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1 UNIT I
1
THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF
GREEN REVOLUTION
Unit Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Environmental impact of Green Revolution
1.3 Loss of indigenous crops
1.4 Summary
1.5 Questions
1.6 References
1.0 OBJECTIVES • To unders tand the meaning of green revolution
• To learn about the background of emergence of green revolution and
its positive and negative effects.
1.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter is very important as students studying Environment and as a
member of the society. One of the major concerns of the world today is
that of the impact of Environment and Climate change. All of us consume
wheat, rice every day but the process bringing about green revolution we
are unaware of it, this chapter would introduce you to how the process
began. Through this chapter we would be able to learn the social change
that took place due to the green revolution and its impact of the lives of
millions.
Meaning of Green Revolution :
The Merriam Webster dictionary points out that green revolu tion is the
significant rise in food grain output (including rice and wheat) as a result
of the use of herbicides, high -yielding cultivars, and improved
management practices
According to the Britannica, Green Revolution began in the middle of the
20th cent ury, new, high -yielding varieties were introduced into emerging
nations, which led to a significant rise in the production of food grains
(particularly wheat and rice). Mexico and the Indian subcontinent were the
locations of its initial stunning achieveme nts. In order to achieve their high
yields, the new types need to use significant quantities of chemical
fertilizers and pesticides, which raises worries about the expense and munotes.in

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2 Environmental Concerns in India
2 potential negative impacts on the environment. Poor farmers have
frequently had even lower yields with these grains than with the previous
strains, which were better matched to local circumstances and had some
resistance to pests and illnesses, because they cannot afford the fertilizers
and pesticides. (Britannica).
Reason for bringi ng Green Revolution :
Despite being self -sufficient in food production, India's food production
between 1947 and 1960 was so poor that famine concerns existed. As a
result, the Green Revolution was started in the 1960s with the goal of
increasing food prod uction, reducing extreme poverty and malnutrition in
the nation, and feeding millions of people. Despite these efforts, 195.9
million people in India are undernourished and lack access to enough food
to meet their daily nutritional needs; 58.4% of children under the age of
five have anaemia, while 53% of women and 22.7% of men in the age
range of 15 to 49 have anaemia; 23% of women and 20% of men are thin;
and 21% of women and 19% of men are obese.
1.2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF GREEN REVOLUTION In order to e nhance food production and reduce hunger and poverty, high -
yielding cultivars of rice and wheat were first introduced in India in the
1960s. Government measures led to a post -Green Revolution increase in
the production of wheat and rice, but a decrease in the cultivation of other
food crops including millets and native rice types. This resulted in the
elimination of unique indigenous crops as well as their disappearance from
cultivation. This review discusses how the Green Revolution affected the
production of indigenous crops, as well as how it affected society, the
environment, dietary intake, and the amount of food available per person.
It also discusses strategies that can be used to bring back the cultivation of
indigenous crops and spread knowledge to the local population.
Rice, millets, sorghum, wheat, maize, and barley were the main crops
grown prior to the Green Revolution and the production of rice and millets
was larger than that of wheat, barley, and maize taken as a whole.
However, millets are no longer being produced as much, and in the
decades after the Green Revolution, the crops that were formerly eaten in
every home were transformed into fodder crops. While this is happening,
many of the traditional rice kinds that were consumed before the Gr een
Revolution are no longer available, and just 7000 of the native rice
varieties are now being grown. As a result, more than 1 lakh indigenous
rice varieties have been lost in India since the 1970s. As a result, after the
1970s, India lost more than 1 la kh kinds of its own rice, which took
thousands of years to form. The government's concentration on
monoculture and the creation of subsidized high -yielding hybrid crops are
the major causes of this loss of biodiversity.
The government's initiatives enhance d the production of rice, wheat,
pulses, and other crops, resulting in the nation's self -sufficiency in food. munotes.in

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3 The Environmental Impact of Green Revolution However, it also eliminated the accessible gene pool's diversity. Utilizing
groundwater supplies, herbicides, and fertilizers helped to boost crop
yield. However, poor management and excessive use of chemical
fertilizers, pesticides, and a lack of crop rotation led to the soil becoming
infertile, and groundwater loss in agricultural regions started to become a
regular occurrence. These effects made farmers' lives even more unhappy
since they had to spend more money cultivating crops to make up for these
flaws. India being one of the countries which exports large quantities of
wheat even today.
A rising understanding of the need to switch to more sus tainable
agricultural methods that combine the cultivation of food with protecting
the environment in recent years. As a result, new farming techniques and
agricultural technologies have been created with the intention of
increasing agricultural productivi ty while reducing adverse environmental
effects. These innovative techniques include agroforestry, precision
farming, conservation agriculture, and organic farming. These methods,
which are being used in numerous nations, which offer the potential to
incre ase agricultural productivity while minimizing the adverse
environmental effects of the Green Revolution. Beginning in the 1960s,
India's Green Revolution had both beneficial and detrimental effects on
the environment.
Positive effects of green revolution :
• Higher agricultural output: The Green Revolution in India
contributed to a rise in agricultural output, which helped the nation's
food supply keep up with demand. As a result, less stress was placed
on ecosystems that could have been used for agricult ure.
• Reduced demand on forests : Through the green revolution as there
was more produce in the agriculture, the pressure on forests reduced
hence the forests were more preserved. As there was no necessity to
clear more forest.
• Chemical fertilisers and high -yield crop varieties helped to improve
soil fertility, which in turn increased the soil's ability for nourishing
plant growth.
• Modernization of agriculture: The adoption of new technologies,
including tractors, irrigation systems, and other farmi ng equipment,
was a result of the Green Revolution. This aided in boosting
agricultural productivity and effectiveness and opened the door for
further development. Due to the increased production the hunger
reduced to a large extent.
• Rural development: The Green Revolution helped many rural areas
around the world to develop. The creation of jobs and an
improvement in the standard of living for small -scale farmers and
rural communities were both aided by increased agricultural
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4 Environmental Concerns in India
4 • Only five crops were allowed under HYVP: maize, wheat, rice,
jowar, and bajra. Therefore, the new method did not apply to non -
food grains. Over the years, wheat has remained the foundation of
the Green Revolution. Tens of millions more tonnes of grain are
being harvested annually as a result of the new seeds.
• In 1978 –1979, the Green Revolution led to a record grain output of
131 million tonnes. India was now recognised as one of the top
agricultural producers in the world. Between 1947 (the yea r India
attained political independence) and 1979, the yield per unit of
agricultural land increased by more than 30%. During the Green
Revolution, there was a significant increase in the crop area planted
with high yielding wheat and rice types.
• Many j obs were also created by the Green Revolution , including
Through the construction of linked facilities like factories and
hydroelectric power plants, the Green Revolution also generated a
large number of jobs for industrial workers in addition to
agricultu ral labourers.
Negative effects of Green Revolution
Groundwater depletion:
As a result of increased groundwater use during India's Green Revolution,
several areas experienced groundwater depletion. This is a significant
issue since groundwater is a limit ed resource and its depletion may have
long-term effects on the environment and society.
Degradation of the soil:
In some locations, heavy use of chemical fertilisers and pesticides has
caused soil degradation. Degradation of the soil decreases its capaci ty to
support plant growth, which may have detrimental long -term effects on
the environment.
Biodiversity loss:
The spread of monoculture farming techniques and the use of high -
yielding crop varieties have resulted in a loss of biodiversity in some
areas. This is a significant issue since biodiversity is crucial for preserving
healthy ecosystems and guaranteeing food security.
However, repeated use of chemical pesticides and fertilisers over time
resulted in soil erosion, water contamination, and a reducti on in soil
fertility. In addition, the monoculture of wheat and rice resulted in a
decrease in biodiversity and an increase in pest and disease susceptibility.
The disappearance of native landraces in our country, the land races are
the locally adaptable plants, animals who are us grown through the
traditional method and are adaptable in terms of climatic and local
environment. The depletion of soil nutrients rendering it unproductive.
There is also increased rates of farmer suicide. Unable to handle risi ng munotes.in

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5 The Environmental Impact of Green Revolution farming costs and debts, small farmers sold their lands to large
commercial farmers, and the loss of landraces that were indigenous to our
land and unable to handle the food inflation, financial burden led several
farmers to leaving the farming occupati on altogether. As well as
discouraging their own children to become further farmers.
Check Your Progress
1. What were the main crops grown in the green revolution?
2. Explain the reasons behind emergence of green revolution .
Vandana Shi va:
Indian academic, environmental activist, and novelist Vandana Shiva has
criticised the Green Revolution. She contends that the Green Revolution,
which encouraged the use of chemical fertilisers and high -yielding crop
varieties, had a harmful effect on the environment, farming, and society.
The loss of traditional seed varieties and their replacement by high -
yielding varieties that need a lot of water, chemical fertilisers, pesticides is
one of Shiva's key complaints of the Green Revolution. Shiva claim s that
as a result, there is less genetic diversity in crops, which makes them more
susceptible to pests, illnesses, and climate change, leading to agrarian
crises and health crises as well as socio -political conflicts in states like
Punjab. Shiva contends that small -scale farmers, who were compelled to
depend on expensive seeds, fertilizers and pesticides, have suffered
massively. As a result of the so -called Green Revolution the small
farmers lives became more debt ridden and with very less independence in
their lives. She also criticised how the chemicals further creates both
negative effects on soil and water quality as well on human health. Shiva
supports agroecology, as a strategy to agriculture that is founded on
ecological principles and traditiona l knowledge, as an alternative to the
Green Revolution. Agroecology includes, the use of conventional seed
types, crop rotations, and natural pest management techniques. Shiva
claims that agroecology may aid in fostering food sovereignty,
safeguarding bio diversity, and minimizing the detrimental effects of
farming on the environment and society.
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6 Environmental Concerns in India
6 1.3 LOSS OF INDIGENOUS CROPS Due to the emphasis on mono -cropping that followed the Green
Revolution, the traditional meals and cereal -based products that were
formerly a staple of the typical Indian diet are being lost over time.
Several types of rice, including coloured, fragrant, and medicinal kinds, as
well as millets, wheat, barley, and maize, are among India's indigenous
crops. The native rice and millet typ es can withstand floods, salinity, and
drought. Eastern India's Dharical, Dular, and Tilak Kacheri, for instance,
may adapt to various topologies, climatic conditions, and soil types.
Sorghum, pearl millet, maize, barley, finger millet, and small millets s uch
barnyard millet, foxtail millet, kodo millet, proso millet, and mini millets
are some of the coarse cereals. Compared to hybrid rice variations,
traditional rice cultivars are more nutrient -dense.
Compared to hybrid rice variations, traditional rice c ultivars are more
nutrient -dense. They have increased fibre content and are good sources of
vitamins and minerals like niacin, thiamine, iron, riboflavin, vitamin D,
and calcium. Additionally, these cultivars have a number of health
advantages, including l owering glycaemic and insulin responses and
decreasing the risk of type II diabetes, obesity, and cardiovascular
illnesses. Kumbhar et al. report Tulshi tall and Vikram, two landraces
from Maharashtra in India's Western Ghat zone and Konkan region,
respec tively, displayed significant similarity in distinct differences in
allelic combinations from other contemporary types of modern varieties
rice. Compared to hybrid rice variations, traditional rice cultivars are more
nutrient -dense. The indigenous rice var ieties have increased fibre content
and are good sources of vitamins and minerals like niacin, thiamine, iron,
riboflavin, vitamin D, and calcium. Additionally, these cultivars have a
number of health advantages, including lowering the glycaemic and
insuli n response, which lowers the risk of type II diabetes, obesity, and
cardiovascular illnesses.
Path ahead – Solution :
Indigenous crops have several advantages over newly introduced hybrid
varieties (HYVs), including the following: (1) their cultivation can
increase agriculture's genetic diversity and sustainability; (2) their
consumption can decrease carbon footprints and imports; (3) their high
climatic adaptation; and (4) their consumption can increase food diversity
and the nutrient content of diets. The ability of farmers to propagate
indigenous varieties, identifying farmers with traditional crop -cultivation
knowledge, and encouraging farmers with large landholdings to cultivate
indigenous species are potential obstacles to the revival of indigenous
species.


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7 The Environmental Impact of Green Revolution Check Your Progress
1. What is the meaning of landraces?
2. Do you think millets and indigenous rices are healthy – comment.
1.4 SUMMARY In conclusion, the Green Revolution had a tremendous impact on
agriculture in many nations. A shift to farming methods that combine food
production and environmental preservation is becoming more and more
necessary. The consumption of the indigenous varities of food and the
sustainable methods to produce the food will help both the environment
and the hu man health. It would also help in reducing the carbon foot print
via reducing the foreign imports.
1.5 QUESTIONS 1. Discuss the positive and negative effects of green revolution
2. Explain the meaning of green revolution and the solutions for solving
it.
3. Discuss in brief the view points of Vandana Shiva on green revolution
1.6 REFERENCES  Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2022, August 25). green
revolution. Encyclopedia Britannica.
https://www.britannica.com/event/green -revolution
• Food a nd Agriculture Organization of the United Nation. The state of
food security and nutrition in the world. 2018.
http://www.fao.org/3/i9553en/i9553en.pdf.
• International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS) and ICF.
National Family Health Survey (NFHS -4), 2015 -16: India. Mumbai:
IIPS; 2017. http://rchiips.org/nfhs/NFHS -4Reports/India.pdf. munotes.in

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8 Environmental Concerns in India
8 • Hall WF. Agriculture in India. Regional Analysis Division, Economic
Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, 1964. p.
13. https://archive.org/detail s/agricultureinind64hall.
• US Department of Agriculture - Economic Research Service,
Regional Analysis Division. The 1964 Far East, Communist China,
Oceania Agricultural


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9 2
WESTERN GHATS ECOLOGY EXPERT
PANEL REPORT
(ECO -SENSITIVE ZONES)
Unit Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Western Ghats and its Ecological Significance
2.3 Ecologically Sensitive Zones
2.4 Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel
2.5 Its Recomm endations
2.6 Conclusion
2.7 Questions
2.8 References and Further Readings
2.0 OBJECTIVES  To understand the what ecologically sensitive areas are
 To familiarize students with the Western ghats ecology expert panel
report
2.1 INTRODUCTION The Western G hats Ecology Expert Panel report advocates replacing the
current pattern of exclusionary development and exclusionary
conservation by an inclusive regime by respecting the existing, but
currently sabotaged, constitutional, and legal provisions for environm ental
protection and democratic devolution of the decision -making process. The
report’s objective assessment of the prevailing situation and the
recommendation that it should be taken to all the concerned Gram sabhas
and appropriate regulatory as well as p romotional measures be decided
upon through a bottom -up democratic process were unacceptable to those
currently benefiting from the perpetuation of an economy of violence.
They attempted to first suppress and then subvert the report.
The Western Ghats Ecol ogy Expert Panel (WGEEP) report, prepared over
a 17-month period from March 2010 to August 2011, has sparked off a
vigorous debate, even demonstrations, protests, violence. The saga of
disturbances accompanying the debate on the WGEEP report, linked to
control over the rich water, mineral, forest, and biodiversity resources of
the Western Ghats, suggests a lopsided development. As the Nobel
laureate Joseph Stiglitz emphasizes in his work on inequality, any nation
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10 Environmental Concerns in India
10 the man -made capital that gross domestic product (GDP) highlights, but
also the natural capital, human capital, and social capital.
The report embodies among other things (i) categorization of the Western
Ghats into three zone s of varied ecological sensitivity, based upon careful
analysis done by WGEEP, (ii) broad sectoral guidelines for each of these
zones, and (iii) a broad framework for establishment of the Western Ghats
Ecology Authority.
2.2 WESTERN GHATS AND ITS ECOLOGICA L SIGNIFICANCE The hill chain of the Western Ghats, a treasure trove of biodiversity and
the water tower of Peninsular India, runs parallel to the West coast of
India from the river Tapi in the north to Kanyakumari in the south. The
Ghats descend steeply to the coastal plains on the west, but merge rather
gently through a series of hills with the Deccan plateau. Geologically the
Ghats fall into two sections. North of the river Kali is the Deccan trap
country of relatively fragile rocks and flat hill tops. The hills do not rise
much beyond 1500 m in this tract. South of Kali is the region of
Precambrian archdean crystalline rocks which are much harder. The hills
tend to be rounded and rise to 2000 m or more.
The Western Ghats are naturally an important focus of sustainable
development efforts. Describing King Raghu’s conquest of the four
corners of India, Kalidasa likens the mountain range of Western Ghats to a
comely young maiden, her head near Kanyakumari, Anaimalais and
Nilgiris her breasts, Goa her hips, and her feet near river Tapi. All over the
world, such mountains, endowed as they are with high levels of
environmental heterogeneity, are treasure troves of natural diversity. Thus,
in the Western Ghats the annual rainfall ranges from as much as 8000 mm
in the southwestern corner of the upper Nilgiris to a mere 500 mm in the
Moyar gorge just 30 km to its east. In contrast, the annual rainfall spans a
range of no more than 1000 mm over hundreds of kilometers across the
Deccan plateau. Mountains also create isolated habitats far away from
other similar habitats, promoting local speciation.
This is why the Western Ghats and the Eastern Himalayas are today the
most significant repositories of India’s biodiversity. Amongst them, the
Western Ghats scores over the Eastern Himalayas in harboring a larger
number of species restricted to India alone. Not only are the Western
Ghats and Eastern Himalayas biological treasure troves, they are also two
of the world’s biodiversity hot spots, a hot spot being a biodiversity -rich
area that is also under a high degree of threat.
The most important forest produce of the Ghats in earlier times were
cardamom, pepper and ivory although teak wood had been exported from
the west coast ports even in medieval times. The earliest forest plantations
recorded were the teakwood plantations raised by Maratha naval chiefs of
Shivaji in the 17th Century. Exploitation of timber on a large scale,
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11 Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel Report (Eco-Sensitive Zones) peaked between 1950 –1980 wit h an explosion of forest based industries
such as paper, plywood, poly -fibers and matchwood. Although these
demands were expected to be met through sustainable harvests, this did
not materialize and the forests were overexploited. The response was a
switch to ‚aggressive from ‚conservation forestry with large -scale clear
felling of natural forests and plantation of exotic species
Besides this, the Western Ghats region has some of the highest levels of
literacy in the country, and a high level of environme ntal awareness.
Democratic institutions are well entrenched, and Kerala leads the country
in capacity building and empowering of Panchayat Raj Institutions. Goa
has recently concluded a very interesting exercise, Regional Plan 2021, of
taking inputs from G ram Sabhas in deciding on land use policies.
Evidently, the Western Ghats constitutes an appropriate region of the
country to attempt to make the transition towards an inclusive, caring and
environment -friendly mode of development.
In view of the environme ntal sensitivity and ecological significance of the
Western Ghats region and the complex interstate nature of its geography,
as well as possible impacts of climate change on this region, the Ministry
of Environment and Forests, Government of India, constit uted, by an order
dated 4 March 2010, a Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel (WGEEP).
Check Your Progress:
1. Write the significance of Western Ghats.
2.3 ECOLOGICALLY SENSITIVE ZONES Section 3 of the Environment (Protection) Act 1986 (EPA) gives power to
the Union Ministry of Environment and Forests to take all measures that it
feels is necessary for protecting and improving the quality of the
environment and to prevent and control environmental pollution. To meet
this objective the Central Govern ment can restrict areas in which any
industries, operations or processes, or class of industries, operations or
processes shall not be carried out or shall be carried out subject to certain
safeguards.
Section 5(I) of the Environment (Protection) Rules 198 6 (EPR) states that
the Central Government can prohibit or restrict the location of industries
and carrying out certain operations or processes based on considerations
like the biological diversity of an area (clause v), maximum allowable
limits of concent ration of pollutants for an area (clause ii),
environmentally compatible land use (clause vi), or proximity to Protected
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12 Environmental Concerns in India
12 These provisions were invoked in 1989 in the context of Murud -Janjira, a
coastal village of Maharashtra. Subsequen tly, the term ‘Ecologically
Fragile Area’ was used for the first time in 1991 in the context of Dahanu
Taluka in coastal Maharashtra. This has been followed by declaration of
several other areas such as the Mahabaleshwar - Panchgani and Matheran
hills in th e Maharashtra Western Ghats as Ecologically Sensitive Zones /
Areas. So far, these Ecologically Sensitive Zones / Areas have been
established either as a result of initiatives of some civil society
organizations wishing to protect a particularly vulnerable and significant
area, or as a consequence of a resolution of the Indian Board for Wildlife
in 2002 to protect areas up to ten kilometers from the boundaries of
Protected Areas, namely Wildlife Sanctuaries and National Parks.
Over the years, a variety of t erms such as Ecologically Sensitive/
Ecologically Fragile/ Ecosensitive/ Ecofragile Zones/ Areas have been
used in the context of programmes relating to Ecologically Sensitive
Zones and Areas. WGEEP therefore used the term ‘Ecologically Sensitive
Area’ whi le referring to extensive tracts and ‘Ecologically Sensitive Zone’
while referring to specific zones within the extended ‘Ecologically
Sensitive Area’ for which a particular set of regulatory/ promotional
activities have been proposed.
Check Your Progress:
1. What are ‘Ecologically Sensitive Zones’?
2.4 WESTERN GHATS ECOLOGY EXPERT PANEL The Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel, headed by ecologist Madhav
Gadgil, also known as the Gadgil Committee was an environmental
research commission appointed b y the government in 2011. It
recommended that all of the Western Ghats be declared as the Ecological
Sensitive Areas (ESA) with only limited development allowed in graded
zones. The panel classified the Western Ghats into Ecologically Sensitive
Areas (ESA) 1, 2 and 3 of which ESA -1 is high priority, almost all
developmental activities (mining, thermal power plants etc.) were
restricted in it.
It specified that the system of governance of the environment should be a
bottom to top approach (right from Gram sa bhas) rather than a top to
bottom approach. It also recommended the constitution of a Western
Ghats Ecology Authority (WGEA), as a statutory authority under the
Ministry of Environment and Forests, with the powers under Section 3 of
the Environment (Protec tion) Act, 1986. The report has been criticized for
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13 Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel Report (Eco-Sensitive Zones) Eventually, another committee was instigated to look into the
recommendations. The Kasturirangan Commission sought to balance the
development and environment protection in contrast to the system
proposed by the Gadgil report.
Check Your Progress:
1. Write a brief note on the Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel.
2.5 ITS RECOMMENDATIONS The panel, chaired by Prof. Madhav Gadg il, studied the ecological status
of the Western Ghats – it compiled information, analysed it and made
several field visits. It also developed geospatial databases on the
ecological sensitivity of the entire Western Ghats region. And it consulted
governmen t officials and people’s representatives – from members
of gram sabhas and zilla parishads to members of parliament and state
legislative assemblies.
Based on its research, the panel designated the entire region as an
‘Ecologically Sensitive Area’ and divi ded the ghats into three zones:
Ecologically Sensitive Zone 1 (very high sensitivity), Ecologically
Sensitive Zone 2 (high sensitivity) and Ecologically Sensitive Zone 3
(moderate sensitivity).
The panel’s report is divided into two parts. Part I (the main report) details
the WGEEP’s activities. Part II discusses the ecological status of the
Western Ghats and has sections on land and water use, agriculture,
livestock rearing, fisheries, forests and biodiversity, and human
settlements. It also has chapters o n industry, mining, power and energy,
tourism, transport, science and technology, and nutrition and health.
The panel proposed that no new dams with large -scale storage be
permitted in the Ecologically Sensitive Zone 1 (ESZ 1) or regions with
very high eco logical sensitivity. It also recommended that environmental
clearances not be given to the Athirappilly and the Gundia hydel projects
(in Kerala and Karnataka, respectively), which are in this zone.
The panel’s investigations in the plains and coastal trac ts of Ratnagiri and
Sindhudurg districts in Maharashtra suggested that these areas were under
severe environmental and social stress. The panel proposed a cumulative
impact analysis of various developmental activities in these areas. The
panel urged the Mi nistry of Environment and Forests to involve citizens in
environmental governance. This would include implementation of the
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14 Environmental Concerns in India
14 resources); a radical reform of the environmental impact an alysis and
clearance processes; and the proactive disclosure of all information of
public interest.
2.6 CONCLUSION The purpose of declaring ESAs is to create “shock absorbers” to prevent
ecological damage caused by developmental activities in such areas a nd
protect then by minimizing the negative impact on the ecosystem. They
also act as a transition zone from areas that require high protection to
those that need lesser protection. n March 2010, the Western Ghats
Ecology Expert Panel (WGEEP) was set up wit h ecologist Madhav Gadgil
as its head. The panel submitted its report in September 2011. Later, in
August 2012, the MoEF constituted a high -level working group (HLWG)
under the chairmanship of K. Kasturirangan. The HLWG submitted its
report on April 15, 20 13.
Since then, the MoEF has issued draft notifications five times — in 2014,
2015, 2017, 2018 and 2022 — inviting objections. But whenever the issue
is raked up, farmers have staged protests and registered their opposition by
even boycotting local panchay at elections. The state governments,
meanwhile, have opposed both the Madhav Gadgil report as well as the
‘diluted’ Kasturirangan report, calling them “unscientific.” The Gadgil
committee report was criticized for being inconsistent with developmental
need s.
2.7 QUESTIONS 1. What are the recommendations of Western ghats ecology expert
panel?
2. What can be the consequences of uncontrolled development in the
Western Ghats?
3. Why are State governments loggerheads with the Western ghats
ecology expert panel report?
2.8 REFERENCES  Chopra, K. (2014). Conservation and Development in the Western
Ghats: A Tale of Two Committees and More. Economic and Political
Weekly, 12 -14.
 Gadgil, M. (2014). Western ghats ecology expert panel a play in five
acts. 38 -50.
 Gadgil , M., Daniels, R. R., Ganeshaiah, K. N., Prasad, S. N., Murthy,
M. S. R., Jha, C. S., ... & Subramanian, K. A. (2011). Mapping
ecologically sensitive, significant and salient areas of Western Ghats:
proposed protocols and methodology. Current Science, 175 -182. munotes.in

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15 Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel Report (Eco-Sensitive Zones)  Thomas, B. PROTECTION OF WESTERN GHATS AND GADGIL
REPORT.
 D’Souza, R. V. (2020). India’s Emerging Ecological Public and the
Western Ghats: The Gadgil Committee Report and the Responses of
Contiguous States. In Universities and Sustainable Communities:
Meeting the Goals of the Agenda 2030 (pp. 417 -430). Springer
International Publishing.



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16 3
WATER SCARCITY AND WATER
MANAGEMENT; RAINWATER
HARVESTING – CASE STUDY OF JOHADS
IN RAJASTHAN
Unit Structure
3.0 Objective
3.1 Environmental problems
3.2 Water scarcity in India
3.3 Water management
3.4 Rain water harvesting
3.5 Case study of Johads
3.6 Summary
3.7 Questions
3.8 References
3.0 OBJECTIVES  To understand the water and its associated problems and management
 To learn about rain water harvesting practices like johads.
3.1 ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS The term "environmental problems" covers a broad variety of challenges
that have an adverse effect on the natural world and ecosystems as well as
on people's well -being, health, and standard of life. Numerous things,
including human activities, natural di sasters, and climate change, can
contribute to these issues. The following are some of the most serious
environmental issues:
• Climate change is the collective term describing long -term
modifications to the earth's temperatures, weather patterns, and sea
levels brought on by human activities such as the burning of fossil
fuels, clearing of forests, and industrial operations.
• The combustion of fossil fuels, industrial operations, and automobile
emissions are only a few of the factors that contribute to ai r pollution.
It can lead to a variety of health conditions, such as cancer, heart
disease, and respiratory disorders.
• Sewage, industrial waste, and agricultural runoff all contribute to
water contamination. It can cause a variety of health issues for bot h
people and wildlife, as well as have an effect on aquatic ecosystems. munotes.in

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17 Water scarcity and water management; rainwater harvesting – case study of Johads in Rajasthan • Deforestation: Deforestation is the practise of removing forests for
industrial, commercial, or agricultural use. It can have a variety of
detrimental effects on climate change, biod iversity, and soil quality.
• Waste management: Poor waste management can result in pollution,
environmental deterioration, human and animal health issues.
• Loss of biodiversity: This is the extinction of plant and animal
species as a result of altering climatic conditions, pollution, and other
factors. Numerous detrimental effects on ecosystems and human well -
being may result from it.
3.2 WATER SCARCITY IN INDIA A large number of Indians face high to extreme water stress, according to
a recent report by the government’s policy think tank, the NITI Aayog.
India’s dependence on an increasingly erratic monsoon for its water
requirements increases this challenge. Climate change is likely to
exacerbate this pressure on water resources, even as the frequency a nd
intensity on floods and droughts in the country increases.
• In many places of India, including those with high rates of population
growth, urbanisation, and agricultural activity, water scarcity is a
significant issue. In India, a few of the major caus es of water scarcity
are as follows:
• Climate change: In many regions of India, it is now more challenging
to forecast and manage water supplies due to changes in weather
patterns and rainfall that are related to climate change.
• India is one of the worl d's greatest users of groundwater, and
excessive use has resulted in the depletion of aquifers in several
regions of the nation.
• water management systems are frequently insufficient or badly
maintained, which causes inefficiencies and waste.
• Industrial waste, agricultural runoff, and sewage all add to water
pollution, making it more difficult to clean.
• Urbanisation and population growth: As India's population rises and
more people relocate to cities, there is a rising demand for water,
placing stress on the country's limited water supplies.
• Many sections of India now experience widespread water scarcity as a
result of these issues, notably rural areas and places with significant
levels of poverty. Numerous negative effects result from this,
including decreased crop yields, an increase in health issues brought
on by waterborne illnesses, and financial difficulties for those whose
livelihoods depend on agriculture.
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18 Environmental Concerns in India
18 3.3 WATER MANAGEMENT Indian traditional communities featured a variety of water -saving n orms
and customs. For instance, they used copper and clay utensils for the
purification of water. In order to maintain soil moisture, they also avoided
overwatering their crops and practised crop rotation. Community wells are
one of the crucial methods for storing and distributing water. People used
to rely on neighbourhood wells in various areas of India for their water
needs. Since these wells were constructed in low -lying locations, seepage
and surface runoff were responsible for recharging the water tab le. The
community members shared the water that was drawn using manual
pumps or pulleys.
In the western Rajasthan region, the practise of "paar" is widespread. It is
a typical location where rainwater percolates into the sandy soil as it runs
from the agar (catchment). Kuis or beris are dug in the agor (storage area)
to obtain the rajani pani (percolated water). Typically, kuis or beris range
in depth from 5 to 12 metres. The building was built using conventional
masonry techniques. Usually, a paar is made up of six to 10 of them.
However, the number of kuis or beris is determined based on the size of
the paar. According to Bhatti, there are paars in the Jaisalmer district
where more than 20 kuis are running. This is the most common type. The
rain water harv est through that of the PAAR technique is also known as
Patali paani. There are other ways like Bandhis, Saza kua, Pat etc.
There are also modern methods like in rural India, drip irrigation is a
contemporary irrigation method that is gaining popularity. Through the
use of a system of pipes and emitters, water is slowly and precisely
applied to plant roots. This method decreases water loss via evaporation
and run -off, which conserves water and boosts crop yields.
3.4 RAIN WATER HARVESTING The technique of gathering and storing rainwater for later use is known as
rainwater harvesting. It is a traditional method of water management that
has been practised for many years around the world, including India. The
general procedures for collecting rainwater are as follows:
• Rooftop Catchment: Gathering rainwater from building rooftops is
the first step in rainwater harvesting. Concrete, metal, or tile are just a
few possible materials for the rooftop catchment area.
• Rainwater collection system: A gutter system c ollects rainwater
from the rooftop and directs it to a storage tank. To avoid clogging,
the gutter system should be kept clean and well -maintained.
• Before the water is stored , it must be filtered to get rid of any dirt or
contaminants. To get rid of leav es, twigs, and other waste, people
frequently use a mesh or screen filter. A more sophisticated filtering
system is needed to get rid of bacteria, viruses, and other impurities
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19 Water scarcity and water management; rainwater harvesting – case study of Johads in Rajasthan • Storage: A storage tank is used to hold the filtered rainwat er. The
amount of rainfall and the water demand determine the tank's size.
The tank may be constructed from a variety of materials, including
metal, concrete, or plastic.
• Distribution: After being stored, rainwater can be used for a variety
of tasks, inc luding drinking, washing, and irrigation. The water that
has been kept must be treated to get rid of any dangerous bacteria,
viruses, or from any other contaminants.
A variety of methods are required to alleviate India's water scarcity,
including improved water management systems, investments in water
infrastructure, encouragement of water conservation, and initiatives to
lower pollution and excessive groundwater use. One such method is the
Johads. Let us look into in detail.
Check Your Progress
1. What i s rain water harvesting?
2. Discuss traditional water harvesting systems.
3.5 CASE STUDY OF JOHADS A johad is a typical water collection system. Johads are small earthen
check dams built by individuals using their own abilities, resourc es, and
traditional knowledge that trap and conserve rainwater while enhancing
percolation and groundwater recharge. Traditionally used to collect
rainwater, johads are located in India's semi -arid and arid regions,
particularly in the state of Rajasthan. In order to collect and store
rainwater, small earthen embankments or dams are constructed over
shallow valleys or depressions. Johads are often constructed from natural
resources found nearby, such as stone, clay, and soil. Johads are mainly
found in Alw ar district of Rajasthan there are roughly more than 3000
johads. It began through the efforts of Rajendra Singh and the locals.
They are intended to slow down rainwater runoff so that it can seep into
the ground and replenish nearby aquifers. They are fr equently built by
local people utilising traditional methods and knowledge, and they play a munotes.in

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20 Environmental Concerns in India
20 significant role in the region's cultural history. Numerous advantages of
johads include:
• Increasing water availability: Johads can supply a dependable
source of water for drinking, agriculture, and other uses by collecting
and storing rainwater.
• Preventing soil erosion: Johads can aid in preventing soil erosion
and promoting soil fertility, which is crucial for agriculture and
biodiversity. They achieve this by stopping the flow of precipitation.
• Supporting biodiversity: Johads can build little wetlands and ponds
that serve as crucial wildlife habitat, especially during the dry season.
• Building community resilience: Johads, which are frequently
constructed an d maintained by local residents, can encourage
participation and empowerment of the community in the management
of natural resources.
The johads are very efficient and inexpensive; at 100 rupees per capita,
they can increase economic output by up to 400 ru pees year. In contrast,
the neighbouring Sardar Sarovar Dam project cost 300 billion rupees,
costing 100 times more to supply water to each person and 340 times more
to irrigate each acre.
Johads have aided rural communities in their extraordinary transiti on from
extreme poverty to prosperity under the guidance of Tarun Bharat Sangh
and its leader Rajendra Singh, known as the Rajasthani Water Man
(Frontline 2001). To stop the monsoon runoff, small mud barriers called
johads are constructed across hill slope s, typically in semi -circular shapes.
They are surrounded on three sides by the natural slopes of hills and
constructed over a slope to catch rainfall. A mud wall, usually semi -
circular in shape, on the fourth side prevents the
Depending on the site, water flow, topography, etc., the height of the
embankment varies from one johad to another. In some instances, a
masonry structure is also created for the outlet of extra water to reduce the
water pressure. Between 2 and 100 hectares are used to store water. P er
hectare of farmed land, 1000 –1500 m3 of storage were produced
optimally. With an average price of Rs.0.95/m3, the cost of the storage
produced ranged from Indian Rupee (Rs) 0.2 to 1.50/m3.
The villagers shared the expense and contributed 70 –90% of the e ntire
cost by providing labour and locally accessible resources including stone,
sand, and lime. These constructions stood out due to their low cost,
straightforward design, simple construction. During the monsoon, water is
collected in johads and used for irrigation, drinking, feeding animals, and
other domestic uses. This water also permeates the subsoil. This helps the
wide areas by recharging the groundwater and increasing soil moisture.
Additionally, the land inside the johad itself becomes cultivable
throughout the dry season as the water progressively recedes in the johad. munotes.in

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21 Water scarcity and water management; rainwater harvesting – case study of Johads in Rajasthan 8600 johads total have been constructed across 1086 communities in the
6500 km2 Alwar district. As a result, groundwater recharge in the shallow
aquifer has raised the water table f rom a depth of roughly 100 –120 m to
3–13 m. The amount of land used for single - and double -cropping
expanded from 11% and 3% to 70% and 50%, respectively, bringing
wealth to the farmers. Through agroforestry and social forestry, the forest
cover, which was previously only about 7%, expanded to 40%, producing
enough fuel wood and removing carbon from the atmosphere. According
to estimates, johads have improved the crop production with a per -capita
investment of Rs. 100 in johad yields an annual benefit of Rs . 400. A
significant source of livelihood has also evolved with fishing. With water
availability the health of women has also enhanced as now they need not
carry water from faraway places. Restoration of the Arvari and Ruparel
Rivers through restoration is the most stunning accomplishment.
Dr. G. D. Agarwal, a former head of the civil engineering department at
the Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur, did a study (in Kavarana
2006) that revealed how cost -effective the buildings of johads were, with
prices starting as low as Rs. 0.2 (US cents 0.4) per cubic metre of storage.
capacity ranging from Rs. 0.95 (US cents 2.2) per cubic metre on average
to Rs. 3 (US cents 7) on high. The annual per capita income in the study's
sampled villages ranged from a low of Rs. 126 (US$2.95) to a high of Rs.
3585 (US$83.98). According to the study, an investment of Rs. 1000 in
johads increased economic output by more than Rs. 4200 annually
(Kavarana 2006)
The johad has developed into a tool for energising the populace,
enhan cing social cohesion, fostering individualism and emotional ties
within the community, and activating the latter for the benefit of all
(Rajendra Singh 2005, Community Driven Decentralized Water
Management). With johads the availability of water is now gua ranteed
throughout the year to suit the demands of both people and animals. Since
livestock farming is essential to small towns, johads has led to more
access to water and fodder.
A sample from one of the villages that benefited from the construction of
johads is shown in Table 1.
The financial situation has improved as a result of availability. It has
enhanced food production, aided in soil conservation, increased biomass
productivity, and even transformed five seasonal rivers (Arvari, Ruparel,
Sarsa, Bhag ani-Teldeh, and Jahajwali) into perennials in addition to
providing for basic necessities, drinking water, and household uses
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22 Environmental Concerns in India
22

Johads have experienced threats from a variety of sources, including land
use changes, urbanisation, and neglect , despite the fact that they offer
many advantages. As part of larger initiatives to advance resilient and
sustainable water management practises in India, efforts needs to be taken
to support the restoration and rebirth of johads.

Source - The design of water johads. Source: Anupma Sharma, National
Institute of Hydrology
Check Your Progress
1. How does johads prevent soil erosion?
2. Johads are mainly found in which state in India. munotes.in

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23 Water scarcity and water management; rainwater harvesting – case study of Johads in Rajasthan 3.6 SUMMARY In this chapter, we learn about the importan ce of water management, the
impact of water scarity on the lives of people and environment. As a way
to handle the water crisis there are several traditional methods used like
that of johads in Rajasthan. Johads is a community owned water
management practi ce which is cheaper compared to a larger dam and is
viable and adaptable to the locals. A johad is a typical water collection
system. Johads are small earthen check dams built by individuals using
their own abilities, resources, and traditional knowledge t hat trap and
conserve rainwater while enhancing percolation and groundwater
recharge. Traditionally used to collect rainwater, johads are located in
India's semi -arid and arid regions, particularly in the state of Rajasthan. In
order to collect and store r ainwater, small earthen embankments or dams
are constructed over shallow valleys or depressions. Johads are often
constructed from natural resources found nearby, such as stone, clay, and
soil.
3.7 QUESTIONS 1. Discuss the case study of Johads.
2. Expl ain traditional water management systems.
3. Discuss rain water harvesting
4. Explain in brief the water scarcity in India.
3.8 REFERENCES  Hussain, J., Husain, I., & Arif, M. (2014). Water resources
management: traditional technology and communities as part of the
solution. Proceedings of the International Association of Hydrological
Sciences, 364, 236 -242.
 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273286697_Water_resource
s_management_traditional_technology_and_communities_as_part_of
_the_solution/downloa d
 https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/india/brief/world -water -day-
2022 -how-india -is-addressing -its-water -
needs#:~:text=The%20country%20has%2018%20percent,think%20ta
nk%2C%20the%20NITI%20Aayog.
 https://www.notechmagazine.com/2015/06/water -johads -a-low-tech-
alternative -to-mega -dams -in-india.html
 https://www.cseindia.org/traditional -water -harvesting -systems -683
 Boers, T. M., & Ben -Asher, J. (1982). A review of rainwater
harvesting. Agricultural water management, 5(2), 145 -158.

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24 UNIT II
4
WASTE MANAGEMENT; SOLID WASTE
MANAGEMENT, BIO -MEDICAL WASTE;
INDUSTRIAL WASTE; NUCLEAR WASTE
AND E -WASTE
Unit Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Meaning of waste management.
4.2 Solid waste management
4.3 Bio-medical waste
4.4 Industrial waste
4.5 Nuclear waste
4.6 E waste.
4.7 Case studies
4.8 Summary
4.9 Questions
4.10 References
4.0 OBJECTIVES  To learn about the meaning of Waste management
 To understand the different types of waste and its management.
4.1 MEANING OF WASTE MANAGEMENT Understa nding the waste and its management is one of the important topic.
As it not only effects the present but also the future population and nature.
Everyday Mumbai generates nearly 7025 tonnes in a day. This shows the
necessity to understand this problem and m ethods to manage it. In this
chapter we will looking into waste management and the different types of
it.
The meaning of Waste is any object or substance that has served its
purpose and is now being wasted. Waste can be produced from a
multitude of source s, including homes, businesses, industries, and
construction sites. It can also take many different forms, such as solid,
liquid, or gas. Depending on where it comes from, what it is made of, and
how it could affect the environment and people's health, was te can be
categorised in a variety of ways. Municipal solid waste (MSW), industrial
waste, hazardous waste, biomedical waste, electronic trash (e -waste), and munotes.in

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25 Waste Management; Solid Waste Management, Bio-Medical Waste; Industrial Waste; Nuclear Waste and E-Waste construction and demolition waste are a few examples of the several types
of waste that can be cat egorised. If waste is not managed appropriately,
there are serious environmental and health problems. For instance,
incorrect garbage disposal can result in land and water pollution,
greenhouse gas emissions, and risks to the public's health.
While Waste management is the procedure for gathering, handling, and
getting rid of waste in a safe and efficient way. Waste management seeks
to minimize the harm that trash causes to the environment and to people's
health while simultaneously fostering resource effic iency and
sustainability. Waste generation, collection, transportation, sorting and
separation, treatment, and disposal are some of the common steps in waste
management. Utilising the proper technologies and procedures is essential
for effective waste mana gement because they reduce the volume and
toxicity of trash while maximising the recovery and recycling of valuable
resources. Municipal solid waste (such as home trash), industrial waste,
hazardous waste (such as chemicals and medical waste), and electron ic
waste are a few typical waste kinds that need to be managed. It's crucial to
handle waste properly for healthy environment, for the health of people,
and natural resources.
4.2 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT Any dumped material that is neither a liquid or a g as is considered solid
waste. It may consist of a variety of things, including hazardous trash,
industrial waste, and home garbage. Households, businesses,
organisations, and industrial sources all produce solid trash. Solid waste
management must be done c orrectly if environmental contamination,
public health issues, and resource depletion are to be avoided.
Solid waste management is the procedure for gathering, moving,
processing, recycling, and discarding solid waste in a way that doesn't
harm the environ ment. The reduction of garbage's negative effects on the
environment, the general public's health, and aesthetics is the main
objective of solid waste management. This entails a number of actions,
including waste minimization, waste reuse and recycling, en ergy recovery
from waste, and proper disposal of any leftover trash. To guarantee that
garbage is managed in a safe and sustainable way, solid waste
management also entails developing and putting into effect policies, rules,
and guidelines. For the sake of the environment, public health, and the
preservation of natural resources, proper solid waste management is
essential.
4.3 BIO MEDICAL WASTE Any waste produced during the diagnosis, treatment, or immunisation of
people or animals, as well as during biolo gical research operations, is
referred to as biomedical waste, sometimes known as healthcare waste.
Sharps (needles, syringes, and scalpels), blood and blood products, human
and animal tissues, body parts, cultures, and swabs that are potentially
infectiou s objects that fall under this category. Non -infectious trash such munotes.in

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26 Environmental Concerns in India
26 as wasted medications, chemicals, and pharmaceutical items is also
categorised as biomedical waste.
Biomedical waste needs to be separated, collected, transported, treated,
and disposed of according to strict rules and regulations due to its
potentially hazardous nature in order to stop the spread of illness and
safeguard the environment. The environment, animals, and the public's
health will be at risk if there is improper biomedical waste handling.
In order to ensure the proper handling and disposal of potentially
infectious materials, biomedical waste management comprises a number
of stages. These are general recommendations for handling biological
waste include:
Segregation:
The first st ep is to distinguish between different forms of trash and
biomedical waste. Segregation takes place at hospitals, clinics, labs, and
research facilities. Biomedical waste should be separated in accordance
with national laws and World Health Organisation (W HO) norms.
Collection:
The separated waste should be picked up in the proper containers that are
marked with the warning symbols and the waste category.
Transport:
Biomedical waste should be moved in a method that reduces the chance of
contamination or e nvironmental harm. This involves the use of specific
vehicles which have labels over them and are also have even steps taken
for safety in them.
Treatment:
The proper techniques, such as sterilization, destruction, or chemical
treatment, should be used t o deal with biomedical waste. The kind and
volume of trash, as well as regional rules and regulations, will all affect
the treatment technique selection. The safe disposal of processed
biological waste is the last stage. Depending on the type of garbage an d
local laws, this can entail deep burial, landfilling, or other techniques. The
management of biological waste necessitates specialised knowledge and
experience. In order to avoid legal trouble, it is crucial to abide by the
rules and regulations which ar e already in place or it is better to take
professional help.
Check Your Progress
1. What does waste management means? munotes.in

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27 Waste Management; Solid Waste Management, Bio-Medical Waste; Industrial Waste; Nuclear Waste and E-Waste 2. Do you think segregation of waste is needed = comment.
4.4 INDUSTRIAL WASTE A sort of garbage produced by industrial a ctivities like manufacturing,
mining, construction, and agriculture is known as industrial waste.
Chemicals, metals, construction debris, electronic waste, and other
substances that are no longer required or superfluous to industrial
processes are examples of industrial waste. If industrial waste is not
adequately managed, it may contain poisonous or dangerous materials and
could endanger both human health and the environment.
In order to safeguard human health and the environment, proper handling
of indust rial waste is crucial. Industrial trash can be handled safely and
responsibly before being recycled, disposed of, or treated. Treatment
techniques may involve neutralising or reducing the waste's harmful
content through physical, chemical, or biological pr ocesses. While safe
disposal could mean landfills, burning, or other techniques that adhere to
environmental standards and norms, recycling may involve retrieving
valuable elements from the garbage for reuse. In order to reduce the
quantity of garbage prod uced by their operations and to effectively
manage the waste that is produced, industries must adopt sustainable and
environmentally friendly practises.
A variety of tasks are involved with handling industrial waste, including
reducing trash generation, pr ocessing garbage, recycling or recovering
valuable materials, and safely and responsibly disposing of waste. Some
broad recommendations for handling industrial waste are as below:
Trash minimization:
Businesses can reduce the amount of trash they produce by using fewer
raw materials, more effective production techniques, and efficient use of
water and energy. Reusing or recycling items is another method of waste
minimization that may be used to cut down on waste production.
Waste segregation is the process of segregating various waste types based
on their traits and features. This could make it easier to dispose of waste
safely in environmentally -friendly ways through recycling, treatment, or
recycling.
Treatment:
Neutralising, detoxifying, or reducing the harmful content of industrial
waste requires physical, chemical, or biological methods. Waste treatment munotes.in

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28 Environmental Concerns in India
28 can lessen its negative environmental effects and make it safer to dispose
of disposal.
Recycling and recovery:
Recovering valuable materials from ga rbage for use in industrial
operations is the goal of recycling and recovery. This could lessen the
quantity of waste that needs to be disposed of and help preserve natural
resources.
Safe disposal:
It is necessary to dispose of industrial waste in a safe and responsible
manner if it cannot be repurposed or reused. Landfilling, the burning
process, and other disposal techniques that adhere to environmental norms
and standards are all acceptable.
To manage industrial waste, it is crucial that industries imp lement
sustainable and ecologically friendly practises. This can be beneficial for
nature and human health too.
4.5 NUCLEAR WASTE A category of hazardous waste known as nuclear waste is created during
the functioning of nuclear power plants, the manufac ture of nuclear
weapons, and other nuclear applications. It is a byproduct of nuclear
fission, a technique used to make nuclear weapons and the electricity
utilised in nuclear power plants.
Nuclear waste is extremely radioactive and can be hazardous for a very
long time. It may consist of a variety of substances, such as old fuel rods,
contaminated instruments, and safety gear worn by personnel working in
nuclear facilities. Radiation from nuclear waste has the potential to harm
both people and the environm ent.
To safeguard the environment and the public's health, nuclear waste must
be managed safely. There are numerous techniques used to manage
nuclear waste, such as :
Storage: Until it is safe to dispose of it, nuclear waste can be maintained
for many years in properly built facilities such dry casks or pools.
Transport:
Specialised containers that can survive radiation and physical damage are
frequently used to transport nuclear waste.
Nuclear waste is disposed of by burying it far below in a geological
repository, where it may be protected from the environment for a long
time. The repository needs to be built with radioactive material discharge
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29 Waste Management; Solid Waste Management, Bio-Medical Waste; Industrial Waste; Nuclear Waste and E-Waste To maintain public safety and environmental protection, the management
of nuclear waste is a complicated and difficult subject that needs careful
planning, monitoring, and regulatory oversight.
Check Your Progress
1. How is industrial waste harmful?
2. What do you understand by nuclear waste?
4.6 E WASTE Electronic garbage, also known as e -waste, is the term for abandoned
electronic equipment and gadgets such computers, smartphones,
televisions, and other gadgets. If not correctly handled, dangerous
substances like lead, mercury, cadmium, and br ominated flame retardants
may be present in e -waste, which could endanger both human health and
the environment.
E-waste management is the process of processing and recycling e -waste,
reducing the impact of e -waste on the environment, and disposing of e -
waste safely and responsibly. Managing e -waste generally should follow
the following principles:
Reduce: The greatest strategy for handling e -waste is to lower its
production. In order to do this, one can select long -lasting electronic
gadgets, repair broken ones rather than buying new ones, and donate or
sell old electronic devices.
Reuse: By reusing electronic gadgets, you may increase their lifespan and
cut down on the production of e -waste. This may entail repairing
electronic equipment or giving it to ch arities, educational institutions, or
other organisations.
Recycling:
Recycling e -waste entails collecting valuable materials for use in the
creation of new electronic equipment, such as metals, plastics, and glass.
Recycling can lessen the quantity of e -waste that needs to be disposed of
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30 Environmental Concerns in India
30 E-waste that cannot be recycled or reused must be disposed of safely and
responsibly. Landfilling, incineration, and other disposal techniques that
adhere to environmental norms and standards are all acceptable. To
manage e -waste, it is crucial for individuals, corporations, and
governments to adopt sustainable and ecologically friendly practises. The
state generated more than 10 lakh metric tonne (MT) of e waste but only 1
percent of the e waste has been recycled in the year 2019 -20.
4.7 CASE STUDIES OF WASTE MANAGEMENT 1. Samarth Bharat Vyaspeeth (SBV) a non profit NGO hires rag pickers
and have given them stable jobs in the Thane waste treatment centre
with the Thane Muni cipal corporation as a result, both the rag pickers
lives have improved as well as it has contributed in cleaning the city.
The NGO also started redeveloping different places through the
recycling process and even built scrap library with old musician
instruments, e wastes etc (1).
2. There are several societies making compost through the waste
generated within their societies. Out of the compost generated they
sell it for other residents and in nurses. They dry out the wet waste in
the terrace so that it doesn’t stink and then put the waste in the boxes
kept in the parking spaces for the compost to grow. Once final it is
used within the building or packed and sold too. In a way, generating
both the income and saving the environment.
3. There is a recent t rend of using bio enzymes instead of big brands
chemicals for all purpose right from shampoo to washing clothes, to
floor cleaning, to washing utensils. Bio enzymes are made out of
jaggery and wastes like – citrus skin. The use of bio enzymes can save
the rivers. As they are made of out of plants or related material. While
that of chemicals are creating pollution for both nature and
environment. The method to make bio enzyme is that of 1:10: one -
part jaggery 10 parts water, 3 parts the skin – like
There ar e several videos showing how to use, how to make bio
enzymes in details. Please refer to it. Bio enzymes would not only
help from harmful chemicals but also the number of plastics used like
the if you buy a shampoo bottle not just the shampoo has sodium
lauryl sulphate which is harmful but also the plastic bottle is harmful
for nature.
4. Cleanest village of India – The cleanest village of India is at
Meghalaya known as Mawlynnong Village. To make the village clean
is a collective effort. Once a week all t he plastics are collected in the
bamboo baskets kept on the specific street and thereafter, they are
recycled in the nearest factory of the village. This resulted in lot of
both tourists attraction, homestays being developed and giving
income to the villag e.
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31 Waste Management; Solid Waste Management, Bio-Medical Waste; Industrial Waste; Nuclear Waste and E-Waste 4.8 SUMMARY Waste management is the procedure for gathering, handling, and getting
rid of waste in a safe and efficient way. Waste management seeks to
minimize the harm that trash causes to the environment and to people's
health. The solid waste man agement includes managing trash from homes,
businesses, and building and demolition projects, is known as solid waste
management. The safe treatment, transportation, and disposal of medical
waste produced by healthcare facilities like hospitals, clinics, a nd
laboratories is referred to as biomedical waste management. Managing
trash produced by industrial processes including manufacturing, mining,
and construction is known as industrial waste management. The
management of hazardous waste produced by nuclear power plants, the
development of nuclear weapons, and other nuclear uses is referred to as
nuclear waste management. Nuclear waste is extremely radioactive and
can be hazardous for a very long time. The treatment of garbage produced
by electronic equipment , such as computers, smartphones, and televisions,
is known as e -waste management. Electronic garbage should be disposed
of safely and responsibly. We also saw some case studies from different
parts of India.
4.9 QUESTIONS 1. Explain the meaning of wast e and waste management
2. Discuss the nuclear waste and its management
3. Explain the solid waste management, e waste.
4.10 REFERENCES  https://www.unicef.org/india/stories/earth -day-special -investing -
waste -management
 http://www.bcpt.org.in/articles/S olidWasteManagement.pdf
 https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/mumbai -just-1-e-
waste -recycled -70-of-solid -waste -treated -in-19-
20/articleshow/81976576.cms
 Perkins, D. N., Drisse, M. N. B., Nxele, T., & Sly, P. D. (2014). E -
waste: a global hazard. A nnals of global health, 80(4), 286 -295.
 Reno, J. (2015). Waste and waste management. Annual Review of
Anthropology, 44, 557 -572.


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32 5
EFFECTS OF DEVELOPMENT
ACTIVITIES WITH REFERENCE TO LOSS
OF MANGROVES, BUILDING OF METRO,
SKYWALKS ETC.
Unit Structure
5.0 Objective
5.1 Meaning of Development activities
5.2 Loss of Mangroves
5.3 Metros and the effects of development
5.4 Sky walks
5.5 Summary
5.6 Questions
5.7 References
5.0 OBJECTIVES • To learn about the development activities meaning
• To understand impact of development activities on environment.
5.1 MEANING OF DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES Programs, initiatives, and projects aim ing at enhancing the standard of
living, employment prospects, and social wellbeing of urban communities
are referred to as development activities in cities. These initiatives, which
can target a variety of concerns like education, healthcare, transportati on,
housing, and the environment, are frequently carried out by governments,
nonprofit organizations, community groups, and other stakeholders.
Developmental activities in cities include, for instance:
• Urban renewal projects: These involve reviving urban
neighborhoods, frequently by renovating old structures and enhancing
the streetscape and other infrastructure.
• Parks, playgrounds, and other green space development are included
in this because they offer recreational activities, encourage physical
activity, and enhance air quality.
• Community development programmes: This category consists of
projects meant to encourage economic growth, such as programmes
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33 Effects of Development Activities With Reference to Loss of Mangroves, Building of Metro, Skywalks etc • Transportation Improvements: These include the creation of bike
lanes, pedestrian -friendly streets, and public transportation networks,
all of which help to ease traffic congestion, support environmentally
friendly modes of transportation, and enhance pub lic health.
• After -school programmes, museums, and cultural centres are
examples of programmes in this category that work to increase access
to high -quality educational and cultural opportunities.
• Overall, urban development initiatives are essential for fostering
social inclusiveness, economic expansion, and environmental
sustainability.
Development activities are important for :
Cities need development activities for a number of reasons.
• Enhancing Quality of Life: By giving city people access to bette r
infrastructure, services, and facilities, development efforts can
enhance the quality of life in cities. This entails the creation of public
areas like playgrounds and parks, the provision of dependable public
transit, and the development of facilities f or healthcare and education.
• Economic Growth: By generating new jobs, luring investment, and
aiding small enterprises, development initiatives can stimulate
economic growth in urban areas. For city dwellers, this may result in
higher incomes and greater prosperity.
• Social Inclusion: By giving people from different backgrounds the
chance to take part in community activities and access services and
resources, development initiatives can assist to foster social inclusion.
This may lessen societal tensions.
• Environmental Sustainability: By encouraging the use of renewable
energy, lowering greenhouse gas emissions, and promoting
sustainable transportation options, development activities and it can
also enhance environmental sustainability. In addition to en hancing
the health and well -being of city dwellers, this can help alleviate the
effects of climate change.
• Enhancing the City's Image: Development projects can improve a
city's perception, making it more appealing to citizens, businesses,
and tourists. T his could assist promote tourism, boost investment, and
improve the city's reputation.
• Overall, development activities are essential for increasing the
livability and inclusivity of cities for all citizens, as well as their
economic, social, and environm ental sustainability.

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34 Environmental Concerns in India
34 5.2 LOSS OF MANGROVES A variety of ecosystem services are provided by mangroves, Mangroves
are tropical trees that grow in coastal areas. These mangroves help in a
variety of ways like stabilizing shorelines, defending coastal comm unities
from storms and erosion, filtering pollutants from water, and providing
habitat for numerous marine and terrestrial species. However,
development activities including land reclamation, aquaculture,
agriculture, and urbanisation frequently result in the loss of mangroves.
Mangroves have evolved around 114 million years ago. In the last ten
years or so, Mumbai has probably lost 40% of all of its mangroves,
primarily due to land reclamation for slums, sewage treatment and rubbish
dumps. Pollution in th ese places is caused by expanding industrial zones
along the coastlines and the discharge of home and industrial sewage.
Fortunately, the Godrej family has preserved an outstanding mangrove
forest in Vikroli link. On the Maharashtra coast, about 20 of the 35
species of true mangroves have been identified, while Mumbai is home to
15 of these species (sarkar, 2017).
Reason behind loss of mangroves :
• A number of things, including natural disasters and human activity,
contribute to the disappearance of mang roves. Storms, sea level rise,
and coastal erosion are some natural factors that contribute to
mangrove destruction. However, human activities, which include the
following, are the primary cause of mangrove decline worldwide:
• Land Reclamation: Land recla mation entails converting mangrove
forests and other coastal ecosystems into land for farming,
aquaculture, or urban development. Dredging and filling are
frequently used in this, which can devastate mangrove environments.
• Logging and deforestation: Wood from mangrove trees is frequently
taken for use in construction, fuel, and other products. Mangrove
forests may be completely lost as a result of logging and
deforestation.
• Aquaculture : In coastal locations, fish, prawns, and other aquatic
species are g rown for food. This frequently entails the destruction of
the different mangroves and their dependent habitats.
• Agriculture: Mangrove forests may be lost as a result of agriculture,
notably rice production. This is frequently brought on by the
developmen t of irrigation channels and the application of fertilizers
and pesticides, which can contaminate the water and harm mangrove
habitats.
• Urbanization: Mangrove forests may be lost as a result of
urbanization, which also includes the establishment of build ings,
roads, and other infrastructure. This is frequently caused by habitat
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35 Effects of Development Activities With Reference to Loss of Mangroves, Building of Metro, Skywalks etc Impact of loss of Mangroves on environment :
• Mangrove habitat loss brought on by development activities can have
a big influence on the environment, society, and economy
• Increased Coastal Erosion: Mangroves are crucial for stabilizing
shorelines and reducing erosion along the coast. Mangrove removal
makes the coast more susceptible to erosion, which increases the risk
of losing critical infrastructur e and property.
• Reduced Biodiversity: Fish, crabs, birds, and reptiles are just a few
of the many marine and terrestrial species that depend on mangroves
as a habitat. Loss of mangroves results in the extinction of these
species and a consequent decline in biodiversity.
• Enhanced Storm Vulnerability: Mangroves serve as natural barriers
to storms and hurricanes, minimizing the effects of strong winds and
waves. Loss of mangroves makes coastal towns more susceptible to
storm damage, which can result in cas ualties and property loss.
• Reduced Water Quality: Mangroves function as natural filters that
improve water quality by filtering out pollutants. When mangroves
are destroyed, water quality may suffer, which could have negative
effects on human health and the ecosystem.
• Mangroves provide a variety of positive economic effects, including
fisheries, ecotourism, and the retention of carbon. When the
mangroves are lost then the benefits which the nature receives through
them is reduced as a result both the lo cal community as well as the
larger economy and the water base is affected.
Check Your Progress
1. List out some of the developmental activities.
2. Are mangroves natural water filters – comment.


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36 Environmental Concerns in India
36 5.3 METROS AND IMPACT OF DEVELOPMENT Although the word metro is used with different context like metropolitan
city etc. Here we are restricting to understanding it with trains.
Urban rapid transit or metros systems offer quick and effective
transportation both within and between cities. Th ese systems, which are
frequently employed to reduce traffic congestion in highly populated
urban areas, typically incorporate underground, elevated, or at -grade rail
lines and stations. Metro railroads are frequently utilised to relieve traffic
congestion in densely populated urban areas, and by serving as an
alternative to private automobiles, they can also assist reduce air pollution
and greenhouse gas emissions. Metro train systems can also improve
society and economy by connecting people to cultural, e ducational, and
employment possibilities. Electric -powered trains that travel on lines that
are normally isolated from other types of traffic are used by numerous
metro systems across the world. Many of these systems have features like
air conditioning, ac cessibility for individuals with impairments, and real -
time information displays. Some systems also use automated trains that do
not require a human driver. Metro railroads play a significant role in
helping cities satisfy the mobility needs of its citizen s and visitors in a
safe, sustainable, and effective way. They are a significant component of
urban transportation infrastructure.
Negative Impact of Metro on Environment :
 By serving as an alternative to private vehicles, metro trains can help
reduce air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions; nonetheless, the
development and maintenance of these systems can have a negative
influence on the environment. Here are a few illustrations:
 Loss of Green Space and animals Habitats: Building new metro lines
and sta tions frequently necessitates a sizable piece of land, which can
cause habitat loss for animals. In some circumstances, building metro
systems can also result in wetlands, forests, or other significant
ecosystems being destroyed.
 Energy Consumption: Althou gh metro trains are often powered by
electricity, the generation and delivery of that electricity can have an
adverse effect on the environment, especially if it is produced using
fossil fuels. Additionally, escalators, lighting, ventilation, and other
energy-intensive components of metro systems' construction and
operation can increase greenhouse gas emissions.
 Metro trains can produce a lot of noise and vibration when they are in
service, especially in metropolitan locations where the tracks are
situated close to homes or other buildings. Both the health and well -
being of people as well as the wildlife in neighbouring ecosystems
may suffer as a result of this.
 Waste Production: The building and running of metro systems can
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37 Effects of Development Activities With Reference to Loss of Mangroves, Building of Metro, Skywalks etc over from maintenance and repair work, and trash left over from
passengers such food containers and newspapers.
 Even during the construction process of metro there are lot of trees
chopped which has stood for more than d ecades. Places have also
been cleared for building car shed. While the construction process
constant use of instruments, banging, drilling leads to lot of noise
pollution.
 Though the cost of metro has been huge, some lines are not used as
much as expected due to the expensive fare, or lack of willingness or
there aren’t much people moving on that specific route hence the
investment cost vs the cost of utility is very less.
5.4 SKY WALKS Skywalks are elevated walkways that connect a variety of strongly
targeted locations to either other high -density commercial areas or to
railway stations. According to the MMRDA website, the goal of the
skywalks is the effective distribution of commuters from crowded regions
to key destinations, such as bus terminals, taxi stands, shopping districts,
etc.
In the city of Mumbai there are around 37 skywalks. The cost involved in
the construction is around 600 crores. But according to a study carried out
by the MMRDA in 2013, only 250,000 people use the skywalks - a tiny
fraction of Mumbai’s population of 12 million (guardian).
Many of the skywalks are not used by people even though there is a
sizeable amount which has been spent on them. Understanding the habits
and undertaking a study prior to the construction of sky walk w ould have
helped. As sky walks have stairs and especially senior citizens find it
difficult to climb, hence they prefer the old method of crossing by the road
or using an auto to get to the other side as quicker and safer. As well as
due to the general beh avior of human beings were many do not prefer to
use the stair case there is not much use as expected unless there is a
functioning elevator or sky walk is the only option left to cross the roads.
In some places, there are police standing to enforce the us ing of sky walk
behavior as people generally still tend to avoid it. Skywalks in today’s
time is also used by footpath dwellers, beggars to sleep at night as its
empty at night or late evening. As the place is secluded many women even
find it hesitant to u se out of fear. There are also other problems like
maintenance and lack of cleanliness in skywalks due to which people use
it less.
Advantages of Sky walks :
Reduced carbon emissions: Skywalks can aid in lowering air pollution
levels if they are made to p romote cycling and walking over driving.
Skywalks can aid in the reduction of automobile traffic by giving walkers
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38 Environmental Concerns in India
38 Impact on aesthetics: Skywalks can significantly alter the landscape's
appearance, and some in dividuals may find them invasive or unsightly.
However, well -thought -out skywalk integration can improve the
attractiveness and usefulness of urban environments.
It can save lives of people and develop good habits. It can save accidents
of both the riders and the walkers.
Disadvantages of Sky walks :
Impacts on wildlife: If skywalks are constructed in parks or across
waterways, they may change the habitats and migratory routes of wildlife.
Before building skywalks here, it's crucial to thoroughly assess th e
potential effects on the local ecosystems.
Increased energy use: Lighting, heating, and cooling are frequently needed
for skywalks, which can result in an increase in energy use and
greenhouse gas emissions. However, skywalks can lessen these effects if
they are built with energy -efficient components, like solar panels or
effective lighting.
The Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority (MMRDA)
invested Rs 897 crores towards the construction of 20 skywalks in
Mumbai city, making up the total of 36 skywalks that stretch 17 km.
According to data released by the MMRDA, this also includes money for
six skywalks constructed by the Maharashtra State Road Development
Corporation (MSRDC). However, some argue that there already exists
roads and clearance of the encroached part of the road could have given
enough space for the people who walk, instead of making expensive
skywalks. There are other problems like even the skywalks are encroached
by the hawkers, leaving to little space for people to walk, speciall y around
the railway stations.
Check Your Progress
1. Discuss about the mangroves in Mumbai.
2. Do you think skywalks are useful – comment

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39 Effects of Development Activities With Reference to Loss of Mangroves, Building of Metro, Skywalks etc 5.6 SUMMARY In this chapter we discussed about the meaning of developmental activities
like P rograms, initiatives, and projects aiming at enhancing the standard of
living, employment prospects, and social wellbeing of urban communities.
These initiatives, which can target a variety of concerns like education,
healthcare, transportation, housing, a nd the environment, are frequently
carried out by governments, nonprofit organizations, community groups,
and other stakeholders. Several topics are discussed in the chapter like
mangroves and its role and present condition, skywalks and its uses and
impac t, metro rails and its impact on environment.
5.7 QUESTIONS 1. Discuss the meaning of development activities and why it is
important.
2. Write a note on skywalks
3. Discuss the mangroves loss and its impact.
4. Explain in brief the metros and environme ntal impact.
5.8 REFERENCES  https://mmrda.maharashtra.gov.in/skywalk
 https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2014/nov/27/mumbai -skywalks -
are-these -elevated -paths -ugly-caterpillars -or-precious -public -space
 https://mumbai.citizenmatters.in/mumbai -skywalks -mmrd a-bmc-
objections -40262
 Leena H. Sarkar, (2017) Mangroves in India. www.ijcrt.org 1487
Mangroves in Mumbai IJCRT | Volume 5, Issue 4
 Soni, A. R., & Chandel, M. K. (2018). Assessment of emission
reduction potential of Mumbai metro rail. Journal of cleaner
production, 197, 1579 -1586.
 Bharadwaj, S., Ballare, S., & Chandel, M. K. (2017). Impact of
congestion on greenhouse gas emissions for road transport in Mumbai
metropolitan region. Transportation research procedia, 25, 3538 -3551.

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40 6
DEPLETION OF SOIL, AIR AND WATER
AS A RESOURCE
Unit Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Development and Environment
6.3 Soil, Air and Water Depletion in India
6.4 Conclusion
6.5 Questions
6.6 References and Further Readings
6.0 OBJECTIV ES  To understand the importance of environmental conservation
 To familiarize students with the issue of soil, air and water depletion
6.1 INTRODUCTION Water, air, and soil are three natural resources that we cannot live
without. Water is one of the most important natural resources essential for
life. Soil provides nutrients, water, oxygen and heat to natural land areas.
Understanding the ability and capacity of soil to support an ecosystem
plays an important role in land management decisions. Air is a th ird
critical resource for humans, plants, animals, and all other organisms
within a natural area.
Despite being the most essential elements on the earth, water, air, and soil
are subjected to various harmful practices by humans. Some of them are
listed bel ow: The use of fertilizers and pesticides on soil has severely
affected the natural content of soil and is degrading the soil quality. The
loss of fertility of the soil is degrading the quality of the food. The mining
and deforestation practices also cause the loss of fertility of the soil.
Improper disposal of chemical waste by industries into the water bodies
pollutes water and affects the marine life of the water body. The release of
hazardous chemicals into natural air causes air pollution and poses a t hreat
to all living organisms breathing it.
All these harmful effects cause a simultaneous effect on the entire
ecosystem and affect the survival of life on earth.

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41 Depletion of Soil, Air and Water as a Resource 6.2 DEVELOPMENT AND ENVIRONMENT People have long been concerned with the health of the e nvironment. It
was not until the 1960s, however, that conceptual frameworks focusing on
the environment and development began to emerge. The argument for
sustainable development holds that economic growth at the expense of
uncontrolled depletion of natural resources is, by definition, not
“sustainable.” Present ecological conditions must be protected, in order to
support a specific level of human well -being and for the benefit of future
generations.
Development can be defined as growth, progress, positive c hange, or the
addition of physical, economic, environmental, social, and demographic
components. The purpose of development is to raise people’s living
standards and quality of life while maintaining the environment’s
resources. It also aims to produce or grow regional social and economic
benefits. Environment versus Development has been put under the
microscope for quite some time now. With development, humans seek to
raise the living standards and amenities to make life easier, but these
developments do c ost environmental degradation.
Global warming is already a cause of concern, the world is already
observing climate change and its effects. Natural resources form a crucial
part in forming the provisioning services for humans, these provisioning
services refer to Food, Water, and Irrigation requirements. In the early
stages of development, the demand for environmental resources was lower
than the supply. Today, the world is confronted with an increased demand
for natural resources, but their availability is limited by overuse and
misuse. Sustainable development is the type of development that helps
reduce environmental impacts and fulfills the demands of the current
generation without jeopardizing the capacity of the next generation in
meeting their requir ements.
The economy and environment are interdependent and require each other.
Therefore, any development that does not consider its impact on the
environment can destroy the ecosystem that supports living things. This
has been the situation with soil, air and water depletion in India.
Check Your Progress:
1. Why are development and environment dependent on each other?


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42 Environmental Concerns in India
42 6.3 SOIL, AIR AND WATER DEPLETION IN INDIA The majority of economists have never been taught that ecosystems
provide humanity with an absolutely indispensable array of services,
including maintenance of the gaseous quality of the atmosphere,
amelioration of climate, operation of the hydrologic cycle (including the
control of floods and the provision of fresh water to agriculture, industry,
and homes) disposal of wastes, recycling of the nutrients essential to
agriculture and forestry, generation of soils, pollination of crops, provision
of food from the sea, and maintenance of a vast genetic library from which
humanity has already withdrawn the very basis of its civilization.
While these services are “free”, they would, of course, be infinitely costly
to replace. Since they are unaware of the stress that natural systems are
now under, most economists believe that the scale of econ omic activity
can be increased indefinitely. Biologists, on the other hand, unfamiliar
with economic ideas are often shocked when they discover that an
industry appears to be deliberately destroying its resource base.
Declining soil moisture related to cl imate change can greatly affect social,
economic, environmental, and hydrological processes, as well as extreme
weather events. Soil moisture is generally referred to as the amount of
water in the unsaturated zone and is a fundamental variable in atmospher ic
and hydrological sciences as it significantly influences the energy balance
at the land surface. It plays an important role in controlling the fluxes of
water and energy between land and atmosphere interactions, with
consequent impacts on climatic, ecol ogical, and hydrological systems. Soil
moisture drying can heat the land surface and near -surface air by
increasing the portion of sensible heat in the surface energy budget,
intensifying heatwaves under global warming.
As human -induced global warming inte nsifies, terrestrial water
availability decreases, this has a significant impact on land ecosystems as
well as human society. Soil erosion is major environmental problem in
India. Healthy soil is extremely important for agriculture and is the
foundation of the food system. The concept of soil health is based on soil
properties and the critical functions it performs and supports. The soil
functions related to crop production include infiltration and storage of
water, retention and cycling of nutrients, pest and weed suppression,
detoxification of harmful chemicals, carbon sequestration and production
of food and fiber.
Soil erosion is the process of detachment and transportation of soil
particles from the soil mass due to natural factors such as strong winds,
heavy rains, flowing rivers, glaciers as well as human activities like
deforestation, over grazing, shifting cultivation, over -ploughing of land
and other faulty agricultural practices and removal of top soil for industrial
or infrastructural purposes.
Human interventions such as deforestation, overgrazing, extension of
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43 Depletion of Soil, Air and Water as a Resource unscientific cultivation practices have also been identified as major factors
leading to accelerated water and wind e rosion. Apart from this, air
pollution has emerged as one of India’s gravest social and environmental
problems in recent years. At the same time, the country is experiencing
signs of a warming climate with potentially devastating effects in the long
term. Energy -related fuel combustion is at the heart of both crises. It is a
main source of three major air pollutants, NOX, SO2 and PM2.5, and the
largest contributor to India’s CO2 emissions. In many locations,
concentrations of particulate matter persistently exceed recommended
national and international standards with severe implications for public
health.
The main sources of ambient particulate matter pollution in India are
residential and commercial biomass burning, windblown mineral dust,
coal burning for energy generation, industrial emissions, agricultural
stubble burning, waste burning, construction activities, brick kilns,
transport vehicles, and diesel generators. Household air pollution is caused
mainly using solid fuels for cooking, such as wood, dun g, agricultural
residues, coal, and charcoal. Ground -level ambient ozone is produced
when pollutants emitted from transport vehicles, power plants, factories,
and other sources react in the presence of sunlight with hydrocarbons
emitted from diverse source s. Diseases attributable to air pollution
adversely affect economic growth through reduced productivity and
decreased labour supply, and via health -care expenditures and lost
welfare.
Not only is water scarce in India, but the extraction of groundwater ha s
been on the rise for decades. Since the 1960s, the government’s support
for the “green revolution” to ensure food security has increased the
demand for groundwater for agriculture. Rapid rural electrification
combined with the availability of modern pump technologies has led to an
increase in the number of borewells to meet that demand. Over the last 50
years, the number of borewells has grown from 1 million to 20 million,
making India the world’s largest user of groundwater.
Groundwater pollution and th e effects of climate change, including erratic
rainfall in the drier areas, put additional stress on groundwater resources
which serve about 85% of domestic water supply in rural areas, 45% in
urban areas, and over 60% of irrigated agriculture. Current
overexploitation rates pose threats to livelihoods, food security, climate -
driven migration, sustainable poverty reduction and urban development.
Significant groundwater depletion in regions where grains are procured for
public distribution is also a primary sustainability challenge in India.
Check Your Progress:
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44 Environmental Concerns in India
44 6.4 CONCLUSION Today’s level of overpopulation can only be maintained by rapid depletion
of Earth’s irreplaceable capital -not jus t mineral resources, but rich
agricultural soils, groundwater, and the diversity of other organisms that
are working parts of ecosystems. Monitoring the natural capital is
important and should be one of the determiners for sustainable
development. The natu ral capital are those elements of the nature that
provide valuable goods and services to humans, such as the stock of
forests, food, clean air, water, land, minerals, etc.
6.5 QUESTIONS  Can we achieve the desired level of development without the
destructi on of the ecosystem?
 What is healthy soil and why is it important for agriculture?
 What is ground water depletion? Why is it so grave in India?
6.6 REFERENCES  Ehrlich, P. R. (1989). The limits to substitution: meta -resource
depletion and a new economic -ecological paradigm. Ecological
economics, 1(1), 9 -16.
 Mittal, I., & Gupta, R. K. (2015). Natural resources depletion and
economic growth in present era. SOCH -Mastnath Journal of Science
& Technology (BMU, Rohtak), 10(3).
 Schenk, H. J. (2006). Root competit ion: beyond resource
depletion. Journal of Ecology, 94(4), 725 -739.



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45 UNIT III
7
ECO -FEMINISM AND FEMINIST
ENVIRONMENTALISM - BINA AGARWAL
Unit Structure
7.0 Objective
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Meaning of Eco feminism
7.3 Feminist Environmentalism
7.4 Summary
7.5 Questions
7.6 References
7.0 OBJECTIVES  To understand the mea ning of Eco Feminism
 To learn about Feminist Environmentalism
7.1 INTRODUCTION One of the crucial topics of today’s time is that of the problems of climate
change and its impact over the different population. Climate change is
going to effect large set of people irrespective of their location, status and
age. Hence, discussing about it and knowing different works and ways to
solve this problem is very much helpful. Hence, given this background a
topic which discusses about the consequences of environment al
degradation and marginalization is that of eco feminism and that of
feminist environmentalism. Eco feminism is a broader topic and
emergence in India is through that of Chipko Movement there are also
Scholars like Vandana Shiva who have contributed and worked in this
domain about whom we will learn in this chapter. We would also learn
about Feminist Environmentalism which is associated with that of Bina
Agarwal. Learning about these topics would be useful both from academic
view point to learn about diff erent perspectives as well as this if you wish
to work in the future with NGOs working on the domain of environment,
gender.
7.2 MEANING OF ECO FEMINISM Ecofeminism, also known as ecological feminism, is a subset of feminism
that looks at how women and n ature interact. French feminist Françoise
d'Eaubonne used ecofeminism in the year 1974. The fundamental feminist
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46 Environmental Concerns in India
46 and a worldview that respects biological processes, holistic conne ctions,
and the value of intuition and cooperation are all used by ecofeminism.
Ecofeminism brings a commitment to the environment as well as
knowledge of the linkages created between women and nature. This
worldview specifically emphasizes how patriarchal (or male -centered)
society treats both nature and women. Ecofeminists look at how gender
categories affect people in order to show how social conventions unfairly
dominate women and nature. Eco -feminism argues a different way of
looking at things that vie w the earth as sacred, acknowledges humans are
dependent on nature, and values all life as precious.
Origins of Ecofeminism:
A coalition of academic and professional women organised a number of
conferences and workshops in the US throughout the late 1970s and early
1980s, which led to the creation of the current ecofeminist movement.
They got together to talk about how feminism and ecology should work
together to advance respect for both women and the natural world, and
they were inspired by the idea that long-standing historical associations
between women and nature. According to ecofeminists, this system leads
to an oppressive structure where men have power and through that, they
continue to exploit both women and nature. Hence women and nature are
relate d to each other.
Eco Feminism in India :
Vandana Shiva has spoken about the parallels between women and the
natural world. She refers to prakriti as a living thing like a woman who has
both nature and nuture qualities. She also founded Navdanya, a
moveme nt for the preservation of biological and cultural diversity that is
Earth -centered, women -centric, and farmer -led. As one Earth Family
(Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam), without distinctions between nature and
humans and without hierarchies between different specie s, cultures,
genders, races, or religious beliefs, we live and practise the principles of
Earth Democracy. More than 150 community seed banks, has preserved
extensive seed legacy of nutrient -dense, climate -resilient foods by saving,
exchanging, and breed ing our indigenous variety through navdhanya. It is
also cultivating real live food from Desi living seed in 22 states of India.
These food is free from artificial chemicals, colors and helpful for both
environment and soil, water, biodiversity and humans.
In India, a movement known as ecofeminism that blends feminist and
ecological concerns first appeared in the 1970s and 1980s. The
interconnections of gender, caste, class, and the environment are
discussed, emphasising the connections between these probl ems. Indian
ecofeminists contend that a patriarchal, capitalist system that prioritises
power and profit over social justice and sustainability is to blame for the
abuse of women and the environment.
Vandana Shiva notes patriarchal systems of dominance are at the
foundation of both environmental destruction and the exploitation of
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47 Eco-Feminism and Feminist Environmentalism- Bina Agarwal women and other vulnerable groups, in her opinion, are results of this
system's emphasis on dominance, cont rol, and extraction. The Chipko
movement has also been a famous movement led by females in India. She
has also criticised large -scale industrial agriculture and genetic
engineering, contending that they aggravate socioeconomic inequality and
harm the envir onment.
Indian ecofeminists have been active in a number of campaigns for social
and environmental justice, including those against industrial pollution,
opposition to homelessness and land confiscation, and support for
sustainable farming and rural lives. They also criticise conventional
development paradigms, which they claim are influenced by corporate
interests and result in the exclusion and exploitation of women, indigenous
peoples, and the environment.
India's unique cultural, social, and environment al circumstances have
influenced ecofeminism there. While some ecofeminists criticise the
patriarchal elements of these practises, others depend on the traditional
ecological knowledge and practises of indigenous people. The legacy of
colonialism and globa lisation, which have resulted in the exploitation and
dispossession of both people and nature, has also had an impact on the
movement.
Perspectives in Eco feminism:
As ecofeminism evolved, it experienced several splits. In the late 1980s,
ecofeminism divi ded into two distinct schools of thought: radical
ecofeminism and cultural ecofeminism. Radical ecofeminists argue that
the dominant patriarchal society uses the association of women and nature
to diminish them both. Therefore, radical ecofeminism builds o n the idea
of early ecofeminists that patriarchal domination must be studied to end
the connections between women and nature. These theorists are
particularly interested in how women and nature have been linked to
negative or commodifiable characteristics, while men have been viewed as
capable of creating order. This separation of attributes encourages the
exploitation of women and nature for cheap labor and resources.
On the other hand, cultural ecofeminism focuses more on the cultural and
symbolic aspect s of the relationship between women and nature. This
school of thought asserts that women have historically been associated
with nature due to their roles as nurturers and caretakers. However, this
association has been exploited to justify the domination a nd oppression of
women and the exploitation of nature. Cultural ecofeminists aim to
challenge these cultural beliefs and promote a more equitable and
sustainable relationship between humans and nature.
Despite the differences between the two schools of tho ught, both radical
and cultural ecofeminism share a commitment to social and environmental
justice. They recognize the interconnectedness of gender, race, class, and
the environment, and advocate for a holistic approach to social change. By
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48 Environmental Concerns in India
48 ecofeminists aim to create a more just and sustainable world for all beings
(Britannica).
Eco feminism and Feminist Environmentalism has one point in common,
i.e. it is trying to understand the environment and its interaction with
different genders, specially that of the impact of females. Understanding
and learning about these topics is very helpful to know about the current
issues
Check Your Progress
1. Explain origin of Eco feminism.
2. What i s meaning of Eco feminism.
7.3 FEMINIST ENVIRONMENTALISM Bina Agarwal is a well -known feminist and economist from India who has
written extensively on property rights, gender and agriculture, and
environmental sustainability. She teaches environ mental and development
economics at the University of Manchester in the UK and collaborates
with an Indian organisation called the Foundation for Ecological Security.
The interaction of gender, poverty, and the environment in rural India has
been the focus of Agarwal's study. She disputed the notion that women's
lack of land ownership was merely a result of cultural norms in her
famous book "A Field of One's Own: Gender and Land Rights in South
Asia" (1994) and instead underlined the impact of legal and ins titutional
hurdles. She has also written extensively about the connections between
agriculture, sustainable development, and gender. She also points out that
women farmers can live a sustainable and equitable life through different
agricultural practices.
Bina Agarwal is a well -known feminist and economist from India who has
written extensively on property rights, gender and agriculture, and
environmental sustainability. She teaches environmental and development
economics at the University of Manchester in the UK and collaborates
with an Indian organisation called the Foundation for Ecological Security.
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49 Eco-Feminism and Feminist Environmentalism- Bina Agarwal The interaction of gender, poverty, and the environment in rural India has
been the focus of Agarwal's study. She disputed the notion that women's
lack of land ownership was merely a result of cultural norms in her
famous book "A Field of One's Own: Gender and Land Rights in South
Asia" (1994) and instead underlined the impact of legal and institutional
hurdles. She has also written extensively about the con nections between
agriculture, sustainable development, and gender. She also points out that
women farmers can live a sustainable and equitable life through different
agricultural practices.
The significance of identifying and opposing patriarchal power sys tems
that support gender inequality and environmental degradation is also
emphasised by feminist environmentalism. In addition to fighting the
marginalisation of other groups like indigenous peoples and people of
colour, this also entails opposing the uneq ual distribution of power and
resources between men and women.
The "feminist environmental" approach of Bina Agarwal is grounded in
the material world and sees the relationship between women and nature as
being shaped by the organisation of production, rep roduction, and
distribution based on gender and class (caste/race). Women's relationships
to the environment are socially and historically changeable, according to
Bina Agarwal (1992). Women are both active participants in movements
for environmental prote ction and regeneration as well as victims of
environmental degradation, particularly in impoverished rural homes.
They interact with the environment in both constructive and destructive
ways. It is consequently inappropriate to accept without inquiry the
relationship between women and nature, as well as the notion that because
women suffer the most from environmental destruction, they are
"naturally" inclined to value environmental preservation. It can be seen
that it is the females many a times who are vic tims of environmental
degradation yet they are the ones who are also preserving it and even
fighting for saving it. The privatization of community resources has also
effected the lives of females immensely specially in the developing
countries.
For tribal and rural households in India, the forests and village commons
provide a variety of necessities like food, fuel, fodder, manure, building
materials, medicinal herbs, resin, gum, honey, and so forth. The
heightened class -gender effect of environmental degr adation has been
principally caused by the growing degradation of natural resources, in
both quantitative and qualitative terms, and due to the increasing
appropriation, the state and by private persons, as well as the loss in
communally owned property. Th is has directly led to lower revenues by
reducing the amount of products that women may harvest from forests and
village commons. The amount of time available to women for crop
production has decreased due to the additional time spent gathering. Due
to def orestation, the meagre income that women make from selling
firewood is also diminished. This directly affects the diets of families in
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50 Environmental Concerns in India
50 Inadequate "community resource management systems, the increase in
population, and the mechanisati on of agriculture, has resulted in the
erosion of local knowledge systems" (Agarwal 1992) In addition there is
class and gender implications of environmental degradation. Women's
work has increased as a result of issues like diminishing forests,
diminishe d village commons, a shortage of good drinking water, and
others since they must now spend more time and travel farther to gather
fuel, fodder, food, and water. Because the wells that are accessible to
lower -caste women are drying up or becoming polluted, they are more
dependent on upper -caste women to provide them with water. Forest
deterioration, historical and present misbehaviour, official regulations, and
other factors have made it difficult for villagers to use the woods and
village commons.
People in low-income homes have been compelled to switch to less
nutrient -dense food, eat half -cooked meals, or even cut back on the
number of meals they consume each day due to the drop in the availability
of fruits, berries, and other fresh produce as well as fir ewood. Women and
female children receive less attention when it comes to food and medical
care as a result of the gender biases that exist within the family. (Rao,
2012:132). Social support networks inside and between communities have
been hampered by the eviction of residents due to major dams, extensive
deforestation, etc.
Women are negatively impacted, especially those from low -income rural
households who rely heavily on these networks for social and economic
support. (1980, Sharma). Additionally, it h as destroyed an entire way of
life, leading to alienation and powerlessness (Fernandes -Menon, 1987).
The dominant development paradigms have resulted in the marginalisation
and devaluation of indigenous knowledge and skills that women have
gained through r egular contact with nature. In addition, they are not
included in the planning process and are not educated to use the new
technologies. The tangible foundation of women's knowledge is eroding as
a result of the degradation and privatisation of natural res ources.
Agarwal also points out that many a times the females are no where
included in the decision process of environment. Neither the contribution
of females work in agriculture is acknowledged.
Check Your Progress
1. Which are the perspectives in eco f eminism list them?
2. What concept did Bina Agarwal made on environment. munotes.in

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51 Eco-Feminism and Feminist Environmentalism- Bina Agarwal 7.4 SUMMARY In this chapter we tried to understand the meaning of Eco feminism.
Ecofeminism brings a commitment to the environment as well as
knowledge of the linkages created between women and nature. Further,
we also learnt about feminist environmentalism with reference to Bina
Agarwal. She notes that the females have been further marginalized with
more work, and lack of recognition due to the changing environment. Sh e
talks about the problems women faced with the climate crisis at day to day
lifes. She documents several points which one would have not thought
before. According to Agarwal, traditional approaches to environmental
policy and development frequently disre gard the demands and viewpoints
of women and other marginalised groups, which results in social inequity
and environmental damage. She supports a more inclusive and
participatory approach to development that gives women and other
marginalised groups the ab ility to take part in decision -making and
influence environmental policy.
7.5 QUESTIONS 1. Discuss Eco feminism in India
2. Explain in brief the discussion on Feminist Environmentalism
3. Discuss the perspective in eco feminism.
7.6 REFERENCES  Agarwal , B. (2019). The gender and environment debate: Lessons
from India. In Population and environment (pp. 87 -124). Routledge.
 Agarwal, B. (2005). The gender and environment debate. In Political
Ecology (pp. 209 -234). Routledge.
 Miles, K. (2018, October 9). ec ofeminism. Encyclopaedia Britannica.
https://www.britannica.com/topic/ecofeminism
 https://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/epgpdata/uploads/epgp_content/S000033S
O/P001531/M024109/ET/1507722587ECoFeminismManishaRao.pdf
 Rao, M. (2012). Ecofeminism at the crossroads in India: A review.
Dep, 20(12), 124 -142.
 https://www.unive.it/pag/fileadmin/user_upload/dipartimenti/DSLCC/
documenti/DEP/numeri/n20/13_20_ -Rao_Ecofeminism.pdf
 https://www.navdanya.org/
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RwFPpxdXqFA&ab_channel=Br
eakthroughInstitute
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52 8
NEW ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENTS:
SAVE GANGA MOVEMENT, SILENT
VALLEY MOVEMENT, WARLI
MOVEMENT
Unit Structure
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 New Environmental Movements
8.3 Save Ganga Movement
8.4 Silent Valley Movement
8.5 Warli Movement
8.6 Summary
8.7 Questions
8.8 References and Further Readings
8.0 OBJECTIVES  To understand the significance of new environmental movements
 To familiarize students with some of the new environmental
movements in India
8.1 INTRODUCTION The contemporary environm ental movement arose primarily from
concerns in the late 19th century about the protection of the countryside in
Europe and the wilderness in the United States and the health
consequences of pollution during the Industrial Revolution. Environmental
organiz ations established from the late 19th to the mid -20th century were
primarily middle -class lobbying groups concerned with nature
conservation, wildlife protection, and the pollution that arose from
industrial development and urbanization. There were also sc ientific
organizations concerned with natural history and with biological aspects
of conservation efforts.
Beginning in the 1960s, the various philosophical strands of
environmentalism were given political expression through the
establishment of “green” p olitical movements in the form of activist
nongovernmental organizations and environmentalist political parties.
Despite the diversity of the environmental movement, four pillars
provided a unifying theme to the broad goals of political ecology:
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53 New Environmental Movements: Save Ganga Movement, Silent Valley Movement, Warli Movement nonviolence. By the late 1980s environmentalism had become a global as
well as a national political force.
The changing nature of public debate on the environment was reflected
also in the org anization of the 1992 United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (the Earth Summit) in Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil, which was attended by some 180 countries and various business
groups, nongovernmental organizations, and the media. In the 21st cen tury
the environmental movement has combined the traditional concerns of
conservation, preservation, and pollution with more contemporary
concerns with the environmental consequences of economic practices as
diverse as tourism, trade, financial investment, and the conduct of war.
Environmentalists have intensified the trends of the late 20th century,
during which some environmental groups increasingly worked in coalition
not just with other emancipatory organizations, such as human rights and
indigenous -peoples groups, but also with corporations and other
businesses.
8.2 NEW ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENTS Across the region and the world, civil society movements are becoming
stronger and ensuring their voices are heard in important decision -making
spaces. India has witnessed a plethora of social movements — those that
meant to fight for our freedom, those to bring about change in the face of
caste discrimination, protests corruption and the ones that highlight the
safety of women. Many have been successful, while oth ers continue with
people fighting for their rights. Amid this all, India has also hosted a fair
share of environmental movements, wherein people have been determined
to protect the flora and fauna around them. The Chipko Movement, Save
Silent Valley Moveme nt, and Narmada Bachao Aandolan are among
various others that shaped the future of environmental movements in the
country. Every single movement, whether it gained remarkable attention
or was a valiant attempt, has shown that there are people willing to fi ght
for India’s nature and wildlife.
The Chipko movement of the early 1970s was a non -violent and silent
protest led by the rural women in Uttarakhand. Their mission was to fight
against the merciless cutting down of trees for commercial purposes. The
Chip ko movement kick -started many environmental movements in India.
Further down south, in the Palakkad district of Kerala, an environmental
movement by the name of Save Silent Valley Movement unfolded as the
Planning Commission approved the building of a dam across the
Kunthipuzha River in 1973. The Silent Valley is a moist, evergreen forest
that is home to various rare birds, reptiles and mammals. The Kerala
People’s Science Movement, a group of school teachers and locals who
aimed at spreading environmental conservation awareness, brought to
light the fact that this dam would only minutely impact the development of
the region, and would lead to the loss of various species that thrive there.
They questioned if the sacrifice of thousands of years of evolution w as
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54 Environmental Concerns in India
54 The increasing number of environmental movements owes itself to the
spread of education. At a global level, some events contributed greatly to
environmental awareness, such as the report of the Brundtland
Comm ission titled ‘Our Common Future’ and the United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development, also known as Earth
Summit 1992. These put forth the topic of the environment in a space that
had been purely political, and even brought it to mainstream c onversation.
Nowadays, voices of the youth and tribal activists are challenging policy
decisions that threaten our environment. Greta Thunberg is arguably one
of the most well -known child activists, who started a movement at the age
of 15 by protesting out side the Swedish parliament every Friday to initiate
climate action. Soon, various other students joined in to organize a climate
strike movement called “Fridays for Future”. This youth movement has
now spread across more than 120 countries. Major reasons of the
emergence of environmental movements in India include reasons such as
i) control over natural resources, ii) false developmental policies of the
government, iii) socioeconomic reasons, iv) environmental degradation/
destruction and, v) spread of env ironmental awareness and media.
Check Your Progress:
1. What are new environmental movements?
8.3 SAVE GANGA MOVEMENT Ganga symbolizes all rivers, water bodies and aquatic life. The Ganga
River is both incredibly sacred and exceedingly polluted. A lifelin e to
hundreds of millions of Hindus and worshipped as a god, the sacred river
is ecologically dead in stretches over 600 kilometres, and the receptacle of
tonnes of human and industrial waste. The government has been assuring
that work is being done to red uce pollution in the Ganga and that several
projects have been completed. Indeed, the Namami Gange Project —
announced in 2014 —spent around US$460 million in two years in various
efforts to clean the Ganga.
Main Points of Save Ganga Movement:
1. The Ganga m ust be constitutionally declared as the National River
with statutory provisions that ensure due respect and protection to her.
2. An adequate flow of clean water must be allowed to flow on the
Ganga bed and the Yamuna bed throughout the stretch of the riv ers
throughout the year not only to protect and preserve their ecology but
also to meet the basic water needs of the cities, towns and villages
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55 New Environmental Movements: Save Ganga Movement, Silent Valley Movement, Warli Movement 3. Since our rivers are the source of drinking water for crores of our
common people an d also for the animals and STPs cannot convert
sewage into potable water, we must adopt throughout the country the
following policy of zero discharge: (A) In place of the present policy
of allowing treated sewage into our rivers, we must adopt the policy
of zero discharge into the river, and promote Reuse and Recycle of
wastewater after proper treatment (tertiary –level treatment); (B)
Industrial effluents, hospital wastes, treated or untreated, must never
be allowed to enter into the rivers and must not also be allowed to mix
with the sewage, and (C) Organic/natural farming should be
promoted in a massive way for decreasing the non -point sources of
pollution of rivers such as hazardous chemicals from agricultural run -
off into the rivers, and also for mai ntaining soil fertility, checking the
groundwater degradation, reducing water requirement of crops,
producing health -friendly food, etc.
4. The highly earthquake -prone, eco -fragile and ecologically,
aesthetically and religiously invaluable Uttarakhand regi on of the
Ganga Basin must be declared “Ecologically Fragile, a Sanctuary for
Himalayan Flora and Fauna” and also “our national Spiritual
Heritage Zone”, and its rivers “wild rivers”.
5. Dependence on rivers for irrigation could be substantially reduced by
making our villages self -dependent as far as possible for their water
needs through storing rainwater in traditional ways in tanks, ponds,
etc. and rejuvenating/ preserving /creating wetlands, grasslands, forests
wherever possible which would function as natural water tanks.
6. Eco-hostile river -front development activities in the name of
beautification of river -fronts must not be allowed. Construction of
permanent structures for residential, commercial, or industrial
purposes in the active flood plains of a river must be prohibited
throughout the country.
Check Your Progress:
1. What is Save Ganga Movement?
8.4 SILENT VALLEY MOVEMENT Silent Valley in Kerala has a rich 89 sq. km biological treasure drove in
the vast expanse of tropical virgin forests on the green rolling hills. In
1980s, a 200 MW hydroelectric dam on the crystal -clear river
Kunthipuzha under the Kundremukh project was to come up. The
proposed project was not ecologically viable, as it would drown a chunk munotes.in

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56 Environmental Concerns in India
56 of the valuable rainforest of the valley and threaten the life of a host of
endangered species of both flora and fauna.
The Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad (KSSP) an NGO, was working for
three decades among masses of Kerala for growing environmental
awareness. The campaign to save Silent Va lley turned out to be a public
education programme in many respects. The movement in many ways
saves the ecosystem of Silent Valley area. The central issue of the Silent
Valley protests included: The protection of the tropical rainforest,
maintenance of th e ecological balance. The campaigns and petitions were
the main strategies adopted by the activists in the movement, basing it on
the non -violent, Gandhian ideological orientation, the protest the
destruction of forest, an opposition to ecologically unsust ainable
development, and above all, maintenance of the ecological balance.
Check Your Progress:
1. Why did Silent Valley Movement start?
8.5 WARLI MOVEMENT The most substantive documentation of women’s role in Indian peasant
struggles only occurred after the launch of three major communist
struggles, namely the Telangana Armed Struggle in undivided Andhra
Pradesh on the southeastern coast, the Tebhaga Movement in undivided
Bengal in the eastern part, and the Warli struggle in Maharashtra of
Western India. While the Telangana and Warli struggles were
mobilizations against slavery, forced labor, and landlordism, the Tebhaga
movement focused on the rights of sharecroppers and cultivators.
The provisioning of wives for sexual pleasures of the landlord was often a
way of paying off the ‘debts’ that had been taken from the landlord by the
family. Godavari Parulekar was one of the most significant leaders of the
Warli movement. At present, there is no memorial at the banyan tree
around which the Warli Adivasi Revolt of 1945 began in Talasari taluka’s
Zari village. Nearly 5,000 indentured tribals who gathered here from
Thane, Vikramgad, Dahanu and Palghar had refused to work on landlords’
fields until they received 12 annas a day i n wages, their resistance sowing
the first seeds of rights -based movements among the region’s indigenous
communities.
There was sheer economic exploitation, sexual oppression, and bondage
by the landlord -moneylender -trader class that the Adivasis referred to as
seth-saukar. By the 1940s, most of the region’s Adivasis, who had been
small cultivators and food gatherers at a low level of subsistence but munotes.in

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57 New Environmental Movements: Save Ganga Movement, Silent Valley Movement, Warli Movement independent, had been reduced to the position of tenants and agricultural
labourers. They were bonded to the seth-saukar in one way or the other.
This was the result of the commercialization of agriculture and the
implementation of forest laws by the British government after 1818.
The restriction of rights to the forest produces and the extraction of forced
labour for little or no wages created the conditions for them to be
completely dependent on the seth -saukar for survival. Physical violence,
humiliation and fear were the weapons used to silence the Adivasis. Many
Tribals pledged their labour to the seth in r eturn for a small loan of either
grain or cash. The meagre amount paid to the lagnagadis and the
dishonesty of the landlords made it impossible, in most cases, for the
debtors to repay their loans and free themselves from bondage. The
lagnagadi’s wife and children naturally became the slaves of the seth.
The Kisan Sabha and political organizations like Kashtakari Sanghatana
and several others continue to organize Adivasis around issues of land,
forest, wages, with varying degrees of success. The restoration of forest
rights to Adivasis by Forest Act of 2006 has been a major achievement of
these organizations in recent times.
Besides this, The Save Aarey Movement has been fighting the good fight
for forest conservation for over 10 years now. The Aarey forest, located in
the Northern suburbs of Mumbai, is the only green cover in the region. It
is known for its diverse flora and fauna. Aarey is home to , members of the
Warli tribe, who have been living in 27 hamlets for generations. Naturally,
they have a staunch opinion against the construction of the Metro shed.
In May 2019, these residents of Aarey hit the streets demanding rights to
their traditional land, access to facilities and the implementation of Forest
Rights Act 2006. Around 50 0 Adivasis were present at the protest where
they expressed their stand using traditional songs, dancing, and placards.
8.6 SUMMARY The contemporary environm ental movement arose primarily from
concerns in the late 19th century about the protection of the countryside in
Europe and the wilderness in the United States and the health
consequences of pollution during the Industrial Revolution. Environmental
organiz ations established from the late 19th to the mid -20th century were
primarily middle -class lobbying groups concerned with nature
conservation, wildlife protection, and the pollution that arose from
industrial development and urbanization. There were also sc ientific
organizations concerned with natural history and with biological aspects
of conservation efforts.
The environmental movements in India continue to gather momentum as
there are continuous threats to the environment and local, indigenous
populations whose livelihoods depend upon these.
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58 Environmental Concerns in India
58 8.6 QUESTIONS 1. What are the main points of Save Ganga Movement?
2. What was the strategy of the Silent Valley Movement?
3. What was background of Warli revolt?
4. What do these environmental
8.7 REFERENCES  Elliott, L. (2023, February 28). environmentalism . Encyclopedia
Britannica .
 Heredia, R. C., & Dandekar, A. (2000). Warli social history: An
introducti on. Economic and Political Weekly , 4428 -4436.
 Karan, P. P. (January, 1994): ‘Environmental Movements in India’,
Geographical Review, Vol. 84, No. 1 pp. 32 -41.
 Nepal, Padam (2009): Environmental Movements in India: Politics of
Dynamism and Transformations, Authorspress, Delhi.
 Prasad, A. (2021). Women’s Liberation and the Agrarian Question:
Insights from Peasant Movements in India. Agrarian South: Journal of
Political Economy , 10(1), 15 -40.
 Parameswaran, M. P. (1979). Significance of Silent Valley. Economic
and Political Weekly , 1117 -1119.
 Rauta, R. (2017). Save Ganga Movement: A Gandhian Non -Violent
Movement for A Non -Violent Culture Of Development. In Water and
Sanitation in the New Millennium (pp. 247 -254). New Delhi:
Springer India.

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59 9
NIYAMGIRI AND THE FOREST
RIGHTS ACT
Unit Structure
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Niyamgiri Movement: Background and Course
9.3 The Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006
9.4 Significance of FRA, 2006 for Niyamgiri
9.5 Summary
9.6 Questions
9.7 Refer ences and Further Readings
9.0 OBJECTIVES  To understand the forests rights of the indigenous people
 To familiarize students with successful protests of tribes such as
Niyamgiri
9.1 INTRODUCTION India is witness to a highly diverse tribal population. Each tribe has its
own character and nature, consequently requiring a different treatment.
For example, the life and circumstances of indigenous people in central
India or western India are in contrast with the condition of tribes in
northeast India and the An damans. The Constitution of India seeks to
protect tribal interests, especially their autonomy and rights over their
land. It provides a comprehensive scheme with directions to protect the
indigenous groups from exploitation and to secure their rights over their
land. Most of the indigenous groups in India are collectively referred to as
Scheduled Tribes and are guaranteed a right to self -determination under
the Indian Constitution.
The Scheduled Tribes in India have been amongst the most marginalised
and d eprived population. To protect and conserve the land rights of
Scheduled Tribes in India, numerous rights have been vested in them by
way of this new laws. Rights for the Scheduled Tribes and other
indigenous groups are not limited to their land rights and extend to other
constitutional guarantees like that of reservation, prevention of
discrimination and atrocities, etc. However, forest dwelling tribals were
substantially exploited in post -independence India, and their cause has
often been overlooked due t o their lack of association with modern day
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60 Environmental Concerns in India
60 Consequently, it was crucial to provide such tribes with additional
protection to sustain their lives in their habitat and without the risk of
facing exploitation by the administration or private indivi duals. The Forest
Rights Act serves as a crucial measure to keep checks and balances on
treatment of such groups and to secure their entitlement over their land
and the resources therein. The Act is administered by Gram Sabha on the
village level, thereby ensuring a smooth and accessible protection regime
for their day -to-day sustenance and livelihood.
9.2 NIYAMGIRI MOVEMENT: BACKGROUND AND COURSE The Niyamgiri Movement is a grassroots people’s movement against
exploitative corporation. It is a tale of resi stance against neo -colonialism,
nation -building, cultural discrimination, and environmental racism. For
centuries, the Niyamgiri Mountains have been the home of the Dongria
Kondh tribe. They are a small community of about 8000 Adivasis,
residing in the Eas tern Ghats of the Indian state of Odisha. Their
symbiotic relationship with nature involves sustainable agriculture and
traditional systems of kinship. However, state -industry nexus threatened
this peaceful fabric of existence.
The Niyamgiri hills, situate d in the state of Odisha, are rich in bauxite. In
2003, the Government of Odisha signed a Memorandum of Understanding
(MoU) with Vedanta Aluminum Limited (VAL). For the state’s industrial
growth, an alumina refinery and a bauxite mining plant held enormous
profits. On the other hand, the project endangered the livelihood and
habitat of the Dongria Kondh tribe. Thus, the guise of development
displaced tribals and destroyed environment.
The tribals worship Orissa’s bauxite -capped mountains as their lives are
dependent on the forest produce. Environmentally diverse and mineral -
rich areas have always been a target for industrial capitalists. According to
neo-colonialists, these bauxite -capped mountains are unutilized resources.
Tribal lands like Niyamgiri, are portrayed by the mainstream as places of
“stark poverty.” They are time and again misrepresented as jungles that
must be developed by the encroachment of industries. Their resources,
lands, even their culture and religion are being controlled by exploiters .
The Niyamgiri hills have a reserve of 73 lakh tons of bauxite. In order to
manufacture consent, Vedanta’s mining project claimed to have “zero
harm”. Bauxite refining produces ‘red mud’, a toxic solid waste that is
indisposable. Additionally, mining ren ders the water reserves dry, as
sponge -like properties of bauxite help in water -retention.
The Movement was a revolt against cutting down of trees and destruction
of forests. Their protest was to protect wildlife and their natural habitat.
They fought agai nst a corporate giant that wanted to have their mountains
mined for minerals, leaving this ecological haven dry and infertile. For
Adivasis, the mountains are the source of life, nourishment, and fertility.
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61 Niyamgiri And The Forest Rights Act living and self -sufficiency. Their religion is based on respect for nature
and their supreme deity, the ‘Niyam Raja.’
Check Your Progress:
1. Write a note on the Niyamgiri movement.
9.3 THE FOREST RIGHTS ACT (FRA), 2006 The Fo rest Rights Act (FRA), 2006 recognizes the rights of the forest
dwelling tribal communities and other traditional forest dwellers to forest
resources, on which these communities were dependent for a variety of
needs, including livelihood, habitation, and o ther socio -cultural needs. The
forest management policies, including the Acts, Rules and Forest Policies
of Participatory Forest Management policies in both colonial and post -
colonial India, did not, till the enactment of this Act, recognize the
symbiotic relationship of the STs with the forests, reflected in their
dependence on the forest as well as in their traditional wisdom regarding
conservation of the forests.
The Act encompasses Rights of Self -cultivation and Habitation which are
usually regarded as Individual rights; and Community Rights as Grazing,
Fishing and access to Water bodies in forests, Habitat Rights for PVTGs,
Traditional Seasonal Resource access of Nomadic and Pastoral
community, access to biodiversity, community right to intellectual
property and traditional knowledge, recognition of traditional customary
rights and right to protect, regenerate or conserve or manage any
community forest resource for sustainable use. It also provides rights to
allocation of forest land for developmental pu rposes to fulfil basic
infrastructural needs of the community. In conjunction with the Right to
Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation
and Settlement Act, 2013 FRA protects the tribal population from eviction
without rehabil itation and settlement.
The Act further enjoins upon the Gram Sabha and rights holders the
responsibility of conservation and protection of bio -diversity, wildlife,
forests, adjoining catchment areas, water sources and other ecologically
sensitive areas as well as to stop any destructive practices affecting these
resources or cultural and natural heritage of the tribals. The Gram Sabha is
also a highly empowered body under the Act, enabling the tribal
population to have a decisive say in the determination o f local policies and
schemes impacting them.
Thus, the Act empowers the forest dwellers to access and use the forest
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62 Environmental Concerns in India
62 protect, conserve and manage forests, protect forest dwellers from
unlawful evictions and provides for basic development facilities for the
community of forest dwellers to access facilities of education, health,
nutrition, infrastructure etc. The rejection of forest clearance for mining
Niyamgiri is indeed a historic decision . It has vindicated the historical
injustice done, in this case to Dongria and Kutia Kondh tribal
communities, due to the non -recognition of their forest rights on ancestral
lands and their habitat in the consolidation of state forests stated in the
preamb le of the Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006.
Check Your Progress
1. What is FRA, 2006?
9.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF FRA, 2006 FOR NIYAMGIRI The following objectives of the FRA were found relevant to the Niyamgiri
case:
First, it recognizes that forest dwell ers have got labeled as encroachers in
their own ancestral lands; and this denial of their customary rights was an
act of historical injustice. The Act therefore is a corrective measure that
recognizes (NOT settles) pre -existing rights. As a result, it is applicable in
retrospect.
Second, despite the massive misinformation campaign that the FRA would
privatize tribal community lands through distribution to individuals, at
least 8 out of the 13 listed rights are community rights. It is the non -
recognition o f the Dongaria and Kutia Kondhs’ habitat and community
forest rights which saved Niyamgiri from destruction. As Jairam Ramesh’s
order on Vedanta states, “Simply because they did not live on the hills
does not mean they have no rights there. The Forest Righ ts Act
specifically provides for such rights but these were not recognized and
sought to be denied”. It is for the first time that the economic, religious
and cultural rights of local communities have been used as a basis for
rejecting forest clearance.
Third, the Act authorizes the transparent forum of the village assembly
(Gram Sabha) to receive, verify and recommend claims for forest rights.
Section 5 of the Act also empowers the holders of any forest rights and
their gram sabhas to protect wildlife, for ests and biodiversity and their
habitat from any form of destructive practices affecting their cultural and
natural heritage.
Fourth, the Act provides that no claimant shall be evicted or removed from
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63 Niyamgiri And The Forest Rights Act It is these provisions of the FRA which, for the first time, now bind MoEF
and the Forest Advisory Committee to ensure the following before
granting permission for diversion of forest land for non -forest activities:
1. The process of reco gnition of forest rights is complete in the area
concerned
2. The concerned forest dwellers have given their consent to such
diversion
3. The completion of the process and the grant of consent are certified
by the gram sabhas concerned.
In terms of land tenure security, forest dwellers in India, who own and
manage less than 3% of forested land nationwide, are among the worst off
in the world. Vulnerable to forced eviction at any point, they stand at risk
of losing their homes and means of survival with li ttle legal redress. The
Forest Rights Act of 2006, an attempt to increase their security, recognizes
both individual and community land claims and mandates a uniform
process for granting legal title. Greater recognition of forest rights,
however, implicate s the interests of powerful extractive industries also
seeking control over forest land. In the Niyamgiri case, the Indian
Supreme Court defended an indigenous claim against a multinational
corporation by tying cultural rights to land. This reasoning pushe d Indian
jurisprudence closer to developing international law on indigenous land
rights, particularly that of the Interamerican system, which can offer
guidance for building on this precedent.
Check Your Progress:
1. Explain the significance of FRA, 2006 f or the Niyamgiri tribes.
9.5 SUMMARY The decade long struggle of the Dongria Kondh, a small adivasi1
community of about 8000 people who reside in the Eastern Ghats of
Odisha, India has been held as an organic, grassroots resistance
movement, of a people and their way of life pitted against a model of
exploitative development in the form of a major multi -national extractive
corporation. There is no doubt that the current demand for industrial
growth and development, based primarily on the extractio n of minerals,
water and forest resources is obliterating indigenous communities and
their habitats.
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64 Environmental Concerns in India
64 9.6 QUESTIONS 1. How are tribal habitat and natural resources meant for development
interconnected?
2. How are tribes of the Niyamgiri hills unique in th eir own ways?
3. Can acts like FRA, 2006 make inclusiveness possible? Explain.
9.7 REFERENCES  Chandra, R. (2016). Understanding change with (in) law: The
Niyamgiri case. Contributions to Indian sociology , 50(2), 137 -162.
 Chandra, R. (2019). Forest Rights Act of India: putting indigeneity in
place. Indian Law Review , 3(2), 159 -179.
 Jena, M. (2013). Voices from Niyamgiri. Economic and Political
Weekly , 14-16.
 Krishnan, R., & Naga, R. (2017). ‘Ecological Warriors’ versus
‘Indigenous Performers’: Understandin g State Responses to
Resistance Movements in Jagatsinghpur and Niyamgiri in
Odisha. South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies , 40(4), 878 -894.
 Mukherjee, K. (2020). Under (mining) the Kondhs: a normative
critique of the case of Niyamgiri. Journal of Globa l Ethics , 16(2),
220-238.
 Sahu, G. (2008). Mining in the Niyamgiri Hills and tribal
rights. Economic and Political Weekly , 19-21.
 Tatpati, M., Kothari, A., Mishra, R., Tatpati, M., Kothari, A., &
Mishra, R. (2016). The Niyamgiri story: Challenging the idea of
growth without limits. Kalpabriksh Pune .


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65 UNIT IV
10
SAVE AAREY CAMPAIGN
Unit Structure
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Aarey and the Mumbai Metro Rail Corporation Limited (MMRCL)
10.3 Protests Since 2019
10.4 Summary
10.5 Questions
10.6 References and Further Readings
10.0 OBJECTIV ES  To understand the importance of forests for cities
 To familiarize students with context and nature of Save Aarey
Movement
10.1 INTRODUCTION According to the latest report by India State of Forest report 2019, 25% of
land area of India is under forest cover, however, a rapid decrease was
observed in the forest cover of northeast region of India. Multiple studies
and researches show that the actual forest cover of India is decreasing
contrary to government claims. Forest Survey of India report claims th at
there has been a significant increase in the forest cover of India from 2015
to 2017 however the survey includes plantations that are very different
from natural forests and therefore should not be included. Natural forest
covers include a diversity of flora and fauna are which is essential for
maintaining the ecosystem which is not the case in plantations.
A report published in 2017 by a team of scientists from University of
Hyderabad, JNU and Indian Institute of Meteorology, studied land -use
changes ac ross the Eastern Ghats, over a period of 95 years and found that
there was 15% reduction in forest cover because of activities like mining,
agriculture, and urbanization. This loss of forest resulted in habitat loss for
a variety of species of plants and a nimals and even pushed some rare
species to extinction. The decline in forest cover affects global CO2
concentrations leading to more warming as CO2 traps the sun’s radiation
and does not allow it to escape. Deforestation can result in watersheds that
are no longer able to sustain and regulate water flows from rivers to
steams making them vulnerable to erosion. Erosion will cause siltation in
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Environmental Concerns in India
66 in absorbing water quantities, keeping th e amount of water in watersheds
to a manageable level.
The World Health Organization states that the traditional people, almost
80% of them, rely on the local biodiversity for their sustenance. In India,
more than a fifth of the population and especially t he forest -dwelling
communities, depend on forests for food and livelihoods. These people
already suffer from limited access to health and educational services and
benefit little from the government’s economic development programs.
Destroying forests has de vastating consequences for them.
Over a period, there has been an increase in civil society action on the
environmental impacts of its current model of urbanization, demanding
political accountability, cleaner air, a reduction in deforestation, and
protect ion of the coast and waterways. Campaigns such as “Let me
Breathe” and “Save the Aarey” forest have drawn attention to air pollution
and forest restoration, and have gained momentum following the state’s
felling of trees in the ecologically sensitive Aarey forest to make way for
metro rail parking. The Aarey forest is the one of the last remaining
substantial green spaces in Mumbai
10.2 AAREY AND THE MUMBAI METRO RAIL CORPORATION LIMITED (MMRCL) The 1200 Ha Aarey Milk Colony is a biodiversity hub and a cat chment
area for the Mithi River that flows through the city of Mumbai. The Aarey
forest is home to around 10,000 tribals - some of whom have already lost
their homes, their lands, and their livelihoods due to increasing
encroachment by the State on forest land. The ones who have not been
displaced already are under pressure to move into the SRA buildings or
move out of the forest entirely.
The Mumbai Metro Rail Corporation Limited (MMRCL) wanted to locate
its metro car shed within the forest. They had deman ded the denotification
of 165 Ha of forest land for this purpose. Despite citizens’ outrage and the
availability of 7 other alternate locations, the government of Maharashtra
seemed adamant on locating its car shed here. There have been allegations
that th e zoning of Aarey forest (From NDZ to Commercial) in the new
Development Plan has been changed to benefit the builder lobbies in the
city. The government has further denied in open court that Aarey is a
forest even though government records clearly show th e land having been
declared as a forest as far back as 1969.
Aarey Colony is located adjacent to the Sanjay Gandhi National Park, the
only national park in the world within the city limits of a metropolis. Not
only is this forest rich in biodiversity, but it is also home to the Adivasi
community who have been living here for generations. This community
has borne the brunt of development projects which ended up displacing
them and packing them into matchbox -sized, inconvenient Slum
Rehabilitation Authority b uildings. First came the Aarey Dairy,
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67 Save Aarey Campaign of the land were given to the State Reserve Police Force (SRPF), Force
One (Mumbai Police) and Film City, among others, leading to the divisi on
of forest land into smaller fragments. The latest in this series of onslaughts
is the Metro car - shed project.
Check Your Progress:
1. Write a brief note on Aarey forest.
10.3 PROTESTS SINCE 2019 In 2019, the BJP led Maharashtra government had planned to build the car
shed by cutting down the Aarey Forest, the final decision was then taken
by the Tree Authority which falls under the ambit of the Brihan Mumbai
Municipal Corporation (BMC). The tree authority said in its statement that
out of the 4 lakh trees in Aarey forest, around 2,400 would be cut and 3
times of the deforested trees would be planted at some other location.
While the decision seemed to be a legitimate one, controversy arose when
certain environmentalists, who were a part of the tree authority’s meeting
to make such a decision, claimed foul play saying that their vote of ‘yes’
to such a decision in the meeting was deliberately misconstrued.
Many environmental activists and local people moved to court challenging
the Tree Authorit y’s decision, however the Bombay High Court dismissed
the pleas of the petitioners and within 24 hours of the decision, the
Mumbai Metro Rail Corporation Limited which is executing the project,
fell 2000 trees in the forest of Aarey. This sparked a widespr ead protest in
several parts of Mumbai, under the banner of the ‘Save Aarey Campaign.’
The Fadnavis Government had to invoke Section 144 of the Code of
Criminal Procedure (CRPC) and certain protestors were also arrested, who
were later released on bail.
As soon as Uddhav Thackeray assumed office post being elected as CM in
2019, he ordered for the scrapping of the Aarey project and said that the
shed would be constructed at the salt pan land at Kanjurmarg instead. As
of the present situation, the very first decision taken by Devendra
Fadnavis, after being newly elected as the Deputy Chief Minister of
Maharashtra, in the Eknath Shinde government, was to order the
government’s legal team to inform the Bombay High Court that the state
would relocate the buildin g of the metro car shed to Aarey Colony,
resulting in a protest by several environmental as well as political activists,
including the party workers of AAP and the Shiv Sena.
The battle to save Mumbai’s green lungs had grown into one of the most
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Environmental Concerns in India
68 movement saw the involvement of city dwellers, environmentalists,
students and even political parties. After the Bombay High Court
dismissed several petitions, Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation (BMC)
authorities, in an inexplicable haste, started felling trees on the night of 4
October. This was countered by strong protests during which officials of
the Mumbai Police lathi -charged protestors and detained many of them for
several hours in various police stations across Mumbai over the weekend.
The protestors were charged with serious sections of the IPC such as
Sections 353, 332, 143, 149, etc.
Check Your Progress:
1. What is the Save Aarey Movement?
10.4 SUMMARY Forests are essential for life on earth. Three hundred million people
worldwide live in forests and 1.6 billion depend on them for their
livelihoods. Forests also provide habitat for a vast array of plants and
animals, many of which are still undiscovered. Forests are so much more
than a collection of trees. Forests are home to 80% of the world’s
terrestrial biodiversity. These ecosystems are complex webs of organisms
that include plants, animals, fungi and bacteria. Forests take many forms,
depending on their latitude, local soil, rainfall and prevailing temperatures.
Forests also play a critical role in mitigating climate change because they
act as a carbon sink - soaking up carbon dioxide and other greenhouse
gases that would otherwise be free in the atmosphere and contribute to
ongoing changes in climate patterns. But forests are being destroyed and
degraded at alarming rates. Deforestation comes in many forms, including
fires, clear -cutting for agriculture, ranching and development,
unsustainable logging for timber, and degradat ion due to climate change.
This impacts people’s livelihoods and threatens a wide range of plant and
animal species.
A report by the World Health Organization (WHO) suggested that air
pollution can affect people’s health. While the air purifier cannot reac h
every house, the oxygen delivered by the trees does. The forests of Aarey
are known as the ‘lungs’ of Mumbai. Therefore, cutting down these trees
only means depriving Mumbai of an important organ which is protecting it
from increasing air pollution.

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69 Save Aarey Campaign 10.5 QUESTIONS 1. Why are forests important for ecology? Give the extent of
deforestation in the world.
2. Explain the correlation between deforestation and development.
3. Why did Save Aarey Movement start?
10.6 REFERENCES  Dsouza, L., Patil, A., & Diwan, C. (2021). Causes, Effects, and
Possible Remedies for Deforestation in the Aarey Region. National
Journal of Professional Social Work , 22-29.
 Houllier -Binder, S., & Lutringer, C. (2022). Politics of Categories.
In Politics of Urban Planning: The Making and Unmaking of the
Mumbai Development Plan 2014 –2034 (pp. 107 -131). Singapore:
Springer Singapore.
 Leung, M. (2021). 9. Solidarity Seeds: Situated Knowledges in
Bishan Village, Wang Chau Village and Aarey Forest. In Right
Research: Modelling Sustainable Rese arch Practices in the
Anthropocene (pp. 217 -255). Open Book Publishers.
 Roy, B. (2022). Environmental Justice Movements as Mediums of
Post-Capitalist Futures: Perspectives from India. In Post-Capitalist
Futures: Paradigms, Politics, and Prospects (pp. 153 -163). Singapore:
Springer Singapore.
 Tripathy, P., & McFarlane, C. (2022). Perceptions of atmosphere: Air,
waste, and narratives of life and work in Mumbai. Environment and
Planning D: Society and Space , 40(4), 664 -682.

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70 11
PROTEST AGAINST NEW
DEVELOPMENT PLAN FOR MUMBAI
AND PRIVATIZATION OF OPEN SPACES
Unit Structure
11.0 Objectives
11.1 Introduction
11.2 The New Development Plan: 2014 -2034
11.3 Protests Against the New Development Plan
11.4 Privatization of Open Sp aces
11.5 Summary
11.6 Questions
11.7 References and Further Readings
11.0. OBJECTIVES  To understand the concept of Development Plan (DP)
 To familiarize students with the impact of DP on the open spaces
through privatization
11.1 INTRODUCTION Open sp ace is a space within an urban environment which is readily
available to the community regardless of its size, design or physical
features and which is primarily intended for amenities and physical
recreation, whether active or passive. Open spaces cover a broad range of
sizes and types of areas from small pockets of parks, children’s play areas,
urban squares, sports fields to extensive green areas. The evidence
indicates that these fulfil a range of functions in respect to physical
activity, from active s ports to passive seating, picnicking and as a venue
for socializing for a range of age groups.
The connection between public spaces and the provision of free,
accessible, open green space – in terms of above -mentioned open spaces,
particularly in towns and cities – is obvious to most people. However,
awareness in these connections have been muted if not entirely suppressed
in terms of the public policy agenda, disguised as Development Plans and
policy guidelines for several decades. Recent decades have seen a gradual
development from industrial society’s necessary public life to the optional
public life of a leisure and consumer society. Where city life was once a
necessity and taken for granted, today it is to a high degree optional. For
that very reason, t his period has also seen a transition from a time when
the “quantity” of city’s open space did not play much of a role in its use,
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71 Protest against New Development Plan for Mumbai and Privatization of Open Spaces It is within the context of this understanding of public space s, that we will
attempt to understand the New Development Plan (DP) and the protests
that followed.
11.2 THE NEW DEVELOPMENT PLAN: 2014 -2034 On 24 February 2015, the draft of the 2014 –2034 Development Plan for
Mumbai (MDP 2034) was released for public con sultation. An
unprecedented public outcry and a deluge of complaints (over 78,000
objections raised), both by experts and civil society, pushed the then
Maharashtra’s chief minister, on 21 April, to scrap the plan and order a
four-month overhaul and screen ing of all objections to be undertaken by a
newly constituted Review Committee appointed by the State government.
This event is highly representative of the tensions and conflicts pervading
the development and regulation of contemporary cities. Throughout the
various street -level and professional mobilizations, formal and informal
consultations, press articles or yet civil society publications, urban
planning temporarily became a “public problem”.
The controversy around the plan did not appear suddenly on 2 4 February;
it is rooted in a much broader process involving various arenas and
political moments. While several threads led to initiate the process of
producing a new DP, 20 October 2008 could be understood as the official
starting date. With Resolution No.767, the MCGM formally declared its
intention to revise the development plan of Mumbai for the third time
since independence. The declaration of intent to prepare the MDP was
made in accordance with the MRTP Act, 1966, which stipulates that a
developmen t plan is prepared and revised every twenty years. As the 1991
DP was sanctioned in parts and its last part came into force in 1994, the
revised DP would require to be submitted by 2014. Although October
2008 marked the actual start of the process of draft ing the MDP 2014 –
2034, this event went largely unnoticed by the general public. Indeed, at
that time there was no mobilization from local organizations that would
articulate needs and priorities or that seek to take part in planning. Most of
the population was completely unaware of the existence of a development
plan.
In the past, Mumbai had witnessed very tardy implementation of green
space reservations in the Development Plans (DP) of 1964 and 1991.
Check Your Progress:
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72 Environmental Concerns in India
72 11.3 PROTESTS AGAINST THE NEW DEVELOPMENT PLAN One of the major political catalysts of the mobilization against the MDP
was the “Our Mumbai Campaign” (HSMA), assembling dozens of
grassroots associations in order to produce an alternative vision of the city
development. The use of the common and possessive idea of “Our
Mumbai” is a potent illustration of the political stakes in urban planning.
Indeed, the challenge here is not to secure an ordered city, delivering
various qualities, but also to express whose ci ty it is and what common
order is produced.
Several NGOs and citizens’ groups wrote to the Chief Minister to put a
stop to the commercial and discriminatory use of public open spaces and
urged the government to come out with an open space policy for the ci ty.
Nagar, a leading NGO for open spaces, proposed a plan of action for
restoring, managing, and maintaining all spaces to ensure that they are
accessible to all and not compromised by construction. The opposition by
the people to the proposals in the DP, including the reduction of open
space standards, was so strong that Government of Maharashtra was
compelled to scrap the draft plan. The team doing the plan was disbanded
and a new team was put in place to freshly craft a new development plan.
The redone p lan respected the citizen’s voice, retained the standards, and
sought to improve upon them. Additionally, it forbade any construction
within parks and gardens, except very basic amenities such as toilets. The
observance of complete permeability and no conc retization was built into
the city development control rules.
Check Your Progress:
1. Why did the civil society protest against the New DP, 2034?
11.4 PRIVATIZATION OF OPEN SPACES A public space will validate itself as one only when it is open -to-all, fr ee
from coercive forces, neutral in its territory and which is inclusive and
pluralist (accepting and accommodating differences) to people from all
walks of life. Public space is symbolic and representative of the collective
and of sociability rather than individuality and privacy. Therefore, it is
important to introduce sites that offer universal access and a chance to
prevail and grow sociability without any exclusive policy.
In the last 20 years, public spaces have acquired a renewal visibility in the
Indian urban planning and designing world. Briefly put, the general
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73 Protest against New Development Plan for Mumbai and Privatization of Open Spaces sustainability of cities for political, social, economic, public health and
bio-diversity reasons. However, the dominating tr end observed by many is
one of shrinking rather than expanding. By conventional standards,
Mumbai has, perhaps, the least amount of open space per person with 0.9
sq. m per person including open spaces like parks, gardens etc. as opposed
to 2 sq. m per per son. Out of a total of 4,355 sq. km area of Mumbai, only
6% is open spaces and out of which only 10% is accessible to general
public.
Few years ago, the state of Maharashtra, decided to build fifty flyovers
(road over bridges flying over congested junction s) at different points in
the Mumbai city. This was ten times as many built in the previous fifty
years and they were meant to be completed in five years. This project
costing the equivalent of 300 million dollars, conceived as a major
contribution to the transportation needs of a fast -growing city, was
wrongheaded for many reasons, especially in a cash strapped state. The
main problem, of course, was that it encouraged private automobile
ownership in a city where the majority commuted using a robust but
unduly stretched public transport system. However, of greater interest here
is what the flyovers did to the configuration of the city’s system of public
space, as well as to the unacknowledged impact it had on many private
spaces that happened to line the ar terial roads.
This event revealed very clearly that in the matter of control over public
space, in fact of ownership of it, when the state is determined, any conflict
of interest with the public (or significant parts of it) is really a mismatch.
The public almost does not have a chance in deciding the fate of what
nominally is its space. In recent times, new citizens’ groups from the
middle and upper classes of society have emerged in the city, effectively
laying claim to public space as their space, and in sisting on the removal of
all those who would occupy it for functions which urban traditions in India
have sanctioned but the law has not. This has usually meant the removal of
the marginalized who, lacking access to expensive private spaces, need to
use p ublic space for private activities of dwelling, production, and
economic exchange.
Thus, the argument against the street vendors, or hawkers, is that they
encroach on public space for conducting private business. In essence, they
are criticized for blockin g access to public space, while pursuing private
ends. Strangely, however, when public open spaces in the city are
cordoned off to develop joggers’ parks or ticketed gardens, the quiet
exclusion of large numbers of the underprivileged from these spaces is not
seen to be a cornering of public spaces for inadequately public purposes.
This “privatization” of entire public gardens ¯where they become the
preserve of those who can afford visiting them¯ is seen as a reasonable
step by the state and the elite, even when it does not serve a life -and-death
purpose. On the other hand, the ephemeral occupation of small bits of
pavements by hawkers who have only that space for earning their
livelihood even as they provide a genuine service to the city at large, is
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74 Environmental Concerns in India
74 Check Your Progress:
1. Explain the meaning of ‘privatization of open spaces’.
11.5 SUMMARY Public space has always been first and foremost, the object of conflict over
claims to its control and over the rights of occu pation. These conflicts
usually are about: a) what uses and activities are acceptable in public
space; b) who (that is which sector of the “public”) has the greater right of
occupation over different public spaces; c) who should control, or make
decisions about (and on what basis) the fate of public spaces and access to
them.
Evidently, it is believed that some members of the public have a greater
right to occupy public space for private ends than others. This has obvious
implications for the imagination of citizenship. Thus, the circle is
completed with the conflict over physical space, resulting in a political
conflict over the definition of citizenship as well as of the rights of the
private individual vis -à-vis public goods.
11.6 QUESTIONS 1. Why are ope n spaces important for everyone?
2. How does privatization of open spaces affect everyone’s right to city?
11.7 REFERENCES  Burte, H. (2003). The space of challenge: Reflections upon the
relationship between public space and social conflict in contemporary
Mumbai. In) Visible Cities. Spaces of Hope, Spaces of Citizenship .
 Houllier -Binder, S., & Lutringer, C. (2022). Politics of Categories.
In Politics of Urban Planning: The Making and Unmaking of the
Mumbai Development Plan 2014 –2034 (pp. 107 -131). Singapor e:
Springer Singapore.
 Mayer, M. (2012). The “Right to the City” in urban social
movements. In Cities for people, not for profit (pp. 63 -85). Routledge.
 Mohan, S. The Politics of Urban Space in The Context of The Right
to The City in The Megacity of Mumbai , India. Right To the City for
A Safe and Just World: The BRICS Case , 97.
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75 12
NEW AIRPORT AT NAVI MUMBAI
Unit Structure
12.0 Objectives
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Navi Mumbai International Airport: Project Details
12.3 Social & Environmental Impact
12.4 Summary
12.5 Questions
12.6 References and Further Readings
12.0. OBJECTI VES  To know about the Navi Mumbai International Airport
 To familiarize students with the environmental impact of the new
airport
12.1 INTRODUCTION The Navi Mumbai International Airport, now known as DB Patil Navi
Mumbai International Airport is an under -construction project developed
by the Navi Mumbai International Airport Limited (NMIAL). The mega
project is planned in four phases to handle over 60 million passengers
annually. India’s Prime Minister Narendra Modi laid the foundation stone
of the long ov erdue Greenfield project, Navi Mumbai International Airport
on February 18, 2018. As of early 2021, site preparation involving hill
levelling and diversion works for Ulwe River were executed after several
challenges. The project site is located east of Mum bai, about 18 km from
Ulwe and Panvel in Raigad District. It will be linked to the existing
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj International Airport via the 767 km -long
Mumbai -Hyderabad High -Speed Rail Line, which is currently under
construction.
Adani Group, the developer and operator of the Navi Mumbai
International Airport, has selected ADB Safegate to implement Airfield
4.0 technology through the EPC (Engineering, Procurement, and
Construction) contractor Larsen and Toubro. ADB Safegate provides
integrated sol utions for airports that increases efficiency, safety, and
environmental sustainability, and reduces operating costs. The airport will
use ADB Safegate’s advanced airfield lighting solutions - the AXON EQ
LED lights and the LINC 360 Individual Control and M onitoring System
(ILCMS). With this advanced lighting solution, the Greenfield will be
ready for integration with the Level 4 Advanced Surface Guidance and
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76 Environmental Concerns in India
76 12.2 NAVI MUMBAI INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT: PROJECT DETAILS The City and Indu strial Development Corporation of Maharashtra
(CIDCO) was appointed as the nodal agency for the execution of the Navi
Mumbai International Airport in 2018. To implement the project, the
authority adopted the DBFOT Model – design, build, finance, operate and
transfer agreement, under public -private partnership. The airport has been
planned in four phases to be completed by 2032. The idea of a second
airport was proposed to reduce the burden on the current international
airport in Mumbai. Navi Mumbai is a plac e where there is plenty of land
available and it is also one of the most well -planned cities in India.
The total land area for the airport is estimated to be around 2,860 acres.
The first phase of the project will see the construction of two runways,
hand ling 80 flights per hour. The project was supposed to begin its
operation in December 2020. Nevertheless, it got delayed because of
multiple reasons, such as COVID -19-induced lockdowns, protests by
locals, and delays in land acquisitions and financial clos ure.
The Adani Group acquired a controlling stake in the Navi Mumbai
International Airport in 2021. Following this, in June 2022, the nodal
agency handed over the land to Adani Group to kick -start the construction
of the terminal and runway. The constructi on contract for Phase 1 was
awarded to Larsen and Toubro. The contract includes cut and fill works,
terminal construction work, such as departure and arrival forecourts,
airfield development that includes a 3,700 -metre -long runway, apron
systems, taxiway s ystems, airfield ground lighting and other facilities, like
multilevel car parking, utilities and supporting infrastructure.
The project is on track to meet its December 2024 deadline for the
completion of Phase one. The entire greenfield project is estima ted to cost
around Rs 16,700 crore. Located on National Highway 4B, the airport will
be linked to Mumbai through the 21 km six -lane Mumbai Trans Harbour
Link (MTHL) project, which is under construction by Larsen and Toubro
– IHI Consortium and Tata Project s Ltd. Divided into four phases the Navi
Mumbai International Airport facility will handle more than 10 million
passengers a year upon the completion of the first phase, 25 million
passengers a year in the second phase, and finally, 60 million passengers a
year by 2032 with two 3,700 meters -long and 60 meters -wide runways
spaced 1.55 km apart. The Navi Mumbai International Airport will also be
connected to Pune. This will further bolster the connectivity and the real
estate market in Navi Mumbai.
Check Your Progress:
1. Write a brief note on the new airport at Navi Mumbai. munotes.in

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77 New Airport at Navi Mumbai 12.3 SOCIAL & ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT The proposed greenfield airport in Navi Mumbai has flown into more
controversies than any other aerodrome in India. Beginning with the
choice of s ite to its contentious environmental impact assessment report,
the land acquisition issues, and, more recently, the protests over its
naming, the list is long.
Some of the concerns of the environmentalists are:
 The Navi Mumbai International Airport site i s a low -lying land, with
about 477 acres of mangroves, about 1,000 acres of mud flats, and
another 250 acres of forest land. There are five rivers flowing through
the site, thus making it the most unsuitable for an airport.
 Even if it is completed, it is d oubtful that the airlines would use this
airport because of its unsafe location in terms of its proximity to the
Karnala bird sanctuary, Thane creek wetlands, Panje wetlands and the
associated bird hazards. A study carried out by the Bombay Natural
History Society (BNHS) for CIDCO deals with this aspect in detail.
 The site selected for Navi Mumbai International Airport is more
suited for a port than an airport. It is extremely vulnerable to flooding
since the entire site is being reclaimed. The reclamation that has been
carried out so far has already led to the flooding of some of the
surrounding villages, and even Panvel.
 A couple of sites were explored before the Navi Mumbai International
Airport was finalized but those were rejected without adequate
reaso ns.
 The new airport site encompasses mangroves and mudflats in addition
to a vast number of villages and farms. One cannot even begin to
comprehend the extent of damage to wildlife in that region.
 Rehabilitation of residents has forced them into areas wher e they
cannot practice their traditional livelihoods, there has been no attempt
at enhancing their skills. In fact, even the basic schooling facilities
have not been provided to the displaced communities. The
development has risked such widespread damage t o people, economy,
and ecology.
 More than 3,500 families are going to be affected by the airport
project. However, at present, they are a divided lot. While some have
been rehabilitated and received compensation for their land and
houses, others are unhapp y with the compensation package and have
refused to vacate their land.
 There are still several project -affected families who have not been
compensated even though the airport work has already begun. Where
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78 Environmental Concerns in India
78 water, cremation ground, bus depot, schools have not been provided
yet.
 From an environmental point of view, the project is destroying 400
acres of mangroves, 1,000 acres of mud -flats, 300 acres of forest area,
they have to divert five riv ers, they will have to reclaim that land by
filling it up to 11 meters for that they have to demolish hills.
Check Your Progress:
1. What are the environmental hazards of the new airport at Navi
Mumbai?
12.4 SUMMARY Along the way, it gathered many failed deadlines to become the most
delayed airport project in India. But once it is commissioned, the airlines
will be able to add more flights to meet the Mumbai metropolitan region’s
voracious demand for air travel. The question though is, with numerous
red flags raised by environmentalists, will the airport’s journey be
turbulent?
12.5 QUESTIONS 1. Who are the stakeholders in the construction and execution of the new
airport at Navi Mumbai?
2. How are the local people getting affected in the course of this new
project?
12.5 REFERENCES  Kale, P. R., Jadhav, K. S., Dhoke, S. H., & Salunke, P. J. (2018).
Environmental Impact Assessment on Navi Mumbai
Airport. International Journal for Advance Research and
Development , 3(2), 11 -13.
 Kazi, T. A. (2020). Navi Mumbai International Airport EIA report:
Case study.
 Kulkarni, M. M. (2002). Impact of largescale infrastructural projects
on the environment: case study: Navi Mumbai international airport.
 Suryawanshi, M. P., Nagarajan, K., & Narwade, R. (2021).
Optimisa tion of Cost in Ground Improvement for Upcoming Navi munotes.in

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79 New Airport at Navi Mumbai Mumbai International Airport. International Journal of Engineering
and Advanced Technology (IJEAT),(Aug -2021) ISSN , 2249 -8958.
 Vedula, A. (2007). Blueprint and reality: Navi Mumbai, the city of the
21st century. Habitat International , 31(1), 12 -23.


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Faculty of Humanities
TYBA
(Choice Based Credit System, CBCS) Semester V and Semester VI Question Paper Pattern for T.Y.B.A
(CBCS) applicable to all the papers from Paper IV to Paper IX.
As per University rules and guidelines With Effect From 2018 -2019 (Time: 3 Hours)

Note: 1. Attempt all questions
2. All questions carry equal marks
(Total = 100 marks)
Q.1 (Based on Module I) (20 marks)
a.
or
b.
Q.2 (Based on Module II) (20 marks)
a.
or
b.
Q.3 (Based on Module III) (20 marks)
a.
or
b.
Q.4 (Based on Module IV) (20 marks)
a.
or
b.
Q.5 Attempt any two short notes. (Based on Module I, II, III and IV)
(20 marks)
a.
b.
c.
d.
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