied depending upon the type of
migrants. Usually the migrants are unskilled and find jobs of street
hawkers or rickshaw pull ers or other tradesmen. These are “informal
sector activities” and are usually low paying. According to the ILO
however, the informal sector is profit making and economically efficient.
So these people earn enough to remit back home. Likewise the other
migrants who are semiskilled and partially educated earn enough to bring
them up in the category of the common urbanite, and the highly educated
class remit large sums from their salary to their rural homes and help in
modernizing the rural scenario.
c. Adverse Effect of Rural -Urban Migration
Migration from rural to urban areas leads to the prolific growth of slums
and shanties. Such settlements have no access to basic infrastructure and
municipal facilities. Besides housing problems the transport system in
urban areas often crumbles down due to the influx of migrants. There are
air and noise pollutants, and increased crime and congestion. There is also
massive unemployment and underemployment in towns and cities as
urban migration increases the growth rate of job seekers relative to the
population growth thereby increasing the supply of labour.
4.5. RECENT TRENDS OF MIGRATION IN INDIA
Migration in India follows the following patterns:
Interstate migration is the commonest form of internal migration when
people mov e from one state to another within the country for permanent
settlement. The size of people migrating from one place to another in India
is small. In the 1961 census, the registration of 68.6% out of the total
population was done at the birth place which s hows that only 31.4%
migrated. In the 1971 census, this number decreased to 29.5%. Inter -state
migration during 1961 -71 shows that people from Uttar Pradesh, Kerala,
West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu,
Nagaland Gujarat, J ammu Kashmir and Bihar respectively migrated.
Migration was continuously occurring in Maharashtra, Delhi, Madhya
Pradesh, Assam and Gujarat. During 1951 -61 migration occurred from
Jammu and Kashmir and Rajasthan, Bihar and Tamil Nadu to other states,
while during 1961 -71, migration from other states occurred into these
states. Thus during 1951 -61, these states are population losing states.
During 1961 -71, these states came under the category of population
gaining states.
The interstate migration data revea l that the highest population (6.41%)
migrated from other states to West Bengal in 1961 which is an industrially
developed state, while the least people migrated to Jammu and Kashmir,
which is a backward state. Similarly, the highest population (6.49%)
migrated to other states from Punjab; while the least population (0.98%)
migrated to other states from Assam. During 1971 -81 there were no
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Migration
57 change even in the size of population coming in M aharashtra from other
states through migration. The highest population (3.7%) migrated to
Maharashtra from the northern states of Bihar and Punjab.
The migration stream from 1981 to 1991 shows that, population from
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Punjab a nd Andhra Pradesh migrated
mainly to Maharashtra, Bengal, Assam and Karnataka. In the inter -state
migration, the role of female has been of much importance. This is
because females after their marriage settle at the place of their husbands.
People largely migrate to Delhi and other metropolitan cities because
opportunities of employment, educational and other facilities are available
there.
The data on migration by last residence in India as per Census 2001 shows
that the total number of migrants was 31.4 c rore. In the decade 1991 -2001,
about 9.8 crore persons migrated to a new place from their place of last
residence. Out of these migrant by last residence, 8.1 crore were intra -state
migrants, 1.7 crore inter -state migrants and 7lakh international migrants.
The largest volume is confined to migration from one part of the State to
another. Migration on account of change of residence by women after
marriage constitutes significant proportion of these migrants.
As per 2001 Census in 1991 -2001, about 5.3 crore p ersons migrated from
one village to another. The number of migrants from villages to towns was
about 2.1 crore. Similarly, number of migrants from towns to villages was
about 62 lakh and from one town to another about1.4 crore. The number
of net migrants b y last residence during the past decade, i.e., the difference
between in –migrant and out –migrants for each State, showed Maharashtra
at the top of the list with 23.8 lakh net migrants, followed by Delhi (17.6
lakh), Gujarat (6.8lakh) and Haryana (6.7 lakh) as per Census 2001. Uttar
Pradesh ( -26.9 lakh) and Bihar ( -17.2 lakh) were the two states with
largest number of persons migrating out of the two states.
Migration into large metropolises were significant in 1991 -2001 with
Greater Mumbai UA drawing about 24.9 lakh migrants, Delhi UA about
21.1lakh migrants, Chennai UA about 4.3 lakh migrants to name the
largest three urban destinations in the country. As the trend in migration to
large Urban Agglomerations continued, the Census 2011 is likely to show
a spu rt in population in these places.
According to different migration streams, it can be divided into four parts:
a. Rural to rural migration (Rural turnover)
b. Rural to urban migration (Rural push)
c. Urban to urban migration (Urban turnover)
d. Urban to rural migratio n (Push back)

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58 a. From Rural to Rural Migration
This type of migration is common in countries that are primarily agrarian.
In a country like India rural migration is often directed towards rural areas
experiencing development of irrigation, reclamation of waste land,
intensification of agriculture etc. The motive behind such migration is
generally economic and such migration may take place even for long
distances and is often permanent. This is the most important type of
migration because in 1961 this cons tituted 73.7% of the total internal
migrated population. Though the percentage has decreased in recent years,
in an agricultural country like India this type of migration is common.
During 1961 -91migration was higher in females as compared to males.
The t otal migration in 1961 was 73.7% of which 81.3% were females and
in 1991 the total size of migrated population was 64.5% of which 72.2%
were females. In all censuses, rural to rural migration stream has been the
most important. Females constitute a signifi cantly higher proportion of
rural ward migrants mainly on account of marriage. In 2001, rural to rural
remained the major pattern of female movement, with 36 percent of them
migrating from rural to rural areas Thus; the main reason for female
migration is marriage because a female migrates to her husband’s village.
b. From Rural to Urban Migration
This type of migration is very important from the point of view of
urbanization. During the process of industrialization, the migration of rural
population occur s in search of jobs in the industries centered round urban
areas. These types of migration are caused by both push and pull factors.
In the less developed world which has high rural densities and where rapid
urban industrial development is taking place, bo th push of rural areas and
pull of urban centres generate migratory tendencies among the people.
By comparison, the pull of urban areas may include better employment
opportunities; regular and higher wages, fixed working hours, better
facilities for livin g, educational facilities etc.The number of males is
higher in cities because males alone go to cities in the beginning in search
of jobs and bring the family for settlement later. This type of migration
occurs due to repelling forces in cities from agricu ltural fields in villages.
In most developing countries, such migration is the obvious result of the
process of economic development.
In 1961, 25.7% males migrated from rural to urban areas due to rural push.
This increased over the years due to increasin g pressure of population on
land, large scale unemployment and underemployment in rural areas,
depressing rural scenario and so on. In other words more than the
attraction of city life, it was the rural push which encouraged migration. In
all these years h owever the percentage of female migrants remained low.
This is because more employment opportunities are available to males in
urban areas as compared to females. Moreover, in the Indian social setup
single unmarried females do not migrate to urban areas. The trend has
changed in the last two decades due to increase in literacy and the
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59 In 2001, 309 million persons were migrants based on place of last
residence, which constitute about 30% of the total population of the
count ry. This figure indicates an increase of around 37 percent from
census 1991 which recorded 226 million migrants. Out of the total
migrants 91 million are males and the rest 218 are females. Thus migrants
constitute around 30 percent of the total population , male and female
migrants constituting 18 percent and 45 percent of their population
respectively.
The consequences of large scale unplanned rural to urban migration is not
necessarily always happy. Often big cities are incapable of providing even
the mi nimum amenities of good living to these migrants. Such migration is
indirectly responsible for creation of slums and shanty settlements.
c. From Urban to Urban Migration
Inter -urban migration that takes place between one urban centre to the
other is more c ommon in the highly urbanized countries of the world
though it also takes place in less developed countries in small magnitudes.
In the developed countries where most of the population lives in urban
areas the inter -urban migration is governed largely by t he economic
factors. In the less developed countries where the big cities are the chief
magnets, these attract migrants from other urban centres who have
acquired sufficient skills for absorption in big industrial centres. The
vacuum caused in small urban centres is filled by subsequent immigration
from surrounding rural areas. Thus in the developing countries this
migration forms a part of what is commonly known as “step migration”.
Urban to urban migration is generally motivated by economic factors and
does not have distance and time barrier.
According to 1961 Census, the size of urban to urban migration was 8.1%
which increased to 11.2% in 1991. This indicates that during the process
of development, the main cause for urban turnover is pull factor towards
metropolitan cities. People from towns and small cities are attracted
towards metropolitan cities for better job prospects, trade business,
establishment of new industries, educational facilities, modern lifestyle
etc. This leads to increase in the popula tion of metropolitan cities.
d. From Urban to Rural Migration (Push back)
This type of migration is least common compared to other types of
migration as discussed above. Such a movement takes place at the
advanced stage of urbanization and is generated by over congestion. Since
only the advanced countries have attained high degree of urbanization
therefore it is more common in developed countries. While overcrowding
has induced this kind of movement, development of efficient transport
system has facilitated it. In India many retired personnel tend to settle in
their native villages where they still have their landed property.

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60 4.5.1. Interstate vs. Intrastate Migration
Interstate migration refers to migration from one state to another while
intrastate migra tion is movement within the state. Of the total migrants in
2001, 87 percent were migrants within the state of enumeration while 13
percent were interstate migrants. Among the male migrants, 79 percent
moved within the state of enumeration while 21 percent moved between
states. Among females, 90 percent were intrastate migrants and 10 percent
were interstate migrants.
As regards long distance (inter -state) movement in India, a clear sex
differential is found from census 2001. Among the male interstate
migr ants, rural to urban stream emerged as the most prominent accounting
for 47 percent.
98 million persons moved during the decade 1991 -2001. Out of this, 33
million are males and 65 million are females. Of the total inter censal
migrants, 83 percent were in trastate migrants and 17 percent were
interstate migrants. However, among the males, 74 percent migrated
within the state of enumeration while 26 percent moved between states. A
corresponding percentage of females (13 percent) were recorded as
interstate m igrants. This indicates that mobility of Indian population has
significantly increased during the 1990s.
From the flow matrix, Maharashtra emerges the most favored destination
for migration. Half of the entire interstate migrants have moved to
Maharashtra . Gujarat and Haryana are the other preferred destinations
with nearly 30 percent of the migrants moving to these states. The three
states, thus, attracted 80 percent of all interstate migrants during the inter
censal period 1991 -2001.
There is growing ev idence in India to suggest that the country is moving
fast in the overall development. Structural transformation in the 1990s has
propelled the growth of the economy further. The percentage of people
below poverty line has reduced and per capita consumptio n has improved
simultaneously. Although Indian economy is predominantly agricultural,
the proportion of work force engaged in agricultural activities has fallen
significantly. This reduction is perhaps, a sign of enhanced job
opportunities in other sectors . Maharashtra, Gujarat and Haryana have
attracted migrants because of high per capita income. Out migration is
generally from the states with low per capita income with the exception of
Punjab where high per capita income has not attracted migrants in the last
two decades.
4.5.2. Consequences of Migration
The study of consequences of migration should not be limited to the
description of these simple numerical expressions and should try to look
beyond these simple quantitative expressions. For example, an in crease in
the density of population through migration may either increase the
region’s burden upon its resources or may enhance the capacity to exploit
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61 movement, population geographers should examine this aspect more
carefully. For example, movement of educated and technically trained
people into an area may not only be seen in terms of the proportional
increase in literacy but also it should be examined in terms of the change
such an i n migration results in the quality of life in the region. The
migrants on the other hand, also face serious adaptation problems, e.g. the
rural migrants moving to the new industrial towns suffer from lack of pure
air and open space also from the presence o f noxious fumes, dust etc. Very
often these migrants contact diseases due to interaction with alien people
of a new region.
These consequences apart, whenever immigrants arrive in groups, they
also bring with them their language and religion. The in -migrat ion of
Polish families to France in 1920s was one such example where the
immigrants were able to preserve their language. Language becomes a
serious problem when people from different languages migrate in large
numbers and live together for long. Usually m igrants try to preserve their
language and culture and also try to spread the same. Similarly when
people belonging to different religious groups move and start living with
people professing different religious faiths, it may either mean a healthy
spread o f all religions in areas or may cause people of one religious faith
to flee for fear of suppression by the other. While Catholic French and
British Protestants in Canada are examples of healthy spread of different
religious faiths Palestinian Arabs and Jew s in West Asia are examples of
religious unrest ushered by migration.
4.6. SUMMARY:
In this chapter it has already been explained that human migration is the
movement of people from one place in the world to another. Human
migration may be internal migrati on that is people moving within a state,
country, or continent or external migration meaning people moving to a
different state, country, or continent. When people leave one country to
move to another it is called emigration. There are various reasons as t o
why people migrate. Those reasons may be termed as push factors and
pull factors. Push factors include leaving a place because of a problem,
such as a food shortage, war, or flood where as pull factors include
moving to a place because of something good, such as a nicer climate,
more job opportunities, or a better food supply. The effects migration is
not negligible because rural -urban migration in developing economies
resulting in rapid urbanisation.
4.7. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS/ EXERCISE
1. True and false
a. Migr ation in population geography generally refers to the movement
of humans from one place to another.
b. Internal migration takes place within the administrative boundaries of
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62 c. Migration means a short trip for pleasure or business around the world.
d. When a government forces a large group of people out of a region,
usually based on ethnicity or religion it is called step migration.
e. Push factors include, lack of employment at the place of residence,
low income, shortage of land, poor quality of land, uneq ual
distribution of land.

2. Fill in the blanks
a. Migration increases the population of _________ - class in urban areas
and in this case most of the migrants are in the ____________ age
group.
b. Migration from rural to urban areas leads to the prolific growth o f
slums and _________.
c. _____________ migration is the commonest form of internal
migration when people move from one state to another within the
country for permanent settlement.
d. The size of people migrating from one place to another in India
is_________.
e. __________ to Rural type of migration is common in countries that
are primarily agrarian.
3. Multiple choice question
a. Rural to Urban Migration is very important from the point of view of
urbanization because
i. during the process of industrialization, the migra tion of rural
population occurred in search of jobs in the industries centred round
urban areas.
ii. during the process of industrialization, the migration of rural
population occurred in search of education in schools in and around
the urban areas.
iii. during the process of industrialization, the migration of rural
population occurred in search of new vehicles that were made the
industries centred round urban areas.
b. Rural to Urban Migration is caused by
i. only pull factors.
ii. only push factors.
iii. both push and pull fac tors.

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63 c. In the developed countries where most of the population lives in
urban areas the inter urban migration is governed largely by
i. the economic factors.
ii. the physical factors.
iii. the political factors.

d. Interstate migration refers to
i. migration within the state
ii. migration from one state to another
iii. migration from one country to another

e. One of the consequences of migration is,
i. whenever immigrants arrive in groups, they also bring jewellery and
money with them
ii. whenever immigrants arrive in groups, they bring nothing with them.
iii. whenever immigrants arrive in groups, they also bring with them
their language and religion.

4. Answer the Following Questions
1. Define migration. State the types of migration
2. Discuss the causes leading to intern al migration
3. What are the factors retarding internal migration
4. Discuss the effects of migration on rural and urban areas
5. Elaborate the recent trends of migration of population in India
4.8. ANSWERS TO THE SELF LEARNING QUESTIONS .

1.a. true
1 .b. true
1.c. false, does not mean
1.d. false, Population Transfer
1.e. true

2.a. working, productive
2.b. shanties
2.c. interstate
2.d. small
2.e. Rural
3.a.i.
3.b.ii.
3.c.i.
3.d.ii.
3.e.iii
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64 4.9. TECHNICAL WORDS:

 Push factors: elements of the origin that are percei ved negatively
leading to a desire to leave.
 Pull factors: elements of the destination that are perceived positively
leading to place -attraction.
 Internal migration: moving within a state, country, or continent
 External migration: moving to a different sta te, country, or continent
 Emigration: leaving one country to move to another
 Immigration: moving into a new country
 Return migration: moving back to where you came from
 Seasonal migration: moving with each season or in response to
labour or climate conditi ons
 A refugee: is a person who has moved to a new country because of a
problem in their former home
4.10. TASK
1. In a chart make columns and name different types migration and the
causes.
2. In a chart write the important points of recent trends of migration i n
India
4.11. REFERENCES FOR FURTHER STUDY
 Population Geography, Debjani Roy
 Clarke, J. (1965). “Population Geography”
 Trewarta, G. (1969). “A geography of population”
 Census of India, 2011
 Population Geography: Tools & Issues, K. Bruce Newbolt
 The Populat ion of India and Pakistan, Davis, Kingsley
 The study of Population, Duncan(ed)
 Human Geography by Majid Husain
 Economic and Social Geography - Made Simple, Rupa Publishers
 A Geography of Population by R.C. Chandna
 Oxford English Dictionary

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65 5
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES
After going through this chapter you will be able to understand the
following features:
Unit Structure
5.1 Objective
5.2 Introduction
5.3 Subject discussion
5.4 Distribution of tribes
5.5 Major religious groups
5.6 Occupational structure
5.7 Age Structure
5.8 Popu lation Policy of India
5.9 Summary
5.10 Check your Progress/Exercise
5.11 Answers to the self-learning questions
5.12 Technical words and their meaning
5.13 Task
5.14 References for further study
5.1. OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you will be able to–
 Understand the Distribution of tribes
 Know about Major religious groups
 Understand the Occupational structure
 Know the Age Structure
 Understand the Population Policy of India

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66 5.2. INTRODUC TION
In the last few chapters study of the definition, nature, scope and
importance of Population Geography, and the relation it shares with other
Social Sciences along with its historical development has been done
elaborately. We have studied the Population Growth, Distribution and
Density as well as Zones of density of population in world also. In the
third and fourth chapters we learnt different Demog raphic Theories and
Migration. Distributions of tribes, Major religious groups, Occupational
structure, Age Structure, Population Policy of India are the main
topics which will be learnt in the following chapter.
5.3. SUBJECT-DISCUSS ION
According to Oxford Dictionary "A tribe is a group of people in a
primitive stage of development acknowledging the authority of a chief
and usually regarding them as having a common ancestor.” It is
recognised as a social group of distinct people, entirely depe ndent on
their land for their livelihood. A tribe is largely self- sufficient and existed
even before our modern society came into being. They are not integrated
into the national society.
Religion is an organized collection of belief systems. If we include all
religions we will find that nearly 86% of the world’s population is
religious. In many country, religion guides social behaviour of the
inhab itants. India has a diversity of religious beliefs and practices and
four of the world's major religions; namely Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism
and Sikhism are born in the Indian subcontinent.
Occupational structure describes how people are engaged in different
sectors of the e conomy namely, primary, secondary and tertiary. Actually
it is the mix of different types of occupations found in a society. In
India in 2005, 54.2% of the population was in primary occupations,
18.8% in seconda ry occupations and 27% in tertiary occupations. This
means most of the people are engaged in primary sector. In recent times,
with the growth of industrialisation and urbanisation, there has been an
occupational shift in favour of seconda ry and tertiary sector.
The age structure of a population, a useful tool for social scientists,
describes distribution of people among various ages. It is considered
useful as it illustrates population trends like rates of births and
deaths. Until the 20th century, the human age structure had remained
relatively constant and had a pyramidal appearance with a relatively large
number of children at the base.
In 1976, the first National Popu lation Policy was formulated and tabled
in Indian Parliament. India has the distinction of being the first country
in the world to launch a nationwide family planning programme with full
government support. Before independence the British rulers of the
country were least interested in formulating any population policy for
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67 family planning programme, since its very inception in 1952, has
been the responsibility of the Ministry of Health.
5.4. DEFINITION OF TRIBE
The term ‘tribe’ is derived from the Latin word ‘tribus’ which was earlier
used by the Romans to designate the divisions in society. Latter use
suggests that it meant poor peop le. The present popular mean ing in
English language was acquired during the expansion of colonialism
particularly in Asia and Africa.
A group of people or a social division in a traditional society consisting of
families or communities linked by social, economic, religious, or blood
ties, with a common culture and dialect, typically having a recognized
leader is known as tribe. Tribes are dependent on their land for their
livelihood, and are largely self-sufficient. They are not integrated into the
national society.
Some of, the leading definitions of tribe are as follows:
 According to Gillin and Gillin,
“Any collection of preliterate local group which occupies a
common general territory speaks a common language and practises a
common culture, is a tribe”. ,
 As Ralph Linton says,
“In its simplest form the tribe is a group of bands occupying a
continuous territory and having a feeling of unity deriving from numerous
similarities in culture and certain community of interests.”
 According to Rivers,
“A tribe is a social group of simple kind, the members of which speaks
a common dialect and act together in such common purpose as
warfare”
 According to DN Majumdar,
“A tribe is a collection of families, bea ring a common name,
members to which occupy the same territory, speak the same language
and observe certain taboos regarding marriage profession or occupation
and have developed a well assessed system of reciprocity and mutuality
of obligation.”
 T.B Naik has given the following features of tribes in Indian
context:
a. A tribe should have least functional interdependence within the
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68 b. It should be economically backward (i.e. primitive means of exploiting
natural resources, tribal economy should be at an unde rdeveloped
stage and it should have multifarious economic pursuits).
c. There should be a comparative geographical isolation of its
people.
d. They should have a common dialect.
e. Tribes should be politically organized and community panchayat
should be influential.
f. A tribe should have customary laws.
Naik argues that for a community to be a tribe it should possess all
the above ment ioned characteristics and a very high level of
acculturation with outside society deba rs it from being a tribe. Thus
the term tribe usually denotes a social group bound toget her by kin
and duty and associated with a particular territory.
5.4.1. Charac teristics of Tribe
Though tribal people are scattered all over India and live far from each
other they have more or less similar characteristics.
1. Definite Common Topography
Tribal people live within a common definite territory and it is a
common place for all the members of a particular tribe occupying that
region.
2. Sense of Unity
Sense of unity, during the t imes of peace and war, is invariably
necessary for a t rue tribal life. They have strong sense of unity and any
stranger is attacked with bows and arrows.
3. Endogamous Group
Tribal people generally do not marry outside their tribe and marriage
within the t ribe is highly appreciated. But mobility has changed the
attitude of tribals and inter-tribe marriages are becoming more and
more common in the present era.
4. Protection Awareness
To protect tribal peop le from intrusion and infiltration a single political
authority is established and all the powers are vested in this authority.
The tribal chief is aided by a tribal committee, in the events of
contingencies. Tribe is divided into a number of small groups and
each group is headed by its own leader. The chief of a group works
according to the directives received by him from the tribal chief.
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69 5. Distinct Political Organization
Every tribe has its own distinct political organisation which looks after
the interests of tribal people.
6. Importance of Kinship
Kinship forms the basis of tribal social organization. Most tribes are
divided into exogamous clans and lineages. The marriage among
tribals is based on the rule of tribal endogamy. Marriage is viewed as a
contract and there are no prohibition on divorce and remarriage.
7. Egalitarian Values
The tribal social organization, based on the egalitarian principle has no
inequalities like the caste system or sex based inequalities. As a result
men and women enjoy equal status and freedom except sometimes
tribal chiefs or tribal kings enjoy a higher social status.
8. Rudimentary type of Religion
Each tribe is guided by their own religion which is based on totem ism,
magic and fetishism i.e. believing in god being embedd ed in a
special piece of stone, a special tree or a peculiar strange animal.
9. Living in small groups – mostly the tribal people in India are
living in a small group ranging from a band of hundred to few hund reds
of people. They are nomadic by nature. A very of them retain a settled
agricultural life. For e.g. Gonds of Central India.
10. Racial charac teristics are one of the significant features of the
tribes in India.
Some races and their descendent tribes in India are as follows:
a. Chenchus belong to Negritas group,
b. Gonds, belong to Austioloids
c. Nagas belong to mongo loids.
11. Economic Life –The following are the characteristics of tribal’s
concerning with their economy:-
a. The tribals mostly use simple technology which restricts the use of
available natural resources.
b. The tribals carry two economic activities hunting &gathering at the
same time
c. Tribals do not believe in the concept of surplus or savings, they are
mostly concerned with current consumption.
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70 d. Family is the main unit of production.
e. Distribution of surplus is carried with the help of weekly bazaar or
barter system.
f. Division of labour is based on age of sex.
g. They are also earning money by selling wood and skin of wild
animals.
12. S ocial Life –
a. Family: the tribal families are patriarchal where father is the
head of the family and the property is inherited by the son. Nuclear
as well as joint family exist in the tribals.
b. Marriages and Divorce – marriages are performed by
consulting the e lder members of the family. Divorces are most common
among the tribals.
c. Kinship bond and Ties of Blood-relationship- it is more valued
by the tribals because they believe that they came from same ancestors.
Blood-relation is the greatest bond and most powerful force inculcating
sense of unity among the tribals.
d. Property inheritance – the properties of father are inherited by son.
e. Dormitories – these are the place where the tribal’s come
toget her during evening to play, dance, and sing and te ll stories. The
seniors teach the tribal culture to the juniors.
f. Food habits – most of the tribals are still engaged in food
gathering. A large number of the tribals are depending on meat intake of
dead an imals those are called as non vegetarians. Some of the tribals
refused to take the meat of dead plants and hence they considered
themselves socially superior.
g. Dresses – the tribals living in the jungles using bark clothes and leaves
to cover their bodies. Some of them were painting their bodies with earth.
The women were covering their bodies from waist to knees and their
upper part of their body till neck by using rough cloth.
h. The tribals never had permanent houses.
13. Culture
a. Common Dialect : Members of a tribe exchange their views in a
common dialect. Sometimes contact with the civilised people forced
them to learn and speak their local languages.
b. Education – most of the tribals in India are illiterate.
c. Arts and Crafts – As the tribes live from hand to mouth they
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71 craft. Beside their life long struggle sometimes they show up with
artefacts in which their originality is retained.
A common characteristic of a tribe lies in the sense of unity, common
language, common religion, and common political organisation. This
produces a life of homogeneity among the tribals.
5.4.2. Problems Faced by the Tribes in India
Less means of communication in tribal areas, lack of proper drinking
water, illiteracy and inadequate medical facilities are some of the major
problems faced by the tribals in India. There is no doubt that tribes
are backward and exploited more when compared to other ethnic groups
of our country. Although the tribals are the sons of the same soil and the
citizens of the same country they constitute the matrix of India's
poverty. They are practically deprived of many civic facilities and
isolated from modern and civilized way of living since so many centuries.
In short, the main problems of the tribals are poverty, indebtedne ss,
illiteracy, bondage, exploitation, disease and unemp loyment.
1. Pr oblems with land alienation, Displacement and Rehabilitation
Land, a prime resource, has been a source of problem in tribal life
because of tribal dependency on land and improper planning from
government agencies.
Before the coming of the B ritish, the tribals enjoyed unhindered rights of
ownership and manage ment over natural resources like land, forests,
wildlife, water, soil, fish, etc.
The story of unending miseries for the tribals began with the advent of
industrialisation in India and the discovery of mineral and other
resources in tribal inhabited areas. As a result state control replaced
tribal control and pressure on land and forests increased. The tribals do
not have access to land records, not even the Record of Rights.
This resulted in loss of ownership rights over land, owing to
chronic indebtedness, unscrupulous landlords, money•lenders,
contractors and officials. So the tribals felt themselves uprooted
from their cultural moorings and with no secure means of livelihood.
They have been relegated from their earlier 'self-reliant' status to a
'dependent' one. Coupled with the exploitation by the non-tribals, the
State legislations also proved detrimental to their interests.
The erection of huge steel plants, power projects, large dams and
mining activities mostly in the tribal inhabited areas led to large scale
displacement of the tribal popu lation due to the acquisition of
tribal land by the government for these projects. It is a strange paradox
that although they inhabit the most resource-rich regions of India, many
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72 The tribal pockets of Chhotanagpur region, Orissa, West Beng al and
Madhya Pradesh suffered the most.
The cash compensation provided by the government was frittered
away on wasteful expenditure. The displaced tribals were not provided
with settlements within the industrial areas. They were forced to
leave their own territory and had to migrate to the urban areas to work as
unskilled workers in conditions of poverty. This caused psychological
problems for them as they are not able to adjust well to the urban
lifestyle and values.
2. Gender issue
The degradation of the natural environment, particularly through the
destruction of forests and a rapidly shrinking resource base, has had its
impact on the status of women. The opening of the tribal belts to
mining, industries and commercialisation has exposed tribal men and
women to the ruthless operations of the market economy, giving rise to
consumerism and to commoditisation of women.
3. Lack of Education:
Education is one of the parameters that act as the instrument
for bette rment of the tribals. Tribal superstitions and prejudices, extreme
poverty, nomadic lifestyle of certain tribes, lack of interest in alien
subjects taught through an alien language and a lack of suitable teachers
and other facilities in the tribal areas are the factors which inhibit the
tribals from taking to education.
4. Problems of Health and Nutrition:
The econom ic backwardness and insecure livelihood, burdened the tribals
with health problems, such as prevalence of disease, like malaria, cholera,
tuberculosis, diarrhoea and jaundice. The problems associated with
malnutrition like iron deficiency and anaemia, high infant mortality rates,
low levels of life expectancy have also been faced by the tribals.
5. Erosion of Identity:
Extinction of tribal dialects and languages is another cause of concern
as it indicates an erosion of tribal identity in certain areas. Tribals
are clinging tenaciously to th eir customs and traditions. These are
again coming into conflict with modern institutions. They are
apprehensive about preserving their identity.
5.4.3. Steps Taken for the Developments of Tribes
The tribals are a special concern of the nation in view of their low
technological development, general economic backwardness, and
complex p roblems of socio-cultural adjustment to distinctive cultural
identity. Development of tribals and tribal areas is a challenging task for
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73 diversities of geographical location, socio- economic and politico-
cultural conditions.
So the g reatest challenge that the Government of India has been facing
since independence is the proper provision of social justice to the tribal
people, by ameliorating their socio-economic conditions.
Tribal development efforts in India were established during the British
rule. British rulers faced tribal insurgency and unrest which was
suppressed by the use of armed forces. At the same time, British
administrators realizing the problems of the tribals established separate
administrative system in tribal areas. They provided certain facilities in
villages and towns such as, education, transport, communication, medical
etc. which was inade quate and mainly with self-interest. But no steps
were taken for ameliorating the socio-economic conditions of tribal
people.
After independence, several constitutional provisions were made for the
development of tribe. Many schemes of development were formulated
and implemented. Several schemes of tribal development are still active
through several five year plans in India. Attempts have been made to
make the scheduled tribes to develop socially, educationally,
economically, politically and culturally. Some of them include
Community Development Programme, Multipurpose Tribal B locks,
Tribal Development Block, Development Agencies, Primitive Tribal
Groups, Integrated Tribal Development P rojects, Modified Area
Development Approach, Tribal Sub-Plan, Dispersed Tribal
Development Programme, and Centrally Spon sored Schemes etc.
In the Five Year Plans, the programmes for the welfare of the
schedule tribes aim at: 1. Raising the productivity levels in agriculture,
animal husbandry, forestry, cottage a nd small- scale industries etc., to
improve the economic conditions. 2. Rehabilitation of the bonded
labour. 3. Education and training programmes. 4. Special development
programmes for women and children.

Fig:Tribal population India
The above table shows increase of tribal population through the years.
This rise makes the increase of problems for the tribal community
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74 these problems through the Five Year Plans, still it requires more efforts
to overcome these completely. Its main objectives are to eliminate
exploitation, to speed up social and economic development, and to
promote and improve the organisational capacity of tribal people.
5.4.4. The Distribution of Tribes in India
The tribal population in India is dispersed all over the length and breadth
of the country, though there are some pockets of their concentration.
There are in all 571 tribes included in the Schedule. Of these, 108 tribes
are to be found in the North-eastern region, 28 in the North-western
region, 176 in Central India, 95 in Western India, 143 in the South,
and 12 in different islands. The tribes in India form an important part
of the total population and constitute nearly 8 pe rcent of the total
population. These distinctive tribal groups in the country vary in size
from around four millions to a bare two dozen. About 2/3 of the
total tribal population of the country are found in the five states –
Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar, Gujarat and Maharashtra.
The tribal popu lation of the country, as per 2011 census, is 10.43
crore, constituting 8.6% of the total population. 89.97% of them live
in rural areas and 10.03% in urban areas. The decadal population growth
of the tribal’s from Census 2001 to 2011 has been 23.66% against the
17.69% of the entire population.
A. Distribution of tribes on the basis Race: There are three main
racial divisions
a) The Proto-Australoids - This group is characterised by dark skin
colour, sunken nose and lower forehead. These features are found among
the Gond (Madhya Pradesh), the Munda (Chotanagpur), the Ho (Bihar)
etc.
b) The Mongoloids - This group is characterised by light skin
colour; head and face are broad; the nose bridge is very low and their
eyes are slanting with a fold on the upper eye lid. These features
are found among the Bhot iya (Central Himalayas), the Wanchu
(Arunachal Pradesh), the Naga (Nagaland), the Khasi (Megha laya), etc.
c) The Negrito - This group is characterised by dark skin colour (tending
to look like blue), round head, broad nose and frizzle hair. These features
are found among the Kadar (Kerala), the Onge (Little Andaman ), the
Jarwa (Andaman Islands), etc.
B. Classification on the basis of Linguistic Affiliations Linguistically
the situation is far more complex. According to a recent estimate the
tribal people speak 105 different languages and 225 subsidiary languages.
a. Austro-Asiatic family: There are two branches of this family,
name ly, Mon-Khmer branch and Munda branch. Languages of the first
branch are spoken by Khasi and Nicobari tribals. Lang uages of Munda
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75 b. Tibeto-Chinese family: There are two sub-families of this type,
namely Siamese-Chinese sub-family and Tibeto-Burman sub- family. In
extreme North-Eastern frontier of In dia Khamti is one specimen of
the Siamese- Chinese sub-family. The Tibeto-Burman sub-family is
further sub-divided into several branches. Tribals of Nagaland and
Lepcha of Darjeeling speak variants of Tibeto- Burman languages.
c. Indo-European family: Tribal languages such as Hajong and Bhili
are included in this group.
d. Dravidian family: Languages of Dravidian family are, for
example, spoken by Yeruva of Mysore, Oraon of Chotanagpur.
C. Concentration of Tribal people in India
a. They form a majority in the north-eastern states such as
Arunachal Pradesh, Naga•land, Manipur, Mizoram, and Megha laya.
b. The majority of the tribals live in the belt of middle India from
Gujarat to Bengal. In states like Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh and Odisha
the tribals account for more than 20 per cent of the population. In
Jhakhand, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and Rajasthan, the
percentage of tribals ranges between 4 to 15 per cent of the total
population. However, in the entire middle Indian zone, the tribals are in a
majority only in 13 districts.
c. The third zone of tribal concentration is the ‘Himalayan region’
extending from Kashmir to Sikkim.
d. In South India, the fourth area of concentration, tribal population is
rather small.
Dr. B. S. Guha has divided the county into three tribal Zones:
a. The North and North-Eastern Zone, b. The central or the Middle Zone
and c. The Southern Zone
a.. North-North-Eastern Zone:
States :Eastern Kashmir, Eastern Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Northern
Uttar Pradesh, Nagaland, Assam etc.
Tribes: The Aka, the M ishmi, the Chulikata, the Naga,Bhotia,
Tharu, Lauholese, Lepcha, Gaddi, Dafla, Abor-Miri, Mikir, and the
Gurungare some of the tribes of this zone.
b. Central Zone:
States: The Central zone of India has a major concentration of
tribals covering the states of West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Madhya
Pradesh, Southern Uttar Pradesh, Southern Rajasthan and Maharashtra
(the Vidarbh area).
munotes.in

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76 Tribes: Some of the important tribes of this zone are the Munda, Ho,
Oraon, Maria and Muria Gonds, Kama r, Chaukhuntia- Bhunjia, Santals,
Birhor, Bondo, Juang, and the Khond. There is a very high concentration
of tribal population in central India. Over 85 per cent of the total tribal
population inhabits the eight States that constitute this zone.
.c. Southern Zone:
States: Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala are the
four states that constitute southern zone.
Tribes: The Toda, the Chenchu, the Kadar and the Koraga are some
of the important tribes of this zone.
B. Mamoria has added to this list the fourth zone consisting of
Andaman and Nicober Islands.
d. The Islands Region The Small Zone consisting of Andaman and
Nicobar Islands:
Tribes: The Jarawa, the Andam anese and the Nicobarese are the
important tribes of this zone.
B. K. Roy Burman divides the tribal population of the country into
five geographical regions taking territorial, ethnic and socio-cultural
relations into account.
a. The North-East India comprising Assam, NEFA, Nagaland, Manipur
and Tripura. Some of the tribes of this area are: the Ahoms, Garos,
Khasis, Mizos, Nagas, Kukis, etc.
b. The sub-Himalayan region of North and North West India -
comprising Northern Uttar Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh and as a
whole. Some tribes of this area are: Gujjars, Bodh, Kinnours,
Swanglia, etc.
c. Central and East India comprising West Be ngal, Bihar, Orissa,
Madh ya Pradesh and Andh ra Pradesh. Some tribes of this area: the
Santals, Ho, Munda, Oraons, Gonds, Chenchu, Koya, Kolam, etc.
d. South India- The area south of the Vindhyas (below Latitude 16)
– the Southern zone comprises the states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala and
Karnataka. Here, the concentration is found in the southernmost part of
the Western Ghats, stretching from Wynaad to Cape Com orin. The
tribes of this area are Irula, Kurumba, Kadar, Hakki Pakki, Jenu
Kuruba, Kadu Ku ruba, the Chenchu, Yuruva, Paniyan, Malapantaram,
Toda, Kota, and the Badaga.S cholars believe that these people are the
most ancient inhabitants of India who were pushed to these relatively
remote habitats by the intruding groups of relatively more advanced
cultures.
e. Western India comprising Rajasthan, Gujarat and Maharashtra. munotes.in

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77 Some tribes of this area are: Mina, Bhils, Kumbis, Mario Gonds, Mahad ev
Kolis, etc.
From the above discussion the widespread distribution of tribes all over
the country maybe grouped into broad geographical regions. On the basis
of ecology, it is possible to group them into five distinct regions
namely,
a. Himalayan region (with tribes like the Gaddi, the Jaunsari, the
Naga etc.),
b. Central India (with tribes like the Munda, the Santal etc.),
c. Western India (with tribes like the Bhil, Mina the Grasia Kumbis,
Mario Gonds, Mahadev Kolis,),
d. South Indian Region (with tribes like the Toda, the Chenchu et c,)
e. The Islands Region (with tribes like the Jarawa, Onge, North
Sentinelese, and the Nicobarese. in Bay of Bengal, the Minicoyans in
Arabian Sea).
5.4.5. Tribes in Different Parts of India
a. The Gujjar Tribe
The Gujjar tribe reside in Himachal Pradesh. They fall in Hindu and
Muslim commu nity. Majority of Gujjar people live a nomadic lifestyle.
Gujjar are brave, strong, hardworking, peace-loving, polite, social and
hospitable. They live in joint families and speak Gujari (akin to
Rajasthani & Punjabi). Most gujjars can be recognised by their beard
and costume s. The gujjars wear Punjabi style of Tamba and the
Kashmiri type of shirt called kurti. They mostly wear cap

Fig 5.1 munotes.in

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78
1also. The females of the Gujjar tribe wear tight churidaar pyjama
and a lose shirts with a long cotton cloth used for covering their
head. The Gujjar women are very fond of gold and silver ornaments like
the Gaddi tribes. Among the Muslim gujjars, child’s birth is
considered as the gift of Allah and matter of joy. Meals of gujjars include
milk, ghee, milk products and maize. Meat is served occasionally. The
main occupation of the gujjars is rearing of cattle which are also the
main source of income. Financially the gujjars are not very poor.
There are several types of marriages in the Gujjar tribe which
include Batta-Satta, marriage by service, marriage by purchase and
Ghar-Jawain.
b. The Bhil Tribe
The Bhils are the most widely distributed tribal groups in India and
are scattered in various states like Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat
and Madhya Pradesh. In Rajasthan the bhils live in Dungarpur, Banswara,
and Udaipur and Chittorgarh district. The name "Bhil" was probably
derived from the word villu or billu, which in most Dravidian languages
is the word for "bow." The bow has long been a characteristic weapon
of the Bhil because the tribesmen always carry their bows and arrows
with them. The Bhil tribes inhabit some of the most remote and
inaccessible areas of
India. There are two divisions of Bhils: the Central or "pure" Bhils, and
the Eastern or Rajput Bhils. The Central Bhils live in the mountain
regions in the states of Madhya P radesh, Gujarat and Rajasthan.
They are known as the conne cting link between the Gujaratis and the
Rajasthanis and are one of the largest tribal communities of India. They
speak Bhili, which is an Indo-Aryan language. The Bhils are known to
have fought against the Mugha ls, Marathas and the British
They were engaged in hunting and gathering and later on they were
enga ged in agriculture. The bhils are believed to be the ancient
inhabitants the Aravallis before the Aryan gradually infiltrated to the
western and the central Indian plains.The name






Fig - 5.2
Bhil is also finds mentioned in the great epic called Mahabharata and
Ramayana. Apart from other states, Bhils comprise 39% of munotes.in

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79 Rajasthan's to tal population. They speak Bhili, which is an Indo
Aryan language. The bhil tribe people are tall, well built with handsome
features. They are famous for their bravery, simplicity and
truthfulness. They are independence lovers. Their national weapon is bow
made of bamboo. They practice agriculture as the source of livelihood.
With the development and progress now a day they are engaged in
fishing, pottery and farming. Ladies of bhil community do a lot of
tattoo ing. They are interested in arts and music. They like designing and
decoration. Bhils believe in magic and ghost. They lived in isolation in
primitive days but now a day they are living in groups. They worship
Ram &Hanuman.
c. The Gond Tribe
The Gonds comprise the largest tribal group in India. Historically, the
Gonds were the mo st important group of the original Indian tribes. In
the 1500's, several Gond dynasties were established and their rajas or
kings ruled like Hindu princes. The Gonds were conquered by the
Muslim a rmies in 1592 but their tribes were not disturbed by the
changes in administration. The Gonds are the tribal community mostly
found in the Gond forests of the central India. They are widely spread in
the Chhindwara District of Madhya Pradesh, Bastar district of
Chhattisgarh. The Gond tribes are also in the parts of Maharashtra,
Andh ra Pradesh, and Orissa. Koi or Koitur are the names by which the
Gonds call themselves. Koi or Koitur means unclear. Gonds are one
of the largest tribe of India. Gondi language which is related to Telugu
is spoken by the Gond tribes and also some Dravidian languages are
spoken. Gonds living in the northern part are often seen speaking the
local language Hindi and Marathi. Gonds present in the southern
parts speak Parsi or Persian. Gonds are mainly divided into four tribes
namely - Raj Gonds, Madia Gonds, Dhurve Gonds, Khatulwar Gonds.
Men of the Gond tribe wear Dhoti, which is a long piece of cotton
cloth wrapped around the waist passing through the legs, whereas
soft cotton saris are worn by Gond women along with Choli or blouse.
The staple food of Gonds is the two millets known as Kodo or Kutki.
Rice is the ceremonial feast of the Gonds, which they prefer eating
during the time of festivals. Most of the Gonds are the meat consumers.
d. Santhal Tribe
They are most important tribes in India. Santhals are the third largest
tribe in India. They have the largest population of tribes in India. It
contributes to 5.6 million of total population. They are mostly found
in the states of West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Jharkhand and Assam.
Santhals speak Santhali, which belongs to the Austro- Asiatic language
family. In 1925, Dr. Raghunath Murmu developed a script called Olchiki
of the Santhal tribe. According to the census their population is around
49,000. They are generally bilingual. Apart from Santhali munotes.in

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80

Fig 5.3
they also speak Bengali, Oriya and Hindi. Santhals have long head and
flat nose. Their complexion varies from dark brown to black in colour.
Santhals usually have curly hair. The livelihood of the Santhals
revolves around the forests they live in. They fulfil their basic needs from
the trees and plants of the forests. The Santhal tribe is also engaged
in hunting, fishing and cultivation for their livelihood. Making of
musical equipments, mats and basket out of plants is the talent or skill
present in the tribes of Santhal. This talent is safely passed on from
one generation to the other. Due to increase in educational status, they
are engaged in trade, service and business. Santhal women are well
educated and they also contribute to family’s income. They have
permanent house and we see that the Santhals are one of the advanced
tribes in India. They live in the houses made up of mud or tiles. They
live villages and they have their own village panchayat. They believe in
many gods and goddesses.
e. Khasi Tribe
Khasi tribe is mainly found in the state of Assam and the Khasi
Jaintia hills in Megha laya and in the states of Punjab, Uttar Pradesh,
Manipur, West Bengal and Jammu and Kashmir. Khasi Pahris,
Khuchia, Kassi, Khashi and Khasa are some names by which the
Khasi tribes are called. It is said that the Khasis were earliest immigrant
tribes who came from Myanmar, and settled down in the plains of east
Assam. Earlier the Kha sis had their own kingdom, until the Britishers
exercised control over them. Khasi – an Austro- Asiatic language is
spoken by the Khasi tribes. Jymphong, which is a long sleeveless
coat without collars is worn by the men of Khasi tribe. They also wear
headgears or turbans. While the dress of Khasi women is mush
complex with several pieces of cloths. Jewellery is loved by the Khasis.
Crown made of gold and silver are also worn by them. Khasi men wear
large earrings. Women also wear different earrings which are circular or munotes.in

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81 oval shaped. Both men and women have gold and silver chains around
their waists. Khasis have brown to light yellow skin. Aquiline noses and
folds on skin are found in khasi tribe. Rice is the staple food of the
Khasis. Meat and Fish is also consumed by them. Rice beer is loved by
the Khasis on ceremonial occasions.
f. The Garo Tribe
Garo is a hilly tribe of North- eastern India with a tradition of
‘shifting hill cultivation’. The Garo form one of the important
matrilineal tribe inhabiting north- eastern region of India, mainly
found in Megh alaya state. They are also found in Kamrup, Goalpara
and Kh asi hill regions of Assam, Mymensingh district of Bang ladesh and
in Jalpaiguri, Cooch-Behar

Fig 5.4
districts of West Bengal. The Garo habitually dress them with traditional
long attires, in winter season; an additional coloured, stripped cotton-
jacket is worn on the top of them. A typical of head gear is also used by
males in different seasons. In summer, the male dress consists of a
type of sleeve-less shirt. Skirts and blouses of bright colours are worn
by Garo women. Sophisticated modern dresses are gradually gaining
popularity among the Garo. They are very much fond of ornaments. Both
men and women wear ornaments of brass, bronze, iron, wood, and rarely
of silver. Rice is their staple food. Sometimes, it is being replaced by
bajra, maize, barley etc. The boiled grains along with gruel and boiled
vegetables
with salt and chillies form the principal diet of the Garo. They take the
meat of all animals and birds. The meat of dog, cat and tiger is consumed
by them with much relish.
g. The Naga Tribe: Nagas belong to Mongo loid family. They live in
Nagaland. They have medium height, straight hair and brownish
yellow skin. The designation "Naga" is applied to the numerous Indo-
Mongoloid tribes living in the hill country at the convergence of the
borders of India and Myanmar (Burma).The locus of Naga culture is
the hill country of northeast India between Assam's Brahmaputra Valley
to the west and the Myanmar (Burma) border to the east. It is a steeply
ridged and densely forested area bordered by the states of Arunachal munotes.in

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82







Fig 5.5
Pradesh on the north and Manipur on the south. The approximate
geographic coordinates of the Region are 24° 00' to 27° 30' N and 93° 00'
to 95° 00' E. The Naga are characterized by a linguistic diversity
that directly parallels their tribal diversity. There are about as m any
Naga dialects as there are Naga tribes. The lingua franca of the state of
Nagaland is Naga Pidgin (also known as Nagamese, Kachari Beng ali, or
Bodo) and is particularly prevalent in Kohima District. There are some
twenty-seven known Naga dialects, all part of the Tibeto-Burman
Family, which is itself part of the Sino-Tibetan Phylum. These
include Angami Naga, Ao Naga, Chang Naga, Chokri Naga, Kheza
Naga, Khiamngan Naga, Khoirao Naga, Konyak Naga, and many
others.
5.5. MAJOR RELIGIOUS GROUPS INDIA
India is a land of diversities. This diversity is visible in the spheres of
religion too. The spiritual land of India has given birth to many religions
such as Hinduism, Sikhism, Jainism and Buddhism. The major religions
of India are Hinduism (majority religion), Islam (largest minority
religion), Sikhism, Christianity, Buddhism, Jainism, Zoroastrianism,
Judaism and the Bahá'í Faith. India is a land where people of different
religions and cultures live in harmony.
a. Hinduism
Hinduism is the ancient among all other types of religion in India. The
majority of the population in India practice Hinduism which is the
most ancient religion in the country. As per Census 2011, about 80%
Indian practice Hinduism. Some practitioners of this religion call it
Sanatan Dharam, a term popularised by Mahatma Gandhi. Ramayana
and the Bhagavad Geeta are the holy books of the Hindus.
Hinduism has no exact founder. It is the religion of Hindus. Vedic
religion is the root of Hinduism. The Hindus believe and practice the
principles of the Vedas and the Upanishads. Upanishads describe
the doctrine of endless birth and rebirth until the soul achieves Mokshya
or Liberation. Their place of worship is known as Temple. They worship munotes.in

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83 the icon which is considered as a reflection of God. But, the Hindus who
belong to the Arya Samaj do not practice idol-worship. There is a system
of symbolism in Hinduism; the swastika sign symbolises
auspiciousness and the syllable Om represents Pa ram Brahaman. With
reference to the Hindu mythology, there are many Hindu festivals like
Diwali, Holi, Bihu, Ganesh Chaturthi, Durga Puja and many more
which are celebrated in the country.
Hinduism is characterised by a diversity of religious beliefs and
practices, but its central concept is Dharma. Dharma governs both nature
and society. Though it is divided into a number of sects and cults, all
Hindus follow certain common beliefs, customs and traditions.
b. Islam
Islam means ‘Submission to God’. The faith requires an absolute
commitment to the idea of the unity of God. The three principal sources
of authority for the Muslim community are the Quran, custom and the
law.
As a religious system, Islam is defined by the five pillars: (i) Profession
of faith, (ii) worshipping, (iii) alms giving, (iv)fasting, (v) pilgrimage.
The Muslims forms around 14.23% of the population of India, as per
Census 2011. It is the second largest religion in the country and its
followers are known as Muslims. They are divided into sub sections,
most famous being Sunnis and Shias. The holy book of the Muslims is the
Quran; they believe and follow the teachings of Prophet Muh ammad. In
Islam, Hajj is an annual pilgrimage in Me cca which has to be carried out
at least once by every physically and financially capable Muslim in
his lifetime. Some of the major Islamic festivals celebrated in India are
Eid-ul- Fitr, Eid-ul-Zuha and Muharram.
c. Sikhism
Sikhism was originated between 1468 to 1709. The religious doctrines of
Sikhism were produced by a line of ten gurus. The most important of
all gurus is Guru Nanak.
Guru Nanak founded Sikhism in India during the 15th century in the
Punjab region. Guru Granth Sahib is the holy book of the Sikhs which is a
collection of the writings of the Guru.
The Sikhs constitute about 1.72% of the people of India as per the
census 2011. They are identified because of five ‘Ks’ they wear. The five
‘Ks’ are: Kesh (long hair), Kanga (comb), Kachcha (short trousers), Kara
(iron Bengal) and a Kripan (Sword).
There are no festivals in Sikhism in particular, but some festivities are
generally celebrated on birthdays or martyrdom of Sikh Gurus.
Gurupurabs, Baisakhi, Nagar Kirtan, Hola Moha lla are some of the
festivals and events celebrated by the Sikhs. The religious beliefs of the
Sikhs do not favour fasting or going to the pilgrimages. In India, munotes.in

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84 majority of the Sikhs reside in Punjab and their large community lives
in the neighbouring states.
d. Buddhism
Budd hism was found ed in India by Siddhartha Gautama also known as
'Buddha'. The word ‘Buddha’ denotes ‘The Enlightened One’. Buddhism
originated during the 6th century B.C. The goal of Budd hism is Nirvan or
Salvation.
Buddha has given eight fold path or the Ashtanga Marg. It consists of:
1. Right views or faith, 2. Right aspiration, 3. Right speech, 4. Right
action, 5. Right livelihood, 6. Right effort, 7. Right mindfulness, 8. Right
contemplation
The Buddh ists constitute only about 0.70% of the total population of the
country. They believe in the concepts of Samsara, Karma and Rebirth,
and practice the teachings of Buddha. Budd hism believes in
attaining enlightenme nt through love, kindness and wisdom. The
Buddhists believe in de votion which is also an important part of their
practice of this religion. Pilgrimage, bowing, chanting and offerings are
some of the devotional practices followed by the Buddhists. Birthday of
Buddha (also known as Vesak), Asalha Puja Day, Magha Puja Day and
Loy K rathong are some of the festivals celebrated by the Buddhists.
e. Jainism
Jainism is believed to have originated in India in the 7th-5th century
BCE and was founded by Mahavira. It is founded by Vardhamana
Mahavir. He is a contem porary of Buddha. The basic teaching of Jainism
is the ability of human beings to conquer the limitation of physical
existence through ascetic discipline. It rejects the idea of monotheism.
This religion believes in the theology of self rather than God. It
follows the principles of ahimsa (nonviolence), aparigraha (non-
possessiveness) and anekantavad (non-absolutism). A minority of Indian
population (about 0.37%) practice Jainism, as per census 2011. As per the
history of Jains, there were twenty-four propagators of the religion who
were known as tirthankaras, Rishabh was the first while Maha vira was the
last. The followers of this religion undertake five vows of ahimsa, satya,
asteya, bramcharya and aparigraha. Mahavira Jayanti, Paryushana Parva,
Diwali and Maun-agiyara are some of the festivals celebrated by
the Jains.
f. Christianity
It is a faith grounded in the teaching of Jesus. As per historical
beliefs, Christianity came to India about 2000 years ago. It constitutes
about 2.3% of the total population of the country, according to census
2011. Christian population can be found all over the country but
majority of the people who belong to this religious section lives in the
parts of South India, North-East and the Konkan Coast. The munotes.in

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85 Christians worship and believe in Jesus Christ, whom they consider as
the saviour of humanity and the son of God. Christmas is the major
festival of Christians. Good Friday, All Souls Day and Easter are some
other festivals celebrated by the people of this religion in the country.
g. Others
Judaism and Zoroastrianism are also practiced by minority population
in the country. According to Judaism, there exists a covenant relationship
between God and Jewish peop le. One of the minority groups in the
country, Zoroastrianism considers that humans are the helpers of God.
The people who follow Zoroastrianism are known as Parsis. It is the
religion of Parsis. They are the followers of Zoroaster. They worship
fire. Their percentage in India is negligible. Those who follow
Judaism are called Jews.
h. Animism
It is the religious faith of tribals. They believe in worshipping of ghost,
spirit and soul. They worship hill, stone, tree etc. as they believe that each
and every object has a soul. This animistic belief is rather a universal
feature of the tribal religion. The most interesting aspects of religions
of India are the fact that Christians are the only community (among
major religions) in India that has more women membe rs than men. The
ratio of men to women actually improved from 1,009 females forever
1,000 males in 2001, to 1,023:1,000 in 2011.However, this 1.4
percent increase of females per male is not even the biggest one over
the past decade. The Muslim community saw a 1.5 percent increase in the
ratio of females to males (from 936:1,000 in 2001 to 951:1,000 in
2011 ), and the overall Indian average was a 1% improvement in sex ratio.
Mean while, the Hindu community saw the lowest increase (from
931:1,000 to 939:1 ,000) at only 0.8 percent.
All India Religion Census Data 2011
Religion Percentage Estimated Total Male Female State MajorAll Religio100.00 % 121 Crores 1,210,854,977 623,270,258 587,584,719 35
Hindu 79.80 % 96.62 Crores 966,257,353 498,306,968 467,950,385 28
Muslim 14.23 % 17.22 Crores 172,245,158 88,273,945 83,971,213 2
Christian 2.30 % 2.78 Crores 27,819,588 13,751,031 14,068,557 4
Sikh 1.72 % 2.08 Crores 20,833,116 10,948,431 9,884,685 1
Buddhist 0.70 % 84.43 Lakhs 8,442,972 4,296,010 4,146,962 -
Jain 0.37 % 44.52 Lakhs 4,451,753 2,278,097 2,173,656 -
Other Religio0.66 % 79.38 Lakhs 7,937,734 3,952,064 3,985,670 -
Not Stated 0.24 % 28.67 Lakhs 2,867,303 1,463,712 1,403,591 -
munotes.in

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86 From the above table it is derived that the Population Growth rate of
various religion has come down in the last decade (2001- 2011 ). For
example Hindu Population Growth rate slowed down to 16.76 % from
previous decade figure of 19.92% while Muslim witness sharp fall in
growth rate to 24.60% (2001-2011) from the previous figure of 29.52
% (1991-2001). Such sharp fall in population growth rate for
Muslims didn't happened in the last 6 decades. Christian Population
growth was at 15.5% while Sikh population growth rate stood at 8.4%.
The most educated and wealthy community of Jains registered least
growth rate in 2001- 2011 with figure of just 5.4%.
The Growth rate of Hindus, Muslims and Christian is expected to
fall more in upcoming 2021 census while other religions like
Sikhism, Jainism and B uddhism are expected to remain stable for next
2 de cades considering already slowed down growth rate of these
religions.
Although, different religions are practiced in India, the secular and
sovereign nature of the country remains intact. In fact, all religions
collectively play an important role in maintaining the harmony, culture,
history and peace in the country.
5.6. OCCUPATIONAL STRUCTURE
Changes in the size, composition and distribution of population
are closely associated with the demographic structure of workforce. On
the other hand, the workforce participation rates vary according to the
stages of economic development, across cultures, age groups, and
between sexes. Indian economy has been predominantly agricultural
which contributes about one third to the total economy and employs more
than half of the workforce. The agriculture is understandab ly not able
to absorb a significant number of additional workers. However, with
mode rnization, urbanization and industrial development picking up, there
is likely to be a shift in the occupational structure of the Indian
workforce. Moreover, a major change in the economic policy has taken
place in 1991 with the introduction of liberalization of Indian economy.
Occupational structure can broadly be classified into primary,
secondary and tertiary activities and likewise societies have been
classified too. Societies where less than 15% of workers are in tertiary
activities have been called as primary civilizations and those having
more than 40% of the workers in tertiary services as tertiary civilization.
The intermediary societies with 15-40% workers in tertiary activities are
known as secondary civilization. Since the diversification of economy
is intimately related to the stage of technological advancement and
socio economic development, the countries with more than 60% of
their male workers deriving their livelihood from agricultural sector are
considered underdeveloped. Similarly countries with agricultural
labourers forming less than 35% of the workforce are considered as
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87 Since there is a large variety of occupations in the world and the number
of occupations also varies from country to country, the United Nations
has adopted a nine fold industrial classification which is as follows:
a. Agriculture, forestry and fishing b. Mining and quarrying
c. Manufacturing industries
d. Electricity, gas, water and sanitary services e. Construction
f. Commerce
g. Transport, storage and communication h. Services and
i. Not classified elsewhere
In India, the In dian Census has refined its industrial classification
considerably and has made it almost synonymous with that being
followed by the United Nations. The 1971 Indian Census adopted the
following classification:
a. Cultivation
b. Agricultural labour
c. Livestock, forestry, fishing, hunting, plantations orchards and
allied activities
d. Mining and quarrying
e. Manufacturing, processing, servicing and repairs:
i. Household industry
ii. Other than household industry f. Construction
g. Trade and commerce h. Transport and storage i. Other services
The 1981 Census of India published its data about its workers into four
main categories. These are:
a. Cultivators
b. Agricultural laborers
c. Household industrial workers d. Other workers
In 1991, the census decided to go back to its nine fold classification the
one that was fairly compatible with that followed by the United
Nations. It is an accepted fact that India has a low participation rate of
only 39.1% (2001) in consonance with the stage of its demographic
transition. The country’s high fertility rate still adds large number of
children and with the decline in mortality rate the condition seems no
better. There persist wide male female differentials in the participation
rate. In 20 01, while 51.7% of the country’s male popu lation was engaged
in econom ically gainful activities, the corresponding figure for females munotes.in

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88 was only 25.6%. The participation rate among females in India
continued to be low because of the following reasons: i) continuing
prejudices against female participation in outdoor activities ii)
comparatively low literacy rates among females iii) limited availability
of jobs suitable for females iv) limited job opportunities in the face of
unemployment and stiff competition amongst males and females.
Nine essential Features of Occupation Structure in India
1. Agriculture is Main Occupation:
At present about 66.7 percent of population In India is enga ged in
agriculture as against 71 percent in 1901. It has given rise to disguised
unemployment hence, there is very little chance of reducing the burden of
population on agriculture.
2. Less Developm ent of Industries:
In USA 32 percent, in England 42 percent and in Japan 39 percent people
are engag ed in secondary sector. Compared to these countries around
the world, only 17 percent of popu lation in India depends on
manufacturing industries, mining etc. It proves that India is industrially
backward.
3. Unbalanced:
In Ind ia all production activities are not equally developed which
indicates highly unbalanced Indian economy. Too much depe ndence on
agriculture is a symptom of economic backwardness.
4. Less Income:
As ag riculture yields less income than trade, per capita income and
the standard of living of the people in India are low.
5. Small Villages:
Predominance of agriculture testifies that most of the people in India
must be living in small villages and the number of people living in towns
and cities must be very small. In India, 76 percent of population lives in
rural areas and 24 percent in urban areas.
6. Backward Agriculture:
In India, although 64 percent of population is engaged in agriculture,
it imports food g rains from other countries, which indicates backward
nature of our agriculture. On the other hand, in America 2 percent of
popu lation is engaged in agriculture which exports the surplus of food
to other countries. Thus it becomes imperative that agricultural sector
should be developed.

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89 7. Increase in the Proportion of Agricultural Labourers:
The proportion of agricultural labou rers has been rising during the
period of planning. It underlines the fact that the number of wage-earners
is increasing in agricultural sector.
8. Less Developm ent of Tertiary Activities:
Tertiary activities like services, banking and communication, transport
etc. are not much developed in India. In India, 20.5 percent of
population is engag ed in tertiary activities as against 66 percent in
America, 56 percent in England and 49 percent in Japan.
9. Trends in Occupational Structure: There has been no
significant change in the occupational structure of India for the last one
century.
5.7. AGE STRUC TURE
One of the most commonly used methods of analyzing age composition is
the age pyramid which is more commonly known as age sex pyramid.
The age pyramid is constructed for depicting the age structure of a
population along their vertical axis. In such pyramids age groups are at a
regular interval say 5 years starting from 0-5 years and ending
according to the age structure of the population under review. The
horizontal axis of such pyramids represents the total population or
the population of males or females separately either in numbers or in
respective percentages. If the horizontal axis represents males and
females separately, the pyramid is divided vertically into two
halves, the right side representing the females and the left side
representing the males. The shape of a pyramid varies from country to
country depending upon the state of the demographic transition
through which a country is passing. The shape is also significantly
modified by a variety of factors like wars, epidemics, migration and
baby booms. Wars generally have both short and long term impact upon
the age composition of population. The heavy losses of young men
during war times are immediately reflected by the shape of the
pyramid. The long term effect of the wars in the form of reduced fertility
rates continues to modify the shape of the pyramid in its own way
for quite some time. Similarly, epidemics and famines which cause
large scale abnormal deaths influence the shape of the pyramid.
Migration, which is age and sex selective also, produces
irregularities in the normal shape of the age pyramid.
There are three basic determinants of age composition of a population.
These include nasality, mortality and mobility. Clarke (1972) rightly
points out that these determinants of age structure are inter-dependent
and any change in one of these may influence the other two and it is
through these variables that the socio economic conditions influence the
age structure. It is the fertility rates that determine the proportion of
population in different categories. That is why many countries of Latin
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90
display a high proportion of population in the young age group. Since the
longevity of life in these countries is also short, the proportion of
old age group is also not very large. In most of the countries of these
continents, about two-fifth of the population is below 15 years of age.
In contrast, the countries with low fertility rate and with long expectation
of life have about one fourth of their population in the young age group.
But, the proportion of population in the o lder age group in these countries
is relatively large. Thus, most of the countries of Europe and North
America, which have completed their demographic transition, have an age
composition where the proportion of young population is low and that of
the old population is high. A continuous downward trend in fertility
contributes to the increase in the proportion of population in older
ages. Such has been the case with United States, North-western
European countries, the CIS countries, Australia, New Zealand and
Japan. (See figures)

Fig 5.6








Fig 5.7
In figure1 we find a very wide base and slow slopes which indicate the
demographic condition of those countries where both the b irth rate and
the death rate are high. This pyramid also shows large number of youth munotes.in

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91 and dependents in total population. Such a condition prevailed in
majority of countries in the world in 17th and 18th century.
In figure 2 the base is wider than in the previous case and its slopes are
becoming narrow more rapidly. The same is the case with the second
stage of demographic transition with high birth rate and low death rate.
Developing countries like Ind ia, Pakistan, Bang ladesh and others are
passing through the second stage where population increases at a
rapid rate and the expectation of life as well as the ratio of dependent
population also increases.
In figure 3 the pyramid assumes a rectangular stage indicating low
birth and low death rates as is the case in United States of America and
Eastern Europe before the Second World War. This is the third stage
of demographic transition where the ratio of depen dent population is
also low and expectation of life is very high.
In figure 4 the bell shaped pyramid shows low death rate, but the increase
in birth rate is slower than the previous case. It signifies the fourth
stage of demographic transition where net increase in population is
negligible but the ratio of youth and depe ndents is high in total
population.
In figure 5 the pyramid reflects that the birth rate decreases at a faster
rate than the death rate and if the situation continues then growth rate
of population will be negat ive. At present Germany is passing through
this phase of negative growth.
5.7.1. Age Groups
Generally the population is categorized into three broad age groups viz.
i) the young ii) the adults iii) the old. The young age group includes
children below 15 years of age. The proportion of population in this age
group in any country is determined by the stage of demographic
transition through which it is passing. Countries in the first stage of
demog raphic transition have a large portion of the population in this age
group. This age group is economically unproductive and the most
expensive age group as it is to be provided with food, clothing and
education. This age group is more or less dependent on the second age
group. The adult age group comprises of people in the age group 15-64
years. This age group is biologically the most reproductive, economically
the most productive and demographically the most mobile (Trewartha,
1969). It suppo rts the bulk of other two age groups. It is generally
seen that more developed nations have a larger proportion of the
population in this age group while less developed countries have a
comparatively lesser proportion in this age group. There is thus an inverse
correlation between the levels of fertility and mortality and proportion of
adults. This correlation gets disturbed only when the migration
contributes to the growth of population significantly. In such cases
since the migration is age selective, the p roportion of adults gets
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92 to classify all those above 60 years of age as the old age group. The
number of females in this age group is more than that of males because
the proportion of population in this age group is governed largely by
mortality rates. The proportion of population in this age group also varies
regionally. Significantly it is low in case of less developed regions and
high in more developed regions. This age group is also an economic
burden upon the adult age group.
The disparity in the proportion of popu lation below 15 years of age in
the two types of countries, the developed and the less developed was
attributable to the differences in the stage of their fertility transition. The
developed world has completed its fertility transition and has reached a
low level of fertility, sometimes even below their mortality levels. Most
of the countries in the less developed world are still in their explosive
second stage of demographic transition, adding large num ber of
children to their population every year, thanks to the large population
base coupled with long history of settlement. However, the population of
the world is ageing both for more and less developed countries. While the
proportion of people below 15 years of age has declined all over the
world, the proportion in the age group 15-65years has increased
more rapidly.
From amongst the various continents, the continent of Africa still
continues to show age structure associated with high fertility and
declining mortality. So no change was in the proportion of
population below 15 years of age in the last three decades. In
contrast Europe had the lowest proportion in the below 15 years and
the highest proportion in the age group above 65 years. Between
these two contrasting continents lie the continents of Asia, North
America, Central and South America and Oceania. Of these, South
America displays the largest part of the population below 15 years
followed by Asia, while North and Central America had the highest
proportion in the age group above 65 years.
Structure of the Population (2011, Census)
Age Male Female Total Percent
0-14 194 351 375 178 092 741 372 444 116 30,76
15-64 394 175 879 373 559 847 767 735 726 63,40
65+ 32 370 123 33 815 210 66 185 333 5,47

5.8. INDIA’S POPULATION POLICY
While considering the population policy of India, it is necessary to
concentrate on fertility as the single most important factor contributing to
population change. Of the other two components, mortality and migration,
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93 population policy of India. It therefore becomes imperative to study
in detail, India’s policy related to fertility and mortality. Since India has
the distinction of being the first country in the world to launch a
nationwide family planning programme with full government support, it
is of interest to study the historical evolution of her anti-natalist
policy and to critically access the programmes unde rtaken in pursuance
of this policy in the light of her achievements over the years. The British
rulers of the country were not interested in formulating any
population policy for India, nor were they in favour of the birth
control movement, which had started making its presence felt. Till the
early twenties, the British measured the prosperity of their rule, to some
extent, by the magnitude of the net addition to India’s population.
The degree of satisfaction over and the justification of the British rule
in India was directly in proportion to the substantial increase in the
population that the census revealed every decade. The British kept away
from imposing family planning measures as it was not a norm in the ir
home land and besides they did not want to get involved in anything that
would be considered as an intrusion on traditions customs and belief of
Indians.
5.8.1. Family planning in Independent India (1951-96)
A review of the eight five year plans of the country indicates that family
planning as a measure of population has been given high priority in
each plan. The Draft Outline of the First Plan, published in July 1951
contained a section on “Population Pressure: Its Bearing on
Development” which recognised that India had a population problem.
The final version of the First Plan reiterated: “The pressure of
population in India is already so high that a reduction in the rate of
growth must be regarded as a major desideratum ”. (Govt. of India, 1953).
The Second Five Year Plan (1956-61) pointed out that the rate of
population increase was one of the key factors in development and
underscored the fact that “a high rate of population growth is bound to
affect adversely the rate of econom ic advance and living standards
per capita.” It is important to note that the Planning Commission has
never considered a population control programme as an alternative to
socio-economic development. While recognising that with improved
public health programmes and lower death rates, the population
pressure was likely to increase, it accepted the need for curbing birth
rates.
The Third Five Year Plan (1961-66) while considering population control
in the context of long term development stated that the objective of
stabilising the growth of population over a reasonab le period must be at
the very centre of planned development. The Fourth Five Year Plan
(1969-74) viewed population not only from the point of view of
economic development, but also from that of social change. Even far
reaching changes in social and econom ic field will not lead to a better life
unless popu lation growth is controlled, was ag reed upon in this plan.
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94 The Draft Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-79) included family planning in
the context of the National Minimum Needs Programme. It
accorded a high priority to population control and based the demographic
projections for the Plan Period on certain assumptions regarding a
reduced growth rate, a birth rate declining much faster than death rate and
an effective family planning programme. The final version of the Fifth
plan was published only in 1976, and it incorporated the National
Population Policy announced in April 1976. The Fifth Plan laid down
targets “A target for a birth rate of 25 per thousand and a population
growth rate of 14% by the end of the Sixth Plan Period. The Government
that came to power in March 1977 ruled out any element of
compulsion in family planning programmes.
The Sixth Five year Plan (1980-85) earmarked Rs.10,100 million for
the family planning programme. The long term demographic goal
recommended by the Working Group on Popu lation Policy appointed by
the Planning Commission was approved by the National Developme nt
Council. It involves reducing the net reproduction rate(NRR) to one by
1996 for the country as a whole and by 2001 in the states. The
implications of this long term demographic goals are as follows:
a. The average size of the family would be reduced from 4.2
children to 2.3 children.
b. The birth rate per thousand population would be reduced from the
level of 33 in 1978 to 21.
c. The death rate per thou sand population would be reduced from about
14 in 1978 to 9 and the infant mortality rate would be reduced from
129 to 60 or less.
d. As ag ainst 22 pe rcent of the eligible couples protected with
family planning, 60% would be protected.
e. The population of India will be around 900 million by the turn of the
century and will stabilise at 1200 million by the year 2050AD (Govt.
of India,1985)
In the Se venth Five Year Plan (1985-90), the outlay for the family welfare
programme was 3256 crores. It was pointed out that in view of the
progress made in the sixth plan, the goal of reaching a net reproduction
rate of unity could be reached only by 2006-11, instead of reaching it
by the year 2000 AD as envisaged in the Sixth Five Year Plan. The
following goals for the year 1990 were set:
a. Effective couple protection rate:42%
b. Crude birth rate: 29.1 c. Crude death rate:10.4
d. Infant mortality rate: 90.0
In the E ighth Plan (1992-97), the t otal outlay for the Family
Welfare Programme was Rs 6500 crores. Keeping in view the level of munotes.in

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95 achievement, the long term demographic goals for the country have been
revised. It has been stated in the Eighth Five Year Document that the net
reproduction rate of one would now be achievable only in the pe riod
2011-16 AD and not by the year 2000AD as envisaged in the
National Health Policy. Accordingly, the goals of the crude birth rate,
crude death rate and natural population growth rate to be achieved by
1997 were also revised. The latest report of the Technical Group on
Popu lation Projections constituted by the Planning Commission has
estimated that the replacement level ofNRR-1 is achievable by 2026 and
beyond.
5.8.2. The Family Planning Programme
The family planning programme since its very inception in 1952, has
been the responsibility of the Ministry of Health. It is a centrally
sponsored and financed programme implemented by the states. It began
very modestly with the creation of a Family Planning Cell in the
Planning and Development Section of the Directorate-General of Health
Services in Ap ril 1952. In 1966, several important developments
concerning the family planning took place. A full fledged Department
of Family Planning was established within the Ministry. A Cabinet
Committee of Family Planning, initially headed by the Prime Minister
and later by the Finance Minister was constituted at the Central level.
The function of the Cabinet Committee was to give proper direction and
policy clearances and to regularly review the progress of the programme.
The Central Family Planning Council, with the Minister of Health
and Family Planning as its Chairman was set up in1966.At the State
level, the State Family Planning Bureau is headed by the Joint
Director, Family Planning and Ma ternal and Child Health, and an officer
of the rank of a Secretary/Deputy Secretary heads the cell in the
Secretariat. In 1977 when the Janata Government came into power, the
family planning programme was renamed as the family welfare
programme to make it more acceptable and to denote that it had a
wider base, so that it could also include various measure of family
welfare for the improvement of the quality of human life. The Family
Planning programme has always been the responsibility of the Ministry of
Health which is one of the weakest and politically unimportant ministries.
This may have been a reason for its poor performance over the years.
Since the inception of family planning programme in 1952, there has been
some sort of rigidity in the implementation of the programme which
perhaps is not a correct stance to adopt. The programme adopted a very
cautious approach. The First Five Year Plan emphasized field research
with a view to identifying values norms, customs and beliefs regarding
“child bearing”. The natural method of family planning (the Rhythm
Method) was considered to be the most appropriate for the Indian masses
and this method was propagated. Since India was the first country to
adopt family planning, there was no model that she could follow. The
only model that was available for this purpose was the one used by
the Planned Parenthood Organisations in the West, which set up family
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96 expected to take fullest advantage of these facilities. The
assumption was that people themselves would reach out and avail the
facilities limited the scope of creating a wide base. The approach
was, therefore, not considered suitable for a developing country like
India.
Perhaps the most important approach to family planning is the
“integrated approach” wherein family planning was linked to
maternal and child health services. The rationale for such
integration is that when infant and child mortality rates are high, as in
India, parents cannot be expected to limit the size of their families
unless they have some confidence that the children they already have
will survive till adulthood. Such confidence can be created only by
providing preventive and curative medical services for children. Yet
another method of family planning measure as adopted in India was
the “camp approach”. As early as 1961, the first vasectomy camp was
held in Maharashtra where 1400 men were sterilised in 3 days. In 1970,
a massive vasectomy camp was held in Ernakulam district of Kerala
where a total of 15,005 vasectomies were performed over a period of one
month. Encouraged by the success in Ernakulam, the Department of
Family Planning allowed the states to organise such massive camps
and provided additional support. By 1973-74 after an incident
wherein eleven men died of tetanus following a vasectomy, it was felt
that while the number of vasectomy operations did touch a record level,
in a larger perspective, such camps were counterproductive. Hence
“reproductive and child health approach” was adop ted.
One striking event in relation to the population problem in gene ral and
family planning programme in particular needs special mention. During
the general elections to the Parliament in 1977 the issue of family
planning was highly criticised. Hence the Family Planning programme
received a setback. In July 1993, the Government of India appointed an
expert group to prepare a parliamentary draft of the National Popu lation
Policy. A major paradigm shift in the Population policy has been
suggested. Rather than vertical planning of the Programme, democratic,
decentralised planning and setting up of demographic goals at the
grass root level is suggested.
The Expert Group has set the following long term socio demographic
goals at the national level for the year 2010.
a. Implementation in totality of the Minimum Needs Programme, and
in particular, universalisation of primary education and reduction in
the dropout rates of primary and seconda ry school children, both boys
and girls, abolition of child labour and priority to primary health care.
b. Reduction in the incidence of marriage of girls below the age of 18
years to zero.
c. Increase in the percentage of deliveries conducted by trained personnel
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97 d. Reduction in maternal mortality rate to less than 100 per
100,0 00 live births.
e. Universal immunisation of children against T.B, poilo, diphtheria,
whooping cough, tetanus and measles and reduction in the incidence
of diarrhoea and acute respiratory infection.
f. Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) of 30 per thousand live birth and a sharp
reduction in child mortality rate as well as sharp decline in the
incidence of low birth weight babies.
g. A ll individuals to have access to information on birth limitation
methods, so that they have the fullest choice in planning their
families.
h. Universal access to quality contraceptive services in order to reduce
Total Fertility Rate (TFR) from 3.6 in 1991 to2.1 by the year 2010.
i. Containment of AIDS and sexually transmitted diseases.
j. Full coverage of registration of births deaths and marriage.
This popu lation policy, if implemented by individuals and governments,
irrespective of religion, caste or political affiliation will help to provide
a be tter common present and future to all our people. It is being
introduced in a year of historic transition in the evolution of political
instruments capable of enabling people in villages and t owns to guide and
shape their own destiny. If our population policy goes wrong, nothing
else will have a chance to go right.
It may be concluded from the study that mortality influencing policy of
the country whether explicitly stated or indirectly implied contributes to
the philosophy that an investment in health is investment in man for
improving the quality of human life. Though India is still far behind
from reaching the ideal “Health for All by 2000 ”, the very fact that
concrete steps are being taken to actualise this ideal is heartening. To
what extent the country is successful in reaching this ideal in terms of
the goals laid down with respect to the various health indicators already
specified remains to be seen.
5.9. SUMMARY:
In th is chapter it has already been explained that there are various
opinions of the anthropologists since the time of Lewis Morgan about the
definition of tribe. 19th century scholars viewed tribal societies in the
light of evolutionary theory. Several ethnog raphic studies of a tribal
community have been made to unde rstand the exact situation of the same
in the present world. Tribals in India constitute 7.85% of the total
population. The quality of life of these peop le is poo r. Since
independen ce the Government of India emphasized on rapid educational
development of the tribals present in India to bring them into the
mainstream of its population. We have also learnt that around the world munotes.in

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98 there are innume rable religious groups that differ in many ways. India
being a land of diversities shows it in the spheres of religion too.
Occupational structure means the distribution of working people across
different industries and sectors. It showed very little sign of change
during the British rule in India and has remained almost static over the
years. During the period of the British rule the Indian economy was in a
state of stagnation. After independence there has been little shift in the
occupational distribution of the work force.
The age structure is one of the tools that demographers use to
unde rstand popu lation. It is often called popu lation pyramid. But it is not
always pyramidal in shape. The age structure of a population is the
distribution of people among various ages.
5.10. CHE CK YOUR PROGRES S/ EXERCISE
1. True and false
a. The term ‘tribe’ is derived from the Latin word ‘tribus’ which was
earlier used by the Romans to designate the divisions in society.
b. The main occupation of the gujjars is rearing of cattle which are also
the main source of income.
c. The Gonds are considered as the third largest and most widely
distributed tribal groups in India.
d. Europe still continues to show age structure associated with high
fertility and declining mortality.
e. So cieties where less than 15% of workers are in tertiary
activities have been called as primary civili zations and those
having more than 40% of the workers in tertiary services as tertiary
civili zation.
2. Fill in the blanks
1) Tribes are dependent on their land for their _________and are largely
self sufficient.
2) the Gujjar tribe reside in _________.
3) The ________comprise the largest tribal group in India.
4) khasi tribe is mainly found in the state of __________the Khasi jaintia
hills in __________and in the states of Panjab, Uttar Pradesh and
Manipur, West Bengal and Jummu and Kashmir.
5) _______is the ancient among all other types of religion in India.

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99 3. Multiple choice question
a. The Proto-Australoids group is characterised
i. by dark skin colour, sunken nose and lower forehead.
ii. by fair skin colour, sunken nose and broad forehead.
iii. by dark skin colour, sunken nose and lower forehead.
b. The tribals mostly use
i. modern technology which enhances the use of available natural
resources.
ii. simple technology which restricts the use of available natural
resources
iii. obsolete technology which restricts the use of available natural
resources
c. The tribals carry two economic activities
i. hunting & gathering at the same time
ii. fishing & cropping at the same time
iii. hunting & tailoring at the same time
d. The shape of a pyramid in age structure varies from country to
country depending upon
i. the state of the agricultural development through which a country
is passing.
ii. the state of the industrialization through which a country is passing.
iii. the state of the demographic transition through which a country
is passing.
e. The religious doctrines of Sikhism were produced
i. by a line of ten gurus and the most important of all gurus is Guru
Nanak.
ii. by a line of twelve gurus and the most important of all gurus is Guru
Nanak
iii. by a line of five gurus the most important of all gurus is Guru Nanak
4. Answer the Following Questions
1. Define tribe. State the characteristics of tribes in India.
2. What are the major problems faced by the tribals in India? munotes.in

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Population Geography
100 3. What are the steps taken for the developments of the tribals in
India?
4. State the region wise distribution of tribal population in India.
5. Write short notes on a. Nagas b. Gonds
6. What are the major religious groups present in India?
7. What do you know about the occupational structure of India?
8. Write a short note on Population Policy of India.
5.11. ANSWERS TO THE SELF LEARNING
QUESTIONS.
1.a.true
1.b.true
1.c. false, Santhals
1.d.false, Africa
1.e. true
2.a. livelihood
2.b. Himachal Pradesh
2.c. Gonds
2.d. Assam, Meghalaya
2.e. Hinduism
3.a.i
3.b.ii.
3.c.i.
3.d.iii
3.e.i
5.12. TECHN ICAL WORDS:
1. Tribe: a social group made up of many families, clans, or gene rations
that share the same langu age, customs, and beliefs.
2. Occupational structure: It is the mix of different types of occupations
found in a society and describes how people are enga ged in different
sectors of the e conomy namely, primary, seconda ry and tertiary the
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101 3. Age structure: The age structure of a population is the
distribution of people among various ages. It is a useful tool for social
scientists.
4. Population policy: it is defined as deliberately constructed or
modified institutional arrangements and/or specific programs through
which governments influence, directly or indirectly, demographic
change.
5.13. TASK
1. In a chart make a list of tribes and their characteristics present in
India.
2. In a chart write what is occupational structure explain it with
proper diagram.
3. In a chart make a list of the problems faced by the tribes in
India.
5.14. REFERE NCES FOR FURTHER STUDY
 Census (2001 ). Census of India 2001, Office of the Registrar
General India, New Delhi
 Geography Of India, By Maid Husain
 Collected from: http:/ /www.arsap.org/land.htmError! Hyperlink
reference not valid.
 "Decadal Growth :www.censusindia.gov.iError! Hyperlink
reference not valid.
 "Ranking of States and Union territories by population size:
1991 and 2001" (PDF). Government of India (2001 ). Census of
India. pp. 5–6. Retrieved 12 December 2008.
 Tables: Profiles by main religions: Hindus". Census of India:
Census Data 2001: India at a glance >> Religious Composition.
Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India.
Retrieved 2008-11-26.
 "Tables: Profiles by main religions: Muslims". Census of India:
Census Data 2001: India at a glance >> Religious Composition.
Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India.
Retrieved 2008-11-26.
 "Tables: Profiles by main religions: Christians". Census of India:
Census Data 2001: India at a glance >> Religious Composition.
 Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner,
India. Retrieved 2008-11-26 munotes.in

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102  Popu lation Geography, Debjani Roy
 Clarke, J. (1965). “Population Geography”
 Trewarta, G. (1969). “A geography of population”
 Census of India, 2011
 Popu lation Geography: Tools & Issues, K. Bruce Newbolt
 The Population of India and Pakistan, Davis, Kingsley
 The study of Population, Duncan (ed)
 Human Geography by Majid Husain
 Economic and Social Geography - Made Simple, Rupa
Publishers
 A Geography of Popu lation by R.C. Chandna
 Oxford English Dictionary

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