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MODULE I1BASICS OF EDUCATIONALPSYCHOLOGYCONTENT1.1Objectives1.2Introduction1.3Psychology1.3.1Meaning1.3.2Nature1.3.3Functions1.4Educational Psychology1.4.1Nature1.4.2Scope & Functions1.5Relevance of educational psychology1.6Summary1.7Questions1.8References1.1OBJECTIVESAfter going through thisunit carefully you should be able to:●Define Psychology●Define Educational Psychology●Explain the nature of Educational Psychology●List out the functions of Educational Psychology●Analyse the scope of Educational Psychology●State the relevance ofEducational Psychology in the learning context1.2 INTRODUCTIONThis is the first unit of the second paper on Psychology of Learning. Thiscourse deals with the importance and contribution of educationalpsychology on the theory and practice ofeducation. Every teacher isconfronted with the problem of individual differences in the classroom.The purpose of this unit is to define the concept of educationalPsychology. It describes the meaning and nature of Educationalmunotes.in

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Psychology. An attempt has also been made to describe the characteristicsand importance of learning.1.3 PSYCHOLOGYDefinition: Psychology is the study of the mind and behaviour. Thediscipline embraces all aspects of the human experience—from thefunctions of the brain to theactions of nations, from child development tocare for the aged. In every conceivable setting from scientific researchcentres to mental health care services, “the understanding of behaviour” isthe enterprise of psychologists.What is Psychology?The word, ‘Psychology’ is derived from two Greek words, ‘Psyche’ and‘Logos’. Psyche means ‘soul’ and ‘Logos’ means ‘science’. Thus,psychology was first defined as the ‘science of soul”.sychology as the Science of Soul. In ancient days, the Greek philosopherslike Plato and Aristotle interpreted Psychology as the science of the souland studied it as a branch of Philosophy. But soul is somethingmetaphysical. It cannot be seen, observed and touched and we cannotmake scientific experiments on soul.Psychologyas the Science of the Mind:It was the German philosopherEmmanuel Kant who defined Psychology as the science of the mind.William James (1892) defined psychology as the science of mentalprocesses. But the word ‘mind’ is also quite ambiguous as there wasconfusion regarding the nature and functions of mind.Psychology as the Science of Consciousness:Modern psychologistsdefined psychology as the “Science of Consciousness”. James Sully(1884) defined psychology as the “Science of the Inner World”. WilhelmWundt (1892) defined psychology as the science which studies the“internal experiences’. But there are three levels of consciousness–conscious, subconscious and the unconscious and so this definition alsowas not accepted by some.Psychology as the Science of Behaviour:At the beginning of the 20thcentury, when psychologists attempted to develop psychology into a purescience, it came to be defined as the science of behaviour. The termbehaviour was popularized by J.B. Watson. Other exponents are WilliamMcDugall and W.B. Pillsbury. According to R.S. Woodworth, “FirstPsychology lost its soul, then it lost its mind, then lost its consciousness. Itstill has behaviour of a sort.”1.3.1Meaningof Psychology:People often mean to say personality, thoughts, behaviour, thinking,issues, motives, needs, etc. when they talk about psychology. Andmunotes.in

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sometimes,vice-versa.As you you’ve seen the scope of psychology ishuge and it is now related to many allied fields.Key aspects of psychology: It is a scientific investigation. That means,there are experiments, there are numbers, there is data, there is sampling,there is a rigorous use of psychological tools, description, prediction,logical criticism, systematic observation, and beyond all, it is evidence-based.Psychology looks at all kinds of people and social groups, animalsincluded. It is the study of the mind and behaviour–everythingincluded.Some common meaning associated with psychology are:●The science of mind and behaviour●The mental or behavioural characteristics of an individual or group●The study of mind and behaviour in relation to a particular field ofknowledge or activity●Psychology is the scientific investigation of how people behave, think,and feel. It includes underlying mechanisms that involve theenvironment, biology, and the mind.●Psychological investigations try to describe, predict, analyse, andcreate actionable outcomes that help people.Actionable outcomesinclude therapy, learning design, altering protocols at a workplace,etc.●Today, psychology is closely related to fields such as cognitivescience, neuroscience, economics, law, public health1.3.2Nature And Functionsof Psychology:The following broad branches of psychologywill elucidate the overallnature and scope of psychology:1.Clinical psychology:the study, assessment, prevention, coping, andtreatment of mental health issues and disorders such as depression &schizophrenia2.Organizational & industrial psychology:the study of howprofessional environments function with respect to employment,assessment & recruiting, workplace wellbeing, conflict resolution,team building, etc.3.Social psychology:the study of how people interact in social contextsand what variable affect social behaviour, identity, and cognition4.Cognitive psychology:the study of mental processes that enablethinking, feeling, language, art, etc.munotes.in

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5.Behavioural psychology:the study of human and animal behaviour6.Developmental psychology:the study of specific factors relevant to acertain age group or developmental stage across a lifespan and trendsacross the lifespan7.Evolutionary psychology:the study of human and animal behaviourin an evolutionary context and the study of adaptability and deeplyrooted tendencies8.Forensic psychology:the study of how criminals behave and think9.Neuropsychology:the assessment of brain functioning in a clinicalsetting10.Positive psychology:the study of wellbeing and living a good life11.Neuroscience:the study ofthe brain as a biological unit and itsspecifics that may or may not directly12.Relate to behaviour, thoughts, or feelings. It includes anunderstanding of how neurons communicate and function.13.Sports psychology:the study, training, and coping of sportsmen14.School psychology:the study of a variety of psychological variablesin a school context15.Cyber-psychology:the study of human behaviour with a focus oninternet-based behaviour1.4 EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGYEducational psychology, theoretical andresearch branch of modernpsychology, concerned with the learning processes and psychologicalproblems associated with the teaching and training of students. Theeducational psychologist studies the cognitive development of studentsand the various factorsinvolved in learning, including aptitude andlearning measurement, the creative process, and the motivational forcesthat influence dynamics between students and teachers. Educationalpsychology is a partly experimental and partly applied branch ofpsychology, concerned with the optimization of learning. It differs fromschool psychology, which is an applied field that deals largely withproblems in elementary and secondary school systems.Educational psychology is a relatively young subfield that has experienceda tremendous amount of growth in recent years. Psychology did notemerge as a separate science until the late 1800s, so earlier interest ineducational psychology was largely fueled by educational philosophers.munotes.in

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Many regard philosopherJohann Herbart as the "father" of educationalpsychology. Herbart believed that a student's interest in a topic had atremendous influence on the learning outcome and believed that teachersshould consider this interest along with prior knowledge when decidingwhichtype of instruction is most appropriate.Educational Psychology is also concerned with problems like: How dochildren acquire skills? When is learning more effective? What are thefactors that help the learning process? How do we measure the amount oflearning? Are there any economic methods of memorizing? Why do weforget? Can memory be improved? Does the study of Sanskrit help thestudy of Hindi?Psychology helps the teacher to get answers to these questions. It tells usthat learning becomes more effective if factors like motivation and interestare taken into consideration by every teacher. The knowledge ofpsychology has helped the teacher in modifying her approach to theteaching learning process.The study of Educational Psychology has brought about changes in theapproaches to education and therefore we have child centred education.Psychological principles are used in formulation curriculum for differentstages. Attempts are made to provide subjects and activities in thecurriculum, which are inconformity with the needs of the students, theirdevelopmental characteristics, learning patterns, and also needs of thesociety.1.4.1Meaningof Educational Psychology:Educational Psychology consists of two words Psychology and Education.While General Psychology is a pure science, Educational Psychology is itsapplication in the field of education with the aim of socializing man andmodifying his behaviour.Some definitions of Educational Psychology are given below:Educational Psychology describes and explains the learning experiencesof an individual from birth through old age.-Crow and CrowBranch of Psychology which deals with teaching and learning.–SkinnerEducational Psychology is the systematic study of the educationalgrowth and development of a child.–StephenEducational Psychology is the Science which explains the changes thattake place in individuals as they pass through the various stages ofdevelopment.–JuddEducational Psychology is the science of Education.-Peelmunotes.in

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Educational psychology is one of the branches of applied psychologyconcerned with the application of the principles, techniques and otherresource of psychology to the solution of the problems confronting theteacher attempting to direct the growth of children toward definedobjectives.More specifically, we can say educational psychology is concerned withan understanding of:●The child-his development, his need and his potentialities●The learning situation including group dynamics and its effect onlearning●The learning process-its nature and the ways to make it effective.Stated differently, the Central theme of Educational Psychology isPsychology of learning.1.4.2Natureof Educational Psychology:Its nature is scientific as it has been accepted that it is a Science ofEducation. We can summarize the nature of Educational Psychology in thefollowing ways:1.EducationalPsychology is a science:(Science is a branch of studyconcerned with observation of facts and establishment of verifiablegeneral laws. Science employs certain objective methods for thecollection of data. It has its objectives of understanding, explaining,predicting and control of facts.) Like any other science, educationalpsychology has also developed objective methods of collection ofdata. It also aims at understanding, predicting and controlling humanbehaviour.2.Educational Psychology is a naturalscience:An educationalpsychologist conducts his investigations, gathers his data and reacheshis conclusions in exactly the same manner as physicist or thebiologist.3.Educational psychology is a social science:Like the sociologist,anthropologist,economist or political scientist, the educationalpsychologist studies human beings and their sociability.4.Educational psychology is a positive science:Normative sciencelike Logic or Ethics deals with facts as they ought to be. A positivescience dealswith facts as they are or as they operate. Educationalpsychology studies the child’s behaviour as it is, not, as it ought to be.So it is a positive science.5.Educational psychology is an applied science:It is the applicationof psychological principlesin the field of education. By applying theprinciples and techniques of psychology, it tries to study themunotes.in

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behaviour and experiences of the pupils. As a branch of psychology itis parallel to any other applied psychology. For example, educationalpsychologydraws heavily facts from such areas as developmentalpsychology, clinical psychology, abnormal psychology and socialpsychology.6.Educational psychology is a developing or growing science:It isconcerned with new and ever new researches. As research findingsaccumulate, educational psychologists get better insight into thechild’s nature and behaviour.Thus, educational psychology is an applied, positive, social, specific andpractical science. While general science deals with behaviour of theindividuals in various spheres, educational psychology studies thebehaviour of the individual in educational sphere only.1.4.2 Scopeof Educational Psychology:Five major areas covered by Educational Psychology are:a.The Learnerb.The Learning Processc.The Learning Situationd.The Teaching Situation Evaluation of Learning Performancee.The Teacher
Figure 1.1: the five stake holders of educational psychologyThe Learner Educational Psychology acquaints us with need of knowingthe learner and deals with the techniques of knowing him well. Followingare the topics studies included in it: the innate abilities and capabilities ofthe individual and their measurements, the overt, convert, conscious aswell as unconscious behaviour of the learner, the characteristics of hisgrowth and development at each stage beginning from childhood toadulthood.
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The Learning Process:After knowing the learner and deciding what learning experiences are tobe provided, the emerging problem is to help the learner in acquiring theselearning experiences with ease and confidence. Hence, it deals with thenature of learning and how it takesplace and contains the topics such aslaws, principles and theories of learning; remembering and forgetting,perceiving, concept formation, thinking, reasoning process, problemsolving, transfer of training, ways and means of effective learning etc.Learning Situation:It also deals with the environment factors and learning situation whichcome midway between the learner and the teacher. Topics like classroomclimate and group dynamics techniques and aids which facilitate learning,evaluation techniques,and practices, guidance and counseling etc. whichhelp in the smooth functioning of the teaching learning process.Teaching Situation:It suggests the techniques of teaching. It also helps in deciding whatlearning situation should be provided by the teacher to the learneraccording to his mental and physical age, his previous knowledge andinterest levels. By describing the learner’s characteristics, what teachingaids are appropriate for the particular subject can be decided.Evaluation of Learning Performance:The main objective of education is all-round development of the learner. Itincludes cognitive, affective and psychomotor aspects of personality.Educational Psychology suggests various tool and techniques forassessment and evaluation such asperformance test, oral test and writtentest. It does not stop at measurement only. After the testing, results of thetest are analysed, causes for poor performance, backwardness in anyaspect of development is corrected by guidance and counselling in studyhabits, examination techniques and learning styles. These are analysed andthe learner is helped so that he can overcome the difficulties.The Teacher:Educational Psychology emphasizes the need of knowing the self for ateacher to play his role properly in the process of education. It throws lighton the essential personality traits, interests, aptitudes, the characteristics ofeffective teaching etc., so as to inspire, help teacher handle the stress,conflict and anxiety by giving insight into theirown personality.The scope of educational psychologyis ever-growing due to constantlyresearches in this field. The following factors will indicate the scope ofeducational psychology:1.Human Behaviour:It studies human behaviour in the educationalcontext. Psychology is the study of behaviour and education aims atmodification of behaviour. Hence the influence of EducationalPsychology has to be reflected in all aspects of education.munotes.in

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2.Growth and development:It studies the principles governinggrowthand development. The insight provided by the study will help inscientifically planning and executing learner oriented programmes ofeducation.3.The Learner:The subject-matter of educational psychology isknitted around the learner. Therefore, the need of knowing the learnerand the techniques of knowing him well. The topics include–theinnate abilities and capacities of the individuals, individual differencesand their measurements, the overt, covert, conscious as well asunconscious behaviourof the learner, the characteristics of his growthand development and each stage beginning from childhood toadulthood.4.The Learning Experiences:Educational Psychology helps indeciding what learning experiences are desirable, at what stage of thegrowth and development of the learner, so that these experiences canbe acquired with a greater ease and satisfaction.5.Learning process:After knowing the learner and deciding whatlearning experiences are to be provided, Educational Psychologymoves onto the laws, principles and theories of learning. Other itemsin the learning process are remembering and forgetting, perceiving,concept formation, thinking and reasoning, problem solving, transferof learning, ways and means of effective learning etc.6.Learning Situation or Environment:Here we deal with theenvironmental factors and learning situations which come midwaybetween the learner and the teacher. Topics like classroom climateand group dynamics, techniques and aids that facilitate learning andevaluation, techniques and practices, guidance and counselling etc.For the smooth functioning of the teaching-learning process.7.Individual differences:It is universally accepted that everyindividual differs from every other individual. This ideahas beenbrought to light by Educational Psychology.8.Personality and adjustment:Education has been defined as the all-round development of the personality of an individual. If educationalhas to fulfil this function all instructional programmes have to bebased on the principles governing the nature and development ofpersonality.9.The Teacher:The teacher is a potent force is any scheme of teachingand learning process. It discusses the role of the teacher. It emphasizesthe need of ‘knowing thyself’ for a teacher to play his role properly inthe process of education. His conflicts, motivation. Anxiety,adjustment, level of aspiration etc. It throws light on the essentialpersonality traits, interests, aptitudes, the characteristics of effectiveteaching etc. so as to inspire him for becoming a successful teacher.munotes.in

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10.Guidance and Counselling:Education is nothing by providingguidance and counselling required for the proper development of thechild. This is very true, especially in the light of theextremelycomplex and problematic situation one has to face in the fast-growingworld. Educational psychology has come to the rescue by developingprinciples and practical measures helpful for providing effectiveguidance and counselling.We can concludeby saying that Educational Psychology is narrower inscope than general psychology. While general psychology deals with thebehaviour of the individual in a general way, educational psychology inconcerned with the behaviour of the learner in an educational setting.Functions of Educational Psychology:●to provide a thorough knowledge of the nature of the child to providean understanding of the nature, aims and purposes of education;●to acquire familiarity with the technical vocabulary and to further anunderstanding and an appreciation of the scientific procedures bywhich the data of educational psychology are obtained;●to provide a significant knowledge of developmental process withparticular emphasis upon the promotion, guidance and control ofmentaland moral aspects;●to provide an understanding of the principles governing learning,together with knowledge of the techniques for guiding improvementin learning and their application to the practical problems in theclassroom;●to present the theories underlying the measurement and evaluation ofmental abilities, aptitudes, achievements, interest and personalityorganization;●to present the principles and conclusions regarding the prevention ofall types of maladjustments together with the approved practices forachieving satisfactory adjustments;●“Culminating Function” to inculcate in the prospective teacher therealization that the most essential purpose of teaching is that thestudent learn;1.5 RELEVANCE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGYTO TEACHERS, LEARNERS, TEACHING ANDLEARNINGEducational psychology has contributed considerably to the creation of themodern system of education. The knowledge of educational psychologyhelps the teacher in the following ways:munotes.in

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1. To understand the Stages of Development:Psychology has clearlyshown that human life passes through different stages of developmentbefore it reaches adulthood. They are infancy, childhood, adolescence andadulthood. Psychologists havealso thoroughly studied the characteristicbehaviour patterns in these different periods of life. Identification of theseperiods with different sets of characteristics and attributes as regardsphysical, mental and emotional development greatly help educationists todesign curriculum and determine appropriate methods of teaching forstudents at different stages.2. To Know the Learner:The child or the learner is the key factor in theteaching-learning process. Educational psychology helps the teacher toknow his interests, attitudes, aptitudes and the other acquired or innatecapacities and abilities; to know the stage of development linked with hissocial, emotional, intellectual, physical and aesthetic needs; to know hislevel of aspiration, his conscious and unconscious behaviour; hismotivational and group behaviour; his conflicts, desires and other aspectsof his mental health. So that perfect guidance and help can be providedand positive attitude towards the learner can be formed.3. To Understandthe Nature of Classroom Learning:EducationalPsychology helps the teacher to adapt and adjust his teaching according tothe level of the learners. A teacher is teaching in a class but a large numberof students do not understand the subject-matter which is being taught. Todeal with the students effectively in the class the teacher must have theknowledge of the various approaches to the learning process, principles,laws and factors affecting it then only he/she can apply remedial measuresin the learningsituation.4. To Understand the Individual Differences:No two persons areexactly alike. Pupils differ in their level of intelligence, aptitudes, likesand dislikes and in other propensities and potentialities. There are gifted,backward, physically and mentally challenged children. Thus, psychologytells theteacher about the individual differences among the students in theclass and the procedure, methodology and techniques to be adopted forthem.5. To Solve Classroom Problems:There are innumerable problems liketruancy, bullying, peer pressure, ethnic tensions, cheating in tests etc.Educational Psychology helps to equip the teacher by studying thecharacteristics of the problem children, the dynamics of the group,behavioural characteristics and adjustments.6. To develop Necessary Skills and Interest in Teaching:Educationalpsychology helps the teacher to acquire and develop necessary qualitiesand skills to deal with the problems created by the pupils, maintain ahealthy atmosphere in the classroom and show concern regarding theprogress of the child.munotes.in

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7. To Understand Effective Methods of Teaching:EducationalPsychology has discovered several new approaches, principles. methodsand techniques of teaching which are very helpful in today’s teaching-learning process. Educational psychology tells us howsignificant play andrecreation are for the children and how play-way methods turn learninginto an interesting task.8. To Understand the Influence of Heredity and Environment on theChild:Educational psychology helps the teacher to know that the child isthe product of heredity and environment. They are the two sides of a coin.Both play a prominent part in the all-round development of the child.While the child is born with a number of hereditary qualities, environmenthelps them to be modified according to the requirements of the society.9. To Understand the Mental Health of the Child:EducationalPsychology helps the teacher to know what are the factors responsible forthe mental ill-health and maladjustment of a student and to suggestimprovement thereof. Besides this, it also provides the teacher withnecessary insight to improve his own mental status to cope up with thesituation.10. To Understand the Procedure of Curriculum Construction:Curriculum is an integral part of the teaching-learning process. Curriculumshould be child-centred and fulfil the motives and psychological needs ofthe individual because child capacities differ from stage to stage.Educational psychology helps the teacher to suggest ways and means tocurriculum framers to prepare sound and balanced curriculum for thechildren.11. To Provide Guidance and Counselling:Today guidance to a child atevery stage of life is needed because psychological abilities, interests andlearning styles differ from person to person. Similarly,what courses ofstudy the child should undertake in future is also a vital question. All thesecan be answered well if the teacher knows the psychology of children.12. To Understand Principles of Evaluation and Assessment:Evaluation is an integral part of the teaching-learning process. How to testthe potentialities of the child depends upon the evaluation techniques. Thedevelopment of the different types of psychological tests for the evaluationof the individual is a distinct contribution of educational psychology.13. To inculcate Positive and Creative Discipline:The slogan of thetraditional teachers was “spare the rod and spoil the child.” Flogging thechild was the chief instrument. Educational Psychology has replaced therepressive system with the preventive system. Now teachers adopt acooperative and scientific approach to modify the behaviour of thestudents. Emphasis is laid on self-discipline through creative andconstructive activities.munotes.in

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14. Educational Psychology and Research:Educational psychologistsconduct research to improve the behaviour of human beings in theeducational situation. For this purpose it helps in developing tools anddevices to measure the performance and suggest remedial measuresthereof.15. To Know Himself/Herself:Educational Psychology helps the teacherto know about himself/herself. His/her own behaviour pattern, personalitycharacteristics, likes and dislikes, motivation, anxiety, conflicts,adjustment etc. All this knowledge helpshim in growing as a successfulteacher.16. Educational Psychology Helps in Professional Growth, ChangingAttitude and Innovative Thinking:Inside the classroom, educationalpsychology has enabled the teacher to achieve proper conditioning ofpupils by achieving and directing classroom programmes on human lives.Not only this, educational psychologists are busy in finding outinnovations in the field of education. These innovations will bring aboutprofessional growth of the teacher.In Conclusion, we can say that educational psychology has contributedconsiderably to the creation of the modern system of education. Inteaching, we are dealing with three elements–the teacher, the student, andthe subject. It has helped teachers, headmasters, administrators, inspectors,guidance and counselling workers, social workers to significantly developan impartial and sympathetic attitude towards children and form them intointegrated personalities.Check your Progress:1. Explain the meaning and definition ofEducational Psychology2. Explain the meaning and nature of Educational Psychology1.6 SUMMARY•In this first Unit of Educational Psychology, we understood what ismeant by Psychology and formally defined it. We understood ofmunotes.in

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psychology and its need and importance by understanding thatpsychology is a science of souls and mind.•We later saw the formal definition of psychology which was:Psychology is the study of the mind and behaviour. The disciplineembraces all aspects of the human experience—from the functions ofthe brain to the actions of nations, from child development to care forthe aged. In every conceivable setting from scientific research centresto mental health care services, “the understanding of behaviour” isthe enterprise of psychologists.•We understood its meaning and nature.•We later proceeded towards understanding what is meant byEducational Psychology and its relevance in our life. We saw someformal definitions of Educational Psychology which included:•Educational Psychology is thesystematic study of the educationalgrowth and development of a child.–Stephen•We later sae the nature of Educational Psychology as a science,natural science etc. Later we analysed the scope of EducationalPsychology and understood the five major areasit covers viz Learner,Learning Process, Learning Situation, Teaching Situation Evaluationof Learning Performance and the Teacher.1.7 QUESTIONS1.What is psychology?2.Explain the meaning and definition of Educational Psychology3.Explain the meaning andnature of Educational Psychology4.Explain the meaning and nature of educational psychology.5.Define educational psychology.6.Discuss the scope of educational psychology.7.Explain the nature and functions of educational psychology1.9REFERENCES1AgarwalJ. C., Essentials of Educational Psychology, VikasPublishing House2Aggarwal J. C., (1995) Essentials of Educational Psychology, ShipraPublishers, Delhi.3Aggarwal J. C., (2001) Basic Ideas in Educational Psychology, ShipraPublishers, Delhi.4AggarwalJ. C., (2004) Psychology of Learning & Development,Shipra Publishers, Delhi.munotes.in

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5Bhatia & Bhatia (1981) Textbook of Educational Psychology, DoabaHouse, Delhi.6Bhatia H. R. (1997) A Textbook of Educational Psychology,MacMillan, New Delhi.7Chatterjee S. K.(2000) Advanced Educational Psychology Books &Allied Pvt. Ltd., Delhi.8Chauhan S. S. (1990) Advanced Educational Psychology, VikasPublication House, Delhi.9Crow L.D. & Crow Educational Psychology10Dandekar W.N. (1995) Fundamentals of Educational Psychology, M.Prakashan, Poona.11Lahey R.B., Graham J.E., & others (2000) An Introduction toEducational Psychology,6th Ed., Tata McGraw Hill Publishers, NewDelhi.12Mangal S. K. (2000) An Introduction to Psychology. PrakashBrothers, Ludhiana13Mangal S.K. (1999) Essentials of Educational Psychology, PrenticeHall of India,Delhi.14Mangal S.K. (2000) Advanced Educational Psychology, Prentice Hallof India, New Delhi.15Mangal, S. K. (2004) Educational Psychology, Tandon Publications,Ludhiana.16Mangal, S. K., Educational Psychology, Tandon Publications,Ludhiana.17Mathur S.S. Advanced Educational Psychology,18Santrock John W. (2010) Educational Psychology, Irwin ProfessionalPublishers, Delhi.19Sharma R.N. & Sharma R.K. (2003) Advanced EducationalPsychology, Atlantic20Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi.21Sharma, R. N. & R. K. Sharma (1996) Advanced EducationalPsychology, Surjeet22Publications, Delhi.23Walia J.S. Foundations of Educational Psychology, Paul Publishers,Jalandhar.24WoolfolkAnita (2004) Educational Psychology, 9th Edition, Alyynand Bacon, Boston.25Woolfolk Anita & Woolfolk Hoy Anita (2008) EducationalPsychology, Pearson, New Delhi.26https://johnparankimalil.wordpress.com/2014/04/02/meaning-nature-scope-and-relevance-of-educational-psychology




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2METHOD OF EDUCATIONALPSYCHOLOGYContent2.1 Objectives2.2 Introduction2.3 Introspection Method2.4 Observation Method2.5 Experimental Method2.6 Clinical Method2.7 Summary2.8 Questions2.9 References2.1 OBJECTIVESAfter reading this unit, you will be able to: Describe the Introspectionmethod•State the merits and demerits of Introspection method•Describe the observation method State the merits and demerits ofobservation method•Explain the steps of experimentalmethod State the merits and demeritsof experimental method2.2 INTRODUCTIONIn the preceding section, we have analysed the nature, definition, scopeand function of psychology of learning. We have also discussed thepsychological concept of learning. Inthis unit, we will describe theimportant methods of studying psychology of learning. All the methods tostudy psychology of learning are basically methods of general psychology.A brief review of the development of these methods will be helpful foryouto understand the importance of the subject in greater perspective.The first effort of conducting systematic experimental studies inpsychology was stared in 1879 in Germany with the establishment of firstlaboratory of psychology by William Wundt. Thenext important methodof collecting data was evolved with the development of psychoanalysis asmunotes.in

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 an independent system of psychology by Sigmund Freud who emphasizedimportance of the ‘unconscious’ in understanding behaviour.In the second decade of 20th century, psychology developed as anobjective science of behaviour by the efforts of Pavlov Watson andGuthrie. Experimental and observation methods were developed to collectdata to study behaviour. Simultaneously testing movement started with theintroduction of statistics in psychology.Here we will study only the following methods of studying psychology oflearning. They are:A] Introspection methodB] Observation methodC] Experimental methodD] Clinical method2.2 INTROSCPECTION METHODAt times,when you experience an emotion like anger or fear, you begin tothink of reasons for that state of mind of yours. You say, why have I beenannoyed over this or that? Why have I been afraid of such things? Theanalysis of your emotional state may take placesimultaneously with theemotion or it may be done after the emotional state is over. In whatevermanner it is done, it gives you an understanding, though rudimentary ofyour mind. This method of probing into your mental processes is a methodof introspection used by psychologists in a much-refined manner. Let ussee in detail what do we mean by Introduction along with its merits anddemerits.What we mean by introspection: Introspection is a method of self-observation. The word Introspection is made up oftwo Latin words.‘Intro’meaningwithinand ‘Spection’meaninglooking. Hence it is amethod where an individual is looking within one self.Angle considered it as ‘looking inward’. In introspection, the individualpeeps into his own mental state and observes his/her own mentalprocesses. Stout considers that ‘to introspect’ is to attend to the working ofone’s own mind in a systematic way.Introspection method is one of the oldest methods to collect data about theconscious experiences of the subject.It is a process of self–examinationwhere one perceives, analyses and reports one’s own feelings.Let us learn this process with the help of an example, suppose you arehappy and in the state of happiness you look within yourself. It is said youare introspecting your own mental feelings and examining what is goingon in your mental process in the state of happiness. Similarly, you mayintrospect in a state of anger or fear; etc Introspection is also defined as themunotes.in

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notice, which the mind takes of itself. Let us see the stages ofintrospection.There are three clear stages in introspection.1.During the observation of external object, the person beings to ponderover his/her own mental state.For example:while listening to music,which is to him pleasant or unpleasant, he starts thinking about his/herown mental state.2.The person begins to question the working of his/her own mind. He/Shethinks and analyses: Why has he/she said such and such thing? Whyhas he/she talked in a particular manner? And so on.3.He/She tries to frame the laws and conditions of mental processes:He/She thinks in terms of improvement of his/her reasoning or thecontrol of his/her emotional stages. This stage helps in the advancementof our scientific knowledge.Characteristics of Introspection:Introspection, being self-observation, has the following characteristics:1. The subject gets direct, immediate and intuitive knowledge about themind.2. The subject has actually to observe his/her own mental processes. Hecannot speculate about them.Introspection Method was widely used in the past. Its use in modern timeis being questioned. It is considered unscientific and not in keeping withpsychology which has recently emerged out as a positive science.However, it is still being used by psychologists and though its importanceis being questioned it is not totally discarded.Merits of Introspection Method:It is the cheapest and most economical method of studying behaviour. Wedo not need any apparatus or laboratory for its use. This method canbeused anytime and anywhere. You can introspect while walking, traveling,sitting on a bed & so on. It is the easiest method and is readily available tothe individual.The introspection data is first-hand as the person himself examines his/herown activities. Introspection has generated research which gradually led tothe development of more objective methods.It is still used in all experimental investigation. It is the only method withthe help of which an individual can know his/her emotions and feelings.William James has pointed out the importance of this method in thesewords.munotes.in

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Introspective observation is what we have to rely on first and foremost andalways. The word introspection can hardly be defined-it means, of course,looking into our ownminds and reporting what we there discover.Everyone agrees that there are states of consciousness.So far as it is known, the existence of such states has never been doubtedby my critics, however sceptical in other respects they may have been.Limitations of Introspection Methods:In introspection, one needs to observe or examine one’s mental processescarefully in the form of thoughts, feeling and sensation. The state of one’smental processes is continuously changing.Therefore, when oneconcentrates on introspecting a particular phase of one’s mental activitythat phase passes off.For example,when you get angry at something and afterwards sit down tointrospect calmly, the state of anger is sure to have passed offand so whatyou try to observe is not what is happening at that time with yourself butwhat had happened sometime before.The data collected by introspection cannot be verified. An individual maynot pass through the same mental state again. There is noindependent wayof checking the data. The data collected by introspection lacks validity andreliability. It is impossible to acquire validity and exactness in self-observation of one’s own mental processes.The data collected by introspection in highly subjective. It has danger ofbeing biased and influenced by preconceptions of the individual. Theobserver and the observed are the same. Hence there is ample scope forthe individual to lie deliberately and hide the facts to mislead others.Introspection cannot be applied to children, animal and abnormal people.Introspection is logically defective because one and the same person is theexperimenter and observer. It is not possible for the same individual to actas an experimenter as well as an observer.Thus, introspection is logically defective.Conclusion:The limitations of introspection can be overcome by practiceand training, by remaining alert during introspection and by comparingresults obtained by experts.2.4 OBSERVATION METHODWe observe so many things in nature. We also observe the action andbehaviour of others and form our own notions about these persons. Welook at other persons, listen to their talks and try to infer what they mean.We try to infer the characteristics, motivations, feelings and intentions ofothers on the basis of these observations.munotes.in

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So, let us study about Observation method employed by psychologists indetail. With the development of psychology as an objective science oflearning behaviour, the method of introspection was replaced by carefulobservation of human and animal behaviour to collect data by researchworkers.In introspection we can observe the mental process of ourselves only, butin observation, we observe the mental processes of others. HenceObservationis the most commonly used method for the study of humanbehaviour.Meaning of Observation:Observation literally means looking outside oneself. Facts are collected byobserving overt behaviour of the individual in order to locate underlyingproblem andto study developmental trends of different types. The overtbehaviour is the manifestation of covert conditions within the individual.The study of overt behaviour gives indirect clues to the mental conditionsof the individual. Observation means ‘perceiving the behaviour as it is’. Inthe words of Good, ‘Observation deals with the overt behaviour of personsin appropriate situations.’Observation has been defined as:Measurement without instruments.For example, students in a classroom have been labelled as good, fair orpoor in achievement and lazy or diligent in study etc. on the basis ofobservation. Observation is indirect approach to study the mentalprocesses of others through observing their external behaviour.For example, if someone frowns, howls, grinds his/her teeth, closes his/herfists, you would say that the person is angry by only observing theseexternal signs of his/her behaviour. In the process of observation,following four steps are generally required:1.Observation of behaviour:The first step involved in the method of observation is directly perceivingor observing the behaviour of individuals under study. For example, if wewant to observe the social behaviour of children, we can observe it whenthey assemble and play.2.Recording the behaviour observed:The observation should be carefully and immediately noted and recorded.Minimum time should be allowed to pass between happening andrecording. It will make the observation more objective.3.Analysis and Interpretation of behaviour:When the notes of behaviour observed are completed, they are analysedobjectively and scientifically in order to interpret the behaviour patterns.munotes.in

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4.Generalisation:On the basis of analysis and interpretation of the data collected with thehelp of observation method, it is possible to make certain generalization.Social development and behaviour of children have been described byChild Psychologists on the basis of generalization based on analysis andinterpretation of the data gathered through the observation method.Types of Observation:1.Natural Observation:In natural observation we observe the specific behavioural characteristicsof children in natural setting. Subject donot become conscious of the factthat their behaviour is being observed by someone.2.Participant–Observation:Here the observer becomes the part of the group, which he wants toobserve. It discloses the minute and hidden facts.3.Non-Participant Observation:Here the observer observes in such a position, which is least disturbing tothe subject under study, the specific behaviour is observed in naturalsetting without subjects getting conscious that they are observed bysomeone. Non-participant observation permits the use of recordinginstruments.4.Structure Observation:Here the observer sets up a form and categories in terms of which hewishes to analyse the problem. The observer always keeps in view a] Aframe of reference b] Time units. c] Limitsof an act 5. UnstructuredObservation: This is also called as uncontrolled or free observation. It ismainly associated with participant observation in which the observerassumes the role of a member of the group to be observed. Here theindividual is observed when he is in his/her class, playground or whenhe/she is moving about with his friends and class follows without knowingthat he is being observed.Observation is very useful method to study child and his/her behaviour.Observation method, being a commonly used method in psychology, hasfollowing merits:Merits of Observation Method:1.Being a record of actual behaviour of the child, it is more reliable andobjective than introspection.2.It is an excellent source of information about what actuallyhappens inclassroom.3.It is a study of an individual in a natural situation and is therefore moreuseful than the restricted study in a test situation.munotes.in

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4.The method can be used with children of all ages. Younger the child,the easiest it is to observe him.This method has been found very usefulwith shy children.5.It can be used in every situation-physical activities, workshop andclassroom situations.6.It is adaptable to both the individual and the groups.Although observation is regarded as an efficient method for psychologicalstudies, it suffers from the following drawbacks limitations:Limitations:1.There is great scope for personal prejudices and bias of the observer.The observers’ interest, values can distort observation.2.Records may not be writtenwith hundred percent accuracy as theobservations are recorded after the actions are observed. There is sometime lag.3.The observer may get only a small sample to study behaviour. It is verydifficult to observe everything that the student does or says. As far aspossible observation should be made from several events.4.It reveals the overt behaviour only-behaviour that is expressed and notthat is within.5.It lacks replicabilityas each natural situation may occur only once.Considering the drawbacks an observation method, psychologists havesuggested various guidelines to be followed for making goodobservation. Some of these are essential guidelines for making goodobservation.Essential guidelines for making good observation:1.Observe one individual at a time. It is desirable to focus attention onjust one individual at a time in order to collect comprehensive data.2.Have a specific criterion for making observations. The purpose ofmaking observation should be clear to the observer before he or shebegins to observe so that the essential characteristics or the behaviourof the person fulfilling the purpose can be noted.3.Observations should be made over a period of time. To have a realestimate of the true behaviour of a person it should be observed asfrequently as possible. A single observation will not be sufficient to tellus that this is the characteristic of the individual.4.The observations should be made in differing and natural situations innatural settings to increase its validity. For example, a pupil’sbehaviour in the classroom may not be typical of him; therefore, heshould be observed in a variety of settings to know the behaviour mosttypical of the person.5.Observe the pupil in the context of the total situation.munotes.in

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6.The observed facts must be recorded instantly, that is just at the time oftheir occurrence. Otherwise the observer may forget some of the factsand the recording may not be accurate.7.It is better to have two or more observers.8.Observations should be made under favourable conditions. Theobserver should be in position to clearly observe what he or she isobserving. There should not be any undue distraction or disturbances.One should also have an attitude free from any biases or prejudicesagainst the individual being observed.9.Data from observations should be integrated with other data. Whilearriving at the final conclusion about the individual, one should puttogether all that we know about the individual from the other sourcesthen we can give an integrated and comprehensive picture of theindividual. These precautions must be borne in mind in order to havereliable observations.2.5 EXPERIMENTAL METHODWe studied introspection method and observation method used inpsychology of learning. But these methods lack scientific objectivity andvalidity. Experimental method is the most scientific and objective methodof studying behaviour. It is the method, which is responsible for assigningthe status of Science to Psychology. Let us learn more about thisExperimental method.In 1879, William Wundt established the first psychological laboratory atLeipzing in Germany. Since then, experimental method in psychology hasbecome popular, Experimental method consists of actions performedunder pre-arranged or rigidly controlled conditions. Here the emphasis ison experimentation.Experimentation is where the investigator controls the educative factors towhich a group of children are subjected during the period of inquiry andthe investigation observes the resulting achievement. J. W. Best describes,Experimental research is the description and analysis of what will be, orwhat will occur under carefully controlledconditions.Basic concepts /essentials of experimental method:a.Experiments are always conducted in laboratory. Hence the laboratoryis essential.b.Psychological experiments performed in this method essentially requiretwo people; the experimenter or groupof experimenters who performthe experiments and the other is the subject or subjects on whom theexperiment is performed.c.The key factor in this method is the controlling of conditions orvariables. The term ‘Variable’ means that which can be varied ormunotes.in

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changed. By controlling the variables, we can eliminate the irrelevantconditions and isolate the relevant ones. We are thus able to observe thecausal relationship between the phenomena keeping all other conditionsalmost constant.Let us understand thisby an example. If we try to study the effect ofintelligence on academic achievement by the experimental method, wewill need to determine the causative relation between the two phenomena(variables)-i.e. intelligence and academic achievement. One of thesevariables, the effect of which we want to study will be called theindependent variable and the other the dependent variable.Thus, the independent variable stands for cause and the dependent variableis the effect of the cause. Other conditions like study-habits, sex, socio-economic conditions, parental education, home environment, health, pastlearning, memory etc. which exercise a good impact upon one’sachievement, besidesone’s intelligence, are termed―interviewingvariables.In Experimentation,all such interviewing variables are to be controlled,i.e. they are to be made constant or equalized and the effect of only oneindependent variable e.g. intelligence (in the present case), on one or moredependent variable is studied. The interviewing variables made constant,are hence called as controlled variables.Steps in the experimental method:The different steps, which are to be followed in conducting a typicalexperiment.1.Rising of a problem:In any experiment the first steps is to identifyaproblem. For example, it has been observed that the students cheat in theexaminations. To stop this, it many recommend strict supervision. But ithas also been seen that even when there is strict supervision thereischeating, hence problem like cheating under strict supervision or relaxedsupervision arises. This problem may lead to experimentation.2.Formulation of a hypothesis:The next step in experimental method isthe formulation of a hypothesis that ―Strict supervision may lead to lesscopyingin the examination as compared to the relaxed supervision. ―Thishypothesis is now to be tested by experiment.3.Making a distinction between Independent and Dependentvariables:In the example given above, the cheating behaviour of thestudents will be dependent variable while the nature of supervision will bethe independent variable. It is because by changing the supervision thecheating behaviour is expected change. In the present experiment wemanipulate the conditions of supervision in order to discover the ways inwhich they determine the dependent variable that is the cheatingbehaviour. We may observe the effect of supervision in the experimentalmunotes.in

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situation and also the effect of relaxed supervision under similarconditions and with the same group of students.4.Controlling the situational variables:The experiment will not givevalid results unless the situational variables are controlled. If theexperiment is conductedwith different set of students who have beentrained in a different manner of have a different value system then theresults will be different in comparison to those who have been subjected toexperiment earlier. Similarly, the other conditions like the person who issupervising the place of supervision etc. have to be controlled. This meansthat all those conditions, which might affect the dependent variable, are tobe controlled. Since, in any experiment there are numerous conditionswhich are needed to be controlled, it is many a time difficult to do so.Hence, we take recourse to various types of experimental designs, whichwe have described earlier.5.Analysis of the Results:Once the experiment is concluded the resultsare analysed. In our example we may apply simple percentages to find outin which type of supervision a higher percentage of students have copied.Many a times we apply more sophisticated statistics to analyse the results.6.Verification of Hypothesis:The last step in the experimental method isthe verification of the hypothesis, which we have earlier framed. Theresult of the experiment exhibits whether the hypothesis is accepted orrefuted. We may find that strict supervision leads to less copying. Inthatcase we may conclude that our hypothesis is accepted. If the results areotherwise then our conclusion will be that the hypothesis is refuted.Experimental Designs:Experimental method is the most precise, planned, systematic andcontrolled method of studying behaviour. It usesa systematic procedurecalled as experimental design. The term experimental design has twodifferent meanings-one is the experimental design which represents the sixbasic steps we have referred above which are followed in an experiment.The second meaning of experimental design is selecting an appropriatestatistical procedure. Experimental design provides important guidelines tothe researcher to carry out his/her research study. Experimental designensures adequate controls by avoiding irrelevant causes of variability. Thelayout of a design depends on the type of the problem the investigatorwants to investigate. No one design solves all the problems of a researchstudy.A variety of experimental designs have been developed by researchers inrecent years. These designs differ as these are dependent upon:i.The nature of problemii.The situationiii.The subjects and their availability.munotes.in

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Merits of experimental method:Experimental method being most precise and scientific has followingmerits:1.Experimental method is the most systematic method or getting reliabledata.2.Experimental method enables accurate observations due to controlledconditions.3.It allows us to establish cause effect relationship between differentphenomena.4.The results obtained are valid and reliable.5.The findings of the experimental method are verifiable by otherexperiments under identical conditions.6.It helps to protect from the subjective opinions. Hence it providesobjective information about the problem.7.It provides adequate information about the problem.8.In experimental method, experiments are conducted under vigorouslycontrolled conditions. The experimenter can control the application andwithdrawal of independent variables.9.Experimental method increases one’s knowledge or psychological factsin child psychology, social and abnormal psychology. It is rightly saidthe experimental method has made psychology a science.Demerits of the method Experimental method:suffers from various following demerits:1.Experimental method is a costly and time-consuming method as itrequires a laboratory and apparatus to conduct it properly.2.Experiments are conducted in artificially determined pattern ofbehaviour. In real life situation it is quite different.3.It needs specialized knowledge and therefore every teacher cannot beexpected to conduct the experiment. The scope is limited. All problemsof psychology cannot be studied by this method as we cannot performexperiments for all the problems that may come up in the diversesubject matter of psychology.4.Accurate measurements, in case of human beings, are never possible.5.It is difficult to always control the independent variable. Therefore, it isnot possible to create desired conditions in laboratory.6.It is not possible to reach certainty in matters of social science sincluding educational psychology.munotes.in

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 2.6 CLINICAL METHODMeaning:The clinical method is also called case study method. It is used by clinicalpsychologists, psychiatrists, psychiatric social works and teachers in childguidance clinics or mental hygiene centers or in ordinary school situations.Generally, we use this method when we want to understand the causes andsources of people’s fears, anxieties, worries, obsessions, their personal,social, educational and vocational maladjustments.A couple of students in your class are showing poor scholasticachievements or some behaviour problems. You want to understand thecauses so that you may plan some treatment procedures. This method willbe useful in such conditions. It may be noted that the clinical methods or“procedures are not designed to discover general behaviouraltrends, lawsor relationships. Rather they are concerned with a unique individual whois trouble in and interest is focussed on the immediate, practical questionof how to best help him. The starting point of a clinical investigation is anindividual whoneeds or seeks help and the procedure ideally terminateswith the better adjustment of the individual.” (Sawney and Telford).The clinical investigator may start with some hypothesis about theprobable causes of the difficulty or troublesome behaviour. The tentativehypothesis is supported or disproved by the data collected through the useof case-history, interviews, visits to the home or school and psychologicaltesting. From the data collected, certain deductions are made as toprobable treatment. The employment of this method includes the use ofcase histories, interviews and psychological testing.A case history traces the family and health, history, hereditary factors,classifies the developmental data, the educational progress, interpersonaland inter-parental or intra-parental relationships, and thus makes usunderstand the major forces and influences, which have developed andshaped the individual’s personality.The clinical method, in itself, cannot claim to the objectivity attained bythe experimental method, but it may afford fruitful new hypothesis whichcan be tested by the better controlled experimental procedures.Merits of Clinical Method:1.Variety of cases2.Cause and effect relationship3.Guidance and counselling4.Individualized method5.Diagnostic use6.Special learning disabilities7.Personality adjustment8.Wider applicationmunotes.in

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Demerits of Clinical Method:1.Lack of applications2.Lengthy method3.Costly method4.Lack of trained persons5.Element of subjectivity6.Lack of verification7.Lack of validity andreliability2.7 SUMMARYWe have learnt, in the above unit, the three methods of studyingpsychology of learning. But which of the above discussed methods is thebest among other four is a difficult questions to be answered.All the methods have their strengths and weakness and possess someunique characteristics, which make them highly specific for use in aparticular situation. A wise psychologist should have a keen insight intothe nature of his/her subjects as well as the conditions affecting his/herwork and accordingly select a proper method or methods for theobjectives.Study of the behaviour of his/her subjects much depends upon thesincerity, honesty, ability and experience of the investigator, who shouldalways try to keep himself/herself asscientific and objective as possibleand leave no stone unturned for the overall analysis of the behaviour of thesubject or nature of the phenomena under study.2.8 QUESTIONS1.What is Introspection method? State its merits and demerits.2.What isObservation method? State its merits and demerits.3.What is Experimental method? State its merits and demerits.4.What is Clinical method? State its merits and demerits.5.Compare between Experimental and Observation methods withexamples.2.9 REFERENCES1.Agarwal J. C., Essentials of Educational Psychology, VikasPublishing House2.Aggarwal J. C., (1995) Essentials of Educational Psychology, ShipraPublishers, Delhi.munotes.in

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3.Aggarwal J. C., (2001) Basic Ideas in Educational Psychology, ShipraPublishers, Delhi.4.Aggarwal J. C., (2004) Psychology of Learning & Development,Shipra Publishers, Delhi.5.Bhatia & Bhatia (1981) Textbook of Educational Psychology, DoabaHouse, Delhi.6.Bhatia H. R. (1997) A Textbook of Educational Psychology,MacMillan, New Delhi.7.Chatterjee S. K. (2000) Advanced Educational Psychology Books &Allied Pvt. Ltd., Delhi.8.Chauhan S. S. (1990) Advanced Educational Psychology, VikasPublication House, Delhi.9.Crow L.D. & Crow Educational Psychology10.Dandekar W.N. (1995) Fundamentals of Educational Psychology, M.Prakashan, Poona.11.Lahey R.B., Graham J.E., &others (2000) An Introduction toEducational Psychology,6th Ed., Tata McGraw Hill Publishers, NewDelhi.12.Mangal S. K. (2000) An Introduction to Psychology. PrakashBrothers, Ludhiana13.Mangal S.K. (1999) Essentials of Educational Psychology, PrenticeHall of India,Delhi.14.Mangal S.K. (2000) Advanced Educational Psychology, Prentice Hallof India, New Delhi.15.Mangal, S. K. (2004) Educational Psychology, Tandon Publications,Ludhiana.16.Mangal, S. K., Educational Psychology, Tandon Publications,Ludhiana.17.Mathur S.S. Advanced Educational Psychology,18.Santrock John W. (2010) Educational Psychology, Irwin ProfessionalPublishers, Delhi.19.Sharma R.N. & Sharma R.K. (2003) Advanced EducationalPsychology, Atlantic20.Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi.21.Sharma, R. N. & R. K. Sharma (1996) Advanced EducationalPsychology, Surjeet1Publications, Delhi.22.Walia J.S. Foundations of Educational Psychology, Paul Publishers,Jalandhar.23.Woolfolk Anita (2004) Educational Psychology, 9th Edition, Alyynand Bacon, Boston.24.Woolfolk Anita & Woolfolk Hoy Anita (2008) EducationalPsychology, Pearson, New Delhi.




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MODULE II3GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENTContent3.0Learning Objectives3.1Introduction3.2Growth and Development3.3Human Development3.3.1 Principles of Development3.3.2 Factors affecting Development3.4Stages ofDevelopment3.5Developmental Characteristics of Children and Adolescents3.5.1 Physical aspect3.5.2 Cognitive aspect3.5.3 Emotional aspect3.5.4 Social aspect3.6Role of the Teacher in Facilitating Growth and Development3.7Let’s Sum up3.8UnitEnd Exercises3.9References3.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVESThis unit will help you learn the concept and major differences betweengrowth and development, the broad principles and factors that affectgrowth and development and various stages of growth anddevelopmentfrom childhood to adulthood.After going through this unit, you should be able to:•elaborate on concept of growth and development•differentiate between growth and development•highlight the major principles of growth and development•explain the factors that influence growth and development•describe the stages and characteristic of human growth anddevelopment from childhood to adulthood•elaborate on educational implications of the principles of growth anddevelopmentmunotes.in

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•explain therole of the teacher in the facilitation of growth anddevelopment during childhood and adolescence3.1 INTRODUCTIONPsychology is usually considered as “the scientific study of the mind andbehavior.” Humans are a mystery; they are not static but constantlychanging. This does not just include their physical changes like increase inheight, weight, physical structures that change with time and age but alsothe emotional changes, the psychological changes, the social changes andhormonal changes. The way humans change and at what rate they changediffers from individual to individual. There are a number of factors that areresponsible for these changes. When a human is born they have specificgenetic traits inherited from their parents, such as eye color, height, andcertain personality traits, beyond these basic genotypes, there is aninteraction that takes place between the genes and the environment thatinfluence how the traits are expressed and altered within the individual atvarious stages of development right from childhood till death.In this unit we shall learn the two major concepts of developmentalpsychology i.e. growth and development and how they differ from eachother. We would also learn about the principles of development andvarious factorsthat affect the development of an individual. This unit willalso highlight various phases of growth and development that anindividual goes through in this life time. Knowledge about this will helpthe teacher to understand her students better and help in a catering todifferent types of learners in her classroom.3.2 CONCEPT OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENTWhen we talk about “Growth” and “development” both of them come inpairs. They are often used interchangeably but in the strictest sense of theword, ‘growth’ is different from ‘development’ conceptually. But what isexactly the difference between growth and development in the field ofpsychology?In psychology “growth” is a quantitative aspect which may be defined as“the physical change that a particularindividual undergoes in his lifespan.” Growth refers to any physical increase in some quantity as timepasses by such as increase in height, increase or decrease in weight orbody proportions or general any physical appearance. Hurlock has definedGrowthas “change in size, in proportion, disappearance of old featuresand acquisition of new ones”. Growth refers to structural andphysiological changes (Crow and Crow, 1962). Thus, the term growthindicates an increase in any physical dimension.On the other hand, psychology defines development as “the overall growthof humans throughout their lifespan.” Development is more of aqualitative aspect which includes the understanding of why and howmunotes.in

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people change in various terms which may include physical growthorintellectual or emotional or social aspects of human growth.Some prominent psychologists have defined Development in the followingway:According to Hurlock (1959), “Development is a progressive series ofchanges that occur in an orderly predictablepattern as a result ofmaturation and experience.” According to J.E. Anderson (1950),“Development is concerned with growth as well as those changes inbehavior which results from environmental situations.”Therefore, the quantitative measures such as height, length and weightcontribute to ‘growth’ whereas development implies change in shape,form or structure resulting in improved working or functioning which arequalitative by nature.3.3 HUMAN DEVELOPMENTHumans have a typical life course like animals that consists of varioussuccessive phases of growth and development wherein each phase ischaracterized by a different set of physical, physiological and behavioralcharacteristics. These phases generally include infancy, followed bychildhood, adolescence and finally adulthood including old age. Humandevelopment also termed as developmental psychology, is a field of studyin psychology that attempts to explain and describe how the changes inhuman behaviour,cognition and emotional capabilities affect thefunctioning of the individual throughout their life span, right from zygotetill old age.Human development is a continuous and a life-long process wherephysical, behavioral, cognitive and emotional growthand developmenttakes place continuously. There are a number of changes taking place inindividual’s life in every stages of life, from infanthood to childhood,childhood to adolescence and from adolescence to adulthood. Throughoutall these processes, each person develops different attitudes and sets ofvalues that guide their choices, relationships, belief systems andunderstanding. Human development is a scientific study of qualitative andquantitative ways by which people change over time. Physical changesinclude the change in height, weight, length of hair, etc. Behavioralchanges may include change in temper, habits, etc. Emotionaldevelopment may include stress management, developing empathy andsympathy, etc.3.3.1 Principles of Development:Theprocess of development has been studied experimentally. Variousstudies and researches by psychologists have highlighted certain coreprinciples underlying this process, few of them are stated below:munotes.in

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a.Development follows a uniform and an orderly pattern:The process of development follows the principle of proximodistaldevelopment. This principle describes the direction of development fromnearer to far apart. As per this principle development takes place fromcentre of the body towards outwards. For example, a child developsinterest within himself first and then gets interested in others, this is thepattern that is followed. Development also follows the cephalocaudalprinciple i.e. development tends to proceed from the head downward. Forexample, the child first gains control of the head, then the arms, then thelegs. Then they start gaining control of head and face movements withinthe first two months. In the next few months, they are able to use theirarms to lift themselves up. By the end of year ofage, infants start to gaincontrol over their legs and start crawling or walking or standing.b.Development is not a static process but is a continuous process:Development does not occur in spurts but is rather a continuous process.The process of development takes place in interaction with theenvironment in which a person lives. One stage of development serves as abasic framework for the next stage. Growth continues from the momentsof conception till the individual becomes mature. It takes place at slowregular pace rather than by ‘leaps and bounds’. Although development isconsidered to be a continuous process, yet the tempo of growth is noteven, during infancy and early years growth moves swiftly and later itslacken. For example, the knowledge a child acquires is limited but as heinteracts with his environment and the society, he implies the acquiredknowledge and learns various skills which will foster his development.c.Change is constant in Development:Humans undergo various different changes from their birth till old age.There are numerous changes that occur such as, changes in proportionsand sizes, acquisition of new features or disappearance of old features, etc.Self-realization is the main aim of these developmental changes which islabelled as self-actualization in Abraham Maslow’s theory. Children’sattitude towards change is determined by their knowledge about changeand their social attitudes towards it and also how the society treats childrenin return.d.Individual differencesaffect the rate of development process:All children follow same stages of development that is they all go throughthe same process of development but at different rate. The time taken byeach child to develop may vary depending upon their ability, theirsocialcontext, the environment in which they grow. Hence, both biologicalfactors and environmental factors affect the rate at which a child maydevelop. Understanding of individual differences will help us tounderstand the developmental process in a better way before labelling achild.e.Maturation and Learning affect development:Sequence of biological changes that occur within individuals is termed asmaturation. Maturation is one of the factors that affect development. Formunotes.in

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instance, a four-year-oldchild is not mature enough to tackle majorsocietal problems. Thus, a certain amount of maturity is required to attaina certain set of skills. Similarly learning is also an important factoraffecting development. Right skills should be learnt by the child at theright time. Rich learning environment will help the child to mature anddevelop in a progressive manner.f.Development follows general to specific criteria:The process of development proceeds from general to localized behavior.For example, thefoetus moves its whole body initially but is not cable tomake specific responses. Considering emotional behaviour, the approachof infants to strange and unusual objects is with some sort of general fearresponse. Later, this fear becomes more specific and leads to differentkinds of behaviour, such as, crying, turning away and hiding etc.g.Development can be predicted:As talked earlier we are aware that development follows a specific processwhich is uniform in nature. Development of a child is influenced bygenetic as well as environmental factors, but it can be predicted. Specificareas of development, say for example, different aspects of motordevelopment, emotional behavior, speech development, social behavior,concept development, goals, etc. follow predictable patterns. At an earlyage it is possible for us to predict where the child will lie in the process ofdevelopment over a certain time span. Mental development of the childcannot be predicted accurately.h.Social expectations are involved in development:Every society is driven by certain set of norms, standards and traditionswhich is expected to be followed by everyone. Development is thereforedetermined by these social norms and expectations of behavior form theindividuals. Childrenideally learn values, tradition and customs from thesociety in which they live and are expected to behave in the manner that isacceptable to their society. Social expectations are also known as“developmental tasks”. Physical maturation, cultural pressures from thesociety, personal values of individuals are some of the factors that giverise to developmental tasks. The developmental tasks are same as they gettransmitted from one generation to in a particular culture. As the societyevolves the changingtraditions and cultural patterns of a society arelearned automatically by children and accepted during their developmentprocess. These developmental tasks will help in motivating children tolearn as well as will help parents to guide their children asrequired bythem.i.There are potential hazards to development:The process of development may be hampered by various potentialhazards. These hazards may be physical, environmental or psychological.The hazards may be originated either from the environment in which thechild grows or may be due to hereditary factors.These hazards are provedto have a negative impact not just only on physical development of thechild but also on the socio-psychological development. Some of themunotes.in

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consequences may be that the growth of the child may be retarded, he mayturn out to be a person with aggression or he may encounter adjustmentproblems.j.Various traits are correlated with development:Various traits are found to have either a positive or negative effect on thedevelopment of child. We may have observed that the child whose mentaldevelopment is above average, is found to be superior in many otheraspects like health or sociability or special aptitudes. Similarly, a childwith sound body and mind is found to be more socially involved comparedto those who are unhealthy physically or mentally.3.3.2 Factors affecting Development:Growth and development are natural process, but it has been observed thatthe rate at which individuals grow and develop vary from child to child.Some children develop understanding faster than the others, whereas someacquire skills at a faster rate than others, this is because there are certainfactors that influence their development. Few of the factors that affectdevelopment are as follows:
a.Heredity:Heredity is the transmission of certaintraits and characteristics fromparents to offspring. Heredity is one of the factors that influence humandevelopment. Various characteristics that are transmitted due to hereditymay be either physical or psychological. The physical characteristicsinclude height, weight, eye colour, texture of hair etc. and psychologicalcharacteristics may include intelligence, personality, creativity and so on.The base on which brain and body grow and manifest in observableappearance and behavior is provided by the genetic code. Diseases andconditions which are genetic by nature such as heart disease, diabetes,obesity, etc., affect development of the child adversely. However, suitable
Heredity
Environment
Gender
Hormones
Health, Nutrition and Exercise
Socio-Economic Status
Home and Family Influence
Cultural and Societal Influence
Geographical Influence
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environmental factors and proper nurturing can bring the best out of thealready present qualities in the genes.b.Environment:Environment where an individual resides is an important factor thatinfluencehuman development. It encompasses a total of physical andpsychological stimulation that a child needs. The child lives and grows inhis environment. Physical surrounding and geographical conditions, thesocial environment and relationships with family and peers influence earlychildhood development. Environment provides the necessary input andexperiential base for development of the child and it consists of a widerange of stimuli. For example, a child may have inherited music talentfrom his parents through heredity, but he may not excel in this field ifproper environmental conditions are not provided to him.c.Gender:The gender of the child is one more important and major factor affectingthe physical growth and development of a child. Boys and girls grow indifferent ways, especially when they are nearing puberty. Boys tend to betaller and physically stronger than girls. On the contrary, girls tend tomature at a faster rate during adolescence, while boys take a longer time.The physical structureof their bodies also differ because of which boysare more athletic and suited for activities that require physical rigour.Their temperaments also vary, because of which they show interest indifferent thingsd.Hormones and Medications:Hormones influence a vast number of functions in our bodies and belongto the endocrine system. Hormones are produced by glands that aresituated in specific parts of the body so that they can control bodyfunctions. Their timely functioning is crucial for normal growth anddevelopment in children. Imbalances in the functioning of hormone-secreting glands and the quantity of hormones secreted can result ingrowth abnormalities, obesity, behavioural problems and other relateddiseases. During puberty, the sex hormones are produced by gonads whichcontrol the development of the sex organs and the appearance ofsecondary sexual characteristics in males and females.e.Health, Nutrition and Exercise:The word exercise here does not mean physical exercise as a but refers tothenormal play time and sports activities which is required by the body togain an increase in muscular strength and put on bone mass. Properexercise helps child grow well and reach milestones on time or sooner.Exercise also keeps them stay fit, healthy and fights off diseases bystrengthening their immune system, especially if they play outside becausewhen they play outside, they are more prone to be exposed to microbes.Nutrition plays a vital role in the process of growth as everything the bodyneedsin order to build and repair itself comes from the food we eat.Malnutrition is a condition that results from either nutrient deficiency ormunotes.in

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 overconsumption. It can cause deficiency diseases that adversely affect thegrowth and development of children. On the other hand, overeating canlead to obesity and health disorders like diabetes and heart disease in thelong run of life. A balanced diet that is rich in essential vitamins, minerals,proteins, carbohydrates and fats is not only essential for the developmentof the body but also for the brain.f.Socio-Economic Status:Socio-Economic Status plays a pivotal role in human development. Itdetermines the quality of the opportunity a child gets. The index of socio-economic status is determined by parental education, occupation andincome. The children of low socio-economic status may develop as mal-nourished, suffer from lack of knowledge in many aspects and theirnormal development may get hampered. The parenting in high socio-economic status families would be different from low socio-economicstatus families. Children of the high socio-economic groups of the societyget better social opportunities, are nurtured with better nutrition, goodmedical treatment and are exposed to more intellectual stimulation thanlow socioeconomic group.g.Home and Family influence:Home environment exerts tremendous influence on child’s understandingof how he perceives the external world. It helps in building self-conceptand prepares him to face the society. For the child, the first step inacquiring knowledge is when the child begins to interact with his parentsand other family members. During his early years of development, thebehaviours of the child are modulated and influenced by the homeenvironment. Whether they are raised by their parents, grandparents orfoster care, they need basic love, care and courtesy to develop as healthyfunctional individuals. The environment of the family can either besupportive or stressful. If it is supportive, warm and harmonious then childdevelops normally. In unsupportive and stressful home environment,broken families or uncaring parents in the family, children may end up asindividuals who have poor social skills and difficulty bonding with otherpeople as adults, that is like a maladjusted person.h.Cultural and Societal Influence:Culture is an umbrella term which includes a system of beliefs, attitudesand values that are transmitted from one generation to the next. It is aproduct of past human behavior and is also a shaper of future. Thedevelopment of the child is influenced not only by the family but also bythe society and its culture. The child learns the habits, beliefs, attitude,skills and standards of judgment, value system through the process ofsocialization. The socialization processes of the child take place accordingto the culture, customs and traditions of the society. For example, greetingsomeone is a familiar experience but behavioral experiences are differentin different cultures. In Indian culture, people greet others by sayingnamaskar, folding hands or lying down near the feet but in Westernculture, people greet by handshake or kissing or saying hello or byhugging each other.munotes.in

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i.Geographical influence:Where you live also has a great influence on how yourchildren turn out tobe. The schools they attend, the neighbourhood they live in, theopportunities offered by the community and their peer circles are some ofthe social factors affecting a child’s development. Living in an enrichingcommunity that has parks, libraries and community centres for groupactivities and sports all play a role in developing the child’s skills, talents,and behaviour. Uninteresting communities can push some children to notgo outside often but play video games at home instead. Even the weatherof a place influences children in the form of bodily rhythms, allergies andother health conditions.j.Learning and Reinforcement:Learning involves much more than schooling. It is also concerned withbuilding the child up mentally, intellectually, emotionally, and socially.Each child is equipped with certain abilities which need to be developedand nurtured through proper educationand training. Therefore, the firstand the most important step is to identify and recognize the ability of thechild and the next step is to provide adequate opportunities to develop thesame. Thus, adequate education and training have influence on humandevelopment. Reinforcement is a component of learning where an activityor exercise is repeated and refined to solidify the lessons learned. Anexample is playing a musical instrument; they get better at playing it asthey practice playing the instrument. Therefore, any lesson that is taughthas to be repeated until the right results are obtained.Although nature contributes much to the growth and development ofchildren, nurture contributes much more. Some of these factors may not becontrollable, but there are certain things that you can definitely ensure foryour child. This includes ensuring that your child gets enough rest everyday, because his development is heavily dependent on the amount of sleephe gets. Pay close attention to child’s nutritional and exercise levels, asthese too play an important role in promoting child’s timely and healthygrowth and development.3.4 STAGES OF DEVELOPMENTChildren go through distinct periods of development as they grow frominfants to young adults. What occursand approximately when thesedevelopments transpire are genetically determined. However,environmental circumstances and exchanges with key individuals withinthat environment have a significant influence on how each child benefitsfrom each developmentalevent. Each stage of development has itscharacteristic. Psychologists have separated human life span into stages orperiods and identified specific changes that may be expected during eachstage. The transition from one stage to the next is gradual ratherthansudden. The age groups assigned to each stage of the development aregeneral as shown in the Table 1.0.munotes.in

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TABLE 1.0DEVELOPMENTAL STAGESAgeGroups(Years)Stage ofDevelopmentDescription of Each StagesBirth to 2InfancyThe stage from birth totwo weeks isknown as neonate. Babyhood is a stageof rapid growth and development. Thereare changes in body proportions andintellectual growth is observed.2 to 6Early ChildhoodThis is the pre-school period. It is alsocalled the pre-gang age. In this stage, thechild gains control over hisenvironment. Social adjustment isobserved during this stage.6 to 12Late ChildhoodThis is the primary school age. Herechild is expected to acquire therudiments of knowledge that areconsidered essential for successfuladjustment to adult life. Variousessential skills are learnt during thisstage of development.12 to 18AdolescenceThis is the period of physiologicalchange. Sexual maturity is observed inthis stage of development. It is also theperiod of intensified personal interactionwith peers of the same and opposite sex.18 to 40Young AdulthoodThe responsibilities of adulthood includeimportant decisions like choosing acareer, a life partner, etc. Youngadulthood begins with setting goals andaspirations.40 to 60MiddleAdulthoodAfter settling down in thirties andhaving lived through with rooting phase,the individual starts feeling sense ofuprooting and dissatisfaction during theforties. A physical decline in the form ofwrinkles, thickening waistlines, greyingand thinning hair start appearing. Thechanges are often termed middle lifetransition, middle age revolt, mid-careercrisis or middle-age slump.Over 60Late AdulthoodAging is a process, which causes loss ofvitality. Aged adults are more concernedabout their healthand death. Theyfrequently visit to doctors. Retirementhas the worst impact on aged adults.They gradually lose their sense ofmeaningfulness in life, whereas somemunotes.in

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develop interests in social service andspend their time in financial planning,reading, travelling, visiting religiousplaces and enjoying nature3.5. DEVELOPMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS OFCHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTSThe rate of growth and development among children and adolescents takesplace at different rates. Each individual is born unique, with a distinctpersonality and encounters various life experience. For this reason, age isnot the only sign of where a particular child or adolescent is in terms ofdevelopment. The different aspects of development are as follows:
3.5.1.Physical Development:Physical growth and development describe not only the physicaldevelopment but also psychomotor changes in an individual. Theseinclude the genetic make-up, ethnicity, race, gender, nutrition and diet,exercise, sleep patterns, use of tobacco, alcohol or other drugs, stress andstressful life events, environmental toxins and socioeconomic status.a.Infancy:The physical development is very rapid during infancy. At birth a baby isgenerally 18 to 20 inches long and 3 kg in weight. He grows about threetimes after a year. When he reaches two years of age, he attains a length of33 inches. At birth the brain is almost one fourth of the final developedweight. Legs and trunk gradually lengthen. There is significant increase inthe length of arms and use of muscles. The first nine months of a child area period of rapid growth. During the first two months a baby showspostural changes. He sits at seven months, creeps by ten months, standsalone at thirteen months and walks by thirteen to fifteen months. Thisdevelopment follows a proximodistal sequence. By six months milk teethappears.
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b.Early Childhood Stage:Early childhood stage covers from 2 or 3 years to 6 or 7 years. Rate ofgrowth during this stage becomes slow in comparison to previous stage.At theage of six years a child becomes 43 to 45 inches tall. Boys arefound to be slightly taller than girls. Body proportions change and headgrows at a slower rate. Hands and feet also grow bigger. Muscles growlarger and stronger. Hand-skills like brushing the hair, bathing and bettertoilet habits are established at this stage. The child can draw pictures,learns to hop, skip, jump, run, climb and dance during this stage. A majordevelopment task for a child during six years of life is to acquire a genderidentification. The environment is the most powerful factor which helps inshaping the gender identify among children.c.Later Childhood Stage:During later childhood period (6 years to 12 years of age) physical growthis initially slow and then gets accelerated. Arms and legs grow faster andthe child appears tall and thin. He loses his milk teeth and permanent teethappear. The sense organ, muscles and brain are more or less mature. Theoverall appearance of the child changes during this stage. Boys areslightlytaller than girls. Sex differences begin to appear during this stage. Childcontinues to grow in the strength, speed and coordination that are neededfor motor skills. He climbs trees, walls etc. The child gains full controlover the movement of his limbs. Being active and participating in gameshelps the child to develop a concept of himself. He gets feedbackregarding his desirability, worth and status from other people.d.Adolescence Stage:The period of transition from childhood to adulthoodis calledadolescence. It is one of the crucial stage of development. In Indianconditions the period of adolescence may vary from 12-13 years to 18-21years. A.T. Jersild defines adolescence as “the span of years during whichthe boys and girls move fromchildhood to adulthood.” All types ofchanges like biological, physical, social, intellectual, moral etc. take placeduring this stage of development. At the early adolescent years, there is arapid increase in height and weight. By the age of seventeen in girls andeighteen in boys, the majority of them have reached 98 percent of theirfinal height. Sex differences become very prominent during this stage.Primary and secondary sex characteristics appear. Sexual development isthe most unique features of adolescence stage. The boys and girls areattracted towards the opposite sex.3.5.2Cognitive Development:Cognitive abilities grow and mature with age or in different stage ofdevelopment. These include abilities such as attending, perceiving,observing,remembering, imagining, thinking, solving problems andgrowth of intelligence as well as of language.a.Infancy:The child at infancy stage starts to react to light, sound and temperature(external stimuli). In this age the child can imitate, discriminate andmunotes.in

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recognize things to some extent. A Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget termedthis stage as sensory-motor stage of development which covers first 18months of life. He gradually acquires the sense of shape, size, form andcolor. He learns things through play, imitation and manipulation. Hedevelops the skill to recognize known and unknown persons. He fails tounderstand the difference between fact and fiction. He usually putsforward embarrassing questions to the parents which show reflects hisinquisitiveness.b.Early Childhood:During this stage child’s contact with environment increases gradually andhe starts to explore things. The questions posed here are often “why”. Thechild develops general intelligence, perception, memory, learning,problem solving and language. Jean Piaget named this stage as the stage ofpre-operational stage which covers 1 ½ years to 6 years of age. In thisstage, development of language takes place and the child is able to talkand form simple concepts but it is difficult for him to understandreversibility of operations. For example, if water contained in a tall narrowglass is poured into a small broad glass, the child will judge that there wasmore water in the narrow glass than when it is poured in the broad glass.c.Later Childhood:Later childhood is characterized by mental development. Child becomesmore inquisitive which indicates his thinking capacity. Thinking andimagination are the key features. As per the views of Piaget this is thestage of concrete operationswhich covers the period from 7 to 11 years.During this stage, the child learns how to organize systems ofclassification for concepts acquired by him. The child becomes capable tounderstand the cause and effect relationship. The child at this stagedevelops better concepts of length, distance, time, area and volume. Theabilities of understanding, memory, reasoning, attention anddiscrimination are developed to a great extent. The child is now equippedwith a rich store of vocabulary. Child’s speech becomes increasinglysocialized and communicative. At this stage the child develops interest inperforming creative and productive work.d.Adolescence:At this stage the child attains intellectual maturity Due to the interactionbetween maturation, experience, education and training intellectualmaturation takes place. Memory and imagination increase to aconsiderable extent. The adolescent can concentrate on any activity for alonger period. He also develops ability to take decisions. According toPiaget thisstage is known as the stage of formal operations which coversthe period from 12 to 15 years. In this stage the youngster acquires theability to think and reason beyond his own immediate world.He applies formal logic to solve his own problems, and approaches themmore systematically. The adolescents take interest in scientific pursuits.Towards the end of the adolescence an individual has a complete mentalpreparation for a full-fledged adult life.munotes.in

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3.5.3.Emotional Development:The term emotion is derived from Latin term ’emovere’ which means tostir, to agitate to move. Hence, an emotion is referred to as a stirred-upstate of agitation. We feel agitated or excited when we are angry, fearful,happy, etc. There are different emotional development occurring at variousstages of human life. This includes developing feelings and emotionalresponses to events; changes in the child/ young person understandingtheir own feelings and expressing them appropriately.a.Infancy Stage:Infants as soon as they areborn start to display various distinct emotions.His emotional reactions are diffuse and gross. He cannot show specificreactions like anger, fear and love. However, by the age twodifferentiations of emotions are marked. Watson states that emotions offear, anger and love can be identified even in very young infants. After thebaby is a few weeks old, he starts smiling and crying to give expression tohis feeling of pleasure and contentment.b.Early Childhood Stage:Emotional expression of the child arerefined as the child grows. Hebecomes more definite and grows in intensity. His likes, fears and dislikesbecome more intense. Curiosity ad inquisitiveness are characteristicfeatures here. The child feels satisfied when his questions are answered.Withgrowth and maturity in age comes decline in overt expression ofemotional reactions. Previous violent emotional reactions are nowexpressed in subdued form among children fear at first is general ratherthan specific. As children grow older fear responsesbecome increasinglyspecific. The child shows his fear by running away to avoid the situationthat brightens him. He also shows jealousy towards other when he findsthem possessing things which he does not have.c.Later Childhood Stage:At this stage, the emotional behaviour of the child is guided by rationalexpressions. His experiences of intense emotional feelings of love, hateand fear lasts for a long period of time. He is able to have control over hisemotions. Emotions at wonder dominate the childat this stage. He showsanger if anything goes against his interest. Anger is expressed in a mannerof refusal to speak. At this stage, the children enjoy the company of thepersons whom they love. Joy, pleasure, love, curiosity, grief and affectionappear in this stage.d.Adolescence Stage:Adolescence period is marked by heightened emotionality due to changeof roles in home, school and society. It is due to the unfavorable relationsin home. Parents and teachers in most cases are responsible for heightenedemotionality in adolescents because they do not prepare their children tomeet the problems of adolescence. When the child becomes an adolescent,society and parents expect him to think and act like an adult for which heis not physically and intellectually matured. In adolescence there isattraction towards the member of opposite sex but the adolescent is notmunotes.in

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able to understand the correct social behaviour, how to make friendshipwith the members of opposite sex, which create emotional tensions in him.Adolescents come in conflict with their peers and family members whofail to understand them. School failures cause emotional disturbanceamong the adolescents. Vocational problems also create emotionaldisturbances.3.5.4Social Development:Garret regards social development as the process whereby “the biologicalindividual is converted into a human person.” Social development isclosely associated with mental, physical and emotional aspects ofdevelopment. Social development can be defined by Hurlockas socialdevelopment is the “attaining of maturity in social relationships”. This isprocess of gaining knowledge and skills needed to successfully interactwith others. At birth, the child is neither social nor unsocial. When thechild grows up, he develops some social behaviour which makes him anacceptable social being. An individual’s social and emotional behaviour isso closely interlinked that feelings of jealousy, shyness, affection andsympathy which are primarily regarded as emotional responses can also betreated as social forms of behaviour.a.Infancy Stage:During the first few months the child begins to make social contacts withthe persons in his social environment such as mother, father, grandmother,elders who care for him. He becomes aware of the individuals, whostimulate in him the feeling of satisfaction. The child soon learns todifferentiate between his mother and other persons. Social responses thatstarts early in life are those of smiling and laughing. During the secondhalf of the first year the child shows negative response to strangers. Duringthis period the child displays the tendency towards negativism byresponding to almost every request with a ‘no’. The child at this stage islikely to have many phantasies.b.Early Childhood Stage:In this period the child usually has one or two friendswith whom heidentifies and plays for short intervals. The young child selects hisplaymates of his own age from his immediate neighbourhood. He selectsfriends who provide him friendly companionship ship. The child at thisstage often quarrels and fights. The child shows his sympathy by helpingothers in difficulty. He needs recognition and praise. He needs approval ofadults. Feeling of being ignored makes him naughty in the hope of gettingattention that he craves for.c.Later Childhood Stage:At this stage the child enters, the school and wants to have many friends.He is interested the play activities that involve the group. He desires to bein the group of friends of his own age and sex. The peer approval at thisstage is linked with the strong desire for friendship and leads tocooperative behaviour. The child shows interest in what happens in theoutside world. He becomes more extroverts in this stage. Quarrels are alsomunotes.in

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common among friends during this period. One important developmentthat takesplace is the increasing interest and ability in organized activitiesand in team work. They form clubs or gangs for games, sports and othersocial activities. These gangs are formed separately for boys and girls.However, these groups are often short lived. Different qualities like takingup responsibility, self-control, self-reliance, obedience, discipline etc.develop in this stage.d.Adolescence Stage:The adolescents have a strong loyalty and devotion to their groups. Theyare deeply influenced by peer groups and their decisions. At this stage, theadolescent acquires many habits, attitudes, ideals and social skills. Duringearly adolescent period the close-friend is usually a member of the samesex. At the later adolescent period, one usually tries toseek friendshipwith a member of the opposite sex. However, this is not generallypermitted in some cultures, and so same sex friendships are morecommon. Identification with peer groups, hero-worship, growth ofpatriotic spirit, development of a sense ofsacrifice and leadership aresome of the important features of the social development of theadolescent.3.6 ROLE OF THE TEACHER IN FACILITATINGGROWTH AND DEVELOPMENTThe teacher and the school have a major role in facilitating the overalldevelopmentof children once they are enrolled in the school. A teachershould accept and make students accept the reality of physical andbiological changes that are taking place so that the transition takes asmooth course without causing any psychological disadvantage. Theteacher needs to create challenging conditions where there is effectivecoordination of physical, mental and other functions in order to ensureadequate adjustment to probable life situations. Teacher should ensure thatsecure effective and desirable responses are made, and prevent oreliminate ineffective or undesirable ones. One way of doing this is toarrange conditions in a way that make desirable responses satisfying andnot annoying. Positive training in self-direction and self-control shouldbegiven to students. Some of the following points should be kept in mindwhile guiding them:•Control and guidance must come from the student himself under theteacher's supervision.•Harsh, strict and unsympathetic control and prescription of everydetail of conduct leaving no place, for self-control and self-directionare not conducive to student’s mental health and adjustment to life’ sevents.•Proper guidance, rational shifts of treatment, and principles ofautonomy should be judiciously applied toensure smooth passagethrough the turbulent period of student.munotes.in

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It is around the adolescence stage that students reach the higher levels oftheir school education. A teacher needs to receive adequate knowledge andskills with due preparedness in order tohandle their emotional and socialneeds. The teacher should appreciate the fact that students at this stage areprone to revolt against established norms, rules, and authority, they shouldkeep themselves prepared to provide explanations and rationale forthebeliefs and values, which your students would question. Students at thistime need proper guidance to decide on the right course of action.They need supportive judgments to do things, which provide them self-confidence and self-assurance. The rangeof individual differences inmental ability among adolescents is wide. Teacher needs to use some planof classification to secure homogeneous groups in respect of significantabilities and achievements so that curricular and instructional needs can besuitably met. Studies have indicated that in certain tasks a student'sperformance would improve when others (teachers) are around. Thisphenomenon is called social facilitation. However, this is not a universalphenomenon. Still other studies have shown thatwhen a student is firsttrying to learn something new, the presence of others is detrimental. Insuch a situation, the teacher has to assess the situation (considering theclass as a social unit) and the personality traits of his students andaccordingly he should facilitate their growth and development.3.7 LET’S SUM UPIn this unit, we have studied the concept of human growth anddevelopment and also how they are related to each other. Various stages ofhuman development were discussed and thecharacteristics of each stagehave also been elaborated. The principles of development, theirimportance and need to study them scientifically have been discussed.Adolescence is a period of transition between childhood and adulthoodwhich is accompanied by various physical, cognitive, emotional and socialchanges due to which a number of problems arise. During this period,adolescents are considered neither as children nor as adults. Their statusremains ambiguous. This stage is considered one of the crucial stages ofdevelopment where the role of teacher is of great importance. How ateacher can help her students grow and develop in a positive manner hasalso been discussed in this unit.3.8 UNIT END EXERCISE•Growth and Development occur simultaneously. Elaborate.•Explain the principles of development.•Enlist various factors affecting development of the child.•How will culture and society influence the development of child?•“Adolescence is the most crucial stage of development” Justify•How will you as a teacher help your children to develop positively?munotes.in

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 3.9 REFERENCES•Craig J Grace (1983): Human Development, Prentice Hall, INC,Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.•Levinson, D.J., Darrow, C.N., Klein, E.B., Levinson, M.H. &McKee,B. (1978): The Seasons of a Man's Link, New York, Knopg.•Sanden Vander W. James (1989): Human Development, Refred AKnopg, INC. New York.•Sheehy, G. (1974): Parsages: Predictable Crisis of Adult Life, NewYork, Dutton.•Sprinthall, C., Richard and Sprinthall A. Norman (1990): EducationalPsychology, A Developmental Approach. McGraw Hill PublishingCompany, New York.•Wolrnan, B.B. (Ed), (1982): Handbook of DevelopmentalPsychology, Prentice Hall: Englewood, Cliffs, N.J.ADDITIONAL READINGS•Celine. "Differences Between Growth and Development inPsychology." DifferenceBetween.net. March 30, 2013 .•Marc Bornstein, Jerome kagan, Richard Lerner. (2019, February 19).Human Behavior. Retrieved from Encyclopaedia Britannica:https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-behavior•N. Cameron & B. Bogin (eds): Human Growth and Development,Second edition. ISBN 978-0-12-383882-7, Doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-383882-7.00002-7•N. Cameron & B. Bogin (eds): Human Growth and Development,Second edition. ISBN 978-0-12-383882-7, Doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-383882-7.00003-9•Pratima Kumari Mishra . (n.d.). HUMAN GROWTH ANDDEVELOPMENT-DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY . MSW.Retrieved from https://ddceutkal.ac.in/Syllabus/MSW/PAPER-3.pdf•https://www.scribd.com/presentation/128327011/Development•Shivangi. (n.d.). Growth and Development in a Child | Psychology.Retrieved from Psychology Discussion:http://www.psychologydiscussion.net/psychology/growth-and-development/growth-and-development-in-a-child-psychology/2401•Tripti. (n.d.). Principles of Human Growth and Development.Retrieved from Psychology Discussion:http://www.psychologydiscussion.net/educational-psychology/principles-of-human-growth-and-development/1813*****munotes.in

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4FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH ANDDEVELOPMENTContent4.0Learning Objectives4.1Individual Differences4.1.1Concept of Individual Differences4.1.2Causes of Individual Differences4.1.3Individual differences within and among thelearners4.1.4Educational Implications4.2Heredity and Environment4.2.1Concept of Environment4.2.2Concept of Heredity4.2.3Relevance importance of Heredity and Environment4.2.4Educational Implication4.3Maturation4.3.1Concept of Maturation4.3.2Characteristics of Maturation4.3.3Relevance in Education4.4Let’s Sum up4.5References4.0LEARNINGOBJECTIVESThisunitwillhelpyoulearntheconceptindividualdifferences,factorsthataffectindividualdifferencesandin-depthdetailofenvironmentandheredityasmajorfactorsaffectinggrowthanddevelopment.Theconceptofmaturationhasbeenelaboratedinordertomakeclearthatitisalsoonoftheprocessthatoccurssimultaneouslyalongwithgrowthanddevelopment.Development.Aftergoingthroughthisunit,youshouldbeableto:•tounderstandtheconceptofindividualdifferences•todeterminecharacteristicsofindividualdifferences•toanalyseindividualdifferencesthatexistwithinandamonglearners•toelaborateonheredityandenvironmentalfactorsaffectinggrowthanddevelopmentmunotes.in

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•tounderstandtheimportanceoftherolethattheyplayindeterminingindividualdifferences•tounderstandtheprocessofmaturationthatisassociatedwithgrowthanddevelopment4.1INDIVIDUALDIFFERENCESNotwoindividualsarealike,whetherinweight,heightandstrength,inacquiredskillorknowledge,inintellect,inemotionality,temperamentandmorals.Thedevelopmentamongchildrenoccursatdifferentrates.This,inturn,createsvariationsamongindividuals(i.e.,individualdifferences).Thesedifferencescanbeeitherquantitativeorqualitative.Somechildrengrowrapidlyascomparedtoothers.Forchildreninanypre-schoolclassroomsetting,thedifferencesinpersonality,intelligence,temperament,achievementandphysicalfactorssuchasheightandweight,areworthnotingandreflectawiderangeofvariations.Apartfromthistherearealsoracialandgenderdevelopmentalvariations.Therefore,itisessentialtounderstandtheconceptofindividualdifferencesonwhichonechildiscomparedtoanother.Anunderstandingofindividualdifferencesnotonlyprovidesthefoundationforrecognizingnormalvariationsaswellasextremedifferencesamongchildrenbutisalsousefulforidentifyingthosewhomayhavespecialneeds.Ingeneral,understandingtheconceptofindividualdifferenceswillhelpinenhancingthefamiliarityofthevariousdevelopmentallevelswithinindividuals.4.1.1.ConceptofIndividualDifference:Variouspsychologistsandresearchscholarshavedefinedindividualdifferences.Someofthedefinitionsarestatedbelow:•AccordingtoOsborne,“Individualdifferencesisthedissimilaritybetweenpersonsthatdistinguishthemfromoneanother”.Itisstandforthosedifferenceswhichintheirtotalitydistinguishoneindividualfromanother.•CarterB.Gooddefinesindividualdifferencesasthevariationordeviationsamongindividualsinregardtosinglecharacteristicsoranumberofcharacteristics.Individualdifferencesstandforthevariationordeviationsamongindividualsinregardtoasinglecharacteristicornumberofcharacteristics.•“Variationsordeviationsfromtheaverageofthegroup,withrespecttothementalorphysicalcharacters,occurringintheindividualmemberofthegroupareindividualdifferences.”(DreverJames)Fromtheabovedefinitionsitisclearthateachstudentisauniqueindividual,differentincognitiveandaffectivedevelopment,ability,socialmaturity,motivation,learningstyles,needs,capabilities,interestsandpotential.Otherthanthis,therearevariousotherfactorsthataffectstudentdifferences,forexampleinnatedifferencesinintelligence,differencesineconomicandsocialandbackground,variationsinlearningexperiences,munotes.in

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etc.Inviewofthesefactorsaffectingindividualdifferences,cateringtoitshouldaimforunderstandingwhystudentsareableorunabletolearnwell,whataretheirpotentialsandfindingappropriatewaystohelpthemlearnbetter.Thebroadaimofeducationistoenableeachstudenttoattainall-rounddevelopmentofthechildaspertheirattributestheyinherit.Toachievethis,itshouldbetakenintoconsiderationthatthestudentsshouldbeprovidedwithsuitableassistanceandguidanceinaccordancewiththeirlearningneeds,sothattheycandeveloptheirpotentialtothefullest.Skinnerhasdescribed“individualdifferencesasincludinganymeasurableaspectofthetotalpersonality.”Itisclearfromtheabovedefinitionthatindividualdifferencecomprehendseachandeveryaspectofhumanpersonalitywhichismeasurableinsomeway.Platohadrecognisedindividualdifferencesanddividedhumanbeingsintotypesbasedontheoldclassificationoftraitswhichisthreefold–physical,mentalandmoral.AmorecomprehensiveclassificationisgivenbyGateswhichisenlistedbelow:•&60'!)
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01 ')'16McNemarandTermandiscoveredthefollowingdifferencesbetweenmenandwomen,onthebasisofsomestudies:(i)Womenhavegreaterskillinmemorywhilemenhavegreatermotorability.(ii)Handwritingofwomenissuperiorwhilemenexcelinmathematicsandlogic.(iii)Womenshowgreaterskillinmakingsensorydistinctionsoftaste,touchandsmelletc.,whilemenshowgreaterreactionandconsciousofsize-weightillusion.
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(iv)Womenaresuperiortomeninlanguages,whilemenaresuperiorinphysicsandchemistry.(v)Womenarebetterthanmeninmirrordrawing.Faultsofspeechetc.inmenwerefoundtobethreetimesofsuchfaultsinwomen.(vi)Younggirlstakeinterestinstoriesoflove,fairytales,storiesoftheschoolandhomeandday-dreamingandshowvariouslevelsintheirplay.Ontheotherhand,boystakeinterestinstoriesofbravery,science,war,scouting,storiesofgamesandsports,storiesandgamesofoccupationandskill.4.1.2.CausesofIndividualDifferences:There are various causeswhich are responsible in bringing individualdifferences, few of them are stated below:
a.Heredity:Change from one individual to otheris due to heretical traits. Anindividual’ssize,height, shape,colour of hairand eyes, shape of face,nose, handsand legs, complexation etc in other wordsentire structure ofthe body is determined by his qualitiesthat are inherited from his parents.Intellectual differencesto agreat extent influenced by hereditary factor.b.Environment:Environment bringsdifferences inactivities, attitude,behaviourandlife-stylecharacteristics,etc. Environment does not refer only physicalsurroundings butalso thedifferent typesand varietiesof people,thesociety, their cultureandcustoms, traditions, ideas andbelief systems.Social heritageis provided to the child by his social psychologicalenvironment. The customsthat arefollowed,thesocio-economic statusandthefamily environment interaction amongst members andthenfriendsand school environmentare avarietyofconditionsthat help indeterminingindividual differences.No two human beingsare same evenCauses of IndividualDifferencesHeridityEnvironmentSexAgeEducationSelfCultureAbnormalitymunotes.in

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though they belongto the same familyor havesimilar schooling, will havesame environment. The psychological environment is determinedby theinterpersonal relationship amongst parent-child and other members of thefamilyand also peers.c.Sex:Dueto variation in sexone individual differs from other. Men areassumedto be strongerin mental powerwhereas on the otherhand,women on theaverage show small superiority over men in memory,aesthetic senseandlanguage. Women excel in shouldering social responsibilities and have abetter control over their emotionsas compared to men.d.Age:Age is another factor responsible in bringingaboutindividual differences.Abilityto learnandcapacity toadjust naturally grow with age. When onegrows in ageonecan acquire better control over our emotionsand feelingsandalso hold bettersocial responsibilities. When a child grows maturityand development goes side by side.e.Education:Education is one major factor whichis responsible forindividualdifferences. There is a wide gap in thebehavioursseen ineducated anduneducated persons. All traits of human beingsincludingsocial, emotionaland intellectual arenot justcontrolledbut are alsomodifiedthroughproper education.This educationthenbrings a change in attitude,behaviour, appreciations,personality. It isobservedthatthe educatedpersons are guided by their reasoning powerwhereasuneducated personsare guided by their instinct and emotions.f.Self:All siblings have common heredity and environmental factors, yet no twosiblings in a same family are same.Individual differences are due to theparticular constitution of self the individualhimself.This difference is dueto the different genes inherited by the individual as well as differencesinenvironment.g.Culture:There has been a tendency in psychology to ignore the experiences ofpeople from different cultures.Cultural differences also cater to individualdifferences.h.Abnormality:A further issue that is often included in the section of individualdifferences iswhat psychologists refer to as abnormality.However,theconcept of abnormality is also a highly controversial issue. The judgmentthat somebody is abnormal is relative and is based on factors such asculture, class, religion, sexuality and so on.munotes.in

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 4.1.3.Individual Differences within and among the LearnersIndividual differences within and among learners is due to various reasonssome of them are as follows:
a.PhysicalDifferences:Variousphysicalindividualdifferencesincludeshortnessortallnessofbodyheight,darknessorfairnessofcomplexion,fatnessorthinnessofbodyparts,strengthorweaknessofindividuals.Individualsdifferinvarietyofaspectslikeheight,colourofeyesorskinorhair,weight,sizeofbodypartslikehands,feet,mouth,arms,nose,etc.lengthofwaistline,structureandfunctioningofinternalorgans,facialexpression,mannerismsofwalkandspeech,andothersuchheredityoracquiredphysicalcharacteristics.b.DifferencesinIntelligence:Everyindividualpossessesdifferentlevelofintelligences.Individualsdifferinintellectualabilitiesandcapacitieslikepowerofthinking,imagination,reasoning,creativity,etc.Onthebasisofabovedifferencesindividualsareusuallyclassifiedasidiot,borderline,normal,verysuperiororgenius.c.DifferencesinAttitudes:Everyindividualhasdifferenceinattitudes,itmaybetowardsdifferentpeopleorobjectsorsituationsorinstitutionsandevenauthority.Somelearnersmayhaveapositiveattitudewhereas,somemayhaveanegativeattitudetowardsaspecifictopic,subjectandprofessiond.DifferencesinAchievement:Achievementsareusuallymeasuredthroughachievementtests.Throughthesetestsithasbeenfoundthatindividualsvaryintheirachievementabilities.Thesedifferencesareverymuchvisibleinreading,writingandinlearningmathematics,andalsoarevisibleamongthechildrenwhoareata.PhysicalDifferencesa.Differences inIntelligencea.Differences inAttitudesa.Differences inAchievementa.Differences inInteresta.Differences inMotor AbilitiesDifferences inPsycho-MotorabilitiesDifferences inValuesDifferences inStudy HabitsDifferences inSelf-ConceptDifferences dueto NationalityDifferences dueto EconomicStatusEmotionalDifferencesPersonalityDifferencesDifferences inSocial and Moraldevelopmentmunotes.in

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thesamelevelofintelligence.Thesedifferencesareduetothedifferencesinthevariousfactorsthatinfluenceintelligenceandthedifferencesintheexperiences,interestsandeducationalbackground.e.DifferencesinInterest:Whenyouobservesomestudentslikeaparticularsubject,teacher,hobbyorprofessionthanother,thenitdevelopsinterest.Differencesininterestmaybeduetofactorslikegender,familybackground,differencesofcultureandnationalityetc.f.DifferencesinMotorAbility:Motorabilitiesincludereactingtime,speedofaction,steadiness,rateofmuscularmoment,resistancetofatigueetc.Everyindividualhasdifferentmotorabilitiesatdifferentstagesofgrowthanddevelopment.Forexample,itiseasyforsomepeopletodomathematicsrelatedactivitieswhereassomemayfinditdifficultthoughtheyareatsamelevel.g.DifferenceinPsycho-MotorSkills:Psycho-Motorskillsbasicallyarerelatedwithskillsandtalentdevelopment.Somelearnersdifferinthisareaalso.Forexample,somestudentsmayeasilylearnhowtooperateamachineandsomemaynot.Awiseteacherideallyshoulddiagnosestudents’psychomotorskillsandabilities,afterrecognitionsheshouldstrivehardtoencouragetheminproperdesirabledirection.h.DifferenceinValues:Everyindividualholdsaparticularvaluesystem.Valuesaregivenmuchmoreimportancebyeverylearner.Somelearnersmayvaluematerialistlifestylewhereasothersmayvaluemoralorreligiouslife.So,theroleofeducationistomouldthemindsofyounggenerationtomaintainabalancebetweenmaterialismandspiritualism.i.DifferenceinStudyHabits:Studyhabitsarebehavioursreflectedbyindividualswhilepreparingforexamortest.Somestudentsmarkedlydifferfromotherswhenstudyhabitsaretakenintoconsideration.Somestudentsarestudiousbynature,theystudyallthesubjectswithinterestbutothermaynotbestudiousandmaystudyjustonedaybeforeexams.Someindividualsprefertostudyinisolationandsomeprefertostudygroups.j.DifferenceinSelf-Concept:Self-Conceptisanumbrellatermthatconsistsofattitudes,judgmentandvaluesofanindividualrelatingtohisbehavior,abilities,andqualitiesintotality.Somestudentspossessapositiveself-conceptthathelpsinboostingtheirconfidencelevelandperformancelevelwhencomparedtothosewhohavenegativeself.munotes.in

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k.DifferencesduetoNationality:Nationalityisdefinedasthelegalrightofbelongingnesstoaparticularnation.Theindividualsbelongingtodifferentnationsdifferinrespectofnotonlyphysicalcharacteristicsbutalsomentalcharacteristics,interestsandpersonality.ForexamplesRussiansaretallandstout;Ceyloneseareshortandslim;Germansaretooseriousandhavenosenseofhumour;Indiansaretimidandpeace-loving,etc.l.DifferencesduetoEconomicStatus:Theeconomicstatusortheeconomicbackgroundofthelearnerisoneofthecharacteristicsthatisresponsibleforindividualdifferences.Differencesinchild’sinterests,attitude,personality,etc.arecausedbyeconomicdifferences.m.EmotionalDifferences:Everylearnerpossessesadifferentlevelofemotionaldifferencethatmeanseveryindividualdifferintheiremotionalreactionstoagivensituation.Someareirritableandaggressiveastheygetangryverysoon.Thereareotherswhoarepeacefulbynature.n.PersonalityDifferences:Itisanacceptedfactthatsomepeoplearehonestwhileothersaredishonest,someareaggressive,othersarehumble,somearesocial,othersliketobealone,somearecriticalandothersaresympathetic.Thesearenothingbutdifferencesinpersonality.Onthebasisofdifferencesinpersonality,individualshavebeenclassifiedintomanygroups.Teachershouldkeepinmindthatshecaterstolearnerswhopossessdifferentpersonalitytraitswhileimpartingeducationtothem.o.DifferencesinSocialandMoralDevelopment:Somearefoundtobeadjustedproperlyinthesocialsituationsandleadahappysociallifewhileothersaresociallyhandicapped,unsocialorantisocial.Similarly,peoplearefoundtodifferinrespectofethicalandmoralsense.4.1.4.EducationalImplications:Asteachersworkingtoimparteducationtolearners,youmusthaveobservedandnoticedthatthelearnerlearnsconceptsandfactsdifferently.Someofthelearnerslearnthemeasilywhileotherstaketime.Forexample,considerthecaseofdrawingofadiagramofafloweroraplant.Somestudentsmaydoitquicklyandneatlywhereasfewmaytaketimeandmaynotbeuptothemark.Whydoyouthinkthereissomekindofvariationinlearning?Further,youmighthaveobservedthattherearecertainvariationsinstudentshandwritingorscholasticachievementinschoolsubjects.Itisdifficulttofindonespecificreasonforsuchdifferences.Thecausesmaybeduetotwomajorfactorsi)Heredityandii)Environment.Manyotherfactorsarealsoresponsibleforindividualdifferencesasstatedabove.Itisimportantfortheteachertounderstandwhatdifferencesarevisibleamongandwithinlearnersandalsohowtomunotes.in

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caterindividualdifferences.Importanceofindividualdifferencesareenlistedbelow:•Thestudyofindividualdifferenceshelpstounderstandnotonlywhatmakeshumanssimilartooneanother,butalsowhatmakesthemdifferent.Byconsideringthevariationsthatcanoccurfromonepersontoanother,onecanbestunderstandthefullrangeofhumanbehaviour•Knowledgeofindividualdifferencesleadstotheeffectiveteaching•Itisimportanttounderstandthattheconceptofindividualdifferencesisthebasisuponwhichonechildiscomparedtoanother.Anunderstandingofindividualdifferencesprovidesthefoundationforrecognizingnormalvariationsaswellasextremedifferencesamongchildrenand,thus,foridentifyingthosewhomayhavespecialneeds•Theaimofeducationistoenableeachstudenttoattainall-rounddevelopmentaccordingtohis/herownattributes.Toachievethis,studentsshouldbeprovidedwithsuitableassistanceandguidanceinaccordancewiththeirabilitiesandlearningneeds,sothattheycandeveloptheirpotentialtothefull.•Aimsofeducation,curriculum,methodofteachingshouldbelinkedwithindividualdifferencesconsideringthedifferentabilitiesandtraitsindividual.•Curriculumshouldbedesignedaspertheinterest,abilitiesandneedsofdifferentstudents.•Theteacherhastoadoptdifferenttypesofmethodsofteachingconsideringindividualdifferencerelatedtointerest,need,etc.•Someco-curricularactivitiessuchasDrama,music,literaryactivities(Essay&DebateCompetition)shouldbeassignedtochildrenaccordingtotheirinterest.•Teacherusescertainspecificteachingaidswhichwillattractthechildrentowardsteachingconsideringtheirinterestandneed.•Variousmethodssuchasplayingmethod,projectmethod,Montessorimethod,storytellingmethodsaretobeusedconsidering/discoveringhowdifferentchildrenrespondtoataskoraproblem.•Thedivisionofpupilsintoclassesshouldnotbebasedonlyonthementalageorchronologicalageofchildrenbutthephysical,socialandemotionalmaturityshouldbegivendueconsideration.4.2HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENTTheinfluenceofheredityandenvironmenthasaverysignificantroleonthedevelopmentofanindividualwhichcannotbeignored.Themunotes.in

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personalityofindividualthatisdevelopedovertimeistheproductofbothheredityandenvironment.Insomecases,hereditymayoverpowerdevelopmentandincertainothercasesenvironmentmayoverpowerheredityandmayhaveaverystronglyinfluenceongrowthanddevelopment.Individualsdifferintheircharacter,physiqueandpersonalitytraitsbecauseofthesedifferences.Abalancedandharmoniousinteractionandequationhastobemaintainedforabalancedandharmoniousgrowthanddevelopmentofthechild.4.2.1.ConceptofEnvironment:Environmenthasasignificantinfluenceonhumanbeings.Environmentiseverythingexcludingheredity,thatinfluencesanindividual’sgrowthanddevelopment.Anindividual’senvironmentisrelatedtoallthosestimuliwhichhegoesonfacingalmostcontinuouslyfromthemomentoffertilization.Itincludesallenvironmentalfactorsthataffecttheindividual’sdevelopment.AccordingtoWoodworth,“Environmentcoversalloutsidefactorsthathaveactedontheindividualsincehebeganlife”.Itisanumbrellaterminclusiveofalltheextrinsicforceswhichinfluencesandconditionsthataffectthegrowthanddevelopmentoftheindividual.EnvironmentinfluencesincludeEducation,training,experience,nourishment,etc.Manydefinitionsofenvironmentaregivenbyvariouspsychologistandresearchscholars.AccordingtoAnastaxi,“Theenvironmentincludeseverythingthataffectstheindividualexcepthisgenes”.DouglasandHollanddefinethetermenvironmentas“theaggregateofalltheexternalforces,influencesandconditions,whichaffectthelife,nature,behavior,thegrowth,anddevelopmentandmaturationoflivingorganisms”.Gilbertdefinesenvironmentasanythingintheimmediatesurroundingoranobjectthatexertsadirectinfluenceonit.Environmentincludesvarioustypesofforceslikesocial,physical,moral,economical,political,emotionalandculturalforces.Afavourableenvironmentisessentialtocatertothedevelopmentofnativeabilitiesofachild.Environmentincludesthetotalityofthestimulithatimpingeontheorganismandwhateverisfoundaroundtheindividual.Environmentcanbedividedintotwomajorgroupsi.e.NaturalEnvironmentandSocialEnvironment.•Naturalenvironmentincludesallthosethingsandphysicalphenomenaaroundtheindividualthatinfluenceshim/her.•Socialenvironmentreferstothefamilialandculturalheritageandalsothesocialforcespresentedbythecontemporaryhumansociety.Ifthelibrary,laboratory,curricularandco-curricularactivitiesareproperlyorganized,thechildwillbeabletoachievethedesiredintellectualdevelopment.Therefore,teachersshouldtrytoprovidebestcultural,social,physical,moralandemotionalenvironmentwhichincludesworkshop,museum,clubs,associations,debate,symposiaetc.forhealthygrowthanddevelopmentofthechild.munotes.in

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4.2.2.ConceptofHeredity:Thesumtotalofthetraitspotentiallypresentinthefertilizedovumisknownasheredity.Inotherwords,allthequalitiesthatachildhasinheritedfromtheparentsiscallednothingbutheredity.Afterknowingthewhatitmeansitisalsoimportanttoknowthemechanismofheredity.Weallknowthatlifestartsasasinglecell.Thefertilizationofovumtakesplaceduetotheunionofmaleandfemalegermcells.Thefertilizedeggisknownaszygote.Zygoteismadeupof46chromosomes.23chromosomesareinheritedfrommotherand23fromfather.Eachchromosomecontainsabout40to100genes.Thesegenesareresponsibleforthedevelopmentofparticulartraitsthatindividualpossesses.AccordingtoPetersonheredityis“whatgetsfromhisancestralstockthroughhisparents”.DouglasandHollandjustifythat“Heredityconsistsofallthestructures,physicalcharacteristics,functionsorcapacitiesderivedfromparentsandotherancestors”.Inotherwords,itreferstotheinheritedcharacteristicsofanindividual,includingtraitssuchasheight,eyeandskincolour,andbloodtype.Itisthesumofallthephysiologicalandpsychologicaltraitswhichapersoninheritsfromhisparents.F.L.Ruchconsidersheredityasthetotalmake-upofbiologicallytransmittedfactorsthatinfluencethestructureofthebody.Everychildcomesintothisworldwithcertainsetofphysicalandmentalcharacteristicswhichhehasgotfromhisparentsandancestors.Achildresemblesanyofhisfamilymembersmaybehissisters,brothers,parentsorgrand-parents,oranypeoplerelatedtohim.Heredityistheprocessofinwhichbiologicaltraitsaretransmittedfromparenttooffspringthroughgenes-thebasicunitsofheredity.Thesetraitsaretransmittedthroughgenesandchromosomes.Heredityismajorlyoftwotypes,biologicalheredityandsocialheredity.•Biologicalheredityincludesallthosephysiologicalandpsychologicalcharacteristicswhichapersoninheritsfromhisparentsthroughgenesinthechromosomes.•Allthatonegenerationgetsfromtheproceedinggenerationsintheformofeithersocialcustomsortraditionsoridealsandvalues,believesandmorals,conventions,skillsetcareallincludedinsocialheredity.Wheneachgenerationtransmitstheseacquiredskillsandknowledgetothesucceedinggenerations,itconstitutessocialinheritance.4.2.3.RelativeImportanceofHeredityandEnvironment:Thequestionariseswhetherheredityorenvironment,whichismoreimportantinmouldingthepersonalityofanindividual.Thisissueislikeaskingwhethertheseedorsoil,whichoneismoreimportantfortheproperdevelopmentofaplant.Theseedandthesoildonotworkinisolation,butaremutuallydependent.Inthesamewaybothheredityandenvironmentarecloselyrelatedandareequallyimportant,henceonecannotbeconsideredinisolationfromtheother.TojustifythistoMcIvermunotes.in

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andPagesaythat,“Everyphenomenonoflifeistheproductofheredityandenvironment.Eachisasnecessarytotheresultastheother.Neithercaneverbeeliminatednorcaneverbeisolated”.Heredityisdefinedasthetotalityofallthebiologicallytransmittedfactorsfromparenttochildthatinfluencethestructureofthebodyandenvironment.Heredityisresponsiblefortheconditionsthatservetostimulatebehaviororacttobringaboutmodificationofbehavior.Bothheredityandenvironmentarethedeterminantsofdevelopmentandareequallyimportantinthelifeofanindividual.ROSShasexpressedaformulainwhichtheactionofthefactorsindeterminingthelevelofanindividual’sbiological,psychologicalandsocialdevelopmentissometimesexpressed.Theformulaisasfollows:HxExT=DLWhere,H=Heredity,E=Environment,T=Time,DL=Developmentlevelofanindividualpersonality.Thisformulajustifiesthefactthatitismeaninglesstospeakofeitherheredityorenvironment,actingaloneandalsosignifiesthatbothofthemareequallyresponsibleforindividual’sgrowthanddevelopment.Heredityworksonlyinsomesortofenvironment.Bothofthemaretwosidesofthesamecoin,withoutenvironmentheredityisuselessandenvironmentwithouthereditymeansnothing.Heredityprovidesusthebody,structure,complexionorfeaturesetc,andtheenvironmentprovidestheopportunitiesinwhichtheycanbenurturedanddeveloped.LandisandLandisremarkedthat“hereditygivesuscapacitiestobedevelopedbutopportunitiesforthedevelopmentofthesecapacitiesmustcomefromtheenvironment”.Individualistheproductwhichisdevelopedduetotheinteractionbetweenheredityandenvironment.LetusIndividualastheareaofarectangle,wherethebaseoftherectangleisheredityandheightistheenvironment.WeallknowthatreaofrectangleisA=bxh,whereA=Area,b=baseandh=height.Areaofrectangledoesnotmerelydependuponthebaseorheight;itdependsonboth.Similarly,individualisaresultofheredityandenvironment.Thedevelopmentofhereditarypotentialitiesisamatterofenvironment.Everyindividualpossessheredity,thesetraitsdeveloponanenvironmentfortheirnourishment.MaclverandPagestate“everyphenomenaoflifeistheproductofbothheredityandenvironment,eachisasnecessarytotheresultastheother.Neithercaneverbeeliminatedandneithercaneverbeisolated”.Furthertherelativeimportancecanbehighlightedthroughthefollowingexamples:1.SeedsxSoil=Yield2.CapitalxInvestment=Revenuemunotes.in

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Forgoodyieldofproductsseedsandsoilareequallyimportant,likewiseforgoodrevenuecapitalandinvestmentareequallyimportant,similarlyforefficientandhealthygrowthanddevelopmentheredityandenvironmentareimportant.All componentsthat arerequired for effectivehuman development are interwoven and are influenced by environmentitmay includeHome, community, physical and school environmentsinfluence the way humans behave, think, engage one another, grow, andprocess emotions. Nurturingenvironments contribute to positive healthoutcomes and fewer developmental challenges.When circumstances likepoverty is factored in, it's clear that its impact on environment poses athreat to individuals' growth anddevelopment.It's suggested that anurturing environment can help promote healthy growth and development4.2.4.EducationalImplication:Nowweareawarethattheimportanceofheredityandenvironmentcannotbecomparedastowhichhasasignificantrole,asbothareofequalimportanceforpropergrowthanddevelopmentofindividuals.Itisimportantonthepartofteacherstohaveknowledgeofrelativeroleofheredityandenvironmentinchild’sdevelopmentalprocesssothatshecanhelpherstudentsinrecognisingandlearningconceptsinabetterway.TheknowledgeofboththefactorswillhelptheteacherinfindingoutwhatindividualdifferencesexistamonghisstudentsinlearninganysubjectmaybeMathematicsorEnglish.Itwillalsohelpinadjustingandmodifyingtheteachingmethodsandtechniquesthattheteacherusesintheclassroomaccordinglyaspertheindividualneedsmaybeprojectmethodorcommunicativeteachingtechniques.Theteachermustplantoprovidethebesteducationthroughbestenvironmenttoherlearners,thiscanbedoneforexample,byprovidingequippedcomputerlaboratoryandadequatelibraryfacilitiesineachsubject.Sorensonhasrightlyremarkedthattotheteacher,knowledge,relativeeffectoftheforcesofheredityandenvironmentonhumandevelopmentandtheirinter-relationshipisofgreatsignificance.Thatmeanstheteachershouldstudyherchild,knowhis/herabilitiesaswellashisenvironment,hisweaknessesandstrengthsandhe/shemustprepareschemeforthedevelopmentofthechildkeepingallthefactorsinmind.Theschoolclimateisresponsibleforthehighdegreeofscholasticachievement.Theschoolshouldaimatprovidingenrichedprogrammedwhichincludescurricularandco–curricularactivitiesforthechildrenlikequizandliterarycompetition,annualday,sportsdaysothatthechildcanexcelinallfieldoflife.Facilitiesshouldbemadetoprovidethemwithbettereducational,vocational,personalguidanceandcounsellingandpersonalitydevelopmentprograms.Iftheirheredityandenvironmentareknown,whattraitscanbeperishedwhere,itbecomeseasyfortheteachertoplanandhelpherstudentsdevelopandgrow.Theknowledgeofheredityandenvironmentisverymuchessentialforateacherindealingwithallkindsofexceptionalchildrenincludinggifted,normal,belowaverage,andproblemchildren,andfirst-generationlearnersincludingeducationallybackwardchildren.munotes.in

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4.3MATURATIONTomany people, terms like development, growth, maturation, and learningall mean the same thing and are often used interchangeable. Along withgrowth and learning, maturation is one of three processes that play acentral role in a person's development.Thepattern of behaviour in anindividual is determined by his growth of the. Normal growth is necessaryfor normal behaviour to take place. Individuals with arrested growth orretarded growth or accelerated growth exhibit different patterns ofbehaviour. Thus, in an individual in whom the brain has not grownadequately, the behaviour is also found to be underdeveloped.Closelyrelated to the process of growth is the process of maturation. In theprevious chapters we have learnt about growth and development and alsofactors affecting them. Here, we shall learn about maturation.4.3.1. Concept of Maturation:Think back on when you were a very young child. Can you rememberbeing physically small? How about the way you use to solve problemswhen you were very young? The method that we used was very simplisticcompared to how we figure things out now. These types of questions shedlight on the process of maturation.Maturation refers tonothing buttheways in which we grow and develop throughout the lifespan.Maturation isthe process of learningin order tocope and react in an emotionallyappropriateand desiredway. It does not necessarilyalways happenalongwith aging or physical growth, but is a part of growth and development. Asituationin which apersonis todayprepares them for the next and so oninto adulthood. Maturation does not stop when physical growthcomes toan end,it continues through adulthood. An adult who loses a parent, forinstance, learns to cope with a new emotional situation that will affect theway he or she deals with situations that follow.Maturation is the process by which wenotonlychangebut alsogrowanddevelop throughoutourlife. Developmental psychologists look at manydifferent types of maturation throughout the lifespan.In psychology,maturation is the processin which an individual matures, in other wordsan individual reachesto a state offull functionality.Originally,onlybiological forces were examined while consideringmaturation, such as theaging process, involved in a child's changes in behavior.As time passed,maturation theorieshave also evolvedto include cognitive development asa result of biological maturation and environmental experiences.The concept of maturation wasfirstpioneered by Arnold Gesell in the1940s. He emphasized nature's role in human development. Indevelopmental psychology, the concept of maturation was advanced byJean Piaget. For him, simply growing up played a crucial role in children'sincreasing capacity to understand their world, posing that children cannotundertake certain tasks until they are psychologically mature enough.Today, cognitive theories of development do not adopt a strictly biologicalperspective. Instead, maturation relates to the interplay between geneticsmunotes.in

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and socio-environmental influences. Also, maturation is no longer seen asbeing limited tochildhood.Various definitions of maturity by variouseminent personalities are stated below:•Krogman defines maturation as aging.•According toBoldwin,‘Maturation is an increase in competency andadoptability.’•Woolf&WoolfdefineMaturationas the ability of thechildrentoableto docertain task atstages of development that they could not dopreviously.•Maturation is growth that proceeds regularly within a wide range ofenvironmental conditions, or that takes place without special conditionsofstimulation, such as training and practice.(GatesandJersild)•According toGarryandKingsley,“Maturation is the process wherebybehaviour is modified as a result of growth and development ofphysical structures.”4.3.2.CharacteristicsofMaturation:Variouscharacteristicsofmaturationareenlistedbelow.a.SumofGeneEffects:Maturation is thesummationofeffect ofgenesoperating in a self-limitinglife cycle. It is based on heredity. It is the processdescribing theindividualsunderlying potentialandcapacity.b.AutomaticProcess:Maturation is an automatic process of somatic, physiological and mentaldifferentiation and integration.c.GrowthandDevelopment:Maturationis dependent on both-growth and development that isnecessary before any behaviourthat is unlearnedorinitially beforelearning of any particular behaviour can take place. It involvesnot onlystructuralchanges but alsofunctional changes or performance. It helps anindividual with structural change to reachat the stage of functionalreadiness.d.CompletionofGrowth:Maturation is a stage of consolidating of mental, social and emotionaldevelopment, thus helps in completion of the growth process.e.ModificationfromWithin:Maturation is essentially a process of modificationthat occurs from withinand innate ripening and development of capacities of the organism.munotes.in

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 f.ConditionofLearning:Maturation is an essential condition of learning.Learning is the onlysource through which the human development gets completed.Itforms thebaseof learning.g.FactorsofMaturation:Maturity has been considered as the process of learning.Therearethreefactorsunderlyingtheprocessoflearning.Theyareacquisition,RetentionandRecall.•Acquisition:Acquisition is helpful in modifying the behaviourandmakes the learner mentally prepared to learn. It is the acquisition whichdetermines the meaning, nature and scope of learning.•Retention:The learner fails to express the acquiredtraitwithoutretention.•Recall:Throughrecall an individualformsopinion about the maturityand learning behaviour of the learner.h.EssentialforLearningSkill:Maturity is essential for physicalas well asmental training. Attainment ofphysical and mental maturity isvery important in orderto get proficiencyin any work.There is no need of external arousing objects or stimulus asmaturation is an automatic process.i.Maturityandphysicalfitness:The development of mature learning behaviour also depends on physicalfitness of the learner. Acquisition, retention and recall perform theirfunctions successfully only when body apparatus is capable in making thedevelopment of these factors properly. Physicaldeficiency or illnessobstructs the learning process of the child. Till the body apparatus is notstout or muscles are not strong enough, expected modification inbehaviour of the child is not possible. In this context, maturity has beennamed as physicalfitness.j.TrainingbeforeMaturityisuseless:Physical maturityis equallyimportant as mental maturity. Hence, beforeimpartingany type oftraining to the child, it is the foremost duty of theparentsas well asthe teachers to see that the child is fully matured or not,from the point of view of his physical and mental maturity.Trainingimparted before maturity is useless to learn any activity.Maturation andlearning have been considered as two different aspects of the sameprocess.4.3.3.EducationalImplicationsofMaturation:S. Alexandrahas stated that, “Maturation is essentially a process ofmodification from ‘within’, an ‘innate’ or development of the organismand growth in structure and function that occurs by reason of forcesinherent in the organism itself.”Maturation isof the top listed factor thataffects learning. Itis defined as “growth that proceeds regularly within amunotes.in

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wide range of environmental conditions.”In other words, maturation isgrowth that takes place regularlyand constantlywithin an individualwithoutrequiringspecial condition of stimulation such as trainingorpractice. Learning is possible only when a certain stage of maturation ishas beenreachedby the child.Exercise and traininglikewisebecomesfruitful only when a certain stage of maturation is attained. Maturationdetermines the readiness of the child for learning.For a teacher it isimportant to have knowledge about the learner whether he is ready enoughi.e. mature enough to learn a particular taskthat is planned to teach him.Learning will be ineffective if the child has not attained the required levelof maturity.The rate of maturation varies with individuals, in shortthere are individualdifferences in maturation. There are individual differences in the capacityto learn at the same age level.Some may mature early some may taketime.Specific skills are learnt by children easily who mature earlier thanothers. The 3R’s i.e.reading, writing and recognizing can be learnt onlyafter the maturation of muscular and brain capacities. Rate of learningability is closely related to the maturation of the cerebral cortex.So,it canbe said that learning is not independent of maturation, but must be basedupon a sufficient stage of growth.Learningis possible only when a certain stage of maturation is reached.Say for example however much we practice asix-month-oldchild withwalking exercises, the infant cannot walkbecause hismuscles have notmatured enough for the infant to learn to walk. Thisparticular learning ispossible only when the nerves & the muscles have attained a particularstage of maturity & development.Similarly,it is important for the teacherto plan tasks and methodology as per the maturity level of the child.The role of maturation and learning helps the parents or the teacher toknow what and when to begin training.The knowledge of the role playedby maturation suggests that if the child is not old or mature enough toprofit by teaching, it has little value for him and meretime and effort onthe part of the teacher is wasted.Thus if learning precedes maturation,there is more wastage of time and energy. Learning should begin when thechild is ready to learn. If the child is ready to learn and he is not givenguidance or training, his interest is likely to wave.Maturation comes withlearning not necessarily with age. Riesen has aptly remarked, “Maturationis necessary but not a sufficient condition for life.”4.4LET’SSUMUPIn this unit we have learnt thatindividual differencesarethe differencesamong humans that distinguish or separate them from one another andmakes one as a single unique individual.In other words, we can say thatno two individuals are alike.The study of individual differenceshelpsusto understand whatallmakes humans similar to one anotherandalso whatmakes them different. By considering the variations that can occur frommunotes.in

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one person to another, one can best understand the full range of humanbehavior.Educationisvitallylinkedtogrowthanddevelopmentofchildren.Themajoraimofeducationistobringoutbestofallthepotentialitiesofchildren.Itissaidthatachildisbornwithsomenaturaltraitsanditispoweroftheeducationtofosterpropergrowthinthespecialenvironment.Wealsofocusedonthetwomajorfactors–heredityandenvironmentthataffectindividual’sgrowthanddevelopment.Growthistheproductoftheinteractionoftheorganismanditsenvironment.HeredityitconsideredasthesumtotalofInbornIndividualtraits.Environmentincludesallthoseforceswhichactupontheindividual.Itwasalsoconcludedthatbothareequallyimportantandrelyoneachother.Inotherword,wecansaythatHeredityandenvironmentarecomplementarybothareaspectsofsamephenomenon.Wealsolearntaboutmaturationasoneoftheessentialfactorthataccomplishesgrowthandasteachersitisimportantforustoknowhowmatureenoughourchildrenarebeforeimplementingthedesignedcurriculum.REFERENCES•Hurlock,ElizabethB.(1973)AdolescentDevelopment,McGrawHill–TOKYO.•Jersild,ArthurThomas,(1957):PsychologyofAdolescence,Macmillan,Michigan•Chauhan,SS(2010)AdvancedEducationalPsychologyVikaspublishingHousePvtLtd.,NewDelhi•Sharma,SagarandNanda,SK(1967)FundamentalEducationalPsychology,NBSEducationalPublishers,Chandigarh.•Chaube,S.P.&Chaube,Akhilesh(1996)EducationalPsychologyandExperimentsHimalayaPublishingHouse,Bombay.munotes.in

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PRACTICAL WORKEducational Psychology–Section I(Note: These Practical Works–Guidelines/Samples are intended for thestudents of S.Y.B.A. (Education), I.D.O.L. only.)•YOU areexpected to do the two practical works; Practical Work–1 and Practical Work–2, mentioned below in the unitstructure, for 20 marks as an integral part of your course.
Unit StructurePractical Work-1Sample of an Experiment to be recorded in aPsychologyJournalPractical Work–2Sample Report of a Case Study(YOUmayinclude some of yourown points in the report apart from those mentioned)Practical Work–1:To perform experiments on Transfer of Learning,Distraction of Attention and Extrinsic Motivation; and record it in anexperimental psychology journal.Sample of an Experiment to be recorded in a Psychology JournalExperiment on MotivationExperiment No. : 01Time:9am–9.45amDay: MondayDate:06thApril, 2020Aim:To study the impact of motivation on the academic performance ofstandard seventh students.Nature:It is an individual, verbal, paper and pencil performance test.munotes.in

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Apparatus:Sheets on Cognitive Ability Test, pencil or pen and astopwatch.Procedure:The experimenter built rapport with the entire class ofstandard seventh and stated the aim of the experiment. The experimentergave the instructions and motivated the students to do their best in thecognitive ability test. By using simple random sampling method thestudents of the class was divided into two equal groups. Students in GroupA were given the Cognitive Ability Test sheets. Students of Group B werealso given the same Cognitive Ability Test sheets but with a highlymotivating message and assurance of appreciation for those who scoremore in the test. After the scoring was done, the test results were alsotabulated. Based on the tabulated values, bar graphs were prepared. Theresults of Group A and Group B were represented on the horizontal X-axisand the levels of achievement were represented on the vertical Y-axis.OBSERVATION TABLE NO. 1-COGNITIVE ABILITY TESTBY MOTIVATIONGroupsCognitive Ability Test SheetsAverage ScoresGroupAWithoutExtrinsic Motivation225/300 =75GroupBWithExtrinsic Motivation270/300 =90From the preceding observation table no. 1-the Cognitive Ability Testscore were analysed based on the results of the test, graphs were prepared.The introspection and educational implications was also written. Thefollowing figure 1 is drawn on the basis of the observation table no. 1.FIGURE 1: THE COGNITIVE ABILITY TEST BYMOTIVATION
  


 


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 Introspection:The points to ponder over are your feeling before youstarted this experiment and your feeling during thisexperiment. What areyour feelings about your performance and the factors; psychological,emotional or physiological, that influenced your performance? What areyour opinions about your performance: did it motivate you to performbetter? Are you satisfiedwith your results with respect to this experiment?________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Educational Implications:________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Practical Work–2: To Prepare a Case Study ofa Learning Disabledstudent OR a Gifted student OR a Slow Learner, and to submit acomplete report on it.Sample Report of a Case Study(YOUmayinclude some of your ownpoints in the report apart from those mentioned)munotes.in

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Case Study: Report on a GiftedStudentIntroductionA case study is undertaken for demonstrating by developing anunderstanding of a real-life scenario or case and then making a solution ordecision about it. For the present report, case study was conducted for agifted student of an English medium school in Mumbai. Ijapa is the nameof the gifted student who studies in standard tenth.Background Information:Ijapais very bright student as termed by almost all the subject teachers buthis behavior in the class is the matter of concern for most of the teachers.Most of the teachers at times, are unable to match the level of intelligencewith that of Ijapa’s. For this case study, the class teacher Mr. Euriko,assisted me from the beginning till the end. The class teacher wasconcerned about the over excitement level of Ijapa in the class ascompared to the other students of the same class.Case Investigation:Firstly, I thoroughly tried to understand about each and every aspect ofIjapa in all the classes and discussed about him with all his subjectteachers, ofcourse with formal permission of the respected principalmadam. Later, after gathering the first handinformation, I segregated allof it, and decided to interview personally and individually all the subjectteachers and some of Ijapa’s close friends of the class. Then, an informalinterview was done with Ijapa’s parents at the school park. All theseinterviews formal and informal as well as the discussions about Ijapa werenoted in the record book for the case study.For the official meets, interviews and discussions, with consent of theconcern person, video and audio recording technology was used in orderto note each and every point of talk of the entire conversation.After I was fully satisfied with the data collected related to Ijapa, started tosummarize all of the important points in the report. It was comprehendedthat Ijapa’s disturbing behavior was the most in the English languageclass. The possible reason behind it was due to two factors, Ijapa was goodin English language and the teacher mostly used local language to explainEnglish concept for the students who were very weak in English. This wasnot pleasantly welcomed by Ijapa.UnderstandingsThe gifted students have the ability to absorb abstract concepts andorganize themselves more effectively and appropriately. Ijapa have higheracademic capabilities, more creativity and leadership qualities. On the partmunotes.in

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of teacher should create such classroom environment that shall challengeIjapa in studies.Alternatives:Teacher must provide Ijapa with independent projects and activitiesand allow him to challenge his capabilities as he always hasextra timeas compared to other students.Teacher must encourage creativity and original thinking.Must allow Ijapa to explore ways of jotting and connecting unrelatedissues in a very creative manner.Teacher must include multiple intelligences into hislessons as everystudents need is different so is the case with Ijapa.Challenge Ijapa in one or more areas of intelligence.Teacher shall provide study materials but shall expect variedoutcomes as per the ability of Ijapa.Teacher must include higher order thinking and reasoning questionsand assignments especially for students like Ijapa.Curriculum shall be flexible enough to incorporate real lifeexperiences in the classroom teaching and learning process.Definitely curriculum shall be student-centredso that Ijapa can getengaged proactively into the classroomCurriculum should be framed as per the students’ interest and theireducational needs.Teachers must be open for change, generation changes as technologydevelops.Teachers must not considerstudents as empty slates.Teachers must understand that even student enters the classroom withsome previous knowledge.Solution:The solution that could possible work out to guide and mould Ijapa’sbehavior is mentioned in the alternatives pointed out inthe precedingparagraphs. Those can be used by a combination of few and little mix nmatch, in the case of Ijapa or any gifted student as per the requirement.It is true that gifted students are motivated by challenging tasks. Thus, ifteacher feels incapable of handling gifted students, then they must seekhelp of existing researches that are done on gifted students. Teachers canget strategies and ways and means of dealing with gifted studentsespecially like Ijapa.Thus, especially for Ijapa, here,English teacher can ask for a differentending or a beginning for a particular poem or a story. Also, Englishmunotes.in

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teacher can also ask Ijapa, to write a story based on a character from thetextbook. Similarly, English teacher can help Ijapa grow stronger inEnglish subject holistically.Recommendations:In order to help teachers to change in the desired way, it is important onthe behalf of the school to conduct professional development courses forthe teachers. Supportive environment is needed for a well-establishedteacher also in order to adopt new ways of teaching. Psychologistsbelieved that gifted students like Ijapa are self-critical and always worktowards perfection. Teachers’ behaviour in the class is of utmostimportance while dealing with the giftedstudents.munotes.in