Geography-Paper-IV-Geography-of-Settlement-Englsih-Version-munotes

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GEOGRAPHY OF SETTLEMENT
After going through this chapter, you will be able to understand the
following features.
Unit Structure
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Subject- Discussion
1.4 Definition, Nature and Scope of settlement Geograp hy.
1.5 settlement types, their characteristics and Differences.
1.6 Factors influencing growth and distribution of settlement
1.7 I mportance of settlement Studies in Geography.
1.8 Summary
1.9 Check your Progress/Exercise
1.10 Technical words and their meaning
1.11 References for further study
1.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you will be able to –
 Understand the meaning of settlement
 Understand the Definition of Settlement
 Know the Nature and Scope of Settlement
 Understand Importance of Settlement
 Know the Types, their characteristics and Differences.
1.2. INTRODUC TION
In this chapter we will define settlement at first. But before that we
must know what settlement is. A group of people living together
forms a settlement. A settlement may be broadly classified into four
types: 1. Shapeless cluster 2. Linear cluster 3. settlement formed of
isolated or dispersed home stead. Moreover, a great variation in the
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2 factors and on the basis of these factors settlements can be broadly
classified into Urban and Rural settlements.
There are some basic differences between rural and urban areas in
general. The function is the major difference between rural and urban
areas. Rural areas have predominantly primary activities, whereas
urban a reas have domination of secondary and tertiary activities. Again,
rural areas have low density of population compared to urban.
1.3. SUBJECT DISCUSS ION
Rural settlements, usually quite small, are most closely and directly
related to land. Most people living there are involved in primary
activities such as farming, fishing, forestry or mining. Hence, rural
settlements may be considered as uni-function and have primary
activities. In order to address the particular needs of the rural villages,
the rural settlements study is important. Rural settlement study
identifies the e conomic, social and environmental aspects of the villages.
Rural settlements have different patterns. Settlements that are far
apart are isolated or dispersed. On the other hand settlements that are
close together to each other are clustered or nucleated. By the term shape,
the morphology of the settlement is discussed. This refers to how the
buildings are arranged in relation to each other, and their physical
appearance. The shape of rural settlement may be linear, round, square,
cross roads or T-shaped. Types of the settlement are determined by the
extent of the built-up area and inter ho use distance. Several physical
factors, cultural and ethnic factors, and security factors are the major
three factors that determine the types of rural settlements. While going
through this unit we will see that geology and general physiography play
a very important role in deciding the nature of building material. As far as
building materials are concerned, these can be grouped under two
categories such as building material used for walls and building material
used for roofs.
There is regional variation of rural settlement throughout India as
India has varied social, climatic and geographical conditions. Any
form of human habitation is a settlement. It varies from a single house to
the largest city. It is a place where people live a nd interact through
activities like agriculture, trading and entertainment. Urban areas may be
cities, towns or conurbations. There is a distinction between urban and
rural areas within a country. Traditionally it is believed that urban areas
provide a dif ferent way of life and usually a higher standard of living than
are found in rural areas. In many industrialized countries, this distinction
between the two has become blurred. The degree of concentration of
population stands as the principal difference be tween urban and rural
areas. The classification of urban settlements is determined by their
economic and social functions and the size of their population. An urban
settlement is predominantly engaged in secondary and tertiary activities
such as food proce ssing and banking. Developed and developing countries
are experiencing rapid rate of urbanization. As a result there is a large munotes.in

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3 increase in the number of urban dwellers. Hence, they are facing a host of
urban problems such as housing, pollution, transport , sanitation and water
supply.
1.4 DEFINITION
Settlement geography is a part of the Human geog raphy. By rural
settlement it is meant a sparsely populated community existing in the
country, away from densely popu lated urban centres. The rural
settlements derive their life support or basic economic needs from land
based primary economic activities. It is observed that the rural people are
less mobile and hence social relations among them are intimate. Rural
settlement in India can broadly be put into four types:
a. Clustered or Nucleated Settlements
b. Semi-clustered or Fragmented Settlements
c. Hamleted Settlements and
d. Dispersed or Isolated Settlements
There can be several patterns of rural settlements. Some of them are:
a. Linear Pattern
b. Radial Pattern
c. Star Shaped Pattern
d. Rectangu lar Pattern
e. Fan Pattern and
f. Circular Patte rn.
Growth of urban settlement is a recent phenomenon and very few
settlements have reached the population size of more than a few thousand
inhabitants till recent past. By around A.D. 1810 the city of London was
the first urban settlement to reach a population of one million. By 1982
approximately 175 cities in the world had crossed the one million
population mark. Presently 48 per cent of the world’s populat ion lives in
urban settlements compared to only 3 per cent in the year 1800.
The definition of urban settlement varies from one country to another.
Some of the common basis of classification is size of population,
occupational structure and administrative setup.
Locations of the earliest urban settlements were based on the availability
of water, building materials and fertile land. In the present era these
considerations still remain valid with modern technology playing a
significant role in locating urban settlements. Piped water can be supplied
to a distant settlement; building material can be transported from long
distances. For example, the requirements of a holiday resort are quite munotes.in

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4 different from that of an industrial town. Industrial towns generally need
local energy supplies or raw materials while tourist centres require
attractive scenery.
1.5. NATURE AND SCOPE
A settlement is an organized colony of human beings consisting of
buildings in which they live or work or store various things and streets on
which their movements take place. The study of settlements has been
one of the most significant themes of human geog raphy. The term
“settlement geog raphy” is derived from the German “siedlunge
geographic” (R. L. Singh 1978) which involves the study of visual
imprints made by man upon cultural landscape in the process of
occupation.
Rural settlement and urban settlement geography are two integral parts
that constitute the discipline of Settlement geography.
Rural areas are often referred to as those areas outside of the city or
urban bounda ry or periphery where populations are spatially dispersed.
Rural settlement as a pioneer habitat of human being is a living functional
space since time imme morial. Rural settlement means a rural space
occupied by rural community with their economic, social and cultural
environment. This environment influences the entire rural way of life and
their dynamic structure. Geographers look at the rural settlements as
agglomeration of manmade habitats on the earth which is dep endent
mostly on primary occupation.
Rural settlement is considered as the basic part of the human society
around the world. It is the topographic expression of cluster of dwellings
of any type or size where human beings live.
For this purpose, people may erect houses and other structures and
command some area or territory as their economic support-base. Thus, the
process of rural settlement inherently involves grouping of people and
apportioning of territory as their resource base. As a result fertile lands
free from environmental hazards have dense population and compact
rural settlements. These areas also have central places with more confined
hinterland due to inter competition. For example in the Ganga-Yamuna
doab, high fertility soil, adequate irrigational facilities, and means of well-
developed transport have given rise to almost uniform distribution of
settlements.
On the other hand, the infertile lands with less safety from environment
have low po pulation density, scattered human settlement. In these areas
the central places have wider zones of influence especially in flood
plains and foreign margins. In ‘Terai’ area of Rohilkhand-Awadh
region, the settlements are, however, unevenly distributed due to high
percentage of forests, marshy tracts and seasonal floods, and the
villages are located on relatively higher ground.
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5 The location and functions of human as well as rural settlement are the
outcome of human behaviour in a particular geog raphical environment in
relation to houses and highways. The accessibility and efficiency of
work pe rformance increases if the location of settlement is systematic
on beaut iful sites and protected areas. The outcome is oppo site whenever
the development of rural
settlement is haphazard. It decreases human effort and accessibility
resulting uncomfortable living which again leads to insanitary and vice to
underworld. To conclude it can be said that if the rural settlements are
systematic it will reflect good environmental conditions whereas
congested huddled houses are indications of environmental pollution,
unscientific living and development of slums.
In rural settlement agriculture is the main economic activity that provides
job opportunities. In th ese areas opportunities for socio-economic
development are often perceived as limited, leading to the migration
of able bodied individuals to the cities and leaving a residue of
generally vulnerable, under educated, aged and very young population.
These households are often largely depe ndent on social grants and
remittances from family members working in the cities.
Significant themes of human geography. The term “settlement geography”
is derived from the German” siedlunge geographic” (R. L. Singh 1978)
which involves the study of visual imprints made by man upon cultural
landscape in the process of occupation. Rural settlement and urban
settlement geography are two integral parts that constitute the discipline of
Settlement geography.
Settlement in geogr aphy helps us to understand man’s relationship with
his environment. Urban settlement geography deals with the study of
compact non -agricultural settlements, mainly towns and cities. It concerns
with the spatial dimensions of urban centres, i.e., their or igin, location,
site, growth, functions and relationship with each other within and outside
its surrounding areas or zone of influence. Urban settlement geography
has been continuously and consistently growing as a systematic and
scientific branch of geogr aphical knowledge.
Its nature, scope and subject matter have been broadened, its analytical
focus has been realigned and its analytical tools have been refined.
Remote sensing technology has provided an opportunity to study, interpret
and closely monitor the urban phenomenon. The rise of radicalism in
geography generated a fruitful debate on social relevance of urban
settlement geography and could strengthen the applied nature of the
discipline.
Urban settlements represent the highest forms of humanisation in both
amount and complexity. The term ‘urban’ refers to towns and cities having
marked with secondary and tertiary functions along with municipality or
notified area committee. It discusses the town as a dwelling place where
inhabitants are mainly engag ed in industry, retail trade, and wholesale
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6 use we will find that urban landuse is used on the land while rural land use
is use of the land. Although urban settlement and rural sett lement
geography are two branches of settlement geography there is rarely a
sharp division between urban and rural either physically or socially. Most
of the countries have fixed there criteria regarding the population size,
functional structure, administr ative status and pattern of land use to define
urban settlements. Thus an international consensus is difficult to arrive at.
Moreover it is even difficult to draw a precise boundary between the urban
and rural settlement over the ground. The focus of urban settlement
geography has widened enough since its modest beginning as a scientific
discipline during the first decade of the present century as a result of
changes in economic organisation, transportation and communication
technology, data acquisition, analysis and retrieval technology, politico -
social organisation and population growth and migration. The urban
centres and the non -urbanised area stand to each other in a symbolic
relationship deriving support and sustenance from each other. But urban
deve lopment always encroach on agricultural land and transform the rural
countryside. With the passage of time it has been observed the urban
geography, as a scientific discipline occupies a unique place among
various ramifications of geography because of ex pansion in non -primary
activities, intensification of space utilisation, an accelerating pace of
urbanisation, urban expansion and prolification, globalisation of economic
organisation and industrial production system, sub -sonic and supersonic
transportat ion and satellite communication, rising land values and land
rent and shrinking and in some cases vanish.
There are different zones for different urban functions. Change in
landscape as well as socio -economic environment, which may be gradual
or sudden, is observed when we pass through one urban settlement to
another. There is a direction of change and the adjacent zones interact
with it in many ways. This interaction again follows a pattern that is
repeated from one city to another. From the existence of similar pattern we
can conclude that urban structure is determined by a number of pre -
determined general principles of land use and location. Operations of
powerful social and economic forces are the determinant factors. The
major aspects of studying urban settlement geography are to identify and
account for the existence of these internal pattern and processes. It may
appear at first that the layout of urban geography is primarily related to its
physical environment only. But with gradual growth, form and structure of
urban settlement are determined by modes of production and social
structure on a large scale. Site and terrain generally determine the overall
shape of the city. Example of Kolkata may be taken into consideration
which is situated between rive r Hugli and the salt marshes. The city is
elongated and elongation is due to restriction of terrain. But London on a
structural basin has grown radially from the centre. However, an ideal city
should assume a circular form so the city centre is equally acc essible from
all points. The terrain plays a negligible role except for the form of the
city. The plan of the city, its landscape, architecture and social geography
are the results of the past and present socio -economic processes.
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7 reflected in the pattern of cities found in the most industrialised countries
and those in the third world.
One more thing must be remembered that the urban growth process vary
over space through time. A compet ition for space always present in an
urban settlement is identified as one of the principles regarding this
feature. This may be attributed to the social value of an area or the
accessibility of certain services. The location of main commercial area
may be considered as the second principle which lies in such a place that
is well connected from within the city and as well as from outside.
Moreover, the morphology of a city is dynamic in nature. Thus,
technological changes, (underground transport system, Kol kata) will have
immediate effect. Large scale migration like influx of refugees may also
change the cityscape. The morphology of any urban settlement is also
influenced by it population itself as urban population displays social and
economic segregation.
As a science of human settlement, urban geography deals with the
complex urban areas which possess sharp internal differentiation. It
concerns about delineation of urban activities which are expressed in
characteristic association of intensive land use and human occupancy
features. Thus, man is the pivotal point in urban geography and the study
itself comes under the cultural environment made by man.
1.6 SETT LEMENT TYPES, THEIR
CHARACTERISTICS AND DIFFERENCES
Human settlements can broadly be divided into t wo types – rural and
urban.
Rural settlements: Rural settlements are most closely and directly related
to land. They are dominated by primary activities such as agriculture,
animal husbandry, fishing etc. The settlements size is relatively small.
Urban Se ttlements: Rapid urban growth is a recent phenomenon. Until
recent times, few settlements reached the population size of more than a
few thousand inhabitants.
CHARACTERISTICS - Rural settlements:
1. Rural area is sparsely populated because many people leaves rural
areas and settles in the urban areas for more facilities.

2. These society has homogeneity. in its profession that is their only
source of earning is agriculture and this is transmitted from generation
to generation.

3. There is homogeneity in dress, la nguage and customs. It means all
these remain same because their culture is same they belong to the
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8 4. These areas have got slow means of communication.Rural areas have
very slow rate of change because of lack of education and modern
technology.

5. These settlements have got simple culture transmitted from generation
to generation.Rural areas have got informal social life that is they
spent their life in a. simple way.

6. Rural communities have got strong relationships and interactions of
the people. It means that they help each other in distress and shares the
happiness.In such areas there is less rate of pollution because there are
no factories and mills and the number of automobiles is less.In such
areas people shows great hospitality to their guests and treat them as a
member of a family.
CHARACTERISTICS – Urban settlements:
The main characteristics of urban settlements are:
1. The main occupation of the people is related to secondary and tertiary
sectors.
2. There is a density of human structures such as houses, commercial
buildings, roads, bridges, and railways.
3. Urban settlements are large in size with a high density of population.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN - RURAL AND URBAN
SETTLEMENTS:
Rural settlements:
 Rural settlements usually refer to villag es
 Rural areas usually don’t have much development in terms of
infrastructure.
 Rural areas are sparsely populated
 Rural areas usually don’t have much development in terms of
infrastructure.
 Rural people are less mobile and therefore, social relations amo ng
them are intimate.
 The rural settlements derive their life support or basic economic needs
from land -based primary economic activities.
Urban settlements:
Economic, social, and population factors differentiate urban settlements
from rural ones. Most ur ban settlements have the following characteristics.
1. An urban settlement is mainly a built -up area.The size of an urban
community is much larger than that of a rural community. One point to be
noted that a positive correlation persists between urbanity and size of a
community. There are many tall buildings with little open space.The
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9 2. Urban land use is intensive.There is keen land use competition. Hence,
the land rent is the high.
3. An urba n settlement has a large population size and a high population
density. So far as urban community is concerned, greater importance is
attached to the individual than to the family. Nuclear families are more
popular in urban areas. In case of marriage, love marriages and inter -caste
marriages predominate in urban community. One also comes across a
greater number of divorces.
4. Urban dwellers have a higher living standard as well as class extremes
prevail in urban settlements. According to Bogardus, “Class ext remes
characterize the city.” A town and a city house the richest as well as the
poorest of people. In a city, the slums of the poor exist prallel to the
residence of the rich.
5. Secondary and tertiary activities are dominant in an urban settlement.
6. An urban settlement performs many functions, e.g. commercial,
industrial, administrative functions. Divisions of labour and occupational
specialization are very much common in towns/cities/metropolises.
7. An urban settlement has a hinterland which it serves and is s erved. The
hinterland provides food and raw materials to the urban settlement.The
hinterland provides a big market for the urban settlement.
8. Urban settlements have complex culture due to the presence and
mixing of different cultures in it. Thus s ocial heterogeneity is found in
urban settlements. People from different races and cultures dwell in the
cities as a result there is great variety in regarding the food habits, dress
habits, living conditions, religious beliefs, cultural outlook, customs and
tradit ions of the urbanites. So it may be said that if villages present
cultural homogeneity, the cities symbolize cultural heterogeneity.
9. Social distance among the inhabitants is the result of anonymity and
heterogeneity in urban settlements. There is utter lac k of personal
involvement in the affairs of others.
10. Georg Simmel opined that the social structure of urban communities is
based on interest groups. The wider social circles presenting the city make
city life more complex and varied. Hence, the city life is characterized by
the predominance of secondary contacts.
11. The most important feature of urban community is its social mobility.
In urban areas the social status of an individual is determined not by
heredity or birth but by his merit, intelligence and pers everance. Urbanity
and mobility are positively correlated.
12. Materialism is another important characteristic of urban
settlements. In the urban community the social existence of man revolves
round wealth and material possessions. Financial assets, salaries, costly
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10 13. Individualism comes next as the urbanites attach supreme
importance to their own welfare and happiness.
14. In urban community as people are inclined to reason and argue
emphas is on rationality becomes important. Relationship is not constant as
it takes place on a contractual basis. Once the contract is over, human
relationship automatically comes to a close.
15. Bogardus observes anonymity in urban settlement and opined,
“Urban gro ups have a reputation for namelessness.” By virtue of its size
and population, the urban community cannot be a primary group. The
urbanites take less or no care for their neighbours.
16. The urban community is characterized by norm and social role
conflict. Fa ctors such as the size, density and heterogeneity of the
population, extreme occupational specialisation and the class structure
prevalent in the urban context lead to such a state of affairs. In the absence
of uniform and fixed social norms, individuals o r groups often seek
divergent ends. This has a considerable share in causing social
disorganization.
17. Rapid social and cultural change characterizes urban life.
18. Voluntary associations such as clubs, societies and other secondary
groups are formed by urban societies. The urban community is noted for
mechanical and formal social contacts. Hence, their desire to develop
social relationships to satisfy their hunger for emotional warmth and sense
of security came into being.
19. Social control in urban community is essentially formal in nature.
Individual’s behaviour is regulated by such agencies as police, jails, law
courts etc.
20. In cities ritual and kinship obligations are diluted. Caste and
community considerations yield to economic logic. This results in
seculariz ation of outlook.
21. Urban areas provide impulses for modernization in society as a whole.
22. High rate of pollution prevails due to the presence of industries and
automobiles.
23. The areas have got fast range of change due to the presence of
education and modern technology.
24. Fast and modern means of communication help the urban inhabitants
to be aware of the changes around the world.
1.6. FACTORS INFLUENCING GROWTH AND
DISTRIBUTION OF SETTLEMENT
The impact of these various factors on the different houses of rural
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11 1.6.1 Environm ental and Physical Factors:
Among the environmental and physical factors house type is mostly
affected by the insolation, direction of prevailing wind and the
amount of rainfall. In areas of extreme climatic conditions houses are
constructed in such a manner so that they keep the interior cool in
summer and warm during winter. To combat this type of climatic
condition thick mud wall is needed but window for cross ventilation is not
at all considered necessary. In the areas receiving heavy rainfall the roofs
are gene rally gable shaped. Although with the d ecreasing amount of
rainfall the roof also tends towards flat.
In mountainous areas availability of sunlight is very important
determining factor. As the sunny slope is naturally favoured houses
are often situated on the south facing slopes in the northern
hemisphere.

Fig 1.1
In the lesser Himalayan belt a house is naturally built on spur
jutting out from the hill side. This site is well drained, dry as well as
safe from landslide and avalanches.

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12  The availability of safe and sufficient drinking water for both
human and dome stic animals also control the location of
settlements. The houses from the simple and to the most complex
are always located close to the source of water.
 Proximity to fertile land is also taken into consideration.
 In hilly areas land is chosen in such a way that terracing can be done
without much difficulty.
 Again rural dwellings are usually contiguous and compact as it
ensures safely. Therefore while selecting lands for housing sites
surplus land is always kept in reserve so that more houses can be
constructed when population increases in the course of time.
The structure of house is greatly influenced by natu re and degree of
precipitation. In India houses in the areas receiving heavy rainfall, like
the Konkan region, have steeply sloping roofs. These are also
constructed in such a manner that the veranda or the open space in front
of the house gains protection from rainfall.

Fig 1.3
 In the region where rainfall is less and areas are dry flat roofs
are common, for example Punjab region.
 In areas of high temperature the open ings in the houses are kept to a
minimum. A thick wall with slit like windows prevents the sun’s heat
from entering the house keeping the interiors cool.
 Verandas are also common features in the rural houses in hot
sunny regions.
 In swampy tidal areas houses are built on stilts to escape flooding
during the rise in tidal water. It a common feature in certain parts of
Assam.
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13  Stilts are also common in areas infested with wild animals as a
security measure.

Fig 1.4
 The layout of a house is more influenced by the function of economic
and social factors rather than the physiographic ones. However,
environment sometimes have an indirect influence over the house
type. In Bengal, for example a dwelling house or a homestead is
composed of four huts facing central courtyard, with a pond
somewhere at the back. This pond is the source of main building
material that is mud.
1.6.2 Socio-Economic factors:
Economic factors play important role in deciding the grandeur of
the building and its location with respect to other important village sites.
The best built house in the village belongs to the chief which is more
decorated and of greater height than a commoner’s house. The
complexity of structure indicates the elevated position of the chief in the
society. This disparity is observed in every village in India and the
contrast between the houses of the upper class and lower class
is thus very conspicuous.
The u pper class houses occupy better position and use more durable
or expensive material like brick, wooden beam etc. They are located in
the well-drained sites. On the contrary the houses of the poor are built
with inferior material and located in the flood prone tracts or un-drained
swampy areas.
Social and religious factors influence both the overall layout of the
structure as well as choosing the site. In Ku mayun and Garhwal hills the
house site is selected by the village priest. Caste, in India, is another
important social factor that determines the site of rural houses.
Members of the same caste usually built their houses adjoining each
other. The lower castes, schedule castes
live in areas far from the areas occupied higher castes i.e. the
village proper. Again as social values and perception of private
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14 that the entire village may live in a long hut or all the young boys
live in a communal dormitory.
1.6..3. Levels of Technological Development:
With the a dvent of time Levels of Technological development plays an
important role in determining the site, building material as well as the
overall structure of a house. In India asbestos or corrugated sheets have
replaced tiles or thatch. Mud or wattle is being replaced by brick or
stone. Similarly there is a structural change in the house albeit slowly.
Through land reclamation and draining a number of marginal sites are
being used today. Also rather than the traditional sites modern ones like
proximity to roadways or railways or an irrigation canal is becoming
more important.
1.7. IMPORTANCE
Importance Of Rural Settlements
Rural settlement study identifies the economic, social and
environmental aspects of the villages . Several aspects like
availability of key facilities and services, the ability of residents to access
employment, shops, health facilities and recreational oppo rtunities and
identifies environmental and landscape factors which make each
settlement unique.
In order to add ress the particular needs of the rural villages, the rural
settlement study is important
The study of settlements has been one of the most significant
themes in human geography. It is a symbol of man’s occupan cy and
serves a link between the man and the physical environment. Geographe rs
study rural settlement as a unit. Their distributional patterns help in
analysing the sequen ce of change in cultural landscape. They af fect
spatial distribution of land use within the settlement. The centre of
interest in the study of settlements is the built up structure and its
relation to the physical environment.
The studies of Rural Settlement by Paul Vidal de la Blache and Albert
Demangeon may be considered as pioneer works. The rural settlements,
however were neglected until the ’Rural Geography’ emerged in
the 1970s. At present, the study of rural settlement, people, places and
their environment with special reference to society and economy is an
area of interest in which the geog raphers of the developed and
developing countries are increasingly probing. Now there is
empha sis on rural settlement studies with special reference to land use,
agriculture, and forestry, conservation of environment, rural
employment, energy, housing, recreation, health, education and tourism.

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15 Importance Of Urban Settlements
Cities in urban settlements play a central role in the ability of nations to
achieve sustainable development. Today, half the world’s seven billion
people live in cities. By 2030 there will be over one billion more urban
residents and for the first time ever in many parts of the world the number
of rural residents will start to shrink. Between 2010 and 2050, the urban
population will grow significantly, by 2.5 to 3 billion people, increasing
the urban share to two -thirds of the world’s population.
Cities are responsible for the bulk of production and consumption and to
transform the social and economic fabric of nations worldwide. They are
the primary engines of economic growth and developmen t. About three -
quarter of global economic activity is urban. With the growth of urban
population the urban share of global GDP and investments grows.
The right to development for low -income and middle -income countries
can only be realized through sustainab le urbanization that addresses the
needs of both rural and urban areas. By getting urban development right,
cities can create jobs and offer better livelihoods; increase economic
growth; improve social inclusion; promote the decoupling of living
standards and economic growth from environmental resource use; protect
local and regional ecosystems; reduce both urban and rural poverty; and
drastically reduce pollution.
Sound urban development will accelerate progress towards social and
economic fields and may help in eradicating extreme poverty.
On the other hand, mistakes made in managing urban growth are very hard
to undo. Without adequate management and investments, slums may
expand, and cities may fail to generate the jobs necessary to improve
livelihoods. As a result, inequalities, exclusion, and violence may increase.
If countries do not utilise resources properly, cities may fail to provide
economic opportunities to surrounding rural areas. They may become
vulnerable to climate and other environmental c hanges. There is a rise in
population all over the world in the urban settlements. Cities around the
world are trying hard and struggling to accommodate the influx of
population and address the multidimensional challenges of urban
development.
1.8. SUMMARY:
Rural settlements, dominated by primary activities such as agriculture,
animal husband ry, fishing etc., are most closely and directly related
to land. The size of the settlements is relatively small. Most of the
peop le of rural settlement are engaged in agricultural work and each
settlement specializes in various activities. Population density as well
as the settlement size is small. Rural settlement scattered throughout
India are approximately 500,0 00 villages. The Census of India regards
most settlements of fewer than 5,000 as a village. munotes.in

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16 Rural settlements mostly are nucleated settlements, while others are
more dispersed. Rural areas may develop randomly on the basis of
natural vegetation and fauna available in a region, and these settlements
are based more on natural resources.
These settlements range from tiny hamlets of thatched huts to larger
settlements of tile-roofed stone and brick houses. Rural house shows a
close dependen ce on the physical and cultural factors. As a result social,
climatic and geographical conditions combine together to produce a
specific architecture in these areas. Variations in house types or
dwellings are mainly based on the building materials available. In the
rainy areas most of the roofs are slanting to both sides from the centre.
This is also the case in areas where snowfall occurs. But the places where
rainfall is scanty, roofs are flat.
Last but not the least rural areas do not have pollution or traffic
problems.
In this chapter it has alread y been explained that urban geography is a
dynamic science as towns are dynamic and it changes it forms and
relationships in regional and urban space. Urban settlement geography as
a social science became concerned with description and explanation both
and a complete scientific explanation required a study of past as well as
future. The definition of urban settlement varies from one country to
another. Population size is an important criterion most countries use to
define urban areas. Urban settlement also varies from country to country.
Different zones for different urban functions are observed as a result of
changed landscape and socio -economic environment.
1.8. CHECK YOUR PROGRES S/ EXERCISE
1. True and false
a) Rural settlement geography is a part of the settlement
geography
b) One of the basic requirements of animal is a shelter.
c) In mountainous areas availability overwaters very important
determining factor of house types
d) In earthquake prone areas lightweight building material are used.
e) Wattle wall is mainly the product of terrain and forest cover
f) By around A.D. 1810 the New York City was the first urban
settlement to reach a population of one million.
g) An urban settlement has a large population size and a high population
density.
h) Joint families are more popular in urban areas.
i) Voluntary associations such as clubs, societies and other secondary
groups are formed by urban societies.
j) Industry is considered as the discrete phenomenon in the urban
settlement around the world.
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Geography of Settlements
17 2. Fill in the blanks :
a. In Rural settlement ______________ activity that provides job
oppo rtunities.
b. ______ is the main economic and clothing is the third important
need of man after food
c. In areas of -------- the openings in thehouses are kept to a
minimum.
d. In the lesser Himalayan belt a house is naturally built on_
jutting out from the hill side.
e. In _ ___the walls of the houses are constructed verythick of mud
and the roof is covered either thatch made of grass leaves or tile.
a. High rate of pollution prevails due to the presence of __________ and
automobiles.
b. Any form of human __________ is a settlement
c. _____________ and tertiary activities are dominant in an urban
settlement.
d. An urban settlement has a __________ which it serves and is served
e. Locations of the earliest urban settlements were based on the
availability of_________ , building ________ and ____________
land.
3. Multiple choice question
a. The studies of Rural Settlement
I. by Paul Vidal de la Blache and Albert Demange on may be
considered as pioneer works
II. by Albert Einstein and Albert Demangeon may be
considered as pioneer works
III. by Bertrand Russell and Albert Demangeon may be
considered as pioneer works
b. In the region where rainfall is less and areas are dry
I. Hip roofs are common, for example Punjab region.
II. Gambrel roofs are common, for example Punjab region. III. Flat
roofs are common, for example Punjab region
c. In the valley of Kashmir houses are also found
I. on boats in Dal, Ullar lakes.
II. on boats in Logtok lakes.
III. on boats in Sambar lakes. munotes.in

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Geography of Settlements

18 d. The most common and wide spread oldest material used in houses
since old civili zation
I. is sand II. is Mud III. is wood
a. Urban land rent is the high because
i. urban land use is not intensive and so there is no land use competition.
ii. rural land use is intensive and there is keen land use competition.
iii. urban land use is intensive and there is keen land use competition.

b. Social heterogeneity is found in urban settlements due to
i. the presence of different town planning
ii. the absence of different cultures
iii. the presence and mixing of different cultures

c. “The "landscape interface between town and country" is known as the
i. rural –urban fringe
ii. rural –urban line
iii. rural –urban settlement

d. People of the fringe area are overburdened because
i. of the heavy taxes in order to manage urban amenities.
ii. of the heavy traffic in order to manage urban amenities.
iii. of the heav y taxes in order to manage rural habits.

e. One of the measures for delimitation of the Rural -urban fringe is as
follows
i. Changes in the land use
ii. Changes in the vehicles used
iii. Changes in the seeds used for agriculture
4. Answer the Following Questions
1. State the nature and scope of rural settlement.
2. What is rural settlement? Describe different house types of rural India
with special reference to the building materials used.
3. Where do we found timber or woods as building material for wall in
India?
4. Which parts of our country stone slabs or flakes are used as building
material for roof?
5. “Econom ic factors play important role in deciding the grandeur of
the building and its location with respect to ot her important village
site”- elaborate.
6. State how are the house types in different regions of India.
7. How are the houses in areas of high temperature?
8. Define urban settlements. munotes.in

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Geography of Settlements
19 9. State the nature of urban settlement.
10. State the scope of urban settlement.
11. What are the characteristics of urban settlements?
12. What do you understand by rural -urban fringe?
1.9. TECHN ICAL WORDS:
1) Dispersed Settlement: the buildings of the settlement are all
spread out
2) Linear Settlement: the buildings of the settlement are located
along a road
3) Nucleated Settlement: buildings that clustered close together
4) Rural Area: countryside, where people live on farms, hamlets and
small villages.
5) Settlement: a place where people live; it could be a hamlet,
village, town or city.
6) Settlement Pattern: the shape and spacing of settlements
7) Settlement Hierarchy: settlements in order of size, with the
largest one first
8) Settler: a person who takes over land to live on, where no one has
lived before
9) Site: the land a settlement is built on
10) Urban Area: a built-up area, such as a town or city
11) Urban : It has been derived from Latin word urbanus, meaning city.
The Oxford dictionary defines urban as one that is located in or has
characteristic of a city or city life.

12) City: City, a relatively l arge permanent settlement1, generally has
advanced infrastructure and complex systems for sanitation, utilities,
land usage, housing, transportation, etc.
13) Suburb/Suburban Area : Suburb mostly refers to a residential area,
usually outside administrative bou ndaries of a city.
14) Urban Area : An urban area is characterized by higher population
density and vast human features in comparison to areas surrounding it.
Urban areas may be cities, towns or conurbations.
15) Urban Sprawl - Urban sprawl is the irresponsible, an d often poorly
planned urban development that destroys green space, increases traffic,
contributes to air pollution, leads to congestion with crowding and
does not contribute significantly to revenue. munotes.in

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Geography of Settlements

20 1.10. REFERE NCES FOR FURTHER STUDY
 Introduction to Rural Settlements, By R. B. Mand al
 Geography Of India, By Majid Husain
 Urban Poor, Slums and UN (rashidfaridi.com)
 Rural Settlements in India (rashidfaridi.com)
 Census (2001 ). Census of India 2001, Office of the Registrar
General India, New Delhi.
 Desai, Vasant. Fundamentals of Rural Development. New Delhi:
Rawat Publications, 1991


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21 2
GEOGRAPHY RURAL SETTLEMENTS
After going through this chapter you will be able to understand the
following features:
Unit Structure
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Introduction
2.3 Subject discussion
2.4 Factors affecting rural settlements:
a. Physical, b. Economic c. Social. d. Political e. Cultural
2.5 Evolution of rural settlement.
2.6 Types of rural settlement on the basis of location, pattern,
sfunction, spacing
a. Location- wet point, dry point
b. Patte rn – linear, circular , square, fan, net/reticulum. Star/radial,
arrow, terrace pattern
c. Function- agriculture, fishing, lumbering, mining d. Spacing-
compact, scattered
2.7 Summary
2.8 Check your Progress/Exercise
2.9 Answers to the self-learning questions
2.10 Technical words and their meaning
2.11 Task
2.12 References for further study
2.1. OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you will be able to –
Understand the Factors affecting rural settlements such as
a. Physical, b. Economic c. Social. d. Political e. Cultural
Understand the Types of rural settlement on the basis of
location, pattern, function, spacing munotes.in

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22
Know the Location- wet point, dry point
Understand rural settlement pattern such as linear, circular,
square, fan, net/reticulum, Star/radial, arrow, terrace pattern
Know the rural function like agriculture, fishing, lumbering,
mining
Understand the Spacing- compact, scattered
2.2. INTRODUC TION
In the previous unit we have learnt about the geog raphy of settlement, its
nature scope and importance. A human settlement is defined as a
place inhab ited more or less permanently. The study of rural
settlements is one of the important part of human geography because the
form, type, location, pattern as well as function of rural settlement in
any particular region reflects human relationship with the environme nt.
For example, people preferred to settle near fertile lands s it was
suitable for ag riculture.
2.3. SUBJECT- DISCUSS ION
It is known that human settlement means cluster of dwellings of any type
or size where human beings live and the term rural settlement describes
a settlement, usually quite small and most closely and directly related
to land. Most people living there are involved in primary activities such as
farming, fishing, forestry or mining. These settlements vary in size and
type. There are several factors such as physical, economic, social,
political and cultural those affect the growth and development of the
same. Settlements could be small and sparsely spaced; they may also be
large and closely spaced. The sparsely located small settlements are called
villages.
Rural settlements exhibit the reciprocal relationship between human
occupan cy and environment. Inhabitants of the rural settlement depend
for th eir livelihood mainly on agriculture. Hence there is exploitation of
the soil. Small fishing, quarrying, mining forestry etc. may also be
taken into consideration as rural occupation.
A typical village has secondary workers that supply services to the
primary group of farmers and farm labourers e.g. shopkeepers,
teachers, clergymen, the publican, postmaster, smith and garage
proprietor. Besides, the village consists of a part of retired people
and some part of younger peop le who live in the village but go to
work in a neighbouring town as urbanisation is fast becoming a new way
of life. The proportion of population in each of these class bears to the
total village population varies with the kind of farming characteristics of
the locality, the quality of the soil, the attractiveness and accessibility of
the site and its place within the gene ral settlement pattern. Its shape and munotes.in

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Geography Rural Settlements
23 arrangements are often in strict accord with the kind of work, the
agricultural technique and the way the soil is used.
2.4. FACTORS AFFECTING RURAL SETTLEMEN TS
a. Physical factors – These include relief, altitude, soil capability,
climate, drainage, ground water level, etc. These factors influence the
type and spacing of dwelling.
Nature of Terrain or Relief: - Dispersed type of settlements is found
in remote jungles, small hills of Himachal Pradesh. Compact
settlements are found in highly productive alluvial plains of Punjab.
The availability of broad flat land such as floodplains promotes
agricultural activities. Paul Vidal De La Blache has aptly observed that
the clustered village is indigenous in areas where the arable land is
continuous. The settlement may become dispersed and hamleted in the
marshy areas and near meande ring rivers where the river changes its
course frequently. In the Terai region the settlement is unevenly
distributed due to high percentage of forests, marshy lands and
seasonal floods.
Altitude: - High altitude creates barriers and limit human existence
due to reduced atmospheric pressure and low oxygen content. Therefore,
very few permanent settlements can be seen in the lofty mountains of the
world at a height above 5,000 metres. It has been observed in different
parts of the world that the vertical distribution of population, both in
numbers and densities, decline with increasing altitude. According to
Staszewski, 56 per cent of the world’s population lives within 200 metres
from the sea level, and over 80 per cent within 500 metres. Thus
clustered settlements appear in the plains whereas dispersed settlements
are common in the hills. In India dispersed settlements are found in hills
of Megha laya and clustered and semi-clustered settlements are found in
Gujarat plains.
Climate: - Due to frequent droughts and floods settlement may
become dispersed and hamleted. The areas of hot and cold deserts do not
support compact settlements whereas temperate and subtropical areas
favour compact settlements. Occasional floods also lead to compa ctness
of settlements in several areas having almost flat land. In these areas
the elevated lands are few and far between. These are built up into
compact settlements.
Availability of Water (Drainage and Ground Water level):-
Settlement is generally built near water bodies. Water is essential for
human survival and agricultural activities. If they ha ve to depe nd on
deep wells or rivers they are compact. However, in areas where the
water table is high and wells can be dug easily and the drainage texture is
dense meaning where the surface streams and rivulets are numerous,
settlement can be practically built all over the region giving rise to
hamlets, semi-sprinkled or semi- compact settlement s. Moreover, in the
areas where the water table is low, for example in Champaran, munotes.in

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24 Darbhanga districts in Bihar, dams and irrigation channe ls are built to
store and distribute rain water . These have promoted the evolution of
compact villages in these areas. The characteristics of rural settlements in
the areas having high water table is semi-sprinkled or hamleted. For
example the areas to the east of Sarai station of Vaishali in Bihar exhibit
semi–sprinkled type of settlement. In dry regions of Rajasthan, water
is a crucial factor and, therefore, houses are situated along a pond or well
which guides the compactness of the settlement. So, scarcity of water in
Rajasthan has resulted in development of compact settlements. A point
to be noted in this regard is that adeq uate well distributed water
resources do not restrict dispersion.
Soils- Fertility of soil is also another consideration for agricultural
activities and ag ricultural development favouring more and more
nucleation. Fertile lands attract compact but smaller hutments whereas
unfertile lands repel population concentration and attract only fewer
hutments.
b. Economicfactors
Income: In areas of high income of the farmers the settlements
are hudd led together but p oor and backward economy favoured sprinkled
settlements. Compact settlements are well adapted in economic conditions
of paddy cultivation. This type of agriculture needs large labour force
hence both the farmers and associated labourers tend to reside in the same
nucleated settlements. Moreover those village communities which are
self- contained having cottage industries, their own blacksmiths,
carpente r; potter, weaver, and tailor lead to compact settlements.
Nodal points: Cross roads, ferry points, railroad stations, bus depot
attract settlements as they develop business centres. Sometimes
emergence of market site along the railway junction also attracts
settlements resulting into the creation of separate hamlet. This may
outgrow the older cluster on account of better economic advantages.
Viewpoints: School, college, temple, dak bungalows, hospitals,
block development office, literacy centres and places of tourist interests
predominate the more modern type of settlements in rural areas.
c. Socialfactors
Social Relationship-Social relationship and cooperation among
the villagers have influenced the generation of centripetal forces. A
pond, temple, well, community hall, panchayat house, even a mango
orchard in the central part of the village have attracted houses
which clustered around it. The village elders guided and controlled the
social relationships and customs which again played an important role in
favouring type of settlement s.
Superstition: Superstition also played a role in agglomeration. In
the rural areas the dih or the ancestral site is considered auspicious so
it attracted settlements. Also a settlement does not tend to expand munotes.in

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Geography Rural Settlements
25 towards the south and the west as these two directions are considered
inauspicious. Even if there is requirement of expanding or rebuilt the
houses due to increase in population people continue to cluster in the
same locality. As a result there is an increase in the compactness of
settlements.
Caste system: Same social customs and traditions involving the caste
systems, especially related to the untouchables, have led to the
fragme ntation of the rural society. For example the harijans, belonging to
the lower castes of the society are forced to dwell far away from the main
settlements. Moreover, the b est land was reserved for the families
belonging to the upper castes and their relatives. A multi caste village
most likely have hamleted patte rn.
d. Politicalfactors - Most villages were erected when political instability
and hostility of neighbouring groups made defensive sites a great
advantage.
Security factors – In the areas where the land was free form the
invaders small hamlets rather than large clusters came into existence.
During the t imes of political instability, war, hostility among
neighbou ring settlements, villages were built on defensive hills and
islands. Upstanding inselbergs in Nigeria formed good defensive sites. In
India most of the forts are located on higher grounds or hills.
Defence from invasions and wild animals: In the past the need of
defence from e xternal lawless elements was of paramount importance.
Due to defence from dacoits, wild animals or fear, settlements may
cluster and form compact settlements.
e. Cultural and ethnic factors –
Caste and Tribal Structure: - Due to ethnic factors
settlement may be come fragmen ted and hamleted e.g. Chhatt isgarh.
Religion – People of same religion prefer to live together making a
settlement large or small.
2.5 EVOLUTION OF RURAL SETTLEMENT
On the basis of Evolution, rural settlements may be classified as follows:
a. Farm village,
b. Hamlets,
c. Village,
d. Weekly market centre.
e. Town

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26 a. Farm village
Farm villages are isolated dwellings found in rural areas. These villages
may have one or two homes or families in it and the individual
lives on h is farm with his farmland surrounding him. It has negligible
services.

Fig 2.1: Farm village
b. Hamlet
The word “hamlet”, borrowed from the Old French hamel, means
“village. A hamlet is a type of rural settlement which is too small to be
considered as a town or village. It is a small settlement, with a small
population usually under 100. Hamlets generally arise around a specific
site such as a mill or a large farm. A typical hamlet consists of only
a few houses, often clustered together close to the road. There may be a
temple in a hamlet. It is said that a hamlet is smaller and less compact
than a village and it lacks some of the village amenities like stores and
services which force their inhabitants to travel to the nearest town to meet
their needs. Gauribidanur, a hamlet in Chikkaballapur District,
Karnataka is India’s 1st smokeless village. Very often hamlets are totally
depe ndent on wealthy men in neighbouring villages who controls grants
and with-holds loans and jobs. munotes.in

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27

Fig 2.2 : hamlet
c. Village: A village is a small clustered human settlementor
community, having inhab itants between 500 and 2,500, usually found
in a rural setting. It is larger than a "hamlet" but smaller than a "town".
Small villages contain households between 90 and 140. In villages,
settlements of people are found clustered around a central point which
is most often a church, a temple or the like, marketplace, or
public space. Such villages are more frequently found in the middle
and lower Ganga plain, Chhattisgarh and lower valleys of the
Himalayas.Their ecological situation may differ from that of hamlets
regarding soil condition. A village may generally contain some patches of
good or irrigated soil but the bulk quality of soil may not be better than
that of average hamlet. Although the small village may have much the
same farmer /land ratio as the hamlet, it has more land and more
farmers.Villages start to have some basic services like a petrol station
or a village shop.It is observed that villages have changed over time. In
the past, people lived and worked in the countryside and most functions
were connected with farming and countryside services. At present, some
villages are close enough to urban areas. This has helped people to
commute to work in the city, while still living in the countryside.
This has changed the function of some villages. Abit Kh ind, Agar,
Agastinagar, Akola, Ambad, Ambevangan are some of the villages found
in Akola Tahsil, in Ahma dnagar districts, Maha rashtra.





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28











Fig 2.3 : village
d. Wee kly Market Centre
The term “Market” has been derived from a Latin word “Marcatus”
meaning to trade. Market place is a location for collection and distribution
of goods. Weekly market centres are the farmers first contact points with
the marketing field. Weekly market centre as described by Hoddar
(1965) isan authorized public gathering of buyers and sellers. This
occurs at a fixed place, in the rural settlements, at an appointed hour at
regular intervals. This may occur on some specific day or days of the
week .Weekly market centres in India are locally called “Bazar. In
weekly market centre exchange of commodities, both local and
outside, takes place between the buyers and the sellers.Weekly
market provides remune rative prices to the producer and fair prices to
the consumer and hence marketing costs are reduced. Efficient marketing
system becomes a key to the success of rural economy.Apart from
exchang ing of goods weekly market centres exchange services, ideas
and information too. These centres give the opportunities to increase
social contacts as different groups of society gather and make contact
among themselves at market places. Besides providing knowledge
for surrounding villages these market centres act as nodes in the
settlement system.It becomes a focal point for economic, social,
political, religious and cultural activities for the inhabitants.Daund
taluka in Pune, Maharashtra exhibit an example of weekly market centre.
The weekly ma rket centre has played an important role in accelerating
the rural developmentparticularly in the fields of economic and social
life of peop le. Weekly markets directly contribute in the growth of trade
and development of agro based services as there is a constant
flow of demand for agricultural products.Geographers also opine
that the type of weekly market centre is determined by the physico-munotes.in

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Geography Rural Settlements
29
socio-economic and administrative factors prevailing in that particular
region.









Fig 2.4: Weekly market place
e. Town
A town is a human settlement. It is a thickly populated area, larger than a
village but smaller than a city.It has fixed boun daries and certain local
powers of government. The size definition for what constitutes a
"town" varies considerably in different parts of the world. The number
of dwellers ranges from a few hundred to several thousands. In other
words a town has less than one lakh population. Town is a place where
people live and work. It contains many houses, shops, places of work,
places of entertainment, etc. A town may be located at seaside, in
the plain or at the mountainous areas. Fishing, mining or industrial
towns are other varieties of the same.
The concept of ‘town’ can best be understood with reference to ‘village’.
Popu lation size is not the only criterion. Functional contrasts between
towns and villages may not always be clear cut, but specific functions
such as, manu facturing, retail and wholesale trade, and professional
services exist in towns.Towns see an increase in services than a
village, for example, they would have senior schools and police stations.
Towns which developed as religious and cultural centres are called
Ancient Towns whereas, towns which emerged as headquarters of
kingdoms are termed as medieval towns.
2.5. TYPES OF RURAL SETTLEMENT ON THE BASIS
OF A. LOCATION, B. PATTERN, C. FUNCTION, D.
SPACING
a. Location: Rural settlements, having a relatively small size, are most
closely and directly related to land and are dominated by primary
activities such as agriculture, animal husbandry, fishing etc. The location munotes.in

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30 of a settlement is the land upon which it was built. There are a range
of factors that determine the site of a settlement. These are:
Wet Point Site- These are sites close to a supply of water
Dry Point Site- These are sites that avoided the risk of flooding

Fig 2.5
Wet Point Sites: Wet-point settlement develop in dry areas
surrounding the point where there is water for e.g. spring, oasis. These
dry areas experience scarcity of water so people gather around a wet
point. Moreover, wet point sites refer to a particular site that has
access to water, usually a river. Settlement would either grow up
along the river or clustered near the point at which the river enters the
sea. The towns and villages of the Welsh valleys are a few examples of
wet point sites, which tend to extend along the flat valley floor, rather
than up the steep valley sides. Spring line settlements in the North and
South Downs are also good examples of wet point sites. The lava
plateau region of M aharashtra has compact settlement near the source
of water. Wet-point settlements have permanent as well as fresh
water supply. As the settlements seek water they are referred to as water
seeking or wet point settlement. These settlements are found in the dry
areas, like deserts, where location with water supply is its main
advantage. Moreover, a valley with a spring enjoys the similar advantage
of wet point settlements. Since water is essential for human civilization
and farming, many civilizations, including the ancient ones, selected wet
point site to grow and develop.
Dry point site, on the other hand, stands absolutely opposite of wet
point site. Where there is a dry point in a wet area, people settle on
dry land, e.g. small hills that are suitable for settlement in a marshy area.
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31

Fig 2.6
Fig: Dry-Point Settlements: site is chosen to avoid the danger of
flooding in a wet area
This site is any flood-free ground located in the middle of a wetland that
encompasses marshes and flood plains. Dry point sites are also a
major settlement points in history. Although water is a great necessity
for human settlement, peop le cannot settle in marshes or swamps.
Hence, a water-free area within these damp places allowed ancient human
civili zations to settle. Also the water, that surrounds the land, serves as a
defense purpose and makes it difficult for invaders to intrude.

Fig 2.7 Wet point settlement no: 2, dry point settlement no: 3
b. Pattern- Patterns of rural settlements is influenced by the site
of the village, the surrounding topography and terrain. This includes,
linear, circular, square, fan, net/reticulum. star/radial, arrow and terrace
pattern
Linear–This type of pattern includes all villages where the
buildings are built along pre-defined lines varying from straight to curved
ones. Villages may be aligned along transport routes, cardinal directions
or natural features such as slopes and streams. A linear settlement pattern munotes.in

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32
is also visible along the road. Many people make their houses along
thesetransport routes so that it becomes






Fig 2.8
easier to transport their goods. Lineated form of villages have been
described by various names like rectangular, herringbon e, linear, horse-
shoe shaped T or Y shaped or rcuate. It usually forms a long and narrow
pattern, which can be maintained even when the population grows.
Physical features somet imes induce lineation. In hilly areas settlements
are aligned along the shoulder of a spur or the top of a ridge taking the
advantage of the gentler slope of the region. Such settlements are
numerous in the Lesser Himalayas and the Siwaliks. The Alps, Rockies,
Ande s, Pyrenees, Pamir,










Fig 2.9
Hindukush, Zagros, and Elburz also have these types of settlements.
Narrow confined valleys, river levees in floodplains and coastal areas
also lead to a linear form. Fishing villages in the east coast of India
exhibit linear pattern. Along the Roads in the plains of Ganga- Yamuna
linear type of settlements are prominent. In Dun valley such
settlement are known as Doi-wala, Lachhi-wala, and Kaund-wala. On the
Konkan coast linear settlement can also be found. munotes.in

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Geography Rural Settlements
33







Fig 2.10
Circular
These settlements occur on all sides of some lakes, ponds, wells, a fort,
temp le, meander bank and bend of a stream or even the house of a
landlord. When the houses are constructed along th ese sites, the
settlement takes the shape of circle and hence is known as circular pattern.
These settlements appeared as compact villages for security or defence
reasons during the ancient times. When the o uter walls of dwellings
adjoin each other they present a continuous front. As a result, when
viewed from o utside, the villages look like a walled and fortified
enclosure pierced by a few openings. The round form was a natural
outcome of maximum aggregation









Fig 2.11

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34

Fig 2.12
for the purpose of defence during the past. In tribal areas this type of
settlement may be observed around some place of worship or around
some trees considering the place auspicious. Circular settlements may
even cover large portion of a land and thus appear as semi-circular
changing their shape. These types of settlements are found on the
banks of Bhimtal in Uttaranchal. Siwan settlements of Rajasthan
are also of circular type. Significant circular settlements are viewed in
Dhulia, Aurangabad districts of Maharashtra and in Karnataka. Such
settlements are also found in the Malwa region, Punjab and Gujarat where
large villages are characterized by a very high degree of compactness.
Square:
This is basically a variant of rectangu lar type and is associated with
villages lying at the crossing of cart tracks or roads. The square pattern
of settlement is related to features like an old boun dary wall, thick
orchards, a road or a pond that restrict the extension of the village outside
a square space. This is the most common pattern observed in rural
settlements and are developed over flat, f ertile, alluvial plains and
wide inter-montane valleys. The examples of these are villages in Sutlej-
Ganga plain, planned settlements of Germany, Malaysia, Israel, France,
etc.

Fig 2.14
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35
Fan
This is seen where some focal points or line is situated at one end of the
village. A focal object may be a tank, a riverside, a road, an orchard, a
well or even a place of worship. In delta areas or at the base of
mountains settlement found at the centre head extent is fan shaped
pattern on all sides. Such settlements can be found in the de lta areas
of Godavari, Krishna and Mahanadi rivers and in alluvial regions at
the foothills of Himalayas. The Busiya village of Bagalpur district is an
excellent example of Fan shaped settlement. Garkota and A slana villages
of Madh ya Pradesh present similar fan shaped patte rns.










Fig 2.15
Net/Reticulum
Isolated homes with a central court yard found in different parts of India.
Net type of settlements is irregularly distributed in the villages. In
Birbhum district, West Bengal Net/Reticulum settlements are observed.

Fig 2.16 munotes.in

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Geography of Settlements

36
Star/Radial:
In to wns and villages where the dwellings in a settlement spread out in
several directions from a central point, either around a big water body or
where many routes join together is known as star or radial settlements. A
village acquires a star-like pattern when streets radiate from a common
centre. After the e xpansion of these villages as a result of population
growth the formation sometimes changes into a double radial pattern.
This type of pattern is more common in Tamil Nadu and Upper Ganga
Plain.








Fig 2.17
Arrow pattern:
On the meeting of the roads or two rivers arrow head pattern of
settlements occur. Triangular pattern is a special feature of this type
of settlement and is found on any triangular patch of land.

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Geography Rural Settlements
37

Fig 2.19 Arrow pattern of settlement
Terrace Pattern:
In hilly regions somewhere in the hill slopes of the hills settlements occur
along the contours in terraced form. Their rows of dwellings and terraced
fields are almost parallel to the contou rs. The distribution of such
terraced or contou red settlements is guided by the intensity of the slope.
The elevation over 1000ft. and where the slope is 30o it is not suitable
for settlements. Such settlements found in Khunou, Tusom, Nambasi and
Phunal in Manipur are quite attractive when looked from surrounding
sites. Here the lower terrace fields are used for cultivation and the
upper ones for settlements.

Fig 2.20

Fig 2.21 Terrace patte rn of settlements munotes.in

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38 c. Function-
On the basis of functions there may be the following types of
settlements.
Agriculture: Agriculture in Indian villages has been the principal
occupation for the inhab itants since time immemorial. In India the
climatic condition is perfectly suitable for agricultural activities;
consequently, the functions of most of the pe ople of rural settlements are
generally agricultural and they earn their livelihoods from the same field.
The people cultivate various types of crops throughout the year. Earlier
farming in Indian villages depended highly on the monsoonal rainfall
and hence, most of the crops cultivated during that period were monsoon
type crops. But at present, with the advancement of irrigation and
development in the agricultural technology, the dependen cy on weather
has lessened. Thus different types of crops are being cultivated in rural
India. In the agricultural villages farmers are involved with the
agriculture sector in various ways. Many peop le cultivate crops
independently in their own lands and some of them occasionally
take help of others to do the farming.
Fishing: In the rural settlements where fishermen live, the main
activity is fishing. A fishing village is a village, generally located
near a fishing ground, where the economy is based on catching fish
and harvesting seafood. The fishing grounds may be sited on rivers, lakes
and sea coasts and consequently the fishing villages occur there. In the
fishing villages the main occupation is fishing, but this may be
combined with some agricultural activity. India is a land of water
where rivers and seas flow through and along the border of her
territory. These are home to a huge variety of fishes. Hence, fishing has
been a ma jor source of income mainly for peo ple living in the Indian
coastal villages for several centuries. Peop le in the villages of the South
Indian states like Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Maharashtra
are mostly depe ndent on fishing to earn their livelihoods. In these states
most of the villages that are located along the coastal line are fishing
villages. Coastal fishing villages are often somewhat isolated, and sited
around a small natural harbour which provides safe haven for a village
fleet of fishing boats. About 110 nautical miles from Mumbai,
Jaigarh is an example of fishing village in India. Other fishing villages
may be built on floating islands, such as the Phumdi on Loktak Lake in
India. In the fishing villages of India the fishing communities, are not
homogenous. They belong to different castes. These communities are characterized
by their distinct social, cultural and traditional practices, depending on the coast,
where they inhabit. They are not related to the mainstream agrarian system.
Important fishing castes in Maharashtra is Kolis, in Kerala are
Mukkuvar, Anjootty, Dheevera, and Pooislan in Tamil Nadu they are
Pattinavars, Mukkuvars, and Paravas, in Andh ra Pradesh they are
Vadabalijas, Jalaris, Patta pu, and Pa lles, Orissa: Jalaris, Vadabalijas,
Kaibartas, Khandayats, and Rajbhansis and many others.Traditional
fishing villages were based on artisan fishing and located adjacent to
fishing grounds. A typical fishing village is Veldur in Ratnagiri district of munotes.in

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Geography Rural Settlements
39 Maharashtra. Rajapuri is another small fishing village located between
the towns of Murud–Janjira, about 48 km away from Alibaug in
Maha rashtra. Agarsure, Rewas,Navkhar, Mandva, Saswne, Ag arsure,
Navgaon, Thal, and Chalmal are some of the fishing villages in
AlibagTahsil of Raigarh district, Maharashtra.
Lumbering village: There are numerous rural settlements in the
forest areas in which the dominant economic activity is gathering of forest
products and lumbering. Such villages are generally small in size and may
be found in the Taiga region, forest areas of the sub-Himalayan region
and hilly tracts like North-East India. In the forests where lumbering is on
a large scale and timber industry has developed, urban rather than
rural settlements are more usual.
Mining-A mining village is a settlement built by colliery owners
to accommodate their workers. During the Industrial Revolution
these villages were built on the coalfields of Britain as new coal
mines, in isolated or unpopulated areas, needed accommodation for the
incoming workers. These are also known as pit village, or colliery
village. Raniganj in West Bengal, the oldest coal mining region of India
has this type of settlement.
The fishing, mining or lumbering villages are like agricultural settlements.
They have a few shops and some small-scale administrative functions but
differ from towns, like other villages, in the relatively narrow range of
their activities. They lack commercial and industrial development.
d. Spacing-
On the basis of spacing settlements are classified into compact and
scattered
The Compact or Nucleated Settlements: In such settlements,
houses are built close to each other generally developing near a
railway station, a well, a quarry or an industrial site, in river valleys
and fertile plains. Here the inhabitants are closely tied and share
common occupations.
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40

Fig –2.22

Fig 2.23 : Compact village







Fig 2.19

Fig 2.24 munotes.in

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Geography Rural Settlements
41 The Scattered or Dispersed Settlements: In such settlements,
houses or the individual farmhouses are isolated or scattered and are
located far apart from each other and often interspersed with fields.
They develop mostly in the plateau, forested or hilly areas. These
settlements consist of one or two houses and cultural feature such as a
place of worship or a market, binds the settlement together.
2.6. SUMMARY:
After going through this chapter we may conclude that the study of
settlements has been one of the most significant themes in human
geography. Geographers study rural settlement as a unit because it serves
as a link between the dwellers and the physical environment. There are
various factors like physical, social, economic, cultural and many more
that are responsible for different types, patterns and functions of rural
settlements. For example physical factors influence the type and spacing
of dwelling whereas ethnic and cultural factors include aspects like caste,
community, ethnicity and religion leading to social segregation.
Present day geographe rs have put emphasis on rural settlement studies
with special reference to land use, agriculture, and forestry,
conservation of environment, rural employment, energy, housing,
recreation, health, education and tourism.
2.7. CHECK YOUR PROGRES S/ EXERCISE
1. True and false
a. Water is essential for human survival and agricultural activities
hence settlement is gene rally built near water bodies.
b. Dry Point Site is sites that avoided the risk of flooding.
c. In the areas where the land was free form the invaders large
clusters came into existence.
d. A linear settlement pattern is visible along the road.
e. Due to physical factors settlement may become fragmented and
hamleted
2. Fill in the blanks
a. Most villages were erected when-------------- and hostility of
neighbouring groups made defensive sites a great advantage.
b. ________ Site are sites close to a supply of water.
c. Many people make their houses along these -------- _routes so
that it becomes easier to transport their goods.

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42 d. Circular settlements occur on all sides of some_________
,, _, , _, meander bank and bend of a
stream or even the house of a landlord.

e. Patterns of rural settlements are influenced by the site of the
village, the surrounding ------------- and -------------- .
3. Multiple choice question
a. The Square pattern is the most common one observed in rural
settlements
i. and are developed over flat, fertile, alluvial plains and wide inter-
montane valleys
ii. and are developed along the busy transport routes. iii. and are
developed in the slopes hilly regions.
b. Fan pattern of settlement is seen where
i. focal points such as tank, a riverside, a road, an orchard, a well or
line, is situated at the beginning of the village.
ii. focal points such as tank, a riverside, a road, an orchard, a well or
line, is situated at one end of the village.
iii. focal points such as market, high rise buildings, pond,
riverside or line is situated at one end of the village.
c. In hilly regions somewhere in the hill slopes of the hills settlements
occur along the contours in terraced form
i. terrace pattern of settlement ii. linear patte rn of settlement
iii. circular pattern of settlement
d. In dispersed settlements developing mostly in the plateau, forested
or hilly areas, houses or the individual farmhouses are found
i. clustered close together and are marked by brick wall boun dary
ii. isolated or scattered and are located far apart from each other and
often interspersed with fields
iii. along a road, river, sea side or forest boundary
e. In Rural settlements found in the Taiga region or forest areas of the
sub-Himalayan region
i. the dominant economic activity is gathering of forest
products and lumbering.
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Geography Rural Settlements
43 ii. the dominant economic activity is gathe ring of fish and other marine
products.
iii. the dominant economic activity is mining.
4. Answer the Following Questions
Questions
1. Bring out the factors affecting the location of rural settlements.
2. Discuss the types of rural settlements on the basis of location.
3. Elaborate on the types of rural settlements according to
functions.
4. Explain the types of rural settlements on the basis of spacing.
5. Explain the difference between nucleated and dispersed
settlements
6. Review the different classifications of settlement in terms of size
7. What are the different shapes of rural settlements and discuss the
factors that influence them
8. Discuss the different types of patterns of rural settlements with
examples from India.
9. Examine the physical and economic factors that influence the site
of a settlement
2.8. ANSWERS TO THE SELF LEARNING QUESTIONS.
1. (a) True
1. (b) True
1. (c) False, small hamlets
1. (d) True
1. (e) False, ethnic factors
2 .a. political instability
2. b. Wet Point
2. c. transport
2. d. lakes, ponds, wells, a fort, temple
2. e. Topography and terrain
3. a. i.
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44 3. b. iii
3. c. i.
3. d. ii
3. e. i
2.9. TECHNICAL WORDS:
1) Factors - a circumstance, fact, or influence that contributes to a
result.
2) Altitude: the height of an object or point in relation to sea level or
ground level.
3) Climate: the weather conditions prevailing in an area in
gene ral or over a long period.
4) Nodal points: is a point where two routes, such as roads,
railroads, valleys or rivers meet.
5) Settlement: a place where people live; it could be a hamlet,
village, town or city.
6) Settlement Pattern: the shape and spacing of settlements
7) Dispersed Settlement: the buildings of the settlement are all spread
out
8) Linear Settlement: the buildings of the settlement are located along
a road
9) Nucleated Settlement: buildings that clustered close together
10) Circular settlement: settlement developed in flat levelled areas,
around a pond, tank or lake.
11) Rectangular Pattern : settlement that develops around the
rectangular shape of agricultural fields
12) Square Pattern: This is basically a variant of rectangular type.
13) Rural Area: countryside, where people live on farms, hamlets and
small villages.
2.10. TASK
1. In a chart draw a column and show various factors affecting the rural
settlements.
2. In a chart show types of rural settlement on the basis of
location, pattern, function, spacing.
munotes.in

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Geography Rural Settlements
45  Geography by Yash Pal Singh
 Sahu, B.K. (2003). Rural Development in India; Anmol
Publishers, Delhi.
 Manda l, R. B. (2001) Introduction to Settlement Geography,
Concept Publications, New Delhi.
 Singh, R. Y. (2005) The Geography of Settlement, Rawat
Publication, Jaipur.
 Singh R. L. – Readings in Settlement Geography. The National
Geographical Society of India.
 Settlement Geography, Hudson
 Rural Settlements in India (rashidfaridi.com)
 Census (2001 ). Census of India 2001, Office of the Registrar
General India, New Delhi.
 Desai, Vasant. Fundamentals of Rural Development. New Delhi:
Rawat Publications, 1991
 SatyaSundaram, I., Rural Development, Mumbai: Himalaya,
2002.
 Oxford Dictionary



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46 3
RURAL SETTL EMENTS IN INDIA
After going through this chapter you will be able to understand the
following features:
Unit Structure
3.1 O bjectives
3.2 Introduction
3.3 Subject- Discussion
3.4 Regional variation-with special reference to India
3.5 Structure of House, Building material in India
3.6 Morphology of rural settlement in India
3.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you will be able to –
 Understand the Distribution of settlement in India
 Structure of House, Building material in India
 Regional variation-with special reference to India
 Morphology of rural settlement in India
3.2. INTRODUC TION
In this chapter we will define rural settlement at first. But before
that we must know what settlement is. A group of people living
together forms a settlement. A settlement may be broadly classified
into four types: 1.Shapeless cluster 2. Linear cluster 3. Squa re or
rectangular cluster 4. S ettlement formed of isolated or dispersed
home stead. Moreover, a great variation in the settlement types is
observed due to geographical, cultural and economic factors and on
the basis of these factors settlements can be broadly classified into Urban
and Rural settlements.
There are some basic differences between rural and urban areas in
general. The function is the major difference between rural and urban
areas. Rural areas have predominantly primary activities, whereas
urban a reas have domination of secondary and tertiary activities. Again,
rural areas have low density of population compared to urban.

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47 3.3. SUBJECT DISCUSS ION
Rural settlements, usually quite small, are most closely and directly
related to land. Most people living there are involved in primary
activities such as farming, fishing, forestry or mining. Hence, rural
settlements may be considered as uni-function and have primary
activities. In order to address the particular needs of the rural villages,
the rural settlements study is important. Rural settlement study
identifies the e conomic, social and environmental aspects of the villages.
Rural settlements have different patterns. Settlements that are far
apart are isolated or dispersed. On the other hand settlements that are
close together to each other are clustered or nucleated. By the term shape,
the morphology of the settlement is discussed. This refers to how the
buildings are arranged in relation to each other, and their physical
appearance. The shape of rural settlement may be linear, round, square,
cross roads or T-shaped. Types of the settlement are determined by the
extent of the built-up area and inter ho use distance. Several physical
factors, cultural and ethnic factors, and security factors are the major
three factors that determine the types of rural settlements. While going
through this unit we will see that geology and general physiography play
a very important role in deciding the nature of building material. As far as
building materials are concerned, these can be grouped unde two
categories such as building material used for walls and building material
used for roofs. There is regional variation of rural settlement
throughout India as India has varied social, climatic and
geographical condition.
3.4. HOUSE TYPES IN RURAL INDIA AND ITS
REGIONAL VARIATION
One of the basic requirements of man is a shelter. House is the third
important need of man after food and clothing. It is therefore a
universal feature of any region permanently settled by human beings. The
house while playing the role of shelter also regulates the harshness of the
climate to meet the physiological requirements of the body.
Rural house shows a close depen dence on the physical and cultural
factors. Climatic conditions, landforms features, and physical
features drainage lines and soil types have their differential impacts on
house types in terms of construction mate rials, on their size, shape,
location and comfort. This indicates house types and environment is
correlated.
Almost everywhere in rural India, the houses are made of locally
available building materials such as stones, mud, un-burnt bricks,
bamboos, wood reeds, leaves, grasses, etc.
In India the rural houses in the plains are found closely built whereas in
the peninsular India due to the undulating terrain houses are found a
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48 It is observed that from the architectural point of view the style of
rural houses is very simple though importance lies in the geog raphical
point of view. In most cases the houses are found in square or rectangular
in shape containing one veranda in front with a small courtyard
surround ed by many rooms in all directions. Moreover, most of the rural
houses are generally one storied with one or no windows. If one window
is found it will be very small, located at the back side or in the upper
part of the wall of the hou se.
The various factors which affect the house type are:
a. Environment
b. Socio-economic condition of the inhabitant
c. Level of technological development of the society
The various aspects of house which are affected by these factors
are:
a. The site
b. The structure
c. The layout or plan
d. The building material
Thus, it may be said that a house is testimonial of a complex relationship
between man and environme nt and reflects the direct influence of
ecology. In rural areas these fundamental issues are more appa rent.
Social, climatic and geographical conditions are combined to p roduce
an architecture on which fashion of style plays little or no part.
The impact of these various factors on the different houses of rural
house types is as follows:
3.4.1 Environm ental and Physical Factors:
Among the environmental and physical factors house type is mostly
affected by the insolation, direction of prevailing wind and the
amount of rainfall. In areas of extreme climatic conditions houses are
constructed in such a manner so that they keep the interior cool in
summer and warm during winter. To combat this type of climatic
condition thick mud wall is needed but window for cross ventilation is not
at all considered necessary. In the areas receiving heavy rainfall the roofs
are gene rally gable shaped. Although with the d ecreasing amount of
rainfall the roof also tends towards flat.
In mountainous areas availability of sunlight is very important
determining factor. As the sunny slope is naturally favoured houses
are often situated on the south facing slopes in the northern
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Rural Settlements in India
49

Fig 3.1
In the lesser Himalayan belt a house is naturally built on spur
jutting out from the hill side. This site is well drained, dry as well as
safe from landslide and avalanches.

Fig 3.2
The availability of safe and sufficient drinking water for both
human and dome stic animals also control the location of
settlements. The houses from the simple and to the most complex
are always located close to the source of water.
Proximity to fertile land is also taken into consideration.
In hilly areas land is chosen in such a way that terracing can be done
without much difficulty.
Again rural dwellings are usually contiguous and compact as it
ensures safely. Therefore while selecting lands for housing sites;
surplus land is always kept in reserve so that more houses can be
constructed when population increases in the course of time.
The structure of house is greatly influenced by natu re and degree
of precipitation. In India houses in the areas receiving heavy rainfall,
like the Konkan region, have steeply sloping roofs. These are also munotes.in

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Geography of Settlements

50 constructed in such a manner that the veranda or the open space in
front of the house gains protection from rainfall.

Fig 3.3
In the region where rainfall is less and areas are dry flat roofs
are common, for example Punjab region.
In areas of high temperature the open ings in the houses are kept to a
minimum. A th ick wall with slit like windows prevents the sun’s heat
from entering the house keeping the interiors cool.
Verandas are also common features in the rural houses in hot sunny
regions.
In swampy tidal areas houses are built on stilts to escape flooding
during the rise in tidal water. It a common feature in certain parts of
Assam.
Stilts are also common in areas infested with wild animals as a security
measure.

Fig 3.4
The layout of a house is more influenced by the function of economic
and social factors rather than the physiographic ones. However, munotes.in

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Rural Settlements in India
51 environment sometimes have an indirect influence over the house type.
In Bengal, for example a dwelling house or a homestead is composed of
four huts facing central courtyard, with a pond somewhere at the back.
This pond is the source of main building material that is mud.
3.4.2 Socio-Economic factors:
Economic factors play important role in deciding the grandeur of
the building and its location with respect to other important village sites.
The best built house in the village belongs to the chief which is more
decorated and of greater height than a commoner’s house. The
complexity of structure indicates the elevated position of the chief in the
society. This disparity is observed in every village in India and the
contrast between the houses of the upper class and lower class
is thus very conspicuous.
The upper class houses occupy better position and use more durable
or expensive material like brick, wooden beam etc. They are located in
the well-drained sites. On the contrary the houses of the poor are built
with inferior material and located in the flood prone tracts or un-drained
swampy areas.
Social and religious factors influence both the overall layout of the
structure as well as choosing the site. In Ku mayun and Garhwal hills the
house site is selected by the village priest. Caste, in India, is another
important social factor that determines the site of rural houses.
Members of the same caste usually built their houses adjoining each
other. The lower castes, schedule castes live in areas far from the
areas occupied higher castes i.e. the village proper. Again as social
values and perception of private space varies between societies it is
observed in some tribal societies that the entire village may live in a
long hut or all the young boys live in a communal dormitory.
3.4.3. Levels of Technological Development:
With the a dvent of time Levels of Technological development plays an
important role in determining the site, building material as well as the
overall structure of a house. In India asbestos or corrugated sheets have
replaced tiles or thatch. Mud or wattle is being replaced by brick or
stone. Similarly there is a structural change in the house albeit slowly.
Through land reclamation and draining a number of marginal sites are
being used today. Also rather than the traditional sites modern ones like
proximity to roadways or railways or an irrigation canal is becoming
more important.
The impact of geographical factors is very conspicuous in the rural
house types in India.


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52 House types in different regions of India are as follows:
a. In Karnataka the walls of the houses are constructed very thick of
mud and the roof is covered either thatch made of grass leaves
or tile.
b. In northern Karnataka single roomed circular house with domal roof
is mo re prominent. Constructed very close together in beehive shape.
c. In southern side of Pennar river huts look like egg in shape with
conical roof tops.
d. In Malabar and Konkan coasts of western India rural houses have
mud walls and roof tops covered with coconut leaves.
e. The prominent features of the rural houses in the areas of Travancore
and Cochin are that the lower part of the roof is artistically made to
curve towards up.
f. In Periyar region the houses are constructed out of bamboo splits
and they are semi-circular in shape.
g. In Kottayam division Mala Arya people make their huts on tree
branches with bamboo and grass.
h. On the slopes of Cardamom hills Mulawan people live in
square shaped huts.
i. In Tamil Nadu the rural houses are made up of brick walls and tile
roofs.
j. On Nilgiri hills Toda peop le live in semi-circular houses.
k. The houses in the Deccan plateau are characterised by flat roofs.
This is a very common feature in the rural house type due to the semi-
arid climatic condition.
l. On Malwa plateau stone houses are very common.
m. Due to the prevalence of dry climatic conditions in Rajasthan,
Punjab, Hariyan and Uttar Pradesh the houses are characterised by
flat roofs.
n. In Orissa thatch and tile roof houses are most common.
o. In Andhra Pradesh the poor man’s house is gene rally circular in
shape.
p. In Madhya Pradesh Gond people make parallel linear houses on
both sides of the road.
q. In West Bengal the plinth of the house is a bit higher from the level of
flood plain. Due to heavy amount of rainfall the roof is gene rally
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53 r. In Chakrate area on the southern slope of Himalaya the houses are
made of either wood or stone. The roof is made of concrete, tile or
grasses available locally. Here the houses found on different contour
interval in cluster and linear in shape.
s. In Kangra valley the rural houses are found apart. The walls of these
houses are made up of wood or stone while the roof is made up of
slate.
t. In the valley of Kashmir houses are also found on boats in Dal, Ullar
lakes.
3.4.4.Building Material Used in Rural India
Geology and general physiography play a very important role in
deciding the nature of building material. As far as building materials are
concerned, these can be grouped under two categories.
A. Building Material Used for Walls
B. Building Material Used for Roofs
The advancement of building technology and availability of financial
assistance to the people living below poverty line has brought sea of
change in the use of building material. This change is visible largely in
the structure of house types in rural areas.
We may discuss them one by one:
A. Building Materials Used for Walls
Building materials used for walls in India, can broadly be grouped
under five categories. These are (i) mud, (ii) stone, (iii) brick, (iv) timber,
and (v) wattle
A The most common and wide spread oldest material used in houses since
old civilization is Mud. It is available from all types of soils and varies
in texture and colour. These mud buildings are found almost all parts
throughout India. For example the house in Indo-Gangetic plains is
mainly mud and brick structure as clay is easily available.
b. Stone or basalt boulders or rock cut pieces are widely used in such
areas where proximity, availability in greater amount and portability are
favourable factors. Sandstone served these purpose in h illy areas,
whereas basalt rocks exhibit examples of such houses in volcanic
plateau zones. In hilly, rocky areas stone slabs re used extensively both
as walls and roofs. In western Himalayas for example slate roofs on
stone houses are common sight.
c. At present brick klines are commonly found in rural areas, hence
easy availability bake bricks encouraged the use of bricks as building
mate rial in the same areas. The construction cost, durability,
space saving and manner-variability of brick walls is obvious. Mud
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54 in country side since ancient times. Cement is covering the market in
countryside too at present. Unbaked kachcha brick, popu lar among the
poor class owners, is also used for low height walls.
d. The abundant availability of woods in forest areas became the major
factor for using timber as building material in those areas. Examples are
abounding in Bhil areas of Central India. In the most vegetated Eastern
Himalayas, wood, bamboo, rattan and thatch are main building material.
In lower altitude particularly Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, and
Jammu and Kashmir the hou ses are covered with tin or water proof
mate rial.
e. Wattle wall is mainly the product of terrain and forest cover. This is
due to availability of material almost without cost and skill among the
owners. These houses are mostly occupied by aboriginals of Vindhyas
and Satpura. MostlyGonds and Bhils reside in such houses. Their small
dwellings occupy even the slopes and summits of the hills.

Wattle used as building mate rial
Fig 3.5
3.4.5. Building Materials Used for Roofs
These materials can broadly be grouped under seven categories. These
are
(i) tiles, (ii) thatch, (iii) mud and other material, (iv) stone slab,
(v) wood, (vi) brick (vii) tin and other materials
a. Tiled roofs are common t hroughout India. Semi-cylindrical and
flat are the two types of tiles used for covering houses with varied
sizes and forms. The size of tiles is larger in northern Indian plain and
shorter in plateau and hilly areas.
b. Thatching, the original shelter making skill, is still prevalent in most
of the poor class people throughout India. All sorts of walls, whether
made of stone, timber or mud are covered by thatch.
c. Mud thatching often mixed with cow dung, is common in western
part of India. In western part of Uttar P radesh such houses mark the
horizon in each settlement. Its occasional plastering is enou gh to provide
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55
and Jaisalmer, India, may have walls of loosely woven bamboo, to
let in breezes, or, more commonly, of mud mixed with straw.
d.Stone slabs or Flakes are being used since time immemorial in
mountainous and plateau areas. The local geological structure dictates
the nature of stone that is used. Therefore, while sandstone is
common in Orissa, it is granite in Maharashtra. Sand stone and slate-slabs
make durable roofs after being cut and designed according to need.
e. Wood as roof material is common in northern mountainous region of
India. In the north-eastern states wooden slabs are carefully
superimposed and joined with round ed corners. This protects house from
snow and rainwater.
f. Bricks make flat and smooth roof in the form lintel mixed with iron
rods and cement. This is observed in modern type rural house and
commonly found in the houses of rural rich.
g. The use of traditional building material is decreasing and it is being
replaced by building material like, iron, tin sheets, cement, etc. In
earthquake prone areas the building material used are lightweight ones
for example in India inhabitants of such area use wood as oppo sed to
stone. In flood prone areas again cheapest building mate rials are used
in the fear that flood may wash away the whole house. These are
found in the riverine tracts of Bihar. Here cultivators live in huts with
wattled and thatched roof. These materials are cheapest and easily
available too.

Thatched roof Slate roof, Himalaya
Fig 3.6 Fig 3.7
To conclude it can be said that with technological development
decrease in the use of traditional building materials is observed in rural
areas. Modernisation and financial help from different sectors have
helped in replacing them by tin sheet, iron cement etc.
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56 3.5. MORPHOLOGY OF RURAL SETTLEMENT
 Morphology refers to the internal structure or the
constructional plan o f a village which includes the layout of streets and
roads, arrangement of houses, pattern of housing, geometrical size and
shape of village and agricultural fields, location of either the water body,
religious site, or the house of the village headman.
 Rural Morphology includes
 Physical Morphology
 Social Morphology
Physical Morphology
 Physical Morphology includes the study of the relationship between
the following:
 Road to lane relationship: It includes how roads are connected to
lanes.
 Lane to lane relati onship :
 It is description of geometrical arrangement of lanes. How they are
connected to each other and ending at what points.
 In Indian villages, lanes are extremely narrow meandering and ending
abruptly. This shows unplanned character of Indian villages.
 In UK, cruciform villages have all the lanes cutting across 90
degree , because they are planned villages .
 Lane to house relationship :
 Geometry of lanes determines the arrangement of houses because
houses grow along lanes.
 In India, lanes are largely unpla nned and arrangement of houses
determines the lane type.
 House to house relationship :
 Physical morphology is also determined by the spacing between
the houses.
 In clustered villages, houses are unevenly spaced or they have wall
to wall arrangement.
 Houses are hardly according to geometrical plan and their average
height is variable.
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57  Role of geometrical shape of the agriculture field also determines
the village pattern .
 House type can range from ‘Pucca’ to ‘Kutcha’ and in older parts of
villages, ventilation is closed to the roof (depends on whether village is
developed or not).
Social Morphology
 It refers to the social structure of a village which is based on cast, or
class.
 In Indian villa ges, caste hierarchy is reflected in the morphology
of villages.
 Social factors like division of work, untouchability (not so prominent
now), social prohibition over the work of women and lower casts had
all led to a distinct social morphology of Rural Set tlements from urban
ones.
 The following factors affect the following morphological character of
villages:
 Arrangement of buildings
 Pattern of streets and fields
 Functional characteristics of settlement.
 For example, t he houses of higher cast people like Br ahmins and
Rajputs would be large and people from the lower cast would
have huts, kutcha houses with cattle .
 The intermediate regions of rural settlement comprise of the people of
service casts like Ahirs, Jats, Loth, etc.
 Cast based hamlets at times emerg e. These are closely linked with
centre under the Jajmani system (inter cast cooperation like higher
cast people requiring lower cast people for some specific work like
ironsmith) and act like a unit.
 K. N. Singh in his religious ritual and secular dominance model
highlighted the importance of two concepts :
 Development of twin settlement which included :
 Caste Hindus
 Outcasts
 The segregation was much pronounced during the past favouring the
outgrowth of the helmeted struct ure of villages, In the case of compact
settlements out -castes generally lived on the outer parts of the built -up
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58 for wind movement, for even air gets polluted after coming in contact
with a Shudra‘s body.
 How and why these traditions came into being is a matter of debate
amongst scholars, but the author believes these untouchables to be the
remnant of the pre -Aryan tribes who were always despised by the
Aryans and later Rajput settlers .
 Secular dominance model : Under this model, all caste and religion
came together as functional units under the old Jajmani system . For
example, landowners required the services of landless people for the
cultivation of fields.
 Thus, the socio -cultural tra its of rural settlement is also a field of study
in the settlement system

classification of Rural Morphology
 Earliest attempt to classify Rural Morphology was done by
Doxiadis.
 He classified rural morphology into four sectors :
 Homogenous sector or Villa ge core :
 It consists of the central part of the village.
 It has a religious site, water body or Zamindar/ Village headman’s
house, or community land.
 It is surrounded by the own caste man of village Zamindar.
 It is the most densely populated region and con gested part of the
village reflecting patriarchal society and security concerns.
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59  Transitional zone
 This part is occupied by the village servicemen e.g. Goldsmith,
Blacksmith, Milkman, weavers, etc.
 This zone is attached with the core of the village where middle caste
people are mixed with poor upper caste people.
 This zone is also known as the Artisans zone.
 Circulatory part :
 It is the outer periphery of the village where new houses and settlers
have been migrated or settled outward due to congestion of th e core.
 Thus, this zone has mixed land use in terms of social structure.
 Special part:
 It was occupied by landless labours outside the village close to
farmlands because of work opportunities on -field and social
segregation.
 They are usually the people fro m the lower castes.



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60
4
URBAN SETTLEMENT
After going through this chapter you will be able to understand the
following features:
Unit Structure
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Introduction
4.3 Subject discussion
4.4 Types of Urban Settlement on the basis of popu lation –
a. Town b. City
c. Metropolitan city
d. Megalopolis e. Conurbation
4.5 Types of urban settlement on the basis of Location f. Coastal
g. Nodal
h. Continental
4.6 Types of urban settlement on the basis of Pattern i. Linear
j. Circular k. Square l. Fan
m. Net or Reticulum n. Star or radial
o. Arrow
4.7 Types of urban settlement on the basis of Function p. Industrial
q. Educational
r. Administrational s. Regional
t. Tourism u. Cultural
v. Commercial
w. Transformational
4.8 Summary
4.9 Check your Progress/Exercise
4.10 Answers to the self learning questions
4.11 Technical words and their meaning
4.12 Task
4.13 References for further study
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61 4.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you will be able to –
 Understand differenttypes of urban settlement on the basis of
Popu lationlike town, city, metropolitan city, megalopolis and
conurbation
 Know about types of urban settlement on the basis of Pattern like,
linear, circular, square, fan, net or reticulum, star or radial and arrow
 Understand different types of urban settlement on the basis of
Function for example industrial, educational, administrational,
regional, tourism, cultural, commercial, and transformational
4.2. INTRODUCTION
In chapters six and seven we have studied the definition, nature, scope
and importance of urban settlement, its characteristics along with rural
urban fringe. Physical and economic factors affecting urbanisation,
growth of world urbanisation, problems in urbanisation its solution
as well as planninghas also been d iscussed.We have studied
Sustainable development of Towns also. Now in this chapter we are
going to learn the types of Urban Settlement on the basis of population,
location, patte rn and function. Some of the examples are town, city,
metropolitan city linear, circular, square, fan, coastal, nodal, continental
etc.
4.3. SUBJECT-DISCUSS ION
Settlements are any form of human habitation that ranges from a
single dwelling to a large city. It can be broadly divided into two types –
rural and urban. The basic difference between rural and urban lies in their
functions. Urbanisation is the result of a natural increase in the popu lation
as well as rural to urban migration. Urban Settlements are a populated
place that encompasses a certain population. Each and every urban
settlement fulfils industrial, transportation, cultural, and administrative
functions. The classification of urban settlements is determined by the ir
economic and social functions and the size of their population. In a
number of countries the only criteria for considering a populated area an
urban settlement is the population or its administrative role. Classification
based on size and functions are most common.
4.4. TYPES OF URBAN SETTLEMENT
An urban settlement has a large population size and a high population
density where seconda ry activities like manufacturing and tertiary
activities such as trade are dominant.
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62 It is observed that there is no common definition of what constitutes
an urban settlement. As a result, the definition varies widely across
countries, and in some cases has changed over time within a country.
The criteria for classifying an area as urban may be based on one or a
combination of characteristics, such as: a minimum population threshold;
population density; proportion employed in non-agricultural sectors; the
presence of infrastructure such as paved roads, electricity, piped water or
sewers; and the presence of education or health services.
Urban settlements may be classified on various bases. However,
classification based on size and functions are most common. According to
population size, census of India classifies urban centres into six classes.
Class wise urban settlements and their population are given below in a
tabular form.
v) Classification of Urban Settlement

Class Population Class I 1,00,000 and above Class II 50,000 – 99,999 Class III - 20,000 – 49,999 Class IV - 10,000 – 19,999 Class V - 5,000 – 9,999 Class VI - less than 5,000
1. Types of Urban Settlement on the basis of population
On the basis of population size and the services available and
functions rendered, urban settlements are designated as town, city, million
city, conurbation, and me galopolis. Population size of a place is not a
reliable determinant of urban character. It is observed in many parts of
the world, as in present India, a large village might contain several times
as many peop le as a small town. In the United Kingdom, there are
historical cities that are far smaller than the larger towns.
a. Town
A human settlement that is larger than a village but smaller than a city is
known as town. The size definition for what constitutes a "town" varies
considerably in different parts of the world. It is a place having a
municipality or an administration of a notified committee and the
population mat range between 2000 to 20000.P opulation size is not
the only criterion to designate a settlement as to wn. Specific functions
such as, manufacturing, retail and wholesale trade, and professional
services exist in towns. The population of a town earn their livelihood
from manufacturing industry, commerce, and public services rather
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63 mining locations or some similar forms of non-rural settlement which are
clearly non-rural may not be designated as a town.
According to the 20 11 Census of India towns are of two types i.e.,
Statutory town and Census town. A settlement is designated as a
Statut ory town when it is has a municipality, corporation,
Cantonme nt Board etc. Whereas, Census town is defined based on
the places that satisfy the following criteria: i) a minimum population
of 5,000; ii) at least 75 per cent of male working population
engaged in non-agricultural pursuits; and iii) a density of population of
at least 400 per km2. (1,000 per sq. mile). All the Statutory towns,
Census towns and Out growths are considered as urban settlements.
Examples of towns are Adra, Puruliya, in West Bengal (census
town),Karimganj in Assam has a p opulation 56,854, (2011 census),
Karjatin Maharashtra, has a popu lation of29,663, (2011 census).
b. City
City, a large and permanent human settlement, may be regarded as a
leading town. According to Lewis Mumford, “the city is in fact the
physical form of the highest and most complex type of associative life”.
It is an urban centre having population between one lakh to one
million. Cities are much larger than towns and have a greater number of
economic functions. Generally a city has transport terminals, major
financial institutions and regional administrative offices. In city
complex systems for sanitation, utilities, land usage, housing, and
transportation are found. It also has a particular administrative, legal, or
historical status based on local law. When the popu lation crosses the one
million mark it is designated as a million city. Kolhapur, Kalyan ,
Kamptee,K andhar. Akola, Bassein ,Bhusawal are a few examples
of cities in Maharashtra, India.
c. Metropolitan city
Metropolitan Cities are those Cities which have population in between
one million to five million.
v ) List of Metropolitan cities of India
Sl. No. City Population in 2011 State
1. Mumb ai 12,478,447 Maharashtra
2 Delhi 11,007,835 Delhi
3 Banga lore 8,425,970 Karnataka
4 Hyderabad 6,809,970 Andhra Pradesh 5 Ahmedabad 5,570, 585 Gujarat
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64 7 Kolkata 4,486,679 West Bengal
8 Surat 4,462,002 Gujarat
9 Pune 3,115,431 Maharashtra
10 Jaipur 3,073,350 Rajasthan
11 Lucknow 2,815,601 Uttar Pradesh
12 Kanpur 2,767,031 Uttar Pradesh
13 Nagpur 2,405,421 Maharashtra
14 Indore 1,960,631 Madhya Pradesh 15 Thane 1,818,872 Maharashtra
16 Bhopal 1,795,648 Madhya Pradesh 17 Visakhapatnam 1,730,320 Andhra Pradesh 18 Pimpri-
Chinchwad 1,729,359 Maharashtra
19 Patna 1,683,200 Bihar
20 Vado dara 1,666,703 Gujarat
21 Ghaziabad 1,636,068 Uttar Pradesh
22 Ludhiana 1,613,878 Punjab
23 Agra 1,574,542 Uttar Pradesh
24 Nashik 1,486, 973 Maharashtra
25 Faridabad 1,404,653 Haryana
26 Meerut 1,309, 023 Uttar Pradesh
27 Rajkot 1,286,995 Gujarat
28 Kalyan-
Dombivali 1,246,381 Maha rashtra
29 Vasai-Virar 1,221, 233 Maharashtra
30 Varanasi 1,201,815 Uttar Pradesh
31 Srinagar 1,192,792 Jammu and
Kashmir
32 Aurangabad 1,171, 330 Maharashtra
33 Dhanbad 1,161,561 Jharkhand
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65
35 Navi Mumbai 1,119, 477 Maharashtra
36 Allahabad 1,117, 094 Uttar Pradesh
37 Ranchi 1,073,440 Jharkhand
38 Howrah 1,072,161 West Bengal
39 Coimbatore 1,061,447 Tamil Nadu
40 Jabalpur 1,054,336 Madhya Pradesh 41 Gwalior 1,053,505 Madhya Pradesh 42 Vijayawada 1,048,240 Andhra Pradesh
43 Jodhpur 1,033,918 Rajasthan
44 Madurai 1,016,885 Tamil Nadu
45 Raipur 1,010,087 Chhattisgarh
46 Kota 1,001,365 Rajasthan
(Source: Census 2011)
d. Megalopolis:
This Greek word meaning “great city”, was popularised by Jean Gottman
(1957) and signifies ‘super- metropolitan’ region extending, as union
of conurbations. A very large, heavily populated city or urban
complex having more than 5 million population is known as
Megalopolis. This urban region, consist of several large cities and
suburbs that adjoin each other. This term has been used for the most
massive concentration of urbanised settlement on the Atlantic sea
board of North America over a stretch of 900 kms from Boston in the
north to Florida in the south. A megalopolis is formed from the coalesce
of chain of metropolitan areas. Each of these metropolitan areas again
have grown around a substantial urban nucleus.
Mumbai, Maharashtra, in India is a megalopolis, which also includes
Thane, Navi Mumb ai, Kalyan-Dombivali, Ulhasnagar, Vasai-Virar,
Ambernath, Badlapur, and P anvel. Pune in Maharashtra is another one
which also includes Pimpri-Chinchwad, Aurangabad, Solapur, Nashik,
Ahmednaga r, Alibag (39,500,000). Other Megalopolis in India are Delhi
National Capital Region and Jaipur (35,000,000), Gujarat -
Ahmedabad, Gandhinagar, Surat, Vadoda ra, Rajkot, Anand, Nadiad,
Bharuch, Ankleshwar (19,200,000), Kolkata (Also includes the suburban
areas of kolkataBarrackpore,Dum Dum, Bidhannagar, Naihati,
Kanchrapara, Kankinara, Kalyani, Rajarhat, Ichapo re, Halisahar and
Howrah)
e. Conurbation
The term conurbation was coined by Patrick Geddes in 1915. A
conurbation is an extended urban area, comprising a number of cities,
large towns, and other urban areas which have merged to form one
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66 growth and physical expansion, such as "the major conurbations of
London and Birmingham". Usually, a conurbation is a polycentric
urban agglomeration, where transportation has developed to link areas to
create a single urban labour market or travel to work area. Thus
conurbation is a city that has expanded into the surrounding towns
(urban sprawl) and is now one big settlement under one name.
4.5 TYPES OF URBAN SETTLEME NT ON THE BASIS
OF LOCATION
Primarily the availability of water, building materials and fertile land
were the bases of locations of the earliest urban settlements. Today,
while these considerations still remain valid, modern technology plays
a significant role in locating urban settlements far away from the
source of these materials. For example piped water can be supplied
to a distant settlemen t; building material can be transported from long
distances. So depe ndency on above stated locational factors for
urban settlements has diminished.
Different sites play an important role in location of a town. They are
stated under:
a. Coastal - When a town is located on the coast it is called coastal
town. Mumbai in Maha rashtra, Visakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh,
Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu are a few examples of coastal town in
India.
b. Nodal town develop at the convergence points of rivers, roads
and railways. These towns do not serve the surround ing territory. The
passengers who pass through these routes are the source of support to
these towns. New York is an example of nodal t own.
c. Continental – When a town is surrounded by land only it may
be designated as continental such as Kabul in Afghanistan and
Kathmandu in Nepal.
4.6 TYPES OF URBAN SETTLEME NT ON THE BASIS
OF PATTERN
A pattern of urban settlements is influenced by the surrounding
topography and terrain. This includes, linear, circular, square, fan,
net/reticulum. star/radial, arrow and terrace pattern.

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67

Fig 4.1
a. Linear settlement is type of settlement that has grown in a line.
The line doesn't have to be straight, but will normally follow a road, a
river, the coast or the valley floor. Thus this type of pattern includes all
urban settlements where the buildings are built along pre-defined lines
varying from straight to curved ones. Towns may be aligned along
transport routes, cardinal directions or natural features such as slopes and
streams. A linear settlement pattern is also visible along the road. Many
people make their houses along these transport routes so that it becomes
easier to transport their goods. Lineated form of urban settlements have
been described by various names like rectangular, herringbone, linear,
horse-shoe shaped T or Y shaped or arcuate. It usually forms a
long and narrow pattern, which can be ma intained even when the
population grows. Physical features sometimes induce lineation. In hilly
areas settlements are aligned along the shoulder of a spur or the top of a
ridge taking the advantage of the gentler slope of the region.
b. Circular - When urban settlements occur on a ll sides of some
lakes, ponds, wells, a fort, temple, meander bank and bend of a stream
they are known as circular settlements.. When the houses are
constructed along these sites, the settlement takes the shape of circle and
hence is known as circular patte rn. Circular settlements may even cover
large portion of a land and thus appear as semi-circular changing their
shape. Such settlements are also found in the Malwa region, Punjab and
Gujarat where large settlements are characterized by a very high
degree of compactness.
c. Square - Square or rectangular cluster-with straight streets running
parallel or at right angles to one another. They are found in Sutlej-Ganga
plain in India and in planned settlements of Germany, Malaysia, Israel,
France, etc.
d. Fan - This is seen where some focal points or line is situated at
one end of the town. A focal object may be a tank, a riverside, a road, an
orchard, a well or even a place of worship. In delta areas or at the base
of mountains settlement found at the centre head extent is fan shaped
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68 Godavari, Krishna and Mahana di rivers and in alluvial regions at the
foothills of Himalayas.
e. Net/Reticulum: Isolated homes with a central court yard
found in different parts of India. Net type of settlements is irregularly
distributed in the villages. In Birbhum district, West Bengal
Net/Reticulum settlements are observed.
f. Star/Radial: In urban settlements where the dwellings are spread
out in several directions from a central point, either around a big water
body or where many routes join together is known as star or radial
settlements. A settlement acquires a star-like pattern when streets radiate
from a common centre. After the expansion of these settlements as a
result of population growth the formation sometimes changes into
a double radial pattern. This type of pattern is more common in Tamil
Nadu and Upper Ganga Plain.
g. Arrow - On the meeting of the roads or two rivers arrow
head patte rn of settlements occur. Triangular pattern is a special feature
of this type of settlement and is found on any triangular patch of
land.
4.7 TYPES OF URBAN SETTLEME NT ON THE BASIS
OF FUNCTION
Functional Classification of Towns
Besides playing a role as central or nodal places, many urban
settlements or to wns and cities perform specialised services. These towns
or cities specialise in certain functions and are designated according to
the dominant function they perform. However, each town performs a
number of functions.
a. I ndustrial- An industrial town is an urban settlement where the
econom ic system is based on industry. Hence in industrial towns
industries constitute prime motive force of these cities such as M umbai,
Salem, Coimbatore, Modinagar, Jamshedpur, Hugli, Bhilai, etc. Ludhiana
is an example of industrial town in Punjab. Woollen hosiery is Ludhiana’s
pride. It also dominates the machine tools industry. Tirupur in
Coimbatore district of Tamil Nadu has in the last decade grown as an
industrial hamlet.
b. Educational towns
Initially these towns have started as centres of education but with time
some of the towns have grown into major campus towns such as
Roorki, Varanasi, Aligarh, Pilani, and Allahabad in India and
Cambridge, Oxford in United Kingdom. They are characterised by
universities, college buildings, libraries and playground. These towns
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69 c. Administrative towns and cities
Towns suppo rting administrative headquarters of higher order are
administrative towns, such as Chand igarh, New Delhi, Bhopal, Shillong,
Guwahati, Imphal, Srinagar, Gandhinaga r, Jaipur Chennai, etc.
d. Regional–
a town that is related to a large geog raphic region or relating to a
particular region or district or pertaining to a particular part of a country.
e. Tourism - Tourist towns –
Nainital, Mussoorie, Shimla, Pa chmarhi, Jodhpur, Jaisalmer,
Udagamandalam (Ooty), Mount Abu are some of the tourist destinations.
f. Cultural towns
These towns have cultural functions like the inoculation of
education, art galleries and religious buildings. The cultural significance
of Varanasi, Mathura, Amritsar, Madurai, Puri, Ajmer, Pushkar, Tirupati,
Kurukshetra, Haridwar, Ujjain are the reasons behind their
prominence.
g. Commercial towns
Towns and cities specialising in trade and commerce are kept in this
class. Kolkata, Saha ranpur, Satna, in India and London, (England), New
York (U.S.A), Frankfurt (Germany), etc. are some examples. These towns
have business houses, banks, insurance companies and other financial
organisations. Commercial towns also offer many other commercial
services.
h. Transformational - relating to, characterized by, or concerned
with transformation of a town.
To summarise it may be said that the cities are not static in their function.
As functions change due to their dynamic nature, even specialised
cities, when they grow into metropolises become multifunctional and
industry, business, administration, transport, etc. become important. All
the functions are very much interrelated so it is difficult to catego rise a
city in a particular functional class.





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70 The following chart shows name of some cities and their functions
Functions Name of the cities
1. Adm inistrative New Delhi, Chandigarh, Bhubaneshwar, Gandhi Nagar, Thiruvananthpuram, Imphal,
etc.
2. Industrial, Jamshedpur Bhilai, Salem, Coimbatore, Mod inaga r, Surat, etc.
3. Transport a. Port cities like Kandla, Kochi, Vishakhapatnam, etc.
b. Road and Railway Junctions like Mughal
Sarai, Itarsi, Katni, Kharagpu r, Agra etc.
4. Commercial towns Kolkata, Mumbai, Saha ranpur, Indore, Chennai,
5. Mining towns Raniganj, Jharia, Dhanbad, Digboi, Ankaleswar, Singrauli, etc.
6. Cantonment Meerut, Ambala, Jalandha r, Mhow, Pathankot,
7. Educational Roorkee, Pilani, Manipal, Aligarh, Varanasi, etc.
8. Religious Puri, Mathura, Madurai, Tirupati, Katra, Amritsar, Allahabad, Varanasi, etc.
9. Tourist Nainital, Mussorie, Shimla, Pachmarhi, Udagamandalam (ooty), Mount Abu, Gangtok
4.8 SUMMARY:
Mod ernization and industrialization play an important role in population
increase in urban areas. In this chapter we have studied about different
types of urban settlements. Urban settlement may be classified on the
basis of population like town, city, metropolitan city, megalopolis and
conurbation, on the basis of pattern like, linear, circular, square, fan,
net or reticulum, star or radial and arrow. Furthermore on the basis
of function this is classified as industrial, educational, administrational,
regional, tourism, cultural, commercial, and transformational urban
settlements. In short, a Town has less than one lakh population, City
urban centres have population between one lakh to one Million,
Metropolitan Cities have population in between one million to five
million and Mega cities have more than 5 million population. Now
people live in urban settlements for retailing, wholesaling, manufacturing,
business services, entertainment, political administration, military
defence, social and religious services, public services, educational
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71 location of the urban centres may be categorised as, a. Site –
conditions at that point, b. Situation – relative location, c.
Transportation accesses, and d. Break of bulk (ports).
4.9 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS/ EXERCISE
1. True false
a. Urban settlements may be classified on various bases among which
size and functions are most common.
b. In France, there are historical cities that are far smaller than the larger
towns.
c. In village complex systems for sanitation, utilities, land usage,
housing, and transportation are found.
d. When u rban settlements occur on all sides of some lakes, ponds,
wells, a fort, temp le, meander bank and bend of a stream they are
known as circular settlements.
e. When a town is surrounded by land only it may be designated as
continental such as Mumbai, India.
2. Fill in the blanks
a. ---------- Cities are those Cities which have population in between
one million to five million.
b. Nodal town develop at the ----------- points of rivers, roads and
railways. These towns do not serve the surrounding te rritory.
c. --------------- in a line.settlement is type of settlement that has grown in
the line.
d. An industrial town is an urban settlement where the economic
system is based on ----------- ------ .
e. ------------- town is one that is related to a large geographic region
or relating to a particular region or district or pertaining to a
particular part of a country.
3. Multiple choice question
a. Cities which have population in between one million to five
million are known as
i. Metropolitan Cities
ii. Town
iii. Megalopolis
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72 i. normally following a road, a pond, the coast or on the hill top ii.
normally at the points of rivers, roads and railways..
iii. normally following a road, a river, the coast or the valley floor.
c. Towns and cities such as Kolkata, Saharanpur, Satna, in India and
London, (England), New York (U.S.A), Frankfurt (Germany),
specialising in trade and commerce are known as
i. Commercial towns ii. Cultural towns
iii. Tourist towns
d. An example of a Cantonment is
i. Ambala
ii. Roorkee iii. Puri
e. In Squa re urban settlement,
i. settlement are grown in a line.
ii. straight streets run parallel or at right angles to one anothe r. iii. the
settlement takes the shape of circle.
4.10 ANSWERS THE FOLLOWING QUES TIONS
1. Classify urban settlement on the basis of population. Define any three
of them with examples from India.
2. Write short notes on coastal, nodal and continental urban
settlement.
3. What is a conurbation?
4. What is an industrial town?
5. What is an educational town?
6. Describe different types of urban settlement on the basis of their
pattern.
1.a. true
1.b. false, the United Kingdom
1.c. False, city
1.d. true
1.e. false, Kabul in Afghanistan.
2.a. Metropolitan
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Urban Settlement
73 2.c. Linear
2.d. industry
2.e. Regional
3.a.i.
3.b.iii
3.c.i.
3.d.i.
3.e.ii.
4.11 TECH NICAL WORDS:
1. Metropolitan-relating to or denoting a metropolis
2. Convergence-the process or state of converging
3. Conurbation-a city area containing a large number of people,
formed by various towns growing and joining together
4. Megalopolis-a very large, heavily populated city or urban
complex.
5. Cantonment-a military garrison or camp
6. Continental-of, relating to, or located on a continent
4.12 TASK
1. In a chart draw and describe different types of urban settlement on
the basis of pattern.
2. In a chart make a list of metropolitan cities of India and state in
which Indian state they belong to.
4.13 REFERENCES FOR FURTHER STUDY
 Emerging Frontiers of Urban Settlement Geography, By Sant
Bahadur Singh
 Ghosh, S. (1999) A Geography of Settlements, Orient Longman,
Kolkata.
 Hill, M. (2003) Rural Settlement and the Urban Impact on the
Countryside, Hodderb& Stoughton, London.
 Dikshit, J. K. (ed) (2009 )The Urban Fringe of Indian Cities,
Rawat Publication, Jaipur munotes.in

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74  Kaplan, D. H., Wheeler, J. O. and Holloway, S. R. (2008) Urban
Geography, JohnWiley.
 Misra, R.P. (ed) (2013) Urbanization in South Asia: Focus on
Mega-Cities, Cambridge University Press, New Delhi.
 Census of India, 2011
 Economic and Social Geography - Made Simple, Rupa
Publishers
 Oxford English Dictionary
 Geography by Yash Pal Singh
 Singh, R. Y. (2005) The Geography of Settlement, Rawat
Publication, Jaipur.
 Govt. of India, Planning Commission (2008). Eleventh Five Year
Plan, 2007 -2012 vol. III. Oxford, India.
 Geography by Yash Pal Singh
 Manda l, R. B. (2001) Urban Geography, Concept Publications,
New Delhi.
 Singh, R. Y. (2005) The Geography of Settlement, Rawat
Publication, Jaipur.
 Singh R. L. – Readings in Settlement Geography. The National
Geographical Society of India.
 Hudson, Settlement Geography.


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75 5
URBAN SETTLEMENT IN INDIA
After going through this chapter you will be able to understand the
following features:
Unit Structure
5.1 Objective
5.2 Introduction
5.3 Subject discussion
5.4 Definition of Urbanisation
5.5 Factors affecting urbanisation- a. Physical, b. Economical
5.6 Growth of world urbanisation
5.7 Problems in urbanisation- a. Solution, b. Planning
5.8 Solutions of Urbanisation
5.9 Sustainable development of Towns
5.10 Sustainable Development of Towns in India
5.11 Summary
5.12 Check your Progress/Exercise
5.13 Answers to the self-learning questions
5.14 Technical words and their meaning
5.15 Task
5.16 References for further study
5.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you will be able to–
 Understand the physical and econom ic factors affecting
urbanisation
 Know about the growth of world urbanisation
 Understand the problems in urbanisation, solution and planning
 Know about the sustainable development of towns
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76
5.2. INTRODUC TION
In the previous chapter we have studied the definition, nature, scope
and importance of urban settlement along with its characteristics. Rural
Urban Fringe has also been discussed. Now in this chapter we are going
to learn the physical and economic factors affecting urbanisation along
with the growth of world urbanisation. Problems in urbanisation its
solution as well as planning will also be learnt. Sustainable
development of Towns will be studied in the latter part of this chapter.
5.3. SUBJECT-DISCUSS ION
With the a dvent of agriculture man began to change the land and with the
industrial revolution, urbanisation happene d. Urbanization occurs when
people move from rural to urban areas. As a result the proportion of
people living in cities increases while the proportion of peop le living in
rural areas diminishes. In the last century there was a rapid growth of
urbanization among the world's population. In 1900, just 13% of people
lived in cities; by 1950, the proportion rose to 29%. According to
projections, the proportion could reach 60% by 2030, or nearly 5 billion
people.
The sustainable city is a relatively recent concept. Sustainable
development is one of the major components of territorial
development policy in a number of countries. This has gained
immense attention in the last decades both through the international
community and through grass root movements.
5.4 DEFINITION OF URBANISATION
Urbanization is pervasive and recent phenomenon. W hen population
shift from rural to urban areas it is known as urbanization. Urbanization is
"the gradual increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas",
together with the ways in which each society adapts to the change, the
process by which towns and cities are formed and become larger as more
and more people begin living and working in central areas.







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77 Another term for urbanization is “rural flight”. It is so termed because the
more and more people leave villages to live in cities, the result is urban
growth. This kind of growth is very common in developing countries and
the rapid growth of Mumbai can be attributed largely to rural-urban
migration. So, Urbanization is the physical growth of urban areas as a
result of rural migration and even suburban concentration into cities.
The idea of urbanism in India is somewhat different from that of the west.
Here the rural urban distinction has never been very sharp.
5.5 FACTORS AFFECTING ON URBANISATION
a. Physical,
b. Economical
In the demographic sense, the factors regarding the increase in the
proportion of urban population to the total population over a period of
time may be attributed to the rural-urban migration. Urbanisation
generally occurs with modernisation and industrialisation. There are
many physical and economic factors that often motivate urbanisation.
These are generally known as pull and push factors. These factors pull
people to cities at the same time they push people from rural homes.
A Push factor is something that can force or encourage people to move
away from rural area. Push factors, those are physical may include
famine, drought, flooding. The Push factors which are economical can be,
lack of employment oppo rtunities, population growth and over
population, and civil war. A Pull factor is one in which encourages people
to move to an area. Pull factors include the chance of a better job,
better access to education and services, and a higher standard of living.
There are three components of urban population growth
i. natural growth of urban popu lation
ii. rural urban migration and
iii. the reclassification of areas previously defined as rural.
Natural increase provides a ba se for urban population growth rates,
while rural-urban migration and reclassification supplement this growth.
It is found that with the urbanization process the natural increase of
the population in the city often declines sharply, for example, in Thailand,
Malaysia and Indone sia.
a)Physical factors
 Flat Land: Compared to the hills, the plain area makes it easier to
build offices and associated facilities. For example Kolkata.
 Climate: The regions having high temperature attract less
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78  Site: Site is another important factor. The central location
makes it easy for businesses to trade through the neighbouring
countries.
 Coast: Urbanisation in the city of Mumbai is an example of
coastal location. This enables the businesses to trade by sea.
 Transport: Well developed transport system such as roads,
railways, highways that run through the city ma ke trade with the rest
of city and other parts of the country easier. Presence of international
airport is also important.
 Education: If the urban area is home to the best national or
international schools and universities it would definitely pull rural
folks towards it. This means that there are trained and skilled workers
to work in business, but also facilities to carry out research.
 Communications: Nowadays major cities have the best
internet connections and mobile phone network making it easier for
businesses to communicate with customers and suppliers.
 Market: There is no doubt that a biggest urban settlement will
have a large market to sell their products
 Workforce: The larger the population of any settlement the
large will be the supply of both manual and professional
workers.
 Capital: If the city is the capital of a state of nation it is home to the
country's main banks, so it is easier for companies to raise capital to
invest in their businesses.
b) Economical factors
There are innum erable economic factors that have led to the growth of
cities. They are as follows:
 Industrialization:
Industrialization, which has expanded the employment
oppo rtunities, is an important cause of urbanization. Rural people have
migrated to urban areas on account of better employment
oppo rtunities. In the urban areas, people work in modern sector in the
occupations that assist national economic development. This represents
the trend in where old agricultural econom ics changes to a new non-
agricultural economy.
 Employment opportunities:
In rural sector people were mainly dependent on agriculture for their
livelihood. But when natural calamities like, flood, drought, famine
affected cultivation rural folk migrated to the urban areas. India exhibits a
good example. Indian agriculture being highly depe nded on monsoon, munotes.in

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79 during drought situations or natural calamities, rural people are forced to
migrate to cities.
 Modernization:
Peop le wish to lead a comfortable life. Urban areas are
characterized by modern technology, better infrastructure, communication
and medical facilities. These attract the rural mass, and to have a better
life they migrate to cities.
 Emergence of large manufacturing centres
It provides ample job opportunities in mega cities therefore village
people or individuals rural areas frequent ly migrate to these city areas.
 Availability of transportation:
Due to easy transport, people prefer to stay in big cities.
 Infrastructure facilities in the urban areas:
This plays a vital role in the process of urbanization. As agriculture
becomes more fruitful, cities g row by ab sorbing workforce from
rural areas. Industry and services increase and generate higher value-
added jobs, and this led to economic growth. The geographic
concentration of productive activities in cities creates agglomeration
economies, which further raises productivity and growth. The augme nts
income and demand for agricultural products in cities.
 Migration:
Migration is main cause for rapid growth of urbanisation. Migration is a
normal pheno menon and has been going on since time immemorial.
When considering urbanization rural-urban and urban- rural and rural-
rural migrations are very important. Peop le may move to the city
because they are forced by poverty from rural community or they
may be pulled by the magnetism of city lives.
 Social factors:
Many social factors such as attraction of cities, better standard of
living, better educational facilities, need for status also induce
people to migrate to cities.
5.6 GROWTH OF WORLD URBANISATION
“Managing urban areas has become one of the most important
development challenges of the 21st century. Our success or failure in
building sustainable cities will be a major factor in the success of the
post-2015 UN development agenda,” said John Wilmoth, Director of UN
DESA’s Population Division.
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80 5.6.1 Trends
The global urban population is expected to grow approximately
1.84% per year between 2015 and 2020, 1.63% per year between 2020
and 2025, and 1.44% per year between 2025 and 2030.
5.6.2 Present day scenario of world urbanisation
The present day scenario of world urbanisation indicates that in the
increasingly global and interconnected world, over half of the world’s
popu lation lives in urban areas although there is still substantial
variability in the levels of urbanization across countries. The record of 54
per cent of the world’s population residing in urban areas in 2014 states
that globally more people live in urban areas than in rural areas.
5.6.3 Global rural population
The global rural population is now close to 3.4 billion and is expected to
decline to 3.2 billion by 2050. Nearly 90 per cent of the world’s rural
population live in Africa and Asia. India has the largest rural population
(857 million), followed by China (635 million).
5.6.4 Global urban population
In 1950, 30 per cent of the world’s population was urban. It is expected
that by 2050, 66 per cent of the world’s population will be urban.Many
decades ago most of the world’s largest urban agglomerations were
found in the more developed regions. The urban population of the
world has grown rapidly from 746 million in 1950 to 3.9 billion in 2014.
In spite of its lower level of urbanization Asia, is home to 53 per cent
of the world’s urban population, followed by Europe with 14 per cent
and Latin Ame rica and the Caribbean with 13 per cent. The world’s
urban population is expected to exceed six billion by 2045.
At present large cities are concentrated in the global South. The fastest
growing urban agglomerations are me dium-sized cities located in Asia
and Africa. These cities have less than 1 million inhabitants.
It is expected that much of the urban growth will take place in
developing countries, especially Africa. India, China and Nigeria, these
three countries together are expected to account for 37 per cent of the
projected growth of the world’s urban population between 2014 and
2050. India is expected to add 404 million urban dwellers, China 292
million and Nigeria 212 million. Thus these developing countries will
face various challenges to meet the needs of their growing urban
popu lations. These may include housing, infrastructure, transportation,
energy and employment, as well as the basic some services like
education and health care.
Today, the mo st urbanized regions include Northern America (82 per cent
living in urban areas in 2014), Latin America and the Caribbean (80 per
cent), and Europe (73 per cent). In contrast, Africa and Asia remain
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81 living in urban areas. All regions are expected to urbanize further over
the coming decades. Africa and Asia are urbanizing faster than the other
regions and are projected to become 56 and 64 per cent urban,
respectively, by 2050.
5.6.5 Mega-cities with more than 10 million people are
increasing in number
In 2014, there are 28 mega-cities worldwide, home to 453 million peop le
or about 12 percent of the world’s urban dwellers. Of today’s 28 mega-
cities, sixteen are located in Asia, four in Latin America, three each in
Africa and Europe, and two in Northern America. By 2030, the
world is projected to have 41 mega-cities with 10 million inhabitants or
more.
Almost half of the world’s urban popu lation dwell in relatively small
settlements has less than 500,000 inhabitants. Tokyo is the world’s
largest city having an agglomeration of 38 million inhabitants. It
is followed by Delhi with 25 million, Shanghai with 23 million, and
Mexico City, Mumbai with around 21 million inhabitants. By 2030, it is
expected that the world will have 41 mega-cities with more than 10
million inhabitants. Tokyo is projected to remain the world’s largest city
in 2030 with 37 million inhabitants while Delhi will follow closely
with expected rise in population to 36 million.
5.6.6 Small cities are numerous and many are growing rapidly
Many of the fastest growing cities in the world are relatively small urban
settlements. Nearly half of the world’s 3.9 billion urban dwellers reside
in relatively small settlements with fewer than 500,0 00 inhab itants.
Some cities, located in the low-fertility countries of Asia and
Europe, have experienced popu lation decline in recent years. Population
loss and decline in some cities is due to prevailing unstable economic
condition and natural disasters.
5.6.7 Sustainable urbanization is the key to successful development
It is clear from the above discussion that attention must be given to urban
settlements of all sizes to have a successful urban planning. As the world
continues to urbanize, sustainable development challenges will be
increasingly concentrated in cities, particularly in the lower-middle-
income countries where the pace of urbanization is fastest. Integrated
policies to improve the lives of both urban and rural dwellers are
needed.
5.7 PROBLEMSOF URBANISATION
Although want of jobs, prosperity and better life pull people to cities,
and half of the global popu lation dwells there at present, urbanisation is
not free of problems. By 2050 two-thirds of the world's people are
expected to live in urban areas. But poverty and environmental
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82 world today. Poor air and water quality, insufficient water availability,
waste-disposal problems, and high energy consumption are exacerbated
by the increasing popu lation density and demands of urban environments.
Urbanisation can cause problems such as transport congestion, lack of
sufficient housing, over-rapid growth and en vironmental degradation.
Many cities display particularly sharp inequalities in housing
provision, health and employment. Strong city planning will be essential
in managing these and other difficulties as the world's urban areas swell.
Some of the problems of urbanisation have been discussed below.
 Intensive urban growth can lead to greater poverty. Poverty means
that human needs are not met. Often local governments are unable to
provide services for all people.
 Degradation of environmental quality: Due to urbanization, there
is environmental degradation especially in the quality of water, air and
noise.
a. Pollution of water: Some factories and ho uses have poor
infrastructure. So, the d omestic waste, industrial effluents and other
wastes are directly channelled to the nearest river or water resources
which pollute the water and thus degrade the water quality.
b. Air pollution: One more after effects of urbanization is the air
pollution which has also increased due to emanation from motor
vehicles, industrial development and u se of non- environmental friendly
fuel sources. Automo bile exhaust produces elevated lead levels in urban
air. The concentrated energy use leads to greater air pollution which has
significant impact on human health.
c. Noise pollution: The noise pollution is produced from the
various human actions which also degrade the environment and
ultimately affect the human health.
d. Solidwaste: The growth of population has generated a very high
quantity of solid waste and there is pressure to provide a waste disposal
place in the urban areas. Large volumes of uncollected waste create
multiple health hazards.
 Urban development can magnify the risk of environmental hazards
such as flash flooding. The maintena nce of drains and debris
collection is incompetent in the urban settlements which may raise
serious problems such as flash floods and poor public health. The
reappearance of flash floods is due to the drainage system being
unable to contain surface water run-off that has greatly increased with
the higher intensity of urban activities.
 Pollution and physical barriers to root growth promote loss of
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83  Animal populations are inhibited by toxic substances,
vehicles, and the loss of habitat and food sources.
 Inefficient transportation system: Urbanization created severe
problem of transportation. With the movement of people from
rural areas into metropolitan cities, the number of vehicles on the
road is increased simultaneously every year. As more people
move to the towns and cities, traffic congestion get worse.
Various types of public transportation are provided in the cities
without referring to the need to integrate the different
modes of transportation. Consequently it is difficult for the user
to change the modes of transportation. Due to the ineffective and
not trustworthy public transportation urban people still prefer
to drive private vehicles. This again led to the severe problem of
blockage in the cities. If any traffic jam happens, public
transportation, especially bus and taxi and private vehicles are
trapped together and cannot move. It creates lot of problem for
people.
 Some people try to escape these problems by moving away from
the city - a process called counter-urbanisation. Long term,
however, the solution must be to make cities more sustainable.
 Problems like inequalities are found in the inner city.
Inequa lity means extreme differences between poverty and
wealth.
This also includes people's well-being and access to things like jobs and
education. Inequalities may also occur in access to services, access to
open land, safety and security.
Decline in quality of living for urban dwellers: Urbanization decline
the quality of living of urban inhabitants. With the development of a city,
the land value will also increase. The more influx of people in cities, the
more will be the demand of facilities such as housing. But the housing
provision focuses more to fulfil the needs of the high income group in
the cities. As a result, there will be problems to provide housing,
especially for the middle and low class people. The urban poor suffer
from inadequate supply of housing as the cost of these houses is very high
and thus unaffordable. Hence the low income group continue
unlawful resident settlements in the city. These unlawful tenant
settlements, lacking in proper infrastructure bring about many hindrances
to the urban environment. Social problems such as child edu cation, crime,
drugs, delinquency also show up as bad effects of urbanisation.
Unsuccess ful urban governance: The urban authority undergoes with
multifaceted challenges to manage a city. The local authority also de als
with the different goals and interests of community groups which
they need to fulfil. The local authority also needs to find solution for
different social issues.
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84 To conclude it may be said that although the cities are developed on two
percent of the land's surface their inhabitant uses over three-quarters of
the world's resources and release similar amounts of wastes. In gene ral
urban wastes have local impacts but these are issues at global scale.
The impacts of the cities are usually seen both locally and globally
such as air pollution, city populations, as the major users of energy,
cause both regional and worldwide pollution. These factors have
adverse impact on health of the people, air quality and biosphere.
5.8 SOLUTIONSOF URBANISATION
 Possible remedy for the urbanization issues and problems
at global level:
1. Com bat poverty by promoting economic development, job creation
and make the economy of village and small scale fully viable.
Economies will be revitalized if government undertakes huge rural
development programme. Moreover surplus manpower may be
absorbed in village in order to reduce migration to urban areas.
2. It is needed to control traffic congestion in urban region and
people must be encouraged to use public transport. Cities must
improve the traffic control system to avoid accidents. Some cities
have tried to manage this problem by introducing traffic
management schemes such as, park and ride schemes, cycle
lanes, congestion charging scheme s, (as those in Durham and
Lond on), car-pooling, (as used in the USA), low emission zones,
(as in London ). Efforts of local councils to ma ke the roads in urban
areas may be taken into consideration.
3. It is essential to implement resilient clean -up campaign.
4. In o rder to accommodate the slum dwellers government must
make policies to construct low cost multi-storeyed flats.
5. Government should provide funds to encourage entrepreneurship
and also find solution for pollution in the nation.
6. Development of health cities: WHO reports indicated that, "A
healthy city is one that is continually creating and improving the
physical and social en vironments and expand ing the community
resources that enable people to mutu ally support each other in
performing all the functions of life and in developing to their
maximum potential."
7. Involve local comm unity in l ocal government. People from
different backgrounds, including community membe rs to government
representatives, from cities were organized and encouraged to come
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85 8. Reduce air pollution by upgrading energy use and alternative
transport systems.
9. Create private-public partnerships to p rovide services such as
waste disposal and housing.
10. Plant trees and incorporate the care of city green spaces as a key
element in urban planning.
5.8.1. Urbanization problems in Indian context
In India about 73 percent of its population live in rural villages.
Hence the growth and speed of urbanization as compared to most of the
other Asian countries has been usually slow.
It is known that urbanisation is a mechanism of economic, social and
political progress. It can give rise to some serious socio- economic
problems also. The absolute magnitude of the urban population, random
and unplanned growth of urban areas, and lack of infrastructure are major
issues in Ind ia due to urbanization. The fast growth of urban population
both natural and through migration, has put immense pressure on
public utilities like housing, sanitation, transport, water, electricity,
health, and education.
Rural immigrants face problems regarding poverty, joblessness and under
employment. Among them beggary, thefts, dacoities, burglary and other
social evils are prevalent. urban slum encroaches the valuable agricultural
land.
5.8.2. The major problems of urbanisation in India are as
follows:
1. Urban Sprawl,
2. Overcrowding,
3. Housing,
4. Unemployment,
5. Slums and Squatter Settlements,
6. Transport,
7. Water,
8. Sewerage Problems,
9. Trash Disposal,
10. Urban Crimes, and
11. Problem of Urban Pollution
1. Urban Sprawl:
Urban sprawl or real expansion of the cities, both in population and
geographical area, of rapidly growing cities is the root cause of urban
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86 problems created by the ir excessive size. Massive immigration from
rural areas as well as from small towns into large cities occurring
almost consistently resulted in the increase of the size of the city.
2. Overcrowding:
Overcrowding, a logical consequence of over-population in urban areas,
is a situation in which too many people live in too little space. It is
naturally expected that cities having a large size of population
squeezed in a small space must suffer from overcrowding. Overcrowding
is well exhibited by almost all the big cities of India.Delhi, Mum bai,
Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore are examples of urban slump due to huge
migration of people from the nearby places. Mumbai has one-sixth of an
acre open space per thousand popu lations though four acre is suggested
standard by the Master Plan of Greater Mumbai. Delhi has a popu lation
density of 9,340 persons per sq km (Census 2001 ). Population density in
central part of Delhi could be much higher. Thus overcrowding
leads to tremendous pressure on infrastructural facilities like housing,
electricity, water, transport, employment, etc.
3. Housing:
It is another intense problem due to urbanization in India. Overcrowding,
leading to shortage of houses in urban areas, is specifically more
acute in those urban areas where there is large influx of unemployed or
underemployed immigrants. These people do not have any place to live
in when they enter cities from the surrounding rural areas. Moreover, very
slow rate of housing construction makes the problem further complicated.
Indian cities require annually about 2.5 million new dwellings but less
than 15 per cent of the requirement is being constructed.
4. Unemployment:
The problem of unemployment is no less serious than the other problems
of urbanisation. Urban unemployment in India is estimated at 15 to 25
per cent of the labour force. This percentage is even higher among the
educated peop le.
5. Slums and Squatter Settlements:
The rapid growth of urbanisation along with industrialisation has resulted
in the growth, spread and enlargement of slums and squatter settlements.
This presents a striking feature in the ecological structure of In dian
cities, especially of metropolitan centres. The explosion of slums occurs
due to many factors, such as, the lack of developed land for housing, the
high prices of land beyond the reach of urban poor, a large influx of
rural migrants to the cities in search of jobs.
6. Transport:
Urbanization poses major challenge to transport system. Almost all
cities and towns of India suffer from acute form of transport
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87 problems increase and become more complex as the town grows in
size. With its growth, the town performs varied and complex functions
and more peop le travel to work or shop.
7. Water:
Scarcity of water in urban areas is a major problem. Water is one of the
most essential elements of nature to maintain life and right from the
beginning of urban civilisation. However, supply of water started falling
short of dema nd as the cities grew in size and number. Keeping in view
the increased demands for water by the urban population, Central Public
Health and Environmental Engineering Organisation (CPHEEO) fixed
125-200 litres of water per head per day for cities with a popu lation of
more than 50,000, 100-125 litres for population between 10,000 and
50,000 and 70- 100 litres for towns with a population below 10,00 0. On
the other hand The Zakaria Committee recommended the water
requirement per head per day 204 litres for cities with population between
5 lakh and 2 million and 272 litres for cities with population more
than 2 million. This amount of water is supposed to be used for drinking,
kitchen, bathing, cloth washing, floor and vehicle washing and gardening.
8. Sewerage Problems:
Urban areas in India face insufficient and inefficient sewage facilities.
Not a single city in India has proper a rrange ments for treating the
sewerage waste and it is drained into a nearly river or in sea as in
Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai and these activities pollute the water
bodies.Resource crunch faced by the municipalities and unautho rised
growth of the cities are two major causes of this pathetic state of affairs.
9. Trash Disposal:
Urbanisation has led Ind ian cities grow in number and size. But problem
of trash disposal faced by the dwellers is in an alarming stage. Most
cites do not have proper arrangements for garbage disposal. The existing
landfills which are full to the brim are hotbeds of disease. Moreover,
countless poisons leak into their surroundings from these. As a result
huge quantities of garbage produced by the urban inhabitants cause a
serious health problem. Peop le who live near the decomposing garbage
and raw sewage become victims to several diseases such as dysentery,
malaria, plague, jaundice, diarrhoea, and typhoid.
10. Urban Crimes:
Peop le from different walks of life, who have no affinity with one
another, settle in urban centres.With the increase in urbanisation
inhabitants develop different demand and when their want is not satisfied
the problem of crimes increases. The problem of urban crime is
becoming more complicated in current situation because criminals often
get shelter from people of high position in the urban society. Dutt and
Venugopal (1983) stated that violent urban crimes such as rape, murder,
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88 the nation. Even the economic crimes such as theft, cheating, breach of
trust are concentrated in the north- central region. Poverty related crimes
are prevalent in the cities of Patna, Darbhanga, Gaya and Munger. This
may be due to poverty existing in this area.
11. Problem of Urban Pollution:
With rapid pace of urbanisation, industries and transport systems grow
rather out of proportion. These developments are primarily responsible
for pollution of environment, particularly the urban environment.
5.8.3. Remedy to the problems of urbanization in India
India’s population is rapidly increasing. According to the estimates of
New McKinsey Global Institute research, cities of India could produce 70
percent of net new jobs by 2030, may gene rate around 70 percent of
Indian GDP, and drive a near fourfold increase in per capita incomes
across the country.
The government must focus on two critical factors, solid waste
manage ment and waste water treatment to manage city system and fulfil
the great demands of inhabitants due to the rapid urbanization. The
Gujarat government on its part has taken up 50 towns in the state and took
initiatives like 'Clean city, Green city' in partnership to execute solid
waste management and waste water treatment. There is an urgent need to
develop social mechanisms which will assist to reduce inequality and
make sure the basics like health, sanitation, education to reach those who
have been unde rprivileged of the same. Most of the u rban actions
are technical but the employees who do these jobs are often clerical
level therefore there must be focus on opening universities on urban
planning, urban infrastructure, urban development for the assistance of
young peop le to learn how to meet the demands of urbanization. To
lessen urban crime, the police staffs in urban areas need a specific
training to maintain demands of the law and order situation.
To summarize, it may be said, urbanisation is the substantial expansion of
urban areas due to rural migration and it is strongly related to
modernization, industrialization, and the sociological process of
rationalization. Urbanization occurred in developing countries due to t he
eagerness of government to accomplish a developed city status. Hence,
almost all area in the city has been developed not even leaving the green
areas. These are also turned into industrial or business centres. Explosive
growth in the world population and migration of people to urban centres
hamper the quality of life in these urban centres as well as the life-
supporting capacity of the planet ecologically and communally. Many
researchers believe that urbanization is good for the financial growth
of country but careful planning is required to develop cities and offer
basic amenities for healthy living.

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89 5.9 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF TOWNS
5.9.1 Introduction
Sustainable development means attaining a balance between
environmental protection present and future needs. It means equity in
development and sectoral actions across space and time. It requires an
integration of economic, social and environmental approaches towards
development. Sustainable urban development refers to attaining
social equity and environmental protection in urbanization while
minimizing the costs of urbanization.
A conference was convened by UN General Assembly on the “human
environment” at Stockholm in June 1972. This came out with
guiding principles on human environment. In this conference
emphasize was put on man’s fundamental right to environment of quality.
It has also stressed that man has a responsibility towards protecting the
environment for present and future generations. It also established
the point that natural resources of the earth must be safeguarded
for the benefit of present and future gene rations.
After a decade, the World Comm ission on Environment and
Development was created in1983, to address the issues concerning
continuing depletion of natural resources and unsustainable development.
This is popularly known as Brundtland Commission (1983). It described
sustainable development as development that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future gene rations to meet
their own nee ds.
After twenty years of Stockholm Declaration, the UN Conference on
“Environment and Development” (also known as Earth Summit.) was
held at Rio-de Janeiro in 1992 that adopted an action plan, popularly
known as Agenda 21. The agenda 21 promised to reduce poverty,
provide clean water and health care, and protect the natural
resources and many others. While explaining implications of climate
change for sustainable development, the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) stressed on the importance of social and
environmental equity in development. Thus to attain sustainable
development all the major world conferences and initiatives taken so far
on environment and development have stressed on economically
viable development, socially equitable development and protection of
the environment. Sustainable urban development means achieving
a balance between the development of the urban areas and protection of
the environment with an eye to equity in employment, shelter, basic
services, social infrastructure and transportation in the urban areas.
Rapid growth of urban population around the world has given rise to
wide awareness to the people. As a result thoughts about minimizing the
environmental costs of urbanization have developed. Concerns are raised
at environmental damages and depletion of non-renewable resources and
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90 become places of urban environmental degradation and wasteful use of
resources, which is proving to be costly to generations present and
future. The solution to these problems is that we should resort to
environmentally sustainable economic development and minimize the
depletion of non-renewable resources. But this has to be done in ways that
are socially, economically and po litically acceptable. While planning for
sustainable development of the towns, we should also take into
account the factor of climate change. According to this, ensuring
environmental sustainability means taking steps, which include a)
integration of the principles of sustainable development in the
policies and programmes of the country, b) reversal of loss of
environmental resources, c) reduction of the p roportion of people without
sustainable access to safe drinking water, d) improving the lives of slum
dwellers.
A common problem of today is the fact that the world’s population is
using up natural resources in a faster pace than it takes the earth to
regenerate it. In a ddition, the rapid population growth and the increasing
urbanization put a strain on governments to manage the flow of people
into urban areas. The consequence of these processes generates a stress
on the environment as well as the human society.
5.9.2 Effects of Environm ent and Climate Change on Sustainability
in Urban Development
While planning for sustainable development of the towns, the factor of
climate change must be taken into consideration. One of the major
challenges that today’s world is facing is climate change. These changes
can be caused by dynamic process on earth, external forces including
variations in sunlight intensity and more recently by human activities.
Human influences can be by increase in CO2 levels due to combustion of
fossil fuels, aerosols, cement manufacture etc. Other factors like ozone
depletion, animal agriculture and deforestation also change climate. The
effect of climate change can be found on among other things, on rising
sea level that may accelerate coastal erosion, on increasing
temperature, on increase in intensity of natural disaster, and very
importantly on vector borne diseases.
Urban areas mostly face problems of air quality pollution, greenhouse
gases, and un sustainable consumption and of inadequate sanitation and
water supply. Thus environmental sustainability of urban form should aim
at energy efficiency in transport and buildings. Also there must be
optimal planning solutions in terms of locations, distances and spaces,
which will reduce air and noise pollution. Sustainable management
of sanitation, water supply, equity in provision of services and
reduction in deforestation include other aims.
5.9.3. Definition: Sustainable City
A city which is designed with consideration of environmental impact is
known as a sustainable city. Here the inhabitants are dedicated to
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91 output of heat, air pollution and water pollution. This is also known as
"Eco city.” Richard Register first coined the term "Eco city" in his
1987 book. Usually developmental experts opine that a sustainable city
should meet the needs of the present without sacrificing the ability of
future generations to me et their own needs. The ambiguity within this
idea leads to a great deal of variation in terms of how cities carry out
their attempts to become sustainable. In a sustainable city life functions
across the four domains: ecology, economics, politics and culture. Thus,
at first a sustainable city should be able to feed itself with a
sustainable reliance on the surrounding countryside. Secondly, it
should be able to power itself with renewable sources of energy.
 Building sustainable cities
Urban planning, transport systems, water, sanitation, waste
management, disaster risk reduction, access to information, education
and capacity-building are all relevant issues to sustainable urban
development.
Cities are centres for ideas, commerce, culture, science, and productivity,
social, human and economic development. On the other hand, city-
dwellers are the most important part of the sustainable city as they
gene rate both tangible and intangible demands such as the wherewithal to
feed and ho use themselves along with the need for education, training,
culture and a meeting place. Sustainable cities are built to give them
priority in cities. Thus the “citizens’ city” is built by every social class,
including the excluded and the middle classes or in short who inhab it it.
The citizens themselves take charge to make the cities more pleasant to
live in.
The city-dwellers’ constant move by public and other transports gene rate
congestion and paralyse traffic. So while we build a road, we must
begin by designing the pavement, then the cycle track, followed by a bus
lane and then the car lanes. This will be an excellent action almost the
reverse of current practice.
Human settlements
According to the UN-HABITAT Global Activity Report 2015, in the
last century, the world has been rapidly urbanizing. In 2008, urban
population outnumbered rural popu lation and marked the advent of a
new ‘urban millennium’. By 2050, it is expected that two-thirds of the
world population will be living in urban areas. With more than half of
humankind living in cities and the number of urban residents
growing by nearly 73 million every year it is estimated that urban
areas account for 70 per cent of the world’s gross domestic product and
has therefore generated economic growth and prosperity for many.
Practical achievement
There are several means through ecological cities are achieved.
They are stated under: munotes.in

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92  Inclusion of different agricultural systems like agricultural plots
within the city which will in turn reduce the distance food has to cover
from f ield to fork. This may be done by either small scale/
private farming plots or through larger scale agriculture (e.g. farm
scrapers).
 Renewable ene rgy sources, such as wind turbines, solar panels,
or bio-gas created from sewage. Cities provide economies of scale
that make such energy sources viable.
 Use of various methods in the urban areas so that the need for air
conditioning is reduced. Planting trees, lightening surface colours,
natural ventilation systems, an increase in water features, and
green spaces equa lling at least 20% of the city's surface should be
taken into consideration. The abundance of tarmac and asphalt in the
cities make it several degrees warmer than surrounding rural areas.
These measures counter this "heat island effect".
 To reduce car emissions modern and improved public transport is
used. An increase in pedestrianization is another measure taken.
 Optimal building density to make public transport viable but
avoid the creation of urban heat islands.
 Solutions must be found out to decrease urban sprawl. This
should be done in such a way so that peop le could live closer to the
workspace that tends to be in the city, downtown, or urban centre.
Solutions worked out by the Smart Growth Movement are one of
the new ways to achieve this.
 Green roofs
 Sustainable transport
 Zero-energy building
 Sustainable urban drainage systems or SUDS
 Energy conservation systems/devices
 Xeriscaping - garden and landscape design for water conservation
 Key Performance Indicators - development and operational
management tool providing guidance and M&V for city
administrators.
Architecture
Buildings provide the infrastructure for a functioning city and allow for
many opportunities to demonstrate a commitment to sustainability. A
commitment to sustainable architecture encompasses all phases of
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93 Eco-industrial Park
An eco-industrial park connects a nu mber of firms and organizations.
These again work together to decrease their environmental impact and
simultaneously improve their economic performance. This goal is
attainted through collaboration in managing environmental and
resource issues, such as energy, water, and materials.
There are several components for building an eco-industrial park. These
are natural systems, more efficient use of energy, and more efficient
material and water flows. Industrial parks must be built in such a way
so that these fit into their natural settings. This will in turn reduce
environmental impacts, accomplished through plant design, landscaping,
and choice of materials. For example an industrial park in Michigan built
by Pho enix Designs is made almost entirely from recycled materials.
Native trees, grasses, and flowers are included in the landscaping of the
building. The design of the landscape is made in such a way so as to act
as climate shelter for the facility. While selecting the building materials
the designers should consider the life-cycle analysis of each medium used
for the construction of building to assess their true impact on the
environment as well as steam conne ctions from firms to provide heating
for homes in the area, and using renewable energy such as wind and solar
power.
The companies in an eco-industrial park may have common waste
treatment facilities, a means for transporting by-products from one
plant to another. Anchoring the park around resource recovery companies
that are recruited to the location or started from scratch is
another field that the companies have. Moreover, the processed
water from one plant can be reused by another and the parks
infrastructure can include a way to collect and reuse storm water
runoff. In this waythe parks may have more efficient water flows in them.
Urban farming
By urban farming it is meant a process of growing and distributing food
in and around a city or in urban area. It also includes raising
animals in the farm. According to the RUAF Foundation, urban
farming is different from rural agriculture because "it is integrated
into the urban economic and ecological system: urban agriculture is
embe dded in -and interacting with- the urban ecosystem. Such linkages
include the use of urban residents as labourers, use of typical urban
resources (like organic waste as compost and urban wastewater for
irrigation), direct links with urban consumers, direct impacts on
urban ecology (positive and negative), being part of the u rban food
system, competing for land with other urban functions, being influenced
by urban policies and plans, etc”.
Apart from other motivations behind urban agriculture, creating a
sustainable city is an important one as this method of food cultivation
saves energy in food transportation and hence saves costs. If cities
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94 common area or a farmers market where the foodstuffs grown within the
city can be sold to the residents of the urban system, urban farming will
be a successful method of sustainable food growth.
Urban infill
Many cities show a significant geographic distribution of population or in
other words a shift from the suburban sprawl model of developme nt to a
return to urban dense living. This shift leads to a den ser core of city
residents. The increasing demand of the residents in various sectors
of the city is reflected in the architectural fabric of the same.
This demand may be fulfilled by new construction. Sustainable
cities will opt for historical rehabilitation wherever possible.
When people live in higher densities it gives economies of scale and
allows infrastructure to be more efficient.
Walk able urbanism
A development strategy in opposition to suburban sprawl is called walk
able urbanism advocating housing for a diverse population, a full mix
of uses, walk able streets, positive public space, integrated civic and
commercial centres, transit orientation and accessible open space. It also
advocates for density and accessibility of commercial and government
activity.
Individual buildings (LEED)
LEED, or Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design, is an
internationally recognized green building certification system. LEED
recognizes whole building sustainable design by identifying key areas
of excellence including: Sustainable Sites, Water Efficiency, Energy and
Atmosphere, Materials and Resources, Indoor En vironmental Quality,
Locations & Linkages, Awareness and Education, Innovation in Design,
Regional Priority.
Transportation
At present, transportation systems account for nearly a quarter of the
world’s energy consumption and carbon dioxide emission. Sustainable
city’s primary focus is laid on, sustainable transportation system. It
attempts to reduce the u se of greenhouse emitting gases by ut ilizing eco-
friendly urban planning, vehicles having low environmental impact,
and residential proximity to create an urban centre that has greater
environmental responsibility and social equity.
Sustainable transportation put stress on th ree grounds in order to
reduce the environmental impact caused by transportation in
metropolitan areas, like carbon trust, car free city and carbon footprint.
The Carbon Trust states that b etter land use planning, modal shift to
encourage people to choose more efficient forms of transport and ma king
existing transport modes more efficient will make transport more
sustainable decreasing journey times. Car free cities or a city with large munotes.in

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95 pede strian areas is another important concept to design a sustainable
city. Carbon footprint of a city is gene rated by cars so the car free
concept is often considered an integral part of the design of a sustainable
city.
Emphasis on proximity: Moreover, emphasis on proximity is an
essential element of current and future sustainable transportation systems.
Hence cities will be built with app ropriate population and landmark
density so that de stinations are reached with reduced time in transit.
With the reduced time in transit reduced fuel expenditure will be there.
Alternative means of transportation such as bike riding and walking will
gain importance. Close proximity of residents and major landmarks
eliminate long sprawled out routes and hence reduce commute time.
As a result social cost to residents decreases because the peop le who
chose to live in these cities will be able to have more time with families
and friends.
Diversity in modes of transportation: Sustainable transportation
empha sizes the u se of a diversity of fuel-efficient transportation
vehicles in order to reduce greenhouse emissions and diversity fuel
demand. Among the different modes of transportation, the use alternative
energy cars and widespread instillation of refuelling stations has gained
increasing importance, while the creation of centralized bike and
walking paths remains a staple of the sustainable transportation
movement.
Access to transportation: Public transportation will be more accessible
if the cost of rides is affordable and stations are located within a walking
distance in every part of the city. This highly affects the lower income
residents because cheap and available transportation will allow
individuals to seek employment oppo rtunities all over the urban
centre beside the area in which they live. This in turn reduces
unemployment and a number of associated social problems such as
crime, drug use, and violence.
Urban strategic planning
An organization, the United Cities and Local Governments (UCLG) is
working to establish universal urban strategic guidelines. The UCLC a
demo cratic and decentralized structure that operates in Africa, Asia,
Eurasia, Europe, Latin America, North America, Middle East, West
Asian and a Met ropolitan section work to promote a more sustainable
society. The 60 members of the UCLG committee evaluate urban
development strategies. An International conference is going to be held in
Italy at Universitàdel Salen to and Universitàdegli Studidella Basilicata
called ‘Green Urbanism’ from 12–14 October 2016.
Obstacles
The City Development Strategies (CDS) has evolved to address new
challenges. There are differences between regional and national
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96 5.10 SUSTAINABLE DEVE LOPMENT OF TOWNS
IN INDIA
India’s urban popu lation is expected to increase from 377 million in
2011 to 590 million by 2030. By 2030 it is predicted that 68 Indian
cities will each have more than one million inhabitants, and six
mega cities, more than ten m illion each. As Indian cities are urbanizing at
an unprecedented scale and pace its urban settlements need
efficient infrastructure and smart city planning. This will in turn meet
the demands of a growing population in the country. The key elements for
sustainable urban development are access to healthcare and drinking
water, a reliable power supply and public transportation.
India’s demog raphic status states that an increasing number of Indians
are leaving rural areas to seek employment in cities, relying on
efficient urban infrastructure. Thus the rapid growth of cities faces
innume rable challenges. This includes insufficient power supply,
unreliable public transportation systems and limited access to adequate
medical treatment. So it is very obvious that to meet the challenges of
continuing growth without destroying the environment, smart city
planning for sustainable development is crucial.
In In dia there are great regional disparities in terms of economic growth
and specialization. Under typical patte rns of economic development,
countries or areas tend to go through labour-intensive manufacturing
cycles before they specialize. But according to a 2006 International
Monetary Fund working paper in India, fast growth in states or a reas
have skipped steps in the economic development models and focused
where they appear to have comparative advantage. That is, leading
regions like Delhi, Karnataka (Bangalore), and Maharashtra (Mumbai)
which embraced the IT wave with their first-tier cities, have realized
faster growth and rising incomes alongside better infrastructure offerings.
Conversely, slow growth or lagging regions like Bihar, Madhya Pradesh,
Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh grow with less-educated populations.
These regions are expected to have more traditional economic growth and
development patterns.
Moreover in India problem also lies in her existing urban transport
infrastructure because it is already over-burdened with the high rate of
traffic fatalities, increasing air pollution and greenhou se gas emissions,
congestion, and u rban sprawl. Hence it has become very urgent to
improve the quality of city life now so that it benefits our future
generations.
5.10.1. Effects of Environment and Climate Change on Sustainability
in Urban Development in India
It is presumed that climate change will hamper sustainable development
of India. In India extreme climatic events like heat wave, intense rain,
floods and droughts is present. Mumbai in India had recorded heavy
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97 droughts between 2000 and 2002 caused crop failures, mass
starvation and affected millions of people in Odisha. Increased stress
on water stands out to be a major problem for India. Simultaneously
as a result of global warming glacier is melting at a faster rate
which will cause glacial melt- related floods, slope destabilisation and a
decrease in river flows as glaciers recede. The researchers have opined
that with the current trend in the melt of glaciers, the Ganga, Indus,
Brahmaputra and other rivers could likely become seasonal rivers in the
near future and affect the lives of people residing around them. Thus, it is
likely that climate change will hamper sustainable development of
India as it increases the pressures on natural resources and the
environment associated with rapid urbanization, industrialisation and
economic development.
5.10.2. Urban Basic Services in India
Shortcomings:
Aim of sustainable city planning is to a chieve social and
environmental equity while improving the lives of the people. For this
we need to have a sustainable city form. The provision and proper
management of the services are other functions must be present in the
city. Hence, in order to turn a city or urban area into a sustainable one it
needs to produce and manage basic services like water, waste, energy,
and transportation in a way that it conforms to the principles of
sustainable development. In other words, the city should be able to
produce and distribute the services in an economic, environment friendly
and equitable way.
Cities in the developing countries are deficient in the provision of
basic services that pollute the environment. It is to be noted that though
there are some differences between cities and between rich and poor
nations, in general urban infrastructure systems are designed without
much attention to environmental and social impacts. Mostly the
delivery of the services like water, energy, waste, transportation, is
based on no n-renewable energy sources. Moreover, the inequa lity in the
provision of these services is very high. Indian cities are characterized by
high density of population, deficiency in services and air pollution. As
we can see in urban India in 2001, 69 per cent of the households
had safe drinking water, 61 per cent of the households had their latrine
facilities within their houses and only 35 per cent of the households had
closed drainage facilities (Census 2001). Eighty eight per cent (88%) of
the urban households had electricity and only 0.2 per cent had solar
energy in 2001(Census, 2001). In Delhi, the capital city of India, 77 per
cent of the urban households had tap as source of drinking water, 63 per
cent had their latrine facilities within their premises and 52 per cent of the
households had closed drainage facilities.
Air pollution has become a major problem in Indian cities. Taking the
case of Delhi, we find that there are around 54 lakh vehicles in Delhi.
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98 vehicles. It has been found in a World Bank study based on 1994-95 air
quality data that around 10,000 people die every year prematurely due to
air pollution in Delhi alone. According to Delhi Medical Association the
incidence of asthma in Delhi is ten times the national average (Centre for
Science and Environment). Densities of Indian cities are very high.
Management of the basic services should be done keeping in mind the
deficiency in the services, the environmental impacts and the inequa lity in
the provision of the services.
5.10.3. Sustainable Management of Urban Basic Services
Water supply management:
The effect of climate change on water supply will have negative impact in
almost all of the nations of the world. Hence we should take care so that
energy efficient alternative systems are innovated. For an efficient
practice we can limit our water consumption by using raw water, recycled
water for gardening and landscaping. In the state of Vermont,
U.S.A., a wastewater treatment system uses a series of tanks containing
plants and other organisms to naturally clean wastewater that
serves 500,000 people per year.
In Ind ia the water from Sewage Treatment Plants (STP) in factories are
used for landscaping and gardening. It has been considered as an optional
reform under Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission
(JNNUR M) in India. In Delhi marsh land and water bodies have
been converted in residential areas, garbage dumps, petrol pumps etc.
Marshlands recharge ground water substantially.
Was te management:
Reuse of various things like meta ls, glass, paper, plastic, textiles,
organic waste and water will reduce demand for energy, raw materials,
fertilizers and fresh water sources. Therefore waste management practices
should be started from an ea rly stage of an economic activity that is the
production and distribution stages. This should be done through reuse and
recycling as well as taking care about hazardous wastes so that those do
not go for recycling. Use of plastic should be less. In Delhi more than
5000 tons of municipal solid waste is generated everyday, which is
disposed of in landfills. Danger of ground water contamination is created
with too much consumption of land for disposal.
The department of environment of the g overnment of India recommended
that waste management should be adopted in a large scale including
the practices like vermiculture, pelletisation, aerobic compo sting and
many others.
Energy management:
While planning buildings and the cities there should be energy
manage ment practices. Buildings and city forms must be energy
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99 India there are very few settlements that use solar power, water
recycling techniques and waste manage ment practices. But to have a
sustainable urban settlement the environment friendly techniques are to
be followed. But these are yet to be practiced in urban areas, especially
in large cities where the differences would be felt.
City forms should use energy efficient transport.
Reduction in inequality:
Regarding management of basic services in the cities the inequality
between rich and poor should be reduced in services. City form
should take into account social conditions also. Apart from deficient,
non-environment friendly and un equal basic services, the other
major problem in developing a sustainable city form in India is inefficient
land policy of the country.
Inefficient Land Policy of India
Land is an important input for producing goods and services for urban
development. Sustainable urban development takes care of social and
environmental effects. It maintains balance between the development
of the areas and protection of the environment. This development
keeps an eye on equity in emp loyment, shelter, basic services, social
infrastructure and transportation in the urban areas. Hence the land should
be properly used to meet these objectives.
Urban India is suffers from shortage of housing facilities and scarcity of
land which causes hindrances for construction and developments of
roads, footpaths, parks, schools etc. the inadequate, inefficient,
iniquitous land policy of the country are the roots cause of these
problems. Thus an effective and appropriate land policy is important to
promote sustainable development. National Commission on
Urbanization of India (NCU, 1988) recognized the need for adeq uate
supply of land, efficiency and equity in allocation of land and promot ion
of flexibility in land use.
Conclusion:
The most difficult part of sustainable city is to create the smallest
possible ecological footprint. The production of lowest quantity of
pollution, efficient use of land along with compost use of materials,
recycling or convert the waste-to-energy are some other actions to be
taken in a sustainable city. If such practices are adhe red to the city's
overall contribution to climate change will be minimal. It is estimated that
over 50% of the world’s population now lives in cities and urban areas.
So the majority of the world’s population being urban, there are many
problems with the modern city such as, the city pu lls people spatially
from the productive rural land leaving them depen dent on resources
from rural areas. Secondly in the cities water, air and natural
resources are considered free, resulting in serious environmental
problems affecting human health and quality of life. Thirdly, cities munotes.in

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100 are reflections of the values embedded in the legal constructions on which
society is based, which is why it is difficult to ma ke a fundamental
change as these values needs to be re-evaluated. Beside these
problems a city has a positive side too. As there is high concentration
of dwellers on a limited area, if properly planned and managed cities
could support this high density of people with a limited impact on the
environment with benefits for the economy and the human health. To
summarise it may be said that these large urban communities provide
both challenges and opportunities for e nvironmentally-conscious
developers, and there are distinct advantages to further defining and
working towards the goals of sustainable cities. Humans are social beings
and thrive in urban spaces that foster social connections. Because of this,
a shift to denser, urban living would provide an outlet for social
interaction and conditions under which humans can prosper. Urban
systems can be more environmentally sustainable than rural or
suburban living as both city dwellers and resource are located very
close to one another. Thus it is possible to save energy for
transportation and mass transit systems, and resources such as food.
Finally, cities benefit the economy by locating human capital in one
relatively small geographic area where ideas can be generated.
However, in developing countries the main challenge is to provide clean
drinking water to all the urban residents adopting sustainable water
management practices. Rainwater harvesting has its possibilities for
partially managing water supply. Conservation of old water bodies like
lakes, ponds can be m ade for increased and sustainable water supply.
5.11 SUMMARY:
In this chapter we have learnt about the trends in urbanisation
and the causes of urban growth. The demography, health,
environmental and social consequences of urbanisation has also been
learnt. Urbanisation occurs mainly because people move from rural areas
to urban areas. We have come to know that more than half of the world’s
population lives in urban areas. As a result of the ongoing urbanisation
there is immense growth of the world’s population. The world’s urban
areas are highly varied. These changes in population lead to other
changes in land use, economic activity and culture. The extent of urban
areas are facing problems such as a lack of jobs, homelessness and
expanding squatter settlements, inadequate services and infrastructure,
poor health and educational services and high levels of pollution.
5.12 CHE CK YOUR PROGRES S/ EXERCISE
1. True or false
a. By around A.D. 1810 the New York City was the first urban
settlement to reach a population of one million.
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101 b. An urban settlement has a large popu lation size and a high
population density.
c. Joint families are more popu lar in urban areas.
d. Voluntary associations such as clubs, societies and other
seconda ry groups are formed by urban societies.
e. Industry is considered as the discrete phenomenon in the urban
settlement around the world.
2. Fill in the blanks
a. With the increase in urbanisation inhabitants develop different
demand and when their want is not satisfied the problem of -----
---increases.
b. With rapid pace of urbanisation, industries and transport
systems grow rather out of ----------------
c. A city which is designed with consideration of
environmentalimpact is known as a------------ city
d. Increase in---------- is one of the measures taken to reduce car
emissions
e. Due to urbanization, there is------------ especially in the quality of
water, air and noise.
3. Multiple choice questionegradation
a. The idea of urbanism in India is somewhat different from that of the
west because
i. here the rural urban distinction has always been very sharp.
ii. here the rural urban distinction has never been very sharp.
iii. here is no rural urban distinction at all.
b. A Push factor is someth ing that can force or encourage peo ple
i. to move away from urban area
ii. to move away from rural area
iii. to stay back in rural area
c. Urbanisation in the city of Mumb ai is an example of
i. coastal location
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102 d. Major cities with internet connections and mobile phone network
has made it easier for businesses
i. to communicate with student and teachers.
ii. to communicate with farmers and seed suppliers.
iii. to communicate with custome rs and suppliers.
e. Rural people have migrated to urban areas on account of
i. better employment opportunities
ii. better entertainment opportunities
iii. better education opportunities
4. Answers the following Questions
1. What is urbanisation? State how the physical factors affect
urbanisation.
2. What are the economic factors that affect urbanisation?
3. What are the three components of urban population growth?
4. Whatis the present day scenario of world urbanisation?
5. Write a short note on Global urban population.
6. What are the problems of urbanisation?
7. What are the possible remedies for the urbanization issues and
problems at global level?
8. State the major problems of urbanisation in India?
9. What are the effects of environment and Climate change on
sustainability in urban development?
10. Define sustainable city.
11. State the role of transportation in sustainable development of
town.
12. What are the sustainable mana gement of urban basic services in
India?
13. Write a short note on Inefficient Land Policy of India.


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103 5.13 ANSWERS TO THE SELF LEARNING
QUESTIONS.
a. false, city of London
1.b. true
1.c. false, Nuclear
1.d. true
1.e. false, City
2.a. crimes
2.b. proportion
2.c. sustainable
2.d. pede strianization
2.e. environmental
3.a.i.
3.b.ii
3.c.i.
3.d.iii.
3.e.i.
5.14 TECHN ICAL WORDS:
1. Sustainable- able to be maintained at a certain rate or level
2. Pedestrianization- the restriction of access to a street to pedestrians
only, where vehicles are not allowed to go
3. Environm ental-relating to the environment
4. Energy management-planning and operation of energy production
along with energy consumption units
5. Vermiculture-the raising and production of earthworms and their
by-products especially in order to use them to convert organic waste
into fertilizer
6. Palle tization: Method of storing and transporting goods stacked on a
pallet, and shipped as a unit load
7. Aerobic composting-is decomposition of organic matter using
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104 5.15 TASK
1. In a chart write the definition of urbanisation and with the help of
bullets state how the physical factors affect urbanisation.
2. In a chart draw a map of India and in it write downthe major
problems of urbanisation in India.
5.16 REFERE NCES FOR FURTHER STUDY
 Emerging Frontiers of Urban Settlement Geography, By
 SantBaha dur Singh
 Ghosh, S. (1999) A Geography of Settlements, Orient Longman,
Kolkata.
 Hill, M. (2003) Rural Settlement and the Urban Impact on the
Countryside, Hodderb& Stoughton, London.
 Dikshit, J. K. (ed) (2009 )The Urban Fringe of Indian Cities,
Rawat Publication, Jaipur
 Kaplan, D. H., Wheeler, J. O. and Holloway, S. R. (2008) Urban
Geography, John Wiley.
 Misra, R.P. (ed) (2013) Urbanization in South Asia: Focus on
Mega-Cities, Cambridge University Press, New Delhi.
 Census of India, 2011
 Economic and Social Geography - Made Simple, Rupa
Publishers
 Oxford English Dictionary
 Geography by Yash Pal Singh
 Manda l, R. B. (2001) Urban Geography, Concept Publications,
New Delhi.
 Singh, R. Y. (2005) The Geography of Settlement, Rawat
Publication, Jaipur.
 Hudson, Settlement Geography.
 Govt. of India, Planning Commission (2008). Eleventh Five Year
Plan, 2007 -2012 vol. III. Oxford, India.
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