Page 1
1 UNIT I
1
LITERARY TERMS PART I
Unit Structure
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 American Dream
1.4 Confessional Poetry
1.5 African American Poetry of the 20th Century
1.6 Questions
1.7 Suggested Reading
1.1 OBJECTIVES The study of this unit will en able you to understand the concepts of:
American Dream
Confessional Poetry
African American Poetry of the 20th Century
You will also understand the significance of these concepts and their
impact on American Literature.
1.2 INTRODUCTION In the study of litera ture, it is essential to have a fair knowledge and
understanding of various literary concepts, terms, movements and schools
of thought. Therefore, in this unit, we are going to learn the concept of
American Dream, an influential poetic movement in the 20th century i.e.
Confessional Poetry, and the poetry of the African Americans during the
20th century in America with an emphasis on their characteristic features
and their reflection in the literary works of the period.
1.3 THE AMERICAN DREAM The American Dream is the belief that any individual, regardless of the
circumstances of their birth or the social class into which they were born,
can achieve success, and where upward mobility is possible for everyone
in a society with very few impediments. Rooted in the Declaration of
Independence, which proclaims that " all men are created equal " with the
right to " life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness ", the American Dream is
based on the ideals of liberty, democracy, rights of an individual,
opportunity and equality. It can be achi eved through hard work and the
courage to take risks rather than through chance or social class. munotes.in
Page 2
TyBa
2 American Literature James Truslow Adams, a writer and historian, coined the term „American
Dream‟ in his best -selling book Epic of America, written in the year 1931.
According to Adams, the American dream is -
"that dream of a land in which life should be better and richer and fuller
for everyone, with opportunity for each according to ability or
achievement. It is a difficult dream for the European upper classes to
interpret adequ ately, and too many of us ourselves have grown weary and
mistrustful of it. It is not a dream of motor cars and high wages merely,
but a dream of social order in which each man and each woman shall be
able to attain to the fullest stature of which they are innately capable, and
be recognized by others for what they are, regardless of the fortuitous
circumstances of birth or position."
Thus, the American Dream is the ideal that grants every individual an
opportunity to pursue their own idea of happiness, co nsequently setting up
a society that was extremely lucrative for those aspiring for a better life.
This allure of a successful life has drawn millions of immigrants to the
shores of America as a result of which America developed mostly as a
nation of immig rants who created a nation where becoming an American,
and passing on that citizenship to your children did not necessarily require
being the child of an American. This idea also served as a compelling
vision for other nations.
The notion of the American Dream is generally characterized by equal
opportunity and the pursuit of material prosperity. Yet, others perceive the
American Dream with less focus on financial gain and more emphasis on
living a simple, fulfilling life.
The concept of the American Dream is a recurring theme in American
Literature and has been used repeatedly in popular discourse. The
employment of the American Dream in American literature can be traced
ranging from Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin to Mark
Twain's seminal work, The Adve ntures of Huckleberry Finn . Other
significant texts dealing with this concept are Willa Cather's My Ántonia ,
F. Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby , Theodore Dreiser's An American
Tragedy and Toni Morrison ’s Song of Solomon . Hunter S.
Thompson, Edward Albe e, John Steinbeck, Langston
Hughes, and Giannina Braschi are other writers who have thematically
dealt with this concept. S ome social critics, however, believe that the
American Dream is beyond the grasp of the poor working class, who have
to work multiple jobs just to ensure their and their family‟s survival. This
dark, underbelly of the American Dream is discussed in Arthur
Miller's Pulitzer winning play, Death of a Salesman, in which the play's
protagonist, a salesman named Willy Loman, is on a quest for the
American Dream and failing miserably, chooses to end his life.
Thus, the American Dream is a recurring theme in American Literature.
munotes.in
Page 3
3 Literary Terms Part I 1.4 CONFESSIONAL POETRY Confessional Poetry is the poetry of the personal or “I”. This style of
writing emerged in the la te 1950s and the early 1960s. It is associated with
poets who redefined American poetry in the generation following World
War II, such as Robert Lowell, Anne Sexton, John Berryman, Sylvia
Plath, Allen Ginsburg and W. D. Snodgrass. According to I. Ousby,
“Confessionalism” or confessional poetry focuses upon, “ extreme
moments of individual experience, the psyche, and personal trauma,
including previously and occasionally still taboo matters such a s mental
illness , sexuality, and suicide , often set in relation to broader social
themes.”
The term “confess ional” was first used by M. L. Rosenthal in the year
1959 in " Poetry as Confession”, a review of Robert Lowell's collection of
poems, Life Studies , which was a highly personal account of Lowell‟s life
and familial ties, and which left a significant impact on American Poetry.
The content of confessional poems is autobiographical and is marked b its
exploration of subject matter that was considered taboo at that time. This
includes topics such as mental illnesses, sexuality and suicide. Private
experiences a nd feelings about death, trauma and depression and
relationships were also addressed in this type of poetry. Anne Sexton, in
particular, was interested in the psychological aspect of poetry, having
started writing at the suggestion of her therapist. The co nfessional poets
did not merely record their emotions on paper; Craft and construction
were very important to their work. Though their treatment of the poetic
self has been groundbreaking and may have shocked some of its readers,
these poets maintained a v ery high level of craftsmanship by paying
careful attention to and use of prosody.
The key texts of the American “confessional” school of poetry include
Robert Lowell‟s Life Studies, Sylvia Plath‟s Ariel, John Berryman‟s The
Dream Songs, W. D. Snodgrass‟s Heart’s needle and Anne Sexton‟s To
Bedlam and Part Way Back. One of the most well -known poems by a
confessional poet is “Daddy” by Sylvia Plath. The poem is addressed to
her abusive father and contains references to the Holocaust. Interestingly,
it empl oys a sing -song rhythm that echoes the nursery rhymes of
childhood, making the poem eerily spooky yet rendering it beautifully at
the same time. John Berryman‟s Dream Songs is another seminal work in
confessional poetry. It consists of 385 poems about a ch aracter named
Henry and his friend, Mr. Bones. Majority of the poems contain elements
of Berryman‟s own life and traumas, such as his father‟s suicide.
The tradition of confessional poetry has been a major influence on
generations of writers and continues to this day. The poetry of the
seventies and eighties continued to extrapolate and build upon the themes
that were pioneered by the confessional movement. These post -
confessional poems include Robert Pinsky‟s collection History of My
Heart, Bill Knott‟s poem “The Closet” and Donald Hall‟s Kicking the
Leaves. The content that the confessional poets explored laid the munotes.in
Page 4
TyBa
4 American Literature groundwork for most of the poetry that is created in Fine Arts programs all
over the world today. The poets of this movement wrote unflinching ly
about difficult, tabooed topics thus, effectively employing an individual‟s
freedom of speech. In contemporary poetry, many poets are adopting the
same mindset. These poets include Marie Howe, Sharon Olds, Judith
Harris and Jon Pineda. Popular confessio nal writing of today includes
„Post Secret‟, a project which encourages individuals to submit an
anonymous confessional postcard which is posted on their website as one
of their Sunday Secrets. Thus, the influence of confessional poetry has had
a spillover effect resulting in a rising popularity of writing memoirs about
overcoming traumatic experiences and mental illnesses.
1.5 AFRICAN AMERICAN POETRY OF THE 20TH CENTURY African American literature is “the body of literature written by
Americans of African des cent.” History of African Americans depicts
their enslavement by rich plantation owners since their arrival on the
American soil where they were treated as subhuman and incapable of
thinking rationally or even feeling. Thus, in the early days of slavery an d
colonization, we find certain slave writing. African American literary
tradition, however, began to take root in the 17th and 18th century when
black writers such as Fredrick Douglass and Phillis Wheatley, who were
former slaves, were noticed by the larg er white audience. Since then,
African American writing has flourished, developing its own
characteristics and unique features. Their poetry gives voice to various
themes such as, oppression, humanity, freedom and the emergence of the
unique African Americ an culture. It also deals with issues such as racism,
religion, slavery, equality and social struggle.
By the beginning of the 20th century, African American poetry saw an
unprecedented flowering of literary expression. Famously known as the
„Harlem Renai ssance‟ or the New Negro Movement‟, it was an artistic,
cultural and intellectual movement which bloomed in the predominantly
black neighborhood of the Harlem district in New York. With this
revolutionary movement, which spanned the entire 1920s, the old A frican
American attitude which was one of self -pity and apology was replaced by
growing racial awareness amongst the African American community with
rising pride in their race and their culture. Their poetry represented the
idea of the New Negro who by emp loying his intellect and producing
literature, art, and music would challenge racism and stereotypes , and
promote racial equality and development of their race through social
integration . Thus, it served the purpose of feeling pride in one‟s racial
ancestr y and creating art and literature in an attempt to uplift the race.
Instead of borrowing „white‟ art forms and literary structures, the African
American poets of the 20th century developed their own unique style by
experimenting with traditional musical f orms such as „Jazz‟ and „Blues ‟
and formulating the new form „Jazz Poetry‟ to render the Black narrative. munotes.in
Page 5
5 Literary Terms Part I Langston Hughes in his seminal work, "The Negro Artist and the Racial
Mountain" (1926), aptly captures this prevailing phenomenon. He asserts ,
“We younger Negro artists who create now intend to express our
individual dark -skinned selves without fear or shame. If white people are
pleased we are glad. If they are not, it doesn't matter. We know we are
beautiful. And ugly too. The tom -tom cries and the to m-tom laughs. If
colored people are pleased we are glad. If they are not, their displeasure
doesn't matter either. We build our temples for tomorrow, strong as we
know how, and we stand on top of the mountain, free within ourselves.”
The famous poets of th is period are Langston Hughes, Jean Toomer,
Imamu Amiri Baraka, Audre Lorde and Rita Dove among others. T heir
poetry was largely concerned with the questions of black identity.
Langston Hughes‟ poem, “I too Sing America” which is a response to
Walt Whitman ‟s “I Hear America Singing” is a perfect example of this
feature of African American Poetry.
Though many of the Harlem Renaissance writers wrote with an aim to
lead the community out of cultural bondage, the poets of the 1930‟s turned
their attention to the heritage of the African “folk” community. This
attitude is reflected in Margaret Walker‟s “For My People” which
expresses an ideal community “pulsing in our spirits and our blood.”
The post World War era saw the rise of Black Arts Movement, where a
group of younger poets converged to create an overwhelming amount of
African American verses that were politically charged and demanded a
drastic change in the legal and social status of the African Americans. It
concurred with the Civil Rights movement and u nited the African
American poets around the dream of freedom and equality. With the
development of a strong Black Nationalist political movement,
exemplified by Malcolm X who became the subject of more poems by
African American wr iters than any other indiv idual, many of the
universalist poets turned their attention to a poetry that would directly
address the African American community‟s concerns in a specifically
black voice. They attacked all aspects of white middle class values and
rejected western poetic conventions. Their poetic technique focused on
free verse, typographical stylistics and linguistic experimentation. The
significant contributors of this movement are LeRoi Jones (Amiri Baraka),
Larry Neal, Robert Hayden, Henry Dumas, Nikki Giovanni, Marga ret
Walker and Gwendolyn Brooks, among others. This movement is also
known as “The Furious Flower” Movement, borrowing the term from
Gwendolyn Brooks‟ "The Second Sermon on the Warpland" which
implies "furious flower" as a metaphor for “the aesthetic chron icle of
African American poetry”.
By the end of the twentieth century, African American poetry is
undergoing a renewing phase which some critics call “The Third
Renaissance” wherein the millennial generation of the African Americans
calls for humanism and a society that cherishes socio - political, linguistic
and cultural freedom and brotherhood. munotes.in
Page 6
TyBa
6 American Literature 1.6 QUESTIONS 1. What is the American Dream? Discuss its characteristic features.
2. Elaborate upon the influence of the American Dream on American
literature.
3. Define the term „American Dream‟. Explain how it is a recurring
theme in American literature.
4. What is meant by Confessional Poetry? Discuss in detail its
characteristic features.
5. Confessional poetry is also known as the poetry of “I”. Elucidate.
6. Elaborate upon the c haracteristic elements in Confessional Poetry.
7. Give an overview of the African American Poetry of the 20th century.
8. African American poetry is the poetry of racial struggle and search for
identity. Comment.
9. What are the characteristic features of the Afric an American Poetry of
the 20th century?
10. Discuss in detail the major milestones of the African American Poetry
of the 20th century.
1.7 SUGGESTED READING 1. Abrams, M. H.A Glossary of Literary Terms. (8th Edition) New
Delhi: Akash Press, 2007.
2. Baldick, Chris. T he Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms. Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 2001.
3. Boyars, Robert, ed. Contemporary Poetry in America. New York:
Schocken, 1974.
4. Drabble, Margaret and Stringer, Jenny. The Concise Oxford
Companion to English Literature. Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2007.
5. Hassan, Ihab. Contemporary American Literature, 1945 -1972: An
Introduction. New York: Ungar, 1973.
6. Kiernan, Robert F. American Writing since 1945: A Critical Survey.
New York: Frederick Ungar, 1983.
7. Stepanchev, Stephen. Ameri can Poetry since 1945: A Critical Survey.
New York: Harper and Row, 1965.
8. Vendler, Helen. Part of Nature, Part of Us: Modern American Poets.
Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1980. munotes.in
Page 7
7 Literary Terms Part I 9. http://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/blackarts/gabbin.htm
10. https://gupea.ub.gu.se/bitstream/2077/38269/1/gupea_2077_38269_1.
pdf
11. http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/jspui/bitstream/10603/172995/8/08_
chapter2.pdf
*****
munotes.in
Page 8
8 UNIT II
2
LITERARY TERMS PART II
Unit Structure
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Introduction
2.3 Expressionism in American Drama
2.4 African American Drama of the 20th Century
2.5 Broadway and Off Broadway Theatre
2.6 Questions
2.7 Suggested Reading
2.1 OBJECTIVES The study of this unit will enable you to understand the following concepts
and movements:
Expressionism in American Drama
African American Drama of the 20th Century
Broadway and Off Broadway Theatre
You will also understand the significance of these con cepts/ movements
and their impact on American Literature.
2.2 INTRODUCTION In the study of literature, it is essential to have a fair knowledge and
understanding of various literary concepts, terms, movements and schools
of thought. Therefore, in this unit, we are going to learn the concept of
Expressionism in American Drama, the drama of the African Americans
during the 20th century in America , and the Broadway and the Off-
Broadway Theatre, with an emphasis on their characteristic features and
their reflection in the literary works of the period.
2.3 EXPRESSIONISM IN AMERICAN DRAMA Expressionism is a modernist movement which developed in European
drama and theatre, especially in Germany, during the early 1900s and then
spread to the United States of America in the later decades. It is an artistic
style which arose as a revolt against the artistic features and literary
tradition of realism and attempted to focus on subjective emotions and
individual responses the inner state of the subject, rather than depicting the
objective reality. According to the expressionists, reality is “not something
out there” but is a creation of the human mind. Therefore, they aimed to munotes.in
Page 9
9 Literary Terms Part II show the inner state of the subject through direct expressions of thoughts
and, more importantly, emotio ns. This is achieved through exaggeration,
distortion, primitivism and fantasy and through vivid, jarring and violent
employment of formal dramatic elements. The prominent European
propagators of expressionist movement are poets such as Gottfried Benn
and Georg Trak, painters like Gottfried Benn and Georg Trak and prose
writers such as Franz Kafka.
The most prominent and influential form of expressionist writing is drama.
Among the most famous expressionist dramatists are Georg Kaiser, Ernst
Toller, and t he early productions of Bertolt Brecht. These dramatists
represented anonymous human types rather than individual characters, and
replaced the plot with renderings of intense and rapidly oscillating
emotional states in episodic form. The dialogue was often distorted and
chipped into exclamatory and seemingly unintelligible sentences or
phrases, and they used masks and abstract, expansive stage sets. They also
used modern devices such as the revolving stage and light and sound
special effects.
This mode of expressionist drama had a significant influence on the
American theater. The first American play to successfully employ this
mode is “On Trial” by Elmer Rice, produced in 1914. The other major
proponents of the expressionistic style are Eugene O'Neill, Sophie
Treadwell , Lajos Egri and John Howard Lawson. Eugene O’Neill’s play
“The Emperor Jones” (1920) revolves around the racial memories of a
scared African American protagonist in a sequence of episodes which are
highly symbolic in nature. His other plays “ The Hairy Ape” and “The
Great God Brown” are deeply expressionistic in nature. Elmer Rice's
second play, “The Adding Machine” (1923) , with the help of highly
unrealistic means, presents the picture of a mechanical, barren and a
terrifying world as perceive d by Mr. Zero, who is just a tiny cog in huge
capitalist setup. These plays often depict the experiences of a person who
is isolated and terrified by the industrial, capitalistic and urban society
which is falling apart into complete chaos. The exaggerated emotions
expressed in their works are frustration, anxiety, disgust, violence,
ugliness and a crude banality in response to modern life. Thus, the focus is
not on beauty but on emotional response to the external world. The
characteristics of expressionist ic drama are as follows:
Depiction of t he inner consciousness of an individual through
distor tion, exaggeration, primitivism and fantasy.
Experimentation with new forms and style , and use of symbolism and
dream -like, nightmarish elements to portray the dehumanizing aspects
of the 20th century society.
A strong critique against social injustices, materialistic attitude s and
the capitalistic system.
Abstract and unlocalised setting which is highly distorted like a
nightmare and is deeply symbolic. munotes.in
Page 10
TyBa
10 American Literature The p lot a nd structure of the play is broken into disjointed and
fragmented episodes.
Nameless and impersonal characters without individual identity that
stereotypes a particular class or social group.
The dialogue is extremely fragmented, disjointed and clipped . It is
also known as ‘telegram style’
Expressionism was stamped out of Germany in the 1930s by the Nazis,
but it flourished in American art and literature. Its effects, direct or
indirect, can be recognized on the plays such as Thornton Wilder's “The
Skin of Our Teeth” and Arthur Miller's “Death of a Salesman”. It has also
left a strong influence on the Theater of the Absurd, the poetry of Allen
Ginsberg and other Beat writers, the prose fiction of Samuel Beckett, Kurt
Vonnegut Jr., Joseph Heller, and Tho mas P ynchon, and on numerous films
even in the 21st century.
2.4 AFRICAN AMERICAN DRAMA OF THE 20TH CENTURY The origins of African American Theatre can be traced back to the
religious rituals and forms of secular entertainment which the black slaves
brought along f rom their ancestral African homeland . After the Civil War,
“the minstrel shows” performed by the blacks of the early 19th century are
described to be the roots of black theatre. However, t hese minstrel shows,
which are also known as “Ethiopian minstrelsy”, were initially written,
produced and performed for the white audiences. These plays stereotyped
African Americans as lazy, moral -less and smutty creatures who could not
be considered human and depicted extremely degrading portraits of the
community.
Howe ver, by the beginning of the 20th century , African Americans started
producing black musicals, most of which were written, produced, and
acted entirely by blacks. James Brown’s “ King Shotaway” (1823) is the
first known play by an African American. “ The Escape” or “A Leap
for Freedom” (1858) by William Wells Brown was the first black play
to be published, but the first true success of a black dramatist was the play
“Rachel” (1916) by Angelina W. Grimké.
The African American theatre grew ra pidly and prospered during the
Harlem Renaissance of the early decades of the 20th century. Cities li ke
Chicago, New York, and Washington D.C. saw the emergence of small
experimental groups and black theatre companies. Paul Robeson was
established as America’s leading black actor on account of one such
theatre company named The Ethiopian Art Theatre. The play,
“Appearances” (1925) by Garland Anderson became the first play by a
black author to be produced on Broadway. However, it wasn’t until
Langsto n Hughes’s Mulatto (1935), which won huge critical acclaim, that
the black theatre produced a mainstream Broadway hit. The Federal
Theatre Project was established in the same year in an attempt to provide a munotes.in
Page 11
11 Literary Terms Part II training ground for the African American ent husiasts and by the late
1930s, black community theatres began to appear , bringing forth fresh and
talented dramatists such as Ossie Davis and Ruby Dee. In the next
decade, this black theatre found its stronghold in The American Negro
Theatre and the Neg ro Playwrights’ Company.
After World War II, the African American theatre became more
progressive, revolutionary and almost militant in its reflection of the
ideals of the black revolution. It aimed at establishing an African
American literary cult ure and style which was poles apart from the white
literary traditions . They formed councils for the abolishment of racial
stereotypes in theatre and for integration of black playwrights and
dramatists into mainstream American dramaturgy. The pla ys during this
period , such as Lorraine Hansberry’s “A Raisin in the Sun” (1959) and
numerous others , focused upon the African American community’s
struggle for identity in a society that dehumanized and demeaned them.
The New Black Theatre, which emerged in the 1960s, was angrier and
more defiant than its forerunners. The strongest proponent of this theatre
movement was LeRoi Jones, who later changed his name to Amiri Baraka.
His plays , such as “Slaveship” and the award -winning “Dutchman”
(1964), depict an extremely fuming portrayal of the exploitation of the
African American community by the hands of the whites and urge these
subalterns to rise and revolt against the injustices that they have suffered.
The Black Arts Repertory Theatre founded by him in Har lem in 1965 gave
inspiration to many black playwrights and was instrumental in creating a
strong “black aesthetic” on the American dramatic scene.
This tradition was carried forward and further strengthened by dramatists
such as August Wilson, George Wolf e and Suzan - Lori Parks, in the last
two decades of the twentieth century. Contemporary African American
playwrights have expanded the boundaries of the African American
dramatic landscape, by addressing the convoluted issues such as black
feminism, constr uctions of masculinity, black “authenticity” and
essentialized notions of race -gender, and the subject formation of
gay/lesbian in a culture which is at times “Negrophobic” and
homophobic.
The major characteristics of the African American Drama of the 20th
Century are as follows:
These plays and dramatic pieces demonstrate deep social
consciousness. They are forceful anti -slavery tracts and bring to light
the pressing social issues that concern the black community.
They were instrumental in unifying the African American community
and boosting their confidence and self -respect by offering dramatic
biographies of prominent African Americans and other hitherto
unknown lives of significant contributors to the black cause.
They raise a strong voice against ra cism and aim to promote pride in
one’s racial identity and culture. munotes.in
Page 12
TyBa
12 American Literature Provide a realistic portrayal of the socio -political, cultural and racial
realities of their time thus, creating a strong foundation for the
community’s resistance to their oppression.
In conclusion, The African American Drama of the 20th century traces the
entire gamut of the African experience in America, right from their
traumatic uprooting from Africa, humiliating slave auctions to the anti -
slavery movement, the Civil War, migration to the North, Harlem and
finally the Civil Rights Movement.
2.5 BROADWAY AND OFF - BROADWAY THEATRE 2.5.1. Broadway Theatre:
The Broadway Theatre, commonly referred to as Broadway, is the name
given to the theatrical performances showcased in the 41
professio nal theatres located along the oldest N orth-South Street in New
York city, i.e. the Broadway Street, in Midtown Manhattan . The section of
Broadway between 42nd and 53rd streets, including the Times Square,
where these theatres with the capacity of 500 seat s or more, are located is
consider ed as the home of the American t heatre industry. It is famously
referred to as the ‘Theatre District’ or ‘The Great White Way’ in reference
to the thousands of light bulbs on the marquees of theatres and
advertisement billboards that light up the night sky every day . With the
exception of the West End theatre in London, Broadway theatre is widely
recognized to embody the highest level of commerci al theatre in
the English -speaking world .
The Broadway Theatre began sometime during the 1750s when actor -
managers Walter Murray and Thomas Kean established a resident theatre
company in New York which performed ballad operas. By the 1830s,
Broadway and Pr ince Street had become New York’s premiere nightspots
for theatre lovers. Majority of the Broadway shows performed were
musicals. However, as the Second World War approached, many of the
Broadway dramas focused their attention towards rising Nazism in Euro pe
and the American policy of non -intervention. It was after the Great
Depression that Broadway stepped into its golden age , surviving the
challenge projected by the arrival of the motion picture which featured
famous stars and comedians, and was inexpensi ve. Broadway shows are
one of world’s most popular tourist attractions today.
The major characteristics of Broadway Theatre are:
The 41 theatres which fall into the category of ‘Broadway Theatre’
have the seating capacity of 500 or more.
Majority of the p lays performed are musicals and often rely on casting
of well -known performers and movie/ television actors to draw a
larger and new audience.
Most of the Broadway shows have open -ended runs i.e. the length of
their presentation is not set beforehand as t hey are commercial munotes.in
Page 13
13 Literary Terms Part II productions designed with the intention of making a profit for the
producers and investors.
Since, most of the productions are popular and extremely profitable,
they run for years and close only when they stop drawing an audience.
The Phantom of the Opera is the longest running musical in the
history of Broadway. It was opened in 1988 and is still running today,
having given more than 12,000 extremely popular performances.
The other famous and long -running Broadway shows are The Lion
King, Cats, Les Miserables, Mamma Mia, Beauty and the Beast
among others.
Producing a Broadway musical is an expensive and a risking venture.
The production cost of a typical musical is at least 10 million dollars
and the tickets also cost about one eight o f that amount. Thus,
Broadway musical tickets are extremely expensive and have at times
been critiqued for being elitist.
It is a popular belief that the theatrical productions on Broadway are
the best in the entire world. Every year, the prestigious Tony Awards
are awarded to the best Broadway shows.
2.5.2. Off - Broadway Theatre:
The Off -Broadway Theatre refers to the professional theatre venues on the
side streets adjacent to the Broadway Street in New York City with
a seating capacity between 100 and 4 99. These production houses which
are smaller than Broadway theatres have been in existence since the mid -
twentieth century and serve as an alternative to the commercially - oriented
musicals and shows on Broadway. These theatres rose to prominence and
thrived after the success of the director Jose’ Quintero’s plays in 1952. In
the next few decades, Off -Broadway gave a platform and trained many
famous theatrical talents such as Director Joseph Papp, who later
established ‘The Public Theatre’, a complex of va rious theatres dedicated
to experimental plays. Many prize -winning American playwrights such as
Edward Albee, Sam Shepard, Carles Gordone, Lanford Wilson and others,
began their careers off -Broadway and then were subsequently produced on
Broadway. It also identified and trained numerous noted performers,
lighting technicians, costume designers and set designers. The most
famous off -Broadway theatre groups are The Negro Ensemble Company,
Manhattan Theatre Club, La Mama Experimental Theatre Company, The
Open Theatre and The Roundabout.
The major characteristics of Off -Broadway Theatre are:
They have the seating capacity between 100 and 499 and are located
on the side streets adjacent to Broadway.
These theatres are smaller than Broadway theatres and perform
alternative drama. munotes.in
Page 14
TyBa
14 American Literature Most of the Off -Broadway plays are experimental in nature and are
produced on a lower budget. This gives them the freedom to
experiment with style and structure and are much more imaginative
than Broadway, the producers often rely on co mmercially safe
entertainment on account of high production costs, neglecting the
more serious drama, in the process.
These theatres are an important phenomenon as they offer a creative
outlet to upcoming writers, musicians, directors, actors etc.
Give a voice to contemporary social, political, racial and economic
issues that riddle the society but are ignored by the commercially
oriented Broadway plays and musicals.
Many of the off -Broadway shows have eventually moved from Off -
Broadway houses to Broadway , such as Grease, A Chorus Line ,
Doubt , I Am My Own Wife, The Normal Heart , and Coastal
Disturbances among others.
2.6 QUESTIONS 1. What is meant by Expressionism ? Discuss its characteristic features.
2. Elaborate upon the influence of the expressionist movemen t on
American drama .
3. What are the major characteristics of the expressionist movement in
American Drama? Explain with examples.
4. Give an overview of the African American Drama of the 20th century.
5. African American Theatre is the drama of racial struggle an d search
for identity. Comment.
6. What are the characteristic features of the African American Drama of
the 20th century?
7. Discuss in detail the major milestones of the African American Drama
of the 20th century.
8. What is meant by Broadway Theatre? Discuss in detail its
characteristic features.
9. Explain the term Off -Broadway Theatre? Elaborate upon its major
features.
10. Write a detailed comparative note on Broadway and Off -Broadway
Theatre.
2.7 SUGGESTED READING 1. Abrams, M. H.A Glossary of Literary Terms. (8th Edit ion) New
Delhi: Akash Press, 2007. munotes.in
Page 15
15 Literary Terms Part II 2. Baldick, Chris. The Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms. Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 2001.
3. Drabble, Margaret and Stringer, Jenny. The Concise Oxford
Companion to English Literature. Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2007.
4. Gould, Jean. Modern American Playwrights. New York: Dodd, Mead,
1966.
5. Hassan, Ihab. Contemporary American Literature, 1945 -1972: An
Introduction. New York: Ungar, 1973.
6. Kernan, Alvin B., ed, The Modern American Theater. Englewood
Cliffs, N. J.: Pri nceton Hall, 1967.
7. Kiernan, Robert F. American Writing since 1945: A Critical Survey.
New York: Frederick Ungar, 1983.
8. Lawrence, Shaffer. History of American Literature and Drama. New
Delhi: Sarup, 2000.
9. Lewis, Allan. American Plays and Playwrights of the Contemporary
Theatre. Rev. Ed. New York: Crown, 1970.
10. https://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/ahl.php?csrno=13
***** munotes.in
Page 16
16 UNIT III
3
CRITICAL STUDY OF ARTHUR MILLER’S
‘DEATH OF A SALESMAN’ PART I
Unit Structure
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Introduction to Drama
3.3 Introduction to American Drama
3.4 Origin of American Drama: From 1600 to 1700
3.5 From 18th century to beginning of 19th century
3.6 Modern Drama
3.7 Arthur Miller as a Contemporary Pl aywright
3.8 Biography of Arthur Miller
3.9 Critical Analysis of the Play, Death of a Salesman
3.10 Setting of the Play:
3.11 Summary of the play
3.12 Summing Up
3.13 Questions
3.14 Suggested Readings
3.1 OBJECTIVES This unit discusses the introduction to Drama, Introduction to American
Drama, Origin of American Drama: From 1600 to 1700 , American Drama
From 18th century to beginning of 19th century, Modern Drama , Arthur
Miller as a Contemporary Playwright, Biography of Arthur Miller , Critical
analysis of the play, Death of a Salesman .
3.2 INTRODUCTION TO DRAMA Drama is a literary genre or style of writing which has fictional or non -
fictional representation of some actions through dialogue and performance
on stage. Drama is also known as a type of play written for television,
radio, and film along with theatre. A dramatic piece of literature is usually
called a play and the person who writes drama is known as a ‘dramatist’ or
‘playwright’. Three major types of drama are Comedy, Tragedy and
Melodrama.
3.3 INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN DRAMA The plays written by American writers in the English language for
performance are known as American Drama . American drama begins
with the emergence of American colonies in the 17th century and munotes.in
Page 17
17 Critical Study of Arthur Miller’s ‘Death Of A Salesman’ Part I continues to the present times. In the beginning of American drama, most
of the American plays were written under the influence of British drama,
and reason was clearly rooted in colonialism. In fact, Britis h collection
overshadows the American stage for a longer period of time. From 1828 to
1836, American drama begins to distinguish from British plays under the
presidency of Andrew Jackson.
America was newly established country which had different problems a nd
values in the society. Whereas British society was already a flourished one
and playwrights based their writings on the manners, attitudes and
representation of the elite class society. Despite of this conflict between
American egalitarian ideas and Bri tish values American writers were
imitating British models until the early 20th century. In the opinion of
some critics, American drama was bor n probably during or after the World
War I (1914 -1918).
Towards the end of 19th century American playwrights st arted a new
epoch in the direction of realism, illuminating the hardships of life and
composing more credible characters. Realism persisted in American plays
in forms, comedy and tragedy as a predominant trend of 20th century.
American drama reached to its great heights with the commencement of
psychological realism and their searing investigation of characters’ inner
lives. With the advancement of technology and age, the subjects and
themes for drama extended to race, gender, sexuality and death.
3.4 ORIGI N OF AMERICAN DRAMA: FROM 1600 TO 1700 The living conditions in American colonies were formidable because of
settlements and migration before mid -18th century and it had reflected in
the literature of the age. ‘Ye Bare and Ye Cubb’ a 1665 play is considere d
as the first English language play from the colonies is lost and the oldest
surviving American play is ‘Androborus’ by Robert Hunter (1714). It was
written to attack political enemies and entrenched a tradition of American
drama. In 1760s, a group of B ritish playwrights emerged as ‘The
American Group’ who wrote plays and submitted to actors for
performance. In 1767, ‘The Prince of Parthia’, a tragedy written by
Thomas Godfrey is considered as the first professional play written by an
American. But it wa s again patterned on British plays.
When the American Revolution (1775 -1783) started, most of the
professional actors shifted to Jamaica and there was not much literary
production. During the war time, mostly satirical plays were written, either
to support British control of colonies or to attack it. British soldiers
produced some of pro - British plays for instance, ‘The Battle of Brooklyn’
(1776) which was written anonymously to support British government
and presented generals as drunks, cowards and lec hers including George
Washington. John Burgoyne, a British gener al wrote “The Blockade”
(1775) in which he ridiculed American soldiers. In response to this play, in
1776 “The Blockheads; or Affrighted Officers” was written by an
anonymous playwright in wh om British soldiers were depicted as terrified munotes.in
Page 18
TyBa
18 American Literature of Americans. It is assumed that this play was written by Mercy Otis
Warren, who created many other satires on British soldiers. For a longer
period, she remained the voice of American revolution as in her pla y “The
Group” (1775), a play that describes Britain as ‘Blunderland’, as a mother
who eats her children. Most of the plays were focused on the subject of
colonial effects.
In 1787, when the constitution of U.S was being written, Royall Tyler
wrote “The Contrast” one of the finest American plays of 18th century. But
this play was modelled on British pl aywright, Richard Sheridans’s “ The
School of Scandal” ( 1777). “The Contrast” compares British and
American values and ultimately advocates American veraci ty over British
hypocrisy. Another play of the time, “Slaves in Algries or A Struggle for
Freedom” (1794) is a melodramatic comedy by Susanna Rowson. It was
the first American play by a woman to reach the professional stage. The
conflict and resolution in this play marked a step forward towards a new
form of drama, melodrama. This form became popular in 19th century in
American drama.
3.5 FROM 18TH CENTURY TO THE BEGINNING OF 19TH CENTURY From 18th to 19th century , many plays were adapted or translated fro m
German, French and British plays. Col lection of American plays even in
19th century was still limited. Most of American plays were still modelled
on British plays only their subject matter patterned on superficially
American episodes or themes. Like Brit ish drama, many American plays
demonstrated the impact of romanticism, a European literary and artistic
movement on writings of the age. Along with this form, melodrama with
its efflux emotion became an extensive dramatic form in 19th century.
Gothic melod rama and melodrama with tragic endings came into view
regularly in American theatre. William Dunlap was the first eminent
writer of melodrama who translated several German plays for American
theatres. Dunlop wrote Andre (1798), a native tragedy that lacke d the
quality to gather attention so he rewrote it in 1803 as “ Glory of
Colombia”.
Early 19th century marked number of changes in American literature.
Primarily religious literature was written in 17th century whereas literature
of 18th century dedicated to politics. The literature of 19th century saw the
final emergence and spirit of romanticism. After Dunlop’s writings
American drama moved with two outstanding writers, James Nelson
Baker and John Howard Payne. Baker’s only five plays have survived out
of ten plays. . Baker’s
“The Indian Princess (1808), an exploration of Native American
characters and themes, was the first professionally produced of this kind.
Another play, “Superstition” (1824), A romantic tragedy by Baker,
discussed about conflicts b etween Native Americans and White settlers. munotes.in
Page 19
19 Critical Study of Arthur Miller’s ‘Death Of A Salesman’ Part I On the other hand John H. Payne, mostly wrote on foreign themes and
established himself as an actor, the playwright and also associated with
theatre. Some of the plays by him are Charles -II, Thespian Mirror and
Julie or The Wanderer.
In second half of the 19th century, American drama began to change in
subjects, themes and nature so became more apparent after 1830. In 1820s
an African American acting group called as the African Theatre which
was established by Wil liam Henry Brown. This group produced plays by
Shakespeare as well as African Americans for e.g., “The Drama of King
Shotaway” (1823) by Brown. It was the time when the playwrights were
writing about racial, social, and economic tensions in American societ y.
The play “ The Nigger” by Edward Sheldon was based on the theme of
racial tension. By the end of the 19th century, drama which was declining
from past few years had revived with George Bernard Shaw, an Irish
playwright and Henrik Ibsen, a Norwegian playw right. A wave of writing
good plays came to America too and playwrights began to move in the
direction of above writers with interests in psychological realism and
social drama.
3.6 MODERN DRAMA Modern drama emerged after a long process of slow evaluation in various
forms and themes and after the amalgamation of various schools. Few
dramatists like Tennessee William s, Arthur Miller and Eugene O’ Neil
had contributed in the development of Modern drama. American theatre
after 1916, reached new heights with t he use of psychological realism, and
by experimentation in both content and production. With the age, drama
became a mouth piece of social issues such as Civil Rights and AIDS
crisis and individual’s stance on these issues.
3.7ARTHUR MILLER AS A CONTEMPORA RY PLAYWRIGHT Arthur Miller is a renowned American playwright and altering figure of
contemporary American drama. There are almost 35 stage plays to his
credits of which include, Death of a Salesman (1949), All my Sons (1947),
The Crucible (1953) and The Price (1968). He also wrote many
screenplays, radio plays and essays.
Arthur Miller writes about society and individual dealing with all kinds of
social issues. He holds the view that society is inside a man and a man is
inside a society. His dramas are a fusion of social and psychologic al
issues. Miller has reinforced social criticism to the form of drama and
based his plays on various contemporary themes such as social
accountability, American dream, person al relationship etc. His dramas
deal primarily w ith man’s relationship with his family and society.
The prominent theme in his play is a relationship between man’s identity
and the image that the society demands. All the major p rotagonists in his munotes.in
Page 20
TyBa
20 American Literature plays involved in strife in the society that result from his acceptance or
rejection of an image that is the product of his society’s values. A critic
Harold Clurman in his book, “The Portable Arthur Miller” writes:
The basic health of Miller‘s play, not to be categorized as edifying in
something Europeans crav e as much as a man in the desert craves water.
While they appreciate and applaud Mill er‘s criticism of America, what
stirs them subliminally is precisely the vigorous, courageous, optimistic
moral concern which is one of the most enduring contributions of our
American heritage.
Arthur Miller is considered as a social and moralist realist of his times and
along with this form. H e also tried poetic form of theatre in his plays such
as in “Death of a Salesman”. In his plays , a hybridity can be seen of social,
tragic and the psychological. He infuses the subjective and objective
between outside experience and convincing emotional life. Realism
revived in the hands of Arthur Miller and this is his great contribution in
American drama. He makes a balance in his w ritings, by displaying
aspects of psychology on one hand and rhetoric on the other. The place of
Arthur Miller in American drama is described by Alan S. Dower in his
book, the American Theatre. He writes:
Miller is still one of our most important playwrigh ts with three good plays
and one extremely fine one to his credit. To have written Death of a
Salesman is an achievement of such significance that Arthur Miller can be
allowed a slip or even a fall.
3.8 BIOGRAPHY OF ARTHUR MILLER Arthur Miller was born in Harlem on 17th October, 1915, to Isidore and
Augusta Miller, who were Polish immigrants. After coming to America,
Arthur Miller’s father established a prosperous business of clothing. The
family was living with prosperity till they fall into despair becau se of Wall
Street Crash of 1929. In 1929 Miller family moved to Brooklyn to
overcome their financial crisis. In 1933 Miller graduated from high school
and for higher education applied to Cornell University and University of
Michigan, but both refused him f or admission. Before the University of
Michigan accepted his admission, he tried variant jobs including hosting a
radio programme. In 1939, after he left University of Michigan, Arthur
Miller wrote many plays for Fedral Theatre, which was famous to give
assignments to new writers, actors and directors.
3.9 CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF THE PLAY ,DEATH OF A SALESMAN Death of a Salesman (1949) by Arthur Miller is a masterpiece in American
drama. When he wrote this play , he na med it as “ The Inside of His Head”
but b efore publication he changed the na me of this play to “Death of a
Salesman” as he described that he was not satisfied with the previous one.
The title reflects to the literal and metaphorical death of a salesman Willy munotes.in
Page 21
21 Critical Study of Arthur Miller’s ‘Death Of A Salesman’ Part I Loman and it comes from a line in the play; a character is said to die “the
death of a salesman, in his green velvet slippers” on his way to make
another sale - a good death for a salesman.
3.10 SETTING OF THE PLAY The play has an advanced setting. In spite of the fact that the play is set in
1949, however the seasons of the play change between a point in 1942 and
some other time in 1928. However, the move of time is extraordinarily
dealt with and made persuading through flashbacks. Miller as a child of
Great Depression sensationalizes the awf ul long stretches of the Second
World War. The move of the play makes place to a great extent inside the
Loman home in Brooklyn, however different places in New York and
Boston are utilized also, including lodgings, Willy's office, an eatery, and
Willy's g ravesite. Along these lines, the setting of the tragedy contrasts
from the setting of a traditional tragedy. The setting of the play is
certifiably not a regal castle however the place of poor Willy.
3.11 SUMMARY OF THE PLAY The play , Death of a Salesman occurs in two acts, act one contains eleven
scenes and act two consists of fourteen scenes and play ends with a
requiem. The acts of the play covers 24 -hour period and the requiem is set
few days later. The play is set in New York City in the late 1940s. T he
actions in act -I take place in Brooklyn, at the Loman house and in act -II
occur in Manhattan at a restaurant and office building.
The play opens with Willy Lowman, the main protago nist of the play who
is a trave ling salesman for th irty-four years for th e Wagner C ompany. He
harboured a perception that he is a vital being to his company and
implanted over - reaching goals in his mind. Even though Willy worked
hard, his dream to reach at the top position in his company and to become
rich remained unattainabl e. The disillusionment and disappointment of his
life compelled him to suicide and made him a tragic -figure. Linda is
Willy’s wife and they have two sons, Biff a thirty -four year -old and
Happy thirty -two year - old. Biff after trying his career in East ret urned
home to make his fortune.
Throughout the play, story oscillates between reality and memories, at
times Willy even speaks to the characters from the past. Willy recalls
earlier times, his optimism about future, his good relations with his sons,
and ev en his affair with a lady. The memories of his brother Ben also
disturbed him. Ben is dead now, he travelled to Africa as a young man and
became very rich and successful. Willy takes Ben’s success as a constant
reminder to “make something” of himself.
Lind a Loman explains her sons about Willy’s state of mind and his strange
struggle with depression. Linda brings to light that Willy is borrowing
money from a neighbour Charles and attempted suicide. She requests her
sons to revive their relationship with thei r father Willy. Biff and Happy
discusses to take financial aid from an old employer, Bill Oliver as they munotes.in
Page 22
TyBa
22 American Literature decided to start a new business of sports goods. Biff visited Bill Oliver
who refuses to meet him and he comes away empty -handed. On the other
side, Willy requested Howard, his boss to give him some work in local
area as he cannot drive off much but he dismisses him from the job by
saying that he is a threat to the company.
Biff and Happy arrive at Frank’s Chop House, a restaurant where Biff,
Happy and Willy decides to have dinner to celebrate new beginning of
Biff’s business and Willy also joins them after few minutes. Willy’s
disappointment results in an argument with Biff where Biff insulted him
and leaves the place followed by Happy. Willy thinks th at this rough
behaviour of Biff is an outcome of discovery of his affair with another
lady few years back.
Willy in pain comes back to home and starts feeling detached from the
real world. In his distress he plants seeds in the backyard of his home in a
hope of building a garden. He also has an imaginary conversation with his
brother Ben, which forces him to feel discontented in his own life.
Few minutes later, when Willy enters the house, he again has heated tiff
over some difference of opinion with Biff. Biff move out of the house for
the betterment of the family but he leaves the room with tears in in eyes
and this makes Willy to think unworthy of him. He decides to execute his
plan of suicide as he believes that his death can bring insurance money to
family which they need for living and other prospects. When everyone in
the house gone to bed, Willy leaves the house and intentionally hit his car,
causes a car accident which kills him.
In the requiem of the play, family of Willy Loman and his neighbour
Charley with his son Bernard gathers around W illy’s grave. Biff remarks
that his father “had the wrong dream” but Happy ignoring the reality
counts his merits and advocates his father’s goals. Willy’s wife Linda is
the only one who is deeply l amenting his d eath, but also endorses the fact
that family is “free” from a lot of obligations with the money they get
from his insurance.
3.12 SUMMING UP In this unit, we have studied the literary genre drama and dramatic
structure of American literature starting from the 17th century to ‘modern
drama’. Arthur Miller excelled as a renowned playwright of modern age
who writes about social problems and realism to paint a better picture of
industrial age in America. In his play Death of a Salesman , he depicted
how the wro ng perceptions associated with ‘Success Myth’ and ‘American
Dream’ can be proved disastrous for the society which ends up in tragedy
of the protagonist Willy Loman. The play dramatizes the pathetic struggle
between what has been and what is essential to b e. It is a tragedy of an
individual in highly developed capitalist and technocratic society.
munotes.in
Page 23
23 Critical Study of Arthur Miller’s ‘Death Of A Salesman’ Part I 3.13 QUESTIONS 1. How does ‘modern drama’ evolved in American literature?
2. Critically examine Death of a Salesman .
3. Discuss Arthur Miller as a contemporary playwrigh t.
3.14 SUGGESTED READINGS: 1. Faces of Modernity: Avant -Grade, Decadence E Kitch .
Bloominton.Indiana University Press. 1977.
2. Esther Merle Jackson “Death of a Salesman” Tragic Myth in the
Modern Theatre” in Death of a Salesman : Critical Interpretations .
Horo ld Bloom, ed New York Chelsa House Publishers. 1988.
3. Modern American Drama , 1945 -1990 (Cambridge:Cambridge
University Press,1992)
4. Miller Arthur ‘ Introduction to the Collected Plays’. New Delhi:
Allied., 1975
*****
munotes.in
Page 24
24 UNIT IV
4
CRITICAL STUDY OF ARTHUR
MILLER’S ‘DEATH OF A SALESMAN’
PART II
Unit Structure
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Character Analysis
4.3 Major Themes of the Play
4.4 Arthur Miller’s Concept of tragedy
4.5 Death of a Salesman as a tragedy and Willy Loman as a trag ic hero
4.6 Summing Up
4.7 Questions
4.8 Suggested Readings
4.1 OBJECTIVES This unit discusses the characters of the play, major themes of the play,
Arthur Miller’s concept tragedy, Death of the Salesman as a tragedy and
Willy Loman as a tragic hero .
4.2 C HARACTER ANALYSIS Willy Loman:
Willy Loman is a sixty -one-years old travelling salesman who has worked
for Wagner firm and lives in New York City. He struggles to keep his hold
on the present circumstances and reality as his ‘dreams’ makes him
disillusione d in life. When he was a teenager, his father abandoned him
and left his home. During a trip in search of his father Willy met a
successful travelling salesman and aspires to become one in order to attain
financial success and reputation in the society. W illy builds a wall of lies
around him and goes to an extent that he begins to tell lies his family
about his salary. While working as a salesman he frequently stays away
from his home and turned towards other women named Miss Frances in
Boston. When his e lder son Biff discovered his affair, he left his home
and their relationship changed forever. Towards the end of the play, Willy
becomes a tragic - hero who sacrifices his life for the sake of his family.
He commits suicide so that his family can get his in surance money and to
set them free from due bills.
munotes.in
Page 25
25 Critical Study of Arthur Miller’s ‘Death of a Salesman’ Part II Linda Loman:
Linda is the wife of Willy and mother of Biff and Happy. She is the
mouthpiece of Arthur Miller in the play to highlight certain faults in the
American social structure. She loves his husban d and sons in spite of all
their difficulties. She acts as a biggest supporter and defender of Willy and
a focused lady who helps him to believe all his illusions. She bridges the
rough relations between Willy and his sons, and tells her sons “attention,
attention must finally be paid to this man.” She is a simple person who is
caught in complex struggle between illusion and reality where she cannot
support or reject one. Willy’s death brings pain to Linda and she is the
only one who thinks high of him.
Biff Loman:
Biff is Willy and Linda Loman’s elder son who is 34 years old when the
play begins. He was a football player in his high school and won several
scholarships but from last fourteen years has been “unable to find himself”
and just returned from we st to make himself a successful individual. In his
youth, he idolized his father and worked hard to please him. His conflict
with his father Willy, driven by the fact that one should be truthful. He
himself is a failure who rejects Willy’s values but has not developed his
own until the end of the play. He believes that his father’s death is a
consequence of his “wrong dreams. All, all wrong” He is the only
character in the play who has hope and strength to accept the reality.
Happy Loman:
Happy is the yo unger son of Willy and Linda who is 32 -year- old and
works in a department store and stays in his own apartment in another
section of city. He shares his father’s characteristics and a womanizer. He
is not true to anyone in his life and finds pleasure in s exual and financial
satisfaction. Even after Willy’s death he is same. He admires his father
and decides to fulfil his dream of becoming a successful salesman. He is a
weak individual who never realises Willy’s values as false and refuse to
recognize real ity. Throughout the play, Willy’s attention is more on Biff
and less on Happy. Happy is continually saying in flashback scenes that “
I’ m losing weight, you notice, Pop?’ This statement is Happy’s attempt
to attain some recognition. He feels that he is neglected child who is
overshadowed by a talented brother Biff.
Charley:
Charley is Willy’s neighbour and a successful salesman. He represents a
touch of realism in the play. His life stands as a contradiction to
everything that Willy believes in. He is a practical man who does not
believe in personal attractiveness and well -liked by everyone. Willy
borrows money from him every month and shows it as his salary to his
family. He is kind to Willy and even offers him a good job which Willy
rejects. He ask s Willy many times during the play: “Willy, when are you
going to grow up?” as he thinks that Willy behaves like a kid who is munotes.in
Page 26
TyBa
26 American Literature ignoring the reality and like to stay in dream world. He is the realist and
shows the fallacy of Willy’s ideas.
Bernard:
Bernar d is Charley’s son and a successful lawyer. He is Biff’s childhood
friend who idolizing Biff in his youth but later on he understands a real
picture of world and learn values and becomes a successful family man.
The character of Bernard is in contrast with Biff.
Ben:
Ben is Willy’s elder brother, who is dead now and acts as a symbol of
complete success that Willy can only dream about and vent out for Willy’s
frustrations as he appears only when Willy face problems with the present
world. He is ideal for Wi lly, even though he is also antithesis of Willy’s
life. He achieved his success on his own that Willy can only dream about.
He travelled to Africa in his youth and became rich when he was just
twenty -one. He seems to have no time for emotions and personal life but
these qualities are attributed to him by Willy.
Howard Wagner:
Howard is the son of former owner of the Wagner Company. He dismisses
Willy from his job for his poor performance. He is the symbol of
capitalism and modernism in the American society .
Miss Frances:
Many years ago, Willy has an affair with this woman in Boston. The affair
can be seen as an ego booster and not as a strong desire on Willy’s part for
an illicit affair.
4.3 THEMES OF THE PLAY Themes are underlying ideas and beliefs that writers explicit in their texts
as in poetry, fiction and play. Theme of the play helps the readers to
understand between the lines or hidden meaning in his piece of art. There
are several themes in the play Death of a Salesman, such as American
Dream and Disillusionment, Illusion versus Reality, Betrayal, and Nature
versus Man -Made Environment. These t hemes have been discussed
below;
American Dream and Disillusionment:
The play is best known for its theme of hollowness and unattainability of
the American Dream. The American Dream is an ideology of United
States in 19th century that believes in equal opportunities for everyone and
through hard work any one can attain prosperity and success as well as
upward social mobility for himself or for his family. Thr oughout the play,
Willy adheres this American Dream ‘ethos’ that germinate wrong seeds in
his mind to acquire more in life. He misunderstands the concept of
American Dream. He thinks if his brother Ben, his neighbour Charley and munotes.in
Page 27
27 Critical Study of Arthur Miller’s ‘Death of a Salesman’ Part II Charley’s son Bernard can a chieve success financially he also can but he
wants to be on the top without working hard. He conceives a notion that
‘well-liked’ and ‘personal attractiveness’ can bring respect and financial
success. For him, American Dream works in two parts, financial success
and acknowledgement of that success in the society. Willy mistakenly
identifies his own worth and value through the social respect of others in
society, and he also inculcates same ideology in his sons, Biff and Happy.
Illusion versus Reality:
Arthur Miller fabricated the structure of the play with shifts from
flashbacks (play of memories) into the present real life. Willy Lowman’s
issues of dream and truth are complex and confused together which he
tries to control and turn according to his own adv antage. For instance, he
borrows money from his neighbour Charley and shows that amount to his
family as his salary. He never tells his true financial state to his family. A
standout amongst the most critical deceptions, which frequently fuels
Willy’s anxi ety and his son Biff’s hatred, is Willy’s fidelity to his wife
Linda. Rather than recognizing reality and his responsibility Willy regards
his disloyalty and makes up a story to tell his son when he discovers his
father’s affair. Willy and Biff come into c onflict after this incidence. Biff
says his father has all wrong dreams and he rejects reality.
In fact, the whole Lowman family lives under a haze of hallucination and
self-misleading state. They keep secrets from one another and never talk
transparently about the family’s brokenness and proceeds to act as a happy
family. While Linda Lowman knows the truth about her husband, his
habits of telling lies, his suicide endeavours, his depression, but she keeps
on carrying on wrong beliefs of Willy as a devoted wife. He never raises a
question on Willy for anything or never tries to make him understand the
reality of things.
Charley and his son Bernard are in contrast with Lowman family. They
live a practical life and live a happier and successful life.
Betraya l:
When Willy and his brother Ben, were young, they were abandoned by
their father who left his family and moved to Alaska. This was the first act
of betrayal in Willy’s life when his father rejected all his duties towards
his family to achieve success in his life. After his father, Willy’s elder
brother Ben who was father -figure for him after his father. Ben also left
Willy to travel to Africa who made his fortune there and later on died.
Willy likewise feels deceived by his brother Ben, as he opines that Ben
had some secrets to success which he never shared with him. Willy’s
father and Ben choose to live a life of adventure and wealth instead of
family associations. These betrayals in his early years had n impact on him
which leads to his betrayal of his own family in various structures. Willy
becomes a travelling salesman and spends most of his time away from his
family. He was absent when his sons needed him the most. In fact he
betrays his wife Linda, who was so sincere to him in all respects. munotes.in
Page 28
TyBa
28 American Literature In the en d of the play, Willy showcases betrayal of his family when he
commits suicide and rejects all his responsibilities.
Nature versus Man -Made Environment:
Arthur Miller presents the catastrophes of modernism and harsh realities
of artificial world of Capitali sm where a human being has no value but
money has. Howard fires Willy from his company when he realises that
Willy is no longer useful for the company. Willy loves nature and country
life which gives him a sense of freedom. He loves flute music. His
travel ling as a salesman keeps him close to nature and makes him happy.
Whenever he feels distress from outside world, he spends some time in his
garden and plant seeds and attains peace. Though he enjoys being close to
nature his hallucination pulled him toward s man -made world where he is
striving for success and respect.
Biff and Happy are two aspects of Willy’s personality. Biff finds refuge in
natural world as he works on ranches before coming home. Happy on the
other hand likes to stay in city life and wants to be a part of modern world
like his father.
4.4 ARTHUR MILLER’S CONCEPT OF TRAGEDY In Death of a Salesman , Arthur Miller displays a tragedy which is not
quite the same as the established conventional or Shakespearean tragedies.
Based on some capricio us standards Miller creates a tragedy, which is
related to present day in regards of the style just as the topic. The play is
fundamentally connected to Miller's exposition “Tragedy and the c ommon
man", the Miller’s concept in which he rethinks our thought of a tragedy.
He demonstrates that a typical man additionally can be the hero of a
tragedy and his sufferings likewise connect our heart.
In Ar istotle's order of preference, “thought” (or idea) comes at number
three (after plot and character). Miller has already made out the difference
between the Greek drama of destiny and the modern social drama (of
which he himself is also a practitioner). He begins the argument by
claiming that the "assumption - or presumption" - behind his plays is that
"life has mea ning." He brings in Plato also to support his contention. His
plea is that "Plato, by banning artists from citizenship in his ideal republic,
expressed at least a partial truth; the intention behind a work of art and its
effects upon the public are not alw ays the same." He finally believes that
"every play means something - even the play which denies all meaning to
existence." In his view, "the Idea' of a play is its measure of value and
importance and beauty, and that a play, which appears merely to exist to
one side of 'ideas' is an aesthetic nullity." Hence Miller insists that "idea is
very important to me as a dramatist."
Miller’s concept of drama has no place with the past ages tra gedy that is
the established one or the Shakespearean . Miller says t ragedy can have a
place with any age. Be that as it may, with the difference in time the topic
and the style likewise ought to be changed to satisfy the interest of the age. munotes.in
Page 29
29 Critical Study of Arthur Miller’s ‘Death of a Salesman’ Part II Arthur Miller does the very thing in the play. As we experience the play
we see that he doesn't violet the properties of the general punctuation of a
tragedy. The all -inclusive properties of a tragedy incorporate the
introduction of a genuine activity that is finished in itself and fit for
bringing out pity and fear so as to deliver purgat ion in the group of readers
or audience. Miller’s Death of a Salesman satisfies these prerequisites
however in some unpredictable ways. The playwright likewise keeps up
different properties, for example, the plot, character, thought, diction, song
and spec tacle. Taking up the question of meaning or message in drama,
Miller does not agree with those of his contemporaries who would not like
a play, which would yield a "distinct meaning reducible to a sentence." He
is against their preference for so -called "poetic" drama, "whose ultimate
thought or meaning is elusive, a drama which, appears not to have been
composed or constructed, but which somehow comes to life on a stage and
then flickers away." In his view, the critics, demand that a play be praised
for its "high seriousness" and their demand at the same ti me that a "play be
praised for not trying to teach" are highly contradictory, betraying only a
confusion of their principles. Miller is very clear in his mind. To him,
there is no such thing as complete de tachment, and there is no such thing
as a "meaningless" play. As he puts it, “The very conception of a dramatic
theme inevitable means that certain aspects of life are selected and others
left out, and to imagine that a play can be writt en disinterestedly is to
believe that one can make love disinterestedly."
Here , Miller rejects Keatsean kind of aestheticism, of art for art's sake,
where there is a basic quarrel admitted between literature and philosophy.
In his view, there is no such quarrel. The only thi ng is that the philosophic
or social meaning must be embodied in art form. Also, that a literary
work's merit is to be judged, not on the basis of its message (social or
philosophical), but on the quality of its art. As he puts it, "The debatable
question is never whether a play ought to teach but whether it is art, and in
this connection the basic criterion - purely technical consideration to one
side - is the passion with which the teaching is made. I hasten to add the
obvious - that a work cannot be judg ed by the validity of its teaching. But
it is entirely misleading to state that there is some profound conflict
between art and the philosophically or socially meaningful theme."
4.5 DEATH OF A SALESMAN AS A TRAGEDY AND WILLY LOMAN AS A TRAGIC HERO The mo st imperative factor in which the play varies from the traditional
tragedy is the introduction of the tragi c hero. As per Miller a "Common
man" can be an able subject for tragedy, as worship of disastrous activity
isn't just for the lords or the royal yet in addition a property all things
considered. Willy, a normal man, is made the legend of the disaster. As a
legend , he doesn't completely fit into the customary example, yet in
certain regards he turns out as an appalling saint.
At first, Willy isn't com pletely great or altogether awful. He loves his
family without a doubt and furthermore needs to see his children in munotes.in
Page 30
TyBa
30 American Literature extraordinary positions. And yet he has a mystery connection with a lady.
Along these lines he joins both the great and terrible ch aracteris tics. The
extramarital undertaking is unquestionably a cutting edge issue.
Not noble but rather human :
Willy has not unquestionably that honourable birth to put him on
equivalent balance with so many legends as Oedipus or Hamlet, yet at the
same time readers react to the sufferings of Willy as to Oedipus,
Hamlet, Othello and Lear. We react to them not in view of their
introduction to the world, but since we discover a connection among them
and us and can share our mankind.
Tragic Flaw :
Like a conv entional tragic hero , Willy additionally has a heart -breaking
vice, which brings upon his ruin. His faul t is recognized as his fixation on
his fantasy. He generally shows his inclination to confront esteem and
takes it conceded for any sort of achievement in this world. This wrong
origination drives him to the demonstration of suicide. His "hubris", his
presumption, lay in his reasoning that he could achieve the best in that
society. He has turned out to be such a great amount of part of the
arrangement of false incentive in a materialistic world that he dare not
stoop to consider himself separated from it. He is all the time
endeavouring to turn into a piece of his general public. Despite the fact
that it rejects him, he will not change his view and proceed s with his battle
upstream. His reluctance to submit latently to the set up request and
qualities brings him down. He has a set thought in his psyche about how
he needs to be and the manner in which he needs his youngsters to be and
he doesn't go pa st it. At an early age he got an opportunity to change and
end up like his sibling Ben, however d ecided not to . In this way, Willy
bites the dust on account of his appalling imperfections.
Tragic feeling :
It is an easily proven wrong issue whether the fall of Wi lly stimulates our
pity and dread or not. About awful inclination Miller says " tragic feeling
is evoked in us when we are in the presence of a character who is ready to
lay down his life, if need be, to secure one thing – his sense of personal
dignity ". Like the traditional tragedy, the play additionally stimulates our
sentiments of pity and dread. We can't however feel sorry for Willy. He
wasn't right in his way to deal with the life and his capacity. Be that as it
may, his blame does not merit so brutal a discipline. We additionally
turned out to be dreadful subsequent to seeing the awfulness of Willy.
Willy not just speaks to the post -sorrow American white collar class
society, however in a bigger sense he is ‘Everyman ’. No one can escape
from day to da y life or from the certain disappointments of li fe. After the
successful display of the play in ‘China ’, Miller himself said that ‘Willy is
all over the place ’. Audience feel for Willy in excess of an established
legend, since he is a customary ind ividua l like the majority of us. Most of
human beings share his sentiments and comprehend his issues. Along
these lines, the deplorability of Willy ex cites our pity and dread in us. munotes.in
Page 31
31 Critical Study of Arthur Miller’s ‘Death of a Salesman’ Part II These contemplations consider Miller’s "Death of a Salesman" as a
modern tragedy .
4.6 SUMMING UP In this unit, we have discussed the major characters of the play and tried to
read between the lines and their psyche. The major themes of the play
have been studied that reflect the main ideas to understand the working of
the characters .Arthur Miller’s concept of tragedy and its variation from
Greek and Shakespearean tragedy. The play shows the tragedy of
‘Common Man’ which appeals to larger audience even today. Miller based
his play on failure of American Dream and success myth harboure d and
displayed by Willy Loman, tragic hero of the play. The play succeeds to
arise catharsis among audience with the fall of a common salesman Willy
Loman in contemporary American society.
4.7 QUESTIONS 1. Discuss the character analysis of Linda Loman .
2. What are the main themes of the play , Death of the Salesman ?
3. How is Willy Loman a tragic Hero in Death of a Salesman ?
4. Find out the main components that makes Arthur Miller’s Death of a
Salesman as a ‘Modern Tragedy’, different from convention al one.
4.8 SUGGESTED READINGS 1. Ayres, C.E., ‘The Industrial Way of Life’, American Quarterley, Vol.
1, No. 4, Winter 1949.
2. Miller Arthur ‘Tragedy and the Common Man’. The New York
Times,1949.
3. Miller Arthur ‘The Nature of Tragedy’ New York Herald Tribune,
1949
4. Williams Raymond, Modern Tragedy , Stanford University
Press,1966 .
***** munotes.in
Page 32
32 UNIT V
5
CRITICAL STUDY OF JAMES BALDWIN’S
BLUES FOR MISTER CHARLIE
Unit Structure
5.1 Objective and Background
5.2 Information about the author
5.3 Significance of the Title
5.4 Analysis of Plot structure
5.5 Major Themes
5.6 Major Characters
5.7 Critical Analysis
5.8 Questions
5.9 Bibliography
5.1 OBJECTIVE AND BACKGROUND The play Blues for Mister Charlie was written by James Baldwin, who
was an outspoken opponent of racism in the United States. It was first
written in 1964, and it was afterward perf ormed in the same year. It is
based on the true story of Emmett Till's murder in Mississippi, in the
United States of America, which was shown in the film.
5.2 INFORMATION ABOUT THE AUTHOR In addition to being a novelist, playwright, essayist, and social a ctivist,
James Baldwin has written several forceful critiques of racial, sexual, and
class bias in American culture that have garnered widespread attention. He
has six novels to his credit, as well as various collections of essays, short
tales, and poems, all of which have been published.
5.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TITLE Mr. Baldwin's feelings about the story are also conveyed in the title. The
Negro refers to the white guy as "Mister Charlie," which means "Mister
Charlie." His piece is a blues song concerning both the moral dilemmas of
white people and the misery and pain experienced by black people. This
argument is delivered in a very direct manner approximately halfway
through the play. Rev. Meridian Henry, the calm, respectable pastor of a
black church in a small Southern town, dares to ask Parnell, the only
decent white man in town, the difficult question: Have they been friends
because Parnell considers Meridian to be his favorite Uncle Tom? The
answer is yes. The minister goes on to suggest that it is pr eferable for the munotes.in
Page 33
33 Critical Study of James Baldwin’s Blues For Mister Charlie white man, rather than the blac k guy, to confront reality. Richard Henry,
the pastor's son, and how he was slain by a poor, foolish redneck are the
subjects of Mr. Baldwin's novel, which is written in a free -form style that
bounces back an d forth between the present and the past. Even though Mr.
Baldwin spends a significant portion of his last act in a courtroom, he
seems unconcerned with proper courtroom decorum. Additionally,
throughout the play, he avoids using traditional tactics of rea lism and
suspense to create tension and intrigue.
5.4 ANALYSIS OF PLOT STRUCTURE After recovering from his drug addiction and seeking to start a new life
after returning home, Richard Henry is murdered. The plot revolves
around Richard Henry's murd erer, wh o is blackmailing his way back to his
hometown. A few days after his return, he is attacked and killed by Lyle
Britten, an anti -immigrant white zealot who accuses him of 'not knowing
his position.'
Act One :
A court trial and drama by Britten sets the stag e for the rest of the play, in
which an all -white jury is charged with delivering justice while also
making a remark about black living in contemporary America, which is
cheap and pointless. Educating his black students is the focus of the first
act of thi s three -part play, which begins with Reverend Meridian Henry.
He is striving to educate black pupils about tolerance and acceptance in
everyday life. At that moment, Parnell James enters and informs the
Reverend that Lyle Britain has been apprehended by th e police and
charged with the murder of Richard Henry. The Reverend leaves
immediately to alert Lyle Britten of the situation, and when he has left, the
students engage in a discussion about the lives of black people in South
America and the difficulties t hey face daily .
Next, Lyle and his wife Jo, a market storekeeper who is anxious about her
husband Lyle and his impending prison sentence, as well as an incident
that occurred many years ago, appear on the screen together.
As an alternative to apologizing, Jo considers the murder to have been an
unintended mistake, believing that Lyle may have acted in self -defense.
Both the husband and wife are unapologetic about their actions.
The next scenario is a flashback in which Richard is having a
disagreement with his grandmother regarding his mother's death. Neither
Richard nor his grandmother, Henry, believe that her mother was forced
down the stairs; nonetheless, Richard believes that she did so on her own.
The incident makes Richard feel apprehensive, and he dec ides to defend
himself by carrying a gun, over the advi ce of his grandma. He meets up
with his old buddies Pete and Juanita at Papa D's Bar for a drink. After
bragging to his companions about his previous physical contact with white
women, his radical natu re is revealed. He also gives them some
photographs, but his friends are concerned for his safety. While he informs munotes.in
Page 34
TyBa
34 American Literature Juanita of his drug -related exploits, he maintains that he is now completely
drug-free. Richard then leaves the building and goes outside to meet Lyle.
The flashback comes to a close when Richard goes home and informs his
father, Reverend Henry, that he has chosen to hand over the pistol he had
been holding onto. He returns to the church to inform Reverend Henry that
Lyle must be arrested, but he also pleads with him to free him as soon as
possible after the arrest.
Act Two:
In the next scene, the action moves to Jo Britten's house, where a big
gathering of white city dwellers has gathered. The recent unrest in the
town, which has been attribu ted to black people, is a major topic of
discussion among the participants. All of the white people in the
community are outraged that he should be covering up the trial of a black
felon in his capacity as editor of the local newspaper. People continue to
have doubts about Parnell, and some even criticize him by arguing that the
jury should be composed entirely of black people because the convict is
black.
The case's potential is discussed by Britten and Parnell after everyone has
left the room. While Lyle is taking a bath, Jo inquires about her husband's
secret affair with Willa Mae, who is also taking a bath. She was the widow
of old Bill, a black laborer who had been murdered by Lyle many years
previously but had managed to evade capture and prosecution. Parnell is
insistent about not bringing it up in conversation. She then inquires as to
whether or not Parnell has any feelings for any black woman in his life, to
which he responds in the positive. As a result, Jo begins to question
whether Lyle loved Will a Mae and murdered her husband as a result of
their relationship. She has strong suspicions that her husband was also
involved in Richard's death. He will always be able to murder the other if
he is successful in murdering the first. However, they keep bri nging up
Willa Mae whenever they come down to the market with him and his
child.
When the plot suddenly rushes back to Richard entering Britten's store
against his friend Lorenzo's wishes, the audience is taken back to the
beginning of the story. When he p laced an order for two Cocks, he
requests change on a twenty -dollar bill. Lyle is injured after Richard
physically shoves him to the ground, despite Lorenzo's best efforts to
bring him back to the car. As he walks away, Lyle begins hurling threats at
him f rom behind him. The memory comes to a stop there, but Lyle goes
on to explain the events surrounding Richard's death. Everyone was
perplexed by this mystery because no one knew what caused Richards'
death.
Act Three:
Following Richards' death, the third ac t opens in a courtroom with Lyle,
who has been there for three months. All of the members of the jury are
clothed in white, and there are also witnesses present in the jury box.
Richard and Jo are both on the stand, but Jo tells a different story about munotes.in
Page 35
35 Critical Study of James Baldwin’s Blues For Mister Charlie what transpired in the store and how Richard attempted to sexually abuse
her.
According to Papa Di, one night as he was closing his tavern, he happened
to notice Richard and Lyle living together as friends. Lorenzo also
provides a straightforward account of w hat he observed in the store, but he
also attempts to rationalize Richards' actions by claiming that he has lately
stopped taking illegal narcotics. Lorenzo also refused to accept any naked
photos of white women in Richard's hands, which he felt were
inapp ropriate. Juanita, another acquaintance, also appears in court to
defend Richard's good name and reputation.
Both Mother Henry and Reverend Henry remained silent about Richard's
gun, and while Kern Gents mentions Reverend Henry assisting his son in
develop ing good character, he has not corroborated Jo's version of the
story because he knows it doesn't matter and would cause him to become
an outcast because of it.
In the end, as expected, the jury finds Lyle not guilty of the charges
against him. According t o a new flashback introduced to the plot, Lyle
shoots and kills a silent, unarmed Richard when he refuses to apologize
for the altercation in the store. He then arranges his body in an accident -
like fashion, much as he had described to Parnell in court, to demonstrate
his point. Reverend Henry likewise refuses to accept responsibility for his
son's death, and Lyle joins him in this refusal. Finally, in the third act,
everyone, including the black males, departs to take part in a protest
march, and they are all depressed about it. Parnell decides to accompany
them as well.
5.5 MAJOR THEMES The fundamental themes of this play revolve around operative racism, and
before Blues for Mr. Charlie, no other dramatist had approached the issue
of racism through litera ture in this manner. Even before the play was
delivered, some audience members expressed concern that the content was
too radical and harsh to be performed in public. In addition to having a
novel structure that has been called radical in literature, it is through this
play that the Black Nationalistic Theatre makes its debut in the annals of
American history. It was written during one of the most turbulent periods
in the history of race relations in the United States. African Americans
endured the same pre judice after more than 300 years of resistance and
multiple emancipation efforts. They were denied civil rights and were
denied a conventional way of life in the United States.
Beginning in the early 1960s, thousands of individuals marched and
protested ag ainst racial discrimination in the workplace, education, and the
use of public funds and facilities in the United States. Real victims of Race
Americans' attacks and killings of Black Americans and their White allies
were Black children and women, not Race Americans themselves. Radical
White supremacists were equally enraged by black children and churches
as they were by white people. When African Americans and Whites munotes.in
Page 36
TyBa
36 American Literature engage in a hostile manner, riots erupt in virtually every major American
city, including New York, New Jersey, and Philadelphia.
It is James Baldwin's primary goal to educate and inspire compassion for
the plight of African -Americans among a predominantly white readership
through his writings. It dramatically demonstrates how racism interferes
with the administration of justice, as seen in the Emmett Till case. The
theme of justice is also prominent in the drama. It begins with the murder
of a black man by a white man and concludes with the trial of that white
man. It was also discovered that L yle had committed another murder in
the past, which was witnessed by his wife, who blames it on her husband's
affair with the man's wife. In the case, Parnell, a friend of the deceased
man's father, and Lyle are both weak and hesitant because they don't wa nt
their friend to go to prison, and they don't want people to blame them for
standing up for a dead useless black man against living innocent white
people. Lyle is ultimately exonerated of the murder of Richard, after years
of investigation.
Additionally, religion is a significant problem and character in the play as
well. A clergyman, the murdered man's father has always promoted
nonviolent protest in the face of racism and racial hatred, but he now fears
the judicial system and wants to fight for Black p eople's rights in America,
which is a difficult task. According to several of the characters, religion is
failing Black people, and it is not supporting them in gaining equality in
human rights or in achieving justice. Parnell argues via the characters in
Meridian that the Church and religion alone are insufficient to address the
issue of racism. It is necessary to fight for one's rights even when one is
not religious, as Meridian illustrates a fter the play when he enters the
church with a gun.
It is via th e play's racial problem that Baldwin demonstrates his keen
understanding of "how established cultural beliefs play out in individual's
lives and then sell out in their own," as well as his "extraordinary
perception of the complexities and inconsistencies o f human motivations."
A second attempt is made by him to define the relationship that exists
between racial politics and cultural institutions. The church is regarded as
an African American institution at the courthouse, which serves as a site
of the conde nsation of white social authority, as well as at the generic
convenience store, which serves as a gathering place for the community.
The drama, set in the Black and White American South, also explores the
subject of how much individual perspective matters. By using a situation
in which justice and truth are malleable concepts that are dependent on
perception for their validity and are supported by recognizable cultural
institutions such as the Church, the Courts, and even the convenience
store, the story ma kes a statement about what racial politics is all about.
Attempts are made to obscure how knowledge and power are both
autonomous and closely related in the working of polar organizations
through the use of direct racial depictions in the drama. Mr. Charli e's
Blues is a brilliant depiction of a perception of reality that transcends the
confines of society. It is the belief that social reality does indeed define the
individual experience both inside and outside the body, as well as the munotes.in
Page 37
37 Critical Study of James Baldwin’s Blues For Mister Charlie suggestion that social reality penetrates and perhaps even dominates the
individual existential reality of the human experience, that helps to
strengthen color politics in society.
5.6 MAJOR CHARACTERS : 1. After his son is slain by a gang member, Meridian Henry becomes a
priest and civil rights activist who adopts and adapts Martin Luther
King's idea of nonviolent protest. He also comes to loathe crime after
this experience. However, Meridian's peaceful approach to civil rights
is compelled to be reconsidered as a result of hi s demonstration,
which is ineffective in convincing his white allies to aba ndon their
white supremacy.
2. Meridian's son, Richard Henry, is assassinated, and his life is
analyzed through the prism of flashbacks, including his attempts to
become a musician in New York, as well as his struggle with
addiction to prescription drugs. He exemplifies the traditional divide
that exists between whites and blacks, as whites regard him as a threat
to white domination, while blacks perceive him as a rejection of white
authority.
3. Lyle Britten is being investigated as a possible suspect in the
assassination of Richard Henry. Before the play begins, he is depicted
as low -class and stupid, but he also takes great delight in being a
racist and having sex with a black la dy to demonstrate his power and
domination over the other characters. The court examines him in
chronological order, and Richards' defiance of the social order pushes
him to his demise, culminating in Richard s's horrendous death a t the
hands of the authori ties.
4. Jo Britten is Lyle's more educated and elegant wife, and she is the
protagonist of the film. Even before Richards comes, she is well
aware that her husband is a racist and that he has murdered some
African -Americans in the past. In the background , she protects and
supports her husband, while simultaneously lying about the events
leading up to Richards' murder and her husband's acquittal in the case.
He is the editor of the local newspaper; he is wealthy and of the upper
class; nonetheless, he has no desire for racial equality and holds a liberal
perspective on society. 5. Parnell James In addition to being Meridian and
Lyle's friend, he is also interested in finding Richard's assailant and
bringing him to justice. However, he is unwilling to divulg e evidence that
calls into serious question Lyle's claims of innocence.
5.7 CRITICAL ANALYSIS In his novels and plays, James Arthur Baldwin (1924 -1987) explored
themes of race and sexuality that were important to him as an African
American writer. munotes.in
Page 38
TyBa
38 American Literature There are two stories in the play. The first follows Richard, a young black
citizen and musician, as he travels back to his birthplace to recover from
his drug -related troubles and to be released from prison. The second
follows Richard as he returns to his birth place to recover from his drug -
related troubles and to be released from prison. The story's drama begins
when he meets Lyle, the owner of a white nationalist store in the
neighborhood.
In Blues for Mister Charlie, the theme of racism in the United States i s
explored in depth. Mr. Charlie is a slang term for white people that is
commonly used by Black people. Also, it is inspired by the trial of a
murderer that took place in Mississippi in 1955, and it is often considered
a modern tragedy of racial prejudice and hatred. The p reface to the novel
indicates that the action takes place in "Plague Town, United States of
America." Racism and Christian religious supremacy are present in this
context, and the disease is also used as a weapon to destroy all human
bond s and attachments to one's race.
A white and black family finds themselves entangled in the horrible
border situation, but the drama also confronts racial injustice and the
issues that Christianity was facing at the time.
Furthermore, the stage, given the playwright's setting, offers a crucial
comment on the relationship between blacks and whites in the United
States. The set is a metaphor for "White Town" and "Black Town," with
an aisle separating the two towns in the show. The play begins with a
bipolar p oint of view and a very forceful manifestation of the division,
which is expressed in several exchanges. At various times, these two
sections are also used as a church and a courtroom. The drama does not
develop a relationship between blacks and whites as a result; rather, by
depicting them as two opposed groups, it serves to perpetuate the
irreversible state of affairs.
Beginning in a fundamentally dysfunctional society in which a white man
comes close to getting away with murdering a black man without fac ing
any consequences from the law, the court system, society, or religion is
where the action takes place. The first time Richard returns to his
hometown in the southern United States, he understands his social
standing and informs his grandmother that "My Mama's dead because my
father has no power." White males are given the right by society to rape
and kill black women, and black women have no redress. As a result,
when Richard questions Lyle's authority and power, he is assassinated as a
result of his de fiance.
Another type of marginalization that is present in the play is that of sex.'
The White community is fascinated with the sexuality of black people
over the course of the play. This fear of sexual issues and guilt, according
to the author, frequently results in misunderstandings and conflict. To give
an example, in the first act, when the white inhabitants of the town gather
at Lyle's house, they regard black men as a sexual threat to their white
female counterparts, which is incorrect. After an initi al period of tension, munotes.in
Page 39
39 Critical Study of James Baldwin’s Blues For Mister Charlie the relationship between these two opposed individuals progressively
deteriorated, ending in a violent fight in which Richard defeated Lyle and
subsequently sought retaliation with a gun, ultimately killing Richard.
The second story i s set in the present tense, and it revolves around the
impending murder trial in which Lyle is accused of the murder of Richard,
who is the main character. In the beginning, Meridian, Richard's father,
and Parnell James, a white but liberal businessman who also happens to be
the editor of the local newspaper, file a lawsuit against each other. He is
also a close friend of Lyle's family and an outspoken supporter of black
civil rights. A fter the trial, Lyle is acquitted because his wife Jo submitted
false te stimony accusing Richard of attempting to rape her, which Parnell
was unable to refute when on the witness stand.
Because it begins and ends with the murder of Richard, the play's structure
is circular; flashbacks are used to explain the circumstances surr ounding
his death. This is something that many critics believe. This framework
enables a great deal of attention to be paid to a variety of themes,
including racism, prejudice, and religion. The title of the play brings the
audience up to date on the autho rs' current point of view. When the negro
calls the white guy Mr. Charlie, he is telling the story of white men's
morals as well as the humiliation, pain, agony, and belittlement that Negro
experiences near the end of the play. Mr. Charlie is a slang word for the
white man.
Sex and power are recurring themes in the novel, which are important to
understand. The use of sexuality to assert and enforce dominance is
common. When Richard comes from New York and meets racism, he says
the following about White male s:
'They can rape and murder our women with no repercussions for us, but if
we touch one of their dried pale -assed women, we'll have our overn ights
removed.'
Aside from that, Richard attempts to disrupt society's power structure by
sleeping with white wome n whom he views to be the property of the white
guy. He also writes about his countless interactions with white women, in
which he compares their lack of respect during sex to the lack of dignity
that black people are subjected to in the United States. He goes on to make
fun of Lyle by bragging about how he and Lyle's wife could have better
sex. Having lost his mind, Richard is disturbing the social order that
distinguishes whites and black people by believing that he is equal to and
even superior in some w ays to, white males in areas like sex. Lyle also
uses sex to retain his white male control over the females. His sense of
power and authority over them prompts him to take advantage of his
position by having sex with black prostitutes and rapping black fem ales on
the streets.
According to Baldwin, the topic concept for the play was initially
suggested to him in 1958 by Alia, who was both a novelist and a
filmmaker at the time. Only after the assassination of Medgar Evers, a
well-known civil rights activist and one of his friends, in 1963, has he munotes.in
Page 40
TyBa
40 American Literature decided to complete the play. Baldwin witnessed these executions in
terrible darkness, and he described the play Blues for Mr. Charlie as "one
man's need to bear witness to the actuality and power of light" at the ou tset
of the play.
5.8 QUESTIONS 1. Discuss Blues for Mr. Charlie as literature of Protest
2. Analyse the Play from the point of view of racism in America
3. Write a note on the major themes of the play.
4. Discuss the characters of the play concerning the socio -political
situation of America.
5.9 BIBLIOGRAPHY Baldwin, James. Blues for Mister Charlie: A Play . Vintage, 2013.
Baldwin, James. Blues for Mr. Charlie . ABC Radio, 1989.
Berry, Mary Frances. Black resistance/white law: A history of
constitutional racism in America . Penguin, 1995.
Bigsby, C. W. E. "The Committed Writer: James Baldwin as
Dramatist." Twentieth Century Literature 13.1 (1967): 39 -48.
Lawrence, David O. Sears Jim Sidanius. Racialized politics: The
debate about racism in America . Universi ty of Chicago Press, 2000.
Oza, Preeti. "Rise and Growth of Novel i n American Literature till
20th Century."
Turner, Susan Watson. "Why Theater, Mr. Baldwin?: The Amen
Corner and Blues for Mister Charlie." James Baldwin . Brill, 2014. 29 -
39.
***** munotes.in
Page 41
41 UNIT VI
6
CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF LANGSTON
HUGHES’ POETRY
Unit Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Langston Hughes – Introduction
6.2.1 Poem: Mother to Son - Summary
6.2.2 Poem: Mother to Son - Critical Analysis
6.3.1Poem: Deferred Dream - Summary
6.3.2 Poem: Deferred Dream - Critical Analysis
6.4.1 Poem: Democracy - Summary
6.4.2 Poem: Democracy - Critical Analysis
6.5 Let’s Sum Up
6.6 Questions
6.7 Suggested Reading
6.0 OBJECTIVES: After studying this unit, the learner will be able to describe the
contribution of Langston Hughes to the Harlem Renaissance. S/he will be
able to summarise the prescribed poems and analyse the themes, style,
genre and context of the poems.
6.1 LANGSTON HUGHES – INTRODUCTION Langston Hughes aka James Mercer Langston Hughes ( 1902? -1967) is
one of the leading writers and thinkers of the Harlem Renaissance - an
artistic movement in the 1920s that celebrated African American life and
culture. Hughes was inspired by Harlem - an African American
neighbourhood in New York City. His writings were influential not only
in American literature but also in American politics. He wrote a variety of
works like poetry, novels, plays, essays, and children's books, which
reassert racial pride while promoting equality and justice. His works
reflect the African American culture, humor, and spirituality.
Hughes began writing poetry at an early age. His poem ‘The Negro
Speaks of Rivers’ was written in the summer after his high school
graduation. Hughes studied at Columbia University in New York and
formed a strong attachment to Harlem. He travelled by taking up work as a
steward on a freighter bound for Africa. Hughes’ ‘The Negro Artist and
the Racial Mountain’ became a manifesto for a new, unique, confident
African American literature. In this book, he declared that "We younger munotes.in
Page 42
TyBa
42 American Literature Negro artists who create now intend to express our individual, dark -
skinned selves without fear or shame."
Hughes’ first collection of poetry, ‘The Weary Blues’ was published in
1926, while ‘Fine Clothes to the Jew’ was publi shed in 1927. The latter
featured the lives of poor African Americans including drunks and
prostitutes. Hughes’ poems display a radical leftist shift and political tone
in the 1930s. He was accused of being a Communist and made to testify
by Senator Joseph McCarthy.
Hughes’ works deal with a wide variety of themes like African American
cultural pride, music, dignity, survival, collective memory and the
American identity. The themes are drawn from his personal life, his
travels, his involvement in radical a nd protest movements, his interest in
Africa and South America as well as the Caribbean.
Hughes’ works ‘A Pictorial History of the Negro in America’, ‘The Poetry
of the Negro’ and ‘The Book of Negro Folklore’ captured the African
American literature and cu lture. The play ‘Mulatto’ was a stage adaptation
of one of his short stories. He also created memorable characters like Jesse
B. Semple through his columns in the Chicago Defender and the New
York Post. Hughes was active in social and political causes. His poetry
became a tool for cultural protest. He was involved with the Black Panther
Party as well as the Black Power Movement.
Along with other young artists of the Harlem Renaissance like Wallace
Thurman and Zora Neale Hurston, Hughes participated in publ ishing the
first issue of the magazine ‘Fire!!’ The magazine was aimed at giving a
frank, uncensored voice to issues like sex and race. Only one issue of the
magazine was published.
Hughes revolutionised poetry by using language that reflected how the
African Americans spoke. His language is simple and accessible to all and
captures the rhythms of African American speech. His poems also show a
strong influence of jazz and blues music, bebop, gospel and Harlem slang.
They reflect the oral and improvisational tradition of African American
poetry. He combined a cosmopolitan outlook with a deep sense of pride in
his racial roots.
Hughes wrote his autobiography in two parts ‘The Big Sea’ and ‘I Wonder
as I Wander.’ He was awarded an honorary D. Litt by Lincoln U niversity.
6.2.1 Poem: Mother to Son – Summary :
The poem consists of advice that a mother gives to her son. She tells him
that her life has been very different from a crystal stair. She describes her
life as having been difficult, like a staircase with ta cks, splinters, missing
boards and bare patches where the carpet has worn out. She narrates to her
son how she has continued climbing, turning corners and reaching
landings. She has even climbed in the dark when there was no light. She
advises her son not to turn back in his own life. She tells him not to stop
and sit down when progress becomes difficult. She finally exhorts him not munotes.in
Page 43
43 Critical Analysis of Langston Hughes’ Poetry to fall because she herself is still climbing. She repeats that her life has
been very unlike a crystal stair.
6.2.2 Poem: Mot her to Son - Critical Analysis :
‘Mother to Son’ is a dramatic monologue. The I -persona or speaker in the
poem is a mother who is giving advice to her son about life. She shares her
experiences of survival in order to encourage her son to keep on
progressin g in life.
Hope and determination are thus important themes of this poem. The
mother emphasises the importance of constantly moving forward or
progressing in life. This poem is based on the idea of hope and
encouragement to constantly engage with life, d espite the fact that life is
full of difficulties and obstacles. She inspires her son to never give up by
putting forth the example of her own journey through life.
The poem acquires a deeper meaning when it is understood in the context
of the Harlem Rena issance, a literary movement which celebrated African
American culture and identity. The mother can be seen to represent the
African American community and her journey becomes symbolic of the
challenges and obstacles faced by the community in its struggle for
equality and acceptance. It becomes a message of hope for future progress
from one generation of African Americans to the next generation.
The central image in the poem is a staircase, or rather two contrasting
staircases. The staircase naturally symbo lises upward movement, thereby
reflecting the desire of the African American community for economic
progress and upward social mobility. It could also be taken to represent
the American dream of equal access to the unalienable rights of ‘life,
liberty and the pursuit of happiness.’
The mother begins her monologue by describing how her life has not been
easy. She uses the metaphor of a crystal stair, a negative comparison,
stating that her life has not been a crystal stair. The crystal stair here
symbolises the dreams and ideals of freedom, equality, progress and
wealth cherished by the African American community. The next few lines
bring in a contrasting image, the dilapidated staircase that the mother has
actually been climbing.
This actual staircase is fa r from ideal and is not in the best condition. “ It’s
had tacks in it,/And splinters.” The metaphor of the staircase is extended
throughout the poem, explaining the challenges and obstacles the mother
has faced. The line, “Life for me ain’t been no crystal stair” is repeated
throughout the poem. It acts as a sort of refrain, adding emphasis to the
difficult experiences faced by the mother.
The further description of the staircase, with boards torn up and the worn
out patches of carpet, seems to indicate tha t the mother has battled against
poverty. The staircase was neither safe nor pleasant to navigate; a direct
reference to the first generation of African Americans struggling to
achieve their civil rights. munotes.in
Page 44
TyBa
44 American Literature The dark spots on the stairs indicate despair or d ifficult circumstances; the
low moments of the struggle. The landings could stand for the limited
progress achieved by the African Americans.
The mother’s repetition of “ I’se been a -climbin ” indicates determination
and perseverance in the face of oppositi on. She represents the
unquenchable spirit for progress that inspired the African Americans. She
exhorts her son to never stop i.e. lose hope or give up the struggle and
concludes by stating that she herself is still climbing. The message that she
gives th e African American youth, is not one of passive idealism but of
active, realistic struggle.
The poem makes use of the dialect spoken by African Americans in
Harlem, thereby lending the poem both authenticity and a beautiful
rhythm, distinct from that of st andard English. E.g. “Cause you find it’s
kinder hard.” The colloquial language seems natural for the speaker of the
poem, an African American woman who has lived in poverty and difficult
circumstances. The poem does not have a formal rhyme scheme and the
lines are of unequal length, so it can be called free verse.
The poem contains an allusion to a Biblical image: Jacob’s Ladder. Jacob
sees in a dream a vision of a celestial stairway upon which angels climb
and descend between earth and heaven. God promis ed the ladder to the
Israelites. This story became an inspiration for the African Americans in
their quest for liberation and salvation through faith. The traditional
spiritual (song) ‘We Are Climbing Jacob's Ladder’ was widely popular
among the African Am ericans.
Apart from spirituals, Hughes’ style was heavily influenced by jazz and
blues. The use of repetition and the improvisatory rhythm of this poem
reflect these influences.
‘Mother to Son’ is one of Hughes’ early works; it has, therefore, been
interp reted as a metapoem. The son is understood to symbolise Hughes
himself, faced with the difficulties of capturing African American culture
through his poetry. The mother appears to give him the message of
perseverance, and of the need to depict the reality of the African
Americans with its ‘tacks and splinters’.
In another longer poem titled ‘The Negro Mother’, Hughes presents a
similar dramatic monologue with an old woman addressing her scattered
children. This mother represents the racial matriarch or the voice of
African American history, reminding the youth of their legacy and
inspiring them to continue.
6.3.1 Poem: Deferred Dream – Summary :
This poem, taken from a collection of poems titled ‘Harlem’ is a very
short piece. The I -persona is asking a seri es of questions about dreams that
are deferred i.e. not fulfilled. He wonders what is the outcome of such
deferred dreams. He tries to describe them through a series of comparisons
- a raisin in the sun, a wound that is infected and oozing, rotten meat and munotes.in
Page 45
45 Critical Analysis of Langston Hughes’ Poetry an extremely sugary sweet. He also compares it to a burden that is
intolerable. Finally he questions whether deferred dreams explode.
6.3.2 Poem: Deferred Dream - Critical Analysis :
Langston Hughes poetry becomes a vehicle to depict the history and
tradit ion, the hopes and dreams, the struggle and disappointments of the
African American community. A leading poet of the Harlem Renaissance,
his poetry is characterised by deceptively simple language and vivid use of
imagery and symbols.
‘Deferred Dream’ repr esents the plight of the African American
community after the Great Depression. The dream in the title refers to the
dream of African Americans that they would find an equal place in
American society, that their children would get access to a comfortable
life, education and the scope for socio -economic progress. The dream also
signifies the American Dream, the belief that America offers equal
opportunities to all its citizens and that anyone who is capable and
hardworking can rise to success.
Through this p oem, Hughes attempts "to explain and illuminate the Negro
condition in America". He questions why the dream has still remained a
dream for the African Americans and wonders about the consequences of
unfulfilled dreams.
The opening line of the poem is a que stion; it states the central theme of
the poem which is developed through the subsequent lines. The poet asks
a series of questions, which actually posit alternative answers to the
question in the first line.
The first image Hughes uses to describe deferre d dreams is that of a raisin.
He uses a simile to bring out how over time, dreams can become dry,
shrivelled and lifeless. He indirectly evokes the image of a juicy grape to
symbolise how the dream was initially fresh and full of life until it was
dried up by disappointment. Lorraine Hansberry alluded to this poem
when she gave her play the title ‘A Raisin in the Sun’. The play describes
the efforts of an African American family to realise the American Dream.
The next question brings out a more painful sim ile. It compares an
unfulfilled dream to a wound that is infected and oozing. He thus evokes
the sense of the African American community as a body which has been
hurt by the discrimination and neglect, leading to a festering wound.
Unlike the dried, dead r aisin in the previous line, the unfulfilled dream
takes on a painful, even hazardous life.
The image of an open sore is both shocking and disgusting, forcing
readers to recognise the pain and harshness of the African American
experience.
Hughes further co mpares the dream to rotten, stinking meat; another
disgusting image. Meat stands for sustenance and nourishment, but rotten
meat is useless for consumption. It becomes offensive to the senses. This munotes.in
Page 46
TyBa
46 American Literature image seems to extend the pain of the previous image. It a gain highlights
that the realities faced by the African American community are
unpalatable, even disgusting. The readers are forced to acknowledge the
stink of discrimination rising from the unfulfilled dreams.
The poet presents yet another alternative, co mparing the deferred dream to
a sweet that will "crust and sugar over''. This extends the food imagery of
the previous line, however, both the foods are distinctly unpalatable.
Excessive sugar will make the sweet cloying and unpleasant, though not
inedible or harmful like rotten meat.
The sweetness stands for idealism, the belief in the American dream of
equality and success. Unreasonable belief in the dream led to a deep sense
of disappointment and betrayal among the African American youth, who
were deni ed the promised reconstruction, integration, and equal
opportunities.
The next simile, comparing an unfulfilled dream to a burden is the only
line in the poem that is a statement and not a question. The burden
represents the economic and emotional hardship s faced by the African
Americans. It also reminds the reader of the responsibility of American
society to grant equality to everyone. The unfulfilled dreams of African
Americans have become a burden, not only on their own community, but
on American society as a whole.
The final line, which is in italics, poses a question as to whether mass
disillusionment can devolve into violence. The explosion seems to be the
natural consequence of the frustration faced by the African American
youth. It serves as a clear warning to American society that neglecting the
dreams of its members can have potentially disastrous effects. ‘Deferred
Dream’ reflects the leftist leanings observed in many of Hughes’ works.
The poem has a clear rhetorical structure, describing the disap pointment,
pain and disillusionment of the African American community, and
visualising the possible outcome of their dissatisfaction.
The poem consists of a series of questions that convey a tone of
dissatisfaction. Some lines rhyme e.g. “ sun/run, meat/sw eet,
load/explode” , but there is no pattern to the rhyme or rhythm. The poem is
extremely economical in its use of words; the images are suggestive,
evocative and symbolic. The poet uses anaphora when words are repeated
to create a rhythm and form e.g.
“Does it dry up...
Does it stink....
Or does it . ....”
6.4.1 Poem: Democracy – Summary:
The I -persona begins by stating that democracy will not be achieved in the
near future, or ever, if the tools used for achieving it are fear and munotes.in
Page 47
47 Critical Analysis of Langston Hughes’ Poetry compromise. He assert s his right, like that of any other person, to
independence and to own the land he stands on. The I -persona states that
he is tired of people who advocate patience and non -interference, with the
promise of future hope. He does not want to live on the hope of future
benefits and is afraid of never getting freedom as long as he is alive. He
compares freedom to a strong seed which is planted in a great need. He
concludes the poem by reasserting his Americanness and demanding the
same freedom as the whites.
6.4.2 Poem: Democracy - Critical Analysis:
‘Democracy’ voices the demand of the African American community for
true and full participation in the political process. The poem was written at
a time when African American men had been given voting rights, yet wer e
unable to vote due to conditions like literacy tests of voters. Women were
not allowed to participate in the democratic process.
The speaker in the poem states that true democracy cannot co -exist with
compromise and fear. Such a democracy cannot be effec tive in the short
run or in the long run. He points out that in a democracy, freedom should
be unconditional. It is ironic that he denies the existence of true
democracy in America, a nation that defines itself as the champion of
democracy.
The second stan za is a clear and direct assertion of being equal to the
whites. “ To stand on my own two feet ” represents the desire for
independence and economic self -sufficiency. Standing could also refer to
taking a stand i.e. the freedom to formulate one’s own politic al opinions
and choices. The speaker demands equal rights as the whites in terms of
owning the land i.e. the right to property. Owning the land could also refer
to the notion of American identity; the African Americans were not
allowed to claim America as “their” land.
The third stanza brings out a sense of frustration and disappointment,
which is also reflected in Hughes’ poem ‘Deferred Dream’. The poet
disagrees with the people who advocate patience and promise future hope.
He does not believe that the co nditions will improve in the long run or that
the future of the African American community is rosy. Reiterating the
refusal to compromise in the earlier stanza, he refuses to barter the present
rights for dreams of the future.
Hughes uses the powerful meta phor of “bread” to underline the urgency of
their demand for freedom. Bread is a basic necessity; it symbolises
sustenance and nourishment. However, bread is of no use to a dead
person. He uses this metaphor to explain how the promise of freedom at a
later date carries no meaning in the present.
Using another metaphor, he compares freedom to a strong seed. It is a
living force and a dire necessity for everyone. Thus, he emphasises that
freedom cannot be denied.
munotes.in
Page 48
TyBa
48 American Literature In the final stanza, Hughes reminds the rea ders that African Americans are
also citizens of America and, consequently, they are eligible for all the
kinds of freedom that are available to the whites. The words “just as you”
reassert that African Americans are not different from the whites and that
America should treat them as the same.
The poem is written in free verse. Some lines are rhymed e.g. “year/fear,
say/day, bread/dead, seed/need”. The poem is concise and yet conveys a
wealth of meaning through its powerful imagery. The language is
deceptiv ely simple and the tone is one of insistent demand.
6.5 LET’S SUM UP Langston Hughes’ poems are powerful political pieces that give voice to
the issues of the African Americans. Through ‘Mother to Son’, he
celebrates the history of the African American c ommunity and describes
their experiences of struggle for equal rights. ‘Deferred Dream’ makes
striking use of imagery and symbolism to predict the social consequences
when an entire community is denied the opportunity to progress.
‘Democracy’ questions the hypocrisy of American society for denying
equality to the African Americans while defining itself as a nation built on
the ideals of democracy.
6.6 QUESTIONS i) Analyse ‘Mother to Son’ as a dramatic monologue.
ii) Explain how the mother in ‘Mother to S on’ represents the African
American community.
iii) Identify and explain the themes dealt with in the poem ‘Mother to
Son’.
iv) Comment on how ‘Deferred Dreams’ reflects the potential social
consequences of racial discrimination against the African Ameri can
community.
v) Analyse the various themes explored through the poem ‘Democracy’.
vi) Comment on ‘Democracy’ as a poem that asserts the unfulfilled
dreams and aspirations of the African Americans.
6.7 SUGGESTED READING Hughes, Langston: Collected Poems of Langston Hughes (Knopf
Doubleday Publishing Group,USA, 2011)
Gates, Henry Louis and Appaih, Anthony ed: Langston Hughes: Critical
Perspectives Past and Present (Harper Collins, New York, 2000)
***** munotes.in
Page 49
49 UNIT VII
7
CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF SYLVIA
PLATH’S POEMS
Unit Structure
7.1 Objectives
7.2 About the poet
7.3 Mirror
7.3.1 Introduction of the poem Mirror
7.3.2 . Summary of the poem Mirror
7.3.3 . Analysis of the poem Mirror
7.3.4. Literary Devices used in the poem Mirror
7.4 Tulips
7.4.1 Introduction of the poem Tulips
7.4.2 . Summary of the poem Tulips
7.4.3 . Analysis of the poem Tulips
7.4.4. Literary Devices used in the poem Tulips
7.5 “I Am Vertical ”
7.5.1 Introduction of the poem I am Vertical
7.5.2 . Summary of the poem I am Vertical
7.5.3 . Anal ysis of the poem I am Vertical
7.5.4. Literary Devices used in the poem I am Vertical
7.6 Questions
7.7 Suggested Reading
7.1 OBJECTIVES In this unit, we will study three poems by Sylvia Plath -‘Mirror”, “ Tulips’
and ‘I am Vertical” and see how her p oetry is intimately associated with
her dark emotional experiences. Students with be acquainted with the
profound imagery and the lyrical quality of Plath’s verses that confront
the intense feminist despair of the poet which titillate not only traditional
ideas about womanhood and motherhood but our ideas of reality itself.
7.2 ABOUT THE POET Sylvia Plath created a great sensation the in post -war American poetry
with her intensely personal poems that blend her own mental agony at her
disturbed marriage, uneasy relations with her parents and her own
obsession with death. She triggered the momentum fo r confessional poetry
and won the Pulitzer Prize posthumously. Two o f her published works - munotes.in
Page 50
TyBa
50 American Literature The Colossus and Other Poems and the Ariel and the Bell Jar are most
celebrated. Plath was born in 1932 in Boston and she c ommitted suicide in
1963, just after her separation with her husband and fellow poet Ted
Hughes.
7.3 MIRROR 7.3.1 Introduction:
“Mirror” was written in 1961 and compared to Plath’s other poems, is
straightforward and easy to understand. It is no doubt a sad a nd dejected
poem representing Plath’s distinctive emotional turbulences but less
perplexing and wrenching.
7.3.2 Summary:
This is a poem of two stanzas of 9 lines each and is narrated by a mirror
that is personified. It is written in free -verse and first person point of view
of the mirror. The poem begins with the mirror’s description of itself as “
silver and exact”. It does not have any pre -suppositions (“preconceptions”)
and whatever it sees, it reflects (“swallows”) immediately without getting
influen ced by love or hate. The mirror states that it is not “cruel” but is
“truthful”. It defines itself as the “eye of a little god, four cornered”
emphasising its power to see everything. Most of the time, it reflects the
opposite wall which is spotted pink i n colour. The mirror says the wall
seem to be a part of his heart as it has looked at it for so long but this
inseparable connection gets broken by faces and darkness.
Now, the mirror turns into a lake. A woman bends and gazes at her
reflection to determin e who she really is. Sometimes, she uses ‘liars” like
the candles or the moon to hide her true appearance but the mirror on the
water reflect her back faithfully. Because of this truthful representation,
the woman cries and makes agitating movements with h er hands. The
mirror understands its importance to her and her importance to its own
existence. Every morning its her face that replaces darkness and over the
years the woman has “drowned a young girl” in the surface water mirror
of the lake . This brings to our mind the image of Narcissus. Now, her
reflection is of an old woman growing older by the day and this reflected
image out of the mirror rises towards her like a “terrible fish”.
7.3.3 Analysis of the poem:
This short poem explores the perpetual preoccupation of a woman with a
mirror. A mirror is of prime importance to a woman as she looks for t he
mirror to define herself. (“ Searching my reaches for what she really is”). A
woman essentially constructs her identities and powers with her looks
because that is how the society had conventionally been looking at her.
She looks at the mirror with her own assumptions about herself which is
actually a reflection of the image formed by the society. That is why,
when the mirror defines itself in the beginn ing as “exact” and as without
any “preconceptions”, it comes in stark contrast with the woman. Thus,
the poem is an explorations of the tragic dilemma of a woman when she munotes.in
Page 51
51 Critical Analysis of Sylvia Plath’s Poems has to grapple age and waning appearance. The poem is narrated by a
personified mi rror. It produces therefore, an effect of jarring reality and
more truthful observation as the mirror is “exact”, “truthful” and objective
because it does not have any “preconceptions”. It is able to realise its own
nature, its own monotonous existence by commenting on the wall that it
reflects most of the time. Although it does not suggest any moral
judgement, it is able to observe and penetrate the psyche of the woman
who comes to the mirror every morning looking for her own identities.
That is why, criti c Jo Gill observes that it is “catoptric” meaning while the
mirror describes itself, it actually embodies its own structure with two
equal stanzas reflecting each other - symmetrical but opposite.
7.3.4 Literary Devices:
Typical of Sylvia Plath’s poetry, th e poem “Mirror” employs gorgeous
imagery. Every description conveys a vivid mental picture. From the
“unmisted” mirror that “Swallow” everything to the mirror turning into a
lake where a young girl is drowning and a fish is rising, the poem remains
wonder fully evocative. The image of the “terrible fish” lurks disturbingly
in the mind of the readers too.
7.4 TULIPS 7.4.1 Introduction:
“Tulips” was written in 18th March, 1961and was included in “Ariel’
which was published after her death in 1965. Ted Hughes informed that
the poem was written about a bunches of tulips that Plath received when
she was recuperating in the hospital after an appendectomy.
7.4.2 Summary :
The “Tulips” is a 63 lines poem of 9 stanzas of seven lines each and is
written in free -verse. It is narrated by a woman in first person. She is
recovering from an operation in the hospital but the reader is not informed
about the name and type of the surgery.
She begins with a note of dissatisfaction as she finds the tulips to be “too
excita ble” disturbing the inner peace she was having in the whiteness of
the hospital. Immediately after describing the tulips as “too excitable”, she
describes the hospital room in total opposition to the nature of the flowers.
It is “winter” in the hospital as everything is white like snow and quite too.
She is “learning peacefulness” lying by herself quietly in the hospital bed.
She is watching the light lying on the white walls, her bed and her hands.
She declares that she is “nobody” and does not have anythi ng to do with
‘explosions”. She has surrendered her identity as she has given her “name”
and clothes to the nurses, her “history to the anaesthetist” and her “body”
to the surgeon.
She then describes her physical position. Her head is upheld between “the
pillow and the sheet -cuff” and it is like an eye ball stuck between the
eyelids that will not shut. Here, the imagery evokes a sense of pity at the munotes.in
Page 52
TyBa
52 American Literature helplessness of the woman who like the “stupid pupil", “has to take
everything in”. She therefore, then tak es in the scene of the nurses passing
her. She claims that they do not create any trouble and they pass like
“gulls” – all in white and busy doing things. It is not possible for her to tell
the numbers of the nurses.
She realises that the nurses handle her gently but her body is like a pebble
to them -an inanimate object. They know they have to wear her down
body with “bright needles” but it will bring “numbness” -a kind of gentle
care. Therefore, the nurses treatment of her is like water tending ”to the
pebbles it must run over”. She declares that now that she has lost herself,
she does not need the “ baggage” of her life again. She voices her
motherhood too as “baggage”. She looks at her family photograph and
finds her husband’s and child’s smiles “catch unto” her “skin” - they are
“smiling hooks”.
She says that she has allowed things to slip including her “loving
associations” and she feels like a nun -very pure.
She comes back now to the tulips again and says that she did not want any
flowers. She just wa nted her hands to be utterly empty and lie in complete
freedom and peacefulness. She compares this peacefulness with the
peacefulness of death.
She complains again and justifies her dislike for the tulips by saying that
the redness of the tulips hurts her . She can hear the tulips breathe like an
“awful baby” even through the “gift paper”. Besides, the redness of the
tulips “corresponds” to her ‘wounds”. They are like “dozen red lead
sinkers” around her neck that bog her down.
She feels that nobody watched her before but now she is being watched.
She feels suffocated as the tulips eat up her share of oxygen.
Before the tulips came, the air was tranquil but now they have created a
“loud noise”. The air whirls around the tulips like a river whirls around a
“rust-red engine” that is sunk in it.
Now, she senses that the walls of the room is getting warmer. She says
that the tulips should be imprisoned as they are like dangerous animals.
Tulips are opening their mouth like the mouth of “some great African
Cat”. This opening reminds her of the opening of her own heart. She says
her heart opens and closes as it loves her. She now senses her ‘taste “ of
water which is “salty” like sea -water and “warm” like the room she is
sharing with the tulips. This water comes, she feels from a country which
is far away from health.
7.4.3 Analysis:
Thematically “Tulips” is a simple poem. It delineates the emotional
quandary of a woman in a hospital room who desires the peacefulness of
death but the instinctively encouraged toward s the painfulness of life
symbolised by the glaring blood -red tulips. Structurally, the poem is munotes.in
Page 53
53 Critical Analysis of Sylvia Plath’s Poems based on contrasts - of the whiteness of the hospital room and the bright
redness of the tulips - the lightness and purity of death and sinking baggage
of life. The woman cherishes the whiteness and sterility of the hospital
room as she has an existence devoid of any self and context which she
feels is pure as the nun. The poem is a beautiful penetration of a mind
infatuated by death.
7.4.4 Literary Devices:
Tulips is one of the most lyrical and mellifluous poems by Sylvia Plath.
The power of the imagery is strengthened by the infinitely suggestive
metaphors and similes. Every stanza of the poem offers a predominant
image that reverberates in the mind of the read er. In the first stanza, it is
the “snowed -in” winter -like whiteness of the hospital. The second stanza
gives us the comparison of her posture with the “stupid pupil” that has to
take everything in and the nurses in their “white caps” are like the “gulls”.
Then we have the image of the water tending over the “pebbles” and the
image of the “nun” in the third and fourth stanza respectively. The fifth
and sixth one offer the idea of the peacefulness of the “Communion tablet”
and the tulips being the “lead sink ers” around her “neck”. Then, we have
the image of the “rust -red engine” sunk in a river and the water swirling
around it. The image become most powerful and violent in the last stanza
when the tulips open their mouth like a “great African cat”. Not only these
images has a spontaneity but the language has a natural flow that adds to
the musical quality of the poem. Richard Grey comments that although the
poem is written in free verse, the lines have a subtle iambic base and that
raises the seemingly casual and conversational remarks into unforgettable
experience.
7.5 “I AM VERTICAL” 7.5.1 Introduction:
Like the other two prescribed poems, this poem too is written in 1961. All
of Plath’s poetry is seemingly simple but they display wonderful integrity
in terms of theme, structure of the poem and the choice of words and
images. This small poem too displays all these distinctive qualities and
bring to the reader an intensely depressed mind that prefers death over life.
7.5.2 Summary:
The poem begins in continuat ion of the title. The starting line will be
perplexing to the reader without reading the title. Both the lines together
generate two opposite ideas of physical structures. The speaker introduces
herself in the title in a very straightforward and unusual wa y drawing
attention to her physical position as human -“I am Vertical”. As human, we
accept this position without any questioning. The first line of the poem
comes in direct opposition to the title. The speaker prefers to be
‘horizontal”. This immediately b rings into mind the human position while
sleeping and the connotation of the final sleep - death. The intensity of the
unhappiness of the speaker is unfolded . The simple forthright sentence munotes.in
Page 54
TyBa
54 American Literature structures shows that the speaker has reached an emotionally impas sive
state where she is not able to feel anything. She prefers death to life. This
in contrast, stimulates a deep sense of compassion in the reader. She then
compares herself with other vertical objects like the tree. She says that she
is not a tree which is rooted in the soil. The tree “sucking up minerals and
motherly love” from the soil “gleam” into new “leaf” every spring. She is
thus deprived of the gift of renewing and revitalising herself. She feels that
she is not beautiful and “spectacularly paint ed” like the flowers. The
flowers are able to attract its “share” of appreciations which she could not
do. The flowers are not aware of its own transitory existence -“
Unknowing I must soon unpetal”. They just bloom and bless the garden
just by being thems elves. Here, the speaker contrasts her own
consciousness of her existence with the tree and flowers. She says that
compared to her a tree is immortal and “flower -head not tall” but “more
startling”. The last line of the first stanza again tells what the sp eaker
wishes in straightforward way echoing and opposing the first line of the
poem. The speaker wants “the one’s longevity and the other’s daring.”
Since the speaker does not have both, she prefers to be horizontal.
Suddenly, in the next stanza, the tone and the language changes as the
speaker describes the cool ambience of the night. The straightforward,
matter -of-fact descriptions about the speaker gives way to a evocatively
romantic language while describing the night and the nature. She says that
tonig ht when she walks among the “infinitesimal light of the stars” while
the trees and flowers are “strewing their cool odours”, she realises that
none of them are noticing her. Here, she personifies the trees and the
flowers as if they are gifted with the po wer to do so. She says that
sometimes she thinks that she resembles them when she is sleeping - when
the “thoughts” are “gone dim”. She, then, remains undisturbed by the
issues of existences and does not have the ability to think and feel.
Besides, she feel s that “lying down” or the horizontal position is “more
natural” to her. The speaker and sky “are in open conversation”. This is a
beautiful line expressing the loneliness and isolation of the speaker from
the human world and her sense of connectivity with the inanimate
impassive objects. This connection implies the speaker’s desolation and
her desire to rise beyond those disturbing thoughts. The very next line
proves to the reader that lying “horizontally” imply death as the speaker
says –“I shall be usefu l when I lie down finally”. The last line hints how
she will be useful after death. She says in the final line that the trees then “
may touch me for once and flowers have time for me”. The “touch” of the
trees may mean the subsequent possibility after de ath that her body
decomposes in the soil and she will be able to supply food to them. This
brings back the idea of trees “sucking up minerals and motherly love” of
the first stanza. Being one with the mother earth after death. she would
able to contribute the beautiful plants and trees for renewal and
regeneration.
7.5.3 Analysis of the poem:
This small poem of two ten -line stanzas offers succinctly the poignancy of
Plath’s poetry. The poem is apparently simple at the levels of its thematic munotes.in
Page 55
55 Critical Analysis of Sylvia Plath’s Poems and linguistic choice. But it creates strong underlying connotations of
deeper meanings by bringing into the reader’s mind the structure of the
world and body position with two simple but opposite words - “vertical”
and “horizontal”. A discordant note of opposite ideas runs throughout the
poem about what the speaker is and what she desires. The problems and
issues that the speaker faces are neither listed nor expressed but the reader
is made aware of an intensely sensitive mind that is lonely and dejected.
Death is capti vating for the speaker as it provides hope of being useful and
getting her share of recognition.
7.5.4 Literary Devices:
The two stanzas of the poem is stylised differently. The first stanza is
written in a conversational, matter of fact style. The secon d stanza is more
lyrical and employs beautiful romantic imagery suggesting the
“spectacularly painted” beauty of nature. Metaphors like “infinitesimal
light of the stars”, and personifications of the natural objects adds the
poem its remarkably memorable quality.
7.6 QUESTIONS 1. Critically appreciate the poem -“mirror”
2. Write a note on the theme of the poem - “mirror”
3. Discuss the effect of the narration of the poem from the mirror‘s
perspective.
4. Write a critical appreciation of the poem “Tulips”.
5. Describe th e poet’s attitude to the tulips .
6. Write a note on the theme of the poem “Tulips”.
7. Write a note on the lyrical quality of the poem “Tulips”
8. Write a critical appreciation of the poem “I am Vertical”.
9. Remark on the psyche of the speaker as revealed in the po em “I am
Vertical”.
10. Comment on the stylistic device of the poem “I am Vertical”.
7.7 SUGGESTED READING • Taylor, Tess (2013) . "Reading Sylvia Plath 50 Years After Her Death
Is A Different Experience ". NPR .
• Egeland, M. (2014). Before and After a Poet's Suicide: The Reception
of Sylvia Plath. International Journal Of The Boo k, 11(3), 27 -36.
• Teresa Calderón Quindós (2007). Standing Unearthed: Construing a
Persona Behind Plath’s “I Am Vertical”. Janus Head, 10(1), 157 -174.
Trivium Publications, Amherst, NY. munotes.in
Page 56
TyBa
56 American Literature • Parvin Ghasemi (2007). Reflections of Self and Other in Sylvia
Plath’s “Mirror” Imagery. In, Vránková, K and Koy, Ch. (eds),
Dream, Imagination and Reality in Literature. South Bohemian
Anglo -America n Studies No. 1. České Budějovice: Editio
Universitatis Bohemiae Meridionalis, 2007. ISBN 978 -80-7394 -006-5
*****
munotes.in