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1SEMESTER II
Unit -1
GLOBALIZATION AND INDIAN
SOCIETY
Unit structure
1.0Objectives
1.1Concept of Liberalization
1.2Concept of Privatization
1.3Concept of Globalization
1.4Growth of Information Technology and Communication
1.5Impact of IT and Communication
1.6Impact of Globalization on Industry
1.7Effect of Globalization on Employment
1.8Causes and Impact of Migra tion
1.9Effect of Globalization on Agriculture
1.10 Growth of Corporate Farming
1.11 Summary
1.12 Exercise
1.0OBJECTIVES
1.To understand the concepts of liberalization, privatization and
globalization
2.To study the growth of information technology and
communication and it’s impact manifested in everyday life.
3.To examine impact of globalization on industry; changes in
employment and increasing migration.
4.To bring out the changes in the agrarian sector d ue to
globalization; rise in corporate farming and increase in farmer’s
suicides.munotes.in
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21.1CONCEPT OF LIBERALIZATION
Globalization and privatization have become the buzzwords
in the current economic scenario. The concepts liberalization,
globalization and privatization are actually closely related to one
another. This LPG phenomenon was first initiated in the Indian
Economy in 1990 when the Indian Economy experienced a severe
crisis. There was decline in the country’s export earnings, nati onal
income and industrial output. The government had to seek aid from
IMF to resolve it’s debt problem. That is when the government
decided to introduce the New Industrial Policy (NIP) in 1991 to start
liberalizing the Indian economy.
Liberalization mean s elimination of state control over
economic activities. It implies greater autonomy to the business
enterprises in decision -making and removal of government
interference. It was believed that the market forces of demand and
supply would automatically oper ate to bring about greater efficiency
and the economy would recover. This was to be done internally by
introducing reforms in the real and financial sectors of the economy
and externally by relaxing state control on foreign investments and
trade.
With the NIP’ 1991 the Indian Government aimed at
integrating the country’s economy with the world economy,
improving the efficiency and productivity of the public sector. For
attaining this objective, existing government regulations and
restrictions on industry w ere removed. The major aspects of
liberalization in India were ;
1.Abolition of licensing: NIP’1991 abolished licensing for most
industries except 6 industries of strategic significance. They include
alcohol, cigarettes, industrial explosives, defense produc ts, drugs
and pharmaceuticals, hazardous chemicals and certain others
reserved for the public sector. This would encourage setting up of
new industries and shift focus to productive activities.
2.Liberalization of Foreign Investment: While earlier prior
approval was required by foreign companies, now automatic
approvals were given for Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) to flow
into the country. A list of high -priority and investment -intensive
industries were delicensed and could invite up to 100% FDI
including sectors such as hotel and tourism, infrastructure, software
development .etc. Use of foreign brand name or trade mark was
permitted for sale ofgoods.
3.Relaxation of Locational Restrictions : There was no
requirement anymore for obtai ning approval from the Centralmunotes.in
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3Government for setting up industries anywhere in the country
except those specified under compulsory licensing or in cities with
population exceeding1 million. Polluting industries were required to
be located 25 kms away from the city peripheries if the city
population was greater than 1million.
4.Liberalization of Foreign Technology imports : In projects
where imported capital goods are required, automatic license would
be given for foreign technology imports up to 2 million U S dollars.
No permissions would be required for hiring foreign technicians and
foreign testing of indigenously developed technologies.
5.Phased Manufacturing Programmes : Under PMP any
enterprise had to progressively substitute imported inputs,
components with domestically produced inputs under local content
policy. However NIP’1991 abolished PMP for all industrial
enterprises. Foreign Investment Promotion Board (FIPB) was set
up to speed up approval for foreign investment proposals.
6.Public Sector Reforms : Greater autonomy was given to the
PSUs (Public Sector Units) through the MOUs ( Memorandum of
Understanding) restricting interference of the government officials
and all owing their managements greater freedom indecision -
making.
7.MRTP Act : The Industrial Policy 1991 restructured the
Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practice Act. Regulations relating
to concentration of economic power, pre -entry restr ictions for
setting up new enterprises, expansion of existing businesses,
mergers and acquisitions. etc. have been abolished.
1.2CONCEPT OF PRIVATIZATION
Privatization is closely associated with the phenomena of
globalization and liberalization. Privat ization is the transfer of
control of ownership of economic resources from the public sector
to the private sector. It means a decline in the role of the public
sector as there is a shift in the property rights from the state to
private ownership. The publ ic sector had been experiencing various
problems , since planning, such as low efficiency and profitability,
mounting losses, excessive political interference, lack of autonomy,
labour problems and delays in completion of projects. Hence to
remedy this sit uation with Introduction of NIP’1991 privatization was
also initiated into the Indian economy. Another term for privatization
is Disinvestment. The objectives of disinvestment were to raise
resources through sale of PSUs to be directed towards social
welfa re expenditures, raising efficiency of PSUs through increasedmunotes.in
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4competition, increasing consumer satisfaction with better quality
goods and services, upgrading technology and most importantly
removing political interference.
The main aspects of privatizatio n in India are as follows;
1.Autonomy to Public Sector : Greater autonomy was granted to
nine PSUs referred to as ‘navaratnas’ ( ONGC, HPCL, BPCL,
VSNL, BHEL) to take their own decisions.
2.Dereservation of Public Sector : The number of industries
reserved for the public sector were reduced in a phased manner
from 17 to 8 and then to only 3 including Railways, Atomic energy,
Specified minerals. This has opened more areas of investment for
the private sector and increased com petition for the public sector
forcing greater accountability and efficiency.
3.Disinvestment Policies : Till 1999 -2000 disinvestment was
done basically through sale of minority shares but since then the
government has undertaken strategic sale of it’s equi ty to the
private sector handing over complete management control such as
in the case of VSNL , BALCO.etc.
1.3CONCEPT OF GLOBALIZATION
Globalization essentially means integration of the national
economy with the world economy. It implies a free flow o f
information, ideas, technology, goods and services, capital and
even people across different countries and societies. It increases
connectivity between different markets in the form of trade,
investments and cultural exchanges.
The concept of globalizat ion has been explained by the IMF
(International Monetary Fund) as ‘the growing economic
interdependence of countries worldwide through increasing volume
and variety of cross border transactions in goods and services and
of international capital flows and also through the more rapid and
widespread diffusion of technology.’
The phenomenon of globalization caught momentum in India
in 1990s with reforms in all the sectors of the economy. The main
elements of globalization were;
1.To open the domestic markets for inflow of foreign goods, India
reduced customs duties on imports. The general customs duty on
most goods was reduced to only 10% and import licensing has
been almost abolished. Tariff barriers have also been slashed
signifi cantly to encourage trade volume to rise in keeping with themunotes.in
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5World trade Organization (WTO) order under (GATT )General
Agreement on Tariff and Trade.
2.The amount of foreign capital in a country is a good indicator of
globalization and growth. The FDI polic yo ft h eG O Ie n c o u r a g e dt h e
inflow of fresh foreign capital by allowing 100 % foreign equity in
certain projects under the automatic route. NRIs and OCBs
(Overseas Corporate Bodies)may invest up to 100 % capital with
reparability in high priority industrie s. MNCs and TNCs were
encouraged to establish themselves in Indian markets and were
given a level playing field to compete with Indian enterprises.
3.Foreign Exchange Regulation Act (FERA) was liberalized in
1993 and later Foreign Exchange Management Act (F EMA) 1999
was passed to enable foreign currency transactions.
4.India signed many agreements with the WTO affirming it’s
commitment to liberalize trade such as TRIPs (Trade Related
Intellectual Property Rights), TRIMs (Trade Related Investment
Measures) and AOA (Agreement On Agriculture).
1.3.1 Impact of Globalization:
Advantages of Globalization:
There is a decline in the number of people living below the
poverty line in developing countries due to increased investments,
trade and rising employment opportunities.
There is an improvement in various economic indicators of the
LDCs (Less Developed Countries) such as employment, life
expectancy, literacy rates, per capita consumption etc.
Free flow of capital an d technology enables developing
countries to speed up the process of industrialization and lay the
path for faster economic progress.
Products of superior quality are available in the market due to
increased competition, efficiency and productivity of the businesses
and this leads to increased consumer satisfaction.
Free flow of finance enable the banking and financial institutions
in a country to fulfill financial requirements through internet and
electronic transfers easily and help businesses to flouri sh.
MNCs bring with them foreign capital, technology, know -how,
machines, technical and managerial skills which can be used for
the development of the host nation. munotes.in
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6Disadvantages of Globalisation:
Domestic companies are unable to withstand competition fro m
efficient MNCs which have flooded Indian markets since their
liberalized entry. It may lead to shut down of operations, pink slips
and downsizing. Moreover skilled and efficient labour get absorbed
by these MNCs that offer higher pay and incentives leavi ng
unskilled labour for employment in the domestic industries. Thus
there may be unemployment and underemployment.
Payment of dividends, royalties and repatriation has in fact led
to a rise in the outflow of foreign capital.
With increased dependence on foreign technology, development
of indigenous technology has taken a backseat and domestic R and
D development has suffered.
Globalization poses certain risks for any country in the form of
business cycles, fluctuations in international prices, specializa tion in
few exportable and soon.
It increases the disparities in the incomes of the rich and poor,
developed nations and LDCs. It leads commercial imperialism as
the richer nations tend to exploit the resources of the poornations.
Globalization leads to fusion of cultures and inter -mingling of
societies to such an extent that there may be a loss of identities
and traditional values. It gives rise to mindless aping of western
lifestyles and mannerisms however ill -suited they maybe.
It leads to overcrowdin g of cities and puts pressure on the
amenities and facilities available in urban areas.
Check your progress : -
1.Explain the concept of Liberalization.
2.Briefly explain the meaning of privatization.
3.What is globalization? Bring outtheadvantages and
disadva ntages of globalization.
1.4GROWTH OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND
COMMUNICATION
One of the factors that triggered globalization was the IT
Revolution and since reforms there has been no turning back. Use
of Information technology has taken over m anufacturing and
services sectors all over the world. It has provided employment tomunotes.in
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7millions of people in tertiary sector. Outsourcing and BPOs have
been responsible for a rapid rise in the annual domestic product of
the country. In 2011 annual revenues fr om the BPO sector is
estimated to have aggregated revenues of over 88 billion
U.S.Dollars.
Bengaluru, also known as India’s Silicon Valley, continues to
be home to several of India’s flourishing IT Companies including
Infosys and Wipro. The top seven citi es that account for almost 90
% of the exports in the IT sector are Bangalore, Chennai,
Hyderabad, Mumbai, Pune, Delhi and Kolkata. Because of these
companies India is fast gaining recognition as a knowledge
economy.
This sector is responsible for generat ing direct employment
to the tune of 2.3 million in 2009 -10 and is estimated to reach
nearly 2.5 million by the end of the year2010 -19.
The communication sector or the Telecom industry is
growing at a dizzying pace. Use of internet , Global Positioning
System, telephones, mobile phone, fax, and video conferencing
has brought all the countries closer and turned the world into a
‘global village’. India had the fourth largest number of internet users
of around 100 million in 2010. There were as many as 826.93
million total wireless subscribers in the country by the end of April
2019. It is projected that wireless communication will continue to
fuel growth in the telecom sector increasing the subscription base
to 9.159 billion by2013.
Among leading mobile oper ators in India are Bharti Telecom,
followed by Reliance, Vodafone, idea and then the state -owned
BSNL.
1.5IMPACT OF IT AND COMMUNICATION
Positive impact:
The IT sector has truly achieved global integration through
increased connectivity. It has cut across linguistic and geographical
barriers making it possible for persons in distant nations to easily
communicate with one another.
It has enabled inter -mingling of cultures, exchange of opinions
and ideas thereby creating strong bonds and reducing p rejudices.
Use of wireless phones and internet has made communication
speedier, environment -friendly as it is paper -free and cheaper.
Video conferencing makes it possible for people however far apartmunotes.in
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8to engage in a direct interaction. This has enabled peop le to work
from home, meetings to take place among many individuals even if
they are in different parts of the world,etc.
E-mails can be checked on phone; financial transactions can be
carried out over phone; social networking sites are linked to phone
tokeep oneself updated with the events in the lives of our friends
and relatives; all this has made communication devices an
indispensable part of ourlives.
The benefits of Information Technology and communication
facilities have split into various areas of business, health care,
defense, environment an and so on. The quick access to
information has removed time lags in decision -making, increased
productivity and cut costs effectively. It has made work less
strenuous and salaries more lucrative.
Technology ha s made it possible to buy and sell anytime from
any place and have the goods delivered at one’s doorstep.
Electronically markets can operate day and night because of
theinternet.
A lot of new jobs have been created especially in the IT sector.
For ex. Soft ware programmers, Hardware developers, Systems
analysts, Web designers and soon.
Remote Sensing Satellites are used for various purposes such
as land use mapping, drought and flood mapping, forest cover
mapping etc. to study the impact of industrial activi ties, mining on
environment.
Negative Impact:
Increased computerization has led to over manning and with
efforts at cost cutting to streamline business processes a lot of jobs
have been made redundant. This has aggravated the
unemployment problem.
Mobile phone have made people accessible at all times
encroaching into their personal time with friends and family.
Technology is dynamic and keeps changing on a daily basis
which makes it impertinent for professionals in this field to upgrade
their skills and kn owledge regularly. Otherwise they face the risk of
losing their jobs. Hence there is no job security.
There are new forms of offences such as cyber crime and
hacking which threaten to compromise the privacy of individuals.
Exposures to western influences h ave led to certain cultures
being imbibed and their lifestyles, language, dress and behavior
being imitated. However, while some changes may be positive , this
also brought in consumerism and reckless spending habits which
are corroding the traditional val ue systems. munotes.in
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91.6IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON INDUSTRY
The positive effects of globalization on industry can only be
traced since the New Industrial Policy’1999.
Positive Effects
Deli censing, removal of government restrictions on industries
andliberalization of foreign investments have reduced the time and
money spent in formal procedures for obtaining approvals from the
government. This has shifted the focus of enterprises to the actual
business of production thus lowering project costs.
Export s have increased so also has the volume of trade.
Policies in areas of foreign investments have attracted inflow of
foreign capital especially in sectors like electrical equipments,
services and telecommunication.
Indian industries and financial institutio ns have undertaken
investments abroad. Several Indian companies have entered into
joint ventures with foreign companies. They are becoming
internationally competitive.
India is increasing it’s export orientation through setting up of
SEZs (Special Economic Zones) and they are making their
international presence felt through mergers and acquisitions.
Industrial labour has become more efficient and skilled due to
increased competition and inflow of foreign knowledge. There is a
rise in industrial productivity which is reflected in higher industrial
wages. Instances of industrial sickness have gone down.
The goods produced by Indian industries in this competitive
scenario, sold at competitive prices give higher levels of satisfaction
to the Indian consumers as they are of superior quality.
The small scale sector is growing more robust with preferential
loans, microfinance and other forms of credit being made available.
Some SSEs have grown into medium scale operations.
Negative Effects:
Certain sectors that wer e already well established when
opened to foreign investment led to exploitation of their
resources by dominating MNCs and stifle their own R and
Defforts.
Use of foreign technology may not be adaptable to Indian
conditions. Sometimes MNCs deliberately use less sophisticated
technology in their subsidiaries.
munotes.in
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10There’s excessive competition in the market that puts too much
pressure on domestic companies to raise productivity, improve
product quality etc.
Rising urban industrial wages are much higher than rura l
wages, which leads to disparity in incomes.
There’s uncontrolled growth of consumerism and the problem
of plenty as a consumer has lot of choice. Businesses are solely
motivated by private profits. Globalization has in fact raised
capital intensity in pr oduction and this has affected employment
adversely as labour has been replaced by machine.
Globalization has exposed domestic firms to risks such as
fluctuations in prices, instability of profits and uncertainties of
demand and supply.
1.7EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION ON EMPLOYMENT
The effects of globalization on employment can be analysed
based on the NSSO ( National Sample Survey organization) data.
The employment (Current daily status) growth accelerated
between1999 -2000 and 2004 -05 as compared to the previous
period of 1993 -94 to 1999 -2000. During 1999 -2000 to 2004 -05,
about 47 million work opportunities were created and as compared
to 24 million during the period 1993 -94 to 1999 -2000. Employment
growth accelerated from 9.25 per cent per annum during 1993 -94
to 1999 -2000 to 2.62 per cent per annum during 1999 -2000 to
2004 -05. However, a higher labour force growth of 2.84 per cent
per annum during 1999 -2000 to 2004 -05, which exceeded the
growth in workforce of 2.62 per cent per annum, resulted in an
increaseinunemploymentratefrom7.3percentin1999 -2000to
8.3 per cent in 2004 -05.
In recent years, the quality of employment created has also
been a matter of concern as the organized sector employment has
been declining. Moreover the share of regular workforce in total
employment was low. This decline is attributed primarily to a
decline in employment in PSUs. During 1999 -2000 to 2004 -05,
most of the growth of 4.7 per cent per annum in industrial and
tertiary employment, was in the unorganized sector. There has
been a clear shift in workforce from organized sectors to the casual
and informal sectors as liberalization has caused informalization of
labour.
At present, the main challenges for the policymakers are to
target a rapid growth of employment creation and also improve the
quality of employment generated by strengthening the organized
sector.munotes.in
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11Negative Impact:
The organized sectors have become profit -driven and there is a
lot of emphasis on cost -cutting and have therefore gone in for
downsizing policy. Labou r in unorganized sector is not protected,
so they have no job security, provident fund, medical facilities or
paid leave and suffer due to low wages. Globalization has caused a
shift of labour from the organized to the unorganized sector.
Even large firms like Bajaj Auto and Tata Steel have succumbed
to pressure and have chosen automation and computerization of
processes over securing jobs of their employees. Excess labour
has been retrenched by offering VRS (Voluntary Retirement
Scheme) and CRS (Compulsory Retirement Scheme). According to
a report of National Commission on Labour (2002) indirect
compulsion, pressure tactics have been used to compel employees
to resign underVRS
With disinvestment of some public sector units, employment in
these sectors has r educed. The most affected sectors are
manufacturing, construction, electricity, gas and watersupply.
The level of employment in the small scale sector has remained
stagnant and discouraging. FDI inflow in several sectors has wiped
out the business of many small and medium size enterprises
forcing them into closure.
MNCs have exported jobs from developed countries to
developing countries through foreign investments. Moreover they
offer higher pay than what is offered by employers of local
enterprises adding to the inequalities in income.
Through trade liberalization the government has actually
encouraged substitution of domestic goods by imports which has
reduced the market size for goods manufactured by domestic
labour bringing down their wages and putting their jobs indanger.
Trade unions have become weaker in negotiating better pay and
security for workers as only efficient labour is absorbed by the
profit -driven enterprises. To save workers from losing jobs, they
were compelled to accept cuts in salaries , freezing of dearness
allowance and other benefits and eventually reduction in labour
force.
Positive Impact:
The employment in the services sector has increased from 20%
in 1991 to over 30% in 2010. The reason behind this is creation of
new jobs in the IT and communication sectors. Jobs in Call
Centres, BPOs, and medical transcription as well as other service
sectors such as banking, insurance, airlines have buoyed
employment. Foreign companies from different sectors likemunotes.in
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12banking, and finance have come t o India to outsource their work
creating jobs in accounting, mortgage collections, marketing etc.
Other sectors where job opportunities have multiplied are
Biotechnology; health care especially with chains of private
hospitals being set up; medical researc h centres; food retailing with
shopping malls cropping up at every nook and corner of the cities
and towns.
In the field of education, there is a demand for trained
professionals as international schools and colleges are poised to
enter India on a wider scale.
MNCs generate employment for the skilled workforce especially
in urban areas. It motivates labour to pick up various skills through
training.
There is an increase in contractual and casual employment due
to globalization since employers can’t afford t oh a v eal a r g e
workforce on a regular basis.
Female participation in workforce has actually improved. Especially
in the casual, informal sectors affording low wage or flexible
employment and export oriented low technology high labour
industries such as ga rments, electronics .etc., there has been an
increase in women’s employment.
Check your progress : -
1.Bring out the positive and negative impact of globalization on IT
sector.
2.Briefly explain the impact of globalization on industries.
3.How has globalization affected employment?
1.8CONCEPT AND IMPACT OF MIGRATION
Globalization has definitely shown an increased trend of
migration especially from the developing to the developed countries
of the world. Migration is basically a movement of people from one
place to another and to destination. It can be local, regional; where
people move within the borders of a nation or even international
which involves crossing the borders. Generally migration occurs in
order to access better opportunities in work, education, or to
achieve a better standard of living.
With the relaxation of restrictions on trade and capital
movements, movement of labour was also liberalized and explains
the increase in migration. However in recent years due to increased
FDI inflow and job crea tion by subsidiaries of established MNCs,
there has been a check on migration levels from developingmunotes.in
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13countries. These nations are characterized by surplus pauper
labour, which if not absorbed in the domestic job markets, are
willing to migrate to the devel oped nations , having labour
shortages. Such countries ready to receive immigrant labour are
called host nations or receiving nations and countries from which
emigrant labour move out are called sending nations or countries of
origin. For eg. when an India n student goes to Australia for higher
studies or to find a job, he is an immigrant in Australia but for India
he is an emigrant.
The causative factors of migration could be economic,
social, environmental, or political. Instances of rural to urban
migrat ion or international migration are generally out of economic
motivations such as to find better job prospects, avail of better civic
amenities or raise one’s standard of living. Social factors comprise
of marriage, moving closer to one’s relative’s .etc. I f a place is
prone to environmental hazards or calamities such as earthquakes
or floods, itmay encourage people tomigrate tosafer locales.
Political instability of any kind like rioting, acts of terrorism
may create panic and fear for one’s life for cing people to move.
These days people also travel afar to seek better or cheaper
medical treatment.
In recent times, a lot of nations like US and UK have taken a
narrow stance by introducing several measures to control in -
migration. They have imposed re strictions on holding of visas and
citizenship by the immigrants.
Impact of migration on host nations:
Immigrants may find it difficult to adapt to the environmental and
social conditions of the host nation. Very often they experience
homesickness as the food, culture, language, mannerisms ,
weather conditions may all differ. Adapting to so many differences
creates stress and other psychological problems such as loneliness
and withdrawal.
Sometimes immigrants face discrimination especially if they
belong t o a different race. They are perceived with prejudice and
not treated as equals by the natives, which makes them feel like
outsiders ad insecure.
It has been observed of a large proportion of emigrants from
developing countries that they end up performing menial tasks and
lowly jobs, which draws much lower income than the natives in
developed countries.
Women participation in emigrant labour force has also increased
especially because women are willing to take up low paid jobs
abroad such as maids, domestic workers , cleaning women,
nannies etc.munotes.in
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14Migration leads to fusion of cultures. The natives may find these
influences threatening to their identity and resist mingling freely
with the immigrant population. The immigrants tend to stick
together in an expr ession of solidarity and form ghettos.
Immigrant labour contributes to the growth of the host nation to
which they provide their services. This is because they earn, spend,
save and invest in the host nation, which adds to the economic
activities there. Th e fact remains that the host nations get gains out
of the immigrant labour without having contributed towards the
development of these human resources.
Increase in the population of host nation puts pressure on the
infrastructure and facilities available. It leads to congestion and a
rise in various social problems.
Impact of migration on countries of Origin :
Most of the immigrant labour are persons of specialized
knowledge like doctors, engineers, research scholars and lately
from thefield of IT. These individuals are educated and well
trained, in whom the sending nations have invested but their
out-migration, which is labeled ‘brain drain’ , benefits the host
nations.
The countries of origin experience some gains as the
remittances of emigrant labour ad ds to their gross national
product and adding to their foreign exchange reserves.
Remittances send back to families in the sending nation raises
the standard of living and improves the lifestyle. It increases the
choice of goods that can be purchased but a lso leads to
consumerism.
Continuous inflow of large amounts of remittances creates a
sense of dependency in the sending nation. It reduces reliability
on domestic resources or goods and makes the country less
than self sufficient. In the event of severed ties between the host
and sending nation, a fall in trade and migration could affect the
economy of the sending nation adversely.
Emigrants abroad tend to form organisations and associations
which rush aid to their native lands during calamities and
disast ers. They may also fund projects and thus increase the
pace of investment for growth. munotes.in
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15Check your progress : -
1.Explain the concept of migration.
2.Elaborate the impact of migration on host countries as well as
the countries of origin.
1.9EFFECT OF GLOBALIZATION ON AGRICULTURE
1.9.1 India and AoA:
The study of effects of globalization would be incomplete
without considering it’s impact on the most important sector of the
economy. The agricultural sector is known to be the backbone of
theIndian economy with an employment of 70 % of the population
in various agricultural, horticultural and allied activities. It’s
contribution to the Gross Domestic Product however has been
declining steadily over the past decades due to low productivity.
Currently it contributes 18 % to the GDP and 10 % to the export
earnings of India. With a view to move towards liberalizing the
agricultural sector and promoting free and fair trade, India, a
member nation of the World Trade organization (WTO) signed the
UruguayRoundAgreementson1stJanuary1995.TheAgreement on
Agriculture of the WTO, was the first multilateral agreement, meant
to curb unfair practices in agricultural trade and set off the process
of reforms in the agricultural sector. It contained the following broad
areas :
1.Tariff Reduction : Previously trade in agriculture was
restricted by quotas, import and export licensing and other non -tariff
barriers. The AoA required that all non -tariff barriers be replaced by
a single tariff rate called the bound tarif f rate and that existing tariffs
be reduced in a phased manner over a stipulated period of time.
Developing countries including India were expected to reduce
bound tariffs by 24 % , minimum of 10 % for each commodity over
a period of 10years.
2.Market Acces s:To avoid the adverse effect of tariffs on certain
special products, importing countries have given a current access
commitment by establishing a tariff quota, up to which imports are
allowed at a lower rate and above which higher tariffs arecharged.munotes.in
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16Under minimum access commitment countries had to import a
minimum quantity of their most restricted products. i.e. In case of
products with marginally low or no imports, countries had to impose
tariff quota imports equal to 3 % of domestic consumption, w hich
would increase to 5 % by2000.
3.Export Subsidies : They are special incentives given to the
exporters to encourage sales of exports abroad, allowing them to
charge competitive or lower price in the world market. However this
crated distortions in inter national trade and hence AoA prohibits
export subsidies. Member nations were expected to reduce them.
While developed countries were supposed to cut the value of
export subsidies by 36 % over 6 years, developing countries were
to reduce them by 24 % over 1 0 years. LDCs were exempted.
4.Domestic Support Subsidies : Domestic support through
subsidies and other measures were meant to push imports out of
the market and also enable domestic exporters to compete in the
world market. WTO measured this support as ‘( AMS) Aggregate
Measurement of Support’. Domestic support is categorized in the
form of red box, amber box, green box and blue box subsidies. Red
box subsidies are banned whereas amber box subsidies are not
banned but actionable. These subsidies were believ ed to be the
most distortive in international trade having adverse effects on
trade interests of others. Green box subsidies in the form of
assistance to research activities, disadvantaged regions or non -
discriminating subsidies and Blue box subsidies in t he form of direct
payments to farmers required to limit their production were
permitted and non -actionable. The Blue box subsidies were not
allowed to be not more than 5 % for developed countries and 10 %
for developing countries.
1.9.2 Impact of Globaliz ation on Agriculture and current
trends:
India is the second largest producer of food in the world.
However Indian agriculture has shown a slow average annual
growth rate. It was 3.1 % during the decade 1980 -1990 prior to
liberalization of the economy. But since then the annual growth
rates have declined consistently relative to annual growth rate of
the population. Several factors were responsible for this fall in
growth rate; lack of credit, inadequate irrigation cover, and
indebtedness, continuing use of obsolete technology, improper use
of inputs and decline in the public investments.
The decline in overall growth of employment during 1993 -94 to
2004 -05 was largely due to fall in creation of employment
opportunities in agriculture. With increase in knowl edge and entry
of many foreign firms in the non -agricultural sectors, the labour hasmunotes.in
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17shifted to manufacturing and services sectors. The National Sample
Survey Organization’s (NSSO) report on Employment and
Unemployment Situation in India 2009 -10, on the ba sis of usually
workingpersons in the principal status and subsidiary status, for
every 1000 people employed in rural and urban India, 679 and 75
people are employed in the agriculture sector, 241 and 683 in
services sector and 80 and 242 in the industrial sector,
respectively.
With globalization farmers were encouraged to shift from
traditional crops to export -oriented ‘cash crops’ such as cotton and
tobacco but such crops needed far more inputs in terms of
fertilizers, pesticides and water. The growth in yields of principal
crops notably rice and wheat have also decelerated.
There has been a decline in overall area under food grains
during 2011 -12. The area coverage under food grains during 2011 -
12 stood at 1254.92 laky ha compared to 1267.65 at la st year. The
lower area under food grains has been due to a shortfall in the area
under jowar in Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Gujarat; Bajra in
Maharashtra, Gujarat and Haryana; and in pulses in Maharashtra,
Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, and Rajasthan.
Appr opriate use of agricultural equipments, suited to the crops
and the region of cultivation, lead to efficient utilization of farm
inputs, making farming financially viable and profitable. Though
there has been considerable progress in farm mechanization, it s
spread across the country still remains uneven.
The most significant supply side constraint to agricultural
production is irrigation coverage that still extends to only about 40
per cent of net sown area. There has been a slow down in the
growth rate of direct demand for food grain consumption on
account of several factors and there is a need to address these
challenges of the agriculture sector through coordinated efforts
directed at improving farm production and productivity through high
value crops, d eveloping rural infrastructure, renewing thrust on their
irrigation sector, strengthening marketing infra structure, and
supporting investment in R&D with due emphasis on environmental
concerns.
1.9.3 Agrarian Crisis:
The Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) of liberalizing
the Indian Economy was undertaken in 1991 as per the directives
of International Monetary Fund and World Trade Organization.
Major reforms were introduced in the real and financial sectors of
the ec onomy with a view to increase its efficiency and profitability.
Trade was also liberalized ; the import and customs duties of manymunotes.in
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18products were drastically reduced or abolished completely.
Removal of all restrictions on imports lead to a steep fall in the ir
domestic prices rendering them unprofitable for production. The
government started disinvesting in agriculture and the industrial
sector allowing the private sector to take over. The government
reduced different types of subsidies to agriculture which i ncreased
the production cost of cultivation. This lead to the agrarian crisis as
it had an adverse impact on the agricultural sector.
Several million hectares of food -growing land were converted
to exportable crops leading to fall in food grains output. In dia being
self-sufficient started exporting wheat and rice. But the rate of
growth of the GDP in agriculture and allied sectors was just one per
cent per annum during the year 2002 -05. As a result, per capita
availability of food grains decreased; the gro wth rate of population
became higher than that of food grains. Moreover trade
liberalization with a thrust on exports has been in conducive to
Indian markets causing a steep fall in prices of farm goods. As
prices fell for Indian producers of export crops, their access to low -
cost credit was also reduced under financial sector reforms.
Lending facilities and concessions of banks were removed
during the post -reform period and this accelerated the crisis in
agriculture. Farmers were unable to pay back loans w ith high
interest and also resorted to borrowing from unorganized elements
such as moneylenders, thus falling into the debt trap. Farmers did
not benefit even with contract farming and their exposure to steeply
falling global food prices plunged them into spiraling farm debt
pushing them to commit suicide.
The restructuring of the public distribution system, through the
creation of two groups -Below Poverty Line (BPL) and Above
Poverty Line (APL), continuously increased their prices through
ration shops, a ffecting the availability of food grains to the poor at
subsidized rates. As a result, even the poor people did not buy the
subsidized food grains and it got accumulated in godowns to be
spoiled or sold in the open market.
The increased grain exports have been at the cost of hunger
and starvation as millions of rural laborers and farmers have
suffered job loss and income decline. Rising unemployment, rising
input and credit costs for farmers and exposure to global price
declines are responsible for the low absorption of food grains in
India.
Increase in the instance of farmers’ suicides has been a major
fall-out of stagnation in agriculture. Monopolisation of HYV seeds,
shift in farming from chemical farming to organic farming, global
competition is killing our farmers literally. Since agriculture is not
drawing remunerative income, farmers have become desperate,
turning to suicide as an escape from the debt trap. More than five
thousand indebted cotton farmers, have committed suicide inmunotes.in
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19Andhra Pradesh since 1998. Punjab and Maharashtra ( Vidarbha)
are not far behind in numbers. This is a grave issue which requires
urgent and continuing attention of the government and society.
Contract farming has lead to a direct onslaught on peasant land
and water resources by the corporate. Restrictions on
landownership by non -cultivators have been removed and ceilings
on landholdings rolled back in many states to aid large business
corporations in purchase of agricultural land. Farmers are giving up
land to solve their deb t crises but are unable to overcome their food
problems. Unemployment in the agricultural sector has in fact
increased during the reform period.
Under the Special Economic Zones Act of 2005, land has been
taken over by the government for commercial and ind ustrial
purposes. Most of the acquired land is fertile for non -agricultural
purposes. Corporate bigwigs like Reliance, TATA have faced public
protests over their acquisition of land such as Nandigram agitation
in West Bengal. SEZ were introduced to promote export and
industrial growth in line with globalisation but have resulted in
exploitation of farmers taking away their means of livelihood and
directing land towards business and manufacture.
Check your progress : -
1.Write a note on Agreement on Agricultur ea n dI n d i a .
2.Elaborate the impact of globalization on agricultural sector.
3.Explain the features and causes of Agrarian crisis in India.
1.10 GROWTH OF CORPORATE FARMING
Contract farming and Corporate farming have been
encouraged by the government as possible solutions to problems of
Indian Agriculture. The small sized, fragmented, uneconomic
Landholdings and lack of competitiveness of agricultural produce
are main reasons for eroding profitability of the agricultural sector.
State governments across different states such as Andhra Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, West Bengal and many more are amending
laws to encourage the practice of corporate farming. Prime
agricultural lan d and wastelands are being purchased or leased in
by corporate houses, to undertake agri -business ranging from seed
supply, agrichemicals to storage, transport and retail sales. The
large corporates, primarily motivated by profits, invest hugemunotes.in
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20amounts of f unds towards research and modernization of
agriculture and with complete control over land holdings are able to
maximize produce for both sale in the open markets as well as their
own retail food processing. Reliance Fresh, Tata agri -chemicals,
Sterling Ag ro, Mcdonalds, Hindustan Lever are only a few
examples of entry of private sector into the primary sector.
The problem of the Indian farmer is that the farm land should
be owned by the independent farmer and input costs like farm
machinery, crop insurance, fertilizers, irrigation, pesticides, fuel,
and seeds should be borne by the corporates. But corporate
farming at present is bringing back feudalism as corporate farmers
are working as contractual labourers of the corporates that have
bought the ir lands and employed them. The small farmers, now
landless, continue to be plagued by problems of hunger anddebt.
Corporate farming can be economically and socially
beneficial if it gets the marginal farmer a remunerative price. It adds
to the export cap acity of the country by discovering international
markets for the fresh produce, fruits, vegetables and processed
primary goods of consumptions thus contributing to the growth in
agriculture. Credit requirement is not a constraint for the big
corporates as they have huge funds at their disposal as well as
ample support of the financial institutions and banks. They can
undertake large -scale investments necessary for marketing from
packaging to warehousing to transportation of primary goods.
There is a huge demand for organic foods among consumers today
and such cultivation is being taken up by the businesses to cater to
changing preferences
However corporate farming has it’s fair share of pitfalls which
can reverse trends of growth and increase social injus tice. Since
the corporates continue to operate on the motive of profits, they will
not be too concerned with the welfare of the farmers. Production
will become completely market -oriented substituting subsistence
cropping by commercial cultivation. More and more of the farm
output produced will be for the export basket rather than satisfying
domestic needs of consumption. It is already observed that there is
anincreasingtrend ofcasualization oflabour causing ashift in
employment from the agricultural sect or to the urban informal and
service sectors. Concrete steps need to be taken by policymakers
to ensure the farmers’ status in the country doesn’t worsen.munotes.in
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21Check your progress : -
1.Write a note on corporate farming.
1.11 SUMMARY
The developments over the last year in major economies of
the world have not been encouraging. The financial crisis in U.S.A
as well as the ongoing European sovereign debt crisis have raised
questions about the globalized environment in the world and
wheth er most nations would be exposed to ore instability in the
future. India has achieved faster growth from the 1980s compared
to its past but that growth brought about by globalisation has been
at a cost as indicated by worsening of employment, agriculture,
small scale and others in the priority sector.
1.12EXERCISE
1.State the concept of Liberalisation.
2.Explain in detail the positive and negative impact of Information
Technology?
3.What is the impact of globalisation on employment
opportunities?
4.How does migration impact host nations and countries oforigin?
5.Write a note on Agrarian Crisis?
munotes.in
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22Unit -2
HUMAN RIGHTS
Unit structure
2.0Objectives
2.1Introduction
2.2Concept of Human Rights
2.3The Universal Declaration of Human Rights
2.4Human Rights Constituents to Fundamental Rights
2.5Summary
2.6 Exercise
2.0OBJECTIVES
To understand the Concept of Human Rights.
To study the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
Torelate Human Rights Constituents with s pecial reference to
Fundamental Rights in Indian Constitution.
2.1INTRODUCTION
Human Rights are commonly understood as ‘inalienable
fundamental rights’ to which a person is inherently entitled simply
because she or he is a human being. Human Rights are thus
conceived as universal and egalitarian. At the international level
human rights have become a movement. It can be studied through
many ways which is called as the constituents of Human Rights.
They may be civil rights, political, economic, cultural, social rights.
They are also called somewhere Fundamental Rights. Being a
humankind one must have some rights from birth and hence they
are the birth rights of every human being. They are also the rights
of freedom t o everyone irrespective of caste, creed, sex, region,
colour, profession, etc.
2.2CONCEPT OF HUMAN RIGHTS
Human Rights is a 20thcentury term for what had been
traditionally known as ‘Natural Rights’ or in a more appealing
phase, the ‘Rights of Man’ .T h en o t i o no f‘ R i g h t so fM a n ’a n do t h e rmunotes.in
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23such concepts of human rights are as old as humanity. These rights
of men had a place almost in all the ancient societies of the world,
through they were not referred to by that time.
The term ‘Human Rights’ is co mparatively of recent origin.
But the idea of human rights is as old as the history of human
civilization. Human Rights are deeply rooted in the historical past.
The history of mankind has been firmly associated with the struggle
of individuals against inj ustice, exploitation and disdain.
Broadly speaking, ‘Human Right’ means right to life, liberty,
equality and the dignity of an individual irrespective of caste, creed
or sex. Human rights are always natural. Universal Declaration of
Human Rights states, t his term signifies the rights which belongs
equally to every individual. It envisages that all human beings are
born free, equal in dignity and rights and are entitled to enjoy all
rights.
According to Prof. Herald Laski “rights are those conditions
of so cial life without which no man can seek in general to be
himself at his best”.
In view of Dr.B.R.Ambedkar, “Fundamental Rights are the
gift of law. They are essential for human beings. They are
inalienable and enforceable by the State.” His theory of
Fund amental Rights is related with the political democracy which
rests upon four ‘premises’ which could be stated asunder.
1)“T h ei n d i v i d u a li sa ne n di nh i m s e l f . ”
All the institutions either social or political are the
instruments to serve the end of the individual. An individual is not
for the state; but as an ideal citizen must serve the common interest
embodied in the state. The ‘end’ or the welfare of the individual
includes the development of his physical, mental and material
abilities which could be able to enhance his pursuit of happiness.
2)“That the individual has certain inalienable rights which
must be guaranteed to him by the Constitution.”
This means no person or authority should encroach, abridge
or abrogate the rights of the individual in the society. There is no
better guarantee of those rights other than the Constitution.
3)“That the individual shall not be required to relinquish
any of his Constitutional rights as a condition precedent to the
receipt of privilege.”munotes.in
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24According to Dr.B.R.Ambedkar, “the rights of the individual being
inalienable and constitutional, no one could be required to
relinquish any right at the cost of any privilege. However, rights of
individual are abridged or abrogated only with due process ofla w.”
4)“That the state shall not delegate powers to private persons
to govern others.”
According to him, the state would be supreme and powerful to
govern the people. There would not be any intermediary or private
person like hereditary ruler or Jahagird ar. All the individuals would
be legally equal and enjoy equal treatment under the state.
2.2.1 History of Human Rights:
The roots of human rights can be traced to the Babylonian
laws. The Babylonian King Hammurabi issued a set of laws to his
people cal led ‘Hammurabi’s Codes’, which contained fair wages,
protection of property and charges against them to be proved at
trial. Greek philosopher Plato, Artistotle and Roman philosopher
Cicero advocated the natural law, natural rights and human rights.
Accord ing to Cultural dictionary human rights can be defined
as ‘freedom from arbitrary interference or restriction by
governments.’ The term encompasses largely the same rights
called civil rights or civil liberties but often suggests rights that have
not been recognised.
The origin of human rights also can be credited to era of
Renaissance Humanism in the early modern period. Prior to this
habeascorpushadbeenexplainedintheMagnaCartaof1215 A.D. The
European wars of religion and the civil wars of 17thcentury En gland
gave rise to the philosophy of liberalism and belief in human rights
became a central concern of European intellectual culture during
18thcentury ‘Age of Enlightenment’. The idea of human rights lay at
the core of the American and French revolutions A.D.1776 &
A.D.1789 respectively which paved the way for the advent of
universal suffrage. The World Wars of the 20thcentury led to the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
A declaration for religious tolerance on an egalitarian basis
can be found in the ‘Edicts of Ashoka’, which emphasize the
importance of tolerance in public policy by the government. The
slaughter and capture of prisoners of war was also condemned by
Ashoka.munotes.in
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25According to historian John Esposito, Prophet Muhammad
condemned female infa nticide, exploitation of poor, usury, murder,
false contracts and theft. He also incorporated Arabic and Mosaic
laws and customs of the time into his divine revelations. The
Constitution of Medina (Charter of Medina) established the security
of the communi ty, freedom of religion, security of women.
The modern sense of human rights can be traced to
Renaissance Europe and Protestant Reformation, as also the
disappearance of the feudal authoritarianism and religions
conservatism that dominated the Middle Ages . According to Jack
Donnelly, in the ancient world, “traditional societies typically have
had elaborate systems of duties….conceptions of justice, political
legitimacy and human flourishing that sought to realize human
dignity, flourishing or well -being en tirely independent of human
rights.” Then Magna Carta (1215) was related to General Charter of
Rights. The statue of Kalisz (1264) gave privileges to the Jewish
minority in the Kingdom of Poland. In 1525, in Germany, the
Peasants put their ‘Twelve Articles ’i . ed e m a n d st o w a r d st h e
‘Swabian League’ in the German peasant’s war. In Britain in 1683,
the English ‘Bill of Rights’ or Act Declaring the Rights and Liberties
of the Subject and settling the ‘Succession of the Crown’ and the
Scottish Claim of Right eac h made illegal a range of oppressive
governmental actions.
Next traces of human rights found in the revolutions of 1776
(American Revolution) and 1789, French Revolution leading to the
adoption of the United States Declaration of Independence and the
Fren ch Declaration of Rights of Man and of the Citizen respectively
both of which established certain legal rights. Additionally, the
Virginia Declaration of Rights of 1776, encoded into law a number
of fundamental civil rights and civil freedoms. These were t hen
followed by developments in philosophy of human rights by
philosophers such as Thomas Paine, John Stuart Mill and G.W.F
Hegel during 18thand 19thcenturies. The term human rights
probably came into use sometime between Paine's ‘The Rights of
Man’ and William Lloyd Garrison’s 1831 writings in ‘The Liberator’
in which he stated that he was trying to enlist his readers in ‘the
great cause of human rights’.munotes.in
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26In the 19thcentury human rights became a central concern
over the issue of ‘slavery’ . In Britain William Wilberforce worked
towards it and the result was that Britain passed Slave Trade
Act,1807 and ‘Slavery Abolition Act, 1833. In America Northen
States already abolished slavery and Southern states did it later. In
the 20thcentury we fi nd many such human rights movements in one
form or another such as labour unions and their rights for labour in
North America. The Women’s rights movements also were started
in many countries. In India Mahatma Gandhi’s movement to free
the natives and Dr.B .R.Ambedkar’s movement of liberation of
Depressed Classes within Hindu Community are also noteworthy
so far as the Human Rights are concerned.
The establishment of the ‘International Committee’ of the
Red Cross the 1864 ‘Lieber Code and the first of the ‘ Geneva
Conventions’ in 1864 laid the foundations of ‘International
Humanitarian Law’. The huge losses of human life and gross
abuses of human rights that took place during World Wars
developed the modern human rights instruments. The League of
Nations was established in 1919 and its goals included
disarmament, preventive war through collective security, settling
disputes between countries through negotiation and diplomacy and
improving global welfare. Enshrined in its Charter was a mandate to
promote many o f the rights later included in the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights.
At the 1945 Yalta Conference, the Allied powers agreed to
create a new body i.e United Nations that now make up
international humanitarian law and international human rights law.
Check Your Progress:
1.According to Prof Herald Laski what is rights?
2.What is Hamurabi's codes?munotes.in
Page 27
272.2.2 Philosophy of Human Rights:
The philosophy of the human rights attempts to examine the
underlying basis of the concept of human rights (which have
already discussed in 10.2) and critically looks at its content and
jurisdiction. Several theoretical approaches have been advanced to
explain law and why human rights have became a part of social
expectations.
One of the Western philosophies o fh u m a nr i g h t si st h a tt h e y
are a product of a natural law, stemming from different
philosophical or religious grounds. Other theories hold that human
rights codify moral behavior which is a human social product
developed by a process of biological and soc ial evolution as held
by David Hume. Human rights are also described as a sociological
pattern of rule setting as theorized by Max Weber. These
approaches include the notion that individuals in a society accept
rules from legitimate authority in exchange f or security and
economic advantage as according to John Rawls as a ‘Social
Contract’.
The two theories that dominate contemporary human rights
discussion are the 'Interest theory' and the 'Will theory'. Interest
theory argues that the principal function o fh u m a nr i g h t si st o
protect and promote certain essential human interests, while Will
theory attempts to establish the validity of human rights based on
the unique human capacity for freedom.
2.2.3 Classification of Human Rights:
Human rights can be cla ssified and organized in a number of
different ways. At an international level the most common
categorization of human rights has been to split them into civil and
political rights and economic, social and cultural rights.
Civil and Political Rights are e nshrined in Articles 3 to 21 of
the ‘Universal Declaration of Human Rights’ (UDHR) and in the
‘International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR).
Economic, social and cultural rights are enshrined in articles 22 to
28 of the Universal Declaratio no fH u m a nR i g h t s( U D H R )a n di nt h e
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
(ICESCR).munotes.in
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28Karel Vasak categorized the human rights intothree generations.
i)First –generation civil and political rights (right to life and
political parti cipation).
ii)Second –generation economic, social and cultural rights (right
to subsistence)and
iii)Third –generation solidarity rights (right to peace, right to clean
environment).
Out of these three generations the third generation is the most
debated a nd lacks both legal and political recognition.
2.2.4 Development of Human Rights:
Before we study Universal Declaration of Human Rights we
have to know certain documents declaring rights of man such as
Magna Carta, Bill of Rights, US Declaration of Indep endence,
French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.
2.2.4.1 The Magna Carta,1215: -
The Magna Carta was issued on 15 June, 1215 also called
Magna Carta Libertatum or the Great Charter of the Liberties of
England originally in Latin and tr anslated into vernacular French as
early as 1219 and later on it was modified by time to time. The
1215 charter required King John of England to proclaim certain
liberties and accept that his will was not arbitrary. For example by
explicitly accepting that no ‘freeman’ (non -serf) could be punished
except through the law of the land, a right which is still in existence
inEngland.
2.2.4.2 The Bill of Rights,1689: -
The Bill of Rights or the Bill of Rights 1688 is an Act of the
Parliament of England passed o n1 6D e c e m b e r1 6 8 9 .T h i sl a y s
down limits on the powers of sovereign and sets out the rights of
Parliament and rules for freedom of speech in Parliament, the
requirement to regular elections to Parliament and the right to
petition the monarch without fear of retribution. It reestablished the
liberty of the protestants to have arms for their defence within the
rule of law as Papists were both armed and employed contrary to
law.munotes.in
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292.2.4.3 US Declaration of Independence,1776: -
The Declaration of Independen ce was a statement adopted
by the continental Congress on July 4,1776 which announce that
the 13 American Colonies, then at war with Great Britain regarded
themselves as independent states and no longer a part of the
British Empire. It contained that all m en are created equal that they
are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that
among these are Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. This view
was notably promoted by Abraham Lincoln, who considered the
Declaration to be the foundation o f his political philosophy and
argued that the Declaration is a statement of principles through
which the United States Constitution should be interpreted. It has
worked for the rights of marginalized people throughout theworld.
2.2.4.4 The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the
Citizen,1793: -
It is a fundamental document of the French Revolution
defining the individual and collective rights of all the estates of the
realm as universal. Influenced by the doctrine of ‘natural right’, the
rights of man are held to be universal. It was adopted during the
French Revolution in 1789, but after modifications it was adopted in
1793. This declaration is in the spirit of natural law which does not
base itself on religious doctrine or authority. According to thi s, ‘Men
are born and remain free and equal in rights. And hence, the role of
government is to recognize and secure these rights. They are
liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression.
Check Your Progress:
1.Name two theories that dominate contem porary human rights
discussion?
2.What is Magna Carta?munotes.in
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302.3 THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN
RIGHTS (UDHR)
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a
declaration adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on
10thDecember, 1948 in Paris. The Declaration arose directly from
experience of the World War II and represents first global
expression of rights for human being. The provisions of this UDHR
subsequently followed and adopted by various constitu tions and
legal systems of the world. The International Bill of Rights consists
of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International
Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and the
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights an di t st w o
optional protocols. In 1966, the General Assembly adopted the two
detailed covenants, which complete the International Bill of Human
Rights; and in 1976 after the Covenants had been ratified by a
sufficient number of individual nations, the Bill took on the force of
International law.
The authorship of this Declaration is credited to John Peters
Humphrey (Canada), Rene Cassin(France), Stephane Hessel
(France), P.C.Chang (China), Charles Malik (labanon), Eleanor
Roosevert(U.S) and others.
2.3.1 Background of UDHR, 1948:
During the World War II the allied powers adopted the Four
Freedoms i.e speech, assembly, freedoms from fear and freedom
from want as their basic war aims. The United Nations Charter
reaffirmed faith in fundamental human rights an dd i g n i t ya n dw o r t h
of the human rights and committed all member states to promote
universal respect for and observance of human rights and
fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex,
language or religion.
When the atrocities committ ed by Nazi Germany on Jews
became apparent after the World War II, the consensus within the
world community was that the UN Charter did not sufficiently define
the rights it referenced. A Universal Declaration that specified the
rights of individuals was n ecessary to give effect to the Charter’s
provision on human rights.munotes.in
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312.3.2 Making of UDHR:
Canadian expert John Peters Humphrey was the main
drafter to the UDHR and Director of UN secretariat and division of
Human Rights. The Commission on Human Rights a standing body
of the UN, was constituted to undertake the work of preparing what
was initially conceived as an International Bill of Rights. The
membership of the commission was designed to be broadly
representative of the global community with representat ive of the
countries like Australia, Belgium, Chile, China, Egypt, France, India,
Iran, Lebanon, Panama, Philippines, UK, US, USSR, Uruguay and
Yugoslavia. Among above authors John Humphrey provided the
initial draft which became the working text of the Commission.
2.3.3 Member Countries to Vote for UDHR:
The UDHR was adopted by the General Assembly on 10
December, 1948 by a vote of 49 in favour and zero against with 8
countries abstained from it such as USSR, Ukrainian SSr,
Byelorussian SSR, Yugoslavia, Poland, South Africa,
Czechoslovakia and Saudi Arabia.
Despite the central role played by Canadian John Humphrey
the Canadian Government at first abstained from voting on the
Declaration’s draft, but later voted in favour of the final draft in the
General Assembly.
2.3.4 Provisions of the UDHR:
This UDHR has 30 Article starting with Preamble to it.
Preamble:
THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY proclaims THISUNIVERSAL
DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS as a common standard of
achievement for all peoples and all nations t ot h ee n dt h a te v e r y
individual and every organ of society, keeping this Declaration
constantly in mind, shall strive by teaching and education to
promote respect for these rights and freedoms and by progressive
measures, national and international to secu re their universal and
effective recognition andobservance, both among thepeoples of
Member States themselves and among the peoples of territories
under their jurisdiction.munotes.in
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322.3.4.1 Major Provisions of Articles to UDHR: Article1:
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and
rights. They are endured with reason and conscience and should
act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
Article 2:
Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in
this Declaration, without di stinction of any kind, such as race,
colour, se, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or
social origin, property, birth or other status. Furthermore, no
distinction shall be made on the basis of the political, jurisdictional
or internat ional status of the country or territory to which a person
belongs. Whether it be independent, trust, non -self-governing or
under any other limitation of sovereignty
Article 3:
Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person.
Article 4:
No one shall be held in slavery and the Slave Trade shall be
prohibited in all their forms.
Article 5:
No one shall be subjected to torture or go cruel, inhuman or
degrading treatment or punishment
Article 6:
Everyone has the right to recognition every where as a
person before the law.
Article 7:
All are equal before the law and are entitled without any
discrimination to equal protection of the law.
Article 8:
Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by the
competent national tribunal for acts v iolating the fundamental rights
granted him by the constitution or by law.munotes.in
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33Article 9:
No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile.
Article 10:
Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public hearing by an
independent and impartial tribunal, in the determination of his rights
and obligations and of any criminal charge against him.
Article 11:
(1)Everyone charged with a penal offence has the right to be
presumed innocent until proved guilty according to law in a public
trial at which he has had all the guarantees necessary for his
defense.
(2)No one shall be held guilty of any penal offence on account of
any act or omission which did not constitute a penal offence, under
national or international law, at the time when it was co mmitted. Nor
shall a heavier penalty be imposed that the one that was applicable
at the time the penal offence was committed.
Article 12:
No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his
privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his
honour and reputation. Everyone has the right to the protection of
the law against such interference or attacks.
Article 13:
(1)Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence
within the borders of each state.
(2)Everyone has the right to leave any country including his own,
and to return to his own country.
Article 14:
(1)Everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other countries
asylum from persecution.
(2)This right may not be invoked in the case of prosecutions
genuinely arising from n on-political crimes or from acts contrary
to the purposes and principles of the United Nations.munotes.in
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34Article 15:
(1)Everyone has the right to a nationality.
(2)No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality nor
denied the right to change his nationality.
Article 16:
(1)Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race,
nationality or religion have the right to marry and to found a
family. They are entitled to equal rights as to marriage, during
marriage and its dissolution.
(2)Marriage shall be ent ered into only with the free and full consent
of the intending spouses.
(3)The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society
and is entitled to protection by society and state.
Article 17:
(1)Everyone has the right to own property alone as well a si n
association with others.
(2)No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property.
Article 18:
Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience
and religion, this right includes freedom to change his religion or
belief, and freedom, either alon eo ri nc o m m u n i t yw i t ho t h e r sa n di n
public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching,
practice, worship and observance.
Article 19:
Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and
expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinion sw i t h o u t
interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas
through any media and regardless of frontiers.
Article 20:
(1)Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and
association.
(2)No one may be compelled to belong to an associ ation.munotes.in
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35Article 21:
(1)Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his
country, directly or through freely chosen representatives.
(2)Everyone has the right of equal access to public service in his
country.
(3)The will of the people shall be th e basis of the authority of
government: this will be expressed in periodic and genuine
elections which shall be by universal and equal suffrage and
shall be held by secret vote or by equivalent free voting
procedures.
Article 22:
Everyone , as a member o f society, has the right to social
security and is entitled to realization through national effort and
international co -operation and in accordance with the organization
and resources of each state, of the economic, social and cultural
right indispensable for his dignity and the free development of his
personality.
Article 23:
(1)Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment,
to just and favorable conditions of work and to protection
against unemployment.
(2)Everyone without any discrimination h as the right to equal pay
for equal work.
(3)Everyone who works has the right to and favorable
remuneration ensuring for himself and his family an existence
worthy of human dignity and supplemented if necessary by
other means of social protection.
(4)Everyone ha st h er i g h tt of o r ma n dt oj o i nt r a d eu n i o n sf o rt h e
protection of his interests.
Article 24:
Everyone has the right to rest and leisure including
reasonable limitation of working hours and periodic holidays with
pay.
Article 25:
(1)Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the
health and well -being of himself and of his family including food,
clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social servicesmunotes.in
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36and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sick ness,
disability, widow hood, old age or other lack of livelihood in
circumstances beyond his control.
(2)Motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care and
assistance. All children whether born in act of wedlock, shall enjoy
the same social protection .
Article 26:
(1)Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free at
least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary
education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional
education shall be made generally available and higher educ ation
shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit.
(2)Education shall be directed to the full development of the
human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human
rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding,
tolerance and friend ship among all nations, racial or religious
groups, and shall further the activities of the United Nations for the
maintenance of peace.
(3)Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that
shall be given to their children.
Article 27:
(1)Everyone has the right to freely participate in cultural life of the
community, to enjoy the arts and to shake in scientific advancement
and its benefits.
(2)Everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and
material interests resulting fr om any scientific, literacry or artistic
production of which he is the author.
Article 28:
Everyone is entitled to a social and international order in
which the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration can be
fully realized.
Article 29:
(1)Everyon e has duties to the communities in which alone the
free and full development of his personality is possible.
(2)In the exercise of his rights and freedoms everyone shall be
subject only to such limitations as are determined by law
solely for the purpose of se curing due recognition and respect
for the rights and freedoms of others and of meeting the just
requirements of morality, public order and the general welfare
in a democratic society.munotes.in
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37(3)These rights and freedoms may in no case be exercised
contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations.
Article 30:
Nothing in this Declaration may be interpreted as implying
for any State, group or person any right to engage in any activity or
to perform any act aimed at the destruction of any of the rights and
freedoms set forth herein.
10thDecember is known as ‘Human Rights Day’ or
‘International Human Rights Day’.
The Guiness Book of World Records describes UDHR as the
‘Most Translated Document in the World’.
Check Your Progress:
1.Who is the main author of Universal Declaration of Human
Rights?
2.When is the Human Rights day observed?
2.4 HUMAN RIGHTS CONSTITUTENTS TO
FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS OF INDIAN CITIZEN
When we look at the Universal Declaration of Human Rights,
we find that it has influenced the Fundamental Rights enshrined in
the Indian Constitution. Our Fundamental Rights have been
included in the Part II of our Constitution and have the influence of
following document.
i)The Bill of Rights of British Parliament(1688).
ii)American Rev olution,1776.
iii)Declaration of Rights of Man, French Revolution,1789.
iv)Bill of Rights of the American Constitution,1791.
v)Motilal Nehru Report, 1928and
vi)Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948(UN).munotes.in
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38The founding father of our Constitutions first studied many
world constitutions before making the provisions so the
fundamental rights reflects the provisions of Human Rights, natural
rights etc. provided in the world.
There were seven Fundamental Rights provided in 1950 i.e
i) Right to Equality
ii)Right to Liberty
iii)Right against Exploitation
iv)Right to Freedom of Religion
v)Cultural and Educational Rights
vi)Right to Property and
vii)Right to Constitutional Remedies.
The Right to Property was repealed by the 44th
Constitutional Amendment Act, 1978. The Fundamental Rights of
Indian Constitution falls between the articles 14 to 35. These rights
are discussed as below:
2.4.1 Right to Equality (Articles14 -18):
Article 14:
It states that the State cannot deny to any person equality
before law or the equal protection of law withi nt h et e r r i t o r yo ft h e
Indian Union.
Article 15:
The State cannot discriminate on grounds of religion, race,
caste, sex, descent, place of birth, residence or on any other
ground.
Article 16:
According to this article, there is equality of opportu nity in the
matter of public employment and prevent discrimination on grounds
of religion, race, caste, sex, descent place of birth, residence or on
any other ground. The sub -clause(4) provides that nothing in that
article would prevent the State from maki ng any law for the
reservation of jobs for the Backward Classes and Caste.munotes.in
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39Article 17:
This article provides for the abolition of hateful practice of
untouchability and declares practice of untouchability in any form as
crime.
Article 18:
It provides the restrictions to accept any award or position or
conditional award from any foreign country.
2.4.2 Right to Liberty (Right to Freedom) (Articles 19 to22)
Article 19 makes the provision of various kinds of freedoms for
Indian citizens. They are six basic freedoms namely:
i) Freedom of Speech and Expression.
ii)Freedom of Assembly peacefully and without arms.
iii)Freedom to form associations and unions.
iv)Freedom to move freely within the territory of India.
v)Freedom to reside and settle in any part of the territo ry of
Republic of India.
vi)Freedom to carry on any business, trade or occupation within
the territory of India.
The provision of right to freedom is similar to the civil rights
granted by most of the democratic countries of Western Europe
and North America. However, the Constitution does not guarantee
absolute individual rights. Indeed no state can or has guaranteed
absolute individual freedom. Therefore, this guarantee of each of
the rights is reasonably limited by the Constitution by empowering
state to im pose reasonable restrictions as may be necessary in the
interest of social harmony, internal peace, national security and law
andorder.
Article 20:
This provides a fair chance to the guilty to prove himself and
accordingly be punished if proven guilty n ot more or less.
Article 21:
Without the due process of law one cannot be deprived of his life or
individual freedom.munotes.in
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40Article 21 A:
As per the 86thConstitutional Amendment Act, 2002 this
article was added and it provided that State shall provide free and
compulsory education to the children between age 6 -14 years.
Article 22:
No person could be arrested without any crime and warrant stating
his crime should be showed to him by the legal authority.
2.4.3 Right against Exploitation (Article 23 -24):Article23:
This article prohibits traffic in human being and beggar
(forced labour) or bonded labour or servitude on any ground. Any
act contrary to this provision would be an offence punishable by
law.
Article 24:
This prohibits any child below 14 years of age to work (child
labour) in any factory or mines or at any other dangerous job.
2.4.4 Right to Freedom of Religion (Article 25 -28): Article25:
This deals with freedom of conscience and makes provision
for practice and propagation of one’s own religi on.
Article 26:
Provides for freedom to manage religious affairs and
institutions by a community.
Article 27:
This says that no person shall be compelled to be a member
of any religious association or incur any penalty or religious tax on
the ground of his caste, creed or religion.
Article 28:
This prevents the imparting of religious instructions in any
educational institution which is wholly maintained out of State
funds.munotes.in
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412.4.5 Cultural and Educational Rights (Article 29 -30): Article29:
This ensure s that every community in India shall have the
right to propagate and preserve its own language, script, literature
and culture. All religious and linguistic minorities have been
ensured a right to establish and administer their educational
institutions ma intain and manage them and receive state grant on
the equal basis. Similarly, no citizen can be denied admission into
state maintained or state aided educational institutions on the
ground of religion, race, caste or language.
Article 30:
This provision highlights the importance which the framers of
the Constitution attached to secular character of the state and the
desirability of secularism permeating different spheres of our
national life. The article also ensures to the minorities of India that
specia l safeguards have been provided to protect their interests
andculture.
2.4.6 Right to Property (Article31):
The Constitution originally provided for three fold provision
for safeguarding the right to private property. It not only guaranteed
the right to private property but also conferred the right to enjoy and
dispose of property (Act -19(f)).
vii)It guaranteed to every citizen the right to acquire any property
by any lawful means.
viii)The Constitution guaranteed that no person should be
deprived of his proper ty save by the Authority of Law
(Article31(1)).
ix)The Constitution enjoys that if the State wants to acquire the
private property of an individual or to requisition i.e to take it
over, it can do so only on two conditions.
a)That the acquisition or requisition is for a public purpose.
b)That when such a law is passed, it must provide for payment
of an amount to the owner as compensation for the acquisition or
requisition of the property by the state.munotes.in
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42However, in keeping with the goal of Welfare Stat ea n dt h e
establishment of egalitarian society, the Right to Private Property
was abolished by 44thConstitutional Amendment Act, 1978.
2.4.7 Right to Constitutional Remedies (Article32 -35):
Article32:
The Constitution not only grants basic rights to the citizens of
India but also makes a provision for the protection and continued
enjoyment of these rights. It consists of the prerogative writs which
the Superior Courts issue under their power to review to establish
the rule of law. These rights guarantee j udicial protection to the
Fundamental Rights enumerated in Part III of the Constitution.
Under this right, a citizen can file such writs as below:
x)Habeas Corpus: Court orders the custodians of law to
present a person in court if he is unlawfully detained.
xi)Mandamus: It is an order issued by a superior court to
compel a lower court or a government officer to perform
mandatory or purely ministerial duties correctly.
xii)Prohibition: Issued by a superior court to the lower court to
prevent it from exceeding its jurisdiction in cases pending
before it or acting contrary to the rules of natural justice.
xiii)Certiorari: It is a type of writ seeking judicial review and other
law, meaning an order by a higher court directing a lower court,
tribunal or public authority to send the record in a given case
review.
xiv)Quo warranto: It is a prerogative writ requiring the person to
whom it is directed to show what authority they have for exercising
some right or power they claim to hold.
Check Your Progress:
1.Explain the freedom of Religion.
2.What is Habeas Corpus?munotes.in
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432.5SUMMARY
In the above discussion we have come to understand the
meaning, concept of human rights which are inalienable or natural
or of natural justice and found in many countries of the world. We
have Constitution of England (1688) and Bill of Rights, American
Constitution (1776), French Revolution (1789) and Universal
Declaration of Human Rights, 1948. At present, there are more
than 200 member nation of United Nations General Assembly.
They all have t o follow the Human Rights Provisions enshrined in
the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The Indian Constitution
also have included the Fundamental Rights which are the direct
constituents of Human Rights.
2.6EXERCISE
1.Explain the concept of Human Rights.
2.Discuss the importance of the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights,1948.
3.Comment ont h eH u m a nR i g h t s Constituents toFundamental
Rights of Indian Constitution.
4.Write short notes
i)Four premises of Political Democracy.
ii)Philosophy of Human Rights.
iii)Right to Liberty.
iv)Right to Constitutional Remedies.
munotes.in
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44Unit -3
ECOLOGY
Unit structure
3.0Objectives
3.1Concept of Ecology and Environment
3.1.1 Meaning and definition of ecology
3.1.2 Scope and principles of ecology
3.1.3 Meaning, definition and components of Environment
3.2Ecosystems
3.2.1 Structure (components) and functions of ecosystems
3.2.2 Food chains and food webs and ecological pyramids
3.2.3 Environmental degradation
3.2.4 Forms of environmental degradation
3.2.5 Causes of environmental degradation
3.2.6 Impact of environmental degradation on human life
3.3Sustainable development
3.3.1 Concept of sustainable development
3.3.2 Components of sustainable development
3.4Summary
3.5 Exercise
3.0OBJECTIVES
To understand and distinguish between the concepts of ecology
and environment and their components
To create awareness regarding the catastrophes caused by
environmental degradation
To generate sensitivity towards the issues and concerns
regarding environment
To build the understanding regarding theconcept of
sustainable development.
3.1 THE CONCEPT OFECOLOGY AND
ENVIRONMENT
Man has been taking keen interest in his surrounding and for
that matter his environment in a practical sense since his evolution.
His matter of survival was dependent on his understanding of themunotes.in
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45natural forces, the flora and fauna surrounding him. Civiliz ation and
settled agriculture further strengthened his relationship with
environment as he started modifying and controlling the forces of
nature. However it is important to understand the concepts of
environment ecology or eco systems which are loosely us ed
interchangeably or as substitutes of each other. Where as they
differ in their scope and mechanism.
3.1.1 Meaning and definition of Ecology:
The science of ecology has had a gradual development
through history. The reference to this concept is found in the
writings of Aristotle and other philosophers of Greek period.
The term ecology was first proposed by a German Biologist
Ernest Hackel in 1866. The word is derived from two Greek words
‘Oikos’ that means house, a place to live and logos i.e. the study of.
Therefore ecology is a study of organisms at home. Ecology is
mainly concerned with the biological connections and processes of
organisms, land, water etc. It can be referred as the scientific study
of the interac tions that determine the distribution and abundance of
organism.
According to Webster’s dictionary “ecology is the totality or
patterns of relations between organisms and their environment”.
For E. Hackel “It is the science of relation between organisms and
their environment”.
Taylor defined ecology as “the science of all the relations of
all the organisms in relation to all the environments”
According to the United States Council on Environmental
Quality, “ecology is the science of the intricate web of relationships
between living organisms and their non -living surroundings.
Hence it is imperative to understand and differentiate the
concept of ecology with reference to environment or the
components of ecosystem.
3.1.2 Scope and principle of ecology:
Scope of ecology:
Ecology is a multidisciplinary science. Because of its focus
on higher levels of the organization of life on earth and on the
interrelations between organisms and their environment, ecology
draws heavily on many other branches of science , especially
geology, geography, meteorology, climatology genetics, chemistry,
physics, biology, maths and now even computer science.munotes.in
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46Ecologists aim to explain the distribution, life processes and
adaptations amongst the organisms. Further it tries to ana lyse the
movement of energy flow and successive growth and development
of organisms. It tries to comprehend the nature of biodiversity and
its complexity.
Along with understanding the interrelation and
interdependence of the organisms, ecologists are also concerned
about manner in which manipulation and misuse of non -living
organisms by human population is taking place, ruining the
balance.
Principles of ecology:
All living organisms and their environment are mutually
reactive, affecting each other in various ways. Animal
population, flora and fauna (vegetation) are interdependent
throughout the environment.
Components in ecology are dynamic and works as a sieve (to
perforate) selecting organism for growth and others fordecay.
The species maintain unifo rmity in structure, function,
reproduction, growth and development by preservation of its
genetic pool.
Modification in the organisms of ecology takes place through
growth, dispersal, reproduction, death and decay.
Under similar climatic conditions there m ay be simultaneous
development of more than one community and some of which
may even reach their climax or critical stage.
3.1.3 Meaning and definition of Environment:
The term environment is derived from French word
“environs” meaning around, encircle o r encompass. And hence the
term environment in short can be used for surrounding.
Environment can also be referred as the totality of all the
externalities that affect human life. In broader perspective
environment consists of human, social, political, eco nomic and
physical environment.
Webster’s ninth new college dictionary defines environment
as the “circumstances, objects or conditions by which one is
surrounded”.
The Encyclopedia Britannica defines environment as the
entire range of external influence acting on an organism both
physical and biological”.munotes.in
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47
Components of environment
Human
(Manmade)NaturalIt can also be defined as the “surrounding in which
organisation operates including air, water, land and natural
resources, flora and fauna, humans and their inter relations”.
In nutshell environment co mprises of all the biotic, abiotic,
natural and human components defining the form and survival of
each in a given system at a given time or over a period of time.
Components of environment:
Broadly speaking, components of environment can be classified in
to two
a)Natural and
b)Human (manmade) Figure11.1
Lithosphere (land)
Astrosphere (man made)
Hydrosphere(water)
Atmosphere(air)
Biosphere (flora/fauna/microbes)
Natural environment -:
1.Lithosphere: It is the solid rocky crust covering the entire
planet. It is inorganic and composed of minerals. It consists of
Continents , mountains and ocean floor, which makes up 29% of the
earth’s surface.
2.Hydrosphere: It is composed of all the water on and around the
earth. It includes all the oceans, lakes, rivers, ponds and streams
on the earth. It covers 71% of the earth’s surface o f which 97% is in
the oceans. Only 3% is fresh water which includes the solid ice
sheets as well as liquid form in the rivers and ponds.
3.Atmosphere: The atmosphere is the layer of gases surrounding
the earth’s surface. It consists of 78% of Nitrogen, 21% of Oxygen,
0.03%carbon dioxide and other gases. The atmosphere helps to
maintain the temperature near the surface by absorbing the
dangerous ultraviolet rays coming from solar radiation.munotes.in
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484.Biosphere: This component comprise of living or non living
organisms, flora and fauna, plants and animal species including
one-cell organisms. They all are vital to maintain the energy flow
via eco -cycles, food webs and food chains (discussed in the
following sections) and thus maintain the balance innature.
Man-made envir onment -:
Anthrosphere: The part of environment made, modified, or used
by humans for their activity is called Anthrosphere. The entire
infrastructure made by humans by using the natural components of
theenvironment canbeconsidered as ap a r t ofAnthrosp here. For
e.g. buildings made with the use of wood, cement or water. Even
an ocean -going ship used to ship goods made in the factory.
Check your progress
1)Explain the concept of ecology with reference to its scope and
principles.
2)Classify environment as its natural and man -made components.
3.2ECOSYSTEMS
The term ecosystem was coined in 1930 by Roy Clapham to
mean the combined physical and biological components of the
environment. Ecosystem is the integrated study of biotic and abiotic
components of the environment and their interaction within the
given ecosystem framework.
An ecosystem is a biologi cal environment consisting of all
the organisms living in a particular area, as well as all the nonliving
(abiotic) or physical components of the environment with which the
organisms interact, such as air, soil, water and sunlight.
Hence ecosystem can be defined as functional unit
comprising all the organisms in a particular place interacting with
one another and with their environment, interconnected by an
ongoing flow of energy and a cycling of materials. For e.g. Marine
or aquatic ecosystem will include all the species of organisms, their
lifecycles and their interconnectedness with each other and with
marine environment below the sea.munotes.in
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493.2.1 Structure and functions of ecosystem:
The ecosystem is broadly divided into physical or abiotic
ecosystem comprisi ng of soil, water, sunlight, climate, minerals etc
and biotic or living eco systems where plants, animals,
microorganisms form a system of survival and interdependence.
Biotic components are further divided into four parts i.e.
Figure 3.2
1.Producers/ Autotrophes -They are self nourishing organisms
who make their own food in the presence of sunlight with the
process of photosynthesis. for e.g. Green plants.
2.Primary consumers /Hetrotrophes -The consu mers are
directly or indirectly dependant on the producers for the food. They
are further classifieds:
a)Herbivores dependent on green plants or grass for e.g. cow or
rabbit.
b)Carnivores -Those animals who consume herbivores. For e.g.
tiger or lion
c)Omnivores -Those species who consume both plants as well as
animals. For. e.g.Humans.
11. Micro consumers /Detritivores -The species that feed on
dead animals or dead organic matter. For e.g. eagle
4. Decomposers -They are small living beings such as bacteria ,
fungi or insects. They break down the complex compound and
dead material and release nutrients in the soil. This nourishment
from the soil then transfers to the plants and the cycle gets
completed.munotes.in
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50
Functions of ecosystem:
It helps to maintain the energy flow in the components of the
environment through cycles, food chains and food webs.
It maintains the energy cycles, nutrient cycle and biochemical
cycles in the environment
It helps to maintain the diversity of the species through the
process of evolution, adaptation and extinction.
3.2.2 Food chains, food webs and energy pyramids:
The movement of organic matter from the producer level
through various consumer levels by the process of eating and being
eaten is called food c hain. In the process of photosynthesis, in the
presence of sun, producers produce food, which is consumed by
heterotrophic especially the herbivores who are further consumed
by carnivores or omnivores. Detritivores and decomposers then
release energy in th ef o r mo fn u t r i e n t sb yf e e d i n go nt h ed e a d
animals or dead organic matter. With these nutrients plants grow in
the soil resulting in a complete energy or nutrient cycle. This is
called the food chain.
Fore.g.Sun Grass grasshopper/ Snakes/ Hawk/
Rabbit Wolf Bacteria
Figure 3.3
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51Food webs:
In many cases the food chains of the ecosystems do not
exist as individual units. They overlap and interconnect, forming
what are known as food webs. In nature there are several food
webs interlinked and existing at the same time in different habitats.
The differe nt food chains that of varying lengths, those that form
loops and others that branch out into a network together create
food webs or the webs of life within ecosystems.
For instance in the chain mentioned above, hawk might
directly decompose the grasshopp er or bacteria might consume
rabbit without waiting for the wolf to consume the rabbit. Here is an
example of interlinked food chains. i.e. a food web.
Figure 3.4
Energy Pyramids:
An ecological pyramid also known as tropical pyramid or
energy pyramid is a graphical presentation designed to show the
biomass productivity at each tropical level in a given ecosystem.
Biomass is the amount of living organic matter present in the
organism. At the bottom of the pyra mid is producers and
decomposers are at the top of the pyramid. As one goes higher the
biomass in an ecological pyramid reduces due to release of energy
and nutrients at each level
munotes.in
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52Figure 3.5
Check your progress
1)Explain the concept of eco-system.
2)Discuss the structure and functions of eco-system.
3)Write a short note on food chains, food webs and energy
pyramids.
3.3 ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION
As mentioned earlier men started using and modifying
environment as early as evolution of human civilization. But
gradually with the advent of industrial revolution, modifying the
environment turned into manipulation and misuse resulting in large
scale env ironmental destruction and degradation. Degradation
takes place when earth’s natural resources are depleted.
The environmental degradation can be defined as the
condition wherein the socio -economic, technological and
institutional activities of mankind re sults in the deterioration and
depletion of natural resources like air, water, soil, wildlife, forest etc.
In this process habitats are lost, bio diversity is destroyed, and
species become endangered or extinct and survival becomes
difficult.munotes.in
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533.3.1 Forms of environmental degradation:
The major forms in which environment has been degraded
due to human activities are deforestation, desertification, emission
(pollution), erosions and extinction. Some of these forms are
discussed here.
1.Deforestation -:Destroying or damaging the forests in the
ecosystem is known as deforestation. With increasing population
there was an urgent need for land for agricultural and production
purpose. The forest cover in India has been lost up to 367 sq.km. in
two year between 2007 -2009. Forest is a natural habitat and
source of livelihood for thousand of animal and human species.
When forest is cut, these species tend to get endangered, soil gets
eroded and the atmosphere and rainfall pattern gets affected
adversely.
2.Deserti fication -:Desertification is the expansion of desert land
in the non desert areas. Deforestation and over grazing results
drought and floods, when soil loses its water holding capacity
resulting in expansion of deserts. Similarly excessive use of
chemical fertilizers in the fertile lands, also make the soil arid and
transforms the previously fertile land into deserts.
3. Emission and Pollution -:Emission is the process of releasing
chemicals or hazardous substances including poisonous gases.
Emission caus es different types of pollution like air pollution, water
pollution, soil pollution etc. Excessive emission of carbon dioxide,
carbon monoxide and other gases can result in global warming,
which is a major threat to earth’s environment
4.Erosion -:Erosion i s the phenomena where the upper most
layer or the surface of the land is worn out or lost. As mentioned
earlier cutting down of the trees prevents holding of the flowing
water resulting in land surface in the area getting washed away.
This form of degradat ion can cause a severe threat to the food
production leading to food shortage and famine.
5.Extinction -:There is a natural process of species evolution and
decay but with human intervention the process of species getting
extinct has intensified. Species ge tting extinct or even endangered
(existing in small numbers) can affect the food chain and food web
adversely and disturbing the balance in the ecosystem. For e.g. if
the frogs decrease in number mosquito population will multiply
leading to diseases like m alaria or yellow fever.
3.3.2 Causes of Environmental degradation:
1.Industrialization and economic development -The industrial
revolution that began in England in 17thcentury has gradually
intensified the misuse and abuse of natural resources. Profitmunotes.in
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54oriented economy and consumerism has further damaged the
environment. The policy of use and throw creates a huge industrial
and environmentally hazardous waste. Economy is mounting at the
cost of ecology. The major concerns are pollution and scarcity of
natural resources.
2.Population explosion -The ever increasing population in
developing or third world countries is a major cause of
environ mental degradation. Population explosion results in
increasing demands and pressure on land, scarcity of resources
and crises like water or fresh air, less availability of land for
agriculture or residence, large scale cutting down of forests to meet
the d emands of the population.
3. Commercial agriculture and farm mechanisation -Increasing
population leads to increase in demands for food grains and other
crops. To meet this demand mechanized and commercial farming
is the only solution. It includes use of artificial irrigation, hybrid
seeds, pesticides, insecticides and chemical fertilizers which are
very harmful for the ecosystem of soil. This in turn expands the
desert land.
4. Urbanisation -Industrialization is always paired with
urbanisation. Use of au tomobiles, emergence and expansion of
slums, increasing use of plastic electronic gadgets all results in air
pollution and problems of dumping waste. Inefficient disposal of
waste is a threat to environment.
5. Development projects -Infrastructural development projects like
dams, bridges, railways or roadways all are built at the cost of
ecosystem in that area. All the projects lead to large scale
destruction of forest and fertile land leading to catastrophes like
earthquakes, floods or draughts. Unc ontrolled mining also affects
the land and ground water sources.
6. Government policies -Inefficient government machinery and
policies supporting the builders lobby have resulted in large scale
destruction of forests and land cover for logging and other a llied
activities.
3.3.3 Impact of environmental degradation on human life
1.Pollution -Emission of harmful gases causes air pollution.
Burning of fossil fuels like petrol and diesel had risen in urban India.
Inhaling polluted air has damaged the respirator y systems of
human beings and causing health scars like cancers, lung
infections, asthma, bronchitis etc. Water pollution is caused due to
release of chemicals from the industries and farmlands, making the
water un -potable for any use. Drinking this water can be fatal. Soilmunotes.in
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55contamination enters human body through food products and
vegetation affecting the nervous system and digestive systems
adversely.
2.Global warming -Increase in the global temperature near the
earth’s surface is termed as global warming. It is also known as
climate change. It is caused due to emission of green house gases
like carbon dioxide, chlorofluorocarbon (CFC), methane etc. Global
warming can have long term consequences like extreme weathers,
melting of glaciers leading to floods a nd depletion of fresh water
resources and marine life.
3. Ozone depletion and its effects -Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC)
are the major reason for depletion the ozone layer. This layer in the
atmosphere (24 Km thick above the stratosphere) is responsible for
preventing the harmful ultraviolet rays from solar radiation.
Depletion of this layer will enable those rays to directly attack the
human life on the earth causing serious damage including skin
cancers.
4.Acid rain -The emission of gases like sulfur dioxide and
nitrogen oxides from the automobiles when comes in the contact
with the atmosphere transforms into sulfuric acid and nitric acid
which results in acid rain. This rain is poisonous for forests, wildlife,
marine life and humans.
5.Loss of livelihood -Environment and eco systems as discussed
earlier are the sources of survival and livelihood for humans and
wild life. Degradation of anyone resource can have a long term
impact on the biotic components and organisms. Apart from
biodiversity getting extinct, h uman life also has ill effects. Forests
and marine life are sources of livelihood. Even water is the major
source of life. Development projects subsequently displace large
amount of human life whose end result is loss of livelihood and
poverty.
Check your progress
1)Discuss the various forms of environmental degradation.
2)Analyse the causes for environmental degradation.
3)What impact does environmental degradation have on human
life?munotes.in
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563.4SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
The term development is generally used to denote growth or
progress. However the term, particularly in last two centuries, has
become synonym to economic growth in terms of gross domestic
product or the per capita income of the nation. This definition has
created a rat race among st the nations to attain and retain
development goals. These goals are often contradictory to the idea
of preservation or sustenance of environment. In order to re -build
the harmonious relationship between man and nature, world
organizations like UN, has b egan the campaign to have a
sustainable development.
3.4.1 The Concept of Sustainable Development:
The most frequently used definition of Sustainable
development is from the Brundtland Report “Sustainable
development is the development that meets the needs of the
present (people) without compromising the ability of future
generation to meet their own needs”. In other words it is improving
the quality of life of the present generation without excessive use or
abuse of natural resources, so that they can be preserved for the
next generation.
The term was first coined in 1972 at the United Nations
Conference on Human Environment at Stockholm. The most
important piece of writing on Sustainable development is in the
publication by the World Commission on En vironment and
Development (WCED) in 1987 titled ‘Our Common Future”. In
1992 at the Earth summit at Rio -de-Janerio, 170 countries signed
many important documents on sustainable development pledging
preservation of environment.
Sustainable development is often referred as the marriage of
economy and ecology. i.e. to attain economic development without
compromising the ecological balance. It can be attained by rigorous
policy change, taking action and altering practices. There are three
aims of sustainable development: -
a)Economic -to attain balanced growth
b)Ecological -to preserve the ecosystem
c)Social -guarantying equal access to resources to all human
communities
The objective laid down in the Brundtland report is as follows
Dividing growth
Changing the quali ty of growthmunotes.in
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57Meeting essential needs of all in terms of job, food, energy,
water and sanitation.
Ensuring a sustainable population
Conserving and enhancing the resource base.
Reorienting technology, building technology that’s less
exploitative
Managin g environment and economics in decision -making.
Need for sustainable development:
There are several challenges that need attention in the
arena of economic development and environmental depletion.
Hence the idea of Sustainable development is essential to address
the following issues.
To curb or prevent the environmental degradation
To ensure a safe human life
To check the exploitative technology and find alternative
sources
To check the over exploitation and wastage of natural resources
To regenerate renewable energy resources
The concept of Sustainable development is based on following
principles
Integration of environment and economic decision
Stewardship or humans as the caretaker of the environment
Shared responsibility, accountability and decisio n-making
Prevention and mitigation
Conservation
Waste minimization
Enhancement of productivity, capability, quality of nature and
human life
Rehabilitation and reclamation
Scientific and technological innovations
3.4.2 Components of sustainable developmen t:
While discussing the components of sustainable development
different criteria have been used depending on the context and the
levels of decision making. The components are broadly divided into
three elements namely social, economic and environmental.munotes.in
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58EconomicSocialEnvironmentFigure 3.6
a)Social components -
Workers health and safety
Impact on local communities, quality of life
Benefits to disadvantaged groups
b)Economic components:
Creation for new markets and opportunities for sale growth
Cost reduction through efficiency and improvements and
reduced energy and raw material inputs
Creation of additional value
c)Environmental components:
Reduce waste, effluent generation, emission into environment
Reduce impact on human health
Use of renewable raw material
Elimination of toxic substances
Check your progress:
1)Explain the concept and the origin of sustainable
development.
2)What is the need for a sustainable approach?
3)Discuss the components of sustainable development.munotes.in
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593.5SUMMARY
Conclusion: Taking into consideration the principles and
components of sustainable development, every individual is sole
responsible and accountable for the use and misuse of his
resources. It is imperative that developed countries need to
immediately control it’s overexploitation of natural resources. As per
the environmentalist, the developed nation with 1/6thof world’s
population uses 5/6thof the resources that is far more than their fair
share of resources. No development can be ac cepted at the cost of
ecological imbalance Justifiable and stringent policy making and
implimentation is the only answer in tackling the ever expanding
environmental problems.
3.6 EXERCISE
1)Differentiate between the concepts of ecology and
environment. Explain the principles of ecology.
2)Discuss the causes and effects of environmental degradation.
3)Write a note on sustainable development.
munotes.in
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60Unit -4
UNDERSTANDING STRESS AND
CONFLICT
Unit Structure
4.0Objectives
4.1Introduction
4.2Definition and meaning of Stress
4.2.1 Body and stress
4.3Stress and General Adaptation Syndrome
4.4Causes of stress and conflict in individuals and society
4.5Agents of socialization
4.6Significance of Ethics, Values, and Prejudices i nd e v e l o p i n gt h e
individual
4.7Role of prejudices and stereotypes in developing of the
individual
4.8Aggression and Violence as the public expression of conflicts in
Society
4.9Summary
4.10Exercise
4.0 OBJECTIVES
To understand stress and conflict
To understand causes of stress and conflict in individual and
society
To explain agents of socialization
To understand the role of ethics and prejudices indeveloping
the individual
To examine the contribution of human values in individual
development
To study aggression and violence as its publicdisplay.
4.1INTRODUCTION
Today, life has become very fast and hence, tensions,
frustrations, conflicts, stress are common things of daily life.munotes.in
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61Therefore we must learn in detail about the orig in, causes, effects
and controlling measures for frustration, conflicts and stress. This
will give us an insight to see towards life with positive approach and
make us able to cope with these physical and psychological
problems.
4.2DEFINITION AND MEANIN G OF STRESS
Regardless of the season, regardless of the person,
everyone will, at some point in time, simply feel stressed. This
stress can come at any time and it can be either powerful or more
moderate. When we encounter stress, w ea l lh a v eo u ro w nw a y so f
dealing with it an attempting to get over it.
The term "stress", as it is currently used was coined by Hans
Selye in 1936, who defined it as "the non -specific response of the
body to any demand for change". Selye had noted in nu merous
experiments that laboratory animals subjected to acute but different
noxious physical and emotional stimuli (blaring light, deafening
noise, extremes of heat or cold, perpetual frustration) all exhibited
the same pathologic changes of stomach ulcera tions, shrinkage of
lymphoid tissue and enlargement of the adrenals. He later
demonstrated that persistent stress could cause these animals to
develop various diseases similar to those seen in humans, such as
heart attacks, stroke, kidney disease and rheum atoid arthritis. At
the time, it was believed that most diseases were caused by
specific but different pathogens. Tuberculosis was due to the
tubercle bacillus, anthrax by the anthrax bacillus, syphilis by a
spirochete, etc.
Conflicts, demands, fear, assu mptions, expectations, time
pressures, pain, rejection, these are only a few of the components
linked to our stress.
4.2.1 The Body and Stress :-
Stress can be physical, chemical, or even an emotional
influence that causes bodily or mental tension and anx ious feelings.
It certainly causes a sense of conflict and a buildup of physical and
mental strain. Our bodies actually have a survival mechanism
called stress response or startle response controlled by part of our
brain which introduces chemicals to prepa re us for action,
especially in threatening circumstances. Many of the body’s system
are impacted: digestive, cardiovascular, respiratory, muscular and
immunological. Our mind also go to work in order to help us cope
up with all types of issues including l oss, conflict, failure, rejection,
abuse and even our human limitations. So you can see our bodies
are well suited and adapted for handling stress.munotes.in
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62Most would agree that stress can be both productive and
non productive. Dan McGee says productive stress is what we
experience as we go through the daily demands of our lives, as we
reach and attempt to achieve our goals and even what we feel as
we look forward to success. But non productive stress happens
when our emotions are overly burdened, our bodies are st rained
beyond limits, our actions or behaviors are defeating and when our
relationships are highly conflicted and atrisk.
Stress Reaction :-
Recent psychological and medical research has given us
two important insights about stress reactions. These are:
1.We react to stress as a whole. That is, stress usually produces
both psychological and physiological reactions.
2.Whether the stress is physical or psychological, our
physiological and bodily reactions to stress are highly similar.
4.3STRESS AND GENERAL ADAPTATION
SYNDROME (GAS)
Canadian medical researcher Hans Selye first gave us
insight into stress reactions more than fifty years ago. Irrespective
of the source of stress, the body mobilizes its defenses to deal with
the threat in a certain pattern. Sely er e f e r r e dt ot h i sp a t t e r na st h e
General Adaptation Syndrome(GAS).
The GAS consists of three stages . Selye called these the alarm
stage, the stage of resistance, and the stage of exhaustion
1.The alarm reaction:
The alarm reaction consists of two phases. These are:
I)Shock phase and,
II)A counter -shock phase.
During the shock phase, the body automatically tries to
defend itself. The defence involves both the autonomic nervous
system and the endocrine system. The sympathetic division of the
autonomic nervous s ystem becomes energized. It increases heart
rate and blood pressure, diverts blood away from digestive organs
and into the skeletal muscles, and increases perspiration. The
endocrine system goes into emergency action. The adrenal glands
especially show sig nificant changes. The adrenal cortex becomes
enlarged, and produces large amount of stress hormone
epinephrine. It also releases its stored -up supply of the hormones
known as steroids. These hormones aid the action of the autonomic
nervous system and incre ase levels of blood sugar.munotes.in
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63In the counter -shock phase, the body temporarily recovers from the
symptoms.
2.The stage of resistance: -
If the stressor persists, people move into the next stage of
the GAS. Selye called this the stage of resistance. The adrenal
glands return to their normal size. The glucose and salt levels of the
blood are restored.
During the second stage of the GAS, the body’s resources
have been fully mobilized, and resistance is costly. If an individual
is faced with a new stress ps ychological or physical -his body is less
able to deal with it.
3.The stage of exhaustion: -
The stage of resistance does not last indefinitely. If the
stressor continues for a long time, the body’s resources may not be
sufficient to deal with it. In that ca se, the body enters the phase of
exhaustion. Once again, the adrenal glands become enlarged, the
kidneys get damaged, and serious physical changes may occur in
the brain. The result is illness.
If the person faces a second stressor when he has already
entered the GAS, the progress towards the stage of exhaustion is
much more rapid.
Check Your Progress
1.What is meant by productive stress?
2.Name the syndrome referred to by Selyle
3.What happens in the counter shock phase?
4.Define the stage of exhaustion.munotes.in
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644.4CAUSES OF STRESS AND CONFLICT IN
INDIVIDUALS AND SOCIETY
The situations and pressures that cause stress are known
asstressors . We usually think of stressors as being negative, such
as an exhausting work schedule or a rocky relationship. However,
anything that puts high demands on you or forces you to adjust can
be stressful. This includes positive events such as getting married,
buying a house, going to college, or receiving a promotion...
Common external causes of stress :-
Not all stress is caused by external factors. Stress can also be self -
generated:
Major life changes
Work
Relationship difficulties
Financial problems
Being too busy
Children and family
Common internal causes ofstress :-
Not all stress is caused by external factors. Stress can also be self -
generated: -
Inability to accept uncertainty
Pessimism
Negative self -talk
Unrealistic expectations
Perfectionism
Lack of assertiveness
Effects of Chronic Stress: -
The body doesn’t distinguish between physical and
psychological threats. When you’re stressed over a busy schedule,
an argument with a friend, a traffic jam, or a mountain of bills, your
body reacts just as strongly as if you were facing a life -or-death
situation. If you have a lot of responsibilities and worries, your
emergency stress response may be “on” most of the time. The
more your body’s stress system is activated, the easier it is to trip
and the harder it is to shutoff.munotes.in
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65Long -term exposure to stress can lead to serious health
problems. Chronic stress disrupts nearly every system in your
body. It can raise blood pressure, suppress the immune system,
increase the risk of heart attack and stroke, contribute to infertility,
and speed up the aging process. Long -term stress can even rewire
the brain, leaving you more vulnerable to anxiety and depression.
Many health problems are caused or exacerbated by stress,
including:
Pain of any kind
Heart disease
Digestive problems
Sleep problems
Depression
Obesity
Autoimmune diseases
Skin conditions, such as eczema
4.5AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION
Agents of socialization are categorized into two as primary
and secondary. Primary agents familiarize a child to the society and
family is a crucial primary agent of socialization. Secondary agents
or agencies familiarize a child to an organized place or institution
and it is more systematic than primary agents of socialization. The
best example is none other than the school wherein there is a
particular set of rules and regulations to be followed. Family,
schoo l, peer groups, mass media, education institutions, work
places, religion and politics are key agents of socialization.
Family:
Family is the most important and crucial institution of
socializing a child. Soon after the birth, a child has to be with the
mother and the child learns particular behavioral patterns from her.
Of course, this is a crucial experience in his life. Subsequently he
learns to interact with other members/individuals in the family.
Activities such as sucking milk, smiling, carefulness and tottering
are important in primary socialization. The infant gets fulfilled all
physical and psychological needs within the family itself.
Child rearing practices such as nutrition, sleeping and use of toilets
are to be trained at home. Howe ver, all these practices keep
changing from society to society. Eg.In Asian countries these
practices are experienced with simplicity and relaxation on the
contrary rigid practices are followed in western countries. Since in
western countries the mother is not with the child for a long periodmunotes.in
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66of time. However, Asian mother stays with child for a long period in
comparison to western mother. In addition to child rearing
practices, rewarding, threatening, punishing, bargaining and
pleading help to socialize a particular child. Intention of all these
methods is to make the child conformed to the society.
School:
School is another important and crucial agent of
socialization. The child who has been with the family for years
extends his relationship with the ou ter society through school. The
child receives his school education from six to eighteen years. The
School is known as micro system and it is an institution where
learning takes place and individuals develop. The school provides
the intellectual and social experiences from which individuals
develop knowledge, skills, customs, beliefs, interest, and attitudes
that characterize them and shape their abilities to perform adult
roles.
Peer groups:
A peer group is a social group consisting of people who are
equal in such respects as age, education, or social class.
Friendship groups and age grades are also known as peer groups.
In course of child's growth, he is motivated to be with the friends of
his age. It is mainly prominent from teen ages to adultho od. The
socialization that takes place with peers is different from those of
the family and school. Similar tastes, likes, dislikes and ideas
influence on the formation of such groups. Those who like sports
and music get together and form into groups is s uch an example. In
peer groups, the child acquires a greater understanding in respect
of conforming to laws and regulations. The child who does not
conform to standard laws and regulations is rejected with ease from
the group. Socialization takes place by imitating the individuals who
are appreciated by the peer group as well. Things such as accent,
fashions, hair styles, ways of behavior, etc, are often imitated.
Mass media:
However, the most important agent of socialization for the
development of the ch ild is the mass media. Mass Media are the
different processes that facilitate communication between the
sender of a message and the receiver of that message. It plays an
important role in the socialization of children. In fact, there are
many types of medi a; these include newspapers, magazines, radio,
films, CDs, Internet, and television. These kinds of media,
especially television, affect children's and adult's behaviour in
different ways. Having mass media as one of our major agents of
socialization could be very hard on our society today.munotes.in
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67Other agencies of socialization:
People are also influenced by other agencies of socialization
as well. The other most predominant agent amongst them is
religion. Religion or religious conviction forms social and cultur al
patterns for individuals. The manner the Muslims dress is not the
way for other religious groups. Any religion inculcates moral values
such as love and compassion for others. Also, scouts, youth
organizations, the military and employment settings are so me
agents of socialization. In some countries the military training is
even given to ordinary youths recruited for some other professions
since it helps to produce individuals with discipline.
Check Your Progress
1.What is meant by stressor ?
2.Name the few i nternal and external causes of stress
3.What is the role of secondary agent in the process of
socialisation?
4.Do you agree that mass media can act as a major agent of
socialisation?
4.6SIGNIFICANCE OF ETHICS, VALUES AND
PREJUDICES IN DEVELOPING THE INDIVIDUAL
Ethics is a topic often taught in philosophy classes, although there
are courses in business ethics, professional ethics, medical ethics,
research ethics, environmental ethics, and even bio -ethics offered
as well at various coll eges and universities. In fact, ethics comes up
in almost every course offered in college –ethics is important
across the entire academic curriculum.
In essence, ethics is the study and practice of what is good –
what is moral –what is best.
Ethics and truth are closely connected. An ethical person
follows the path of truth and honesty. Great leaders adopted ethics
as a way of life. They preached and practiced great virtue of truthmunotes.in
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68and honesty. Mahatma Gandhi once remarked “God is Truth, and
Truth i s God”. Abraham Lincoln, a great follower of ethical
standards once remarked “You can fool all people for some time,
some people all time, but not all people all the time”.
Why Ethics is important?
Ethics play an important role in development of individu als,
groups and societies. High ethical standards are vital for personality
development of an individual, and also for the wellbeing of groups
and society. The importance of ethics is briefly explained as
follows:
1.Dignified Life: -
Ethics enable a person to live with dignity. The general
society appreciates a person who follows ethical practices. He
attains a distinguished status in the society.
2.Peace of Mind: -
It is said that ‘truth makes you free’. A person who follows
ethical practices is at peace wit h himself.
3.Rewards: -
Truth always prevails. Those who are true and honest get
rewards such as promotion or monetary incentives. They are held
in high esteem by their colleagues, friends, neighbours andothers.
4.Restricts Corruption: -
Ethical persons do not get involved in corrupt practices.
They also discourage others to get involved in corrupt practices. At
present, there is rampant corruption in every walk of life -in
education, business, politics, defence, judiciary, police, etc.
Corruption is a black -mark on the growth and prosperity of a nation.
Therefore, we need ethical persons in every field. Teachers,
religious leaders, and others can play a good role in developing
ethics in the minds of people.
5.Reduces social exploitation: -
Ethics help to redu ce social exploitation of workers, and
other members of the society..
6.Social Upliftment: -
Ethical people work towards social upliftment of the weaker
sections of the society.munotes.in
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69What is Value? What is Virtue?
Virtues are personal character traits that em body and
express values that are judged desirable or admirable. A virtue is a
good value lived .
Values are the ideals orstandards that people use to direct
their behavior; values are what people strive to realize in their lives.
Values are the standards we use in making judgments about what
is important in life and what is right or wrong in human behavior.
We judge ourselves and others in terms of our values. We may not
agree with another person’s values, but everyone lives by values.
Virtues are character traits or dispositions in a person that
embody and express values that are judged desirable or admirable.
A person’s virtues define the ethical character of a person. Virtues
are values that have become intrinsic to the personal identity and
way of life of a person.
The role of values is briefly explained as follows:
1.Personality Development: -
Values develop the overall personality of an individual.
Values are generally learnt through parents, religious leaders,
teachers and other senior memb ers of the society. “Sometimes
great life changing values come to us in brief moments of contact
with high potential personalities” wrote Walter Mac Peek.
2.Values generate Love, Peace and Happiness: -
We can say this because the value of respect and concer n
for others, co -operation, etc., develop a spirit of togetherness.
Conflicts can be solved through mutual understanding and as such
there can be love, peace and happiness.
3.Values Foster Economic Progress: -
For the progress of the society values ar ei m p o r t a n tb u ta t
the same time following these values in day to day life and in social
life give more benefit for the growth of the country in business,
education, politics fair dealing is much more important than
anything else. The fair dealings would e nable a country to progress,
whereas, corrupt practices will keep a nation backward or
underdeveloped, as is the case of most of the developing nations.
Also the value of excellence, urges people to exploit their potential
in order to come out with new and innovative ways.munotes.in
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704.Values Foster Social Development: -
The social development in terms of education, health, and
family welfare can get a boost due to the practice of basic human
values.eg. Due to the generosity, people may donate money
towards setting up schools, colleges, cultural organizations, health
centers, etc., as a result of such generous donations; the social
development can take place in the society.
5.Values Facilitate Regional Co-operation: -
Human values such as respect, co -operation and toler ance
can help to facilitate regional co -operation. India’s foreign policy is
based on these values. The regional co -operation among the states
of a nation or among different nations can help to improve
economic and social development of the entireregion.
6.Values Improve Standard of Living: -
Following these basic human value individual can bring
upliftment in within himself /herself as well as among society. The
value of excellence enable people to develop new products,
processes, etc. such innovation enabl ep e o p l et oe n j o yn e wa n d
better varieties of goods and services, which add to the standard of
living of the people.
7.Values Develops Positive Attitude: -
Values develop positive attitudes towards our thought
process, towards society towards life. This pos itive attitude gives us
courage to defeat any worst situation in life. It also gives us attitude
to excel far in work etc.
4.7ROLE OF PREJUDICES AND STEREO TYPES IN
DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDIVIDUAL
Meaning and Definition of Term Prejudice :-
The English term “prejudice” and its equivalents in many
other European languages (French préjugé; German Vomrteil;
Portuguese preconceito )r e f e rp r i m a r i l yt oap r e j u d g m e n to rap r e
concept reached before the relevant information has been collected
or exam ined and therefore based on in adequate or even imaginary
evidence.munotes.in
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71Effects of Prejudices :-
1.Stereotypes: -
A "stereotype" is a generalization about a person or group of
persons. We develop stereotypes when we are unable or unwilling
to obtain all of t he information we would need to make fair
judgments about people or situations.
2.Discrimination: -
When we judge people and groups based on our prejudices
and stereotypes and treat them differently, we are engaging in
discrimination. E.g. -discrimination against Jews women, African -
American, in India discrimination against lower caste people.
3.Racism :-
Anthropologists, scientists who study humans and their
origins, generally accept that human species can be categorized
into races based on physical and genetic makeup. For example,
many, but certainly not all African -Americans have physical
differences from Caucasians beyond their dark skin, such as wiry
hair. Virtually all scientists accept the fact that there is no credible
scientific evidence that one race is culturally or psychologically
different from any other, or that one race is superior to another.
4.Sexism: -
The concept of equal rights for women is as old as the
ancient Greeks. The Greek philosopher Plato advocated for
equality between the sexes in his Republic.
5.Minority Persecution and Genocide: -
A minority group may be victimized by a more powerful
majority which is insensitive to the needs and aspirations of that
minority. Minority groups may be subjected to dehumanization
experiences made to feel powerless by being subjected to
degrading and humiliating experiences based on prejudice.
6.Scapegoating: -
Scapegoating is the practice of blaming an individual or
group for a real or perceived failure of others. The origin of the term
comes from the Bible. The high priest in Biblical times would place
his hand upon a goat's head and transfer the sins of the community
to the goat, which was then released into the desert.munotes.in
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727.Demagogues and Propaganda: -
Some prejudice has been passed down from generation to
generation. Prejudice against Jews, called anti -Semitism, has been
known for more than two thousand years. It is usually the case,
however, that the passions of hatred against minorities by members
of the majority are stirred up by charismatic leaders who exploit
latent hatreds for their own political ends. These leaders are called
"demagogues," and they depend upon propaganda and
disinformation to achieve their ends. Propaganda is a form of
communication that is aimed at influencing the attitude of a
community toward some cause or position. Propaganda is usually
repeated and dispersed over a wide variety of media in order to
create the desired result in audience attitudes.
Definition of Stereotypes:
Beliefs to the effect that all members of specific s ocial
groups share certain traits or characteristics. Stereotypes are
cognitive frameworks that strongly influence the processing of
incoming social information. For instance, when activated, they lead
us to form tactic inferences about others that them ma ke
information that is inconsistent with stereotypes seem to be
consistent with them.
Techniques For Reducing Prejudice: -
Prejudice is an all too common part of social life, but most
social psychologists believe that it can be reduced. It is not
inevitab le. Here are some techniques that seem to work.
1.Teaching children Tolerance instead of bigotry
2.Increased Intergroup Contact or merely knowledge that it occurs
3.Recategorization
4.Undermining Stereotypes
5.Cognitive Technique
6.Reductions in Prejudice
7.Social Influence also help to reduce Prejudice
4.8 AGGRESSION AND VIOLENCE AS THE PUBLIC
EXPRESSION OF CONFLICTS IN SOCIETY
Definition and Meaning: -
Aggression is behaviour directed toward the goal of harming
an-other living being who is motivated to avoid s uch treatment.munotes.in
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73Theories of Aggression :-
1.Drive Theories: -Motive to Harm Others
2.General Affective Aggression Model (GAAM): -Aw i d er a n g eo f
input variables influences cognitions, affect, and arousal and these
internal states plus other factors determine whether, and in what
form, aggression occurs.
Causes of Aggression :-
Research findings indicate that aggression steams from a
wide range of variables social factors, personal characteristics, and
situational factors. Here is an overview of the most impor tant
factors.
Social Determinants of Aggression: -
1.Frustration
2.Direct Provocation
3.Exposure to Media Violence
4.Extreme example of arousal
Personal Determinants of Aggression: -
1.Type A behavior Pattern: -A pattern consisting primarily of high
levels of competitiveness, time urgency, and hostility.
2.Hostile attribution bias: -hostile intentions or motives in others
actions are ambiguous.
3.Gender: -Males are more aggressive overall than females, but
this differences in the context of strong provocation.
Situational Determinants of Aggression: -
1.High Temperatures,
2.Alcohol
3.Cultural Beliefs and Values
4.Aggression in Long -Term Relationships:
Bullying andWorkplace Violence.
Technique for prevention and control of Aggression: -
1.Punishment :-Punishment can be effective in reducing
aggression, but only when it is delivered under certain conditions.
2.Catharsis Hypothesis :-The catharsis hypothesis appears to
be mainly false. Engaging in vigorous activities may produce
reductions in arousal, but these are only te mporary. Similarly,
aggression is not reduced by engaging in apparently “safe” forms of
aggression.munotes.in
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743.Apologies :-Aggression can be reduced by apologies.
Admissions of wrongdoing that include a request for forgiveness
and by engaging in activities that dis tract attention away from
causes of anger.
4.Exposure to No aggressive Models :-Aggression can also be
reduced by exposure to no aggressive models, training in social
skills, and the induction of affective states incompatible with
aggression.
Check Your Progress
1.Explain the role of ethics in human life?
2.Values foster social development. Explain
3.Define Stereotype.
4.Identity personal determinant of aggression.
4.9SUMMARY
There is many times frustration, conflicts and stressful
situations, an individual had to face. Because today’s is the life is
fast and full of mental and physical pressure. Therefore, one must
undergo the study of all these problems in detail and by effective
way must able to control them.
4.10 EXERCISE
1.Define stress Brin go u tt h ei n t e r -relation between body and
stress
2.Write a note on stress and General Adoption Syndrome.
3.Explain in detail any two agents of Socialization.
4.Why is ethics important in development of an individual?
5.State the role of values in development o fa ni n d i v i d u a la n d
society
6.Define Prejudice, state the effects of prejudice
7.What is aggression? State the techniques for prevention and
control of aggression.
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75Unit -5
MANAGING STRESS AND CONFLICT IN
CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY
Unit Structure
5.1Objectives
5.2Conflict
5.3Conflict Management Mechanism
5.4Stress management coping techniques
5.5Maslow’s theory of self actualization
5.6Efforts towards building Peace and Harmony in society
5.7Summary
5.8 Exercise
5.1OBJECTIVES
1.To Know why conflict take place.
2.To be aware how conflict can be managed.
3.To understand causes of stress and how it can be coped.
4.To realize ways of building peace and harmony in society.
5.2CONFLICT
Meaning and Definition of conflict :-
Conflict is an interpersonal process that arises from disagreements
over the goals to be attained or the methods to be used to
accomplish them. It is a situation in which two or more parties feel
themselves in opposition.
Types of conflict :-
Conflict can occur at three levels:
1) Intrapersonal conflict:
This conflict arises within an individual, because there is
competition in business world or you can say that everywhere in the
world. E.g. A manager may take up the role of providing bettermunotes.in
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76facilities to the employee s, and at the same time may be
responsible to reduce the operating thecosts.
2) Interpersonal Conflict:
This conflict arises because of disagreement between two
persons in an organization. It happens because difference of
personality or temperaments among two or more individuals. E.g. it
may be failures in communication among the people. Such conflicts
pose a major problem because; they threaten the self -esteem and
self-image of a person. Such conflicts may damage the
relationships between people in a norganization.
3) Intergroup Conflict:
It takes place when one group such as a department
disagrees with another group. Due to the difference in viewpoint or
thinking and honesty towards the organization intergroup conflict
take place. A major cause for intergroup conflicts is competition for
scarce resources. E.g. production department may want to install
latest machinery and the marketing department may want to invest
in setting up showrooms and organization able to satisfy only one
department idea.
5.3CONFLICT MANAGEMENT MECHANISM
The result of conflict may arise as positive or negative on the basis
on how those involved choose to approach it. There are four
conflict resolution mechanism or strategies mostly appear in the
world.
Avoiding –Physica l or mental withdrawal from the conflict.
Smoothing –Accommodating the other party’s interests.
Forcing –Using power tactics to achieve a win.
Confronting –Facing the conflict directly, and working it through
to a mutually satisfactory resolution.
The above approaches can be grouped into three basic conflict
management mechanisms:
1.Win/Lose Strategy:
This approach eliminates the conflict by having one
individual “win” over the other. In other words, an individual
achieves his goals at the expense o f others. Thus it can be said
that this strategy may not allow maintaining good human relations.munotes.in
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772.Lose/Lose Strategy:
This view eliminates the conflict by having both individuals
“lose” something. Instead of negative results faced by both the
individuals, this technique can eliminate conflicts. It can be apply in
three basic ways:
Compromise: In it both the parties are asked to compromise. Each
person involved must “give in” to the other.
Arbitration: Here third party is going to take decision how to
resolve the conflict. This view often gives result in problem solving
solution.
Rules and Regulations: Following general rules and regulations
can also resolve a conflict which may lead to lose/lose situation.
3.Win/Win Strategy: -
The aim of technique solv es the problem instead of not shift the
blame on others. The following issues are involved in this
approach:
Listen to all points of view.
Define the basic issues.
Create an atmosphere of the trust among allinvolved.
Belief that problem will be solved on m erit and not through
personal or political influence.
This technique gives us appropriate solution that all parties accept
it and, hence improves good human relations.
Check Your progress
1.Define Conflict
2.What is Intergroup Conflict?
3.Explain win/win strategy as a Conflict Management
Mechanism.munotes.in
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785.4STRESS MANAGEMENT COPING TECHNIQUES
There are two coping technique:
A.Problem focused coping: -
Problem focused coping is Lazarus term for the coping
strategy of facing one’s problems and trying to solve them by direct
action. Psychologically, the problem focused coping is highly
beneficial. It increases a person’s sense of self -esteem, control and
effectiveness.
B.Emotion focused coping:
This term used by Lazarus for responding to stress in an emotional
manner, especially by using defence mechanisms.
Main ways of handling stress :-
1.Avoid unnecessary stress: -
Learn how to say “No” -It may be in your personal life or may
be in your professional life avoid or refused to accept added
respon sibility.
Avoid the people who stress you out.
Avoid hot -button topics.
Make to -do list –analyze your schedule, and daily tasks.
Avoid negative self talk.
2.Alter the situation: -
Express your feelings instead of keeping inside.
Be willing to compromise
Be more assertive
Time management
3.Adapt to the Stressor: -
Reframe the problems –look to the problem in positive way
Look at the big picture –analyze the stressful situation and then
ask yourself how it should be long term important for me or not if
your answer is no then let thing go.
Focus on positive self talk.munotes.in
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794.Accept the things you can’t change: -
Don’t try to control uncontrollable
look for the upside –when facing major challenges, try to look at
the them as opportunities for personal growth
learn to forgive
5.Make time for fun and relaxation: -
Go for a walk
Spend time in nature
Call a good friend
Write in your dairy
Play with kid
Play with pet
Curl up with a good book
Listen music
Watch a comedy
Set a site relaxation time
Do something you enjoy everyday
6.Adopt healthy lifestyle: -
Exercise regularly
Do yoga
Eat a healthy diet
Reduce caffeine and sugar –by reducing the amount of coffee,
soft drinks, chocolate, and sugar snacks in your diet, you will
feel more relaxed and you will sleep better.
Avoid alcohol, cigarettes and drugs
Get enough sleep
5.5MASLOW’S THEORY OF SELF ACTUALIZATION
Definition and Meaning :-
Abraham Maslow innovate the theory of self actualization.
Maslow identified five sets of human needs. The five sets of need
are arranged in a hierarchy of their importance to individuals.munotes.in
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80
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs includes the following :
1.Physiological Needs:
Basic needs of human being are physiological needs. Food clothing
and shelt er come under it. Such needs lie at the lowest level of
hierarchy. According to Maslow, such needs are to be satisfied first
and then the other needs.
2.Safety and Security Needs: -
This second needs come under the hierarchy of needs. People
need:
· Safety of life and property
· Security of job, income and investment.
3.Social Needs: -
Human beings also feel the need to belong to a group or
community. Nobody would prefer to live in isolation from the rest of
the society or group. They prefer to be loved and cared by the
others –i. e. their family members, work mates, friends, superiors
and others.munotes.in
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814.Esteem Needs: -
It talks about the Ego needs. People always feel that others
should respect them. People like others should praise and give
recognition.
Everyone like other others should have good opinion about
them in society/among the people.
5.Self actualization needs: -
These needs lie at the highest level of the hierarchy of needs. Very
few people have such needs. Such needs induce a person to
accompli sh something special which others have not done. The
need for challenging jobs, or the need for highest level of promotion
comes from these needs. In other words, through self actualization
needs, a person feels the need to realize one’s potential to the
highest possible level.
Salient features of Self –actualization theory :-
People have a wide range of needs. The employees put in their
efforts to satisfy their needs.
Human needs are arranged into a hierarchy. There are some
needs at the lower level, and there are some other needs at the
higher level of hierarchy.
Lower level needs must be satisfied either wholly or partly
before higher level needs emerge. In other words, a higher level
need does not become active, if lower level need remain
unfulfilled.
It is to be noted a satisfied need is not a motivator. In other
words, it ceases to influence human behavior. It is the
unsatisfied need that acts as a motivator.
A higher level need arises before a lower level need is
completely satisfied. Thus, safety ne eds would emerge before
the physiological needs completely satisfied, and soon.
Criticism of Maslow’s Theory of Self -actualization :-
1.When need is not satisfied, it becomes a motive. So cultures in
which physiological needs like hunger and thirst are easi ly satisfied,
physiological motives would not have much strength.
2.Maslow has organized human needs vertically; but it is possible
to do so horizontally. Some people have simultaneous needs for
physical comfort and safety, and for self -esteem and other high er
needs. For example, a person who is still seeking love may be
strongly motivated by art and poetry. The latter needs are growth
needs.munotes.in
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823.People who have satisfied their “lower” needs do not always
seek “higher” ones. Maslow himself had pointed out that ev en if all
the other needs are satisfied, people do not automatically become
self-actualizers.
4.Some people aim to satisfy “higher” needs even at the cost of
“lower” needs. Human history is full of examples of people who
prefer to starve rather than be humil iated.
Check Your progress
1.State any two measures of copying with stress.
2.What is self -actualisation need?
3.What factors are covered under safety and security needs?
5.6EFFORTS TOWARDS BUILDING PEACE AND
HARMONY IN SOCIETY
Building peace is necessity of today’s world. Peace is the
natural state balance and harmony with joy, exploration and
excitement. The world is a beautiful place with immense
opportunities for learning and positive excitement. The task of
building peace st art within the individual. The process of peace
building is multi -layered. Many people believe wholeheartedly that
peace needs to be built but have some difficulty in seeing where to
start. Here are a few first ideas, based on the principle that lasting
peace is best achieved through love.
Make a new friend, later plan with him/her a peace building
activity.
Talk through your anxieties about getting involved with a friend.
Plan to do something, however small.
Identify one thing you are good at and see how to use it to build
peace, locally, nationally or wider.
Write a letter to someone in authority about a specific problem:
put a possible peace building solution.munotes.in
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83Build or join a supportive network organization with an interest in
peace building close to you ro w n
Put interested people in touch with existing organizations or
each other.
Have a neighborhood party or picnic to celebrate a happy event.
Encourage conversation about peace building there.
Offer your help to an individual or organization involved in
building peace.
Run or support a local peace festival with music, theatre, and
games. Invite prominent local people; lobby them by offering
your help in promoting peace.
Organize a conference.
Write an article outlining your ideas and vision.
Communal har mony is a solution to aggression and violence
in Indian society. Communal harmony is an aspect of National
Integration.
To maintain harmony and peace introduce and learn the
pluralistic nature of Indian society.
Make psychological analysis of conflicts and stress.
Follow the physical and psychological strategies to come
out from frustration, conflicts and stress.
When the conflict and stress occurs into public aggression
and violence, at the same time one should u nderstand
group or mob or public psychology and deal with it.
One should think ten times before resorting to aggression
and violence publicly and its consequences.
The political, religious, social, cultural parties, institutions
and organizations who for p ersonal gain and fame
encourage communal riots, aggression and violence, they
should be immediately banned from functioning and the
leaders of them should be immediately imprisoned.
Counseling sessions in forms of dramas, street play, poetry,
songs, slogan s, chart show, discussions, debates, and
elocutions must be organized to bring communal harmony
and peace. People in India must be given special lessons to
maintain law and order and harmony and peace.munotes.in
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84Check Your progress
1.State any two ways to build peace in society?
2.How can communal harmony be maintained in society?
5.7SUMMARY
Stress and Conflict reside in each and every on e of us. To
lead a stressless life, it is essential to bring order in our day to day
activity and develop proper attitude to look at situations, peaceful
co-existence.
5.8 EXERCISE
1.Explain in detail conflict management mechanisms.
2.Is it possible to cop e stress? Suggest measures to cope up
with stress.
3.Write a detailed note on Maslow's theory of self actualisation.
4.State the efforts towards building and harmony in society.
munotes.in