FYBMS-Foundation-of-human-skills-SEM-I-munotes

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1 1 UNDERSTANDING OF HUMAN NATURE Unit Structure 1.1 Concept of Man 1.2 Individual Differences 1.3 Factors Affecting Individual Difference 1.4 Determinants of Personality 1.5 Personality Traits Theory 1.6 Big Five Model 1.7 Personality Traits Important for Organisational Behaviour 1.8 Johari Window 1.9 Nature and Components of Attitude 1.10 Functions of Attitudes 1.11 Ways of Chhanging Attude 1.12 Reading Emotions 1.13 Thinking Skills, Thinkinh Styles and Thinking Hats 1.14 Managerial Skill and Development 1.15 Characteristics of Learning 1.16 Theories of Learning 1.17 Intelligence and Types 1.18 Perception – Features and Factors Influencing Individual Perception 1.19 Effects of Perceptual Error in Managerial Decision-making at Workplace 1.1 CONCEPT OF MAN Individuals differ in their behaviour because of individual differences. A manager has to deal with various types of employees. To increase his effectiveness, he needs to understand the basic assumptions that are made in terms of human nature. Managerial actions are taken or the basis of these assumptions. The assumptions guide him. Since a long period of time managerial actions are taken based on these assumptions. A number of models of man have been developed in terms of nature behaviour and different strategies that management needs to adopt while dealing with employees. Schien has identified four models of man, they are: (1) Rational-Economic man (2) Social man munotes.in

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2 (3) Self-actualizing man and (4) Complex man One more model of man can be added to these models, the organization man identified by Mr. Whyte. It fits between social man and self-actualizing man. These models of man are in the order of their origin. (1) Rational -Economic man - (a) It is the earliest model of man. (b) this model of man is based on the principle of maximizing self-interest. (c) According to this model, two things determine the maximization of self-interest. (d) First one is that Rational-economic man can calculate the cost of his efforts for getting any incentive. He can also calculate the value of the incentive that he receives for his efforts. (e) Second one is that man can evaluate all the alternatives as well as he is able to know all the alternatives available. (f) Hence, he maximizes his self-interest by putting efforts equal to incentives. Following are the assumptions relating to Rational-economic man: i) Man is basically motivated by economic incentives and will only do things that maximize his economic returns. ii) People can be made to put more efforts by giving more economic incentives. iii) With more production, both organization and employees are happy. iv) There is no conflict between employees and organization as both are satisfying their needs. (2) Social man - (a) The model of social man is based on the principle that man is a part of the society. (b) Man is affected by society and wants to satisfy those needs that help him in maintaining social relationships. This belief has led to human relations approach in management. The following are the assumptions related to social man: i) Man is mainly motivated by his social needs and he puts all his efforts to satisfy this need by maintaining relationships with people. munotes.in

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of Human Nature ii) Man reacts more positively to group pressure rather than the pressure of the management, because Man values social relationships more than economic incentives. iii) Management should organize work in such a way that provides a sense of belongingness in terms of interpersonal relationships as well as man's relationship with his job. iv) The manager should not focus only on the task but should also focus on the people. When a manager gives importance to people's needs over the needs of the task, it leads to greater productivity and high morale. v) More than being concerned about motivating people through economic incentives, a manager should be concerned about employee's feelings about their belongingness. vi) A manager should be a facilitator and supporter than being a controller of behaviour for individuals. vii) Hence, the whole system of social man gives importance to people. (3) Organization man - a) Organization man is an extension of social man. b) This model is based on the group and organization. c) It is based on the principle of value of loyalty to the organization and co-operation with other employees. d) According to this model, organization man is guided by social ethics (morals) following are the assumptions related to organization man: I) The group is the main source of creating. The individual on his own is isolated and meaningless. II) An individual can create only when he joins other people. In groups, an individual is able to produce more than he could produce alone. III) Belongingness is the most important need of the individual. There should be no conflicts between individual and society because what is generally considered as conflict is a simple misunderstanding which can be solved. (IV) The concept of organization man states that there is no conflict between organization and employees and if there is any then organization will take care of it. According to this concept management should design its actions, for satisfying employees. (4) Self - actualizing man (a) Self-actualizing man is an extension of organization man and social man. munotes.in

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4 (b) It is based on Maslow's theory of human needs, which while allowing the fulfilment of other needs, gives importance to an individual's need for self-fulfillment as the prime motivator. (c) This model makes the following assumptions: I) An individual is self-motivated and self-controlled. II) He matures on the job. III) The various needs of man may be put in a hierarchy Maslow had put various needs in a hierarchy. Self-Actualizing Needs Esteem Needs Social Needs Safety Needs Physiological Needs iv) As he satisfies the needs according to the hierarchy, any unsatisfied need is a motivating factor for man. v) Self-actualizing is his final goal because most of his basic needs are fulfilled by then. (vi) Man moves from immaturity to maturity in self-actualizing model. (vii) External (outside) controls and pressures reduce individual's autonomy and hence, affect his motivation. (5) Complex man - (a) Complex man is based on the principle that people are complex and have many motives which combine into a complex motive pattern. This model makes the following assumptions: i) People are variable individual has many motives which he arranges in a hierarchy. The hierarchy cannot be universal that is all the people will have different motives and different hierarchies. ii) Also, the hierarchy of motives of an individual change from time to time and situation to situation. iii) An individual act as per managerial strategies whether he will act in a given way or not will depend on the individual's needs at that time. iv) Earlier models which we discussed above assume that individual's will always behave according to a particular set pattern while this theory believes that a person is complex and does not behave as per a set pattern because all people have different motives. munotes.in

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of Human Nature v) Human needs fall into many categories and change as per the person' s stage of personal development and situation. vi) Hence, managers need to understand the difference in needs. One-size-fits-all is not suitable in dealing with all employees. 1.2 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES One of the most obvious things amongst individuals is that they differ each and every person in this world is different from another in some way or the other. Each individual is unique. For example: Each individual has different height, weight, texture of skin. Colour of hair, colour of eyes, complexion, ability, intelligence, aptitudes, attitudes, interests, achievement, personality, etc. While assigning different jobs to different individuals the manager has to analyses the differences amongst individuals in such a way that their work is done efficiently and effectively. Individual Differences mean those differences in a particular person that distinguish that person from another person and makes that particular person a unique person. 1.3 FACTORS AFFECTING INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCE An organization consists of a number of individuals. Each individual this has diligent attitude, aptitude, intelligence, values, abilities etc. all the individual's different. Makes the behaviour of Individual's Behaviour at work is influenced by a number of factors. 1) Organizational Factors-
An individual's behaviour is affected by organizational factors such as physical facilities, reward system, leadership, etc. (A) Physical facilities: (a) The physical facilities provided to an individual at work such as lighting. Painting on walls, air conditioning
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6 facilities, filtered and cool water, space provided for employee, art work, etc. influence an employee's behaviour and also his performance. (b) Employees perform well when they are given good facilities and environment. (B) Reward System: (a) Reward system adopted by an organization motivates an employee to work more. (b) When an organization adopts good reward system the performance of employee increases while when employees are not rewarded properly the performance of employees get reduced. This results in job dissatisfaction and finally change in the job by employees. (C) Leadership style: (a) The leadership system adopted by an organization influences the behaviour of its employees. (b) If the leader is authoritative and dictates his own terms on the employees, the employees may not like it. They may feel like a slave. This results in job dissatisfaction (c) When the leader gives adequate freedom to the employees and is supportive. The employees have high level of satisfaction in their jobs. 2) Environmental Factors: Environmental factors are external factors affecting an individual's behaviours. Environmental factors consist of economic environment political environment, change in technology and cultural Environment Various Environmental factors affecting an individual's behaviour are as follows: A) Economic Environment. An individual works within the framework of economic environment, it affects an individual greatly. Economic environment consists of employment opportunities, rate of Wages and general economic conditions existing in the country. (i) Employment opportunities: (a) Employment opportunities greatly influence an individual's behaviour. (b) When there are more job opportunities, employees change their jobs frequently. They try job at one organization, then they join another one, where there are more opportunities, then they join another one. This cycle continues as they get good munotes.in

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of Human Nature opportunities of job in the market employees are not loyal to their organization. (c) While when there are few opportunities for job, employees have a fear of losing their job, they look for job security while joining a job. (d) The type of job an individual performs also influences an individual's behaviour. For E.g. The behaviour of a manager is different from the behaviour of an employee. The behaviour of a mechanic will be different from the behaviour of a receptionist. (ii) Rate of wages: (a) Wages provide basic facilities of food, clothing and shelter to employees. (b) Wages help an organization in retaining its employees. (c) The behaviour of an employee who is satisfied with his wages is different from the behaviour of an employee who is paid less wage. (d) Wages are also a status symbol and measurement of an employee’s achievement in terms of money. (e) Wages also affect employee's performance. (f) Hence, wages deeply influence an employees or worker's behaviour. (iii) General economic conditions existing in the country: (a) The general economic conditions existing in the country also influence behaviour of employees. (b) The general conditions like the wages, salary paid to employee's in other industries, economic cycles, etc. affect an employee's view about his job. (c) When there is prosperity or boom in the country the employees are paid good money, job security is also there but when there is recession in the country organizations are forced to lay-off some employees, to reduce its costs, this leads to job insecurity. (c) The employees working in public sector organization have different behaviour as compared to the employees who work in private sector organizations. The employees working in public sector have a permanent job while, those in munotes.in

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8 Private sector does not have a permanent job. Public sector employees may be motivated by some other factors as they job security while, private sector employees may be motivated by job security as they do not have relatively permanent job. (d) If other industries pay more wages, salary for the same job, then employees are likely to be dissatisfied by their job. Hence, General Economic conditions affect an individual's behaviour. (B) Change in Technology- (a) Change in technology affects all the employees. However, it has slightly greater impact on employees at lower level. (b) Change in technology takes place in the form of new technology for production, computerization, using automation, etc. (c) Sometimes, employees are not able to adjust to new technology this results in job dissatisfaction and change in job. (d) When the technology is easy to use employees are satisfied with their job and they stay in a job for a longer time. (C) Political Environment- (a) When there is political stability, employees are more satisfied with their jobs as there is security of jobs, more job opportunities are available, the quality of jobs available is also good. (b) While, when the government is not stable, fewer employment opportunities are available. (c) Foreign companies do not invest more capital due to instability, in the country, job available are either related to agricultural sector or labor-intensive industries. Hence, employees are either temporarily employed or are employed in jobs that satisfy their basic needs. (d) The political system of a country also affects behaviour of people some countries practice democracy, some countries practice controlled system. The freedom given by the government affects the educational opportunities, career opportunities, structure of management, etc. munotes.in

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of Human Nature (D) Cultural Environment- (a) Cultural Environment consists of factors that are common to society such as values, beliefs, attitudes, behaviour, preferences, work culture, etc. (b) Every country has its own cultures every society has its own culture for E.g. The culture of high society people is different from the culture of people belonging to the middle-class society and lower section of society. (c) Differences in culture among country to country or society to society, leads to differences in behaviour among people. (d) Values involve an individual's perception about what is right or wrong. An employee's values affect his behaviour to a great extent. (e) An individual's need for achievement also influences his behaviour. An individual with a high need for achievement likes taking responsibility, sets achievable goals and takes less risks while, an individual with a low need to achieve is not responsible, sets unrealistic targets, may take risks, etc. the attitude of both kinds of individuals affects their behaviour in different ways. Individual's with high need to achieve can be easily motivated while, those with low need to achieved cannot be easily motivated. 3) Personal Factors- Personal factors means the personal characteristics of individuals at work, such as age, gender, abilities, education, marital status, experience, etc. (A) Age (a) An individual 's age affects his performance, productivity, satisfaction, and turnover. (b) Following are the general assumptions about an individual's behaviour at work related to his age. (i) An individual's performance differs according to his age. (ii) Younger employees are more productive while older employees may be less productive. (iii) Performance declines with age. (iv) Older employees are more satisfied with their job, so they do not quit job. While, young employees are not satisfied with their jobs, this makes them quit their job frequently. munotes.in

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10 (v) Older employees may not like the use of new technology as they may not be able to adopt to it while, younger employees may find it easier to use new technology as they can adopt it easily. (B) Gender (a) The gender of an employee may also influence his behaviour and skills. (b) Research has shown that females may do better in Jobs that require verbal abilities, perceptual skills and manual movements. For E.g. Secretarial jobs, Stenography, Typing, Handling office work managerial positions, etc. (c) While men may do better in jobs that require Visual-spatial numerical and mechanical ability. For E.g. Accountant, Engineer, etc. However, who will do better at a job also depends on an individual's ability and intelligence. (d) In some organizations, women are not promoted to higher level while men are promoted. (e) Gender of an individual also affects his absenteeism and turnover. It is said that female employees have higher rate of absenteeism as compared to males, because females have to look after their family. (C) Ability (a) An individual possesses a number of abilities. If an individual has got the needed ability to perform a job, then his performance increases, this leads to job satisfaction. (b) While when an employee does not have the needed abilities to perform his job his performance declines as a result, his job satisfaction also declines. (D) Education (a) Level of education of an individual affects his expectations from the job. (b) Educated individuals expect good job, better working conditions higher income, etc. while those who are less educated do not have much expectations from their job they expect basic needs to be met. (c) Educated people are also more talented as they bring along with them more knowledge which helps in performing the job well. munotes.in

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of Human Nature (E) Experience More the experience in the relevant field, better is performance of an individual. (F) Marital Status Married employees look out for steady job and continuous income so, they are more likely to be less absent, and satisfied with their job. 4) Psychological Factors- It includes mental features of an individual such as personality, values, attitudes, learning. Thinking, etc. All these factors influence an individual's behaviour. 1.4 DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY PERSONALITY AND ATTITUDE The team heredity according to G. J. Mendel refers to "the transmission (transfer) of biological characters from parents to their offspring’s (children)." In simple words, it refers to those characteristics which we acquire from our parents. In the simplest of words, heredity refers to the passing of traits or characteristics through genes from one generation (parent) to the other generation (offspring). This heredity is very evidently seen in sexual reproduction, as the variation of characteristics that are inherited is high. Physical attractiveness, muscle composition and reflexes, energy level and biological rhythms are examples of characteristics that are generally considered to be influenced by parents. Our biological, physiological and psychological make-up is inherited from our parents. So, we can say that heredity includes overall influences that are transferred from parents to their children. In the definition given above by G. J. Mendel, Biological characters include overall influences i.e. Biological, Physiological and psychological characters. A person cannot control heredity because it comes from parents We cannot add or subtract anything from our heredity. For e.g. If an individual's parents are shorter in height it is quite possible that he may have a shorter height. He cannot do anything to change his heredity but he can try to do something with the help of environment like he can try to do various exercises and have healthy and nourishing food to increase his height. So, we can say that each person is aresult of heredity and environment. To know how heredity affects our development we must first know how an individual is formed or conception of an individual. munotes.in

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12 1.5 PERSONALITY TRAITS THEORY Trait means a distinguishing Quality or Characteristic, that makes an individual different from others. A trait is a relatively stable characteristic that causes individuals to behave in a certain way. The trait approach to personality gives importance to differences between individuals. Examples of Traits are intelligence, excitement, anger, outgoing between individuals. Reserved, kind, short-tempered, even tempered, etc. The trait theory suggests that individual personalities are made up of a number of traits The combination of various traits forms a personality that is unique to ever individual. Trait Theory identifies and measures these individual personality characteristics. English dictionary contains a large number of words describing different personality traits. It is impossible to predict behaviour due to such a large number of traits. In the beginning Gordon Allport found that English dictionary contained 4,000 words describing various personality traits. Later, Raymond Cattell reduced the number of personality traits to 16 factors. Cattell referred these 16 factors as primary factors Cattell's theory is one of the most important personality trait theory Cattell developed a very popular and widely used personality assessment crown as the sixteen-personality factor questionnaire. Cattell says that each person contains all of the 16 traits to a certain degree, they might be high in some traits and low in the others. The following personality Trait list contains the 16 primary factors and descriptors of low range and high range. Cattle's 16 personality factor model identifies and measures individual personality characteristics on a scale. Descriptor of Low
Range Primary Factor Descriptor of High
Range 1. Reserve Warmth Outgoing 2. Reactive Emotional
Stability Emotionally Stable 3. Silent Liveliness Lively 4. Shy Social Boldness Socially Bold 5. Trusting Vigilance Vigilant 6. Open Privateness Private 7. Traditional Openness to
Change Open to Change 8. Concrete Reasoning Abstract 9. Co-operative Dominance Forceful 10. Non-Confirming Rile
Consciousness Confirming munotes.in

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of Human Nature Descriptor of Low
Range Primary Factor Descriptor of High
Range 11. Tough -Minded Sensitivity Sensitive 12. Practical Abstractedness Abstract(Imaginative) 13. Confident Apprehension Worried 14. Dependent Self-Reliance Self-Reliant 15. Undisciplined Perfectionism Perfectionistic 16. Relaxed Tension Tensed For e.g.: When an individual personality is assessed for the primary factor of warmth. If the primary factor is low in range, then the individual will be term as reserved. 1.6 BIG FIVE MODEL As the name suggests, the basis of this model is that there are five basic dimensions that form the basis of all other personality dimensions. The five basic dimensions can be classified as follows:
(1) Agreeableness -This factor concerns how well people get along with others. While extroversion concerns source of energy and the pursuit of interactions with others, agreeableness concerns one's orientation to others. It is a construct that rests on how an individual generally interacts with others.
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14 (a) Characteristics of individuals who are high in agreeableness are as follow: (i) Individual's high in agreeableness, like getting along with others. (ii) They are pleasant to be around. They work to help others and cooperate well in groups. (iii) hey have positive social interactions and show affection towards others. (iv) They are considerate, friendly, generous and willing to compromise their interests with others and have an optimistic view of human nature. (v) They believe people are trustworthy, decent and honest. (b) Characteristics of individuals who are low in agreeableness are as follows: (i) Individuals low in agreeableness, behave exactly in opposite manner as compared to high agreeable individuals. (ii) They are demanding in groups, disagreeable and antagonistic. (iii) They do not trust other's intentions and lack social skills. (iv) They are manipulative in their social relationships. (v) They are never interested in other's problems. They have little concern for others. (vi) They like to compete rather than cooperate with people. (2) Conscientiousness- Conscientiousness is a trait that can be described as the tendency to control impulses and act in socially acceptable ways, behaviours that facilitate goal-directed behaviour (John & Srivastava, 1999). Conscientious people excel in their ability to delay Gratification, work within the rules, and plan and organize effectively. (a) Characteristics of individual's who Conscientiousness are as follows: (i) They are organized and disciplined. (ii) They have a desire to complete the task with perfection. They are achievement oriented. munotes.in

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of Human Nature (iii) They have a sense of duty as they want to do their work in the best possible way. (iv) They are hardworking and reliable. When taken to extremes they may also be perfectionistic and workaholics. (v) They are always prepared and follow a schedule. They are organized and dependable. (vi) They generally like to do one task at a time. (b) Characteristics of individuals who are low in conscientiousness are as follows: (i) They are unreliable and lack ambition. (ii) They are unorganized, careless and lack discipline. (iii) They are never planned and prepared. (iv) They like doing too many tasks at one time. (v) They make a mess of things as they are careless. (vi) They avoid their duties. So, they experience many pleasures by escaping from their responsibilities. (vii) They are often criticized for their behaviour. (3) Neuroticism/ Emotional Stability: Neuroticism is not a factor of meanness or incompetence, but one of confidence and being comfortable in one's own skin. It encompasses one's emotional stability and general temper. (a) Characteristics of individuals with positive emotional stability are as follows: (i) The individuals having positive emotional stability are calm, self-confident, secure and enthusiastic. (ii) They are emotionally stable and free from persistent negative feelings. (iii) They do not get upset easily and are less emotionally reactive. (iv) They do not worry about things. (v) They are relaxed most of the time. (b) Characteristics of individuals with negative emotional stability are as follows: (i) They tend to be nervous, depressed, insecure anxious or angry. (ii) They are emotionally reactive. munotes.in

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16 (iii) Their reactions tend to be more intense than normal. (iv) They are more likely to think of ordinary situations as threatening without any logic. (v) The negative emotions reduce their ability to think properly, make decisions and cope with stress. (vi) They experience mood swings. (vi) They get upset easily. Those high in neuroticism are generally prone to anxiety, sadness, worry, and low self-esteem. They may be temperamental or easily angered, and they tend to be self-conscious and unsure of themselves (Lebowitz, 2016a). Individuals who score on the low end of neuroticism are more likely to feel confident, sure of themselves, and adventurous. They may also be brave and unencumbered by worry or self-doubt. (4) Openness to experience- Openness to experience has been described as the depth and complexity of an individual's mental life and experiences (John & Srivastava, 1999). It is also sometimes called intellect or imagination. Openness to experience concerns people's willingness to try to new things, their ability to be vulnerable, and their capability to think outside the box. (a) Characteristic of extremely open people are as follows: (i) They are intellectually curious, appreciative of art and sensitive to beauty. (ii) They are creative. They like novelty and innovation. (iii) They have a wide range of interest. They are full of ideas. (iv) They like to adopt new ideas and beliefs because of this reason they hold unconventional and individualistic beliefs. (v) They like learning new things. (b) Characteristics of individuals who have low levels openness are as follows: (i) They are down-to-earth and conventional people. (ii) Their range of interest is narrow. (iii) There are less curious and creative. munotes.in

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of Human Nature (iv) They may not like new ideas and find comfort in the familiar. (v) They are conservative and do not like change. (5) Extroversion - This factor has two familiar ends of its spectrum: extroversion and introversion. It concerns where an individual draws their energy from and how they interact with others. In general, extroverts draw energy from or recharge by interacting with others while introverts get tired from interacting with others and replenish their energy with solitude. (a) Characteristics of extroverts are as follows: (i) They enjoy being with people, are full of energy and experience positive emotions. (ii) They like being the center of attention. (iii) They are the life of the party. (iv) They are assertive and sociable. (v) They like to talk, and draw attention to themselves. (vi) They are enthusiastic, action-oriented individuals who like to take over new opportunities. (b) Characteristics of Introverts are as follows: (i) They are reserved, quiet and timid. (ii) They have less energy and activity levels then extroverts. (iii) Their lack of social involvement does not mean that they are sky. (iv) It is only that their basic nature demands more time alone to recharge themselves. (v) They do not like to draw attention to themselves. (vi) They take time to develop new relationships. 1.7 PERSONALITY TRAITS IMPORTANT FOR ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR Besides the personality traits studies above, other personality traits important for organizational behaviour are authoritarianism, locus of control. Machiavellianism, introversion-extroversion, achievement orientation, self-esteem, risk taking, self-monitoring and Type A and B personalities let us study each one of them in detail.  Authoritarianism (a) The term 'authoritarianism' means 'demanding strict obedience of authority and rules. munotes.in

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18 (b) The Authoritarianism Personality' was theorized by Theodor w. Adorno. (c) The personality type identified can be defined by the following traits: (i) Conventionalism (ii) Authoritarian anger (iii) Power (iv) Authoritarian submission (v) Superstition (vi) Toughness (d) In simple words, (i) Authoritarians are very conventional i.e. they don't like change. (ii) Authoritarian submission means they like the work to be done as per the rules of formal authority. (iii) Authoritarian anger means they get angry to people who challenge authority. (iv) Superstition means that authoritarians believe in fate. (v) Power and toughness means that they are dominating. (e) Authoritarians believe that obedience to authority is important. (f) Those with authoritative personality believe that there are two types of people in this world, strong people and weak people The world would be a better place it the strong were in leaders and the weak were followers. They do not like people who do not agree with this philosophy. (g) Authoritarians give high moral values on their beliefs towards conformity to rules and regulation. (h) Authoritarians are rigid in their positions They prefer stable and structured work environment. munotes.in

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 Locus of control (a) Locus of control means whether an individual believes that he can control events or events control him. (b) There are two types of people, internals and externals. (c) Internals believe that they can control events or outcomes while externals believe that events or outcomes control them. (d) For example - Managers with a strong internal locus of control may believe that the targets were achieved through their own abilities and efforts while those with a strong external locus of control may believe that the targets were achieved because of their good luck. (e) Hence, externals are less likely to expect that their own efforts will result in their success and so they do not work-hard for it. (f) Individuals who have external locus of control are less satisfied with their jobs, have higher absents rates, are less involved in their jobs as compared to internals. Individuals who have high external locus of control believe that luck, chance or other people mainly determine what happens to them. (g) Internals when in the same situation, believe that organizational outcomes are result of their own actions. Internals perform better in their jobs as compared to externals.
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20 (h) Internals have greater self-control they search more actively for information before making a decision. They put great efforts in controlling their environment. They are suitable for jobs that require initiative and independence. (i) Externals like to follow directions and become followers. They do well in routine jobs.  Machiavellianism (a) The personality traits of Machiavellianism is named after Niccolo Machiavelli, who wrote. II Principe (The Prince) on how to gain power. (b) The term Machiavellianism is used to describe a person's tendency to deceive and manipulate others for personal gain. (c) Machiavellian's are pragmatic, maintain emotional distance and believe that ends can justify means. They manipulate more, win more, are persuaded less and persuade others more. They do well when they interact face to face with others. (d) Machiavellian's approach situations logically and thoughtfully many times also lie to achieve their goals. They rarely believe in being loyal, friendships, keeping their own promises or the opinions of other people. They have a high self-esteem. They do well in jobs that require bargaining skills or where there are substantial rewards for winning.  Introversion and Extroversion Introverts (a) Introverts are reserved, Quiet and timid. (b) They have less energy and activity levels than extroverts. (c) Their lack of social involvement does not mean they are shy. It is only that their basic nature demands more time alone to recharge themselves. Extroverts (d) Extroverts enjoy being with people, are full of energy and experience positive emotions. (e) Extroverts like being the center of attention (f) Extroverts are life of party. (g) Extroverts are assertive and sociable. munotes.in

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of Human Nature (h) Extroverts like to talk and draw attention to themselves. (i) Extroverts are enthusiastic action-oriented individuals who like to take over new opportunities.  Achievement orientation (a) Achievement orientation is about getting results. (b) It is about working towards excellence. (c) Individuals who are achievement-oriented set high standards. (d) They think about how well they have done something and find for new ways to improve their performance. (e) Achievement oriented individuals are never fully satisfied as they constantly work towards doing things in a better way. (f) They try to overcome difficulties and take calculated risks if the situation demands, to achieve their goals. (g) On the other hand, employees who lack achievement orientation like to work in their comfort zone. They rely on others to set targets and standards. (h) Employees who lack achievement orientation are often found completing their incomplete work. They are also unable to complete their work on time. (i) Hence, achievement-oriented employees get more raises and promotions as compared to employees who lack achievement orientation. (j) Organization which employ achievement-oriented employees grow faster and are more profitable.  Self-Esteem (a) Self-Esteem means the extent to which an individual likes or dislikes himself. (b) It shows an individual's overall sense of self-worth. (c) Individuals with high self-esteem like to take more risk in job selection and are more likely to choose unconventional jobs as compared to people with low sell-esteem. (d) People with high esteem have favorable evaluation of themselves, which leads to better performance. (e) People with low self-esteem doubt themselves and question their self-worth. They have unfavorable evaluation of themselves. munotes.in

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22 (f) Low self-esteem individuals view themselves in negative terms and are not able to deal effectively with others. (g) Low self-esteem individuals believe that events control them. They blame outcomes on the lack of ability or on fate while, high sell-esteem individuals believe that they can control events. They work hard to achieve their goals. (h) Low self-esteem individuals look for positive evaluations from others. They want that others should praise them. Hence, they try to please others.  Risk-taking (a) Risk-taking means to what extent an individual is willing to take risk, for achieving a positive outcome. (b) People like to take risks or do not like to take risks. (c) People have different capacities for taking or avoiding risks. (d) In organizations, High risk-taking managers make quick decisions. They use less information to make decisions while low risk-taking managers are slow in making decisions, they also need more information for making decisions. (e) It is very important to consider the manager's risk-taking capacity some organizations need high risk-taking managers while others need low risk-taking managers. The suitability of an employee to a job depends on the duties and responsibilities of that job. (f) For example: The job of an investment manager requires individuals with high risk-taking capacity while the job of a clerk requires individuals with low-risk taking capacity.  Self-monitoring (a) It means an individual’s ability to adjust his behaviour to external situational factors. High self-monitors (b) (i) High self-monitors show considerable adaptability. (ii) They can behave differently in different situations. (iii) They are concerned about how they are perceived by others and they change their behaviour to fit in different situations. (iv) They think that they will be perceived negatively by others, the change their behaviour to be perceived positively. munotes.in

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of Human Nature Low self-monitors (c) (i) Low self-monitors are less concerned with how people perceive them. (ii) Low self-monitors cannot disguise themselves like high self-monitors. (iii) Low-self monitors tend to show their true dispositions an attitude in almost every situation. They cannot change their behaviour as per the situation. (d) High self-monitors pay close attention to the behaviour of others. (e) High self-monitoring managers are more mobile in their careen and they receive more promotions. They have the capacity to put different faces for different audiences.  Type A and B personalities: Type A Personality: (a) According to Friedman and Rosenman: Type A Personality is always impatient, excessively time conscious, insecure about status highly competitive, hostile and aggressive, and incapable of relaxation. (b) The characteristic details of type A personality are as follows: (i) are always moving, walking and eating rapidly (ii) Feel Impatient with the rate at which most events take place. (iii) Strive to think or do two or more things at a time. (iv) Cannot cope with leisure (v) are obsessed with numbers, measuring their success in terms of how much of everything they acquire. Type B Personality: (a) According to friedman and Rosenman: Type B personality is rarely hurried by the desire to obtain an increasing number of things or participate in events demanding an ever-decreasing amount of time. (b) They never suffer from a sense of time urgency with accompanying impatience. (c) The characteristic details of type B personality are as follows: (i) They feel no need to display or discuss either their achievements or accomplishment unless such exposure is demanded by the situation. munotes.in

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24 (ii) Play for fun and relaxation rather than to show their superiority at any cost. (iii) Can relax without guilt. (iv) In organisations, great sales persons are Type A individuals. The reason is, market of sales is competitive, that demands great efforts to sell a product. (v) Generally, Type B's make good senior executives. They are wise, creative and tactful, they get more promotions. While, Type A's are hasty, quick decision makers, impatient and aggressive so, they do not get more promotions. Hence, personality is very important in determining behaviour of employees in an organisation. Managers while assigning jobs to employees need to consider personality differences among employees and place them properly as per their personality traits. 1.8 JOHARI WINDOW The Johari Window model was developed by Joseph Luft and harry Ingham in 1955. Luft and Ingham named this model as ‘Johari’ after combining their first names, Joe and Harry. This is a very famous model for- (1) Self-awareness, (2) Personal development, (3) Group development and (4) Understanding relationship with others. Johari window is a technique created to help people in understanding their relationship with self and others. The Johari window model is widely used for understanding and training self-awareness, personal development, improving communications, inter-personal relationships, group development, team development and inter-group relationships. In this model the four Johari window perspectives are known as 'Quadrants'. These four quadrants contain information about feelings, experience, skills, attitudes, motivation, view, intentions, etc. known about the person in terms of whether the information is known or unknown to him and whether the information is known or unknown by others in the team The diagram of Johari window model is as follows: Known by Self Unknown by Self Known by Others 1. Open/Free Area 2. Blind Area Unknown by Others 3. Hidden Area 4. Unknown Area munotes.in

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of Human Nature (1) First Quadrant-open/free area a) Open or free area means what is known by the person about himself and is also known by others. b) When individuals work in a group or team the aim should always be to develop the open area for every person. c) To be effective, a group needs good communication among its members, co-operation, trust, and mutual understanding. d) All this can be achieved by developing the 'open area' for every member so that they can share their attitude, feelings, emotions knowledge, experience, skills, views, etc. with each other. (2) Second Quadrant-Blind Area- (a) It means what is known about a person by others in the group, but is unknown by the person himself. (b) By taking feedback from others an individual can reduce this area. (c) It is a non-effective space for individuals or groups. (d) This area represents an individual’s ignorance about himself. e) Managers need to create an environment for true feedback to reduce this area. (f) Discovery through active listening and sensitive communications helps in knowing the unknown area. (3) Third Quadrant - Hidden area a) Hidden area means what is known to an individual but is kept hidden from others. b) It contains information about feelings, experience, attitudes skills, intentions, motivation, view, etc. Anything that a person knows about himself but which is kept hidden from others. c) It also includes sensitivities, hidden agendas, fears, secrets. Anything that a person knows but does not reveal. d) It is natural tendency to hide personal and private information and feelings. Any information that does not have anything to do with w should remain hidden. However, a lot of hidden information is very personal. It is related to work or performance. e) In order to be effective the manager needs to create environment of self-disclosure about work related issue Manager needs to find ways by which he can reduce the hidden area and increase the open area of the employees. This helps in better munotes.in

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26 understanding, cooperation, trust, group effective and productivity. f) Reducing hidden area, helps in reducing confusion and misunderstanding. (4) Quadrant 4-Unknown area (a) Unknown area contains information that is both unknown to the person himself as well as to others in the group. b) It contains information, about feelings, abilities, aptitudes, experiences etc. © These unknown abilities or issues are inside his mind but he does not know them. For example, (i) An individual not knowing about his natural ability that he possesses. (ii) Childhood experiences under his subconscious mind. (iii) An individual's fear of something, not known by him. d) Managers need to create an environment that encourages self-discovery and constructive observation and feedback among group members. e) To bring out hidden talents, managers employees with the opportunity to try new things. 1.9 NATURE AND COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE Definition: According to Stephen Robbins "attitude are evaluated statements or judgements concerning objects people or events." In simple words, attitudes are evaluated statements either favorable or unfavorable about objects, people or events. They reflect how one feels about something. FEATURES NATURE OF ATTITUDES 1. Attitudes refer to feelings and beliefs of individuals or group if individuals. 2. The feelings and beliefs are directed towards some stimuli (stimuli : anything in the environment to which we respond it may be an obey person, event or issue). 3. Attitudes result in behaviour or action. 4. Attitudes may be positive, negative or ambivalent. munotes.in

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of Human Nature (a) Positive attitude means a favourable attitude towards a stimuli. e.g.- I like cakes and I shall eat them. (b) Negative attitude means an unfavourable attitude towards a stimuli.. e.g.- I do not like cakes and I will not eat them. (c) Attitude ambivalence refers to the fact that an individualevaluate of a stimulus are not always uniformly positive or negative, they are mixed consisting of both positive and negative reactions. e.g. I like cakes but I will not eat them because they are fattening. 5. Attitudes endure (last long), and it is difficult to change them. 6. Every person irrespective of his status or intelligence holds attitudes. 7. We have attitudes about everything in the world. 8. Attitudes strongly influence our thinking about the social world, eve life our overt (outward) behaviour does not reflect them.  COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE An attitude has three components they are : (1) Cognitive or Informational Component (2) Affective or Emotional Component (3) Behavioural Component (1) Cognitive or Informational Component: It refers to the belief and information that the individual has about the object. For e.g.: I like my BMS course. (2) Affective or Emotional Component: Affective component refers to the feelings of an individual about the object. For Eg: The BMS course is challenging and interesting. (3) Behavioural Component: Behavioural Component refers to an individual's intention to behave in certain way toward the object. For eg.: I am hard working and I will complete the BMS course with firs class. munotes.in

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28 1.10 FUNCTIONS OF ATTITUDES Attitudes perform certain functions in determining our behaviour or actions towards particular persons, objects or events. The important functions of attitudes are:
1. Knowledge function: Attitude is often replaced for knowledge. In the absence of knowledge about a particular person or object we use our attitudes to organise and make sense of what is perceived. Regardless of how accurate a person's view of reality is attitudes towards people, events and objects help the individual make sense out of what is going on. For e.g.: (a) Whenever new inventions are introduced people do not have knowledge about their usage. So they develop negative attitude towards them. 2. Value expressive function: Another function that attitudes perform pressing our values and beliefs. Our attitudes express our value systemand beliefs and our value expressive attitudes are closely related to our self-concept. When we express our attitudes, we are expressing our beliefs and value system which provide us with a distinct identity. For eg.: One whose central value is freedom, the individual may express every positive attitude towards flexible work schedules and relaxation of dresscodes in the organisation. 3. Self-esteem function: Attitudes help us to maintain or enhance ourfeelings of self-worth. We sometimes feel that we are superior to other as we believe that the views which we hold are right ones held b intelligent and sensible persons. 4. Ego-Defensive function: People often form and maintain certain attitudes to protect their own self-images. Attitudes help them defend their self-images. People often form and maintain certain attitudes to
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of Human Nature protect their own self-images. For example, workers may feel threatened by the employment or advancement of minority or female workers in their organisation. These threatened workers may develop prejudices against the new workers. They may develop an attitude that such newcomers are less qualified and they might mistreat these workers. This attitude helps the worker protect the ego and is known as an ego defensive attitude. This ego defensive attitude is used by the employees in coping with a feeling of guilt or threat. Unless this feeling is removed, this kind of attitude will Remain unchanged. For eg.: Students in a particular class may feel threatened by the admission of bright students in their class. They may feel that if more and more bright students are admitted, they may lag behind. They may develop prejudices against the new comers. They may develop an attitude that such new comers are only trying to impress the teachers and are not that brilliant and they might mistreat these new comers. This kind of ego-defensive attitude is formed and used to cope with a feeling of guilt or threat. If this feeling is not removed, this kind of attitude will not change. Hence attitude also serves the ego-defensive function. 5. Impression motivation function: Sometimes we make use of attitudes to impress other people. We often wish to make a good impression on others by expressing the right view or opinions. 1.11 WAYS OF CHANGING ATTITUDE Attitudes can be changed in the following ways: (1) Providing New Information: (a) People change their attitude when new information is provided to them. (b) People generally hold negative attitude towards something or someone due to lack of information. (c) For eg.: Tobacco consuming people have negative attitude towards people who tell them not to have it but when they are provided with new information about its ill-effects they may change their attitude towards those people and agree with them. (2) Fear: (a) Fear has the capacity to change attitudes. (b) Change of attitude depends upon the degree of fear. (c) When the level of fear is less, people ignore the message. (d) When the level of fear is moderate, people become aware of the situation or message and they change their attitudes. munotes.in

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30 (e) When the level of fear is high, people reject the message as they find it very much threatening and unbelievable. They do not trust the message as they find it exaggerated. (3) Persuasion: (a) Persuasion means "efforts to change other's attitudes through the use of various kinds of messages." (b) Radio and television commercials, newspapers and magazine ads, hoardings, political speeches, ads on internet etc. use persuasion to change people's attitudes. (4) Co-opting approach: (a) It involves changing of a person's attitude who belongs to a different group, by involving him in own group. (b) For Eg.: Suppose there are two rival companies, one company hires the talented employee of another company and promises him better pay package, accommodation and other luxurious facilities, to have a good hold over the market. The hiring company knows that the talented employee is not satisfied with the rival company and wants to leave it for better future. This is co-opting approach. (5) Influence of friends and Peers: (a) A very effective way of changing one's attitudes is through his friends and peers. (b) Their opinions are often more important to the individual. (c) When an individual's friends convince him about changing attitude towards something or someone, he changes it as he trusts them. 1.12 READING EMOTIONS Understanding the emotions felt by others is a difficult task. "Reading emotions is our ability to read other's noticeable emotions". We do this by observing other's verbal (spoken) and non-verbal (unspoken, actions) signs and learn to read other display emotions by focusing on verbal, non-verbal, paralinguistic signs. a) Ask about emotions: The easiest way to find out what someone's feeling is to ask them. Asking something simple as "Are you OK? What's the problem? can frequently provide you with the information to assess an individual’s emotional state. But depending only on a verbal response has two drawbacks. First, almost all of us hide our emotions to some extent for privacy and to reflect some social expectations. So, we might not be willing to share our true feelings. Second, sometimes even if we want to share our feelings verbally, we may not be able to do so. Some people have difficulty in munotes.in

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of Human Nature understanding their own emotions and so, are unable to express them verbally. So, verbal responses provide only partial information. b) Look for non-verbal signs: Non-verbal signs also play a very important role in determining an individual's emotional state. Suppose you are talking with a co-worker. You notice that his back is rigid, teeth are clenched, and his facial muscles tight, this shows you that he is angry. Facial expressions, gestures, bod movements, and physical distance are non-verbal signs that car provide additional understanding into a person's feeling, facial expressions are considered to be a window into a person's feelings. c) Look for how things are said: How an individual expresses his feelings also convey a lot about his emotional condition. Communication goes beyond the specific spoken words. It includes pitch rate, and voice quality of speech. This is called paralanguage. People not only convey their feelings in what they say, but also how they say it. Reading emotions is a very important skill that managers need to develop, as they have to get work done with the help of others. So they must know how others are feeling and what they want. List of some common interpretations of Body Language. Body Language Meaning 1. Smile Happiness, Friendliness 2. Open Palm Sincerity, openness 3. Waiving Used to greet a person or say “Hello” 4. Nodding of head Signifies “Yes” or agreement 5. Erect walking Confidence 1.13 THINKING SKILLS, THINKING STYLES AND THINKING HATS THINKING, LEARNING AND PERCEPTIONS  DEFINITIONS: "Thinking refers to the mental processing of data." Thinking refers to the process of using one’s brain in an attempt to solve some problems or to arrive at some conclusion or some particular topic. According to Edward de Bono "Thinking is deliberate exploration of experience for a purpose that purpose may be understanding, decision solving, judgement, action and so on." munotes.in

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32  THINKING SKILLS Thinking skills are considered as the "building blocks of thinking today’s information age, thinking skills are viewed an essential for education persons to cope with the rapidly changing world. For effective thinking we need to develop all the below mentioned Thinking Skills. We can learn then through practicing. Thinking skills are a set of basic and advanced skills and sub skills that govern a person's mental processes. They are as follows: (1) Focusing Skills: "Focusing skills are thinking skills that focus on necessary information and ignore information that is irrelevant" There are two types of focusing skills they are- (a) Identifying Problems: Identifying Problems is a focusing skill that defines needs, differences or confusing situations. (b) Setting Goals: Setting goals is a focusing skill that develop purpose and direction for solving problems. (2) Information Gathering Skills: "Information gathering skills and thinking skills that collect together relative information needed lo thinking". There are two types of information gathering skills: (a) Observing: Observing skills is an information gathering skill acquires information from various senses. (b) Forming questions: Forming questions is information gathering skill which collects new information through inquiry. (3) Remembering Skills: "Remembering skills are thinking skills that store and bring back information when needed". There are two types of remembering skills: (a) Encoding: Encoding skill is remembering skill that stores information in long-term memory. (b) Recalling: Recalling skill is a remembering skill that brings back the information from the long-term memory. (4) Organizing Skills: "Organizing skills are thinking skills that arrange information in a particular order so that it can be used properly". There are four types of organizing skills. (a) Comparing: Comparing skills is an organizing skill that points out the similarities and differences between entities. munotes.in

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of Human Nature (b) Classifying: Classifying is an organizing skill that classifies entities into various categories on the basis of the features that they have in common. (c) Ordering: Ordering is an organizing skill that sequences things according to a given standard by which it may be judged. (d) Representing Skills: Representing skills is an organizing skill that changes the structure of the information, but not the matter of the information. (5) Analyzing Skills: "Analyzing skills are thinking skills that examine existing information into parts and relationships". There are four types of Analyzing skills. (a) Identifying features and Components: Identifying features and components is an analyzing skill that analyzes features or the parts of a particular entity. (b) Identifying relationships: Patterns relationships and patterns is an analyzing skill that identifies ways in which elements are related. (c) Identifying main ideas: Identifying main ideas is an analyzing skill that identifies the main ideas or the main element. (d) Identifying Arguments: Identifying Arguments is an analyzing skill that identifies arguments and logical errors and corrects them. (6) Generating Skills: "Generating skills are thinking skills that produce new information or ideas". There are three types of generating skills. (a) Inferring: Inferring is a generating skill that looks beyond available information to determine what may be true. (b) Predicting: Predicting is a generating skill that looks forward to next events which may happen, or the result of situations. (c) Elaborating: Elaborating is a generating skill that builds on other ideas, relevant information, and details required. (7) Integrating Skills: Integrating skills are thinking skills that connect and combine the whole information. They are of two types: (a) Summarizing: Summarizing is an integrating skill that briefly states the main points and combines it together. munotes.in

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34 (b) Restructuring: Restructuring is an integrating skill that changes existing knowledge structure to include new information. (8) Evaluating Skills: Evaluating Skills are thinking skills that judge about the quality and reasonableness of ideas. There are two types of evaluating skills. (a) Establishing Standards: Establishing Standards is evaluating skills that sets standards for making judgements about ideas. (b) Verifying: Verifying skill is an evaluating skill that confirms accuracy of ideas i.e. it shows that the ideas are accurate or not.  SIX THINKING HATS The six thinking hats method was invented by Dr. Edward de Bono in early 1980s. The 'Six thinking hats' represents six ways of thinking, six thinking hats is a powerful technique that helps a person to plan decisions from various point of views. The purpose of the hat is to direct thinking, not classily either the thinking or the thinker. In 'six thinking hats technique' every hat represents a way of thinking, which is identified by a colour following are the six thinking hats. (1) White Thinking Hat: It is the observer hat. It focuses on available information, required facts, what is needed and how it can be obtained. When we use white thinking hat, we focus on the data available. We look at the information that we have and see what we can learn from it. We look for gaps in our knowledge we either try to fill them or consider them while taking decisions. (2) Black Thinking Hat: This hat is for judgement and caution. It is a most valuable hat. It is not in any manner, inferior or negative hat. It is a logical hat when we use black hat. We think cautiously and defensively. It helps us to know the weak points in a plan while taking actions. Black thinking that is one of the great benefits of this technique," as many successful people get so used to thinking positively that often they cannot see problems in advance, leaving them unprepared for difficulties. Black hat helps us to eliminate weak points, change our approach or make advance plans to handle problems that may arise in future (3) Red Thinking Hat: This hat represents emotions, feelings, hunches ideas based on feeling, gut instinct, intuition and justification. This hat allows the thinker to put forward an intuition, emotions, feelings, and gut instinct. When we use this hat we try to think how other people will react emotionally and munotes.in

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of Human Nature we also try to understand the intuitive responses of people who do not know our reasoning. (4) Yellow Thinking Hat: This hat represents values and benefits. Yellow hat thinking helps us to think positively. It helps us to see all the benefits of the decision and the values in it, and recognize the opportunities that arise from it. It helps us to keep going everything looks dull and difficult. It is a logical positive hat. It can be used in looking forward to the results of some proposed action, but can also be used to find something what has already happened. (5) Green Thinking Hat: This is the hat of creativity, alternatives, productions and changes, ideas generation and solution. It enables us to generate the ideas on how things could be hand effectively. It helps to develop creative solution to a problem.In the way of thinking, there is little criticism of ideas. (6) Blue Thinking Hat: Blue thinking hat is an observer hat. This hat controls the thinking process. It focuses, formulates next steps to taken. It is a meta-hat. It ensures that each hat gets effectively used. This hat thinks about thinking, overall process. Benefits of Six Thinking Hats: (1) It enhances the thinking process. (2) It improves communication. (3) It speeds up decision making. (4) It avoids debate. (5) It separates ego from performance. (6) It creates awareness about various ways of thinking. (7) It ensures all the point of views are considered while taking decision. (8) It encourages creative, lateral and parallel thinking.  THINKING STYLES Different people have different thinking styles. There are five thinking styles. These styles categorize different ways of thinking and problem solving. Following are the five thinking Styles. (1) Synthesists: Synthesist thinkers are creative thinkers who view the world in terms of opposites. When we say black, they think white; when we say fat, they think thin. Their ideas are based on guess work. They make new and original things out of their own views. Their basic approach to solve problems is combining different things to find the best solution. They are munotes.in

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36 always ready to take risks and are open to ideas. They do not like stability i.e. they like changes. The details of synthesists are: (a) Appearance -  Synthesists appear challenging and skeptical (not easily convinced)  They appear unconnected to the present subject.  They appear aggressive. (b) Like -  They like to control the process.  They like to do things in a big way.  They like intellectual arguments.  They like to point out mistakes. (c) Dislike -  They do not like the present situation.  They do not like discussion which is based on facts.  They do not like routine tasks.  They do not like lack of change.  They do not like people pretending to agree. (d) Strategy to solve problems -  They directly face the problems.  They question assumptions.  They observe other people.  They ignore opposing ideas.  They handle problems on the basis of guesswork and imagination. (e) Strengths -  They can be of great help in preventing bad ideas.  They can open-up new ideas. (f) Weaknesses -  They may opt out when they feel they are not being listened to.  They do not follow details. munotes.in

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of Human Nature (2) Realists: Realist thinkers are fast-moving doers. They are corrective, result-oriented and problem-fixing persons. They work on the basis of facts. They believe that facts should not be influenced by personal factors. If they are unable to solve a problem, they rely on an expert. They are optimistic in nature i.e. they always think about thing in hopeful manner. They easily form and express their views. Realist thinkers always trust their senses, personal experience and fads while taking important decisions. The details of realists are: (a) Appearance -  They appear direct and forceful.  They appear frank and positive.  They quickly form and express their opinions. (b) Like -  They like forming strategies and tactics for getting things done.  They like playing with ideas on down to earth level.  They like to have a number of projects at once. (c) Dislike –  They do not like talk that they feel is dry, dull or humorless.  They do not like talk that is speculative and abstract.  They do not like facts being influenced by personal opinions. (d) Strategy to solve problems -  Their work is based on observation and experiences rather than theory.  They solve problems by setting objectives, fixing and correcting them. (e) Strengths -  They can achieve concrete results.  They are good at identifying the resources for solving problems.  They can easily categorize information after observing required data. (f) Weaknesses -  They simplify the problem so much that an inaccurate impression of it is formed.  They have low tolerance for ambiguity. munotes.in

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38  They do not like persons who do not stand up to the expectations.  It is very hard to change their minds. 3) Pragmatists : Pragmatic thinkers are flexible thinkers who look for short-cuts and quick pay-offs. They are interested in practical short-term results and a plan of action that will get the things started in the right direction without much pains. They believe that whatever works in situation, should be done. Pragmatists have a habit of seeing things as what others really want and not as what they should want. So they fit in where others fail. The details of pragmatists are : (a) Appearance -  They appear energetic and intelligent.  They appear restless, unpredictable and impulsive.  They appear open, humorous and friendly. (b) Like -  They like to form plans, tactics and ideas for getting things done.  They like playing with ideas on a practical and realistic level. (c) Dislike -  They do not like talk that is dull or humorless, abstract or speculative.  They do not like facts and values having equal values. (d) Strategy to solve problems -  They use tactics to solve a problem.  They may experiment, to find new solutions to a problem.  They look for quick pay-offs. (e) Strengths -  They are good diplomats.  They can tolerate ambiguity. (f) Weaknesses -  They agree quickly with other people's ideas.  They have difficulty in dealing with idealists. (4) Analyst Thinkers: Analyst thinkers think methodically. They like to collect information, measure it, categorize it, and rationally and methodically get the right answer to any problem. They believe that munotes.in

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of Human Nature if we go scientifically, things will work out. They plan carefully with enough information to find the best way. They believe things will go wrong if a detail is ignored. They like stability. The details of analyst thinkers are: (a) Appearance.  They appear cool and studious.  They appear hard to read, perfectionists, thorough disciplined and careful. (b) Like -  They like stability.  They like logical evaluations of issues and thoroughness. (c) Dislike -  They do not like talk that does not contain logic.  They do not like talk that is too speculative and experimenting. (d) Strategy to solve problems -  While solving problems, they systematically analyze all the alternatives.  They search for more data.  They do one thing at a time. (e) Strengths -  They can help us to look at the problem from various point of views.  They can be useful when the situation requires logical and analytical calculation. (f) Weaknesses -  They may be too time consuming.  They may lack feedback. (5) Idealists: Idealist thinkers take a broad view of the various available alternatives. They are future oriented and goal-oriented persons. They are willing to consider new ideas. While taking decisions they always first think what is good for people and society, they have a tendency to trust others. They are helpful and open in nature and they always want to do the right thing. They are emotional persons. They deeply believe in the importance of trust and truth. They hate selfish and dishonest people. If they find anybody being dishonest to them they stop taking interest in him. Idealist thinkers always try hard for agreement, and they feel disappointed when people do not agree with them. If a person is not willing to compromise with other's point of view, then they do not like him. They are humanitarian persons i.e. munotes.in

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40 they are always concerned with welfare of people. The details of idealistic are: (a) Appearance -  They appear as people who respond alternatively and receptively.  They always show a supportive and open smile.  When others speak, they have a habit of listening properly, they show their interest in other persons talk by nodding their head and doing other gestures. (b) Like -  They like feeling- level discussions about people and the problems.  They like discussions about values, judgements and emotions. (c) Dislike -  They do not like conflicting arguments.  They do not like open argument.  They do not like talk that is dehumanizing. (d) Strategy to solve problems -  They look at the whole situation.  They practice receptive listening.  They focus on large range issues. (e) Strengths -  They can induce us on real impact of our decision.  They are empathetic, tolerant and open.  They can be excellent at gathering information.  They are good at increasing group participation. (f) Weaknesses -  They avoid setting goals and standards.  Sometimes, they may be overwhelmed by emotions. Once we know our thinking styles and the thinking styles of person with whom we have to interact, we can easily understand their values, rules tendencies, their decision-making styles and their management style knowing different thinking styles, helps us to develop good rapport with others and it helps us to know what we should not do while dealing with different persons of different thinking styles. munotes.in

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of Human Nature 1.14 MANAGERIAL SKILL AND DEVELOPMENT (1) Planning: Panning skills involve selecting missions and objectives and actions to achieve them. There are various types of plans, ranging the overall purpose and objectives to the most detailed actions to be taken. (2) Conceptual Skills: Conceptual skills consist of the ability to see the whole organisation and the interrelation-ships between its parts. These skills refer to the ability to visualize the whole picture or to consider a situation in its totality. These skills help the manager to conceptualize the environment to analyse and evaluate the complex situations. This skill also help in rational processing and interpretation of the information. (3) Decision-making Skills : Decision-making skill is our ability to select course of action from among various alternatives. Decision making requires manager to spot the problems, identify alternatives that can correct those problems, evaluate those alternatives and select the best one. (4) Technical Skills: Technical skills refer to the ability to apply knowledge and expertise in using equipment’s, involved in performing specific tasks. For e.g.: Ability in programming and operating computers is a technical skill. There are two things a manager must know. Firstly, which technical skills should be employed in particular project and he must be familiar enough with the use of these skills to ask judgmental questions to his technical advisors. Secondly, a manager must understand the role of each skill used and its interrelations between other skills. Technical ability is related to "the mastery of things". (5) Leadership Skills: "Leadership skills is the ability to influence the behaviour and work of others in a group effort towards the realization of specific goals in a given situation. A manager has to get work done with the help of other people, for this he needs to develop leadership skills. In a way, managers are leaders of an organisation who perform tasks and act in a way that provides employees with satisfaction and fulfillment in performing the work required and reaching the objectives. Leadership is raising of employee’s performances to a high standard, the building of employee’s personality beyond its normal limitations. (6) Supervisory skills: "Supervisory skills is our ability to ensure that everything is done correctly. Supervision is made up of two words 'super' and 'vision, it means expert overseeing of employees at work. It involves direct personal contact with sub-ordinates. munotes.in

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42 Supervision is necessary at all levels of management. Managers must have supervision skills in order to know what exactly an employee is doing or how much effort he is putting to do the work. Supervisory skills help a manager in smooth working within the organisation. For effective interaction with others a person should not only possess all the skills discussed till now but he must also be able to demonstrate them. i.e. his behaviour should reflect that all these skills are present in him. In order to be effective, managers need to develop and demonstrate all the skills discussed till now. Intrapersonal skills help us to be at comfort with our own selves. Inter personal skills help us in interacting effectively with others, whereas managerial skills help a manager to perform his job effectively. 1.15 CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING DEFINTIONS: According to Stephen Robbins, Learning means "any relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience According to Normal L Munn, "Learning is the process of having one's behaviour modified, more or less permanently, by what he does and the consequences of his action, or by what he observes." (1) Learning involves change in behaviour. (2) The change must be relatively permanent. (3) Learning should be reflected in behaviour. A change in an individual's attitude or knowledge if not reflected in his behaviour cannot be called as learning. (4) The change in behaviour should take place experience, training or practice. (5) Learning takes place throughout an individual's life. 1.16 THEORIES OF LEARNING There are three theories of learning: 1. Classical conditioning 2. Operant conditioning 3. Social learning 1. Classical Conditioning: (a) It is a form of learning based on association. (b) Classical conditioning is form of learning. In which on stimulus which is neutral in the beginning, later, acquire the capacity to evoke reactions because of repeated pairing with another stimulus. munotes.in

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of Human Nature (c) The occurrence of one stimulus indicates that another will also follows. (d) In simple words, when one event regularly occurs before another, the occurrence of first event becomes an indication la the occurrence of another. As a result, we gradually, give sane kind of reaction to the first event as we give to the second event. (e) Classical conditioning was first experimented by Russian Psychologist, Ivan Pavlov, to teach dogs to salivate in response to the ringing of a bell. Pavlov rang a bell before giving food to his dog. In spite of salivating in the presence of meat. The dog started to salivate in response to the ringing of the bell, after a few repeated pairings. In this experiment, the occurrence of first event that is ringing of bell became an indication of occurrence of another that is, provision of met Hence, the dog. Gradually, gave same kind of reaction to the in event as he gives to the second one. He started associating the ringing of Bell with the food. After repeatedly hearing the sound of the bell, before getting meat the dog started salivating as soon as he heard the sound. The dog had learnt to salivate in response to the bell. Hence, learning occurs through the process of classical conditioning psychological studies have shown that classical conditioning (learning) can occur below the level of conscious awareness even if an individual is not aware of the stimuli that forms the basis of this kind of conditioning. Such a conditioning is called as subliminal conditioning. 2. Operant Conditioning (a) B.F. Skinner proposed the operant condition theory. (b) The operant conditioning theory is based on the idea that behaviour is repeated and strengthened if the outcome is positive and behaviour is weakened and suppressed if the outcome is negative. (c) An individual repeats and strengthens behaviour that results in positive outcome while, he weakens or suppresses behaviour that results in negative outcomes. He does not repeat it quite often. (d) Reinforcement (rewards) or punishment is important in this type of learning. (e) Generally, behaviour that obtains continuous rewards supported and maintained by an individual than the behaviour that does not obtain rewards or positive outcomes. munotes.in

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44 (f) For example: (i) Teachers reward students with smiles and praises for answering their questions. The positive outcomes of smile and praise makes the student repeat and strengthen his behaviour of answering the question asked by the teacher. (ii) During childhood parents reward their children with hugs, kisses, smiles, etc. for holding the right behaviour which they themselves hold. Gradually, children begin to understand that if they continue to hold the same behaviour they will be rewarded by parent's so they strengthen and continue to hold that behaviour. (iii) Teachers scold students for interrupting the class. Students begin to understand that this kind of behaviour should not be repeated as it leads to negative outcome. Hence, gradually, their behaviour of interrupting is weakened and suppressed. They do not repeat it. 3. Social Learning / Observation Learning (a) The social learning theory was proposed by Bandura. (b) Social learning theory is based on the idea that learning takes place by observing others. (c) Social learning theory is a form of learning in which individuals acquire new behaviours or thoughts by observing others. (d) In this process an individual learns to adopt new behaviours from other persons only by observing them. (e) An individual can learn new behaviours by observing models such as parents, teachers, friends, neighbours, actors, managers, etc. For Example: (i) He may learn to work sincerely by observing his father. (ii) An individual may learn to copy in exams by observing his friends doing the same thing in school. (iii) An individual may learn to smoke by observing his friends. (iv) An individual may learn to live a luxurious life by observing moves, commercials. In all the above examples, an Individual acquires behaviours by observing a model. The influence of model is important in the social learning theory. munotes.in

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of Human Nature (f) The influence of model depends upon four processes of social learning they are as follows: (i) Attention Process -
(a) People learn from a model only when they recognise and pay attention to its critical features. (b) learning needs full attention. (c) models that are attractive, Interesting, and which are important to an individual are more likely to influence him. (ii) Retention Process - (a) The influence of a model depends on how well the individual remembers the models action alter it is no longer readily available. (b) The ability to store information is very important in learning process. (c) Retention can be affected by a number of factors, but the ability to remember all the information later and act on it is important in observational learning. (iii) Reproduction Process - (a) After a person sees a new behaviour by observing the model, the watching must be converted to doing. (b) The individual must actually perform the behaviour he observed. (iv) Reinforcement (rewards) Process - (a) An individual gets motivated to perform the modelled behaviour if positive rewards are provided to him. (b) Behaviour that is rewarded is strengthened and continued over a long period of time. It is repeated quite often. "
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46 1.17 INTELLIGENCE AND TYPES Terman says- intelligence is the capacity for carrying on abstract thinking. Weschler says- it is the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally and to deal effectively with his environment. Spencer says- intelligence is the capacity organism to adjust to an increasingly difficult environment.  Intelligence Quotient The IQ of a person gives proper indication of a person s intelligence than mental age. It shows how much a person is more or less intelligent as compared to others. Weschler devised the deviation 1o This is generally used in practice. If the IQ of a person is 100 and the standard deviation is 15 points, then the distribution takes the shape of a normal distribution curve. In a normal distribution curve, 68.26%, of the population comes in one standard deviation unit from the mean. The Normal distribution curve gets the shape of the bell When plotted graphically, it has highest frequency in the middle and this frequency reduces as we move away from the center to either of the ends. The Mean Median and Mode are all equal in a perfect normal curve The following table shows the distribution of IQ on the Wechsler Adult Intelligence scale: IQ Description Percentage of Adults 130 and above Very superior gifted 2.2% 120-129 Superior 6.7% 110-119 Bright Normal 16.1% 90-109 Average 50% 80-89 Dull normal 16.1% 70-79 Borderline 6.7% Below 70 Mentally retarded 2.2% Mentally-retarded person have been subdivided as shown below: IQ Score Classification Percentage of population 55-69 Mildly retarded 2.1 40-54 Moderately retarded 0.1 25-39 Severely retarded 0.003 Below 25 Profoundly retarded 0.0000005 munotes.in

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of Human Nature  Emotional Intelligence Emotional intelligence is comparatively new area of psychological research The first published attempt toward making a definition was made by Salovey and Mayer in 1990. According to them "Emotional intelligence is the ability to monitor one's own and others feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one's thinking and actions". In spite of the early definition, there has been confusion about the exact meaning of this term. The definitions given by various psychologists are very different and the field is growing so faster that researchers are constantly making changes in their own definitions. Till now, there are three main models of Emotional Intelligence. a) Ability-based Emotional models. b) Mixed models of Emotional intelligence c) Trait Emotional intelligence model. In simple words, Emotional intelligence refers to "the ability to perceive and control emotions of oneself as well as of others." Individuals differ in emotional intelligence i.e. they differ in the manner in which they deal with their own emotions and other people's emotions. So, we can say that an emotionally intelligent person is one who has higher degree of self-awareness about his emotions and can manage his own and other people's emotions in a healthy manner. According to Goleman, emotional intelligence has five dimensions- (1) Knowing one’s own emotions: An emotionally intelligent person has high degree of self-awareness and is able to identify his feelings as and when they occur. A person can know his emotions only when he is able to know his feelings from time to time. (2) Controlling one's own emotions: An individual with high emotional intelligence is not only capable of understanding his own feelings but also is able to control or manage his emotions and feelings effectively according to the demands of the situation. Emotionally intelligent persons are able to deal successfully with conflicts in life. (3) Self-motivation: Self-motivation means "the ability of individual to persist in setbacks and failures." A person who is emotionally intelligent has the ability to motivate himself. He motivates himself even in ups and down of life. He puts his emotions in productive and healthy manner to achieve his goals. He always motivates or encourages him irrespective of whether the conditions are favourable or unfavourable. He tries to take situations to his side. munotes.in

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48 (4) Recognising the emotions of others: Recognising the emotions of others means that an emotionally intelligent person has the "ability to sense how others are feeling." It is the ability to understand the feelings of others. This involves developing empathy (understanding and sharing the feelings of others). In fact, empathy is an important feature of emotionally intelligent people. People with high level of empathy are able to succeed in caring professions like social work, nursing, etc. They are able to understand emotions, feelings and needs of others. (5) Controlling the emotions of others / social skills: It refers to "the ability to handle the emotions of others." Individuals with higher emotional intelligence are good in social relationship. They are able to interact effectively with others. They are highly capable of handling social relationships.  Spiritual Quotient (SQ) at workplace. We have studied about the importance of Intelligent Quotient IQ and Emotional Quotient EQ at workplace. However, the concept of Spiritual Quotient is also emerging as the next Big requirement at workplace. Spiritual Intelligence is related with the growth of human beings. According to Zohar and Marshall "Spiritual Intelligence is our moral intelligence, giving us an innate ability to distinguish right from wrong It is the intelligence with which we exercise goodness, truth, beauty and compassion in our lives. According to them, there are 10 Qualities of Spiritual Quotient, they are. i) Self- Awareness ii) Living in and being responsive to the moment. iii) Acting from principles and deep-belief and living according to them. iv) Humility v) Valuing Diversity. vi) Ability to see larger patterns, relationships, and connections having a sense of belonging. vii) Compassion viii) Tendency to ask fundamental why' questions and seek answers. ix) Ability to work against convention. x) Standing back from a situation and seeing the bigger picture. Spiritual Quotient relates to an individual's ability to understand and comprehend the spiritual aspects of life. Computers have Intelligence Quotient (IQ), animals have Emotional Quotient (EQ), while human munotes.in

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of Human Nature beings have Spiritual Quotient (SR) as well, this makes them different from machines and animals. For being successful, an individual needs IQ, EQ and SQ. Intelligence Quotient Emotional Quotient Spiritual Quotient Today employees are seeking more out of work than just pay cheque. They have a need to be a part of something greater that satisfies their need for accomplishment. An individual's spirituality is the essence of who he is? It defines the inner self. Spirituality in the workplace is about seeing work as a spiritual path, as an opportunity to grow personally and to contribute to the society. It is about learning to be caring and compassionate, with fellow employees and bosses. 1.18 PERCEPTION – FEATURES AND FACTORS INFLUENCING INDIVIDUAL PERCEPTION DEFINTION: According to Stephen Robbins Perception can be defined as "a process by which individuals organise and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment".  FEATURES OF PERCEPTION 1. Perception is our sensory experience of the world around us. It involves all those processes by which an individual receives information about his environment such as seeing, hearing, tasting, feeling and smelling. 2. Perception is composed of six processes; they are as follows: (a) Receiving stimuli. (b) Selecting (c) Organising (d) Interpreting (e) Checking (f) Reacting to stimuli (stimuli is anything to which we respond to, it may be object, event or personal). 3. Perception is influenced by three factors namely, (a) Characteristics of the perceiver (b) Characteristics of the target (c) Characteristics of the situation munotes.in

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50 4. Individuals differ in their perceptions with regard to people and inanimate objects. An individual perceives people and inanimate objects in a different way. People have beliefs, motives or intentions while, inanimate objects do not have such beliefs, motives or intentions. They are subject to laws of nature. An individual's perception of another person's actions is based on these assumptions.  FACTORS INELUENCING INDIVIDUAL PERCEPTION An individual's Perception Is influenced by three factors, they are: (I) Characteristics of the Perceiver (II) Characteristics of the Target (III) Characteristics of the Situation (I) Characteristics of the Perceiver: Perception is greatly influenced by the personal characteristics of the individual perceiver. A number of characteristics of the perceiver can affect individual perceiver perception. When an individual looks at the target and tries to make out what he stands for, that interpretation is influenced but the personal characteristics of the perceiver. The characteristics of the perceiver influencing perception are as follows: (1) Attitudes - (a) The attitudes of the perceiver affect his perception about the target. (b) For Example: An individual may not like to study. However, when his parents tell him that being educated will fetch him a good job he does not like their advice or even understand it as he has negative attitude towards studies. In this way, his attitude affects his perception about the target. (2) Moods - (a) An individual's mood has a strong influence on the way he perceives the target. (b) An individual thinks differently when he is happy than he does when he is unhappy. (c) An individual also remembers information that is consistent with his mood state better than that information that is inconsistent to his mood state. (d) When an individual is in a positive mood, he tends to form positive impressions of others while, when he is in a negative mood, he tends to form negative impressions of others. munotes.in

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of Human Nature (3) Interest - (a) An individual pays more attention to what he is interested in. (b) Individuals differ in their interests. (c) Two persons may perceive the same object or situation in different manner due to their differences in interest. (d) For Example: Two individuals may differ in their likings towards a cake, one individual may like to have cake while other may feel that cake has too many calories and not like to have it. (4) Motives - (a) unsatisfied needs or motives have a strong impact on an individual s perception. (b) For Example: An employee having an unsatisfied need of being praised may always try to do his work promptly and perfectly to get the praises of his manager. (5) Cognitive Structure - (a) Cognitive structure means an individual's pattern of thinking and processing information. It also has a strong impact on an individual's perception. (b) Some individuals have a tendency to perceive physical traits like colour, height, weight etc. (c) Others have a tendency to focus on personality characteristics. (d) An individual's cognitive structure or pattern of thinking determines what he will perceive. He will perceive multiple characteristics or only a few characteristics of another individual. (6) Self-concept - (a) Self-concept is an individual's belief and attitudes about himself. (b) An individual who has a positive self-concept tends to notice positive characteristics of others. (c) An individual with a negative self-concept tends to notice negative characteristics of others. munotes.in

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52 (d) An individual who understands himself better has the ability to have accurate perception of others. Apart from the above-mentioned factors, several other factors that influence an individual's perception are expectations, past experience, habits, values and personality. (II) Characteristics of the Target The characteristics of the target that is being observed also affects Perception. Important characteristics of the target affecting perception are as follows: (1) Physical Appearance: (a) Physical appearance of the target plays an important role in an individual s perception about him. (b) An individual perceives physically attractive targets in a different manner than less attractive ones. (c) Physically attractive targets are perceived to be More dominant, mentally healthy, intelligent, etc. (d) Attractive individuals are more likely to be noticed in a group. (2) Age: (a) Age of the target also influences perception. (b) Research has shown that perception differs as per the age of the target. (c) For Example: Employees may perceive a Young manager differently than a middle aged one. (3) Verbal Communication: (a) Verbal communication from the target also affects an individual's perception about him. (b) An individual makes judgement based on what the target speaks, how he speaks, his voice tone and his accent. (4) Non-Verbal Communications: (a) Nonverbal communication conveys a lot of information about the target. (b) An individual forms impression of the target based on eye contact, body movements facial expressions, postures, etc. of the target. munotes.in

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of Human Nature (5) Motion, Sound and Size: (a) Motion, Sound and size of the target also affects an individual's perception. (b) Object of larger size attract more attention than the smaller one. (c) Moving object gets more attention than object that standing still. (III) Characteristics of the Situation The situation or setting in which the interaction between the individual and the target takes place influences an individual’sinception of the target. The context in which we see objects or events is d great importance. (1) The physical, social and organizational setting of the situation influences perception. For Example, Meeting a Lawyer friend in his office. The individual may feel in a different manner when he meets his friend in a restaurant or at a party but meeting the same lawyer friend in his office may make him feel about his friend's authority and power in the society (2) The strength of the situational cues affects perception. Background characteristics of the situation affect how the situation is perceived by the individual. For Example: when an employee knows his boss personally as his best friend, he may interact very casually when he meets his boss outside office in a restaurant or at a party or at his residence But, when he meets his same boss at his office the employee behaves very formally. This is due to their characteristic of situation. 1.19 EFFECTS OF PERCEPTUAL ERROR IN MANAGERIAL DECISION-MAKING AT WORKPLACE People use a number of shortcuts to judge others. Due to this reason, perceptual errors take place. Understanding this tendency helps in knowing from where errors have taken place. Let us study these perceptual errors in detail. (1) Selective Perception (a) Any characteristic that makes a target stand out increases their chances that it will be perceived. (b) It is impossible for an individual to pay full attention to all that he sees, only a certain stimulus can be perceived by him. munotes.in

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54 (c) Selectivity is a shortcut that helps individuals 'Speed-read' others, this leads to wrong conclusions about them. (d) Selective perception is the tendency of individuals to selectively interpret what they see on the basis of their interests, experience background and attitudes. It is the tendency of individuals to focus on certain aspects of the environment or situation while ignoring other aspects. (e) Managers need to understand that while making decision at workplace they have to pay full attention to details and avoid making use of selective perception as this leads to wrong interpretation about others. (2) Halo Effect (a) Halo effect means an individual's tendency of perceiving people in terms of good and bad and associate all good qualities to one who is liked and bad qualities to another who is disliked. An individual draws a general opinion either favourable or unfavourable on the basis of a single characteristic of the target. (b) For Example: A manager rating two of employees for a number of tasks. For one of his employees he may believe that since he is good in one task he may be good in another task. Hence, he over rates his positive characteristics. (c) Halo effect does not always mean over rating positive characteristics. An individual may be downgraded based on his negative characteristics. This is called as "Rusty Halo Effect". For example: Information coming from chairman is over rated while the same information coming from an employee is down rated. If an individual is perceived as favourable on some characteristic than he is perceived to be favourable on other characteristic also. At work place, when this occurs the results are not accurate and the quality of results is compromised. It leads to unrealistic expectations from the employees. Assessment of an individual's effort depends on a manager’s perception about him. What is perceived by the manager may be far from real. (d) Hence, Halo effect is one of the major causes of perceptual errors in managerial decision making at workplace. (3) Stereotyping (a) Stereotyping means judging someone on the basis of an individual’s perception of the group to which he belongs to. But when it is inaccurately stereotyped it leads to wrong perception. In perceiving the target an individual group, him based on some characteristic such a gender, age, race, ethnicity, religion nationality, occupation, weight, etc. munotes.in

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of Human Nature (b) An individual's experiences with people who belong to any particular group make him generalize that all the people the same who belong to that same category possess the same characteristics. (c) For Example: (a) It is stereotyped that Indian culture does not allow drinking (b) Germans are industrious (c) Workers are always against management. (d) Managers have a bossy attitude. They can't be friendly. While, it is true that stereotypes allow a manager with a short cut to predict behaviour but sometimes stereotyped behaviours are not correct For Example: It is generalized that workers are anti management but it is not always true many times, they are management friendly. From perception point of view, if managers expect to see these stereotypes, they will see it whether they are true or not Hence, managers need to understand that stereotypes are not always true. (4) Prejudice (a) Prejudice distorts perception. If an individual has prejudice against the target it will distort how he perceives him. (b) Prejudice is a preconceived opinion that is not based on reason or actual experience. It is an unfavourable opinion formed without knowledge, thought or reason. Managers have to be free from prejudice for proper decision making. (5) Attribution (a) Attribution refers to judging the causes of other people’s behaviour (b) An incorrect attribution may lead to wrong perception. An individual s perception depends very much on the attribution he makes. A manager observes behaviour of employees determines its causes. (c) For Example: When a good quality product is sold in larger quantities in the market its demand is increasing. The marketing manager will not get the credit as the increase in demand is attributed to the quality of the product. Errors in perception take place because of attribution as more importance is given to behaviour rather than on environment. Managers give importance to the causes of other people’s behaviour and attribute behaviour to the individual rather than on environmental factors like intentions, status and consequences influence the attribution process. High status individuals are munotes.in

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56 considered to be more responsible than low status individuals. High status individuals are perceived to have good intentions than low status individuals Hence, managers need to understand that giving too much importance to behaviour than environment leads to barriers in perception. They have to overcome these barriers for accurate perception of the target or situation. Avoiding Perceptual error helps in:  understanding the difference between the perceived world and real world.  performance appraisal  decision making  employee hiring  determining loyalty of employees. munotes.in

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57 2 INTRODUCTION TO GROUP BEHAVIOUR Unit Structure 2.1 Group Dynamics 2.2 Team Effectiveness 2.3 Power and Politics 2.4 Organizational Conflicts and Resolution 2.1 GROUP DYNAMICS  Definition of Group 1. According to Stephen Robbins a group can be defined as "Two or more individuals interacting and inter-dependent, who have come together to achieve particular objectives." 2. According to K. Aswathappa "Group refers to a collection of two or more interacting individuals with a stable pattern of relationships between them, who share common goals, and who perceive themselves as being a group" 3. According to Marvin Shaw " a group is two or more persons who interact with one another such that each person influences and is influenced by the other person".  Types of Groups (1) Formal Groups: A formal group is a group that is intentional. Created by organizations to perform a specific task. Organization create these groups to serve a specific purpose. Members of formal group are usually appointed by the organisations, but they may not always be appointed by the organisation. A management team is an example of a formal group. Other examples: (a) The crew of an airline flight. (b) A research and development laboratory. (c) Work units. (d) A small assembly line. (e) A committee. (f) A small department, etc. munotes.in

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58 A special feature of formal groups is that there is hierarchy (a system in which people are ranked one above the other according to status or authority) of authority, with specified rules and regulations. There are two types of formal groups namely, Command group and Task group. (a) Command Group: It is most frequent type of formal group. It is determined by the organization chart. It is made up of individuals who report directly to a given manager. For e.g.: (i) The foreman (a worker who supervises other workers) and his team of workers constitute a command group. (ii) An elementary school Principal and his 10 teachers form a command group. Command groups are generally permanent in nature and continue to exist until a decision is made to change them or restructure the organization. (b) Task Groups: Task groups are also determined by the organization, represent those working together to complete a job task. For.eg. When a problem involving many departments arises, a task force (group) made-up of representatives from each of the affected departments, might be formed to study the problem and find out solutions. This group is made up of employees who work together to complete a particular task or project, but who do not necessarily report to the same supervisor. "All command groups are task groups, but all task groups are not command groups." (2) Informal Groups: An informal group is an association of persons that is neither formally structured nor created by the organization. It exists in response to the need for social contact. These groups form naturally in the work environment due to social contact between persons. They generally develop within groups out of certain values or concerns which some members find they share. They may also develop across or outside of formal groups. Informal groups do not possess formal structure of formation. Roles of members are loosely defined, based on member’s expectations and the needs of a group at any particular moment. A member's behaviour is guided by his own munotes.in

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Group Behaviour point of view of what is appropriate and allowed by the group. There are very few rules in informal groups. For eg. Four employees from different departments who regularly eat lunch together are an example of an informal group. (a) Friendship Groups: Friendship groups are groups which develop because the individual members have common characteristics. For eg. - Social associations, which occur outside the work situations, can be based on similar age or ethnic groups, etc. (b) Interest Groups: At work, people who may or may not be arranged into command or task groups may join together to achieve a specific objective with which each is concerned. This is an interest group. Hence, interest groups are made up of persons who share common interests. They may be job related interests or non-work interests, like national politics, religion etc. For. Eg. Employees who join together to have their vacation schedules changed, to support pay increase, to support exploitation at work, to seek improved working conditions, show the formation of a united body to further their common interest. Because of interactions that develop from the closeness at work, we find workers often do things together - like taking lunch, chat during tea breaks, play games, commute (travel) to work together, etc. These kinds of Interactions, even though informal, deeply affect their behaviour and performance. Informal groups provide a very important service by satisfying their members social needs. There is no single reason why individuals join groups. Many people belong to a number of groups, different groups give different benefits to Its members.  Group Behaviour Model Work groups are not unorganized group of people. They have a structure that shapes the behaviour of members and makes it possible to explain and predict a large portion of individual behaviour within the groups as well as the performance of the group itself. Group structure variables, include formal leadership, roles, norms, status, size, composition and group cohesiveness. Group Structure refers to the pattern of inter-relationships between the individuals constituting a group. Group structure shapes the behaviour of members and helps in smooth working of the group. munotes.in

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60 (1) Roles: "Roles are sets of behaviours that individuals occupying specific positions within a group are expected to perform." Group members have to play different roles as the group works towards achieving its purpose. Different persons perform different tasks and are expected to achieve different roles. For e.g.: Roles are assigned, a group may select different individuals to serve as it its leader, treasurer or secretary. (a) Role conflict: Role conflict is a situation in which an individual is faced with role expectations that clash. This happens when fulfilling requirement of one role makes it difficult to comply with another. For e.g.: An organization may expect manager to stay late at work, his wife and children want him to devote free hours with his family. This creates role conflicts. If an employee perceives role-conflicts to be severe, he may experience stress. (b) Role identity: Role identity refers to attitudes and behaviours consistent with a role. These create role identity. An individual adopts attitudes and behaviours that he identifies himself with. For e.g.: An individual holds different attitudes and behaves differently when he has to perform role of a manager and differently when he has to perform role of a leader. (c) Role Perception: Role Perception is an individuals' view of how he is supposed to act in a given situation. For e.g.: The way in which a group member behaves and acts depends on how he views his role in the group. (d) Role Expectations: Role expectations are others' beliefs about how a person should behave and act in a particular situation. For e.g.: A teacher is expected to be understanding, a leader is expected to have the ability to control the situations. At work, management is expected to treat employees fairly, give them good working conditions, good salaries, recreation facilities, etc. Employees are expected to maintain goodwill of the company, follow instructions of their superiors, be loyal to the organisation, etc. munotes.in

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Group Behaviour (e) Role Ambiguity: People experience role ambiguity when they do not know what is expected of them. New employees in an organization experience it and it may lead to job dissatisfaction. For e.g.: Role ambiguity may also lead to lowering of self-confidence and job-performance. (2) Norms: Norms are rules within a group indicating how its members should or should not behave. Norms are distinguished from an organization's rule; norms are not formally laid down. Still, they are powerful means for regulating the behaviour of people. Each and every group has its own norms. Some norms are common among most groups. Most common Norms are: (a) Performance Norms: They are the most common and the most important class of norms. These norms refer to how hard group members should work, how to get the work done, their level of output etc. These norms are extremely powerful in guiding an individual employee s performance. (b) Appearance Norms: They include the appropriate dress code, loyalty to the group and when to look busy. (c) Social Arrangement Norms: These norms regulate social interactions within the group. Things such as the persons with whom group members should have lunch and with whom they form friendship are influenced by the norms. (d) Allocation of Resources Norms: These norms regulate things like pay, assignment of difficult jobs and allocation of new tools and equipment’s. (3) Status: A status is defined as a socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others. Status differences exist within a group. For e.g.: Leaders are most important members of their respective groups. Status in a group depends on many factors like seniority, education, performance, prestige, rank given age, or position in other groups. Organizations use various status symbols like large offices, expensive cars, membership of exclusive clubs, etc. to reflect the status of an individual in an organization's hierarchy. Studies suggest that, higher status people are more influential than lower status people. They are also given more freedom to move away from group norms. munotes.in

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62 (4) Size: The size of the group affects the working of the group. Smaller groups are faster in completing tasks than larger groups. However, if the group is engaged in problem solving, then larger groups perform better. So, the size of the group has to be determined by considering the group goals if the goal is generating a wide variety of ideas, encouraging participation, or socializing new members, large groups would be better. On the other hand, if a high-quality decision is the main goal, small group of 5 to 6 members is sufficient. Increase in the size of the group is not always helpful. Sometimes it also leads to social loafing. Social loafing is a tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working collectively than when working individually. The social loafing effect was noticed by a Gemman scientist named Max Ringleman. Research has shown that social loafing occurs because: (a) An individual may believe that others in the group are not doing their share. (b) The responsibility for doing the job is diffused (spread). Each member feels less responsible for behaving correctly. (c) The presence of others makes people believe that their contributions are less needed. 2.2 TEAM EFFECTIVENESS  Definition of Team: 1. According to Katzenbach and Smith "A team is a small group of people with complementary skills, who work actively together to achieve a common purpose for which they hold collectively accountable" 2. According to Stephen Robbins a work team is "a group whose individual efforts results in a performance that is greater than the sum of those individual inputs." Advantages of Teams: According to Robbins, teams have following advantages – (1) Teams generally outperform individuals. (2) Teams are an effective way to increase motivation. (3) Teams facilitate employee involvement (4) Teams are more flexible and responsive to changes in the environment. (5) Teams use employee talents better.  Nature of Team: (1) A team is a relatively permanent work group whose members coordinate their activities to achieve one or more common objectives. munotes.in

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Group Behaviour (2 For achievement of objectives, team, members require coordination therefore, they depend on one another and interact regularly. (3) Sometimes, the terms "group' and "team" are used interchangeably but they are not the same. (4) The basic purpose of a group is to interact for the purpose of sharing information while the basic purpose of the team is to perform collectively. (5) The group should have a strong and focused leader, teams generally do not have clear leaders and the leadership roles are also shared. (6) The group meets through the formal and efficient meetings; the teams are encouraged to have open ended active problem-solving meetings. (7) All teams are groups, but all groups are not teams because: (i) Work groups focus on individual goals. While teams focus on individual goals as well as team goals. (ii) In groups individual's do not take responsibility for other people's results while in team individual share responsibility for other's results also.  TYPES OF TEAMS On the basis of objectives of the teams, they may be classified into five types, they are as follows: (1) Problem-solving Team- (a) Problem-solving teams are temporary teams; their main objective is to find solutions to specific problems at workplace. (b) After solving the problem, the team ends. The members return to their normal work. (c) Such teams normally give suggestions for others to implement. They offer suggestions and ideas on how work processes and methods can be improved. (2) Work teams (a) They are mainly focused on the routine work done by the organisation like developing and manufacturing new products, providing quality services, etc. (b) Their aim is to use the organization’s resources in the best possible manner. munotes.in

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64 (3) Management Teams- (a) Management teams consists of manager’s departments who coordinate together. (b) They focus on the teams that have great impact on overall performance. (c) They are permanent as their job does not end with the completion of a particular task or the resolution of problem. (d) They coach and counsel other teams so that they can manage themselves. (e) They also coordinate with work teams that are related to each other. (4) Cross functional Teams- (a) Cross - functional teams are made up of employees from about the same hierarchical level, but from different areas, who join together for achieving a task. (b) Such teams help people from different areas within organisation to exchange information, develop ideas, solve problems and coordinate difficult projects. (c) It takes time to build trust and teamwork in these teams as the members are from different backgrounds, have experiences and viewpoints. (5) Virtual teams- (a) Virtual teams never meet in person (b) They conduct meetings through computer, teleconferencing and other modern electronic devices of communication. (c) Information is shared through mails, internet, etc. (d) In such teams, decisions are made faster. (e) Team members can easily join and leave the team.  Ways of Forming Effective Team (1) Objectives and team goals should be clear and easy to implement. (2) Openness and confrontation (3) Support and trust among members. (4) Co-operation among members munotes.in

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Group Behaviour (5) Sound Procedures (6) Appropriate leadership (7) Regular review of team's performance. (8) Individual development. (9) Sound inter group relations. (10) Small teams should be made as they are better they need less time to co-ordinate and resolve differences they need less time to develop member involvement this leads to higher commitment however, if the task needs a large team then a large team should be made. (11) Team members should be willing to learn they should be competent to achieve the task.  Setting Team Goals Every team should focus on individual as well as team goals. Before every individual team member finalizes their goals managers should bring everyone together to agree to team goals. By agreeing and committing to team's goals first, individuals should write objectives that state the contribution that they have to make for success of the team. The goals of the team and objectives of each individual member should be (1) Aligned- (a) The goals of the team should be aligned with the goals of the organisation. (b) The goals of each individual should be aligned with the goals of the team. (2) Understood- (a) Goals should be properly and clearly understood. (b) Everyone should understand how their delivery of goals as an individual will contribute to the team and the organisation as a whole. (3) Smart- (a) Goals should be SMART S-Specific, M-Measurable A-Attainable R-Realistic munotes.in

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66 T-Timely (4) Accountabilities and responsibilities should be clearly allocated among team members. (5) Performance indicators should be created. Key performance indicators should be created that provide warning about whether progress towards objectives and targets is on track. If not then, timely corrective action should be taken. (6) Identifying dependencies for achievement of goals- (a) Dependencies among various tasks should be identified. (b) The inputs that are to be delivered by other individual or teams for achievement of the objectives should be identified. (c) There should be regular flow of communication among all the individual's involved in the process. (d) Team members should use "Handshakes" to acknowledge their commitment and to create a sense of bonding between them. (7) Identifying risks- (a) Risk involved in the process of achievement of goals should be identified. (b) Steps should be taken to avoid these risks and process should be put in place to monitor the risks. (c) If the responsibilities of goals are shared unequally, a team is given larger share of goals then it should be considered as a risk and a way should be found out to manage it as a team. (8) Commitment by all members- (a) Everyone in the team, and the team as a whole should be committed to achieve the team's goals. (b) All members should agree to be jointly responsible for achieving goals of the team. 2.3 ORGANIZATIONAL PROCESSES AND SYSTEM POWER AND POLITICS  Definition of Power: (1) According to French and Raven-"Power is the ability to make things happen in the way individual wants, either by self or munotes.in

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Group Behaviour subordinates. The essence of power is controlling the behaviour of others. (2) According to Stephen Robbins "power refers to a capacity that A has to influence the behaviour of B. So that B acts in accordance with A's wishes. The greater B's dependence on A, the greater is A's power in the relationship. Therefore, power is the function of dependency.  Nature of Power: (1) Power is the ability to make things happen in the way an individual want. (2) Managers derives power from both organizational and individual sources. These sources are called position power and personal Power respectively. (3) From the point of view of organization, leadership and power are related to each other. Power is used by leaders to achieve group goals. Power is the means of facilitating their achievement of goals and objectives that they have set for themselves in view of organizational requirements. (4) Power requires one person's dependence on another person. (5) Power is essential to leadership and management functions. (6) Power can be divided into two types: (i) Formal and (ii) Informal or personal Formal power is based on the position of an individual in an organization. Informal power or personal power resides in the individual and is not dependent on Individuals position. Using position and personal power properly to achieve the desired influence over other people is a challenge for managers.  Bases of Power Power can be divided into two types Formal and Informal. (1) Formal power– Formal power is based on an individual s positions in the organisation, formal power can be further classified into four types as follows: (A) Legitimate Power- (i) Legitimate power is also known as positional power. munotes.in

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68 (ii) It's derived from the position a person holds in an organization's hierarchy. For example, junior workers report to managers. Hence, managers have position power to assign duties to their juniors. (iii) For positional power to be exercised effectively, the person using it must be deemed to have earned it legitimately. (iv) Another example of legitimate power is that held by a company's CEO. (B) Coercive Power- (i) Coercive power is derived from a person's ability to influence others through threats, punishments or sanctions. (ii) A junior staff member may work late to meet a deadline to avoid disciplinary action from his boss. (iii) Coercive power is, therefore, a person' s ability to punish, fire or reprimand another employee. (iv) Coercive power helps control the behavior of employees by ensuring that they follow the organization's policies and norms. (C) Reward Power- (i) Reward power arises from the ability of a person to influence the allocation of incentives in an organization. (ii) These incentives include salary increments, positive appraisals and promotions. (iii) In an organization, people who have reward power tend to influence the actions of other employees. (iv) Reward power, if used well, greatly motivates employees. But if it's applied through favoritism, reward power can greatly demoralize employees and reduce their output. (D) Information Power- (i) information power is derived from access to information and control over it. (ii) When people have needed information, others depend on them. munotes.in

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Group Behaviour (iii) For eg. Managers have data that subordinates do not have. The higher the level of an individual in an organisation, more is the information access to him. (2) Informal Power or Personal Power - Informal of personal power resides in an individual and is not dependent on his position. It can be further classified into two types as follows: (A) Expert Power- (i) Expert power is derived from possessing knowledge and expertise in a particular area. (ii) It is the ability to control other's behaviour by possessing knowledge, experiences or judgement that the other person lacks, but needs. (iii) Individual's possessing expert power are valued for their problem-solving skills. They can perform important tasks and hence they are considered as invaluable. For eg.: A subordinate obeys a manager possessing expert power because the manager possesses expertise in the relevant task. He knows how the task is to be done. (iv) The opinions, decisions or ideas of individual's having expert power are considered useful by other employees and greatly influence their action. (v) Possession of expert power also helps in possession of other powers such as legitimate power. For Eg. An individual possessing expert power may be promoted to higher level. This helps in possession of legitimate power also. (B) Referent Power- (i) Referent power is derived from the interpersonal relationships that a person develops with other people in the organisation. (ii) An individual develops reference power when another individual's like and respect him. (iii) For Eg. An employee may obey the manager because he lies and respects him. munotes.in

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70 (iv) Reference power develops from charisma, the charismatic person influence others through admiration, respect and trust others have for them. (v) People obey the individual because they want to behave, perceive or believe as he does.  Definition of Politics According to Farrell and peterson politics, refers "to those action that are not required as part of one's formal role in the organisation. That influence, or attempt to influence. The distribution of advantages and disadvantages within the organisation."  Nature of politics (1) The above definition clearly states that- (a) Political behaviour falls outside the scope of one's job requirements. (b) It includes efforts to influence the goals, criteria or process employed for decision-making that will result in the distribution of advantages and disadvantages within the organisation. (c) Hence, political behaviour includes a variety of behaviours such as withholding important information from decision makers, whistle blowing, spreading rumors, leaking confidential information etc. (2) Power and Politics are related to each other. (3) Political behaviour is universal and inevitable in organizations. It takes place in all types of organizations. (4) Political behaviour is said to be the non-rational influence on decision making. (5) According to Aristotle politics takes place because of diversity of interests. Individuals try to satisfy organisational goals as well as their own needs driven by self-interest. All employed within an organisation bring their own interests, wants, desires and needs at workplace. (6) Politics may be good or bad for organisation. TYPES OF ORGANISATIONAL POLTICS Individual's use a number of ways to influence the working of organisation, they make use of various ways depending on the situation. "Political behaviour of individual's in an organisation can be broadly classified into two types namely. munotes.in

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Group Behaviour (1) Legitimate Political Behaviour and (2) legitimate Political Behaviour (1) Legitimate Political Behaviour-Legitimate political behaviour refers to normal everyday politics. It includes the following types of behaviours: (A) Controlling the agenda - (i) At committee meetings decision are made based on the opinions of the committee members and also on whether the committee has time to make decision. (ii) Decisions can be stopped by removing items from the agenda or they can be manipulated by placing them in particular places on the agenda. (iii) Generally, the items in the beginning are discussed in great detail, while those at the end of the agenda are discussed in short, due to lack of time. (iv) Items at the end of the agenda are overlooked or decided without paying much attention. (B) Controlling access to Information - (i) Controlling access to information is an important political strategy to control decision. (ii) People who have access to needed information or have the capacity to manipulate information, are able to control decisions. (C) Forming a Coalition - (i) Sometimes when groups and individuals know that they do not have the power to influence the decision-making process, they increase their power by forming a coalition with other groups. (ii) Coalitions are formed to maximise the rewards to the group and its members. (iii) Hence generally, coalitions are made up of the minimum number of members needed to achieve a desired decision. (D) Co-opting - (i) It involves getting support by putting opponents together. (ii) This strategy of putting opponents together helps in reducing uncertainty and minimizing outside criticism. munotes.in

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72 For eg.: Schools, colleges, etc. use co-opting by putting influential people in management and Board of Directors. Other type of legitimate political behaviours in organisation are - (i) Complaining supervisor about other's mistakes. (ii) Developing outside contacts through professional activities. (iii) Managing Impressions over other's (iv) Attacking and Blaming others for the mistakes. (2) Illegitimate Political behaviour - Illegitimate political behaviour is extreme. It violates the 'rules of game'. It involves activities such as - (a) Sabotage: Destruction of an employer's property (such as tools or materials) or the hindering of manufacturing by discontented workers. (b) Whistle blowing: Whistleblowing is the term used when a worker passes on information concerning wrongdoing. In this guidance. We call that "making a disclosure" or "blowing the whistle". The wrongdoing will typically (although not necessarily) be something they have witnessed at work. (c) Symbolic protests such as wearing orthodox dress etc. Generally, individual's use legitimate political behaviour in organisation. Causes of Organizational Politics Politics in organisation takes place because of- (1) Individual factors (2) Organisational factors (1) Individual factors - Research has shown that certain personality traits, needs and other factors are related to political behaviour, they are as follows: (a) Employees high in self-monitors, possess an internal locus of control, have high need for power. This makes them engage in political behaviour. (b) The high self-monitor is capable of behaving differently in different situations. They are skilled in political behaviour than the low self-monitors. munotes.in

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Group Behaviour (c) Individual's having an internal locus of control have the capability to manipulate situations in their favor. They can control their environment by using political behaviour. (d) Machiavellian personalities are also good at politics as they have the tendency to manipulate others for personal gain. They use politics for their own interest and do not consider it unethical. (2) Organisational factors– Politics in organisation takes place because of the following organisational factors: (a) Political behaviour takes places in an organisation when an organization’s resources are declining, and the existing pattern of resources is changing. (b) Cultures characterized by low trust, role ambiguity, unclear performance, evaluation systems zero-sum rewards allocation practice, high pressure for performance, self-serving senior managers and democratic decision-making create reasons for politics. (c) When organizations downsize to improve efficiency, people engage in political behaviour to protect their existing status. (d) Role ambiguity means that the prescribed behaviour of the employees are not clear. The greater the role ambiguity, greater is the chance of political behaviour. (e) Managers who are autocratic make use of politics.Autocratic means managers centralize power and make decision by themselves. They give order, assign tasks and duties without consulting the employees. Hence, many organisations ask managers to be less autocratic and more democratic but in reality very few managers practice it Internally, if the manager's believe in autocracy they make use of required committees, group meetings, and conferences for manipulating employees. (f) Lesser the level of trust in the organisation, higher is the level of political behaviour. (g) Promotion decisions lead to political behaviour. (h) Top management may create an environment for political behaviour by engaging in certain behaviours, giving a signal to people below in the hierarchy that it is OK to engage in such behaviour when employees see that top management is successfully making use of political munotes.in

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74 behaviour, an environment is created that supports political behaviour.  Political Games Henry mintzberg is one of the main business teachers. He described a set of political games, most of them are about building power in various areas. In organisations, more than one game can be going on at the same time and with the same people. Important political games played by individual's in an organisation are as follows: (1) Insurgency game (a) It is normally played to resist authority. (b) It can also be played to resist expertise or established ideology or even to effect change in the organisation. (c) It ranges from protest to rebellion (d) It is usually played by "lower level employees". Those people who feel the maximum weight of authority. (d) For eg. Trade unions play this game. (2) Counter Insurgency game (a) It is played by upper level authorities to fight back against insurgents. The management plays it with legitimate power. (3) Sponsorship game (a) It is played by lower people in the organisation to build power by attaching themselves with higher level people who can help them. (b) Individual attaches himself with someone with more status promising that he will be loyal to him in return for the power. (4) Alliance Building Game a) It is building power through peer networks, generally among line managers who agree between themselves to support each of them in order to build power base to advance themselves in the organisation. (5) Budgeting game (a) It is about getting the most money an individual can, by asking for too much money knowing that he will get only a part of what he has asked for. munotes.in

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Group Behaviour (6) Expertise game (a) It is played by people with expert power, they manage their knowledge and skills more for their own gain than that of the company. (b) People with expert power give information only to those who can help them in return. (7) Empire -Building Game (a) It is played by managers, to build power base, not with peers but individually with subordinates. (8) Line versus Staff game (a) It is played between line managers and staff advisors. (b) It is played to increase personal power and also to defeat the rival. (c) It puts line managers -with formal decision-making authority against staff advisors. Each side tries to exploit the other. (d) Generally, the staff does not have direct authority, this allows the line manager to refuse or resist their demands. (9) Rival Camp's game (a) It is played to defeat a rival (b) It takes place when alliance building or empire building games lead to two camps. c) Its tums into an us- vs- them game. For e.g.: It may take place between marketing and sales etc. where there are different expertise, interest, goals, this make it easy to point out at other camp. (10) Strategic candidates’ game (a) It is played to bring change in the organisation. b) Individuals or groups try to bring the changes wanted by them with the use of political means. (11) Whistle-blowing game (a) An insider leaks the information, he is usually a lower level employee, to an influential outsider, on questionable or illegal behaviour of the organisation. munotes.in

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76 2.4 ORGANIZATIONAL CONFLICTS AND RESOLUTION Conflict: Self-interested struggle that arises when the goal-directed behavior of one person or group blocks the goal-directed behavior of another person or group.  Definition of Conflict K.W. Thomas Says "conflict is a process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected or is about to negatively affect, something the other party cares about"  Level of Conflicts/Features (1) Inter individual conflict (2) Intra individual conflict (3) Inter-group conflict Inter-Individual Conflicts In an organization people need to work together. Almost every relationship has the power to produce some degree of conflict. Inter-individual conflict exists when two individuals feel themselves in opposition. It is an interpersonal process that occurs from disagreements over goal to be achieved. (a) Matter of perception: Whether conflict will occur or not is determined by how individuals or groups perceive each other. One or more individuals or groups must be affected by, and be aware of the conflict. If no one is aware of the conflict it is said that no conflict exists. (b) Opposing interests: Conflict occurs due to opposing interests between individuals or groups. The interests are opposed because conflict involve goals which cannot be shared. (c) Harm to other's interests: Conflict involves the belief that other actions are harming one's interests. " (d) Social interaction: It is a form of social interaction. The opposing behaviours are interactive in the sense that it takes two people to make a fight. Intra-Individual Conflicts Intra-individual or Internal conflicts occur within oneself an individual is confronted (faced) by two or more alternatives and he is not able to decide as to what to accept and what to reject. In such a situation an individual is said to be in a conflicting situation. A conflict can be within oneself or external (between two or more individuals). munotes.in

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Group Behaviour We have studied external conflicts, now let us study internal conflict is an unavoidable part of our life i.e. we cannot avoid it. Sigmund Freud around 100 years ago said that internal conflict creates some degree of psychological distress (extreme unhappiness, pain or suffering). A lot of research studies have proved that more the level of conflicts one experiences in his life, the more is the distress one experiences. There are four major types of conflicts. 1. Approach-approach conflict: In approach-approach conflict person has to choose between two equally attractive alternatives. This kind of conflict occurs when a person is confronted (faced) by two goals and both the goals are equally attractive to him. For e.g. - A person gets two job offers, both are equally attractive involving good salary, working conditions, respect, incentives, etc. In this case, conflict may arise about the choice of one job out of two, as both the jobs are attractive. 2. Avoidance-Avoidance conflict: In avoidance- avoidance conflict an individual has to choose from among two negative or unattractive alternatives. This kind of conflict arises when an individual has to make a choice between two unattractive outcomes. For e.g. – (a) A fat person must choose between dieting and to remain fat. (b) A student must choose between attending a lecture or not attending a lecture. If he attends the lecture, he feels bored as he is not interested but if he does not attend the lecture he will not get attendance. So, here he has to choose between two negative or unattractive alternative this is avoidance-avoidance conflict. 3. Approach-Avoidance conflict: Approach-avoidance conflict is in which achieving a positive goal will produce a negative outcome also. In simple words, in this kind of conflict an individual has to make a choice between one goal which is attractive and the other go which is not attractive, the choice is difficult because one side has a positive side and other side has an unattractive side. For e.g. - (a) An individual does not know singing, but wants to be a singer. Here, he wants to be a singer is a positive goal while he does not know singing is a negative goal. (b) A student wants to score good marks, but he does not attend regular school. Here, scoring good marks is a positive goal while not attending school is a negative goal. 4. Multiple Approach avoidance conflict: This kind of conflict occurs when an individual has to make a choice between two or more goals munotes.in

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78 and both have positive and negative outcomes. The choice is very difficult but decision is to be taken. For e.g. - An individual is a good cricket player as well as a good student. He wants to participate in cricket match and also wants to get good marks in exam. He cannot do both together, his friends want him to play for the country and bring a trophy and a medal, while his parents want him to get a rank in the class as he is an academic scholar. In the above situation if he goes for the cricket tournament he may lose the rank and if he attends the classes he will be able to get a good rank, he cannot achieve both, as both have to be done on the same time. The individual will have to make a choice between the two things. In the above example, both choices involve positive and negative outcomes.  Ways of Resolving Conflict Through Five Strategies An individual may try to avoid conflict, but he cannot completely stay away from it. Hence, whenever he faces conflicts he has to resolve it. Resolve means he has to find a solution for solving the conflict. Resolution of a conflict is very necessary. There are two ways of resolving the conflicts, they are direct ways and indirect ways are as follows: Direct ways: Direct ways are the ways in which an individual directly resolves the conflicting situation. They are: (a) Attack: (i) While using attack an individual directly attacks conflicting situation. (ii) He may learn new techniques or may try to acquire more physical energy or any other way to directly attack the situation. For e.g. Student who is afraid of giving exams may prepare himself well by using various learning techniques like studying thoroughly and building confidence, etc. This will help him in getting good marks and also facing the conflict of getting afraid of exams directly. (b) Compromise: (i) This is the most common way which is used by majority of the people to resolve the conflict. (ii) It is used by most people to stay away from the conflicting. (iii) Sometimes, attacking the situation is not possible and withdrawing from the situation is also not possible. So, a person has to compromise. munotes.in

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Group Behaviour For e.g. An individual need to help his father in running the business and he also has a desire for higher studies. In this case, he will use compromise by joining a correspondence course of a distance education to obtain a degree. He will be satisfied as he will be in a position to achieve both the goals. (c) Choice: (i) Another way to resolve a conflict is to make a choice. (ii) He makes a choice which gives him satisfaction. (iii) An individual takes a right choice when he has more choices. (iv) Sometimes, it becomes difficult for an individual to make a choice, he may take advice or help of his friends, parents, subordinates, and other known people whom he admires. (v) Once he makes a choice the conflict is solved. (d) Selection: (i) When an individual is making a choice, he is actually selecting one alternative from others. (ii) One has to select the most correct alternative from others. (iii) He has to consider the negative as well as positive qualities of alternative which are there before him. (iv) He may take advice and opinion from the experts while making a selection. (e) Withdrawal: (i) Sometimes an individual withdraws from the conflicting situation when he is neither able to attack nor able to compromise or make use of any other way of conflict resolution. (ii) They may do consciously or unconsciously i.e. knowing or unknowing. For e.g. A person may leave his job because he may find that he is not competent enough to handle it. While withdrawing from their situation his ego may be hurt badly. However, individuals also use indirect methods for resolving conflicts. They may not always use direct ways to resolve conflicts. munotes.in

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80 3 ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE Unit Structure 3.0 Objectives 3.1 Overview 3.2 Organizational Culture 3.3 Characteristics of Organizational Culture 3.4 Types of Organizational Culture 3.5 Functions of Organizational Culture 3.6 Barriers of Organizational Culture 3.7 Ways of Creating and Maintaining effective Organizational Culture 3.8 Summary 3.0 OBJECTIVES After studying this module, you should be able to:  Study the concept of Organizational Culture  Understand the Factors which leads to develop an Organizational Culture  Need for Organizational Culture  Study the Barriers of  Understand the Types of Organizational Culture  Know the Ways of Creating and Maintaining effective Organizational Culture 3.1 OVERVIEW The term ‘Culture’ is defined differently by different people. It is interpreted differently as per the views and opinions of the people. It is something which is created and resides in the minds of the people. The culture differs from country to country and organization to organization. There is a great influence of organizational culture on the employees. Organizational culture is a Pattern of basic assumptions which are invented, discovered or developed by a group of people to be taught to new members. The organizational culture is a summation of a company's beliefs, policies, goals and objectives of the organization. It also covers the working style, way of communication and pattern described by the given group. It is munotes.in

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81 Organizational Culture expected from every new member to work in accordance with the culture of the organization. There is a clear difference between the mission and vision of the organization and the organizational culture. The mission and vision of the organization clarify the road map to the people to work in that direction while organizational culture is a summation of a company's policies and beliefs which they expect to be transformed into the behavior of their employees. A strong culture always advocates some measured values and expects the same to be imbibed by its employees. An organization can expect high product quality, efficiency and regularity from the employees. Organizational culture is marked by a number of features. people in the organizations interact with each other. They use some common medium to communicate. They use common language. They use common terminologies. They even mark the special days of the employees in the same pattern in the same way. These things advocate the impact of the culture in the behavior of the employees. In the TATA Group, one of the much talked about and practiced principles is the utilization of resources. There are also countless stories of how people avoid and stop other people too to utilize resources. Tata firmly believes that the money belongs to the people but the resources belong to the society. This is a perfect example of a work culture. 3.2 ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE 3.2.1 MEANING In common parlance, organizational culture is generally understood as all of a company’s beliefs, values and attitudes, and how these influence the behavior of its employees. It is a pervasive underline set of beliefs, assumptions, values shared and perceptions, the actions and decisions taken by the organization. In an organization, people share culture. It denotes the morals, value systems, behavioral norms and ways of doing business that are unique to each operation. There are different perspectives of culture in organizations. People come into contact with organizations, Organisation transform their behavior and influences their thinking as per the organizational culture. 3.2.2 DEFINITION According to Turnstall, “ Organizational culture is a general constellation of beliefs, morals, value system behavioral norms and ways of doing business that are unique to each Corporation. According to Edgar Schein, “Organizational culture is a pattern of basic assumption invented, discovered or developed by a given group as it learns to cope with problem of external adoption and internal integration that has worked well enough to be considered valuable and, therefore, to be taught munotes.in

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82 to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel, in relation to those problems.” In the words of Joanne Martin, “ as individuals come into contact with organizations, they come into contact with dress nose, stories people tell about what goes on, the organization's formal rules and procedures, its formal codes of behavior, rituals, tasks, pay systems, jargon, and jokes only Understood by insiders, and so on. These elements are some of the manifestations of organizational culture.” 3.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE After studying the above definitions, we can say that organizational culture is marked by the number of distinguishing features. Following is the explanation of the same -
Fig. 3.1: Characteristics of Organizational Culture 1. Beliefs and Norms The first characteristic of organizational culture is based on my beliefs and norms. Culture is something which is created and resides in the minds of the people. Standard beliefs and norms are set to guide the employees. 2. Behavioral Regularities The organizational culture is a summation of a company's beliefs, policies, goals and objectives of the organization. It also covers the working style, way of communication and pattern described by the
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83 Organizational Culture given group. It is expected from every new member to work in accordance with the culture of the organization. 3. Dominant Values The culture advocates some dominant values. The organizations stress upon some major values and expect the same to be imbibed by the organizational members. The dominant values like efficiency, sincerity, value of time, regularity are few examples of dominant values. 4. Rules and Regulations Culture advocates some common rules and regulations for each and every member of the organization. There are guidelines prescribed how the members of the organization will behave, share and act in a group and as an individual. Rules are simple guidelines which the members are expected to follow to draw a general behavior. 5. Common Philosophies In an organization, people share culture. It denotes the morals, value systems, behavioral norms and ways of doing business that are unique to each operation. There are different perspectives of culture in organizations. People come into contact with organizations, Organisation transform their behavior and influences their thinking as per the organizational culture. People share common philosophies of the organization. 6. Organizational Climate It is a set of relatively enduring properties of the work environment. The work environment that is perceived by the members to live, like and dislike. Under this, beliefs, assumptions, values shared and perceptions, the actions and decisions taken by the organization. Thus, it helps to form organizational culture. 3.4 TYPES OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE The different types of organizational culture helps in developing a system. Through this system, the people share the core values of the organization. It is a glue that keeps organization together. Due to the distinguish features, the following are the types of organizational culture - munotes.in

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84 Fig. 3.2 Types of Organizational Culture 1. Dominant Culture This culture as the name suggests drives the whole organization. The culture which is marked by a set of core values that are shared by a majority of the organizational members are called dominant culture. 2. Subculture Subculture is shared by the members of a particular group. It is a set of values that are shared by the members of a particular division or department. Managers are known for their unique style of handling groups. Through subculture, the set of values are shared by the members of a group. 3. Strong Culture There are categories of beliefs and values an organization keeps for the members. The set of values can be categorized into strong and weak cultures. A strong culture is featured by the organization’s core values which are being intensely held and widely shared. 4. Weak Culture Opposite to the strong culture, when the core values are not shared with a high degree of intensity it takes the form of weak culture. When the management does not convey or employees are unable to perceive the shared values, this may take the form of a weak culture There are other types of organizational culture -  Adhocracy Culture  Clan Culture  Hierarchy Culture  Market Culture
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85 Organizational Culture 3.5 FUNCTIONS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE Organizational culture performs a number of functions. The important one are as follows -
Fig. 3.3: Functions of Organizational Culture 1. Shared Pattern of Feelings An organizational culture provides shared pattern of feelings to the organizational members to make them know the value of culture. It makes them understand what they are expected to value and feel when it comes to the organizational part. 2. Provide a Boundary The term boundary is used in a sense to create the distinction between one organization and another. Organization culture provides a boundary that creates a difference between the organizations for the members. This boundary helps to identify the members and non-members of the organization. 3. Reinforces Values and Beliefs The organization culture is known for sharing the set of values that are being shared by the members of the organization. Organizational culture, the standard behavior is being reinforced backed by values, beliefs and philosophies of the organization.
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86 4. Integrates system and subsystem Organizational culture integrates the system and subsystem. It enhances the shared values by holding the organizational members Together by providing them appropriate methods for which the members should work collectively. The efforts of the system and subsystem are integrated into organizational culture. 5. Control Mechanism Another important function of organizational culture is to act as a control mechanism. The culture serves as a control mechanism that guides and shapes the attitudes and behavior of the organizational participants. the standards are communicated it is expected that the members should stick to the conformity to the expected mode of behavior. 6. Enhances Social Stability Man is a social animal. They cannot work in isolation. It is advocated that by enhancing social stability, the organizational culture holds the organizational members together by providing them a sense of participation and shared values regarding the appropriate standards for which the members should stand for. 3.6 BARRIERS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE Culture is sharedness of understanding values among the organizational members. To respond to the environmental changes, there must be a system of flexibility. Values and beliefs have their base on the past happenings. In many organizations, many times the culture is dysfunctional. The barriers sometimes created by the insiders or by the outside forces compel organizations to get dysfunction. It is Important to maintain the culture but still some forces create barriers for the smooth functioning of the culture. The following reason act as a barrier of organizational culture -
Fig. 3.4: Barriers of Organizational Culture
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87 Organizational Culture 1. Lack of Communication Communication is a key factor for the success of any organization. Culture is a shared values and beliefs among the organizational members. Lack of communication ruined this system and can affect the working of the organization. How is culture created? This question is important but what forces sustain culture is more important. 2. Resistance to Change Change is inevitable in nature. Although, people resist change. There may be numerous reasons as human behavior is caused. Whatever we do, there is a reason behind that. Resistance to change can be a source of functional conflict. Some evidence of resistance to change is very destructive. The main reason people resist change is uncertainty of its impact. The organizational structure itself also resists change. Every kind of change involves resistance to change. Individuals resist change due to multiple factors. The main factor which is considered is fear. They fear losing power, status, responsibilities and post. 3. Lack of Clarity It is important for an organization to ensure that the members know about the culture. culture provides shared patterns of cognitive perception and understanding about the values or beliefs held by the organization. If these things are not clear, the members may perceive and behave differently. Lack of clarity is one of the possible causes which create barriers to organizational culture. 4. Stereotype and Prejudices People sometimes keep their opinion on other people on the basis of caste, religion, race and age. This creates a problem of judging other people on the basis of the common trait which people perceive about them. This also creates a situation of being judgemental for the other person. When it comes to working together, people with stereotypes and prejudices find it difficult to manage and work with other group members. 5. Lack of Effective Leadership Culture once established may fade away also. If the manager and his/her leadership is not effective, It may affect the acceptance of the group members regarding the culture. An effective leader will always ensure that the people are aware about the values and they share those values and philosophies while working. 6. Unable to Sustain a Culture A culture is created, it needs to be sustained to do proper practices of human resource. Selecting a culture is important but sustaining it with the same zeal is more important. People make a culture but sometimes fail to sustain it. munotes.in

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88 3.7 WAYS OF CREATING AND MAINTAINING EFFECTIVE ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE The following are the ways of creating and maintaining effective organizational culture - 3.7.1 CREATING A CULTURE The process of creating a culture starts with the base of beliefs and values. In any organization, the founders are the ultimate source of an organization's culture. The culture starts with the vision of the organization. The vision is imposed on all the organizational members. To reach the vision, the mission is created. The Vision and Mission are considered as the important factor of organization as it provides the direction and coordination to the members. Luthans has identified a distinct process through which the culture can be created -
Fig. 3.5 Process of Creating a Culture 1. Vision The process starts by believing that the Founder has an idea or vision for an enterprise. The vision is created in the very first stage. 2. Creation of Core Group In this stage, the founder brings in some people and creates a core group. The core group shares a common vision with the founder. The core group accepts the idea aur vision. After accepting the idea, they work in that direction. 3. Begins to Act After the creation of the core group, the core group begins to act in concert to create an organization. They raise funds, obtain patents, incorporate, locate space and location and so on.
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89 Organizational Culture 3.7.2 MAINTAINING ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE EFFECTIVELY As mentioned earlier, a culture once established may fade away also. After creating a culture, it is important that it needs to be sustained through reinforcement practices of human resources. Creating anything is easy but maintaining that thing for a long period is difficult. The three steps can be adopted to sustain and maintain a culture -
Fig. 3.6: Maintaining and Sustaining a Culture 1. Selection Practices This step involves the careful selection of entry level candidates. The term ‘selection’ here deals with appointing the right person for the right job at the right place. Maintaining the right culture with the wrong people is a dangerous act for an organization. Maintaining the right culture with the right people is the main purpose of this step. The suitable candidates who can culturally match the organizational cultures are selected in this stage. 2. Actions of Top Management The idea of culture starts from the top management. It is observed that the subordinates emulate their superiors. The actions of top management have a major impact on the employees who are working at middle and lower levels. The factors like -  Leadership style  Degree of freedom
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90  HR policies  Pay raises  Reward system Helps to perceive the organization culture. 3. Methods of Socialization Socialization is the process of adaptation. People from diverse backgrounds work in an organization. The person who is coming from a different world is likely to disturb the customs and rules of the organization. Therefore, it is important for an organization to use the methods of social socialization to make them adopt the process of culture. At the time of arrival, make them understand a few things about the organizational culture. During the encounter stage, Make them realize that the culture is expected to be followed strictly by the members. 3.8 SUMMARY  The organizational culture is a summation of a company's beliefs, policies, goals and objectives of the organization. It also covers the working style, way of communication and pattern described by the given group. It is expected from every new member to work in accordance with the culture of the organization.  In an organization, people share culture. It denotes the morals, value systems, behavioral norms and ways of doing business that are unique to each operation. There are different perspectives of culture in organizations. People come into contact with organizations, Organisation transform their behavior and influences their thinking as per the organizational culture.  The different types of organizational culture helps in developing a system. Through this system, the people share the core values of the organization. It is a glue that keeps organization together. Due to the distinguishing features, the following are the types of organizational culture - Dominant, Subculture, Strong and Weak.  Culture is sharedness of understanding values among the organizational members. To respond to the environmental changes, there must be a system of flexibility. Values and beliefs have their base on the past happenings. In many organizations, many times the culture is dysfunctional. The barriers sometimes created by the insiders or by the outside forces compel organizations to get dysfunction. It is Important to maintain the culture but still some forces create barriers for the smooth functioning of the culture.  The process of creating a culture starts with the base of beliefs and values. In any organization, the founders are the ultimate source of munotes.in

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91 Organizational Culture an organization's culture. The culture starts with the vision of the organization. The vision is imposed on all the organizational members. To reach the vision, the mission is created. The Vision and Mission are considered as the important factor of organization as it provides the direction and coordination to the members.  As mentioned earlier, a culture once established may fade away also. After creating a culture, it is important that it needs to be sustained through reinforcement practices of human resources. Creating anything is easy but maintaining that thing for a long period is difficult. The three steps can be adopted to sustain and maintain a culture - Selection, top management and socialization. 3.10 SELF ASSESSMENT TEST 1. What is meant by organizational culture? Explain the important features of the organizational culture. 2. Define organizational culture. Give some examples of the companies and their culture. 3. How does a strong culture different from a weak culture? 4. Explain the various types of culture along with the examples. 5. How is culture learnt? Explain the way of selecting and sustaining a culture effectively in an organization. 6. How is culture created and sustained? 7. How does a dominant culture different from a subculture? munotes.in

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92 4 MOTIVATION AT WORKPLACE Unit Structure 4.0 Objectives 4.1 Overview 4.2 Concept of Motivation 4.3 Theories of Motivation in a Organizational Set up 4.4 Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory 4.5 Herzberg Dual Factor Theory 4.6 Mc Gregor Theory X and Theory Y 4.7 Ways of Motivation - Through Carrot and Stick at Workplace 4.8 Summary 4.0 OBJECTIVES After studying this module, you should be able to :  Study the concept of Motivation  Understand the Factors which leads to develop a motivational atmosphere  Need for Motivational Theories  Study the Relevance of this theories for an Organization  Understand the Types of Motivation 4.1 OVERVIEW With the widespread growth and expansion of business enterprises, the complexities and challenges before human resource management are growing with leaps and bounds. The management of any organization focuses on the attainment of predetermined objectives of the organization. The objectives revolve around -  Productivity  Profitability  Quality improvement  Market expansion  Growth and Development  Return on investment munotes.in

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at Workplace The major issue that crops up in the way of maximizing the resources is that of motivation. Man, Material, Machinery, Money machinery and Methods are the Ms’ of Management. Out of these, Man is the only factor who is living one rest are non-living. To survive in this competitive world, Man needs motivation for the attainment of personal and organizational goals. For the attainment of organizational objectives, the level of employee performance needs to be high. The level of employees depends on their ability, technical knowledge and job expertise. their willingness to perform work also matters. These all factors totally depend upon the level of motivation an employee has. Any successful manager heavily depends on his ability to inspire and persuade subordinates to work towards the attainment of the predetermined objectives of the organization. For the successful conduct of the affairs of any business organization, the employees really need to be motivated and inspired by the managers. The human factor in an organization is responsible for the optimum use of all the resources. It becomes necessary on the part of the managers to keep the workforce fully motivated and content over their jobs. Employee motivation plays a vital role in today's competitive world to survive, sustain and expand the business operations. 4.2 CONCEPT OF MOTIVATION 4.2.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK The word motivation originally comes from the Latin word Movere, which means to move. The word motivation is derived from the word ‘motive’. Motive may be defined as an energy state of our mind that activates and directs our behavior. Motive helps humans to move in a particular direction or act in a particular way. The term motive is always internal to us and it is externalized through our behavior. The term ‘Motivation’ describes why a person does something. It refers to all such pre-planned, Deliberate and concentrated efforts which are directed towards maintaining a satisfied workforce. The main motive is to take the best from the employees in the larger interest of the organization. In simple words, the term motivation means to push someone towards a direction in a way to achieve the predetermined goals of the organization. It is the process of creating willingness among the employees to do work in the best possible way. It is the driving force behind human actions. Motivation is the process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors. The key to ensure satisfactory work performance. it helps the managers to direct the efforts of the people towards the predetermined goal of the organization. People who are highly motivated Are considered as an asset for the organization. All the managerial efforts directed towards raising employee morale to contribute their best in the attainment of organizational goals comes under the part of motivation. A positive motivation can change the outlook, perception, attitude and the behavior of the subordinates. It helps to activate munotes.in

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94 and energizes individuals to achieve certain goals. People are stimulated to accomplish desired goals. Motivation is a managerial function. It is also considered as an important element of direction and leadership. It is a psychological technique of executing plans and policies of the organization. Motivation helps subordinates to act and think better for an organization. Motivated employees are considered as the best employees of the organization. The most important feature of motivation is that it is an ongoing process. It is considered as one of the challenging tasks before the managers as it is purely a psychological concept. 4.2.2 DEFINITION According to Fred Luthans, “Motivation is a process that starts with the physiological or psychological deficiency or need that activates behavior or a drive that is aimed at a goal for incentive.” According to Stephen P. Robbins, “Motivation is the willingness to exert high levels of effort towards organizational goals, conditioned by the effort ability to satisfy some individual need.” According to Robert Dublin, “Motivation is the complex set of forces starting and keeping a person at work in an organization.” According to Stanley Vance, “Motivation represents an unsatisfied need which creates a state of tension or disequilibrium, causing the individual to march in a goal-directed pattern, towards restoring a state of equilibrium by satisfying the need.” According to Dalton E. McFarland "Motivation refers to the way in which urges, drives, desires, aspirations, striving, or needs direct, control or explain the behavior of human beings." J. E. Ormrod defines motivation as an internal state that arouses us to action, pushes us in a particular direction and keeps us engaged in certain activities. William G Scott defines motivation as a process of stimulating people to action to accomplish desired goals. 4.2.3 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK Fig. 4.1: The Process of Motivation
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Fig. 4.2: The Elements of Motivation Cycle 4.2.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF MOTIVATION From the above discussion, it is clear that Motivation is the willingness to exert towards the accomplishment of a goal or need. To elaborate the concept of motivation more specifically, e the following points can be emerges as the characteristics of motivation -
Fig. 4.3: Characteristics of Motivation
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96 1. Internal in Nature The concept of motivation in a person cannot be seen because it is internal to man but it is externalized via behavior, working ability and productivity. It drives or activates the man to move towards goal. 2. Psychological Process Motivation is psychological in nature. deals with getting all the members of the group who wants to achieve the objectives willingly. a manager understand the to from the people and planning and organizing their efforts 3. Human Aspect The concept of motivation is exclusively related to the human aspect of the organization. It is the process of ensuring satisfactory work performance from the people. It Helps the manager to achieve the predetermined objectives of the organization. 4. Complex and Unpredictable Dublin rightly said motivation is the complex set of forces starting and keeping a person at work in an organization. Due to diverse human nature, the concept of motivation is considered as Complex and unpredictable. 5. Influences the Behavior The main work of motivation is to influence the behavior of the people at work. It is the process of creating willingness among the employees to do work in the best possible way. It is the driving force behind human actions. Motivation is the process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors. 6. Motives Come and Go Motives can emerge and disappear. The motives change with the passage of time. at one point the motives may not have the same kind of intensity as it used to have. The factors like age, studies, and places change our motives over time. 4.3 THEORIES OF MOTIVATION IN AN ORGANIZATIONAL SET UP Man always strives for the need and satisfaction of his wants. The satisfaction of human needs has its influence on the behavior and attitude of the employees. With the help of motivation, the manager tries to satisfy specific needs and wants of the employees and inspire them to perform their best capabilities for the achievement of organizational goals. There is no substitute for a motivational plan when it comes to obtaining the maximum contribution from the employees. There were many studies munotes.in

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at Workplace carried out in this regard. The management scientist formulated certain theories and models which can assist the managers to design a sound plan of employee motivation. As per the syllabus, some of the most important theories and models of motivation are briefly discussed below -
Fig. 4.4: Theories and Models of Motivation 4.4 MASLOW’S NEED HIERARCHY THEORY The most well-known theory of motivation is Maslow’s need hierarchy theory. Maslow;s need hierarchy theory is based on human needs. According to his clinical experience, classified human needs into a hierarchical form. The needs are drawn from lower to the higher order. According to him, the person tends to work hard because he has to satisfy his unending needs and wants. to satisfy unending needs and wants, he has to have an income. It is seen that all needs are not equal or similar in their importance to an individual. Maslow Developed a need priority and assumed that the satisfied need can not influence the behavior of an individual. In fact, dissatisfied need fails to motivate an individual. If a specific need is specified, another need emerges and demands satisfaction.
Fig.4.5: Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory
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98 1. Physiological Needs The physiological needs are those needs which are for survival, hunger, and thirst. These needs are basic to human life. It also includes the other necessities of life. One physiological needs are satisfied, they no longer motivate the man. 2. Safety Needs This needs includes all the security and protective measures providing protection from diseases, illness, accidents, hazards etc. Once these needs are satisfied, they no longer motivate the man. 3. Sociological Needs Once the physiological and sociological needs are satisfied, the next need arises. These needs are social needs. man is a social animal. He/she Always has a desire of developing friendship with others, having affection, love to others and obtaining the same from others. Once these needs are satisfied, they no longer motivate the man. 4. Esteem/Ego Needs This needs to refer to self esteem and self respect. They include such needs which are related to the esteem of the man. This level indicates the need for self confidence, achievement, competence, knowledge and independence. 5. Self-actualization Needs Self actualization needs represents the culmination of all the lower, intermediate and higher needs of human beings. This stage is the person's motivation to transform perception of self into reality. 4.5 HERZBERG DUAL FACTOR THEORY The Herzberg Dual Factor Theory is also known as Two Factor Theory of Motivation. The psychologist Frederick Herberg Extended the work of mass flow and proposed a new motivation theory popularly known as Herzberg’s Dual Factor Theory. He conducted a widely reported motivational study on 200 Accountants and Engineers employed by firms in and around Western Pennsylvania. He asked these people to describe Two important incident at their jobs - 1. When did you feel particularly good about your job? 2. When did you feel exceptionally bad about your job? Herzberg used the critical incident method of obtaining data. When the responses were analyzed, they were found quite interesting and consistent. Good feel answers generally associated with job satisfaction why the bed feel answers were associated with job dissatisfaction. Herberg labeled the munotes.in

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at Workplace good feel answer as motivators, and the bad feel answers as hygiene for maintenance factors.
Fig. 4.6 Dual Factor Theory of Herzberg 1. Motivators: Job Satisfaction Theses are -  Achievement  Recognition  Responsibility  Growth and Development  Work Itself  Advancement 2. Hygiene: Job Dissatisfaction These are -  Company Policy and Administration  Working Conditions  Security  Status  Interpersonal Relations  Supervision Herberg’s Motivation theory is based on motivational and maintenance factors. According to him, hygiene for maintenance factors prevent job dissatisfaction but do not provide motivation to workers. The employees are motivated not merely due to the satisfaction of the maintenance factors such as salary, job security, etc. But, the real motivators like challenging and interesting jobs, creativity, responsibility etc. 4.6 MCGREGOR X AND Y THEORY OF MOTIVATION The theory of Mcgregor belongs to the human relations school. Mcgregor and his teammates viewed that If the management takes due care of the needs and aspirations of the employees, they are expected to show greater
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100 interest and involvement in their work. He developed a Theory based on assumption of human behavior which is popularly described as theory X and theory Y in the subject of motivation.
Fig. 4.7: Mcgregor’s Theory X and Theory Y Both the theories are based on certain assumptions. 1. Theory X The Theory X is based on the following assumptions - i. An individual is lazy and does not want to work hard. ii. He lacks integrity. iii. He is not interested in achievements. iv. He is not bright. v. He prefers to be directed and controlled by others. vi. He avoids making decisions. vii. He is not capable of directing his own behavior. viii. He does not want to take responsibility. ix. He does not care about the organizational needs. 2. Theory Y According to McGregor, people as per the Theory Y are - i. An individual is active and wants to work hard. ii. He has integrity. iii. He is interested in achievements. iv. He is bright.
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at Workplace v. He prefers to be motivated by others. vi. He is interested in making decisions. vii. He is capable of directing his own behavior. viii. He wants to take responsibility. ix. He is not stupid. From the following explanation, it can be concluded that by understanding the behavioral pattern of theory X and Y, the managers can achieve more practical results. 4.7 WAYS OF MOTIVATION THROUGH CARROT AND STICK AT WORKPLACE The approach of motivation is based on the situation. Sometimes, a manager has to use a carrot to motivate his good employees and sometimes a stick to motivate his bad employees. This approach may be called the positive motivation and negative motivation.
Fig. 4.8: Carrot and Stick Approach of Motivation 1. Carrot Approach The carrot approach of motivation is also known as positive motivation. The ultimate object of any motivational plan is to ensure that employee performance is improved. The manager ensures that the efficiency and loyalty of the employees towards their job and Organisation is getting enhanced. Positive motivation implies the adherence to such ways. Employees get motivated in the form of pay rise, bonus, promotion, higher status,
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102 challenging jobs etc. Carrot approach implies a pleasant way used by the manager for their subordinates for all the good work. 2. Stick Approach The stick approach to motivation is also known as negative motivation. This approach is based on the principle that an individual will perform better if he has a fear of losing something if he does not do so. The negative motivation does not bring any rise in the earnings of the employee and status of the employee. Wage cut, fines, punishments, demotion are some examples of the stick approach of motivation. The carrot approaches are pleasant and bring additions in the earnings, happiness and welfare of the employees while the stick approach is painful and punishing in nature. It may have an adverse effect on the interest, involvement and efficiency of the employees. 4.8 SUMMARY  For the successful conduct of the affairs of any business organization, the employees really need to be motivated and inspired by the managers. The human factor in an organization is responsible for the optimum use of all the resources. It becomes necessary on the part of the managers to keep the workforce fully motivated and content over their jobs. Employee motivation plays a vital role in today's competitive world to survive, sustain and expand the business operations.  The term ‘Motivation’ describes why a person does something. It refers to all such pre-planned, Deliberate and concentrated efforts which are directed towards maintaining a satisfied workforce. The main motive is to take the best from the employees in the larger interest of the organization. In simple words, the term motivation means to push someone towards a direction in a way to achieve the predetermined goals of the organization.  The most well known theory of motivation is Maslow’s need hierarchy theory. Maslow’s need hierarchy theory is based on human needs. According to his clinical experience, classified human needs into a hierarchical form. The needs are drawn from lower to the higher order. According to him, the person tends to work hard because he has to satisfy his unending needs and wants. to satisfy unending needs and wants, he has to have an income.  The Herzberg Dual Factor Theory is also known as Two Factor Theory of Motivation. The psychologist Frederick Herberg Extended the work of mass flow and proposed a new motivation theory popularly known as Herzberg’s Dual Factor Theory. He conducted a widely reported motivational study on 200 Accountants and Engineers employed by firms in and around Western Pennsylvania. munotes.in

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at Workplace  The theory of Mcgregor belongs to the human relations school. Mcgregor and his teammates viewed that If the management takes due care of the needs and aspirations of the employees, they are expected to show greater interest and involvement in their work. He developed a Theory based on assumption of human behavior which is popularly described as theory X and theory Y in the subject of motivation.  The carrot approaches are pleasant and bring additions in the earnings, happiness and welfare of the employees while the stick approach is painful and punishing in nature. It may have an adverse effect on the interest, involvement and efficiency of the employees. 4.9 SELF ASSESSMENT TEST 1. Explain the concept of motivation. 2. Discuss the nature of motivation. 3. Explain the carrot and stick approach of employee motivation at the workplace. 4. What do you mean by negative and positive motivation? What are the benefits of positive motivation? 5. Discuss the importance of employee motivation to the employer and the employees. 6. Explain Maslow's need hierarchy theory in detail. 7. Discuss Herzberg Dual Factor Theory of Motivation. 8. Explain in detail the Theory X and Theory Y of Mcgregor. munotes.in

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104 5 ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE AND CREATIVITY Unit Structure 5.0 Objectives 5.1 Overview 5.2 Concepts of Organizational Change 5.3 Factors leading/influencing Organizational Change 5.4 Kurt Lewin's Model of Organizational Change and Development 5.5 Concept of Creativity 5.6 Creativity and Qualities of a Creative Person 5.7 Ways of Enhancing Creativity for Effective Decision Making 5.8 Creative Problem Solving 5.9 Summary 5.0 OBJECTIVES After studying this module, you should be able to:  Study the concept of Organizational Change  Understand the Factors which leads Organizational Change  Kurt Lewin's Model of Organizational Change and Development  Study the concept of Creativity  Understand the Creativity and Qualities of a Creative Person  Know the Ways of Enhancing Creativity for Effective Decision Making  Idea about Creative Problem Solving 5.1 OVERVIEW Change is called the law of life. It is constant, inevitable and consistent. In every walk of human life, we witness many changes. Uncertainty and complex nature of businesses due to growing competition and customers expectation, compelling organizations to introduce changes. Manager’s job is becoming difficult and challenging. If change is introduced, it is a tendency of a human being to resist change. They think of losing something. Proper planning, communication and implementation is required to introduce change. Change management is a systematic approach in dealing munotes.in

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Change and Creativity with organizational change. Change management is a process in which the changes are introduced in a planned and systematic way in an organization. Dealing with the change involves the perspective of an organization as well as an individual. Pre-defined models are proved to be helpful in successfully implementing change in an organization. When a manager plans for change, communicate the need of change to the people, assure them about the positive aspects of change and implement the same with the support of the people. This process is called change management. It is like managing those things which are inevitable, consistent and create fear in the mind of the people. The concept of change management plays a vital role in any organization. The task of managing change is not an easy task. Standardized methods, strategies and processes that are beneficial to bring change are used by the managers for the successful implementation of change in an organization. It is important to communicate the need for change. Introducing change is a problem and communication of the need for change and its successful implementation later on is the solution. Change management deals with the people's side of the change. It is important to understand the three important elements of change management -  Change must be planned in advance.  It must be communicated in advance.  One must implement the change by involving needs.
Fig. 5.1 Conceptual Framework of Change Management One more important dimension is the need for change. Change is going to give an impact to a few people or to the whole organization. If the need of
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106 the change is communicated clearly, the people will adopt it freely. Though, there will be few who will resist change. Similarly, the concept of creativity plays a vital role in organizational development. A manager is known for the decisions he/she takes. Not every manager is not a born leader. One has to develop this quality to be a good manager. Concept of creativity can enhance the quality decision making among the managers. In this chapter, we will see how organizational change lead the organization and creative decision making helps organizations to work more efficiently and effectively. 5.2 CONCEPTS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE Change is inevitable in nature. This is the common line used to introduce the concept of change. Change is something which denotes a transition from one state to another. The fact of being replaced or changed creates fear in the mind of the people. In an organization, translating change into an action is challenging if it is not communicated properly. People feel change is a never ending process where responses to it will be in the form of readjustment or readaptation. It is introduced in an organization to make structural adjustments, project, initiative or solution to improve the way of work. Planned change is something an organization should introduce. Planned change reflects proper understanding of the need for change and communication to the people. The purpose is to change employee behavior towards change in a positive way and to improve the ability of the organization to adapt changes in the new environment. It is not that easy to introduce change. People resists due to many reasons. That’s why, management of change is a concept which one must understand as far as the organizational perspective is concerned. Certain changes in organizations are natural and self propelling. one does not have any control over such kinds of changes. while some changes are planned in an organization. the following are the dimensions which leads an organization to adopt the plant change -  Technological  Economic  Political  Social  Legal  Natural  Cultural To understand the concept of change management, it is important to know the nature of change management. With the help of the diagram given below, one can understand the nature of management of change - munotes.in

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Fig. 5.2: Nature/Concepts of Organizational Change 1. Natural The concept of change is not new. It is natural and one has to adopt the change. Organizations not accepting change may face the problem of growth and survival in the market. 2. Unavoidable One cannot avoid change. It is inevitable in nature. It is not a series of events. Sometimes, it is planned for the betterment of organization and sometimes, it is compelled. With the help of proper planning and control, one can deal with change. 3. Internal and External Forces The nature of change can be determined by the external and internal forces. Internal forces are internal to the organization and are controllable in nature. External forces are external to the organization and are uncontrollable in nature. 4. Change generates Change Change at one place will simultaneously demand change at another place. Changes in one system require changes in additional aspects. Change management follows system approach in an organization. 5. Continuum Change is a continuum. Continuum means to keep on going. Something which changes slowly. Change is not a new thing and it
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108 keeps on coming. The transition from one state to another helps organizations to move and be flexible. 6. Adaptability Adaptability of change means accepting change and implementing the same for the betterment of organization. One has to plan and communicate the change to people of the organization. 5.3 FACTORS LEADING/INFLUENCING ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE The need for bringing about a change arises due to external and internal sources. Organizations undergo changes for the betterment and survival. The following are the major driving forces which provoke organization to introduce and implement change -
Fig. 5.3: Factors leading/influencing Organizational Change 1. Internal Forces Internal forces are those forces which originate within the organization. The internal forces are under the control of the organization. The internal forces come from either individual problems or from the system. The problem of communication is considered as the major cause of conflict and thus it leads to change. There are many internal forces which bring changes in an organization. Some of the changes are depicted in a diagram above while along with those points, the few can be discussed here.  Change in work profile  Change in leadership style
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Change and Creativity  Dynamic changes in system  Safety and security of individual  Influence of union  New technology’s implementation  Change in employees profile  Inadequate working conditions  Change in management policy  Personnel policy 2. External Forces External forces originated outside the organization. The external forces are beyond the control of the organization. The impact of these forces is general. Many firms and organizations get affected due to these forces. Change in legal framework, social factors, economical factors, ban on technology affects the working and efficiency of the firm. There are many external forces which bring changes in an organization. Some of the changes are depicted in a diagram above while along with those points, the few can be discussed here.  Changes in market  Globalization and liberalization  Changes in technology  Economic factors  Change in taste and fashion  War  Natural Calamities  Political factors  Change in legal framework  Demographic factors  Competition 5.4 KURT LEWIN’S MODEL OF ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE AND DEVELOPMENT LEWIN’S CHANGE MANAGEMENT MODEL Kurt Lewin has developed a change management model popularly known as Lewin’s Change Management Model. The model represents a simple and practical approach for understanding the change. This change model munotes.in

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110 involves three steps - Unfreezing, Changing and Refreezing. For better understanding, the explanation is given below -
Fig. 5.4: Steps of Change Management Model Unfreezing Before implementing any change, it must go through a process of unfreezing. The objective is to create an awareness about the need and level of change. Communication is an essential part of this step. The benefits associated with the change must also be communicated to each employee. Idea is to make them accept change. In this step, many people will naturally change. Awareness and communication are the key elements of this step. Changing In this step, the people are already aware that the change is going to happen and is better for us. They will be ready to transition from one state to another state. This step marks the implementation of change. The people may fear or may feel insecure about the change. In this step, communication, support and time are the key elements in his step. People begin to learn the new nature, behavior and ways of thinking. Refreezing The final stage of Lewin’s model is refreezing. It can be referred to as the stage of reinforcing the change and stabilizing the change. After stabilizing, the new state can be solidified. In this stage, people have accepted change and are accustomed to it. A manager must ensure that the people should not revert back. The change must be integrated in such a way that it should get in line with the company’s policy. 5.5 CONCEPT OF CREATIVITY 5.5.1 INTRODUCTION The term ‘creativity’ can be defined as the ability to create something new or bring something new into existence. The tendency to generate any new idea, notion, way or strategy comes under the scope of creativity. For
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Change and Creativity organizational change and development, creativity plays a vital role. For effective change management, the creativity of the manager must be stimulated. It is regarded as the most complex feature of human behavior. In the concept of organizational change and development, creativity Means discovering new relationships between ideas. It helps a manager to solve complex problems in a very easy and innovative way. It is the wonderful ability that helps a manager to solve the most difficult problems of organization and to make life comfortable. A manager with the help of creativity can give a fascinating turn to the organization’s work culture. In order to be creative, a manager has to find out new ways and ideas to work effectively with the group and group members. Managers who appear unusually bright are good in expressing new ideas and notions to the people. Their way of channelizing the individual’s energy is different. 5.5.2 DEFINITION According to Albert Rothenberg, "The problem of creativity is beset with mysticism, confused definitions, value judgments, psychoanalytic admonitions, and the crushing weight of philosophical speculation dating from ancient times." According to George Keller, "Creativity, it has been said, consists largely of rearranging what we know in order to find out what we do not know." 5.6 QUALITIES OF A CREATIVE PERSON The following are the qualities of a creative person -
Fig. 5.5 Qualities of Creative Person
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112 1. Playful Creative people are playful in nature. Until they find out the right idea, they love to play with the new things. They don’t put pressure on their mind regarding work. Instead of this developed to take the process in a challenging way. 2. Open Minded This is one of the important qualities of a creative person that they love to be open minded. They are willing to hear and try new ideas. Even when they collaborate with others, they want to hear all the possibilities. They accept criticism and due to their open mindedness, they do not judge others. 3. Dreamer Creative people love dreaming. In fact, they never stop dreaming. The process of dreaming helps them to identify the various options and opportunities towards goals. In order to be motivated, they try to visualize the situation in real life. They believe that the people who dream are able to convert into reality. 4. Curious Creative people are always curious. It is their basic quality. They want to know everything from anything. They enjoy learning new things. They always seek opportunities to work to learn something new. They try to figure out how the things can be converted into something very meaningful. 5. Naive Creative people always feel that they don't know anything. We can say that this is the submissive feature of many creatures. To learn something new they feel that they don't know about this topic and they still need to learn and improve. To explore something new sometimes they behave like a child. 6. Rebellious Creative people have this trait of being rebellious. This characteristic helps them to achieve the things which they are determined to achieve. They love to take risks to create something new. They love to come out of the box and because of this quality, they are called creative people. 5.7 WAYS OF ENHANCING CREATIVITY FOR EFFECTIVE DECISION MAKING There are many ways through which creativity can be enhanced for effective decision making. There are many skills which are required to be a creative munotes.in

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Change and Creativity person. One has to possess the quality of being motivated all the time to explore new things. One has to be an expert in dealing with new things. As per the perspective of a Manager, there are three basic qualities a manager is required to possess -
Fig. 5.6: Types of Skills Apart from these skills, one more can be added and that is innovative skills. Still for being creative, there are many ways. We will learn the ways with the help of following points - 1. Don't focus on the negative side of the problem. If there is a problem, there must be a solution. People arise from the problems and become leaders. 2. No idea is a bad idea. There is always a time to review and think about the ideas generated by a person or by a group of individuals. 3. There is always a scope for improvement. A manager by learning new things can find out the creative ways of doing a work or taking the work from people. 4. The situations and things should not be taken for granted. A manager should consider each and every problem seriously. There is always a way to sort out the problem by considering the opinion of other people. 5. Employee participation can play a vital role. By encouraging and welcoming the new ideas, a manager can find the ways to increase the creativity among employees. 6. Accepting failure is another important strategy. A manager should accept failures and learn from it. 7. The object must be clear in front of the manager. Creativity should be encouraged from his side. Top bottom approach should be used to enhance creativity at the workplace.
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114 5.8 CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING Finding creative solutions to the problems is known as a process of creative problem solving. When the problem is solved creatively without taking load or pressure, instead the pressure is put on solving the problems by any means. The creative problem solving concept is less structured. The focus is put on solving the problem creatively. The new ways are identified in this process which were not invented before. Creative problem solving is a technique through which attempts are made to approach a problem or a challenge in an innovative way. The meaning and methodology may vary between organizations. Identifying the real problem is a first step in creative problem solving. To solve complex problems, creative solutions are found. Businesses are constantly changing so is the process. Unforeseen challenges can be met with the help of creative problem solving. Creative problem-solving can spark innovative ideas that drive companies to grow and develop. Reframing problems as a solution is also an aspect of Creative problem-solving. The process can be adopted if the problem is to be solved through creative thinking -
Fig. 5.7: Process of Solving Problem Creatively 1. IDENTIFY THE PROBLEM Problem identification is the first stage in the whole process. Clarifying the problem is a solution to half of the problem. In this stage, the cause and effect is determined to know the range of the problem. The findings are reframed as the statements or questions. This is a stage of knowing -  What  Why  Where  How
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Change and Creativity 2. FORMULATE CREATIVE CHALLENGES This is the development stage of creative problem solving. We can say the most challenging stage. The creative possibilities of solving problems in the form of alternatives are created. Developing ideas into solutions is the key aspect of this stage. After formulation, the best solution is selected for the next stage. 3. IMPLEMENT IT Creative problem solving is a method of attempts to approach a problem or a challenge in an innovative way. The process helps redefine problems and opportunities to come up with new responses and solutions. In this stage, the idea which is finalized as a solution is implemented. 5.9 SUMMARY  Change is called the law of life. It is constant, inevitable and consistent. In every walk of human life, we witness many changes. Uncertainty and complex nature of businesses due to growing competition and customers expectation, compelling organizations to introduce changes. Manager’s job is becoming difficult and challenging.  Certain changes in organizations are natural and self propelling. one does not have any control over such kinds of changes. while some changes are planned in an organization. The following are the dimensions which lead an organization to adopt the plant change - Technological, Economic, Political, Social Legal, Natural and Cultural.  The need for bringing about a change arises due to external and internal sources. Organizations undergo changes for the betterment and survival. The following are the major driving forces which provoke organizations to introduce and implement change - internal forces and external forces.  Kurt Lewin has developed a change management model popularly known as Lewin’s Change Management Model. The model represents a simple and practical approach for understanding the change. This change model involves three steps - Unfreezing, Changing and Refreezing.  In the concept of organizational change and development, creativity Means discovering new relationships between ideas. It helps a manager to solve complex problems in a very easy and innovative way. It is the wonderful ability that helps a manager to solve the most difficult problems of organization and to make life comfortable. A manager with the help of creativity can give a fascinating turn to the organization’s work culture. munotes.in

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116  Playful, curious, energetic are some qualities required for a creative person to be creative. There are many ways through which creativity can be enhanced for effective decision making. There are many skills which are required to be a creative person. One has to possess the quality of being motivated all the time to explore new things. One has to be an expert in dealing with new things. As per the perspective of a Manager, there are three basic qualities a manager is required to possess like conceptual skills, human skills and technical skills.  Creative problem solving is a technique through which attempts are made to approach a problem or a challenge in an innovative way. The meaning and methodology may vary between organizations. Identifying the real problem is a first step in creative problem solving. To solve complex problems, creative solutions are found. 5.10 SELF ASSESSMENT TEST 1. What is meant by organizational change? Why is change considered as inevitable in nature? 2. What are the major external and internal forces for change in organization? 3. “People resist change and it's a completely normal part of the process” Comment. 4. How can resistance to change be prevented and managed? Explain its various techniques or measures? 5. Write a note on practices of management of change. 6. What is creativity? Explain the features of a creative person. 7. What are the qualities required to be a creative person? 8. What is creative problem solving? Explain the various stages of creative problem solving. 9. Describe the various ways of enhancing the creativity for effective decision making. munotes.in

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117 6 ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND WORK STRESS Unit Structure 6.0 Objectives 6.1 Overview 6.2 Organizational Development 6.3 Need for Organizational Development 6.4 Practice of Organizational Development 6.5 OD Techniques 6.6 Concept of Stress 6.7 Types of Stress 6.8 Causes and Consequences of Job Stress 6.9 Ways of Coping Up with Stress 6.10 Summary 6.0 OBJECTIVES After studying this module, you should be able to :  Study the concept of Organizational Development  Understand the Factors which leads Organizational Development  Need for Organizational Change and Development  Study the concept of Stress  Understand the Causes and Impact and Stress  Understand the Types of Stress  Ways of Coping Up with Stress 6.1 OVERVIEW The 21st century economy is a knowledge based and performance driven economy. A businessman drives his business with the help of innovations and technology to transform it as per the customer expectations. In a course of time, every business develops with complexities. Beyond a level, managing alone becomes a difficult task for a person. The need for management has increased tremendously. So is the need for organizational development. The existence and application of management is not only essential for growth and development but also it is essential for the survival of business munotes.in

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118 organizations. There are several types of groups. Every human being has needs and desires. Organizations understand and work in this direction to provide better goods and services to the customers. These needs and wants can be satisfied by working and living together in an organized group of organizations. In a changing business climate, it is important to understand the structural, cultural and strategic reality of work. To facilitate organizational success, organizational development plays an important role. Organizational development deals with planned change. The nature of Organizational development is complex as it tries to understand how to manage planned change in organizations. Through the application of knowledge of the behavioral sciences, OD helps to facilitate the planned change for the improvement of organization. When a manager plans for change, communicate the need of change to the people, assure them about the positive aspects of change and implement the same with the support of the people. This is the key to achieve organizational development. This process is called change management. It is like managing those things which are inevitable, consistent and create fear in the mind of the people. The concept of change management plays a vital role in any organization. The task of managing change is not an easy task. 6.2 ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT (OD) 6.2.1 INTRODUCTION The concept of organizational development helps organizations to build their capacity to bring change by integrating and developing the strategies, structures and processes of the organization. It is a systematic, integrated and planned approach to improve the effectiveness of the organization. The culture of change is developed through the utilization of behavioral science, research, theories, laws and technology. The approach of organizational development is evidence based and structural. It aims at organizational effectiveness. In simple words, organizational development is an objective based methodology used to initiate a change of system in an entity. It is achieved through supporting organizational structure and proper communication. Change is inevitable in nature. Due to multiple reasons, there are a number of changes occurring frequently. 6.2.2 DEFINITION According to Burk and Hornstien "Organization development is a process of planned change - change of an organization's culture from one which avoids an examination of social processes (especially decision making, planning and communication) to one which institutionalized and legitimizes this examination". munotes.in

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and Work Stress According to Warren Bennis - "Organization development is a response to change, a complex educational strategy intended to change the beliefs, attitudes and structure of organization so that they can better adapt to new technologies, markets and challenges". 6.2.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF OD The concept of organizational development is adaptive, flexible, modern and evolving. To understand the concept of organizational development better, let's have a look in the characteristics of OD - 1. OD is a systematic, planned and integrated approach to change. 2. It involves the application of knowledge. 3. It advocates that for organizations to change, individuals must change. 4. The process of OD is goal oriented. 5. It is designed to solve the problems of the organization. 6. It aims at building capacity and achieving effectiveness. 7. It is managed from the top in order, 8. It is a modern approach to the management of change. 9. OD interventions lead to improved organization performance. 10. OD increases innovation through employee involvement and engagement. 6.3 NEED FOR ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT There are multiple reasons which advocate the need for organizational development. Some of the important one are as follows - 1. For Employee Growth and Development For employees growth and development, there is a need for organizational development. It focuses on increased communication. It also helps employees through the process of influencing to bring about the desired results. 2. For the Success of Business Organizational development Alliance with the objectives and it focuses on the overall development of the organization as well as employees. For the success of any business organization, overall development is important. Because of improved services, customer satisfaction and greater productivity of employees, organizational development guarantees the success of business. 3. For the Continuous Improvement Companies that are engaged in the practices of organizational development ensure continuous improvement at organizational level. It helps to create a continuous cycle of improvement whereby munotes.in

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120 strategies are planned, implemented, evaluated, improved and monitored. 4. For Making the Organizational Culture Responsive Changes are inevitable in nature. Organizational development helps to develop a culture which enhances the responsiveness of organization towards the change in a positive way, when the things are well planned and well communicated in advance. It helps to deal with the changes in a better way. 5. For the Product and Service Enhancement For the product and service enhancement, there is a need for organizational development. A developed organization is adaptive, flexible, modern and evolving. Thus, it embraces changes, facilitates training and overall contributes for the product and service enhancement. 6.4 PRACTICES OF ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT The goal of organizational development is to achieve organizational effectiveness. The effectiveness of OD must be fully supported by theories. Fields like psychology, HR practices, management techniques and various other disciplines can help to find out how to best implement change and development. The following are the practices that must be undertaken for the functioning of organizational development in an enterprise -
Fig. 6.1: OD Practices
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and Work Stress 1. Company Culture Achievement of organizational goals is an important element for organizational effectiveness. Company’s culture should be built in such a way that the managers must support and motivate employees to take responsibility for achieving group and organizational goals. Suggestions, feedback, grievance redressal, supportive environment are some important key elements which must be taken into consideration while creating a company’s culture. 2. Organization Structure The organizational structure must be flexible and simple. It must allow the procedures within an organization to change when needed. Organizations need to eliminate issues and practices that limit progress. The action plan should be realistic, doable and must support the stakeholders of the organization. 3. Strategic Goals The interventions taken for the organizational development must be in alliance with the strategic goals of the organization. The problem identification, its measurement and the solution is an important part of the whole process. 4. Client Willingness Determining the client’s willingness or readiness is an important factor. Are they willing or ready to accept change is an important question that need to be asked while going for organizational development 5. Collaboration Working with the right people at the right time is essential for organizational development. People who work in collaboration are said to bring more positive and fruitful results for the organization. 6. Feedback Mechanism Feedback is an essential element of organizational development. For every change, a feedback mechanism should be run one to one to allow people to express their views and how are they able to perceive change. 6.5 OD TECHNIQUES Bringing OD in an organization is a complex task. Through OD interventions, the structural activities can be proved helpful to bring and maintain organizational effectiveness. According to French & Bell, “OD intervention refers to the range of planned, programmatic activities client and consultant participate in during the course of OD program.” munotes.in

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122 The following interventions can be undertaken to bring about OD -
Fig. 6.2: OD Interventions 1. Individual - focused Interventions Interventions that are targeted towards individuals are known as individual-focused interventions. The individual-focused interventions include skill training, job redesign, career planning and role negotiations. We will discuss this points one by one - i. Skill Training It refers to increasing the knowledge, skills and abilities of an employee to perform or do a specific job more effectively. It is imparted in the classroom or on the job. ii. Job Redesign It alters jobs to improve the balance between the individual skills and teh demands of the job. iii. Career Planning It is a measure through the organizations, through various activities, to identify strengths, weaknesses and goals of the employees. Counseling is also an important part of career planning. iv. Role Negotiation It is a simple technique through which employees/individuals meet and clarify their job roles. The expectations of both the parties are clarified and negotiated.
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and Work Stress 2. Organization and Group-focused Interventions These interventions are organizational and group-focused. They aimed at changing the organization or work-groups within the organization. The interventions include management by objective, quality of work life, survey feedback, team building and process consultation.
3. Technostructural Interventions Techno Structural interventions refers to the programs which are aimed at changing the technology and structure of the organization. With rapidly changing markets, these interventions are becoming increasingly relevant and important. These interventions includes - i. Organizational Structure Organizational structure deals with the functioning of the organization. It includes functional structure, divisional, matrix, process, customer-centric, and network. It also includes the design or restructuring in the form of downsizing and reengineering. ii. Total Quality Management Total quality management is a philosophy. It is not a technique. It states that every employee should work towards the improvement of the organization. To ensure a continuous
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124 success, the employees should contribute in improving the work culture, work efficiency, services, systems and processes. It is mainly concerned with continuous improvements in all the areas of organization. iii. Job Enrichment and Work Design Job enrichment means enriching the new dimensions to the job. As the name suggests, it seeks to enrich and improve the existing job of the employee. While, work design deals with designing work in a way that leads to optimum productivity. Both can be considered as an attempt to motivate employees by enriching and enhancing their jobs. 4. Strategic Change Interventions These interventions can bring the development changes in an organization. Strategic change interventions are those interventions which focus on the change processes that can shake the organizations. These interventions are for the long-term. The following can be considered as the strategic change interventions - i. Continuous Change Continuous change deals with the changes which occur gradually. These changes are improving by the time and are continuing in nature. By making small incremental changes, an organization can improve slowly. ii. Transformational Changes As the name suggests, transformational changes include mergers, acquisitions, alliances, joint ventures etc. These changes can bring changes in the whole organization. 6.6 CONCEPT OF STRESS 6.6.1 INTRODUCTION The word stress is derived from the Latin word ‘Stringere’ which means hardship, strain, adversity or affliction. The term stress was popularly used in the 17th century. In the 19th and 20th century, the word put emphasis on tension, force and pressure. In the Modern Times, stress is a common word and has become a buzzword. an individual is exposed to various stressful situations since the time of birth. In a corporate world, companies put lots of effort into the subject because it adversely affects the employees health and corporate profits. Many companies are putting their time and energy into studying this concept. Our brain works consciously or unconsciously. When we are awake, our conscious brain works. The unconscious brain works 24 hours. The unconscious brain conceives the feeling of stress first. munotes.in

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and Work Stress 6.6.2 MEANING In common language, stress is the pressure people feel in life. It is a phenomenon which is associated with tension or anxiety. Stress is a feeling of emotional or physical tension. The stress that arises from any event can cause Frustration, low productivity, weakness, anger and nervousness. In Physics, stress is a force which acts on a body to produce strain. In psychology, Stress refers to a particular kind of a state of the organization resulting from some interaction between the person and the environment. This interaction can be positive or negative. In Physiology, the various changes in the physiological function in response to the evocative agents donated stress. In simple words, stress can be defined as any type of strain which causes the brain and body to react. It causes physical, emotional, or psychological strain. Stress is your body's response to anything that requires attention or action. 6.6.3 DEFINITION According to Hans Selye, “Stress is an adaptive response to the external situation that results in physical, psychological, and behavioral deviation for organizational participants.” 6.7 TYPES OF STRESS There are mainly two types of stress -
Fig. 6.3: Types of Stress 1. Acute Stress Acute stress is a short term stress that goes away quickly. The impact of this kind of stress is not much on the productivity and efficiency of the employees. Infact this type of stress helps people to work on their assignments, relationships and group work. Acute stress occurs when a person tries something new or works out of the box. The intensity of this stress is not much. All people have experienced this type of stress at one time or another.
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126 Example - Fight with a partner, Submission of Assignment, Application for a Patent etc. can be considered as an example of acute stress when a person feel pressure or anger. 2. Chronic Stress Chronic stress lasts longer than acute stress. This stress lasts for a longer period of time. Chronic stress is a problem and people don't realize it. As the name suggests, this type of stress is not good for any relationship for any organization. If this type of stress is not managed properly, it may lead to health problems. Sometimes this kind of stress can be converted into depression which may affect the health of the person severely. For example, divorce procedure, broken marriage, demotion, fight with a coworker etc, can be considered as an example of acute stress when a person feels pressure or anger. 6.8 CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF JOB STRESS 6.8.1 CAUSES OF STRESS There are numerous reasons to experience stress in your personal life and workplace. The causes of stress are known as the stressors. Many researchers have tried to classify the various causes of stress into different categories. The following categories define the main causes of stress - 1. Organizational Causes Stress not only occurs outside the organization, but within the organization there are many sources of stress. At the Organizational level, the following factors can cause stress -  Downsizing  Fear of layoff  Overburden of work  Long term sickness and sick leave  Improper personal policies  Lack of motivation  Unfair performance evaluation  Inequalities in remuneration  Poor relationship with the superior 2. Group Causes In an organization, people cannot work in isolation. They work in a group. They are usually members of various formal and informal groups. As the people belong to two different families and cultures, their behavior is also the first in terms of work style. differences in munotes.in

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and Work Stress opinion can lead to conflict. Apart From this reason at the Group level, the following can be considered as the causes of stress -  Lack of social support  Lack of of group cohesiveness  Poor relations with the subordinates  Poor relations with the colleagues  Interpersonal conflict  Intergroup conflict 3. Environmental Causes Environmental factors also have an impact on employee stress. there is a constant interaction between the employee and the surroundings. The way social and technical changes are occurring, They are creating a great impact on people's lifestyle. The following can be considered as the causes of stress related to environment -  Family demands and obligations  economic and financial conditions  Race  Cast  Class  Ethnic identity  Social and Technical changes 4. Individual Causes Apart from the stressors discussed so far, there are individual factors also that cause stress. These are -  Role Ambiguity  Role Conflict  Workload  Life Events  Personality Traits 6.8.2 CONSEQUENCES OF STRESS The various consequences of stress are classified into psychological, physiological and behavioral consequences - 1. Psychological Stress Stress produces various psychological consequences. It affects the productivity of the employees. Due to the psychological stress, the munotes.in

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128 individual encounters chronic exhaustion. The following problems may arise due to psychological stress -  Emotional fatigue  Job dissatisfaction  Moodiness  Depression  Anger  Anxiety  Nervousness  Irritability  Tension 2. Physiological Stress Stress produces various physiological consequences. It affects the productivity of the employees. Due to the physiological stress, the individual encounters hypertension and other problems. The following problems may arise due to physiological stress -  Tension  Headache  High Blood Pressure  High Level of Cholesterol  Ulcers  Arthritis  Injury to the blood vessels  Heart diseases 3. Behavioral Stress When an employee is in stress, it adversely affects the employees behavior. Their behavior changes after experiencing stress. It may results in -  Overeating  Undereating  Sleeplessness  Obesity  Increased drinking or smoking  Drug abuse  Higher level of absenteeism munotes.in

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and Work Stress 6.9 WAYS OF COPING UP WITH STRESS Managing stress at the workplace is an art and not everybody is an artist. Stress is helpful to some extent but beyond the level it is usually harmful as it impinges on employees health and her/his productivity. Coping up with stress means dealing with the stress to decrease its negative impact. At individual level and organizational level, the various strategies can be formulated to cope up with the stress. 1. Individual Strategies Individual strategies are based on do-yourself approaches. Managing stress at personal level can be found very effective if the things are followed sincerely. determination and clarity is required to cope up with stress in a personal way. This strategy can be used to manage the personal as well as job stress -  Exercise  Social support  Yoga  Meditation  Shifting attention from negative to positive  Pampering oneself  Warming up oneself  Rearrangement of schedule 2. Organizational Strategies Organizational strategies can help managers to manage stress at the workplace. With the help of some interventions, the organizational stress can be sorted out and managed. The following interventions can be used by the managers to manage the stress at the workplace -  Role clarity  Setting clear objectives  Auditing of stress  Counselling  Personal talk  Work life balance  Workers participation 6.10 SUMMARY  Organizational development is an objective based methodology used to initiate a change of system in an entity. It is achieved through supporting organizational structure and proper communication. munotes.in

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130 Change is inevitable in nature. Due to multiple reasons, there are a number of changes occurring frequently.  The goal of organizational development is to achieve organizational effectiveness. The effectiveness of OD must be fully supported by theories. Fields like psychology, HR practices, management techniques and various other disciplines can help to find out how to best implement change and development.  Bringing OD in an organization is a complex task. Through OD interventions, the structural activities can be proved helpful to bring and maintain organizational effectiveness.  Stress is the pressure people feel in life. It is a phenomenon which is associated with tension or anxiety. Stress is a feeling of emotional or physical tension. The stress that arises from any event can cause Frustration, low productivity, weakness, anger and nervousness.  There are numerous reasons to experience stress in your personal life and workplace. The causes of stress are known as the stressors. Many researchers have tried to classify the various causes of stress into different categories. The consequences of stress are harmful for the individuals as well as for the organization.  Managing stress at the workplace is an art and not everybody is an artist. Stress is helpful to some extent but beyond the level it is usually harmful as it impinges on employees health and her/his productivity. Coping up with stress means dealing with the stress to decrease its negative impact. At individual level and organizational level, the various strategies can be formulated to cope up with the stress. 6.11 SELF ASSESSMENT TEST 1. What is OD? How is it undertaken by the organizations? 2. Discuss the various OD interventions. Which OD intervention is most effective? 3. Explain the various practices that can be adopted to develop organization. 4. What topics can be included in designing a new intervention for organizational effectiveness? 5. What is organizational stress? Is it always bad for the individual? Explain. 6. Bring out the impact of stress on performance and satisfaction of employees. 7. Describe the various strategies to cope up with stress. 8. List and discuss the four major sources of stress in your life during the last two years. munotes.in