Education-Management-and-Leadership-English-Version-munotes

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1 MODULE - I
1A
MANAGEMENT OF EDUCATION
Unit Structure
1A.0 Objectives
1A.1 Introduction
1A.2 Concept of Management
1A.3 Objectives of Management
1A.4 Concept of Management of Education
1A.5 Scope of Management of Education
1A.6 Need of Management of Education
1A.7 Objectives of Management of Education
1A.8 Let us Sum Up
1A.9 Unit End Exercise
1A.0 OBJECTIVES After going through this unit , learner will be able to:
 Explain the concept of management
 State the objectives of management
 Explain the conc ept of management of education
 Describe scope and need of management of education
 State the objectives of management of education
1A.1 INTRODUCTION Humans have unlimited wants but the resources are very limited in supply.
Complete satisfaction is very impo rtant for the smooth functioning of the
society. Thus, these resources have to be managed by humans in such a
way that it will fulfill all their wants, desires and needs. Management
helps in this. It helps in managing all resources available in such a way
that it gives complete satisfaction to human beings.
1A.2 CONCEPT OF MANAGEMENT The term „management‟ has been used in different ways. Sometimes it
refers to the process of planning, organizing, staffing, directing,
coordinating and controlling, at other times it is used to describe it as a
function of managing people. It is also referred to as a body of knowledge, munotes.in

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2 Educational Management and Leadership
2 a practice and discipline. There are some who describe management as a
technique of leadership and decision -making while some others have
analy zed management as an economic resource, a factor of production or a
system of authority. To understand the term of management, let us have a
look at the definitions:
“The art of management has been defined, ‟as knowing exactly what you
want men to do, and then seeing that they do it in the best and cheapest
way.‟” (Taylor, 1911)
Management is the art of getting things done through and with people in
formally organized groups, the art of creating an environment in such an
organized group where people can pe rform as individuals and yet
cooperate toward attainment of group goals, the art of removing blocks to
such performance, the art of optimizing efficiency in effectively reaching
goals.” (Koontz 1961)
According to Follett “Management is the art of getting t hings done
through others.” Follett describes management as an art of directing the
activities of other persons for reaching enterprise goals. It also suggests
that a manager carries only a directing function.
Management can be defined as the process of pl anning, organizing,
directing, and controlling organizational resources (human, financial,
physical, and informational) in the pursuit of organizational goals.”
(Dunham & Pierce 1989)
According to J.D. Mooney and A.C. Railey “Management is the art of
direct ing and inspiring people.” Management not only directs but
motivates people in the organization for getting their best for obtaining
objectives.
According to Henry Fayol “To manage is to forecast and plan, to organize,
to command, to co -ordinate, and to co ntrol.” Fayol described management
as a process of five functions such as planning, organizing, commanding,
coordinating and controlling.
MANAGEMENT = MANAGE + MEN + T (TACTFULLY)
The word management has three different connotations. It is used as a
noun, as a process and as an academic discipline.
Management as a noun :
The word management itself is a noun. There are various kinds of
employees in an organization, where some are involved in managerial
function and some are involved in operating functions. The individuals
who manage the organization and departments are called as managers. In
the field, as a noun the term management is used as single name of
managers, board of directors, managing directors, departmental managers
etc. Thus, management involve s conceiving, initiating and bringing
together the various elements; coordinating, integrating the diverse
components in the organization while Theo Haimann Concept of munotes.in

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3 Management of Education Management Process Noun Discipline sustaining the feasibility of the
organization toward s some pre -determined goals. Therefore, it is an art of
getting things done through & with the people in formally organized
groups.
Management as a process :
Management as a process includes planning, controlling, coordinating,
motivating, and staffing. Al l these are interrelated sequential functions.
Thus, management is the efforts of the members of the organization to
accomplish the organizer‟s objectives.
Management as an academic discipline :
As a discipline, management is a specific branch of knowledg e which is
studied in campuses and schools like economics, sociology, mathematics,
political science etc. Experts and researchers feel that the information
gained through this discipline helps in practical life for better functioning
thereby increasing the scope of management as a discipline.
1A.3 OBJECTIVES OF MANAGEMENT Proper Utilization of Resources :
The main objective of management is to use the available resources of the
enterprise in a most economical way. The proper use of human and
material res ources will help a business to earn profits to satisfy various
interests. In any business, the proprietors will want more returns on their
investments while employees, customers and public will expect a fair deal
from the management. All these interests wi ll be satisfied only when the
resources of the business are judiciously utilized.
Improving Performance :
Management should aim at improving the performance of each and every
factor of production. The environment should be so congenial that workers
are ab le to give their best.
Mobilizing Best Talent :
The management should employ persons in various fields so that better
results are possible. The better pay scales, proper facilities, future growth
plans will attract more people in joining the organization.
Planning for Future :
The management should not feel satisfied with today‟s work if it has not
planned for its future. The future performance should depend upon the
present planning. Thus, planning for future is essential to help the
organization grow. T he terms “administration” and “management”, are
frequently used synonymously. It is also observed that the term
“management” is generally identified with private sector organization but,
the term, “administration” on the other hand, is used with reference to munotes.in

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4 Educational Management and Leadership
4 public organizations. Essentially, there is no difference between
management & administration. Every manager is concerned with both -
administrative management function and operative management function
as shown in the figure. However, the managers who are higher up in the
hierarchy denote more time on administrative function & the lower level
denote more time on directing and controlling worker‟s performance i.e.
management.
1A.4 CONCEPT OF MANAGEMENT OF EDUCATION The field of management of education i s of recent origin. An educational
institution has a very special environment. It differs from the other
organizations such as office, corporations and business etc. The field of
management of education is of recent origin especially in India.
Management o f an educational institution requires sensitive skills
concerning students and young generations wide range of academic
activities concerning teachers as well as the administrative and
managerial activities concerning principals, supervisors and head of the
institutions.
Management of education is the process of planning, organizing, directly
and controlling the activities of an institution by utilizing human and
material resources so as to effectively and efficiently accomplish functions
of teaching , extension work and research.
In management of education, when we consider management as a noun
there are leaders who are appointed as principals or heads of the
department who are responsible for handling different activities of the
institution for smoot h functioning of the institution. When we consider
management as a process there are various activities which are expected to
plan and organize such as carrying out admission process, appointing
teachers for the academic year , conduction of examination, or ganization of
various curricular and co curricular activities through out the year, design
and develop plan and strategies for achievement of goals and objectives of
the institution etc. For effective and efficient functioning of the institution,
managers need to have substantial knowledge of management and
resources that is human, infrastructural and finance. Management of
education not only focuses on teaching and learning but also extension
work and researches. Teaching learning starts with planning and it goes till
evaluation. Even research work requires all the management processes.
Education institutions are expected to reach to community through
extension work. The extension work leads to development of society.
Societal feedback help the education sy stem to bring about positive
changes. Education and society are interdependent. Education influences
society and society influences education. As per the demands of the
society changes should be brought about in the society. Then the products
of education system i.e. students are absorbed in the economy which is
part of society. Therefore, in management of education we give
importance to extension work along with teaching learning and researches.
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5 Management of Education 1A.5 SCOPE OF MANAGEMENT OF EDUCATION The scope of education management is very wide. At macro level it
encompasses implementations of policies at the national, state and local
level to admitting students to different academic programs, appointment of
teachers an d non teaching staffs , implementation of curriculum l aid by
nation and state, monitoring of act ivities carried out at national , state,
district and local levels to management of education at the institute level
(micro level).
It encompasses concepts from different disciplines including role of
bureaucracy fr om sociology, personality, stress and interpersonal
relationships from psychology as well as various other concepts from
education, management and other behavioral and social sciences.
Its scope includes history and theories of management science, roles,
responsibilities, skills and functions of educational manager. It also deals
with managerial and institutional effectiveness.
It enable us to study the meaning, nature, objectives, principles of
education management, process of various functions of a mana ger such as
planning, organizing, staffing, controlling, directing, coordinating,
reporting, budgeting etc.
It includes a study of educational planning at the macro i.e national level,
its goals, principles, approaches and procedures and at the micro leve l
institutional planning and administration.
Moreover it also includes a study of how to make decisions and solve
problems, how to supervise and inspect, communicate , manage
information, conduct staff meetings, build effective teams, motivate the
staff a nd students, manage conflict, stress and time, develop conducive
institutional climate and culture, manage changes in the organization etc.
The knowledge of these aspects enables a principal/ head to enhance the
quality of education thereby helping the i nstitution to achieve its goals and
objectives.
1A.6 NEED FOR MANAGEMENT OF EDUCATION Indian society is extremely diverse in nature. It is witness ing changes in
social, economic, political , technological and cultural fields and education
is expected to be responsive to these changes.
Due to globalization, cu ltural , technological and societal changes that are
taking place at various parts of the world. These changes are influencing
education system too therefore there is need to change the education
system .
In order to understand and address these changes we need to make change
in our education system. The system of education is expected to provide
society with human resources with specialized knowledge, attitude, work munotes.in

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6 ethics and values, expertise and skill s so as to sustain and enhance this
development.
This places demand on education to make its curriculum more relevant to
the life and needs of a changing society in an effective and efficient
manner. The system of education therefore needs to be more dyna mic so
as to contribute towards accomplishment our national development goals.
It is also expected to enable students to bring about desirable social change
at the same time preserving the positive aspects of the existing culture.
We have students from di fferent cultures in a school. There is cultural
diversity in the classrooms. Each student carries the family culture to
school. The family culture definitely has the effect on personality, values
and belief of students. The socio economic background of the child has
effect on his / her academic achievement. In such a situation there is a
need to make chang es in teaching learning process . Do we need to change
the mental set up, beliefs and attitude of the teachers ? Do we have to
think in wider perspective as a global citizen ? Are the objectives of
school education meeting the gaps between local and global ? In order to
answer these questions and reflect on ourselves, education management
proves to be helpful. It helps in identifying the needs of teachers, students
and society.
The purpose of educational management at institutional level is to create a
congenial environment for the attainment of aims and objectives of
educational system in particular and those of the country in general.
Scientific and syst ematic management of educational institution is
expected to bring about qualitative changes in the educational system.
The system of education needs to be more dynamic to provide the society
with human resources that has specialized expertise and skills, values,
attitudes, professional ethics so as to sustain and enhance the national
development.
We need to make our education system more proactive rather than reactive
by using and applying principles and techniques of management science.
We need a forwa rd looking planning for our education system at the
institution level. We need to know how to use our scarce resources in
optimum and most effective and efficient manner and this is possible with
proper management of education.
In today‟ s complex scenario of education , therefore knowledge of
education management is an absolute necessity.
1A.7 OBJECTIVES OF MANAGEMENT OF EDUCATION Achievement of institutional goals and objectives :
Educational management brings all the components of an educational
programme into harmonious and fruitful relationship for the purpose of munotes.in

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7 Management of Education successfully achieving the underlined objectives. It helps to satisfy the
individual goals of employees with the overall goals of the institution.
Planning, organizing and implementing institut ional activities :
Education manageme nt involves planning organizing , implementing and
controlling institutional activities which further helps in achievement of
institutional goals and objectives . It enhances efficiency and reduce the
wastage of resources and brings order in the working of an institution.
Create, maintain and enhance good public image of an institution :
The mushrooming of educational institutions makes it imperative to create
and maintain good image of the institute in the public. Peop le today are
more conscious of the brands and expect quality work for the money
spent. The same philosophy is applied in the educational institutions. Bad
public image may lead to less admissions which further creates threat for
the sustainability of the i nstitute.
Maximum utilization of human and material resources :
Resources are always scarce so it becomes imperative to use it wisely so
as to get maximum utilization of those resources. There are institutions
who always face the dearth of teaching and non -teaching staff. In such
situations, managing the available human resources becomes very crucial.
The planning for spending the money, proper budgeting, and getting the
optimum out of the finances available is one of the major aspects of the
educational ins titutions. The quality of the equipment‟s purchased and its
maintenance has to be managed regularly so that it will produce maximum
output.
Enhancing the efficiency of the institution :
Due to rapid advancement and change survival in today‟s competitive
world necessitates to maintain and enhance the efficiency of the
institution. Proper monitoring and supervision is necessary which will be
possible by delegating the work to individuals or groups to perform with
resources necessary for its execution. Controll ing and monitoring is
necessary for checking whether the performance is in accordance with
plans or not. Establishment of performance standards based on the
objectives, measures, and reports is necessary to compare actual
performance with the goals and obj ectives and if it not meets the goals and
objectives then taking corrective or preventive action as necessary. This
enhances efficiency of the institution.
Create a nd maintain a congenial climate:
Organizational climate is the result of combination of ele ments that affects
the way team members perceive their workplace. Organizational climate
can be affected by motivation, delegation, authority, feedback and
attitudes of the people working in the organization. Creation of conducive
climate is necessary for organizational growth and development.
Congenial climate makes people feel motivated and boosts their morale munotes.in

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8 Educational Management and Leadership
8 this in return enhances their productivity which ultimately benefits the
institution.
Improve interpersonal communication among members of the
organization :
Generally it is observed when people work as a team in the initial phase
there happens to be some conflicts among the members with respect to
their opinions and working style. Such conflicts if not resolved at the right
time may lead to loss o f productivity. It is important to mange
interpersonal conflict, stress and time effectively. It is possible by
improving interpersonal communication among the members.
Understand the roles and responsibilities :
Delegation of tasks and duties is one of th e an important aspect of the
educational management. Ensure that the right person is in the right place.
Proper roles and responsibilities will lead to less stress and chaos among
the staff.
Job Satisfaction :
By the end of the day one of the most importan t aspect for any employee
is job satisfaction. If the employee is not satisfied with the work
environment then it will affect performance of the institute which
ultimately create obstacle in achieving goals and objectives of the
institution. It is necessar y to recognize the efforts of the people and
accordingly encourage and reward them for their performance.
1A.8 LET US SUM UP The word management has three different connotations. It is used as noun,
as a process and as an academic discipline. Management as a noun means
thinking of an individual who is holding some position hence the person is
considered as a manager. When we consider management as a process we
think about different functions of management i.e. planning, organising,
staffing, delegating an d controlling. These functions of management are
important part of organisation. Each process has certain steps to be
followed. Each process has some merits as well as limitations. All these
processes are interlinked.
When we think management as disciplin e it is considered as substantive
body of knowledge. When it is considered as a separate discipline, we are
focusing on different theories, concepts, processes and procedures of
management.
Management of an educational institution requires sensitive skills
concerning students and young generations wide range of academic
activities concerning teachers as well as the administrative and managerial
activities concerning principals, supervisors and head of the institutions. munotes.in

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9 Management of Education Indian society is diverse in nature. I t is witnessing changes in social,
economic, political , technological and cultural fields and education is
expected to be responsive to these changes.
Due to globalization, cultural , technological and societal changes are
taking place at various parts of the world. These changes are influencing
our education system too therefore there is need to understand and address
these changes. We need to make change in our education system as per the
change happening in our society so that we can meet diverse needs of our
stakeholders and improve our education system.
1A.9 UNIT END EXERCISE Q.1 Find the correct answer .
1. A successful criteria for effective school management is ………
A. Planned target
B. Improved performance
C. Stress on future performance
D. Reward
2. Management of education is necessary because there is …………
A. Change in the society
B. New advancement in technology
C. Increase in demand for education
D. Change in system of education
3. Which one of the following is NOT the objec tive of education
management ?
A. Achievement of goals of an organization
B. Create and maintain congenial environment
C. Advancement in science and technology
D. Change in system of education
Q.2 Answer the following.
1. What is Management?
2. What is Management of Education?
3. Enlist objectives of Management and Management of Education.
4. Explain scope of management of Education.
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10 1B
ROLE AND FUNCTIONS OF AN
EDUCATIONAL MANAGER
Unit Structure
1B.0 Objectives
1B.1 Introduction
1B.2 Mintzberg’s Managerial Roles
1B.3 Functions of an Educational Manager
1B.4 Skills of an Educational Manager
1B.5 Competencies of an Educational Manager
1B.6 Managerial Ethics
1B.7 Let Us Sum Up
1B.8 Unit End Exercise
1B.0 OBJECTIVES After going through this unit, learner will be able to :
 Explain Mintzberg’s Managerial Roles
 Discuss Functions of a Manager
 Discuss Skills of a Manager
 State Compet encies Required for a Manager
 Explain Managerial Ethics
1B.1 INTRODUCTION Manager has to perform various roles in an organization. Knowledge,
attitude and job conduct of principals of school and managers of
educational institutes is not rooted from their specialized and professional
knowledge needed to take this position but it needs training. Thoughtful
and efficient principals in school help in improving job satisfaction of
teachers, establishment of link with parents of students, strengthening
PTA assoc iation, optimum utilization of resources and improving the
quality of education. Principal needs to understand what different roles he
has to play as educational manager, what are the expectations from each
role and how effectively these roles can be playe d.
Different management theories explain roles of a manager in different
ways. According to Fayol, a manager is a coordinator of various resources
through the function of planning, organizing, commanding, and
controlling. Behaviourist theorists look at ma nagers as a team builder.
Management scientists view managers as a decision maker. Contingency munotes.in

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11 Role and Functions of an Educational Manager school considers a manager as a mediator between organization and
environment.
The position of the Education manager in an education institution is like
that of a captain in a ship. He or she provides educational leadership to
teachers, administrative officials of education institutions in the
development and coordination of educational programs and also oversees
educational research aimed at providing new direct ions for the educational
system.
1B.2 MINTZBERG’S MANAGERIAL ROLES Professor Henry Mintzberg an internationally renowned academic and
author on business and management. According to him, being a leader in
any organization is a complicated and challenging task that can take on a
variety of forms depending on the needs of the organization and the people
that are being led. Any given manager may be asked to complete a variety
of tasks during a given day depending on what comes up and what
problems need to be solved.
This is the general idea behind Mintzberg's Management Roles. These ten
management roles were published as part of Mintzberg's book in 1990,
and they cover the spectrum of tasks and responsibilities that a manager
must take on at one point or anoth er.
Mintzberg described these ten roles of a manager under three major
categories.
I. Interpersonal Role
II. Informational Role
III. Decisional Role
I. Interpersonal role :
Interpersonal roles are the role played by a person to interact with others
properly. While playing the interpersonal role manager greets visitors such
as parents, board teams, educational officers etc. These roles involve the
behaviours associated with human interactions. In other words,
interpersonal roles are those roles that allow a manager to interact with
his/ her employees for the purpose of achieving organizational goals.
Interpersonal roles cover the relationships that a manager has to have with
others. The managerial roles in this category involve providing
information and id eas.
Interpersonal roles are grouped into three roles involving working with
other people. These are
a. Figurehead
b. Leader
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12 a. Figurehead :
Here, the manager is a symbolic head; He is obliged to perform a number
of routine duties of legal or social nature, like signing reports, attending
assembly, participation in ceremonies etc. A figurehead provides
inspiration by sharing the mission and vision of the organization and
symbolizing authority. Manager while performing this role is expected to
be a source of information, people look at the manager as a person with
authority and as a figurehead.
b. Leader :
The principal’s role as Leader requires to direct and manage the
performance of his teachers. In a leader role manager directs goals and
evaluates employee performance. As a leader, a manager has to bring
together the needs of an organization and those of the individuals under
their command. He is responsible for the motivation and activation of
subordinates; responsible for staffing, trainin g, and associated duties.
Mentoring, training, and motivating employees are all leadership
activities. Duties are at the heart of manager subordinate relationships and
include structuring and motivating subordinates, overseeing their progress,
promoting an d encouraging their development and balancing
effectiveness. Manager in this role can sense the problem in advance and
provide a solution to the problem with the best strategy.
c. Liaison :
Principal’s role as a liaison requires the principal to take the r esponsibility
of developing connections and cont acts with the stakeholders. He
maintains contacts with his customers to better understand their needs and
how he can accommodate them. He holds parents meetings and attends
those meetings in order to understa nd parents’ expectations from the
school. As a Liaison, the manager needs to communicate the functioning
of the school with internal and external members of the school. This
networking activity is a critical step in reaching school’s goals, especially
those concerned with students and parents as customers. The liaison
maintains a network of contacts outside the work unit to obtain
information. He develops networks and engages in information exchange
to gain access to knowledge bases. As liaison, a manager h as to maintain a
network of relationships with other organizations. He has to maintain a
self-developed network of outside contacts and informers who provide
information. Acknowledgements of mail, external board work, other
activities involving corresponde nce with outsiders are the activities
expec ted from a manager in this role . Managers need to be able to network
effectively on behalf of the organization.
II. Informational Role :
The informational role includes those roles which managers must generate
and share knowledge to successfully achieve organizational goals.
Manager has to collect, disseminate and transmit information. Manager munotes.in

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13 Role and Functions of an Educational Manager has three corresponding different communication based informational
roles under this category
a. Monitor
b. Disseminator
c. Spokesperson
a. Monitor :
The monitor seeks internal and external information about issues that can
affect the organization. A manager is an important figure in monitoring
what goes on in the organization. He seeks and receives a wide variety of
special information to develop thorough understanding of the organization
and environment such as handling all mails and contacts which are
primarily informational, such as periodical news and observational tours,
taking feedback from parents about institution s, taking information about
government schemes, government resolutions. Duties include assessing
internal operations, schools success and the problems and opportunities
which may arise. All the information gained in this capacity must be
stored and maintai ned.
b. Disseminator:
Disseminator transmits information internally that is obtained from either
internal or external sources. Highlights factual or value based external
views into organization and to subordinates. This requires both filtering
and delegati on skills. Manager transmits information received from
outsiders or form subordinates to members of the organization; some
information involving interpretation and integration such as forwarding
mail into the organization for informational purpose, verbal contacts
involving information flow to subordinates including review sessions and
spontaneous communication. Manager needs to provide information to
subordinates which may be technical. So, in that case, understanding
technical language and translating it into simple words for the staff is the
job of the manager. Translating and interpreting government resolutions in
simple language, informing staff about seminars, workshops, training
programmes organized at various institutes. Writing minutes of the
meetin g and sending these minutes to respective persons.
c. Spokesperson :
The Spokesperson transmits information about the organization to
outsiders. Serves in a PR capacity by informing stakeholders updated
about the operation of the organization. A manager o ften has to give
information concerning the organization to outsiders, taking on the role of
spokesperson to both the general public and those in position of influence.
Manager has to transmit information to outsiders on the organization’s
plans, policies, actions and results; He has to conduct board meetings,
handle mail, and contacts involving transmission of information to
outsiders. Taking help from the media in order to do publicity for his munotes.in

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14 institute, distribution of brochures, pamphlets about institut ions progress
and development.
III. Decisional Role :
Decisional role include roles involving the process of using information to
make decisions. The most crucial part of management activity is to make
decisions. Manager has to take various decisions in th e day to day
functioning of the organization. The four action based roles for making
and implementing decisions are
a. Entrepreneur
b. Disturbance handler
c. Resource Allocator
d. Negotiator
a. Entrepreneur :
The entrepreneur acts as an initiat or, designer and encourages change and
innovation. As entrepreneurs, managers make decisions about changing
what is happening in an organization. They may have to initiate change
and take an active part in deciding exactly what is to be done. Manager
searc hes the organization and its environment for opportunities and
initiates change in the organization. He supervises design of certain
projects as well for organizational development. He identifies strategy and
reviews policies, government resolutions, curri cular activities, various
courses and decides its feasibility.
b. Disturbance handler :
The Disturbance Handler takes corrective action when an organization
faces important, unexpected difficulties. Manager makes decisions that
arise from events beyond th eir control and unpredicted. He reacts to events
as well as to plan various activities. He is responsible for corrective action
when the organization faces important, unexpected disturbances. He has to
take decisions regarding disciplinary actions to be ta ken. He has to
identify strategy and review involving disturbances and crises, give
memos and report to the authorities.
c. Resource Allocator :
The resource allocator distributes resources of all types, including time,
funding, equipment, and human resour ces. The resource allocation role of
a manager is central to many managerial activities. A manager has to
make decisions about allocation of money, people, equipment, time and so
on. He is responsible for the allocation of organization resources of all
kinds in effect the making or approving of all significant organizational
decisions. Manager in this role does the scheduling, requests for
authorization, any activity involving budgeting and the programming of
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15 Role and Functions of an Educational Manager d. Negotiator:
Negotiator r epresents the organization in major negotiations affecting the
manager’s areas of responsibility. A manager has to negotiate with others
and in the process be able to make decisions about the commitment of
organizational resources. He is responsible for re presenting the
organization at major negotiations. He has to represent the institute for
negotiations with parents, teachers, students, unions etc. He has to conduct
meetings for negotiation.
If we analyze these roles given by Mintzberg, we can say that a uthority
and status derive the interpersonal roles, interpersonal makes it necessary
for managers to make it informational roles. An Informational role makes
managers make decisions. These ten roles of manager come with a great
deal of responsibilities. In forming, connecting and ordering require a
manager to be able to adapt to the situation and control it in a balanced
way.
1B.3 FUNCTIONS OF AN EDUCATIONAL MANAGER Effective management and leadership involve creative problem solving,
motivating employees and making sure the organization accomplishes
objectives and goals. There are five functions of management as follows.
1. Planning
2. Organizing
3. Staffing
4. Directing
5. Controlling.
1. Planning:
Planning is a part of each person’s life; be it a s tudent, homemaker, doctor,
engineer. Each of us plans as soon as we get up. We make daily plans,
weekly plans, sometimes monthly and yearly plans. We also have
planning for our life which is long term. If an individual decides to live the
life as it comes to him/her then it will lead to chaos in his/her life. It means
planning is a day -to-today activity which helps an individual to use his/her
time effectively. This is equally true for effective functioning of
organizations. Hence one of the important funct ions of management is
planning. When we are considering planning as a process it means we are
deciding our goals and we are also taking decisions about how we are
going to achieve these goals.
The planning function of management controls all the planning that allows
the organization to run smoothly. Planning involves defining a goal and
determining the organization to the most effective course of action needed
to reach that goal. Typically, planning involves flexibility, as the planner
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16 Educational Management and Leadership
16 organization. Planning also involves knowledge of the organization’s
resources and the future objectives of the organization.
Planning is a very goal oriented activity. It is a process in which a
manager deci des his/her goal for the institution as well as for himself.
Hence it can be said that planning is a process of deciding the objectives
and ways to achieve the set objectives. In a simple way it can be defined
as the act to set a goal and to decide the mea ns for achieving these goals. It
means the manager does not only decide the goals but also decide what are
the different ways and out of these which way they are going to select to
achieve the goal.
2. Organizing :
The organizing function of the manager con trols the overall structure of
the organization. The organizational structure is the foundation of an
organization; without this structure, the day -to-day operation of the
institution becomes difficult and unsuccessful. Organizing involves
designating task s and responsibilities for employees with the specific skill
sets needed to complete the tasks. Organizing also involves developing the
organizational structure and chain of command within the organization.
Organization is a function of management that inv olves developing an
organizational structure and allocating human resources to ensure the
accomplishment of objectives. Organisation is the function of
management which follows planning. In this process the human, financial
and physical resources are synch ronized and combined in such a way that
the organization achieves its goal optimally. Organizing involves creation
of structures, establishment of relationships, allocation of resources so as
to accomplish a determined goal. According to Koontz and O’Donne ll,
organization involves the establishment of authority, relationships with
provision for coordination between them, both vertically and horizontally
in the enterprise.
3. Staffing :
It is important to place the right person at the right position to perfor m the
right work. Hence staffing is an important function of management in
which people are selected for different positions. The staffing function of
management controls all recruitment and personnel needs of the
organization. The main purpose of staffing is to hire the right people for
the right jobs to achieve the objectives of the organization. Staffing
involves more than just recruitment; staffing also encompasses training
and development, performance appraisals, promotions and transfers.
Without the s taffing function, the business would fail because the business
would not be properly staffed to meet its goals. Staffing is a continuous
function. A new enterprise employs people to fill up staff positions in the
organization. In an established concern, th e deaths/ retirements of
employees and the frequent changes in the objectives and the organization
itself make staffing a continuous function of management.
Staffing is defined as a process which involves the filling up of various
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17 Role and Functions of an Educational Manager that those individuals should possess the knowledge and skills required for
the job. If a person does not possess the requirements then he or she
cannot be selected for that job. The staffing process can be seen as a
continuous process. It follows step by step procedure so that the
institution/organization is supplied with the right people in the ri ght
positions at the right time . Staffing includes selection, training and
appraisal of the individuals in the organization. Staffing is the process in
which the organization appoints people in different positions and these
people who are selected are placed to perform a specific job.
4. Directing :
Planning, organizing, and staffing are not sufficient to set the tasks in
motion. Management has well -coordinated plans, properly established
duty- authority relations, and able personnel, yet it is through the function
of direction that the manager is able to make the employees accomplish
their tasks by making them int egrate their individual efforts with the
interest and objectives of the enterprise. It calls for properly motivating,
communicating with, and leading the subordinates.
Motivation induces and inspires the employees to perform better, while
through good lead ership, a manager is able to make his subordinates work
with zeal and confidence. It contents following three essential activities:
1. Issuing orders and instruction
2. Guiding and counseling the subordinates in their work with a view to
improve their performance
3. Supervising the work of subordinates to ensure that it conforms to
orders and instructions issued.
5. Controlling :
The controlling function of management is useful for ensuring all other
functions of the organizations are in place and are ope rating successfully.
Controlling involves establishing performance standards and monitoring
the output of employees to ensure each employee’s performance meets
those standards. The controlling process often leads to the identification of
situations and pro blems that need to be addressed by creating new
performance standards. The level of performance affects the success of all
aspects of the organization. While directing, the manager explains to his
subordinates the work expected of each of them and also hel ps them
perform their respective jobs to the best of their abilities so that the
enterprise objectives can be achieved. But even then, there is no guarantee
that work will always proceed according to plan. It is this possibility of
actions deviating from p lans that calls for constant monitoring of actual
performance so that appropriate steps may be taken to make them conform
to plans. Thus, the controlling task of management involves compelling
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18 Educational Management and Leadership
18 Controlling is a process of ana lyzing whether actions are being taken as
planned and taking corrective actions, whether these actions are needed or
not. This process tries to find out deviation between planned performance
and actual performance. As we mentioned in the planning process t hat the
goal is set and the strategies are designed to achieve the goal. The control
tries to find out the difference in what is planned and the extent to which
the goal is accomplished. If it is observed that the work is not progressing
in proper speed th en the strategy is changed. In other words, performing
the task in different ways or analyzing the entire process of task
performance and find out the discrepancies and take measures to reduce
the gap between expected and actual performance.
1B.4 SKILLS OF AN EDUCATIONAL MANAGER Education management is a field of study. It comprises personnel
associated with this field viz: principals, teachers and others. These
personnel together are responsible for imparting quality education.
Performance of each personn el depends on the skills possessed by them.
Here, the term skill suggests an ability which may not be inborn but can be
nurtured and is observed through the performance of an individual.
Therefore, based on effectiveness of action one can judge the extent of
skill possessed by an individual. Each personnel of the education system is
managing the system at different levels.
Managerial skills are the knowledge and ability of the individuals in a
managerial position to fulfill some specific managerial activit ies or tasks.
This knowledge and ability can be learned and practiced. However, they
also can be acquired through practical implementation of required
activities and tasks. Therefore, each skill can be developed through
learning and practical experience of the individuals. Managerial skills are
required to manage people and technology to ensure an effective and
efficient realization of tasks.
Robert Katz identified three types of skills that are essential for a
successful management process:
1. Technical,
2. Conceptual skills
3. Human or interpersonal skills.
1. Technical skills :
These skills give the manager’s knowledge and ability to use different
techniques to achieve what they want to achieve. Technical skills are not
related only for machines, product ion tools or other equipment, but also
these are the skills that are required to increase sales, design different
types of products and services, market the products and services etc.
Technical skills are most important for the first -level managers. As we go
through a hierarchy from the bottom to higher levels, the technical skills
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19 Role and Functions of an Educational Manager These are the skills which indicate proficiency in doing specific activities
effectively. It involves using specific methods, processes, procedures and
techniques. Teachers, engineers, doctors, architects etc. need to have
specific profession related technical skills. These technical skills include
profession specific knowledge, analytical ability required in that
profession and skill of using tools and tech niques related to profession.
Profession wise the skill set required varies. This skill is required for
lower level managers as they are the ones who are working in the field. If
we consider a teacher as an educational manager, he/she should possess
the sk ill of lesson planning. For doing so she/he has to set the objectives of
the lesson. The objectives are based on goals of school. It may be
achieving 100% results or preparing good human beings. As per the
objectives, the methodology will differ. E.g. If t he objective is completion
of the syllabus then the lecture method will be adopted but if the objective
is developing scientific attitude then teacher may use debate or discussion
method. While planning lessons, he/she has to think about availability of
infrastructural resources. If they are not available then he/she should have
a plan to generate the same. He/she also has to think about an evaluation
strategy which will depend on the objectives and the teaching -learning
strategy adopted by the teacher.
2. Conceptual skills :
Conceptual skills present knowledge or ability of a manager for more
abstract thinking. That means he can easily see the whole through analysis
and diagnosis of different states. In such a way they can predict the future
of the educatio n institution as a whole. Conceptual skills are vital for top
managers, less important for mid -level managers, and not required for
first-level managers. As we go from the bottom of the managerial
hierarchy to the top, the importance of these skills will r ise. A manager
should develop sharp conceptual skills. This helps to view the
organization from a wider perspective. A manager with strong conceptual
skills can analyze and study a complex situation deeply and develop
strategies for the smooth functioning of the organization. It also influences
the decision -making process in an organization.
It involves the ability to see the institution as a whole. It involves
understanding the relationship between various elements of the
organization, having awareness abo ut the functions of the organization and
an ability to visualize how change in one part will have the effect on the
organization as a whole. This skill helps in making decisions. The
correctness of the decision depends on the conceptual skill of the person .
This skill is required for creating vision and developmental plans of the
organization. It also involves the ability to work on hypothetical situations.
Conceptual skills are most required for top level managers as they are
responsible for framing and im plementing the policies for welfare of
organizations and less for middle level managers. It is our general
observation that during the tenure of a specific leader an organization does
impressive work. The reason is that the top level manager or leader
possess conceptual skill. Conceptual skills helps in framing vision of the
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20 Educational Management and Leadership
20 vision of the manger, his/her planning and resource allocation will differ.
E.g: Educational manager who believes in developing human being will
plan the school activities in which he will give importance for community
work, group learning and activities for developing the social skills.
Whereas, if the manger has the aim of having 100% result of school then
he or she will plan the activities such as conducting practice test, guidance
for how to write answers etc. This clearly depicts that conceptual skills of
manager plays crucial role in working of an organization. Hence, it is very
necessary to select the l eader carefully. This is true for all types of
organizations.
3. Human Skills:
These are the skills which are required to work effectively in the group
and build the team. This skill involves working with human beings and
helping managers to understand p eople and motivate them. The person
having human skills will have high emotional quotient as he/she will be
able to understand his/her own emotions as well as of others. The person
possessing human skills will always try to achieve win -win situation as
he/she values the emotions of other persons. The person good in human
skills are skilful in communicating with others. They can create an open
and secured environment in which subordinates can freely express
themselves. Such managers use a participatory appro ach where
subordinates are involved in planning activities related to them and are
sensitive to the needs of others.
Human or interpersonal managerial skills present a manager’s knowledge
and ability to work with people. One of the most important manageme nt
tasks is to work with people. Without people, there will not be a need for
the existence of management and managers. These skills will enable
managers to become leaders and motivate employees for better
accomplishments. Also, they will help them to make more effective use of
human potential in the company. Simply, they are the most important
skills for managers. Interpersonal management skills are important for all
hierarchical levels in the organization A manager should be a people's
person. He should h ave the ability to deal and work with people of
different temperaments, backgrounds and educational qualifications. He
should be well -aware what motivates his team members in order to bring
out the best in them. A manager should be good at building relatio nships
with his subordinates and be fair in his dealings with them, so that there
are no ill feelings among the team members. A manager should possess
good team -building capabilities as well.
All the skills are required for all levels of manager only the d egree varies
from level to level.
1B.5 COMPETENCIES OF AN EDUCATIONAL MANAGER Managers in an educational institution need to have proficiency in core
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21 Role and Functions of an Educational Manager requirements of their position. Management c ompetencies can be learned
and developed, and it is important to define key management
competencies and measure the proficiency of each manager, offering
frequent assessments and feedback. Management competencies are
categorized as human capital which is b roadly defined as the knowledge
and skills that contribute to workplace productivity. The human assets
needed for managerial competency are necessary for a productive
workforce. Below, are listed some core management competencies.
1. Interpersonal communic ation :
This skill involves the ability to identify, understand, and anticipate the
emotions, concerns and thoughts of others. It requires the ability to
empathize and communicate effectively. Interpersonal awareness a llows to
read other people’s feelings b ased on their nonverbal behavior, tone of
voice and choice of words.
2. Motivating others :
Good managers are effective at rallying people together to achieve
common goals. Using interpersonal skills, they can understand what
motivates people and use that to encourage productivity.
3. Written communication :
Written communication is the ability to effectively communicate with the
written word. It can involve the use of proper grammar, spelling and
punctuation. Additionally, excellent written communicators w rite in a way
that is understandable and clear to many people.
4. Honesty / integrity :
Good managers display behavior that is ethical, honest, and humane. They
serve as a role model for others and perform actions that demonstrate their
values.
5. Problem S olving :
All managers have to solve problems eventually. Good problem solvers
take proactive approaches to address issues and avert conflict whenever it
emerges. They empower employees to seek information that improves
their ability to develop and assess a variety of potential solutions. When
problems arise, good problem solvers are quick to prevent escalation of
conflict between employees.
6. Developing others :
Being able to see the potential in others is an important quality of a great
manager. Natural bo rn managers / leaders wish to help people grow and
develop their skills. Every employee has different experiences, beliefs,
goals and values. Great leaders treat every person with unique care.
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22 Educational Management and Leadership
22 7. Vision/ Mission/ Goal/ Objectives planning :
Having a visi on is the ability to outline a clear and vivid plan to
accomplish shared objectives. Effective managers form a long -term view
and share their vision / mission /goals with others. They encourage others
to take actions that get the team closer to accomplishi ng their goals. By
doing this, they catalyze organizational change.
8. Creativity / innovation :
Creatives are open to new ideas and innovation. They are willing to
question the status quo approaches and implement new processes when
necessary. Creative peo ple can see problems from new perspectives and
generate helpful insights into problems.
9. Conflict resolution :
At some point, conflict is bound to arise between employees. It is a
manager’s duty to find resolutions that satisfy everyone involved in a
conflict. Unresolved conflicts can harm relations and impact the
organizational culture, so it is important for leaders to develop this
capacity.
10. Delegation :
Effective managers / leaders understand that they can’t do all the work
alone. They know that th ey need other people to accomplish goals. By
capitalizing on the expertise of others, they are rapidly able to accomplish
goals because they know who is the best fit for each task. They distribute
tasks effectively by recognizing the strengths of others.
11. Valuing Diversity :
Every person on a team has unique values, experience, cultural
backgrounds and goals. Good leaders create an inclusive workplace where
everyone feels welcome. They acknowledge each person’s unique
contributions and insights leveragi ng them to further shared objectives.
1B.6 MANAGERIAL ETHICS The principles by which a manager leads his organization will dictate
everything from employee ethics to organization morale and productivity.
Managerial ethics can also significantly affect the standing of an
organization in society.
Ethics is the set of moral principles or beliefs that affect the behavior of
employees. While most people automatically assume that ethics directly
correlates to personality, this isn't always the case. Doing the ri ght thing
for employees and customers and demonstrating the willingness to go the
extra mile also falls under managerial ethics. Ethics is the foundation of
deciding what is wrong or what is right in a given position. It is an
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23 Role and Functions of an Educational Manager moral standard or code of conduct determined by society defines how
ethical an individual is.
Moral standards of ethics don't necessarily need to align with an
institution's legal standards. An organization might not be required to offer
maternity / paternity leave, but the organization might believe that it is
important to give mothers / fathers their own time with a newborn. Moral
ethics could also be how the organization deals with customer complaints
to ensure that people feel good about their experience with the
organization from the top down.
Managerial ethics is the set of standard behaviors that guide the individual
manager in their work to make managerial decisions. Making ethical
choices can often be difficult for managers . It is compulsory to obey the
law about ethics but acting ethically goes beyond mere compliance with
the law. Ethics is derived from society and the norms, values, beliefs,
culture, and standards of society determine it. A manager is a part of
society and he has to make organizational ethics accepted by society. An
ethical manager can promote goodwill and reputatio n in society, gain
benefit in the long run, and promote uni form growth of the organization .
Managerial ethics is important for every organization, because people will
follow what managers/ leaders do. Even if an organization has ethics
policies in place, w hen top leaders ignore these standards, it resonates
throughout the organization . It might mean that some employees might
not act ethically, if they are following the actions of leaders. It could also
reduce employee pride and morale. When employees don't think that their
leaders care about doing the right thing, they might feel that their efforts to
do right are not valued. Morale drops, emplo yees may leave the
organization , human resources costs go up, and customer loyalty and
positive experiences suffer . Organizations that follow the highest
standards of managerial ethics generall y have the following advantages .
 High morale and very high levels of productivity
 Promotes Goodwill and Image
 Helps to Maintain Good Relations with Stakeholders
 Promotes Fair Competition
 Promotes Social Responsibility
 Improves Working Environment
 Low turnover (tendency of leaving job)
1B.7 LET US SUM UP Education management is a field of study. It comprises of personnel
associated with this field viz: principals, teachers and others. These
personnel together are responsible for imparting quality education.
Performance of each personnel depends on the functions, skills, munotes.in

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24 Educational Management and Leadership
24 competencies and ethics possessed by them. Effective managers have to
perform the functions of planning, orga nizing, staffing, controlling and
directing for smooth functioning as well as for growth and development of
an institute.
Robert Katz says that effective managers need to have three basic skills: a)
Technical skills b) Human skills c) Conceptual Skills. T echnical skills
which indicate proficiency in doing specific activities effectively. It
involves using specific methods, processes, procedures and techniques.
This skill is required to a great extent for lower level managers. Human
skills are the skills wh ich are required to work effectively in the group and
build the team. This skill involves working with human beings. These
skills help managers to understand people and motivate them. This skill is
required for all levels of managers. Conceptual skill invo lves the ability to
see the institution as a whole. It involves understanding the relationship
between various elements of the organization, having awareness about the
functions of the organization and an ability to visualize how change in one
part will ha ve the effect on the organization as a whole. This skill helps in
making decisions. The correctness of the decision depends on the
conceptual skills of the manager. This skill is required for creating vision
and developmental plans of the organization. Con ceptual skills are most
required for top level managers as they are responsible for framing and
implementing the policies for welfare of the organization.
Managers in an educational institution need to have proficiency in core
management competencies in or der to successfully execute the
requirements of their position.
The principles by which a manager leads his organization will dictate
everything from employee ethics to organization morale and productivity.
Managerial ethics significantly affects the stand ing of an organization in
society. It's very important for the manager to follow managerial ethics as
he is a part of society and he has to make organizational ethics accepted by
society. An ethical manager can promote goodwill and reputation in
society, gain benefit in the long run, and promote uni form growth of the
organization .
1B.8 UNIT END EXERCISE 1. What are the activities a manager needs to perform while performing
following roles ? Managerial Role Activities Example Monitor Figurehead Spokesperson Leader munotes.in

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25 Role and Functions of an Educational Manager Liaison Negotiator Disseminator Entrepreneur
2. Which managerial function is used by an education manager to
determine how they wil l distribute resources and organize employees
according to a plan?
a. Organizing
b. Planning
c. Controlling
d. Staffing
3. Which of these is necessary to be placed before the organizing
function can be carried out?
a. a plan
b. a strategy
c. a schedule
d. a chain of command
*****
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26 1C
MANAGEMENT OF PERFORMANCE
Unit Structure
1C.0 Objectives
1C.1 Introduction
1C.2 Concept of Performance Management
1C.3 Efficiency of a Manager
1C.4 Effectiveness of a Manager
1C.5 Effective Performance Management System
1C.6 Impact of education management on private and self financed
institutes
1C.7 Let us Sum Up
1C.8 Unit End Exercise
1C.0 OBJECTIVES After going through this unit, learner will be able to
 Explain the concept of performance management
 Describe the concept of efficiency of a man ager
 Explain the concept of effectiveness of a manager
 Explain the impact of education management on private and self
financed institutes
1C.1 INTRODUCTION A formal performance management program helps managers and
employees to know the expectations, goal s, and career progress, including
how an individual's work aligns with the organization’s overall vision.
Performance management views individuals in the context of the broader
workplace system .Good performance management involves regular
reviews. When go als are met, they should be celebrated and employees
should be offered a reward. It motivates the employees and ultimately
benefits the organization.
The success of performance management practices in any organization
depend upon the commitment and inv olvement of the different
stakeholders like top management, line managers, employees and the
Human Resource managers.
The top managers play a lead in the entire process by setting trends and
acting as role models for the employees. Their responsibility is to design
policies which ensure an efficient management of performance in an
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27 Management of Performance performance. Top management plays a vital role in convincing the line
managers that performance management can be instrumental in the
achievement of organizational goals and thus ensure that they take this
aspect seriously in their work front for maximizing employee satisfaction
and productivity.
1C.2 CONCEPT OF PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT Performance management is a management tool that helps managers
monitor and evaluate employees' work. Performance management's goal is
to create an environment where people can perform to the best of their
abilities and produce the highest -quality work most efficiently and
effectively.
Performance management is an ongoing process of communication
between a supervisor and an employee that occurs throughout the year, in
support of accomplishing the strategic objectives of the organization. The
communication process includes clarifying exp ectations, setting
objectives, identifying goals, providing feedback, and reviewing results.
Performance management is the process of ensuring that a set of activities
and outputs meets an organization's goals in an effective and efficient
manner. It is a corporate management tool that helps managers monitor
and evaluate employees' work. Performance management's goal is to
create an environment where people can perform to the best of their
abilities and produce the highest -quality work most efficiently and
effectively. A formal performance -management program helps managers
and employees to clarify expectations, goals, and career progress,
including how an individual's work aligns with the organization’s overall
vision. Performance management views individual s in the context of the
broader workplace system.
Managers can use performance management tools to adjust workflow,
recommend new courses of action, and make other decisions that will help
employees achieve their objectives. In turn, this helps the organi zation
reach its goals and perform optimally. For example, the principal of the
school gives teaching staff target result that they must reach within a set
period. In a performance management system, along with the numbers, the
manager would offer guidance gauged to help the people succeed.
Performance management can focus on the performance of an
organization, a department, an employee, or the processes in place to
manage particular tasks.
Effective performance -management programs contain certain universa l
elements, such as:
Aligning employees' activities with the company's mission and goals :
Employees should understand how their goals contribute to the company's
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28 Educational Management and Leadership
28 Developing specific job -performance outcomes :
What goods or services doe s my job produce? What effect should my
work have on the company? How should I interact with clients,
colleagues, and supervisors? What procedures does my job entail?
Creating measurable performance -based expectations :
Employees should give input into how success is measured. Expectations
include results —the goods and services an employee produces; actions —
the processes an employee uses to make a product or perform a service;
and behaviors —the demeanor and values an employee demonstrates at
work.
Defining job-development plans :
Supervisors and employees together should define a job's duties.
Employees should have a say in what types of new things they learn and
how they can use their knowledge to the company's benefit.
Meeting regularly :
Instead of waiting for an annual appraisal , managers and employees
should engage actively year -round to evaluate progress.
1C.3 EFFICIENCY OF A MANAGER Efficiency in management means perfo rming activities with the minimum
wastage of resources with optimum utilization of resources so that the
organisation can maximize the profit. An efficient manager is one
who uses limited resources to get the job done in a more professional
manner. Efficie ncy is performing the best results in the least about of time
and/or effort. Efficiency is when manager does the same things faster or
with less waste. For example, manager might find a better way to run a
project status meeting so it takes 30 minutes on a verage rather than 1 hour.
Effic iency avoids mistakes and takes repeated steps to achieve a goal.
Both efficiency and effectiveness are desirable characteristics of a
manager.
Although, one is often attainable only at the expense of the other. While
some d o a good job of balancing the two, others view one better than the
other. Depending on the situation, both efficiency and effectiveness can be
used, if managers and leaders work together.
Efficient managers are task -oriented, impulsive, and project focuse d.
1C.4 EFFECTIVENESS OF A MANAGER Effective managers are always good delegators. They can distribute tasks
to their team as well as ensuring that their own time is well used for
management issues and important tasks. Employees that feel trusted are
better placed to achieve their potential and are given an incentive to ensure
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29 Management of Performance A manager is not only responsible for a team’s output, but they are also
responsible for supporting the individuals within their teams. This means
understandi ng what drives and motivates them, what their strengths are,
and how to guide them in areas they need to develop. Great leaders are
good communicators and display a high level of emotional intelligence.
What makes an effective manager ?:
It is often said th at people don’t leave organization, they leave managers,
which is why it is so important to get this relationship right. If an
individual doesn’t feel supported, or can’t have open and constructive
conversations with their manager, it is likely that they w ill get frustrated in
their role. This will have a flow -on effect in regards to their performance
at work.
If sufficient management is lacking, it is easy for teams to lose motivation,
enthusiasm, and productivity, which can lead to professionals seeking n ew
opportunities. The relationship between a manager and their reports has a
direct impact on the morale and success of the team.
Tips for becoming a more effective manager :
Managers have the potential to make a significant impact both positive
and adverse on their employees and the organization .The great managers
are capable of inspiring and bringing out the best in their employees
,increase productivity and retention of the staff.
According to a study of more than 5,000 employees, those with a high
level of confidence in their company’s senior leadership are five times
more likely to remain with their employer for more than two years
compared to employees with no confidence. Another survey reports that
44 percent of workers have left a job because of a bad manager.So, what is
the secret to being an effective manager? What sets them different from
others ? Here are some qualities to consider, and ways that can support
growth of a manager.
1. Set clear expectations :
To achieve goals, employees need to know what success looks like.
Effective managers are transparent with the staff about their vision and
priorities and hold regular meetings both formally and informally to assess
progress and address issues .
2. Empower employees :
Psychologically safe environment allows e mployees to voice their
concerns, ask questions and make decisions on their own, job satisfaction
increases and performance improves. When employees are encouraged
their true and best selves emerge.Their morale gets develop and that
motivates them to do th eir work with more commitment.
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30 Educational Management and Leadership
30 3. Adapts to the needs of individual team members :
Everyone brings a different set of skills to their job. An effective manager
not only understands their preferred working style but also adapt his
approach for each person he lead or collaborate with.
When managers and team members know how others prefer to think and
behave, they can adjust their interactions in a way that speaks to each
individual.
4. Asks for insight and makes decisions :
Successful managers recognize that they haven’t gotten where they are
without the help and support of others. By bringing together a team to
process or determine solutions, employees feel heard and leaders benefit
from the ideas and opinions of others.
When managers engage multiple viewpoints, it’s easier for them to steer
clear of group think and embrace creative thought that leads to innovation .
5. Communicate clearly :
Soft skill and other skills li ke problem solving and teamwork abilities
are important to a manager’s succe ss, as it helps to build strong
relationships. Although manager many a times may thinks that he is
clearly articulating his thoughts, he may be misinterpreted by people in the
organization . Manager should understand how to communicate based on
staffs’ preferred ways of thinking and behaving.
6. Listen :
Good communication requires a balance between talking and actively
listening. Employees value managers who listen. Show employees that
they are being heard by following up with their suggestions, questions or
concerns in a timely manner even if the decision is to take no action.
7. Shows Trust in Employees :
Effective managers are always good delegators. They can distribute tasks
to their team as well as ensures that their own time is well used for
management is sues and important tasks. Employees that feel trusted are
better placed to achieve their potential and are given an incentive to ensure
that they perform well. In a team, it’s important to build mutual trust
between managers and team members, as this will enable delegation to
happen more effectively.
8. Protects the team :
As a leader, it falls on manager to take responsibility for the success and
failures of hi s team. A good manager shares the successes and absorbs the
failures. Taking responsibility when mist akes are made and team goals are
not met is very important for the manager. Leading from the front.
Showing the team that you are willing to step in for them when things get
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31 Management of Performance The impact of a high performing manage r should not be underestimated.
Beyond their potential impact on employee retention it also affects
organizations growth and development. Strengthening employees’ skills
can be a game changer for the success of organization.
1C.5 EFFECTIVE PERFORMANCE MANA GEMENT SYSTEM Performance man agement is a continuous process and not a once a
year activ ity. Qual ity per formance man agement should, there fore, bring
togeth er a number of dif ferent, inte grated activ ities to form an ongo ing
“performance man agement cycle”.
Performance man agement isn’t an easy field to nav igate. It’s con stant ly
evolv ing, hence there is a need for an effec tive per formance man agement
system. New performance man agement trends emerge every year .


(Source - https://www.clearreview.com/resources/guides/what -is-
effective -performance -management/)
The first stage of per formance man agement cy cle is he “Planning” phase
for the forth coming peri od. Plan ning should involve:
 Agree ing on SMART objec tives . The objectives set fo r the
organization needs to be specific, measurable, attainable, realistic and
time bound.
 A per sonal devel opment plan should be developed. munotes.in

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32 Educational Management and Leadership
32  Actions to be tak en in the com ing months.
 A review of the employee’s job require ments, updat ing the role p ro-
file where necessary.
1C.6 IMPACT OF EDUCATION MANAGEMENT ON PRIVATE AND SELF FINANCED INSTITUTES Management is a process of planning, organizing, directing and
controlling the activities of an institution by utilizing human and material
resources so as to effectively and efficiently accomplish functions of
teaching and extension work and research.
Education management has influenced private and self financed
institutions in the following manner.
Finance management:
With the knowledge of education manag ement institutes can manage their
finance. Financial mangement in educational institutions is concerned
with the decisions on the means of acquiring, using and giving the account
of funds made available for the implementation of the programmes of the
institution. Generally, the purpose of financial management in educational
institutions is acquiring and raising of funds, allocation of funds and their
optimal utilization and supervision of funds. The last two decades have
brought many changes which have lef t Higher Education Institutions not
an important but small sector, but important and big. They remain centre’s
for teaching and research but are now recognized as being central to the
economy as well. The source of fund generation in all private institutio ns
is students’ fees. So nowaday’s we see that education has become a
costlier affair. Stdents pays exhorbitant fees for the various programs.
Infrastructure management:
Infrastructure management is the management of essential operation
components, such as policies, processes, equipment, data, human
resources, and external contacts, for overall effectiveness. Private and self
financed institutes are good in infrastructure management as compare to
government or aided institutes. Infrastructure management s eeks to reduce
duplication of efforts, ensure adherence to standards, enhance the flow of
information throughout an information system, promote adaptability
necessary for a changeable environment.
Management of Teaching learning process :
Creating situatio ns and opportunities for encouraging learning by each and
every student in the class is one of the basic things that one as a teacher
would need to master . Teacher needs to think of creating favourable
situation for learning and try to identify the compone nts of classroom
environment. Nowadays with the use of ICT integration in the teaching
learning process things have become easy to manage the teaching
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33 Management of Performance 1C.7 LET US SUM UP Performance management program helps managers and employees to
know the ex pectations, goals, and career progress, including how an
individual's work aligns with the organization’s overall vision.
Performance management views individuals in the context of the broader
workplace system. Good performance management involves regular
reviews. When goals are met, they should be celebrated and employees
should be offered a reward. It motivates the employees and ultimately
benefits the organization.
The success of performance management practices in any organization
depend upon the co mmitment and involvement of the different
stakeholders like top management, line managers, employees and the
Human Resource managers. Effectiveness, efficiency and performance of
the manager determines success, growth and development of any
organization. M anagers needs to implement effective performance
management system for overall growth as well as acquisition of goals,
vision and mission of any institute.
1.8 UNIT END EXERCISE 1. Performing activities with the minimum wastage of resources and
optimum utilization of resources indicates which quality of a
Manager ?
A. Performance
B. Effectiveness
C. Attitude
D. Efficiency
2. ‘Manager is transparent with the staff about their vision and
Priorities’. This indicates which of the following quality of effective
manager ?
A. Setting clear expectation
B. Trust in employees
C. Adaptation of employees needs
D. Clear communication
3. When goal setting, performance appraisal, and development are
consolidated into a single, common system designed to ensure that
employee performance support s an organization’s strategy, it is
called______.
A. Strategic organisational development
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34 Educational Management and Leadership
34 C. Performance Appraisal
D. Human Resource management
4. In performance management, main feature of performance
management is to
A. Increase salary
B. Planning incentives
C. Comparing performance with goals
D. Comparing results from last year
5. An evaluation process of employee's performa nce, in comparison to
set standards is called
A. Performance appraisal
B. Compensation
C. Coun seling
D. Design of evaluation
*****
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35 2
LEADERSHIP IN EDUCATION
Unit Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Leadership in Education - An overview
2.1.1 Concept of Leadership
2.1.2 Characteristics
2.2 Effective and Successful leader
2.2.1 Leader and Manager
2.3 Approaches to Leadership
2.3.1Trai t
2.3.2 Transformational
2.3.3 Transactional
2.3.4 Psycho -dynamic
2.3.5 Charismatic
2.3.6 Social
2.4 Goleman’s Leadership Styles
2.4.1 The Pacesetting Leader
2.4.2 Authoritative Leader
2.4.3 Affiliative Leader
2.4.4 Coaching Leader
2.4.5 Coerciv e Leader
2.4.6 Democratic Leader
2.5 Let Us Sum up
2.6 Unit End Exercises
2.7 References
2.0 OBJECTIVES After reading this unit, the student will be able to:
 Define leadership
 Explain the concept of leadership
 State the characteristic of leadership
 Describe the qualities of an effective and successful leader
 Differentiate between a Leader and a Manager
 Discuss the various approaches to leadership
 Examine various leadership styles as given by Goleman. munotes.in

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36 Educational Management and Leadership
36 2.1 LEADERSHIP IN EDUCATION -AN OVERVIEW Educationa l institutions have evolved from philosophical -spiritual
Ashrams during the Vedic period to socio -psychological institutions in the
twentieth century.It has further more evolved to become socio -technical
systems in last few decades. However, regardless of the structure of these
institutions, two key components have remained constant: the human
resource, and the guiding and leading authority. Nowadays educational
institutions, though, use technology; individuals are the most crucial unit
of these institution s. Whether it is a nursery school, a university, or a
research institute, as well as highly diverse and complicated administrative
departments established by government agencies, the effectiveness with
which leadership is performed in the institute has a s ignificant impact.
Napoleon Bonaparte was right in saying, “Leaders are dealers in hope.”
Leader is a crucial figure who has the ability to transform the work
environment in such a way that all employees are inspired to work hard in
order to achieve the o bjectives. The importance of leadership in
management of any educational institute cannot be underestimated.
Educational leaders like Vice -Chancellors, Principals of Colleges, Heads
of Departments, Headmasters of Schools and Directors, and others, with
their thorough understanding of not only the objectives, but also the
leadership traits and leadership style that is best suited to the current
situation, can undoubtedly be a catalyst in achieving the institutional goals
most efficiently.In the following sub units, the concept of leadership,
leadership traits, and leadership style are discussed in depth.
2.1.1 Concept of Leadership:
Leadership is a remarkable quality that has the potential to create and
transform everything. The term ‘leadership’ refers to a s ocial idea that was
originally conceived in the 1960s to highlight the leader's ability to
influence individuals in the organisation in order to achieve organizational
goals. ‘Leadership’ is a term that can be defined in a number of different
ways. James M cGregor Burns (1978, p. 2) in his book “Leadership”
describes leadership as "one of the most observed and least understood
phenomena on the planet. "Scholars not often agree on what leadership
entails. Different researchers define it in different ways. Alt hough simple
assertions like "leaders get others to accomplish things," "leaders have
followers," and "successful leaders help the individual or group perform
better" are generally agreed upon, leadership is a difficult concept.
Let us analyze the definiti ons provided by scholars on the subject to better
grasp the term ‘leadership’.The following are some of the leadership
definitions:
 According to the Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, "Leadership is
the relation between an individual and a group around s ome common
interest and behaving in a manner directed or determined by him". munotes.in

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37 Leadership in Education  Warren Bennis (1989) states that"Leadership is a function of knowing
yourself, having a vision that is well communicated, building trust
among colleagues, and taking effective act ion to realize your own
leadership potential".
 Herold Koontz (1988) defines Leadership as “the art of influencing
people so that they strive willingly and enthusiastically towards the
accomplishment of group goals.”
 "Leadership is a process of giving purpo se to collective work, and
causing voluntary effort to be exerted to attain purpose," according to
Jacobs & Jaques (1990, p.281). According to this definition, an
educational leader is someone who is willing to put forth all efforts
toward reaching institu tional goals while also encouraging and
motivating others to do the same.
 Tannenbaum, Weschler, Massarik (1961) asserts that “leadership is an
interpersonal influence exercised in a situation and directed towards
the attainment of a specialized goal or go als.”
 According to Keith Davis, “Leadership is the ability to persuade
others to seek defined objectives enthusiastically. It is the human
factor which binds a group together and motivates it towards goals.”
 Donelly, J.H., Ivancevich, J. M., and Gibson, J.L. (1985) define
leadership as “an attempt at influencing the activities of followers
through the communication process and toward the attainment of
some goal or goals.”.
 The definition by Koontz and O'Donnell, “Managerial leadership is
the ability to e xert inter -personal influence by means of
communication, towards the achievement of a goal”, also focuses on
leadership as interpersonal process focused on communication.
 R. T. Livingston summed it out best in few words. According to
him,Leadership is "the ability to awaken in others the desire tofollow
a common objective".
It is clear from the aforementioned definitions, that Leadership is a process
that involves relationships and so cannot exist in isolation. Just as a
teacher's existence is pointless wit hout a student, leadership is
meaningless without a follower and a situation. leadership is not a solo
endeavor. It is a mutual exchange between individuals. As a result,
leadership is a social process that include two elements: a leader and
followers.
Leadership is apsychological process of persuading followers and guiding,
directing, and leading people in an organisation to achieve objectives.It is
the psychological element that binds a group together and drives it to
achieve its objectives.Leadership is regarded as a set of skills that leaders
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38 Educational Management and Leadership
38 Leadership is the ability to influence followers’ actions by inspiring
confidence and zeal.
The leadership process is the interaction between leaders and followers, as
well as the situational and organizational framework in which these
interactions take place. It highlights the role of interactional processes in
achieving objectives Leadership is fundamentally an interpersonal activity
in all o f its dimensions.
All of these definitions reveal that the concept of leadership has two main
dimensions: achieving organizational objectives and interacting with
individuals. A leader, followers, and a situation are all inevitable
components of leadership . The leadership process is defined by the
interaction between the leader and the follower, as well as the situational
and organizational framework in which the interactions between leaders
and followers take place to achieve organizational objective.
2.1.2 Characteristics:
Leadership is the ability to manage, guide, and influence the behaviour
and work of others in order to achieve certain objectives in a given
circumstance. A thorough analysis of the aforesaid definitions reveals the
following essential l eadership characteristics:
 It is a collaborative effort. It comprises two or more people i.e., a
leader and follower/s, communicating with each other Leadership
implies the existence of followers.
 Leadership is goal -oriented and involves the leader and it s followers
to participate in activities to help move the group further in reaching
and obtaining its goal.Leadership entails a shared goal between the
leader and his followers.
 It is an inter -personal process in which a leader influences and guides
follo wers toward the achievement of goals.
 Leadership is a process of persuasion. Leadership indicates that
leaders can influence their followers in to follow his directives
willingly.
 Leadership is the art and thus involves using skills like creative
thinking, sound judgement, decision making ability to guide and
direct.
 Leadership emerges from interaction rather than being dictated just by
position or formal authority. Leaders can direct group members'
activities. The members of the organisation have complete trust in his
leadership and are willing to follow the majority of the leader's
directions.
 Leadership is the function of inspiring individuals to work willingly
toward organizational goals. A successful leader allows his followers munotes.in

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39 Leadership in Education to choose their own perso nal goals as long as they do not clash with
the organization's aims.
 Leadership is a psychological process that involves influencing
followers, binding them together and motivating them to achieve the
goal.
 Leadership is situational as it is the responsibi lity one presumes in
certain situation. It all relies on how a leader deals with the situations.
 Leadership is not just a linear process flowing from leader to the
follower but it is a composite entity that consists of the force and
direction that develops from a group that is larger than the individuals
that make up a group or organisation.
After the discussion of leadership characteristics based on its concept, the
subsequent section focuses on effective and successful leader. The
qualities mentioned woul d be those successful leaders demonstrate
through leading a group of people or organization.
Check your progress:
1. What is leadership? Define leadership.
2. Enumerate the characteristics of leadership.
2.2 EFFECTIVE AND SUCCESSFUL LEADER The distinction between leader and leadership is crucial, yet it can be
confusing. The leader is a person; leadership is the role or activity that a
leader conducts. A successful leader elicits desired behaviour from his/her
followers. Success is determined by how an indi vidual or a group behaves.
While, effectiveness is determined by the level of leadership s/he is
capable of providing. The efficacy of leadership is judged by the extent to
which the leader accomplishes the tasks and achieves the objectives.
To be effectiv e and successful, a leader must possess certain fundamental
qualities. Several researchers have identified some characteristics that a
successful leader should possess. However, the discussion is too diverse,
encompassing qualities required for a successfu l and effective leader from
a variety of sectors such as politics, spiritualism, entrepreneurship,
educational, finance, technology, medical, and business, among others.
Therefore, the following discussion will be limited to the educational
profession and the qualities of a successful and effective leader in the field
of education.The following are the requisites to be present in a successful
and effective leader:
Ability to influence others:
Effective leaders can influence others to help them achieve des ired
objectives. S/he assist her/his followers in recognizing what has to be done
and directing them in the right direction. That means that a person has the munotes.in

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40 Educational Management and Leadership
40 ability to influence their ideas and behaviour. Effective leaders are able to
persuade others thro ugh genuine and straightforward communication.
An Effective Communicator:
Leaders needs to be skilled communicators. A leader is required to clearly,
precisely, and effectively express plans, policies and processes to his
followers. This is useful for pers uasion and stimulation. S/he is required to
communicate with the individuals s/he leads on a frequent basis to have a
consistent meaningful connection. This is what brings people together and
builds trust.
A Collaborative Outlook:
The feeling of collaborat ion is indispensable for achievement of common
goal. Everyone wants to feel like they are contributing to make a
difference, are being attended to and getting responded for their
perspectives. The feeling of collaboration is indispensable for achievement
of common goal. Effective leaders provide the space for that kind of
contribution by each team member. They have the capacity to make others
around them feel more important and more confident.
Clarity of Vision and Purpose:
Setting and expressing a clear p urpose and vision are the most crucial
prerequisites for an effective and successful leader. A leader's influence
cannot be sustained unless he demonstrates vision. S/He must visualize
problems in order to create logical solutions. Outstanding leaders not only
envision the future, but they also know how to communicate their vision
to their followers and get their attention and cooperation. Such leaders
understand how to inspire others with their vision of the future, and they
can influence and motivate othe rs to join them in achieving common
objectives.
Analytical Mindset:
A leader has to be able to analyze difficulties and challenging situations.
An effective leader is also an analytical thinker who evaluates the pros and
drawbacks of a scenario before summ arizing it. Successful leaders are
problem solvers who are capable of making decisions in rapidly shifting
circumstances. They analyse the complexity of a situation and select
appropriate courses of action.
Empathy:
When it comes to leadership, empathy is equally vital. It is the only way
to obtain fair judgement and impartiality. If a leader understands the
difficulties and complaints of his or her people, as well as have a
comprehensive understanding of their needs and objectives, eventually it
will faci litate her/his human connections and personal interactions with
employees.
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41 Leadership in Education Objective:
Good leaders demonstrate an objective outlook that is free of prejudice
and does not indicate their inclination to a specific individual or
ideologies. Such leaders form their own view and base his decision on
facts and reasoning.
Humanitarian:
Respect for human dignity is essential quality because leader has to deal
with human beings and is in personal contact with his followers. Effective
leaders appreciate the importan ce of supporting and encouraging
individuality while also understanding organizational structures.
Therefore, treating the human beings on humanitarian grounds is essential
for building a congenial environment.
Integrity:
Effective leaders have a high lev el of integrity and adhere to values of
honesty, morality, and sincerity. This signifies that a leader says what they
mean and follows through on their promises. Such leaders consistently
display these habits to others. Their actions remain consistent rega rdless of
the situation or the individuals they are with.
Taking Accountability:
It is essential for a leader to have a sense of responsibility and
accountability for his/her job in order to get a sense of influence. For this,
s/he must motivate himself/h erself and stimulate the desire to perform to
the best of the skills. Then only would s/he be able to inspire his/her
subordinates to do their best. Effective leaders hold themselves
accountable and accept responsibility for their mistakes, and they expect
others to do the same.
Fostering Creativity and Innovation:
Leaders who show willingness to take risks in order to foster creativity,
will nurture the innovation that will drive the organisation to new heights.
S/He constantly needs to be tenacious in the pursuit of goals, as well as
being open -minded and flexible in the exploration of new ideas through
brainstorming and experimentation.
Self-awareness and self -confidence:
Leadership necessitates self -awareness and self -confidence. The better the
leader u nderstands herself / himself and acknowledge her/his strengths and
weaknesses, the more effective he may be as a leader. It is necessary for a
leader to have confidence in herself / himself in order to gain the trust of
the followers or teammates. A leader needs to be thoroughly aware of her /
his own motivations, priorities, goals and challenges.

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42 Educational Management and Leadership
42 Building Trust and Transparency:
One of the most crucial leadership qualities is the ability to build trust and
foster transparency. Followers expect their lea ders to be trustworthy and to
disclose all important information regarding the vision for the
organisation. It is better if a leader freely speaks about everything that is
happening on in their organisation, rather than withholding facts and
leaving staff in the dark.Most importantly, transparency and openness give
your followers clarity, and make them feel more empowered while
keeping them engaged.
Apart from the above mentioned, some personal qualities like intelligence,
sociability, persistence, prominen ce, persuasiveness, decisiveness, vitality,
capacity to judge the people, expressiveness etc. are some of the qualities
which may help a person to become a leader. Thus, effective leaders are
visionaries who encourage innovation by influencing their follow ers to
perform to the best of their abilities. Most commonly, they accomplish it
through developing a shared goal, uniting a team, encouraging
collaboration, building trust taking accountability and supporting and
encouraging individuality of each member.
Becoming an effective and successful leader is a continuous process. A
leader cannot possess all of these qualities at the same time. We must
keep in mind that being a good leader takes time. Leadership is a journey,
not a destination. Although some peopl e are born with natural leadership
abilities, it is something that anyone can learn and improve. One may lead
a team to achieve through genuine effort, perseverance, and effective
planning.
2.2.1. Leader and Manager :
The terms leader and manager are someti mes used interchangeably to
describe individuals in an organisation who have positions of formal
authority, regardless of how they really perform in their responsibilities.
However, just because a manager is a formal leader in an organisation
does not impl y that s/he exercises leadership.Often people assume that a
manager and a leader play the same roles. There are, however, some
significant differences between the two.
According to Online Etymology Dictionary (2022), the noun ‘leader’ is
derived from old English ‘l eadere’ which means "one who leads, one who
is first or most prominent to guide, conduct".While the noun ‘manager’
which arrived in the UK around 1580, is originated from the Italian word
‘maneggiare’, which means "to handle" or "to control a hor se." The
French word manège, which means 'horsemanship,' also influenced the
English word.
Kotter (1990) in “A force for Change: How leadership differs from
management” articulates the difference between leaders and managers in
following word: munotes.in

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43 Leadership in Education “The best direction for the organization is determined by its leaders, who
motivate individuals to achieve their goals”.
The other point of differentiation is that a person emerges as a leader. The
question of whether or not she/he will emerge as a leader is always
dependent on a variety of circumstances. A manager, on the other hand, is
always appointed to his or her post. Managers have subordinates who
work for them and primarily obey orders. Leaders do not have
subordinates, but they do have followers. They relin quish formal
authoritarian authority, because leading entails having followers, and
following is always voluntary. Telling people what to do does not inspire
them to follow a leader. Essentially, a leader's capacity to lead is always
aided by informal powe rs i.e., the ability to influence and inspire. He/ she
may or may not be in a position of formal authority. A manager, on the
other hand, is always in possession of some level of formal authority.
To add up, a leader's primary goal is to achieve the same o bjectives as his
or her followers. As a result, the objectives of the leader and the follower
are aligned. A manager, on the other hand, seeks for objectives that his or
her subordinates may not consider to be their own. To prove the point,
let’s take an e xample of a secondary school teacher who may not have any
formal power. A humble teacher can emerge as a leader in certain crisis
situation wherein she exerts her ability to inspire and influence and
mutually seeks for achievement of objectives.
A leaders hip scholar, Warren Bennis was best known as the “father of
leadership” and leadership education. In his book “On Becoming a
Leader” (Rev. Ed. 2003) makes a clear distinction between leadership and
management and between managers and leaders. According to him, “A
manager’s behavior and activities focus on controlling, planning,
coordinating, and organizing. This differs from a leader, whose behaviors
and tasks focus on innovation, vision, motivation, trust, and change.”
Warren Bennis and other scholars have identified important points of
distinction between a leader and a manager, which are summarized in
table 2.1
Table 2.1 Difference Between a Leader and a Manager Sr. no. Leader Manager 1 Becomes a leader on basis of his personal qualities Becomes a manager by virtue of his position. 2 Ask what and why Asks how and when 3 Focuses on people and build relationship Focuses on system and build processes 4 Do the right things Do things right – as per set structure 5 Has a strategic vision for change Establishes and imitates agendas and tasks munotes.in

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44 Educational Management and Leadership
44 6 Conceives and develops Administers and maintains 7 Inspires and gains trust of employees Exerts control over employees 8 Followers follow them voluntarily Subordinates follow their orders as part of their job 9 Challenges the status-quo Accepts the status-quo 10 Utilizing human value and potential to solve problems Planning and organizing to solve problems
Thus, Leadership doesn’t require any managerial position to act as a
leader. A manager, on the other hand, can only be a true leader if he
possesses leadership qualities. Scholar Abraham Zaleznik sees “leaders as
visionaries who are concerned with progress, whereas managers are
planners who are concerned with process”. This quotation clarifies the
meaning of th ese two important terms. Managers accomplish their
objectives through the use of coordinated actions and operational
processes. Leaders, on the other hand, are more concerned with how to
connect and influence people so that future growth is possible.
Check your progress:
1. Differentiate between a Leader and a Manager.
2. Which are the essential qualities a leader should possess to be
effective and successful?
2.3 APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP People have long been fascinated with leadership throughout history, but a
variety of formal leadership theories have only lately emerged. During the
early twentieth century, there was a surge in interest in leadership. As
interest in the psychology of leadership has grown over the last century, a
variety of leadership theo ries have been developed to explain how and
why certain people become exceptional leaders.
Early leadership theories up to 1940s, especially related to trait approach,
concentrated on the characteristics that distinguished leaders from
followers. The subse quent theories examined other variable i.e., the
situational factors in the leadership. The situational approach to leadership
believes that situational elements, rather than personal traits, determine
leadership. Fiedler's (1967) contingency model is one of the most serious
and detailed situational theories in the leadership literature. Fiedler has
been most likely the first researcher to see the need for a more
comprehensive explanation of leadership phenomena based on situational
variables. Some scholars regard situational theory and contingency model
as similar because both emphasise the importance of situations; they differ
at a point as they have different expectations of leaders. According to the
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45 Leadership in Education According to Contingency Theory, the proper leader should be matched to
the correct situation.
In past few decades, a third approach to leadership, known as the
behavioural perspective on leadership, has been widely researched and
added to t he trait and situational approaches. The behavioural approach is
based on the premise that effective leadership is the result of effective role
behaviour. Behavioural approach to leadership seeks to conceptualise
various leadership styles as well as their effects on followers. This concept
contends that multiple behavioural patterns or leadership styles exist that
vary not just among, as well as within, individuals. While many various
leadership approaches have been developed, the present section will
highl ight the major six distinct approaches to leadership. They are as
follows: Trait, Transformational, Transactional, Psycho -dynamic,
Charismatic, Social.
2.3.1 Trait Approach to Leadership :
Trait approach to leadership is the earliest approach that study a set of
traits that distinguished leaders from followers. It refers to psychological
studies and theories that focus on the personal attributes of leaders like
physical and personality characteristics and values. Many early trait
researchers regarded leader ship as a one -dimensional personality trait that
could be measured consistently. The later trait approach researches are
based on developing the lists of the traits of that are related to successful
leadership and are used to predict leadership effectivene ss. The generated
lists of traits are then compared to those of potential leaders in order to
determine their likelihood of success or failure. In 1989, John W. Gardner
presented the results of his large -scale study of leaders, concluding that
there are se veral traits that appear to make a leader successful in any
situation. Some of the traits included were: physical vitality and stamina,
action -oriented judgement, eagerness to accept responsibility, task
competence, understanding of followers and their nee ds, skill in dealing
with people, need for achievement, capacity to motivate people,
trustworthiness, decisiveness, assertiveness and so on.
The trait approach to leadership contends that there are distinct
psychological characteristics that explain for l eadership emergence and
effectiveness. It is much like personality traits that account for the
persistent patterns of thought, action, and emotion of an individual and
distinguish each individual from others. It acts as a benchmark against
which an individ ual's leadership qualities can be measured. It provides in -
depth knowledge and comprehension of the leader's role in the leadership
process. For instance, unique individual differences in, personality or
intelligence would explain why some individuals beco me leaders while
others do not.
Trait approach posits that people inherit particular talents and attributes
that make them better suited to leadership. Trait theories frequently
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46 with leadership. Although these traits distinguished leaders from
followers, the traits required of a leader varied depending on the situation.
The trait approach has been criticized for neglecting the interaction
between leader and follower. Personal tra its are merely one aspect of the
overall environment. By focusing primarily on possible traits, the other
aspects of leadership are overlooked. Further, it assumes that leadership is
an inborn quality. This is not always true, as leadership qualities may b e
developed through training also. As well as, trait studies do not distinguish
between trait that are needed for acquiring leadership and those that are
necessary for maintaining leadership position.
2.3.2 Transformational Approach to Leadership :
Leadersh ip research has tended to stress the influence of leaders on
subordinates since the late 1970s. It rather emphasizes on leaders' ability
to inspire and empower their followers, allowing them to contribute their
maximum. Transformational approach to leaders hip is one amongst them
and sometimes it is seen as a type of charismatic leadership. In 1978,
James MacGregor Burns in his book “Leadership” proposed
transformational leadership theory that has impacted fresh perspectives on
leadership.
According to Bur ns (1978), leadership occurs when people with certain
objectives and goals utilize resources in order to stimulate and satisfy the
motives of followers. He distinguished two types of leadership:
transactional and transformative. Transactional leadership fo cuses on
fundamental, mostly extrinsic drives and needs.On a higher level,
transformative focuses on intrinsic andmoral motives and needs. Burns'
idea of Transformative leadership is concerned first with higher -order
psychological requirements such as self -esteem, autonomy, and self -
actualization, and subsequently with moral issues such as, righteousness,
responsibility and obligation.
Burns (1978) states that, “The result of transforming leadership is a
relationship of mutual stimulation and elevation that convert followers
into leaders and may convert leaders into moral agents”. Transformational
approach to leadership is centered on the leader's vision being
communicated and shared with followers in order to inspire them to
sacrifice personal interests for the sake of the group. Some of our freedom
fighters like can be an ideal illustration of a transformative leader because
they transformed the ‘Janmanas’ by sharing their vision of free India.
Rather than limiting themselves to achieve power, they stayed a ware of a
higher purpose. Their leadership vision extended beyond them to the
greater welfare of all who followed him and for the welfare of the whole
country. Another good example can be Abraham Lincoln, an ex -president
of U.S.A.’ who promoted the freedom of all slaves nationwide and in
doing so inspired people to sacrifice personal interest for social good.
Transformational leaders are described by Bernard M. Bass (1985)
primarily in terms of its effects on followers. Followers who have faith in,
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47 Leadership in Education above and beyond their abilities. Followers of transformational leaders
tend to identify deeply with and be transformed by the leader. Leaders
facilitate followers' transformation by raisi ng awareness about the
importance and value of goal accomplishment, urging followers to
transcend their own self -interest for the sake of the organisation or team,
and activating higher order needs. This results in a shift in both leaders'
and followers' v alues, expectations, and motivation. Leader influences
followers’ self -efficacy, and self -esteem as well. Thus, they empower their
followers to reach their full potential and contribute more effectively to
their organisation by mentoring and empowering the m.
Bernard M. Bass (1985) furthered this concept by mentioning four
primary factors that a transformational leader should have: Charisma
(idealised influence), inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and
individualized consideration.
Charisma ( Idealised Influence): A transformational leader has a huge
influence on people who follow him and this is achieved through her/his
ideal behaviour at all times.
Inspirational Motivation: Inspirational motivation is the ability of a
transformative leader t o inspire and excite followers to go above and
beyond to achieve the desired goals and do the right things.
Intellectual Stimulation: The ability of the transformative leader to raise
awareness of problems and solutions is referred to as intellectual
stimu lation. S/He stimulate the followers intellectually to envision newer
and better future.
Individualized Consideration: Individualized Consideration suggests that
the transformational leader acknowledges differences in subordinates'
skills, competencies, a nd desires for growth opportunities. The degree to
which the leader exhibits real care in the followers is an important aspect
of individualized attention.
In nutshell, transformational leaders cultivate reciprocal connections with
their followers that are based on trust and individual consideration. They
are visionary leaders who are values -driven and inspiring, intellectually
stimulating, and change agents. Transformational leaders are more
commonly referred to as change agents who stimulate and direct s taff to
embrace new set of behaviour. These leaders are dissatisfied with the
present situation and push their organizations to always change for better.
They nudge their organizations toward a new state, perception or work
culture by generating dissatisfa ction with the current. They are always
monitoring the outside world for new opportunities, projecting changes in
fields and technology, and searching for ways to keep their organisation in
sync with the outside world. They transform the follower's viewpoi nt on
the challenges by assisting them in viewing old problems in fresh light.

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48 2.3.3 Transactional Approach to Leadership :
Transactional approach to leadership has emerged as a contrasting with
transformational approach leadership. Transactional leadersh ip is marked
by the leader's inclination to exert control over followers' behaviour and to
engage in corrective interactions for the resolution of issues. For this, the
follower will grant authority to the leader. Transactional leaders gain
influence over their subordinates by offering rewards in exchange for his
obedience. It is also comparable to bartering because it entails a simple
interaction of interests - I will take care of your interests if mine are being
taken care of.
Transactional leadership is c haracterized by simply the exchange of
interests between the leader and the followers. Thus, transactional leaders
focus on the needs of their followers and build a relationship with them
based on satisfying those needs. In many ways, transactional leaders hip
symbolizes the typical interaction between employer and staff which is
just based on of rewards and punishment mechanism. Consider the very
basic relationship between an employer and the employee/s as an example.
Employees will work in exchange for a p ayment and will obey the
superior's directions and rules as long as their needs are satisfied. Here
both are aware of the other's power and resources. Their respective
interests are intertwined and thus the relationship is established. The
relationship, ho wever, does not extend beyond the transaction.
The key distinction between transformational and transactional leadership
is that only the former involves the empowerment of followers. Thus,
transformational leaders may influence not only their followers' actions
but also their values, expectations, and motivation, whereas transactional
leaders can only influence their followers' behaviour. More notably,
transformational and charismatic leaders can persuade subordinates to
think beyond their personal intere sts and act in the best interests of the
entire group, whereas transactional leaders build their influence on the
followers' personal interests. A crucial point is that in transactional
leadership, a leader utilizes rewards and punishment to motivate follo wers
to perform their duties, whereas a transformational leader uses charisma to
attract followers and gain some respect. Problem identification and
resolution begin in transformative leadership long before the problem
develops. The leader anticipates the problem and takes appropriate efforts
to resolve it. The leader in transactional leadership reacts after the problem
has surfaced.
2.3.4 Psychodynamic Approach to Leadership :
The Psychodynamic approach to leadership is based on basic
psychoanalytic princip les and Freudian research .Freud’s theories served
as the foundation for further understandings of the underlying reasons and
motives that drive human behavior. Freud’s psychoanalytical theories
were later adopted, further built upon, to develop psychodyna mic
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49 Leadership in Education and a group of young scholars were early proponents of the
psychodynamic approach.
The psychodynamic approach to leadership explores the dynamics of
human behaviour, which are often the most difficult to comprehend. It
emphasizes that humans are complicated, unique, and paradoxical entities
owing to their rich and diverse set of motivational factors and interaction
patterns. Here are some key concepts and basic ideas within the
Psycho dynamic approach relating to leadership and organisation study:
 It lay emphasis on focusing on the ‘inner theatre’. Many of our
feelings, fears, motives, lie in our subconscious or inner self. Humans
are not always consciously aware of the things that driv e our
personality and actions, but they do have a major effect on our
reactions and relationships. When one focuses on understanding
motivation behind human behaviour, identifying key relationship
conflicts, he can align these inner motives to more product ive
interpersonal relationships.
 Humans are all the outcome of their previous experiences. Human
personality is formed by the experiences, which are most influential in
the early phases of their lives. These early experiences shape our
responses to others and contribute to the development of many
relationships.
 Human emotions influence how individuals feel about different
situations and how they mentally organize them. The ability to
regulate and express our emotions is fundamental to who and what we
are.
 An implicit concept is that individual’s personality traits are firmly
embedded and almost difficult to modify. The idea is to accept one's
own personality traits, as well as to understand and accept the traits of
others.
Psychodynamic approach is based on the premise that by studying what
influences a person's behaviour, a better understanding of how he or she
functions and why they react or act in specific ways can be gained, and
then using that knowledge to become better leaders and followers.
Functionall y, the psychodynamic approach stresses leaders gaining
insights into their personality traits and understanding the responses of
colleagues/followers based on their personalities. At the same time,
leaders encourage colleagues/followers to obtain insights into their own
personalities so that they can learn to understand their reactions to the
leader and others.
The Psychodynamic Approach is significant for leadership in an
organization for following reasons. Firstly, if a leader is effectively
introspectiv e and understands their personality traits and inner drives, they
will be in sync with their emotional responses and will be able to direct
their actions toward their team accordingly. Secondly, if they are more
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50 may be able to adapt their leadership style to them and better lead them
toward goal achievement. Further, the psychodynamic approach adds an
important dimension to leadership by addressing our prior experiences,
subconsciousn ess, feelings, self -understanding, and personality types.The
strategy works because people become aware of each other's personalities,
and so the differences are brought to light so that they may be discussed.
This approach has been criticized as it does n ot take into account
organizational factors, rather it focuses only on leaders’ personality and
leadership style. Structural and organizational issues are overlooked in this
approach. Other criticism is that it does not accommodate itself to
conventional i dea of training, as it focuses on increasing individual’s self -
awareness. It varies from individual to individual hence it is difficult to
provide specific guidelines or standard solution for systematic change.
2.3.5 Charismatic Approach to Leadership :
Charisma is a Greek term that refers to "divinely inspired ability."
According to sociologist Max Weber (1947), “charisma is a kind of
influence that is based on the follower's perception that the leader
possesses outstanding qualities, rather than the influe ncing someone with
authority of position or tradition”. Charismatic leadership is primarily an
attribution of the followers. Followers attribute certain charismatic
qualities to a leader based on their observations of the leader's behavior.
Charismatic ap proach to leadership is characterized by visionary leaders
who are capable of motivating their followers, inspiring optimism,
challenge the status quo, and serve as positive role models. It is also
distinguished by great communication abilities. The concep t of
charismatic leadership is based on the psychoanalytic concept of personal
identification. It is the process by which a person's beliefs about another
person esp. the leader become self -defining or self -referential. Basically, it
refers to the follower s identifying with leaders and desiring to be like that
person.
Warren Bennis (1989), after studying ninety of the most effective leaders
in the United States, discovered that :
 Charismatic leaders were visionary in character,
 They had a clear vision or sen se of purpose,
 They were able to express that vision in clear words that their
followers could easily identify with,
 They displayed constancy and dedication in the pursuit of their vision,
and
 They recognized and capitalized on their own strengths.
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51 Leadership in Education Thus, charismatic leaders would portray themselves as role models for
their followers, who would then imitate and accept the leaders' views,
beliefs, and behaviours. The extent to which a leader is charismatic is
determined by followers' trust in the correctn ess of the leader's beliefs and
the commonality of followers' beliefs to those of the leader. Further it is
ascertained by followers' unquestioning acceptance of the leader and their
willing obedience to the leader. Finally, it is defined by their identifi cation
with the goals of the organisation and greatly increased performance level.
Although there is general agreement on the benefits of charismatic
leadership for both the organisation and the individual, it is criticized for
the over dependence of follo wers on leader. Identification with the leader
results in a high level of reliance on the leader by subordinates.In the
extreme case of the leader's departure, the followers may experience a
crisis, acute feelings of grief, and severe orientation problem s.
2.3.6 Social Approach to Leadership :
Leadership has always been viewed as behaviour or style of a specific
individual. The central assumption is that leadership is individualized and
mostly top -down approach, with the leader exerting influence over
followers. In contrast to this assumption, some scholars defined leadership
as an extremely complicated phenomenon involving a large number of
people and their activities, behaviours, and interactions. The social
approach to leadership prominently stresses tha t it is a process of shared
influence wherein an individual's action is no more significant than
leadership as a social process.
The framework for social leadership was actually constructed some time
ago, with the emergence of social identity theory. The i mportance of
group dynamics in understanding individual and group behaviour is
emphasized by social identity theory. Personal identity describes an
individual's perception of oneself as unique and different from other
persons in a specific circumstance. Al ternatively, social identity refers to
an individual's awareness that he or she belongs to particular social group
is now a part of the emotional worth and significance of this group
membership. In simple words, social identity refers to an individual's
sense of belonging to a group.
Michael A. Hogg in his article " A social identity theory of leadership,"
describes the term "in group proto typicality", here the term prototype
means someone or something that serves to illustrate the typical qualities.
As pe ople identify more strongly with a group, they pay closer attention to
the group prototype and identify what or who is most prototypical of the
group. As a result, the most prototypical member of the group is most
likely to become a leader. He viewed leade rship as group process
generated by social categorization and prototype -based depersonalization
processes associated with social identity.
Some dimensions of leadership development can be explained by social
identity theory. According to this viewpoint, le adership emergence is the
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52 whole. A group prototype emerges as a group evolves through time.
Leadership, according to the social identity approach, is a function of the
group rather than the individual. Individuals emerge as group leaders
when they resemble the group prototype the most. They are more socially
appealing, making it easier for group members to accept their authority
and follow their decisions. Finally, group members assign l eadership
attributes to the person rather than the situation, further distinguishing the
leader from the rest of the group by considering him or her as special. The
leader, who maintains attitudes and behaviours congruent with the
prototype, will be succes sful.
The social identity theory examines how groups perceive themselves and
the issues they consider crucial. The main premise of the theory is that
leaders can be identified by a specific social group rather than by the
leader himself. This gives the lea der the authority to approve the group's
agenda and accomplish a result by responding to the needs of the group.
This theory has been criticized as individuals can manipulate their own
leadership status in groups by showing themselves as prototypical to th e
group, they may not identify themselves with group in reality. Further, it
substitutes individualism with social identity and trivialises the
significance of self -esteem.
There are various approaches of thinking about leadership, varying from
emphasizing the personality traits of exceptional leaders to stressing
aspects of the circumstances that influence how people lead. Leadership,
like many other concepts, is a multifaceted subject, and it is a combination
of various aspects that contribute to why some people become excellent
leaders.
Check your progress:
1. Describe the Psychodynamic approach to leadership.
2. What is transformational leadership? Why transformation leadership
seems to be more effective than transactional leadership?
2.4 GOLEMAN’S LEADE RSHIP STYLES Leadership style is the manner and approach of providing direction,
implementing plans and motivating people. According to the Goleman
Leadership Styles framework (2002), leaders are required to deal with a
changing environment at the workplac e and need to have ability to deal it
efficiently. This entire framework relies solely on emotional intelligence.
It considers emotional intelligence as one of the first and single most
important parts of leadership. To lead, a leader must understand the
emotional sides of different aspects as well as the emotions of the
followers. There must be some basic rapport and emotional understanding
for the followers to understand and trust the leader as well.
The other term that is required to understand Goleman Leadership Styles
model, is ‘resonant leader’. A resonant leader instills pleasant and munotes.in

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53 Leadership in Education energetic emotions in others and brings them into emotional harmony.
When resonant leadership is implemented well in a team, it results in
emotional satisfaction, collab oration, co - creation, and strong emotional
connection that help the team get through difficult times. On the contrary,
Dissonant leadership can result in an unpleasant feeling, a lack of rapport,
stress, and even panic. This could result in more people r estraining from
speaking up because they are afraid of outbursts or repercussions from the
leader or other members. He categorizes the six leadership types based on
emotional intelligence into two groups:
i. Affiliative leadership, Coaching leadership, Dem ocratic leadership,
and Authoritative/Visionary leadership are examples of leadership
styles that build resonance and improve performance.
ii. Pacesetting leadership and commanding leadership styles, when
utilized improperly, cause dissonance
The six leade rship styles based on Daniel Goleman's Emotional
Intelligence are believed to be the most practical an deffective set of
leadership styles. Daniel Goleman (2002) describes all the six styles
briefly, “Coercive leaders demand immediate compliance. Authorita tive
leaders mobilize people toward a vision. Affiliative leaders create
emotional bonds and harmony. Democratic leaders build consensus
through participation. Pacesetting leaders expect excellence and self -
direction. And coaching leaders develop people fo r the future.”These six
leadership styles are discussed below.
2.4.1 The Pacesetting Leader :
Pacesetting leadership, as the term suggests, focuses on the leader setting
the pace for the organisation by using a "Do it as I do” approach.
Pacesetting leadersh ip occurs when a leader sets an example of high
performance, pace, and excellence. Team members are expected to follow
suit, and the pacesetter places an emphasis on performance above
everything else. As a result, the leader believes it is appropriate to e ither
rush in and take over the work from an employee who is underperforming
or terminate that employee for incompetence.
A pacesetting leader is exceptionally self -motivated. This leader is driven
by a strong desire to achieve and sets high performance an d perfection
standards. At the same time, this leader takes significant initiative to get
things done as quickly as feasible. Such leaders understand the
significance of leading by example and holding their team to high
standards and are trend -setters. A s uccessful pacesetter understands the
significance of clearly communicated requirements. A pacesetting leader
demonstrates and reiterates why delays and disappointments should be
avoided. Some of the famous sports leaders portrays pacesetting
leadership sty le.
Pacesetting leadership is ideal for attaining short -term, time -sensitive
organizational goals due to strict deadlines and an emphasis on high -
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54 of team members and use them to build the employee's work performance.
Pacesetting leadership shines the best when surrounded by a highly
talented and experienced team. It is the best type of leadership to apply
when the leader needs to establish a high -performance standard, team
morale is weak, and belief in success is low.
This leadership style may be effective in the short term, but it may be
damaging to staff engagement and motivation in the long run. Inability to
meet strict deadlines can create stress among team members with low sel f-
esteem and a sense of inadequacy. A team lead by pace setting leader may
face trust issue with leader as the leader feels its appropriate to terminate
who is inadequate rather than improving them with guidance. As
pacesetting leadership is results -orient ed with focus only on consistently
high levels of performance, there is less scope for creativity and invention.
As a result, work becomes increasingly short -sighted, monotonous, and
tedious. At the same time, there is no emphasis on building relationships
or team morale. Some of the drawbacks of pacesetting are substantial, and
therefore it is essential to balance it with Goleman's other five leadership
styles.
2.4.2 Authoritative Leader :
The authoritative leadership style is referred to as "visionary" lea dership
sometimes. Goleman defines visionary leadership as “the ability to take
charge and inspire with a compelling vision”. An authoritative/visionary
leader sees the big picture and determines a long -term vision for the
organisation. When an authoritati ve leadership style is used, the long -term
vision is adequately articulated and clarified to the members of the
organisation. This style is built on participation, communication, and goal
setting.
An authoritative leader communicates and promotes the visi on in such a
way that members of the organisation are inspired and understand how
they will benefit from its implementation. Each team member has a clear
idea of the overall vision to be achieved. Such leaders are proactive and
can often foresee challenges . Authoritative leaders are not hesitant to take
risks that will bring the organisation closer to its true vision. They inspire
unity and acknowledges employee’s achievement. Authoritative leaders
offer their teams a general direction and aim to attain, bu t they are free to
achieve that goal in any preferred manner.
This leadership style works best when a leader has to take charge and
inspire a significant shift in vision. The authoritative style is most effective
when a new vision or clear direction is nee ded, e.g. when in a period of
change – at an individual ororganizational level. It thrives the best if
leader asks individual perspectives on the vision without abandoning
authority or compromising with the vision.
Although this is a good leadership style, it should not be overused. Too
much of this might lead to a lack of focus on shorter -term objectives and
operational processes. As a result, the organisation may suffer and the
team may be unable to fulfil the vision. Another issue is, there is a munotes.in

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55 Leadership in Education concentr ation on the leader's vision, which leads to the dismissal of
otherwise valuable ideas. It may lack an objective outlook on the need to
either revise the vision or discard it altogether for something better.
2.4.3 Affiliative Leader :
Affiliative leadership is more concerned with relationships and people. As
signified by the term ‘affiliative - tending to promote social cohesion’, it is
focused at ensuring harmony and friendship in the workplace. The
affiliative leadership style fosters trust and harmony in t he team, boosting
teamwork to new heights. Because of the high level of trust and
communication, affiliative leadership style typically gives a great deal of
flexibility in workplace which means that affiliative teams are more
adaptable and can cope with c hanging circumstances better than many
other teams. This leadership style incorporates a lot of feedback,
acknowledgment, and rewards, which helps to foster team spirit and
togetherness.
Affiliative leaders attempt to solve any problem by strengthening
relationships and connecting with each team member on an emotional
level. They seek to establish a pleasant work environment for their team
members and are keen on offering recognition. While focusing on keeping
all entire team happy, the affiliative leader d evelops good bond and
relationships with and among teammates. This results in less stress and
more autonomy for team members. Affiliative leaders are more likely to
spend time with their staff to celebrate a thorough job. At the same time,
the affiliative leader considers morality and values as their primary
priority. Instead, affiliative leaders set an example of moral behaviour and
expect others they work with to follow suit. This emphasis on morals also
helps them in demonstrating empathy for their emplo yees which other
leadership styles usually lack.
Affiliative leaders can be very helpful when a team is in deep crisis.
Furthermore, when trying to form team from the ground up, affiliative
leadership is especially advantageous since it fosters trust and a sense of
belonging, which can help to bind the team members together in a positive
way. Positive communication is used by affiliate leaders to boost team
morale and improve the rate of success.
Overuse of affiliative leadership, like the other styles, can have disastrous
consequences. If a leader uses too much of this, s/he will lose sight of
leadership role and instead become best friends with his followers. This
may leave team members confused as they rarely receive actionable
advice or correction and wi thout guidance of a leader. In some case
affiliative leadership can lead to a lack of accountability and productivity,
because team harmony and friendship have taken precedence. Even
leaders avoid taking tough decisions, or delays responding to conflicting
situation, which may eventually do more harm to organisation. In contrast
to the pacesetting leadership style, employee underperformance is
commonly overlooked here, hence affiliative leadership may not work
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56 2.4.4 Coaching Leader :
Coaching leadership, as implied by the name, is when a leader coaches
team members to develop and improve with a long -term perspective.
Coaching leadership was proposed by behavioural scientist Paul Hersey
and management expert Ken Blanchard as part of their Situational
Leadership Model, which they developed in 1969.Coaching leadership is
later included in Daniel Goleman's leadership styles based on emotional
intelligence. Coaching leadership may influence ordinary people to
perform extraordinary things in various fields like sports, trade, education,
sales, or anything else.
Coaching leadership increases employee engagement and focuses on
developing employees to become better individuals and professionals over
time. This leadership style gives equal importance to accomplishment of
task and developing interpersonal relationship with team members. Task
focused behaviour is used by the leader to direct team members to perform
specific tasks. However, the leader forms a supportive relati onship with a
team member, allowing the team member to acquire a sense of autonomy.
In this manner, the leader both challenges and supports the team member,
with the intention of guiding them toward self -development. This
increases engagement, fosters part nerships, and improves the future
productivity of the team member being coached. The coaching leadership
style works best with a highly skilled leader and change -receptive team
members.
Coaching leaders prioritize the personal growth of their team members
over reaching work -related goals or sales targets. They work one -on-one
with their staff to attain excellence, which works well for people who are
willing to learn and grow. They intelligently use scaffolding and
understand that their guidance should be gr adually lessened so that each
team member can develop a greater sense of autonomy. The coaching
leadership style becomes long -term strategy for developing each team
member. As a basic component of coaching leadership, coaching leaders
employ constructive c riticism and timely feedback for their growth. At the
same time, coaching leaders need to understand the individual being
coached on an emotional level in order to coach effectively. Empathy
allows the leader to determine how to challenge and develop the
individual, as well as know when to remove and increase pressure.
Coaching leadership can be time -consuming as it requires a lot of one -on-
one time. It becomes too much demanding for leader as it requires much
of their time, efforts and experience, but the reliasation of his efforts will
take considerably a long -time span. The coaching leadership style will
only succeed if team members are equally dedicated to the process.
Coaching leaders can only work with employees who are committed to
enhance their abili ties in order to become better and more effective in their
roles. It may not succeed, if team members do not make a significant
commitment to self -development.
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57 Leadership in Education 2.4.5 Coercive Leader :
Coercive leadership, also known as "directive" or "commanding"
leadershi p, is best used when a leader needs to solve a problem swiftly and
effectively. Coercive leadership is an autocratic, ordering style in which
the leader gives commands and those commands are carried out. The
coercive leader makes all decisions and gives co mmands to his/her team
without providing any explanation. The coercive leadership style is
characterized by strong and tight control and follow -up, as well as great
clarity in rules, roles, and expectations. Military leaders often use the
coercive leadersh ip style. There is a reason this leadership is a popular
leadership style in the military. The specific rules and standards provided
by this leadership style allow for the development of a strong framework
for ensuring safety and satisfying regulatory stan dards.
A coercive leader can achieve clarity and attain objectives by giving
instructions and setting rules that define an employee's roles and
responsibilities as well as by removing any impediments to task
accomplishment. Furthermore, a coercive leader n eeds to understand each
team member's competency as well as their strengths and weaknesses.
This will enable the leader to assign duties to the appropriate team
members depending on their skill levels Clarity of communication is a
characteristic of coerciv e leadership. Everyone on the team understands
what is expected of them for completing tasks successfully. They are also
aware of the implications of failing to complete a task properly within the
timeframe specified.
Coercive leadership can be effective, but only with low -skilled teams and
during times of crisis when decisions must be made really fast. Coercive
leadership is also beneficial for structuring inexperienced and unorganized
team as leader’s experience, clarity of communication and set rules and
regulation inexperienced team to perform well. Since this style of
leadership generates high clarity and execution speed, it can lessen worries
and panic in critical situations.
Outside of these circumstances, it swiftly leads to dissonance, employees
may feel dominated, disrespected, manipulated, victimised, and generally
unhappy and unproductive. This leadership may quickly descend to
autocratic leadership if the leader is not conscious about it. In that case,
coercive leadership is harmful for employee engagement, especially with
high-skilled teams in complicated situations. Here, employee development
is sacrificed for the sake of the organization's goals. Hence in long run,
team morale decreases, and employee engagement may suffer. Further, as
this lea dership relies heavily on the experience of the leader, it fails if the
leader is not sufficiently experienced.
2.4.6 Democratic Leader :
Democratic leadership, also known as participative leadership, emerges
when ideas are openly exchanged within a team an d is based on
democratic principles. Every team member has a valued voice and are
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58 Kurt Lewin, a behavioural psychologist who worked during1930s
and1940s, is credited with coining the term "democratic leadership" as
part of his leadership experiments to examine leadership styles. Goleman's
Six Leadership Styles also includes Democratic leadership, in
contemporary times.
Democratic leadership style is a collective style of leadership tha t values
the input of employees by empowering them. These leaders inspire group
members to participate and contribute, making them feel more essential
and dedicated to the decision -making process. The democratic leader is
required to facilitate free -flowin g interactions in which each team member
can express ideas and perspectives, hence her/his communication skills are
essential. However, in democratic leadership, the leader retains the right to
allow for the input of others before making the ultimate decis ion or
approving the team's decision.
Democratic leaders promote flexibility and accountability by giving
employees a voice in decisions that affect their goals and the way they
accomplish their tasks. By listening to their employees' issues and
concerns w ith open mind, democratic leaders learn what they need to do to
maintain high morale. Democratic leaders provide the congenial work
environment where there is ample scope for creativity and innovation.
They facilitate high levels of participation from each member, which leads
to high levels of employee engagement. Democratic Leadership places a
great emphasis on people -oriented behaviour rather than task -oriented
behaviour. But at the same time, for a democratic leader, the ability to
prioritize the ideas a nd opinion which leads to the realistic approach of
task accomplishment, is really vital.
Though the democratic style may seem like the perfect leadership style, it
is not suitable style that can be used during crisis as its time consuming. It
leads to end less meetings and postponement of crucial decisions as too
many people are involved in decision making. When employees are not
skilled or knowledgeable enough to provide meaningful advice, the
democratic model does not make logical sense. Longer meetings t o
discuss everyone's points of view and find a consensus may result in a
decrease in productivity. The benefits of democratic leadership far exceed
the drawbacks, so consider utilizing this leadership style. There are
various types of leadership based on t he level of engagement that a leader
seeks while making decisions, nevertheless, the participative or
democratic style of leadership is most suited to educational leadership.
This approach promotes participation from all stakeholders, including
teachers, p arents, and students. As viewpoints of all stakeholders are
considered, the overall quality of student learning is improved.
The discussion of all leadership style encompasses the explanation of the
style, attributes seen or required in a leader well as th e limitation of the
style. A thorough examination of these components enable leader to
choose the appropriate style wisely. Depending on the situation, these
Goleman's leadership styles can be applied in varying proportions.
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59 Leadership in Education occasionally, whereas democratic, authoritative, affiliative, and coaching
types should be used more frequently and in greater proportion.
Check your progress:
1. How is the coercive leader different from the coaching leader?
2. According to you, which one of the Goleman’s leadership styles is
best suited for an educational institution? Why?
2.5 LET US SUM UP In order to address the challenges of the twenty -first century, knowledge
and skill empowerment has become a must. Both can only be obtained
through quality education. Effective educational leadership is at the top of
the list of requirements for ensuring quality education. As a result,
education leadership is and will be critical in the twenty -first century and
subsequent centuries. Learning can be considerably enhanced if the leader
fosters organisational climate that will help effective learning. Thus,
strong educational leaders, who are well -versed in leadership roles and
styles at the same time and are able to remodel the existing system in
favour of a more learning -centered system, is better suited to meeting the
needs of the twenty -first century.
2.6 UNIT END EXERCISES 1. Explain the concept of leadership. Enumerate the characteristics of
leadership.
2. "Managers prov ide structure and frameworks for operations, but
leaders inspire." Justify the statement with references to difference
between a leader and a manager.
3. What are the different requisites to become effective and successful
leader?Elaborate the qualities th at you would like to develop in
yourself to become a good leader.
4. Discuss in detail the social approach to leadership.
5. What is a democratic leadership style? What is the role of leader in
fostering democratic leadership in an organisation?
6. Critica lly analyze different Goleman's leadership styles.Which
amongst them is the best style of leadership, according to you? Why?
2.7 REFERENCES  Avolio, B.J. and Yammarino, F.J. (Ed.) (2013), Introduction to, and
Overview of, Transformational and Charismatic Le adership,
Transformational and Charismatic Leadership: The Road Ahead 10th
Anniversary Edition, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, Bingley,
Volume. 5, pp. xxvii -xxxiii. Retrieved from munotes.in

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60 Educational Management and Leadership
60 https://doi.org/10.1108/S1479 -357120130000005005
 Bennis, Warren. G. (1989 ). On Becoming a Leader, Cambridge, MA:
Perseus Pub. [Rev. ed 2003].
 Dansereau, F., Seitz, S., Chiu, C., Shaughnessy, B., & Yammarino, F.
(2013). What Makes Leadership, Leadership? Using Self -Expansion
Theory to Integrate Traditional and Contemporary Appro aches. The
Leadership Quarterly, Vol.24, pp.798 -821.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2013.10.008
 Dinh, J., Lord, R., Gardner, W., Meuser, J., Liden, R., & Hu, J.
(2014). Leadership Theory and Research in the New Millennium:
Current Theoretical Trends and Changing Perspectives. Leadership
Quarterly, Vol. 25, pp.36 -62. Retrieved from
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2013.11.005
 Hogg, Michael A. (2001). A social identity theory of leadership.
Personality and Social Psychology Review, Vol.5 (3) pp.184 -
200.Retr ieved from
https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327957PSPR0503_1
 Kossivi Bodjrenou, Ming Xu (2018),Review of Recent Developments
in Leadership Theories’Open Journal of Social Sciences, Vol.6 No.7.
Retrieved from
DOI: 10.4236/jss.2018.67014
 Kotter, John. P. (1990). A Force for Change: How Leadership Differs
from Management. NewYork, NY: Free Press.
 Kuhnert Karl W. and Lewis Philip (1987). Transactional and
Transformational Leadership: A Constructive/Developmental
Analysis, The Academy of Management Review Vol. 12, No . 4, pp.
648-657. Retrieved from
https://doi.org/10.2307/258070
 Lunenburg F.C. (2011) Leadership versus Management: A Key
Distinction —At Least in Theory.International Journal of
Management, Business, And Administration Vol. 14, No. 1, pp. 1 -4.
Retrieved f rom
https://comp.anu.edu.au/courses/comp3120/local_docs/readings/Lune
nburg_LeadershipVersusManagement.pdf
 Manfred F.R., Veris Kets &Cheak A. (2014). Psychodynamics, A
Working paper: Accepted Publication in Northouse, P.G. Leadership:
Theory and Practice 7t h Ed. Sage. Retrieved from
https://sites.insead.edu/facultyresearch/research/doc.cfm?did=54942
 Marx Gary (2006) Future -focused Leadership: Preparing Schools,
Students, and Communities for tomorrow’s realities, Association for
Supervision and Curriculum De velopment, Virginia USA
 https://www.etymonline.com/search?q=leader&type=0 munotes.in

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61 Leadership in Education  https://www.economicsdiscussion.net/management/leadership/what -
is-leadership/32116
 https://www.open.edu/openlearncreate/pluginfile.php/20568/mod_res
ource/content/1/E838_1_Section4.pd f
 https://www.blackwellpublishing.com/content/personalityandindividu
aldifferences/9781405130080_4_011.pdf
 https://www.leadershipahoy.com/the -six-leadership -styles -by-daniel -
goleman/
*****
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62 3A
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
(HRM) IN ORGANIZATION -I
Unit Structure
3A.0 Objectives
3A.1 Introduction
3A.2 Human Resource Management (HRM)
3A.2.1 Meaning and Importance of HRM
3A.2.2 How does HRM work?
3A.2.3 Objectives of HRM
3A.2.4 Nature of HRM
3A.2. 5 Scope of HRM
3A.2.6 Skills and Responsibilities of An HR Manager
3A.2.7 Job Analysis In HRM
3A.3 Let Us Sum Up
3A.4 Unit End Exercise
3A.5 References
3A.0 OBJECTIVES After learning this unit, student will able to
1. Explain Concept of Human Resource Mana gement
2. Explain Skills and Responsibilities of An HR Manager
3. Explain Concept of Job Analysis
4. Comprehend Concept of Job Analysis.
3A.1 INTRODUCTION In the success of every business, five M's Man, Money, Material,
Methods, and Machinery/minutes play a crucia l role. Human resource is
an essential element of an organization. It includes all the employee and
the people whosoever is contributed to the organization through their
services. Specifically, employees are considered as human resources of the
business.
The department handles the personnel management activities of an
organization is also known as Human Resource. This department also
executes the process of hiring, employee benefits , and compensation.
Human resources are the lifeblood of every organization. The progress of
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63 Human Resource Management (HRM) in Organization-I efficient and competent workforce ensures long term sustenance in the
industry.
Human Resource Definition:
Different Authors had distinct viewpoints towards human resource.
Henceforth, they define Human Resource based on their skills, research,
and experience. Find below human resource definition given by some of
the prominent authors & experts:
Leon C. Megginson defined “HR as the total knowledge, skills, creative
abilities, talents, and aptitudes of an organization's workforce, as well as
the value, attitudes, and beliefs of the individuals involved.”
Jucius Michael calls huma n resources, as ‘human factors’, which refer to
“a whole consisting of inter -related inter -dependent and inter -acting,
physiological, psychological, sociological and ethical components.”
Gray Dessler “The policies and practices one needs to carry out the
people or human resource aspects of a management position, including
recruiting, screening, training, rewarding, and appraising”
David A Decenzo and Stephen p. Robbins “Human is made of four
activities:
a) Staffing,
b) Training and development,
c) Moti vation and
d) Maintenance.
Cambridge dictionary states “Human resource definition “people, when
considered as an asset that is or can be employed and that is useful to a
company, organization, etc."
Human Resource Concept:
Earlier Personnel admin istration was regarded as the HR department of an
organization because most of the employee -related activities viz. hiring ,
training, employee welfare, etc. performed by them in organiz ations. It
entailed employee record keeping, implementation of organizational
regulations according to employment laws. Also, personnel administrators
determine wages, compensation, and other employee benefits. Managers
used to perform tasks of administrat ors to maintain a smooth flow of work
in the organization.
According to traditional HR, employees were merely a source of
production in the organization. In the present scenario, an efficient HR
professional must know about Engagement, Strategic Human Re source
Management, Job demands -resources model, HR analytics, Applicant
tracking system, Employee turnover, HR report, Employee experience,
and 360-degre e survey. These concepts are quite different from the munotes.in

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64 Educational Management and Leadership
64 conventional concepts of HR. Along with it, these concepts on the mutual
development of organization and employee during the achievement of a
goal. In other words, employees are considered and regarded as Human
Assets for the growth and advancement of the organization.
3A.2 HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT 3A.2.1 Meaning and Importance of HRM:
Human resource management (HRM) is the practice of recruiting, hiring,
deploying and managing an organization's employ ees. HRM is often
referred to simply as human resources ( HR). A company or organization's
HR department is usually responsible for creating, putting into e ffect and
overseeing policies governing workers and the relationship of the
organization with its employees. The term human resources was first used
in the early 1900s, and then more widely in the 1960s, to describe the
people who work for the organization , in aggregate.
HRM is employee management with an emphasis on those employees as
assets of the business. In this context, employees are sometimes referred to
as human capital. As with other business assets, the goal is to make
effective use of employees, reducing risk and maximizing return on
investment ( ROI).
The modern HR technology term human capital ma nagement ( HCM ) has
been used more frequently compared to the term HRM. The term HCM
has had widespread adoption by large and midsize companies and other
organizations of software to manage many HR functions.
According to Armstrong (1997), Human Resource Management can be
defined as “a strategic approach to acquiring, developing, managing,
motivating and gaining the commitment of the organisation’s key resourc e
– the people who work in and for it.”
According to John Bratton and Jeffrey Gold (2007), “Human Resource
Management is a strategic approach to managing employment relations
which emphasizes that leveraging people’s capabilities is critical to
achieving c ompetitive advantage, this being achieved through a distinctive
set of integrated employment policies, programmes and practises.”
The Importance of Human Resource Management :
The role of HRM practices are to manage the people within a workplace to
achieve the organization's mission and reinforce the culture . When done
effectively, HR managers can help recruit new professionals who have
skills necessary to further the company's go als as well as aid with the
training and development of current employees to meet objectives.
A company is only as good as its employees, making HRM a crucial part
of maintaining or improving the health of the business. Additionally, HR
managers can monito r the state of the job market to help the organization
stay competitive. This could include making sure compensation and munotes.in

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65 Human Resource Management (HRM) in Organization-I benefits are fair, events are planned to keep employees from burning out
and job roles are adapted based on the market.
3A.2.2 How does HRM work? :

Human resources management works through dedicated HR professionals,
who are responsible for the day -to-day execution of HR -related functions.
Typically, human resources will comprise an entire department within
each organization.
HR departme nts across different organizations can vary in size, structure
and nature of their individual positions. For smaller organizations, it is not
uncommon to have a handful of HR generalists , who each perform a broad
array of HR functions. Larger organizations may have more specialized
roles , with individual employees dedicated to functions such as recruiting,
immigration and visa handling, talent management, benefits,
compensation and more. Though these HR positions are differentiated and
specialized, job functions may still overlap with each other.
Amazon is an example of a large company with multiple types of
specialized HR positions. Amazon's career website lists 15 different HR
job titles:
 HR assistant
 HR business partner
 HR manager
 Recruiter
 Recruiting coordinator
 Sourcer
 Recruiting manage r
 Immigration specialist
 LoA and accommodation specialist munotes.in

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66 Educational Management and Leadership
66  Compensation specialist/manager
 Benefits specialist/manager
 Talent management specialist/manager
 Learning and development specialist/manager
 HR technology/process project program manager
 HR analytics specialist/manager
3A.2.3 Objectives of HRM :
The objectives of HRM can be broken down into four broad categories:
1. Societal objectives: Measures put into place that responds to the
ethical and social needs or challenges of the company and its
employees. This includes legal issues such as equal opportunity and
equal pay for equal work.
2. Organizational objectives: Actions taken that help to ensure the
efficiency of the organization. This includes providing training, hiring
the right number of employees for a given task or maintaining high
employee retention r ates.
3. Functional objectives: Guidelines used to keep HR functioning
properly within the organization as a whole. This includes making
sure that all of HR's resources are being allocated to their full
potential.
4. Personal objectives: Resources used to suppor t the personal goals of
each employee. This includes offering the opportunity for education
or career development as well as maintaining employee satisfaction.
Within the unit of each organization, the objectives of HRM are to:
1. Help the organization achiev e its goals by providing and maintaining
productive employees.
2. Efficiently make use of the skills and abilities of each employee.
3. Make sure employees have or receive the proper training.
4. Build and maintain a positive employee experience with high
satisfaction and quality of life, so that employees ca n contribute their
best efforts to their work.
5. Effectively communicate relevant company policies, procedures, rules
and regulations to employees.
6. Maintaining ethical, legal and socially responsible policies and
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67 Human Resource Management (HRM) in Organization-I 7. Effectively manag e change to external factors that may affect
employees within the organization.
3A.2.4 Nature of HRM :
1. HRM is based on certain principles and policies contribute to the
achievement of organizational objectives.
2. HRM is a pervasive function – Human r esource management is not
specific to an individual department, rather it is a broader function and
spread throughout the organization, it manages all type of people from
lower level to top level departments of the organization.
3. HRM is people oriented: People or human resource is the core of all
the activities of human resource management. Human resource
management works with and for people. It brings people and
organization together to achieve individual and organizational goals.
4. HRM is continuous activity: All factors of production are required
to be continuously updated and improved to cope up with the changes
and increased competition. Similarly, human resource also
continuously trained, developed, or replaced to face the next level of
competitio n. Hence, it is a continuous activity.
5. HRM is a part of management function.
6. HRM aims at securing maximum contribution.
7. HRM aims at optimum use of personnel power.
3A.2.5 Scope of HRM :
1. Personnel Aspect :
 Human Resource Planning: It is the pr ocess by which the
organization identifies the number of jobs vacant.
 Job Analysis and Job Design: Job analysis is the systematic process
for gathering, documenting, and analyzing data about the work
required for a job. Job analysis is the procedure for id entifying those
duties or behaviour that define a job.
 Recruitment and Selection: Recruitment is the process of preparing
advertisements on the basis of information collected from job analysis
and publishing it in newspaper. Selection is the process of cho osing
the best candidate among the candidates applied for the job.
 Orientation and Induction: Making the selected candidate informed
about the organization’s background, culture, values, and work ethics.
 Training and Development: Training is provided to bo th new and
existing employees to improve their performance.
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68 Educational Management and Leadership
68  Performance Appraisal: Performance check is done of every
employee by Human Resource Management. Promotions, transfers,
incentives, and salary increments are decided on the basis of
employee perf ormance appraisal.
 Compensation Planning and Remuneration: It is the job of Human
Resource Management to plan compensation and remunerate.
 Motivation: Human Resource Management tries to keep employees
motivated so that employees put their maximum efforts i n work.
2. Welfare Aspect :
Human Resource Management have to follow certain health and safety
regulations for the benefit of employees. It deals with working conditions,
and amenities like - canteens, creches, rest and lunch rooms, housing,
transport, medi cal assistance, education, health and safety, recreation
facilities, etc.
3. Industrial Relation Aspect :
HRM works to maintain co -ordinal relation with the union members to
avoid strikes or lockouts to ensure smooth functioning of the organization.
It als o covers - joint consultation, collective bargaining, grievance and
disciplinary procedures, and dispute settlement.
3A.2.6 Skills and Responsibilities of an HR Manager :
HRM can be broken down into subsections, typically by pre -employment
and employment ph ases, with an HR manager assigned to each. Different
areas of HRM oversight can include the following:
 Employee recruitment , onboarding and retention
 Talent management and workforce management
 Job role assignm ent and career development
 Compensation and benefits
 Labor law compliance
 Performance management
 Training and development
 Succession planning
 Employee engagement and recognition
 Team building
Skills that can add value to HR managers include:
 Employee relations munotes.in

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69 Human Resource Management (HRM) in Organization-I  Job candidate relations
 Sourcing and recruiting
 Interpersonal conflict management
 New employee onboarding
 HR software and information system experience
 Performance management
 Customer service
 Project management
3A.2.7 Job Analysis in HRM :
A) Meaning :
Job analysis is a systematic and detailed examination of jobs. It is a
procedure for determining the duties and skill requirements of a job and
the kind of person who should be hired for it.
Job analysis is the procedure through which you determine the duties and
nature of the jobs and the kinds of people who should be hired for their
goal. It provides to write job descriptions and job specifications, which are
utilized in recruitment and selection, compensation, performance
appraisal, and training.
Job analysis is a formal and detailed examination of jobs. It is a systematic
investigation of the task, duties and responsibilities necessary to do a job.
A task is a distinct work activity carried out for a distinct purpose.
Examples would include type a letter, preparing a lecture, or unloading a
mail truck.
A duty is a large work segment consisting of several tasks, related by
some sequence of events that are performed by an individual.
A position refers to one or more duties performed by one person in an
organization. There are at least as many posit ions as there are workers in
the organization.
Job responsibilities are obligations to perform certain tasks and
duties. Thus, job analysis is a procedure and a tool for determining the
specified tasks, operations and requirements of each job.
It is a comp lete study of job, embodying every known and determinable
factor, including the duties and responsibilities involved in its
performance, the conditions under which the performance is carried on,
the nature of the task, the qualities required in the worker and such
conditions of employment as pay, hour, opportunities and privileges. It
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70 Educational Management and Leadership
70 Job analysis is a process of studying, examining and collecting detailed
information relating to the components and various operations of job. It is
a process of collecting and analysing data relating to a job. It is defined as
the process of studying and collecting information relating to the
operations and responsibilities of the specific job. The immediat e
products, of this analysis are Job description and Job specification.
According to Scott, Clother and Spriegel “job analysis is the process of
critically evaluating the operations, duties and responsibilities of the job”.
In the words of Yoder “job analy sis is the procedure by which the facts
with respect to each job are systematically discovered and noted”.
Thus, job analysis is a process of collecting information about the job.
B) The Job Analysis May Include These Activities:
(a) Reviewing the job responsibilities of current employees,
(b) Doing Internet research and viewing sample job descriptions online or
offline highlighting similar jobs,
(c) Analysing the work duties, tasks, and responsibilities that need to be
accomplished by filling the positi on,
(d) Researching and sharing with companies that have similar jobs, and
(e) Articulation of the most important outcomes or contributions needed
from the position.
C) Important Concepts :
The important concepts of job analysis are:
1. Job:
In simple language, a job may be understood as a division of total work
into packages/positions. According to Dale Yoder, “A job is a collection
or aggregation of tasks, duties and responsibilities as a whole, is regarded
as a regular assignment to individual employee s and which is different
from other assignments”.
Thus, a job may be explained as a group of positions involving some
duties, responsibilities, knowledge and skills. A job may include many
positions. A position is a particular set of duties and responsibil ities
regularly assigned to an individual.
2. Job Description:
Job descriptions are written statements that describe the:
(a) Duties,
(b) Responsibilities, munotes.in

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71 Human Resource Management (HRM) in Organization-I (c) Most important contributions and outcomes needed from a position,
(d) Required qualification of candidates, and
(e) Reporting relationship and co-workers of a particular job.
Job descriptions are based on objective information obtained through job
analysis, an understanding of the competencies and skills required to
accomplish needed tasks, and the needs of the organization to produce
work.
Job description clearly identifies and spells out the responsibilities of a
specific job. Job descriptions also include information about working
conditions, tools, equipment used, knowledge and skills needed, and
relationships with other positions.
The best job descriptions are living, breathing documents that are updated
as responsibilities change. The best job descriptions do not limit
employees, but rather, cause them to stretch their experience, grow their
skills, and develop their ability to contribute within their organization.
3. Position Description:
The Human Resource Director Guide and managers the overall provision
of Human Resources services, policies and programs for the entire
company.
The major areas directed are:
(a) Recruiting and staffing;
(b) Organizational and space planning;
(c) Performance management and improvement systems;
(d) Organization development;
(e) Employment and compliance to regulatory concerns;
(f) Employee orientation, development, and training;
(g) Policy development and documentation;
(h) Employee relations;
(i) Company -wide committee facilitation;
(j) Company employee and community communication;
(k) Compensation and benefits administration;
(l) Employee safety, welfare, wellness and health;
(m) Charitable giving; and
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72 The Human Resources Director originates and leads Human Resources
practices and objectives that will provide an employee -oriented, high
performance culture that emphasizes empowerment, quality, productivity
and standards, goal attainment, and the recruitment and on-going
development of a superior workforce.
The Human Resource Director coordinates implementation of services,
policies, and programs through Human Resources staff; reports to the
CEO and serves on the executive management team; and assists and
advises company managers about Human Resources issues.
4. Job Specification:
It is a standard of personnel and designates the qualities required for an
acceptab le performance. It is written record of the requirements sought in
an individual worker for a given job. It refers to a summary of the
personnel characteristics required for a job. It is a statement of the
minimum acceptable human qualities necessary for the proper
performance of a job.
5. Job Design:
Job design is the division of the total task to be performed into the
manageable and efficient units - positions, departments and divisions -and
to provide for their proper integration. The sub-division of work is both on
a horizontal scale with different tasks across the organization being
performed by different people and on the vertical scale, in which higher
levels of the organization are responsible for the supervision of more
people, the co-ordination of sub-groups, more.
D) The Different Factors to Be Considered While Collection of Job
Analysis Data Are:
1. Freedom from Bias (Exaggeration/Hiding of Facts):
Respondents at times tend to exaggerate the facts to show the complexity
of their jobs and consequentl y their mastery over the same. Vice -versa few
also tend to hide the facts emanating out of their fear as they suspect that
the organization may find him/her incompetent. Both exaggeration and
hiding of facts will lead to erroneous data and hence care shoul d be taken
by the data collector that such bias do not occur.
2. Allaying Anxiety Respondents:
Some respondents look at this activity with suspicion and think that it may
be a management’s covert strategy which may harm them in the long-run.
Allaying all such fears and anxieties is very important to ensure
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73 Human Resource Management (HRM) in Organization-I 3. Use of Right Data Collection Method:
Choosing a right data collection method is very important in conducting
job analysis. Out of the various methods available the method which suits
best must be selected and not necessarily the ‘best method’.
4. Recency Impact:
Respondents tend to talk about their job aspects more which have occurred
recently or they have been more involved in the recent past, while
ignoring other dimensions. Interviewer must ensure that such errors do not
occur and guide the respondents in overcoming this bias.
5. Commitment:
The commitment of the top management, line functions and finally of the
HR department is paramount to ensure the success, of job analysis.
E) Aspects of Job Analysis are Brought Out as Follows:
1. Job analysis establishes the structural - functional delineation of an
organisation, according to the classical paradigm of administrative
theory.
2. Job analysis deals with responsib ilities, defining roles, delineating
scope and authority at each level of the organisation.
3. It answers the important utilitarian call of optimizing organisational
efficiency through maximising individual capabilities, as per the
systems paradigm of organisational theory.
4. It basically deals with job study. It studies very detailed, specific and
exhaustive on job.
5. As per scientific management precepts, the job analysis describes
work process in detail on physical demands at work, physical
conditio ns of work and also human relations and behavioural
6. Job analysis answers the important utilitarian call of optimising
organisational efficiency through maximizing individual capabilities,
as per the systems paradigm of organizational theory.
F) Importa nce of Job Analysis to HR Managers:
Job analysis is so important to HR managers that it has been called the
building block of everything that personnel does.
The fact is that almost every human resource management program
requires some type of information that is gleaned from job analysis:
1. Work Redesign:
Often an organization seeks to redesign work to make it more efficient or
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74 Educational Management and Leadership
74 existing job(s). In addition, preparing the redesign is similar to analyzing a
job that does not yet exist.
2. Human Resource Planning:
As planners analyze human resource needs and how to meet those needs,
they must have accurate information about the levels of skill required in
various jobs, so that they can tell what kinds of human resources will be
needed.
3. Selection:
To identify the most qualified applicants for various positions, decision
makers need to know what tasks the individuals must perform, as well as
the neces sary knowledge, skills, and abilit ies.
4. Training:
Almost every employee hired by an organization will require training.
Any training program requires knowledge of the tasks performed in a job,
so that the training is related to the necessary knowledge and skills.
5. Performance Appraisal :
An accurate performance appraisal requires information about how well
each employee is performing in order to reward employees who perform
well and to improve their performance if it is below standard. Job analysis
helps in identifying the behaviours and the results associated with
effective performance.
6. Career Planning:
Matching an individual’s skills and aspirations with career oppor tunities
requires that those in charge of career planning know the skill require -
ments of the various jobs. This allow s them to guide individuals into jobs
in which they will succeed and be satisfied.
7. Job Evaluation:
The process of job evaluation involves assessing the relative dollar value
of each job to the organization in order to set up fair pay structures. If
empl oyees do not believe pay structures are fair, they will become
dissatisfied and may quit, or they will not see much benefit in striving for
promotions. To put dollar values on jobs, it is necessary to get information
about different jobs and compare them.
Job analysis is also important from a legal standpoint. The government
imposes requirements related to equal employment opportunity. Detailed,
accurate, objective job specifications help decision makers comply with
these regula tions by keeping the focus on tasks and abilities. These
documents also provide evidence of efforts made to engage in fair
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75 Human Resource Management (HRM) in Organization-I For example, to enforce the Americans with Disabilities Act, the Equal
Employment Opportunity Commission may look at job descriptions to
identify the essential functions of a job and determine whether a disabled
person could have performed those functions with reasonable
accommodations.
Likewise, lists of duties in different jobs could be compared to evaluate
claims under the Equal Pay Act. However, job descriptions and job
specifications are not a substitute for fair employment practices.
Besides helping human resource professionals, job analysis helps
supervisors and other managers carry out their duties. Data from job
analysis can help managers identify the types of work in their units, as
well as provide information about the work flow process, so that managers
can evaluate whether work is done in the most efficient way.
Job analysis information also supports managers as they make hiring deci-
sions, review performance, and recommend rewards.
The job analysis provides the following information:
i. Job Identification : Job title, job code number
ii. Characteristics of the Job: Job location, Physical setting,
supervision levels required, union jurisdiction, and hazards associated
etc.
iii. Job Duties (Principal activities) : A detailed list of the duties along
with the probable frequency of occurrence of each duty.
iv. Equipment and materials used
v. How a Job is done : Focus lies mainly on the nature of operations
associated with the job.
vi. Required Personnel Attributes : Experience levels, trainings
undertaken, apprenticeships, physical strength, coordination levels,
mental capabilities, social skills, communication skills etc.
vii. Job Relationships : Opportunities for advancement, working
conditions, essential cooperation etc.
There are mainly five sources of job information which are as follows:
1. Job holders’ questionnaires : Information may be gathered from the
job holder personally or through a job questionnaire which should be
as short as possible, simple, should explain for what purpose the
questionnaire is being used and should be tested before using it.
2. Other employees who know the job: This may include supervisors
and foreman who may be given special training and be asked to
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76 3. Independent observer : This is the person who observes the
employee performing the job. Special job-reviewing committees or
technically trained job analysts can be assigned the job and necessary
information collected from them.
4. Job incumbent diary or log: If the job incumbent keeps his/her diary
or log updated record ing his/her job duties, his/her frequency and also
when the duties are performed, these can also provide very useful
information.
5. Interviews : Information may also be gathered through interviews of
the people concerned.
G) Job Analysis Involves Different Steps which are Described Below:
1. Determination of uses of job analysis
2. Strategic choices in job analysis
3. Information collection
4. Information processing, Job description and Job specification.
Step # 1. Determination of Uses of Job Analysis:
Job analysis begins with determination of uses of job analysis. Job
analysis has variety of uses. Earlier it was used for recruitment and
selection and later its coverage increased. Therefore, before analyzing the
job, the organization should define the uses of job analysis.
Because, without knowing the purpose, required information cannot be
collected. In large organizations, it is undertaken in comprehensive,
systematic and in written form. But in small organizations the process is
generally informal and is used for limited purposes.
Step # 2. Strategic Choices in Job Analysis:
There are certain strategic choices with regard to job analysis which
are described below:
(a) Employees Involvement:
Before analyzing the job, it is advisable to know the extent of employee’s
involvement in the job, because a job holder knows better about the job
and it is easy to collect the information about the job from job holders. But
the question is whether job holder should be involved in the process as
there are every possibilities of inflating the duties and responsibilities of
his job by the job holder.
If employ ees are not involved, they tend to become suspicious about the
process undertaken by the organization. Therefore, extent of employees
involvement in the job should be understood along with the adverse effect
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77 Human Resource Management (HRM) in Organization-I convince the employees, the object of conducting the job analysis
programme and their co-operation should be sought.
(b) Level of Details of Analysis:
Job analysis may be made in-depth or it can be completed without going
in to the details. It is therefore necessary to define the level of details of
analysis. Generally, objectives and use of analysis determine the level of
details of analysis along with nature of job. Job of routine nature with
limited responsibilities requires fewer details whereas dynamic and non-
repetitive job requires detailed analysis.
(c) Frequency and Timing of Analysis:
Frequency of job analysis and time during which analysis is to be
undertaken is also another important factor to be considered while
analyzing the job.
Generally job analysis is conducted under the following
circumstances:
(i) When an organization is newly established or new job is created in an
organization or
(ii) When job restructuring and rationalization is initiated in the
organization or
(iii) When there is no relation between job demand and remuneration or
(iv) When there is a change in technology, method & procedure of doing a
job.
(d) Past Oriented vs. Future Oriented:
Generally job analysis is made on the basis of past performance. But due
to rapid change in the technology a future oriented approach may have to
be initiated depending upon the change in the nature of job requirements.
Future oriented job analysis allows an organization to initiate the process
of acquiring and developing employees in advance. For example in many
organizations, typewriters are replaced with computers and organization
have to prepare & develop their employees accordingly.
Step # 3. Information Collection:
The next step to be followed in the process of job analysis is
information collection for job analysis which involves the following
sub steps:
(a) The type of information to be collected
(b) Method to be adopted to collect the information
(c) Persons involved in information collection
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78 (a) Type of Informat ion to be Collected:
In deciding the type of information to be collected, all details about the job
need to be gathered. It may be related to description of work like why,
when and how, task is performed, machines, tools, and equipment used,
job contents, personal requirement of job holder etc.
(b) Method to be Adopted to Collect the Information:
With regard to method to be applied to collect the data, there are several
methods like observation, interview method, questionnaires, checklists,
technical confer ence etc. Use of a particular method depends on type of
information required for job analysis.
(c) Persons Involved in Information Collection:
Persons generally involved for gathering information are – trained job
analysts, supervisors, job incumbents or job holders. Trained job analysts
maintain objectivity, consistency in information collection and reporting
but intrinsic factors of job may be missed by them. Supervisors ensure
speedy collection of information and there will be better familiarity with
job contents and contexts but they have time constraints and they lack skill
required for job analysis.
Job holders provide information with greater familiarity but their opinion
may be biased and they lack skills in providing relevant information for
job analysis. However, type of persons to be involved in the process of
data collection ultimately depends on the purpose of job analysis and the
nature of job to be analyzed.
Step # 4. Information Processing, Job Description and Job
Specification:
The last step in the process of job analysis is processing of information
collected which involves editing and classification of information in to
different relevant components which are helpful in the preparation of job
description and job specification. Job descriptio n refers to the description
of duties, responsibilities, and requirement of a particular job. Job
specification is the statement that describes the minimum acceptable
qualifications that a job holder should possess to perform the job
successfully.
H) Metho ds Used For Job Analysis :
There are a number of methods used for job analysis. These methods are
meant to collect data about job.
These are as follows:
Method # 1. Questionnaire:
This is a widely used method for collecting data pertaining to job. The
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79 Human Resource Management (HRM) in Organization-I nomenclature of jobs, description of duties, machines and equipment used,
working conditions etc. can be collected.
The questionnaire is filled both by employees/subordinates and
supervisors. The questionnaire should be very clear, understand able and
relevant. If the questionnaire is not able to bring out responses of
employees/managers, it should be discarded and fresh questionnaire
should be made.
Method # 2. Written Narratives:
In this system, the employee keeps a daily record of major duties
performed, marking the time when each task is started and finished. This
forms the basis of narratives which become a tool in getting the
information relating to different jobs. They may be incomplete and
unorganized, thus you need to supplement it with interviews etc.
Method # 3. Observations:
In this method the job analyst personally observes the job while people are
doing it. He checks the tasks performed on the job, the pace of work,
working condition, job hazards involved etc. in any one work cycle. Based
on these observations he makes a job analy sis. This method has one major
limitation. It is that the analyst has to be very careful about what
information to observe and what not to observe. Also after observation, he
should know how to analyze.
Method # 4. Interviews:
The analyst in this method personally interviews the employees while they
are performing the job. A standard format is used to collect data collected
from different employees. The analyst asks standard job related questions.
These interviews are often used with observation tool to clarify all
questions related to the jobs being analyzed. In this analysis, employees
may not always come out with the real information about job but an
intellig ent analyst has the ability to shift relevant information from
irrelevant one.
Pros of Interviews:
(a) It is very simple and quick method of getting information which
might never come through in written.
(b) A very tactful interviewer can take out some information about
group/activities informally which are never depicted on organizational
charts.
(c) Interviews may reflect dissatisfaction with the job for various
monetary or safety reasons which may help manage ment in re-
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80 Cons of Interv iews:
(a) There is a tendency among employees to inflate their jobs importance.
This leads to a different perception about the job needs of analysts.
(b) Respondents often take interviews as some kind of efficiency
evaluation which may affect their pay. Thus, they may tend to
exaggerate certain responsibilities of their job and minimize others.
(c) Respondents may include the ability based versions of the statements
than simple task statements.
(d) The prudent analysts may not be able to get that inform ation and if he
is getting multiple inputs to his questions it may become difficult for
him to get the valid responses. It is a very slow process.
I) Types of Job Analysis Questionnaires:
The questionnaires used to collect data for job analysis are gener ally
of four types, depending upon the nature of the job, such as:
1. JRQ : Job Related Questionnaire
2. PAQ : Position Analysis Questionnaire
3. MPDQ : Management Position Description Questionnaire
4. FJAQ : Functional Job Analysis Questionnaires.
1. JRQ (Job Related Questionnaire) :
These questions disseminate the data regarding job elements and job
complexity for an analysis of the job performance requirements.
2. PAQ (Position Analysis Questionnaire) :
These questions cover six major areas such as type and nature of source of
information, mental process applied in performance, physical activities
involved to perform, relationship with other jobs/ job and workers, work
environment or culture prevailing, and other relevant information for
improving job performance.
These data enable the management to scientifically analyze the elements
of groups or activities interrelationships into job dimensions.
3. MPDQ (Management Position Description Questionnaire) :
These questions are designed to analyze the manageri al jobs and therefore
the questions are aimed at collecting all possible information from the
managers/executives so as to examine the importance of the job, its
significance to the organization or the position and the desired
responsibilities and accounta bilities for a said job.
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81 Human Resource Management (HRM) in Organization-I 4. FJAQ (Functional Job Analysis Questionnaires) :
It is a worker -oriented job analysis where the questions are designed to
gather information from the worker in the said job or a similar job in
another industry to define the personality required to perform the job in
question.
J) Competency Approach :
Competency approach of job analysis (also known as competency -based
job analysis) is a comparatively newer practice in human resource
management. Competency -based job analysis involve s analyzing a job in
terms of competencies required for performing the job effectively.
Thus, the job is not defined in terms of duties and responsibilities as is
done in traditional job analysis but in terms of competencies required.
Competency of an individual is the combination of his knowledge, skills,
attitudes, values, and interest.
Competency approach of job analysis is based on the assumption that
competencies of people influence organizational performance. Therefore,
instead of thinking of individu als having jobs that are relatively stable and
can be written up into typical job descriptions, it may be more relevant to
focus on the competencies used in performing the job.
There are three main reasons why organizations adopt competency
approach of job analysis:
1. Communicating needed behaviors throughout the organization.
2. Raising overall competency level of the organization.
3. Emphasizing competencies of people to enhance organizational
competitive advantage.
Process of adopting competency appro ach of job analysis is as follows:
1. A team of senior managers identifies future performance result areas
critical to the organization, for example, customer orientation,
innovation, employee productivity, etc.
2. Panel groups of individuals having know ledgeable about the jobs in
the organization are constituted. This group may include both high-
and low-performing employees, supervisors, managers, trainers, and
others.
3. A facilitator either from HR department or an outside consultant
interviews the panel members to get specific examples of job
behaviors and actual occurrences on the jobs.
4. The facilitator develops detailed descriptions of each of the
competencies using relevant concepts of behavioral science. This
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82 managers, and others in the organization have a clearer understanding
of the competencies associated with jobs.
5. The competencies are rated and levels needed to meet them are
identified. The competencies are specified for each job.
6. Standards of performance are identified and tied to the jobs. In the
light of this, appropriate employee selection screening, training, and
compensation processes focusing on competencies are developed and
implemented.
K) Uses of Job Anal ysis:
A sound job analysis programme is an essential ingredient of good HR
management. Job analysis data recorded in the form of job description,
provide most valuable information needed to accomplish many of the
other personnel.
The uses of job analysis may be summarized below:
(i) It is helpful in forecasting of human resources of the organization.
(ii) For recruiting purposes, job analysis must provide information on
personal qualifications necessary to perform job related behaviour.
(iii) It helps fo r placing right person on the right job at the right time.
(iv) It is used as a foundation for job evaluation.
(v) It provides necessary information to the management for training
and development programmes of employees.
(vi) It helps in establishing cl ear-cut standards for the development of
performance appraisal system of the organization.
(vii) It helps management to look objectively at the hazards associated
with the machinery and tools required to be handled as well as with
the work environment.
(viii) It provides helps in redesigning jobs to match with mental make -up
of the employees.
The Main Advantages of Job Analysis Are:
1. Job analysis facilitates the selection and placement, of right personnel
in each job.
2. Management can provide adequat e training to the needy employees.
3. Reasonable wage rate is fixed with the help of job analysis.
4. Job analysis helps in job evaluation and merit rating.
5. Job analysis helps the superiors to take timely decisions. The decision
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83 Human Resource Management (HRM) in Organization-I 6. Industrial disputes may be put an end to with the help of job analysis.
7. Adequate disciplinary action may be taken by the management.
8. The selection of right personnel ensures job satisfaction and morale
among the employees.
9. Job analysis helps in reducing labour turnover, absenteeism and
removing inequalities in pay fixation.
10. It provides a basis of performance appraisal and facilitates the control
function of the management.
3A.3 LET US SUM UP Nowadays, H uman Resource Professionals perform as a strategic business
partner of the organization. It involves the development of workforce
strategies and their implementation to attain competitive goals in the
industry. Also, all the HR techniques, like recruitment , training,
compensation, and employee relations are used to strengthen the
organization and to ensure sustenance in a highly competitive business
environment.
3A.4 UNIT END EXERCISE 1. What is Human Resource Development? Explain Nature and Scope.
2. Discuss on Job analysis concept and role in human Resource
Development.
3. What is Job Analysis?
4. Explain importance of job analysis to HR managers.
3A.5 REFERENCES  https://www.hrhelpboard.com/human -resource.htm
 https://www.techtarget.com/searchhrsoftware/definition/human -
resource -management -HRM
 https://www.enotesmba.com/2014/04/nature -and-scope -of-human -
resource -management.html
 https://www.economicsdiscussion.net/human -resource -
management/job -analysis -in-hrm/31863
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85 3B
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
(HRM) IN ORGANIZATION -II
Unit Structure
3B.0 Objectives
3B.1 Introduction
3B.2 Staff Development (SD)
3B.2.1 Meaning of SD
3B.2.2 Goals of SD
3B.2.3 Need of SD
3B.2.4 Approaches of SD
3B.2.5 Methods of SD
3B.2.6 Plan Process of SD
3B.2.7 Steps of SD
3B.3 Organizational Development (OD)
3B.3.1 Meaning of OD
3B.3.2 Characteristics of OD
3B.3.3 Objectives of OD
3B.3.4 Organisational skills for teachers
3B.3.5 Benefits of OD
3B.3.6 Components of OD Process
3B.4 Let Us Sum Up
3B.5 Unit End Exercise
3B.6 References
3B.0 OBJECTIVES After learning this unit, student will able to
1. Explain Concept of Staff Management.
2. Explain Need of Staff Management.
3. Explain Concept of Organizational Develeopment.
4. Explain Components of Organisationa l Development.
3B.1 INTRODUCTION In the current business scenario, the Human Resource Department is one
of the most required departments in any business organization. This
department plays a crucial role in the placement of the right person in a
suitable p osition in the organization. It supports the organization to align munotes.in

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86 employee performance with its objectives. Also, it will enable managers to
hire competent employees, upgrade their performance through training
and development , the evolution of inclusive culture, and maintain
relations.
3B.2 STAFF DEVELOPMENT (SD) 3B.2. 1 Meaning of SD:
Staff development is a process of practices and procedures that helps
develop the knowledge, competencie s, and skills of the people in the
organization. It also improves the effectiveness and efficiency of an
individual and the university. The success of any university or an
educational institution depends upon staff development. The role of staff
is to have relevant knowledge, skills, and competencies, as the staff is
recognized for the success of the institution.
Staff development needs a strategic and professional approach to attract
more staff who possess relevant skills . It also aids in retaining the high -
caliber staff who are required to deliver their respective objectives.
Staff development plays a crucial role in building the capability of the
workforce. The main objective of staff development is to provide the
faculty with a framework that helps encourage and support the
institution’s developmental objectives. It also has strategic aims and
operational requirements that aim to take into account the staff’s needs
and career aspirations. The success of their departments depends on
various strategies.
While maximizing the usage of available resources, departments work
alongsi de the learning and development team. This is done to develop an
approach that is coordinated with the staff development planning. The
leaders or managers of the staff are provided with particular skills and
knowledge through which they can work in partner ship with their staff.
This leads to efficiency in the work and results in the continuous growth
of the staff.
Here, the members are encouraged to acquire skills for successful
planning of the various roles in the university. It leads to a high order
thinking and learning pathway for the staff. With all these different
processes, an appropriate balance is created between the desire for
individual staff members to maximize their potential.
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87 Human Resource Management (HRM) in Organization-II Effective staff development requires continuous collaboration bet ween
supervisors and their staff. Supervisors are responsible for guiding and
supporting the professional development of their staff by offering or
identifying learning and professional development opportunities and
providing coaching and feedback. To supp ort supervisors in providing
such opportunities for staff, Buffalo State offers programs and resources
that can help staff enhance their work -related skills. Staff also share the
responsibility for their own professional development and are encouraged
to speak with their supervisor about taking advantage of available
resources for professional development.
3B.2.2 Staff Development Goals :
To improve skills and knowledge in order to raise the level of job
performance.
 To leverage strengths more fully in your job in support of your
department's goals and the mission of the college.
 To learn new skills and knowledge that will prepare you for new
responsibilities or increase your career advancement potential.
3B.2.3 Need o f SD:
Five reasons why staff development in the workplace is important?
Staff training and development isn’t just important to any company, it is
vital.
1. Efficiency :
Professional development can help to ensure that you and your staff
maintain and enhance the knowledge and skills needed to deli ver a
professional service to your colleagues, customer and the community.
Enabling staff to advance in their career and move into new positions
where you can lead, manage, influence, and mentor others.
2. Consistency :
A structured training and development programme can help to ensure all
employees have a consistent level of experience and knowledge, and
allows you the confidence of knowing your staff all have the same set of
skills required. Allowing you flexibility with your workforce planning.
3. Complia nt:
Training and development can help to ensure that your knowledge is
relevant and up to date. Ensuring that you and your staff are compliant
with the latest regulations.
4. Address weaknesses :
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88 An ongoing training and development program allows you to find and
address any weaknesses, helping your employees to be more all -rounded
and better skilled at every factor of their job.
5. Confidence :
Training and development ca n help to increase employees confidence
within their role. Investment in training and development helps to show
employees they are appreciated which can help them to feel a greater
level of job satisfaction.
3B.2.4 Approaches of SD :
The many approaches to staff /Employee development fall into four broad
categories: Formal Education, Assessment, Job experiences, and
Interpersonal Relationships.
1. Formal Education :
Organizations may support employee development through a variety of
formal educational progra ms, either at the workplace or off -site. These
may include workshops designed specifically for the organization’s
employees, short courses offered by consultants or universities, university
programs offered to employees who live on campus during the progra m,
and executive MBA programs (which enroll managers to meet on
weekends or evenings to earn a master’s degree in business
administration). These programs may involve lectures by business experts,
business games and simulations, experiential programs, and meetings with
customers.
2. Assessment :
Another way to provide for employee development is assessment —
collecting information and providing feedback to employees about their
behavior, communication style, or skills. 10 Information for assessment
may come f rom the employees, their peers, managers, and customers. The
most frequent uses of assessment are to identify employees with
managerial potential to measure current managers’ strengths and
weaknesses. Organizations also use assessment to identify managers with
potential to move into higher -level executive positions.
Organizations that assign work to teams may use assessment to identify
the strengths and weaknesses of individual team members and the effects
of the team members’ decision -making and communica tion styles on the
team’s productivity. For assessment to support development, the
information must be shared with the employee being assessed. Along with
that assessment information, the employee needs suggestions for
correcting skill weaknesses and for u sing skills already learned. The
suggestions might be to participate in training courses or develop skills
through new job experiences. Based on the assessment information and
available development opportunities, employees should develop action
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89 Human Resource Management (HRM) in Organization-II Organizations vary in the methods and sources of information they use in
developmental assessment (see the “ Did You Know?” box). Many
organizations appraise performance. Organizations with sophisticated
development systems use psychological tests to measure employees’
skills, personality types, and communication styles. They may collect self,
peer, and manager ratings of employees’ behavior and style of working
with others. The tools used for these assessment methods include the
Myers -Briggs Type Indicator, assessment centers, the Benchmarks
assessment, performance appraisal, and 360 -degree feedback. Edward
Jones assesses the leadership potential of financial advisers working
outside its St. Louis headquarters by comb ining personality assessment
with peer appraisals. Employees and their managers receive the results,
which are used to evaluate whether employees have the behaviors and
personality required for a leadership role at headquarters.
3. Job Experiences :
Most em ployee development occurs through job experiences the
combination of relationships, problems, demands, tasks, and other features
of an employee’s jobs. Using job experiences for employee development
assumes that development is most likely to occur when the employee’s
skills and experiences do not entirely match the skills required for the
employee’s current job. To succeed, employees must stretch their skills. In
other words, they must learn new skills, apply their skills and knowledge
in new ways, and mast er new experiences. For example, companies that
want to prepare employees to expand overseas markets are assigning them
to a variety of international jobs. To learn how a small company
successfully uses job experiences to develop employees, see the “Best
Practices” box. Most of what we know about development through job
experiences comes from a series of studies conducted by the Center for
Creative Leadership.
These studies asked executives to identify key career events that made a
difference in their man agerial styles and the lessons they learned from
these experiences. The key events included job assignments (such as
fixing a failed operation), interpersonal relationships (getting along with
supervisors), and types of transitions (situations in which the manager at
first lacked the necessary background). Through job experiences like
these, managers learn how to handle common challenges, prove
themselves, lead change, handle pressure, and influence others. The
usefulness of job experiences for employee dev elopment varies depending
on whether the employee views the experiences as positive or negative
sources of stress. When employees view job experiences as positive
stressors, the experiences challenge them and stimulate learning. When
they view job experien ces as negative stressors, employees may suffer
from high levels of harmful stress. Of the job demands studied, managers
were most likely to experience negative stress from creating change and
overcoming obstacles (adverse business conditions, lack of mana gement
support, lack of personal support, or a difficult boss). Research suggests
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90 Organizations should offer job experiences that are most likely to increase
learning, and they should c onsider the consequences of situations that
involve negative stress. Although the research on development through job
experiences has focused on managers, line employees also can learn
through job experiences. Organizations may, for example, use job
experi ences to develop skills needed for teamwork, including conflict
resolution, data analysis, and customer service. These experiences may
occur when forming a team and when employees switch roles within a
team. Various job assignments can provide for employee development.
The organization may enlarge the employee’s current job or move the
employee to different jobs. Lateral moves include job rotation, transfer, or
temporary assignment to another organization. The organization may also
use downward moves or pro motions as a source of job experience.
4. Interpersonal Relationships :
Employees can also develop skills and increase their knowledge about the
organization and its customers by interacting with a more experienced
organization member. Two types of relatio nships used for employee
development are mentoring and coaching.
Mentors :
A mentor is an experienced, productive senior employee who helps
develop a less experienced employee, called the protégé. Most mentoring
relationships develop informally as a result of interests or values shared by
the mentor and protégé. According to research, the employees most likely
to seek and attract a mentor have certain personality characteristics:
emotional stability, ability to adapt their behavior to the situation, and hig h
needs for power and achievement. Mentoring relationships also can
develop as part of the organization’s planned effort to bring together
successful senior employees with less -experienced employees. One major
advantage of formal mentoring programs is tha t they ensure access to
mentors for all employees, regardless of gender or race. A mentoring
program also can ensure that high -potential employees are matched with
wise, experienced mentors in key areas —and that mentors in positions of
authority are hearin g about the reallife challenges of the organization’s
employees. However, in an artificially created relationship, mentors may
have difficulty providing counseling and coaching. To overcome this
limitation, mentors and protégés should spend time discussin g their work
styles, personalities, and backgrounds; these conversations help build the
trust that is needed for both parties to be comfortable with their
relationship.
Mentoring programs tend to be most successful when they are voluntary
and participants understand the details of the program. Rewarding
managers for employee development is also important, because it signals
that mentoring and other development activities are worthwhile. In
addition, the organization should carefully select mentors based on their
interpersonal and technical skills, train them for the role, and evaluate
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91 Human Resource Management (HRM) in Organization-II can help organizations meet some of these guidelines. For example,
videoconferencing may be a good substi tute if the mentor and protégé
cannot meet face -to-face. Databases can store information about potential
mentors’ characteristics, and the protégé can use a search engine to locate
mentors who best match the qualities he or she is looking for.
The “eHRM” b ox describes how online databases are making successful
mentorships more readily available at Xerox. Mentors and protégés can
both benefit from a mentoring relationship. Protégés receive career
support, including coaching, protection, sponsorship, challeng ing
assignments, and visibility among the organization’s managers. They also
receive benefits of a positive relationship —a friend and role model who
accepts them, has a positive opinion toward them, and gives them a chance
to talk about their worries. Empl oyees with mentors are also more likely to
be promoted, earn higher salaries, and have more influence within their
organization. Acting as a mentor gives managers a chance to develop
their interpersonal skills and increase their feelings that they are
contributing something important to the organization. Working with a
technically trained protégé on matters such as new research in the field
may also increase the mentor’s technical knowledge. So that more
employees can benefit from mentoring, some organizat ions use group
mentoring programs, which assign four to six protégés to a successful
senior employee. A potential advantage of group mentoring is that
protégés can learn from each other as well as from the mentor.
The leader helps protégés understand the organization, guides them in
analyzing their experiences, and helps them clarify career directions. Each
member of the group may complete specific assignments, or the group
may work together on a problem or issue.
Coaching :
A coach is a peer or manager wh o works with an employee to motivate
the employee, help him or her develop skills, and provide reinforcement
and feedback. Coaches may play one or more of three roles:
1. Working one -on-one with an employee, as when giving feedback.
2. Helping employee s learn for themselves —for example, helping them
find experts and teaching them to obtain feedback from others.
3. Providing resources such as mentors, courses, or job experiences.
Linda Miller, a coaching specialist at the Ken Blanchard Companies,
describes the coach’s role in terms of two contrasting managers with
whom she has worked. The first of these, a manager at a retailing
company, had a supervisor who was not a coach. The retail manager’s
boss was nervous that if his employees learned too much, he wouldn’t be
as valuable. So he limited the retail manager’s experiences until she
became so frustrated she began to look for another job. In contrast, at a
financial services business, a manager had a reputation for developing his
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92 According to Miller, this manager’s strength was coaching: “He knew
exactly how much time it would take for him to develop the person until
the person would get recognized by the company and promoted into a new
position,” and he came to think of this development as his legacy to the
company. In other words, the coach knows that his or her great value is the
ability to make other employees more valuable. Research suggests that
coaching helps managers improve by identifying areas for improvement
and setting goals.
Coaching is most likely to succeed if coaches are empathetic, supportive,
practical, and self -confident but don’t act infallible or try to tell others
what to do. To benefit from coaching, employees need to be open minded
and interested in the process.
3B.2. 5 Staff Development Methods in HRM:
Depending on the situation, there are several different approaches that
these important employee development methods can take: employee
training, effective coaching , and leadership mentoring. Training may be
seen as the “purest” form of employee development, as it is usually used
to transfer core job knowledge, skills, and information to employees in a
formalized way.
Employee Development Me thods in HRM: - A trained, well -maintained
and experienced employee base that capable of performing most of the
tasks related to a particular field is the basic need of every organization.
It’s all thanks to competitions in the markets and job models in dyn amic
organizations that the need for employee development has increased
tremendously, since the past few decades, and is supposed to go further
even in the future.
Developing the employee base is a learning experience and puts forward a
lot of improvements in the job performance of the employees. In most of
the cases, these improvements are permanent and the newly acquired
knowledge, skill, and behavioral changes can assist the company in
achieving the higher success levels, even in longer runs. This change in
the skill and knowledge can be brought by several employee development
methods, with each method having its own set of advantages and
disadvantages.
1. On the Job Training :
On the job training deals with the training of the employees which is
delivered , directly, on the job and is known so, because the tasks of the job
are done live, either by an instructor or the employee himself, under the
instructor supervision. It is primarily used so that the trainees understand
the nature of the job and the correc t and effective method of covering it
up.
For the purpose of using the “On the Job” as the training method, the
employee is giving an overview of the job, the outcomes desired after its
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93 Human Resource Management (HRM) in Organization-II trainee is given a copy to mimic as the instructor demonstrates the job.
The process is repeated until the employee feels satisfaction in his own
work.
2. Job Rotation :
As the name suggests, job rotation deals with the continuous change of the
employee positions within the organization to expand their knowledge and
improving their skills as well as abilities. This rotation can either be
vertical or horizontal, where horizontal rotation involves the temporary
transfer from one position to another, latera lly, whereas, in the vertical
rotation, a worker is promoted to a new position. It is generally considered
to be a sub -type of on the job training.
Job rotation, as an employee development methods, is quite a great way of
exposing an individual to an even higher level of company operations, so
that he prepares himself for what is to come in his career. This leads to
tremendous improvements in the abilities, thus decreasing the difference
in expected and actual skill levels.
It gives a huge boost to an emplo yee’s confidence, his capability of
absorbing new information along with turning him into a genius, who can
transform most of the ideas designed for special cases and makes them
implementable even in the general situations. This simulation further leads
to a rapid development of newer business ideas.
3. Coaching :
Coaching can be done by an instructor, hired especially for the training
purposes, or even a more experienced employee or a number of
employees. Most of the times, when coaching is done in the job timings
and that, too, in the workplace, then it is considered to be a type of on the
job training, and otherwise, it is generally supplemented to be an off the
job training generally based on the classrooms. In coaching, a manager
can also play his role b y giving skills or useful advice or even both.
4. Training Courses :
These are more of a traditional form of the employee Training and
development Process and focus on the analytical and concept grasping
capabilities of the employees. This method of developing the employee
base usually revolves around seminars and training courses followed by
books or lectures. A lot of organizations org anize these courses either in -
house or through the help of outsiders.
The main advantage of using the training courses as the means of
development lies in its cost -effectivity and the huge potential directed
towards the tremendous improvements in feedback and participation
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94 5. Vestibules :
Using vestibules as the employee training means involves the usage of the
same equipment as for the on the job training. The primary difference in
both of these is that the training can be arra nged anywhere and anytime.
So, the employees can enjoy the training without any external
interruptions and disturbances. So, the transference of the skill takes place
quickly and easily.
6. Simulations :
Simulations as a way of employee development involve the usage of an
artificial environment to mirror a real -life situation so that the participants
could learn by actually performing the job but under controlled conditions.
Along with a virtual training ground, it might include case analysis, role
plays, ex perimental games, case by case studies as well as group
interactions.
Unlike vestibules, the feedback and performance measures are
instantaneous and the participants are made aware of their capabilities
either during or at the end of a training session. Mo reover, the costs
involved in the creation of an artificial environment with the same
opportunities is pretty low with fewer chances for poor results. The only
difficulty that lies on this pathway is that it is extremely difficult to create
an exact duplic ate of the realities and pressures of the actual situations
which can lead to misleading results.
7. Programmed Learning and Self -study :
Self-study can be the most effective way towards the employee
development, only if it is done through proper planning. For the purpose
of training, computer programs can be used along with printed booklets to
get a clear picture of different concepts, since it allows the learners to
observe a particular fact through different angles
Furthermore, the feedback process is qui te fast and most of the times; the
reader gets feedback immediately, after he reads through the materials and
answers the questions. Thanks to the interactivity in the learning
programs, the learning process is now faster than ever and allows an even
great er number of channels to participate, learn, improve and get
feedback. This method is extremely useful in the case when the employees
belong to different areas of the world.
3B.2.6 Staff Development Plan Process :
Employee development is an ongoing process which helps employees to
enhance their skills and knowledge to contribute more effectively towards
the organization. Remember you are not paid for simply coming to office
and leaving on time. You really need to perform exceptionally well to
stand apart fr om the rest. It is essential for employees to upgrade their
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95 Human Resource Management (HRM) in Organization-II Employee development process begins from Day one when an individual
joins an organization. You real ly do not have to wait for annual appraisals
to implement the employee development plan. Induction and orienting
new employees are also effective ways of employee development.
Understand why do you need e mployee development plan ?:
Employee development plan s prepare an employee for his current as well
as future assignments and make him loyal and dedicated towards the
organization.
An employee should feel comfortable even on his/her first day of work.
Performance begins on the very first day an employee steps into an
organization. Make sure induction programs are meaningful and not just a
mere formality. Orientation programs must acquaint the employee with the
policies and procedures, rules and regulations of the organization. Design
key responsibility areas o f an individual in lines with his educational
qualification, background, past experience, specialization and areas of
interest. Provide him manuals, brochures or employee handbooks which
an individual can take back home for future reference. Team managers or
reporting bosses ideally should spend some quality time with the new
employee to orient him to the organization. Do not overload him with
unnecessary information. Trust me, he will never come back. Job
expectations must be communicated to the employees the very first day
itself. Be open for any feedbacks or queries. Ask the new member to have
lunch with his fellow workers. Let him be familiar with his team members.
After all he has to work with them.
Managers ought to give regular feedbacks to employees. Performance
appraisals or promotions should not come as a surprise to employees. Be
very transparent with your employees. Give them a clear picture of their
current performance and growth chart in the organization.
There are two types of employee developm ent Plans:
1. Professional Growth :
Such employee development plans are created to help individuals in their
career growth. In such a plan, a team manager sits with his team members
and designs growth plans with specific deadlines as to when the
development goals can be accomplished. It is essential to give deadlines to
employees for them to take trainings and employee development activities
seriously. Employees are encouraged to attend training sessions, seminars,
conferences to acquire new skills and knowl edge.
2. Improvement :
Managers design a performance improvement plan also called as PIP and
create an action plan to help employees improve their performance.
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96 skills, communication skills, interpersonal skills which would help them in
the long run.
Follow ups of employee development Plans :
The most crucial stage is the implementation stage when employee
developmen t plans are put in action. Follow ups are crucial. Discuss even
the minutest problem which might prevent the successful implementation
of employee development plan. Do not leave any query unattended. It
would bother you later.
Monitor Progress :
Progress of employees need to be measured to find out how employee
development plans are benefitting the employees. Find out whether
employee development plans are actually helping employees in their
career growth or not? Are you getting appreciated by the management for
your extraordinary performance? Do not forget to celebrate your success.
3B.2.7 Steps Staff Development Process :
In many instances when someone mentions staff development, the first
thing that comes to mind is technician training. But staff developmen t is
much more than that. A well -thought -out and properly executed staff
development plan not only impacts productivity but also promotes
operational and maintenance standardization, seamless transitions of
responsibility, and the effectiveness of the orga nization as a whole.
Staff development and succession planning are synonymous with each
other. Remember, you are not only training your administrative staff and
technicians to be more proficient, but also to one day take on higher -level
management position s.
Staff development plans should not only address an employee’s current
job title and responsibilities, but also delineate a clear and concise path
toward upward mobility. A well -defined development plan will positively
impact employee morale by removing the ambiguity and confusion that
pertains to their career advancement. If you were to randomly select a
group of employees and ask them what they should know in order to be
considered for promotion, would they be able to correctly answer the
question? If y our organization is like many others, the answer is —
probably not.
As management, we get so caught up in the day -to-day operation of our
fleets that we tend to forget there are employees who one day aspire to fill
our shoes. When advocating the importance of a development plan to your
employees, you should convey the benefits of the training and the
correlation it has on their career paths. Keep in mind that several personal
factors will guide the successful deployment of a development plan.
Knowing what motivates a person to learn will help you sell the program
to your employees and encourage active participation. These factors
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97 Human Resource Management (HRM) in Organization-II As with any viable and meaningful planning process, you must break
down the program into logical and sequential steps. Following are five
steps you should consider when developing your staff development plan.
Step 1: Determining the Need :
Management tends to concentrate on the here and now, placing aside
future requirements. When assessing need, you not only need to look at
current training deficiencies but also future gaps in staff development,
such as the retirement of seasoned employees.
Unexpected or unplanned loss of long -term institutional knowledge is
probably the most destructive event that negatively impacts organizational
effectiveness. Unless properly addressed, the effects of reduced
institutional experience are rapid, and it may take many months or even
years for agencies to recover. The reason m ost fleet managers dread the
day their supervisors retire is because they failed to properly prepare their
replacements prior to their departure, even though the date is normally
known well in advance. This effect is exacerbated when the selected
replaceme nt is an outside applicant who is completely unfamiliar with
your fleet operation and equipment.
Determining whether or not an employee is proficient in his/her job may
be difficult to assess and could be interrelated to other factors that are not
under th e direct control the of the employee. Possible factors that could
impede an employee’s performance may include: lack of a fleet
management information system, lack of or poorly written standardized
procedures, condition/age of the fleet, and poor managemen t, to name just
a few.
Start determining the need by conducting an initial assessment on the
strengths and weaknesses of your staff. Be self -critical of your
organization and list what things are going right or wrong and the
foundational factors that contr ibute to success or failure. Knowing the
cause and effect relationships will help you determine the root cause and
better plan for a successful outcome.
To determine the appropriate level at which your staff is expected to
perform, you need to develop a ba seline from which to measure. An
example of a baseline would be: You expect the parts department to
maintain a loss ratio percentage of less than .05% of total stock on a
monthly basis. The term loss is then defined as “any parts or supplies that
cannot be accounted for through appropriate documentation.” With the
baseline established, you can then begin to examine the fundamental
reasons why the parts staff is not capable of meeting the baseline.
Lastly, technical skill improvement should not completely de fine your
staff development plan. Management and supervisory skills should also be
considered and included. Remember, you are not only training your staff
to make them more proficient in their jobs, but also to replace you one
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98 Step 2: Developing the P lan:
Once you determine the need, you must then decide how you are going to
fulfill it. In this step you will develop the who, what, when, and how
aspects of your plan.
Start by listing all the requirements you identified as critical gaps in
training. List them in a logical and sequential order and group them into
occupational categories, e.g., mechanic, parts, administrative. Once your
analysis is complete, decide which instructional method you would
employ to best fit your needs. It could be instructor dr iven (classroom),
self study, video, text, or computer/web -based programs. You can also
consider on -the-job training and mentoring programs.
You are not only training your administrative staff and technicians to be
more proficient, but also to one day take on higher level management
positions.
Budget your equipment and supplies needs well in advance and consider
funding for software and training aids. You should also consult with your
Human Resources Department to incorporate development criteria in
employe es’ official job descriptions and possibly include the successful
completion of a development plan as part of the promotional requirements.
Now that you have determined who will be trained and what you will
teach, it’s time to plan for the when. Start by d etermining the appropriate
scheduling requirements and their impact on your day -to-day operation.
Create formal training schedules and distribute them to the staff well in
advance of the proposed training dates. Training schedules should be
developed in su ch a manner that class content becomes progressively more
advanced.
To help you make the most of your training class and to maximize its
effectiveness, develop the following employee handouts:
1. Formal course outlines that go into detail about the course, it s length
and training dates, and learning objectives.
2. Reference material: Copy key policies and procedures that are
pertinent to the class topic. You may also wish to provide each
employee a complete copy of your latest Standard Operating
Procedure (SOP). In the case of private manufacturers’ documents,
check their copyright and distribution restrictions prior to releasing
the information.
3. Cheat sheets: abbreviated quick reference guides that highlight key
points of interest.
4. Graphics and process flow diagr ams: These are used to help explain
complex tasks and provide a visual representation of each step within
a task. Process flow diagrams are very helpful in detailing cross
functional steps and use directional controls that guide the employee
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99 Human Resource Management (HRM) in Organization-II To track the progress of employee training, you may want to develop
detailed task lists for each distinct job description that are based upon the
critical tasks necessary for the job. The task list should contain specific
task requirements, and the number of iterations that must be successfully
demonstrated in order for the employee to be considered competent in his
or her job.
For example, a task for a supervisor could be listed as “Evaluate
completed work orders for correctness.” A sample of the sub -elements for
that task would be as follows:
 Determine that appropriate labor times are listed for the work
performed.
 Determine that all parts billed to a specific repair task are applicable
to the repair.
 Determine that all parts installed have a corresponding write -up and
labor times.
Consider creating sample work order documents that are difficult to assess
in order to fully test employees’ ability to find the errors.
In addition to the training documents, continuity binders can also be a
useful tool in staff development. The use of a continuity binder not only
supports the seamless operation of the fleet in the absence of management
personnel, but also diminishes the effects of the loss of institutional
knowledge. Continuity binders should be standardized as to what content
is contained in the binder. As a minimum, the binder should contain the
following:
 Critical tasks and responsibilities that must be performed on an
ongoing basis
 Key points of contacts and their relationship to the operation
 Copies of recurring reports along with details on the date required,
data provided, distribution hierarchy, and how they are compiled
 References to specific regulatory documents and website addresses.
Lastly, a word of caution: Ensure that the content of the training does not
conflict with, but reinforces, existing policies and procedures. Nothing is
more damaging to the validity of a class than to provide inaccurate
information to an employee, only to then correct the information at a later
date.
Refer to your SOP to confirm there is no conflict in the training
information provided. If your operation does not have a formal SOP, you
should write one prior to implementing your staff development plan. Staff
development classes should never be utilized to crea te or introduce policy,
but to reinforce existing policy. The last thing you want in a formal class
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100 class and could eventually lead to a complete breakdown of classroom
decorum and schedules.
Step 3: Implementing the Plan :
The most critical aspect of implementation is the successful transfer of
information from the instructor to the trainee. A well -thought -out training
plan can go completely awry if it is not properly implemented .
Your instructors should be senior employees or management personnel
who are well versed in the topic that they are teaching. Have your
instructors rehearse the training sessions in front of management staff well
in advance of the scheduled class. An unor ganized or poorly executed
training session will do more harm than good. Disorganized classes will
induce confusion and may lead the employees to develop a “Well, if
management doesn’t care, why should I?” attitude.
The instructor needs to know the audienc e. Not everyone learns at the
same pace. Have the instructor take into consideration audience
experience levels and start out with the basics and progress from there. Set
the speed of instruction so as to allow time for employees to absorb the
material bei ng taught, but not so slow as to bore quick learners. Include
question -and-answer sessions during the training session to determine if
the pace of the instruction is appropriate. If the majority of your questions
are answered incorrectly, you may need to a djust the pace of the class.
Remember, different people learn in different ways (visually, hands -on,
etc.) and at different speeds. Most people learn by doing, so try to
incorporate as much hands -on activities as possible. Lastly, document
training topics and attendance. You need to keep track of who was trained,
what they were trained on, and when they received it.
Step 4: Evaluating and Modifying the Plan :
How do I know if the training was effective? Did everyone learn the
objectives of the training? How am I going to measure the before -and-
after performance metrics? These are the questions you should ask
yourself when evaluating the success or failure of your program.
Pre- and post -instructional tests or verbal quizzes are helpful tools in
determining the effectiveness of the training. Develop tests that key into
the critical aspects of the training. Keep the tests short and to the point.
Avoid creating lengthy tests that are formatted just to fill up space on the
paper. Hands -on evaluations may also be mo re appropriate than written
tests, as most people learn by doing. Have management staff review the
tests to ensure there is no ambiguity in the questions. A pre -course exam
can determine the before -and-after instruction level of employee
knowledge.
If you want to know what the employees thought of the training, you may
wish to seek feedback in the form of an anonymous comment card.
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with a negative comment.
The use of a continuity binder not only supports the seamless operation of
the fleet in the absence of management personnel, but also diminishes the
effects of the loss of institutional knowledge.
You should ex pect an immediate positive effect on performance after the
completion of a proper and well -executed training event. There should be
no reason to not expect a significant improvement in performance. Utilize
your baseline metrics to measure the amount of inc reased performance. If
you fail to notice rapid improvement in performance, you need to
reevaluate your entire training program.
Step 5: Sustaining the Plan :
Repetition is the key to maintaining any skill set. Any successful staff
development plan requires periodic refresher training in order to sustain
the gains achieved. Remember that as time passes, people tend to forget
what was taught to them. Keep in mind that the more complex a skill is, or
the greater the time span in which it was last performed, th e faster the rate
of learning decay will occur.
Develop a long -term refresher training program that reinforces your
training needs. Consider revising the training cycles when you experience
a large employee turnover event. Tailor your training priorities t o critical
and complex tasks and don’t overdo it. Too frequent and/or too lengthy
repetition eventually leads to a diminishing rate of return. At some point,
your employees will lose interest in the training, and it may make them
feel that management does not trust their intellect.
Lastly, remember that sustainment is the most critical aspect of any staff
development plan, and without it, all previous steps are doomed for failure
at some point in the future.
3B.3 Organisation Development :
3B.3.1 Meaning :
Organization :
An organization is a group of people who work together, like a
neighbourhood association, a charity, a union, or a corporation.
A group of people who form a business, club, etc. together in order to
achieve a particular aim.
Different people h ave defined OD differently. According to Koonz et. al,
“OD is a systematic integrated and planned approach to improve the
effectiveness of the enterprise. It is designed to solve problems that
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102 Burke’ has defined OD as “a planned process of change in an
organisation’s culture through the utilization of behavioural science
technology, research and theory”.
In the opinion of French and Bell “OD is a systematic approach to
organisational improvement, t hat applies behavioural science theory and
research in order to increase individual and organisational well -being and
effectiveness”.
Now, OD can be defined as a long -term, more encompassing change
approach meant to improve individual as well as organisati onal well -being
in a changed situation”.
Organizational development can be defined as an objective -based
methodology used to initiate a change of systems in an entity.
Organizational development is achieved through a shift
in communication processes or their supporting structure. Studying the
behavior of employees enables professionals to examine and observe the
work environment and anticipate change, which is then effected to
accomplish sound organizational development.
Organizational Development Process :
A conventional approach in the organizational development process is the
action research model. This model is used by many organizations to guide
the OD proc ess. It entails what its name describes – research and action.
However, there is much more to the OD process than just research and
development. There are multiple loops used to transmit feedback, which
makes an organization more responsive to change.
3B.3 .2 Characteristics of OD:
The salient characteristics of OD implied in its definitions are gleaned
as follows:
First, OD is a systematic approach to the planned change. It is structured
style of diagnosing organisational problems and opportunities and then
applying expertise to them.
Advertisements:
Second, OD is grounded in solid research and theory. It involves the
application of our knowledge of behavioural science to the challenge that
the organisations face.
Third, OD recognizes the reciprocal relation ship between individuals and
organisations. It ac knowledges that for organisations to change,
individuals must change.
Fourth, OD is goal oriented. It is a process that seeks to improve both
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103 Human Resource Management (HRM) in Organization-II 3B.3.3 Objectives oF OD:
The main objectives of OD are to:
1. Improve organisational performance as measured by profitability,
market share, innovativeness, etc.
2. Make organisations better adaptive to its environme nt which always
keeps on changing.
3. Make the members willing face organisational problems and
contribute creative solutions to the organisational problems.
4. Improve internal behaviour patterns such as interpersonal relations,
intergroup relations, le vel of trust and support among the role players.
5. Understand own self and others, openness and meaningful
communication and involvement in planning for organisational
development.
Douglas McGregor, who was working in the Union Carbide, is considered
one of the first behavioural scientists to systematically talking about and
advocating for the implementation of OD for organisational improvement.
OD as a subject is relatively new. Notwithstanding, it is becoming
increasingly popular and visible in USA, UK, Japan, Norway, Sweden and
even in India.
In India, OD is in scene since 1968. Since then, many public and private
sector organisations like HAL, HMT, IDPL, LIC, SAIL, TELCO and
TISCO have been applying the interventions of OD to solve the
organisational p roblems.
One good way to understand organizational development is by looking at
organizational development examples.
Looking at real -world examples can also help us:
 Learn why organizational development is important
 Learn how organizational development is different from
organizational change
 Learn when to implement each approach
Organizational Development Examples :
Organizational development projects can include ongoing, long -term
programs such as:
 Employee training : Employee training is essential, especially in the
digital business environment. Workers need to stay competent and
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104  Produc t research and development : The development of new
services, products, and ideas can change the nature of a business.
However, these programs often take years to come to fruition.
 Cultural change campaigns : Culture matters – it affects an
organization’s pr oductivity, agility, performance, and many other
things. Aligning culture with an organization’s mission is often a
long-term, continual effort.
Now, let’s look at a few real -world organizational development
examples:
 Amazon’s recent initiative to retrain and upskill its
employees : The online retail giant recently committed to spending
$700 million on retraining its workers. This forwa rd-thinking project
will help its own employees stay resilient in the years to come. It will
also help the business develop employee training programs that keep
the company relevant, modern, and cutting -edge.
 Google’s culture of learning : According to a fo rmer Google
executive, a culture that emphasizes learning is important to long -term
business growth. A culture of learnin g is essential for businesses that
continually grow and transform, such as Google.
 Starbucks’ environmental initiatives : The well -known coffee
company introduced a variety of environmentally -friendly
initiatives that include recycling, paper cup reduction, energy
consumption, and so on. Naturally, these long -term changes will
positively impact the environment. But they will also improve the
company’s image and its bottom line.
 Walmart’s long -term digital transformation programs : It’s no
secret that Amazon and other online retailers have put pressure on
Walmart to transform. The US retailer has responded by engaging in
complex, long -term digital transformation efforts . These include a
variety of digital adoption programs , the introduction of new customer
services, and more.
3B.2.4 Organisational Skills for Teachers :
One of the most important skills when work ing as a teacher is
organization. Organizational skills help teachers maintain order in the
classroom and optimize learning opportunities for their students. Learning
why organizational skills are important for teachers and evaluating some
of the top skill s can help you become more organized. In this article, we
discuss what organizational skills are, why they're important in the
classroom, some of the most important skills for teachers and provide you
with tips on how to improve your organization.
Organiza tional skills are important when working as a teacher because
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105 Human Resource Management (HRM) in Organization-II are often responsible for managing the education of multiple students
within the classroom, and having good organizationa l skills can help them:
 Optimize the teaching time they have with their students
 Provide one -on-one feedback to students
 Better understand the individual learning needs of their students
 Identify necessary topics that students may want to spend more time
learning
 Model important organizational and time management skills
Organizational skills for teachers :
Organization in the classroom means preparing ahead of time and always
knowing where you can find necessary teachings tools and resources. Here
are some i mportant organizational skills for teachers:
1. Creating and meeting due dates :
Teachers frequently create and enforce due dates, making this an
important skill to learn. In addition to having their own due dates to meet,
teachers are also often in charge of setting due dates for students'
assignments. Setting clear expectations with enough notice can help
teachers create and meet their set due dates.
2. Delegating tasks :
Delegation can help teachers manage time more efficiently. The ability to
entrust othe rs to complete important tasks can help a teacher focus more
on educational tasks. Learning to prioritize classroom tasks can also assist
with more efficiently managing time and organizational skills.
3. Making decisions :
An important part of organization is the ability to make decisions.
Learning how to compare the pros and cons of each decision and quickly
choose one can help teachers manage more tasks each day. In addition to
making a decision, the ability to recognize alternative or backup decisions
can also help with effective organization.
4. Managing projects :
Teachers frequently have multiple projects at one time, especially if they
teach different subjects or classrooms throughout the day. Learning how to
efficiently manage projects and break down t he requirements of each task
helps improve organizational skills. Recognizing barriers that lead to
disorganization among different projects can also help with further
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5. Managing time :
Time management is an important part of being organized. The ability to
divide tasks into time increments can help teachers complete duties
throughout the day while staying organized. Some teachers may also find
it effective to schedule time to focus on organizational duties.
6. Creating schedules
Creating schedules is another important task as a teacher, as teachers are
often in charge of managing the time in the classroom. Preparing
schedules ahead of time improves the ability to stay organized, even when
unexpected tasks come up. This ensures that teachers can fit all topics into
the class session.
7. Communicating needs and expectations
The ability to communicate needs and expectations both verbally and
written can help teachers stay organized. Communication ensures teachers
have all the informatio n they need about a task before beginning and
allocating resources. Good written communication skills also help teachers
take notes to further improve organizational skills.
8. Solving problems
Problem -solving skills also correlate with organizational skil ls. Teachers
who are good at identifying problems and coming up with solutions to
them can optimize their time and stay organized in the classroom.
Learning how to efficiently solve problems can also help teachers
overcome unexpected challenges in the clas sroom, without affecting their
ability to stay organized.
Being an organized teacher
Becoming organized as an educator may require hands -on practice and the
identification of areas of improvement. Here are a few tips you can use to
improve your organizatio n as a teacher:
 Plan ahead: Planning ahead can help you stay organized while
avoiding any barriers to staying organized in the classroom. Preparing
your materials and class plans the night before class can help you
prepare for lessons.
 Use organizational r esources: Resources like planners or daily
reminder apps can help you stay on track when it comes to
organization. You can also use these programs to record reminders of
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107 Human Resource Management (HRM) in Organization-II  Review organizational skills regularly: The specific organizational
skills that you excel at may change over time. Regularly review your
organizational skills to identify any areas of improvement, and then
create a plan to further develop those skills.
 Schedule time for organizational tasks: It can be beneficial to
schedule a specific time of your day to catch up on organizational
tasks. You can use this time to file papers or create a to -do list.
 Learn to prioritize tasks: Learning how to prioritize tasks can also
help you stay organized. Create a list of all the assignments you need
to complete and then rank them from the most to least important, and
focus on the most important tasks first.
 Reduce distractions: Reducing distractions can help you focus on the
task in front of you. When you feel less than organized, aim to
identify the distractions and develop a plan to overcome them.
 Reduce clutter: Reducing clutter in the classroom and your office
can make it easier to find things, which can help you stay organized.
Frequently go through class mater ials and recycle any items you no
longer need.
 Complete one task before moving on to another: Aim to complete
one task before moving on to another assignment. Be sure to complete
that task in its entirety before beginning the next.
 Encourage organization i n the classroom: Students and teachers
can work on improving organizational skills together. Teachers can
use the classroom to stress the importance of organization and work
together with students to improve organization.
 Use templates: Templates can be a time-saver for teachers. Create a
folder with templates that you can use in the classroom to reduce the
time it takes to complete common classroom tasks, like grading
assignments.
3B.3.5 Benefits of Organizational Development :
Increasing productivity and e fficiency comes with many benefits. One of
the best ways to encourage positive results in these metrics is by using a
well-thought -out organizational development structure. Organizational
development is used to equip an organization with the right tools so that it
can adapt and respond positively (profitably!) to changes in the market.
The benefits of organizational development include the following:
1. Continuous development :
Entities that participate in organizational development continually develop
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108 pattern of improvement in which strategies are developed, evaluated,
implemented, and assessed for results and quality.
In essence, the process builds a favorable environment in which a
compan y can embrace change, both internally and externally. The change
is leveraged to encourage periodic renewal.
2. Increased horizontal and vertical communication :
Of considerable merit to organizational development is effective
communication, interaction, an d feedback in an organization. An efficient
communication system aligns employees with the company’s goals,
values, and objectives.
An open communication system enables employees to understand the
importance of change in an organization. Active organizatio nal
development increases communication in an organization, with feedback
shared continuously to encourage improvement.
3. Employee growth :
Organizational development places significant emphasis on effective
communication, which is used to encourage employ ees to effect necessary
changes. Many industry changes require employee development programs .
As a result, many organizations are working toward improving the skills
of their employees to equip them with more market -relevant skills.
4. Enhancement of products and services :
Innovation is one of the main benefits of organizational development and
is a key contributing factor to the improvemen t of products and services.
One approach to change is employee development – a critical focal point
is a reward for motivation and success.
Successful engagement of employees leads to increased innovation and
productivity. Through competitive analysis , consumer expectations, and
market research, organizational development promotes change.
5. Increased profit margins :
Organizational development influences the botto m line in many different
ways. As a result of increased productivity and innovation, profits and
efficiency increase. Costs come down because the organ ization can better
manage employee turnover and absenteeism. After the alignment of an
entity’s objectives, it can focus entirely on development and product and
service quality, leading to improvements in customer satisfaction.


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109 Human Resource Management (HRM) in Organization-II 3B.3.6 Components of Orga nization Development Process :

1. Long -term effort: It means that organization change and
development take time. It is more accurate to describe improvement
as a never -ending of continuous change.
2. Led and supported by top management: Top management must
lead and actively encourages the change effort. Top management must
initiate the improvement journey and be committed to seeing it
through.
3. Visioning process: Through this process organization members
develop a viable, coherent, and shared pictures of the nature of the
product and services the organization offered.
4. Empowerment process: It means that leadership behavior and
human resource practices t hat enable organization members to
develop and use their talents as fully as possible.
5. Learning process: It means those interacting, listening, and self -
examining process that facilitates individual, team, and organizational
learning.
6. Problem -solvi ng process: It refers to the ways organization members
diagnose the situation, solve problems, make decisions, and take
actions on problems, opportunities, and challenges in the
organization’s environment and its internal functioning.
7. By ongoing collab orative management: One of the most important
things to manage in organizations is the culture. The prevailing
pattern of the values, attitudes, beliefs, assumptions, activities, norms,
and artifacts affect organization activates.
8. Liberation Management : Liberation management is that
contemporary bureaucratic structures with their functional specialties
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110 9. Using the consultant -facilitators role: It conveys our beliefs that
leaders can benefit from seeking professional assistance in planning
and implementing OD initiatives.
10. Action research: It means the participative model of collaborative
and iterative diagnosis and taking action in which the leader,
organization members, and OD practitioners work together to defined
and resolve problems and opportunities.
11. By intact work teams and other configurations: It recognizes that
teams can contribute to accomplishing works in organizations. The
most prevalent forms of teams in organizations are intact work teams
consisting of superiors and subordinates with a specific job to
perform.
The above components are supposed to be present among the parties to
OD programs. Some of the components may not sometimes be present
during the programs.
But every organization should try to demonstrate most of the components
while undertaking the OD program and implementing the same
3B.4 LET US SUM UP A remarkable change can be seen in the functioning of the HR activities of
the organizati on. Today's HR departments are proactive and invest in
employee engagement and empowerment to derive the best results from
their abilities. Ambitious and innovative HR strategies improve the
organization's aptness to grow. In a nutshell, HRM is quite conc ise and
forward -looking to make the best utilization of the human resources of an
organization.
3B.5 UNIT END EXERCISE 1. Explain staff development w.r.to. need and objectives.
2. Describe meaning of OD?
3. Enlist skills of teachers as organizer.
4. Differentiate bet ween staff development and organisational
development.
3B.6 REFERENCES  https://hr.buffalostate.edu/staff -development
 https://www.teachmint.com/glossary/s/staff -
development/#:~:text=Staff%20development%20is%20a%20process,
an%20individual%20and%20the%20university .
 https://cmoe.com/blog/three -methods -of-employee -development -
training -coaching -and-mentoring/ munotes.in

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111 Human Resource Management (HRM) in Organization-II  https://www.businessstudynotes.com/hrm/employee -development -
methods -for-small -business/
 https://corporatefinanceinstit ute.com/resources/knowledge/strategy/or
ganizational -development/
 Developing Employees for future success
https://nscpolteksby.ac.id/ebook/files/Ebook/Business%20Administrat
ion/Fundamentals%20Of%20Human%20Resource%20Management
%204th%20Edition%20 %20-
%20Noe%20Hollenbeck%20Gerhart%20Wright/Chapter%209%20 -
%20Developing%20Employees%20for%20Future%20Success.pdf

*****
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112 MODULE - II
4
MANAGING PEOPLE
Unit Structure
4.0 Objective
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Conflict management
4.2.1 Meaning and Definition of Conflict
4.2.2 Types of Conflict In An Organisation
4.2.3 Causes of Conflict
4.2.4 Definition of Conflict Manage ment
4.2.5 Conflict Management Style
4.2.6 The Top 5 Conflict Resolution Strategies
4.3 Anger Management
4.3.1 Meaning of Anger
4.3.2 Effects of Anger
4.3.3 How anger management can help you?
4.4 Time Management
4.4.1 Obstacles to Time Management
4.4.2 The Benefits of Good Time Management
4.4.3 Maintaining Relationship with BOSS
4.5 Lets Sum up
4.6 Unit End Exercise
4.7 References
4.0 OBJECTIVES After reading this topic the students will be able to :
1) Explain the meaning of conflict.
2) Explain th e ways to manage the conflict.
3) Understand the types of conflict management.
4) Understand the causes of conflict management.
5) Apply the strategies to resolve conflict management.
6) Find the sources of Anger and strategies to handle the anger.
7) Learn the obstacle to time Management, strategies for Effective use of
Time.
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113 Managing People 4.1 INTRODUCTION Nowadays, the world is undergoing a rapid transition, and this rapid
transition is causing the individual to cope with various emotions. In the
struggle of balancing between culture and materialism, the individual is
getting stressed. The individual has to play multiple roles, and every role
demands different capacities to be handled; hence the individual conflict
arises from with in. Due to the explosion of knowledge, the world has
become accessible to all; hence, superiors and subordinates share the same
stage of calibre. Hence the conflict between boss and subordinate is seen
in the workplace. The mode of transportation has broug ht the people from
different parts of the world closer to each other, and hence, cultural
conflicts are seen between two groups of people. The multiple
opportunities available to individuals in their careers and life create many
inner conflicts.
As the cau ses of conflicts seen all over, the strategies are also developed
by the learned people of various fields; in the olden days, gurus and rishis
were the sources of inspiration and guidance. However, now the
professionals are providing mentorship and leaders hip.
4.2 CONFLICT MANAGEMENT 4.2.1 Meaning and Definition of Conflict :
As per the Cambridge dictionary “An active disagreement between people
with opposing opinions or principles .”
Definitions of conflict abound, and the search for a single all -
encompassi ng definition of conflict is a difficult endeavor. For the
purposes of training individuals in conflict management and negotiation
skills, such an endeavor is not only difficult but also unnecessary.
When providing conflict management training, it is impo rtant that the
participants understand the elements that coalesce to define conflict from
their own perspective and experience. Therefore, the appropriate
definition of conflict is largely a matter of personal experience and
context. For one person, conf lict may appear as a state or situation, while
for another, conflict may be conceived as a behavior or process. When
one’s task is to assist individuals in better understanding and addressing
conflict, something which is deeply and intricately woven into the cloth
of human experience, it is of little value extolling the validity of one
definition over another. What is of the most value is creating meaning for
the learner.
Ultimately, most definitions of conflict have much in common and are
separated larg ely by contextual details. Effectively teaching the meaning
of conflict requires the presentation of multiple, valid definitions that the
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114 When learner s possesses a technical definition of conflict that is relevant
to them, they acquire their first tool in the process of conflict analysis.
The individuals can utilize the definition of conflict that makes the most
sense to them for broadly outlining the conflict(s) they are currently
addressing. Alone, this tool provides little value, but as a starting point for
developing an understanding of the dynamics of conflict, it can be a very
useful device.
 “Social conflict is a struggle between opponents over v alues and
claims to scarce status, power and resources.” (L. Coser, The
Functions of Social Conflict , 1956)
 “Conflict is a breakdown in the standard mechan isms of decision
making, so that an individual or group experiences difficulty in
selecting an alternative.” (J. G. March & H. A. Simon, Organizations ,
1958)
 “Conflicts that are strategic are essentially bargaining situations in
which the ability of one par ticipant to gain his ends is dependent on
the choices or decisions that the other participant will make.” (T.
Schelling, The Strategy of Conflict , 1960)
 “Conflict is a situation in which the conditions, practices, or goals for
the different participants are inherently incompatible.” (C. G.
Smith, Administrative Science Quarterly , 1966)
 “Conflicts involve struggles between two or more people over values,
or competition for status, power, or scarce resources (L.
Coser, Continuities in the Study of Social Confl ict, 1967)
 “Conflict is a type of behavior which occurs when two or more parties
are in opposition or in battle as a result of a perceived relative
deprivation from the activities of or interacting with another person or
group.” (J. A. Litterer, Academy of Management Journal , 1966)
 “Conflict occurs in any social situation or process in which two or
more social entities are linked by at least one form of antagonistic
psychological relation or at least one form of antagonistic
interaction.” (C. F. Fink, Journal of Confli ct Resolution , 1968)
 “A conflict exists whenever incompatible activities occur . . . one
party is interfering, disrupting, obstructing, or in some other way
making another party’s actions less effective.” (M. Deutsch, The
Resolution of Conflict , 1973)
 “Conflict is an interactive state in which the behaviors or goals of one
actor are to some degree incompatible with the behaviors or goals of
some other actor or actors.” (J. T. Tedeschi, B. R. Schlenker& T. V.
Bonoma, Conflict, Power and Games , 1973)
 “Conflict is a process in which two or more parties attempt to frustrate
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115 Managing People threefold: interdependence, differences in goals, and differences in
perceptions.” (J. A. Wall, Negotiation , 1985)
 “Conflict is the opposition of forces.” (L. S. Kahn, Peacemaking ,
1988)
4.2.2 Types of Conflict In An Organisation :
Brodtker et al (2001). argue that conflict is formed by three major
elements:
 Attitudes: cognitive ideas and emotion;
 Behaviour: evident behavio ur and potential aggressive actions; and
 Contradiction: values and interests.
Conflict is an inescapable fact of life. Whether it’s friendships, family
dynamics, or even workplaces, there will be conflict from time to time.
The trick is not avoiding it, bu t managing it better. If you can identify
what the cause and type of the conflict is, it will be easier to solve it.
Conflict resolution is especially important in the workplace. Organizations
ranging from multinational corporate entities to start -ups run out of a
garage by college friends must make it a point to addressing conflicts in
order to function smoothly.
The types of conflicts in an organization may differ, but there are some
broad categories we can put them into. After all, people worldwide
funct ion in somewhat similar ways in the workplace.
Identifying and addressing various types of conflict in the workplace will
ensure an improvement in productivity levels. Resolving conflict leads to
members of the team understanding each other better and work ing as a
cohesive unit.
Let us look at the main types of conflicts in an organisation.
1. Intrapersonal Conflict :
Out of all the types of conflicts in an organization, this is the best one to
start with. Humans are complex beings. Each of us carries unique
potential, morals, ideas, beliefs. Intrapersonal conflict refers to the
struggle that an individual faces while working in an organization.
Intrapersonal conflict can arise when the ideas, mission, or vision of the
organization are not aligned with the mo ral values and belief systems of an
individual. The individual is rendered unable to work because they do not
believe in the work they are doing. Intrapersonal conflict can be resolved
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116 2. Interpersonal Conflict :
Every individual is unique. Even if you are working towards the same
goal, there are chances that differences arise in approaches. These
differences can be about philosophy, work ethic, rule adherence, vision, or
management style. Out o f all types of conflicts in an organization,
interpersonal conflict is the one most of us would have most likely
experienced. Sometimes taking an ugly form through office gossip or even
categorized as ‘office politics,’ interpersonal conflicts is almost in evitable
when people with different perspectives and from different walks of life
spend a significant amount of their time together. Interpersonal conflicts
adversely affect productivity and morale. They can easily escalate if not
attended to in a timely m anner.
3. Intragroup Conflict :
Organizational goals are often ambitious —they require the coming
together of people with varying levels of experience and expertise.
Therefore, it is common for the workforce to be divided into teams for
smooth functioning. L ike some other types of conflicts in an organization,
intra-team conflict is a result of diverse personalities working together in
the same team. It is possible that a few people from the team or the group
hold a few values and beliefs in common, but as th e size of the team
increases, the chances are that conflict does too. Intra -team conflict can be
managed by a clear division of responsibilities, a fair division of work, and
a management policy under which no team member is given any kind of
‘special’ tre atment.
4. Intergroup Conflict :
One of the biggest types of conflict in the workplace, in scale, would be
inter-team conflict. For any organization to function effectively, there has
to be equilibrium among all the cogs of the wheel. With multitudes of
individuals, groups, teams, boards, and other stakeholders working
together, it is the responsibility of the organizational leaders to resolve
inter-team conflicts. Supervisors need to ensure that communication
channels are open and any tension or lack of coo peration between teams is
nipped in the bud. To do this, they need to eradicate bias, allocate
workload effectively, and build morale. A leader has to take personality
differences, co -worker relationships, and collective strength into account.
Verbal discu ssions and positive reinforcements go a long way in resolving
inter-team conflicts.
5. Individual -Group Conflict :
Individual -Group conflict occurs between an individual in the group and
the group as a whole. This conflict can occur quite easily. Problems c an
arise if the individual’s needs or goals differ from the groups.A common
problem between an individual and their group is levels of commitment.
An individual can feel different levels of commitment and transition into
different roles within the group. T here are then five stages the individual
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117 Managing People maintenance, resocialization, and remembrance”. Along with these stages,
there are also different types of transition the individual can go through:
“entry, acceptance, divergence, and exit”. These stages and transitions can
affect the individual’s personal values and commitment levels.
6. Group -Group conflict:
Group -Group conflict occurs between two or more different groups. This
conflict commonly ha ppens when the two groups are fighting and working
towards the same goal. This can create contact and tension between the
groups. Groups may be drawn into conflict with each other on the basis of
performance, importance to particular groups and, in general , union –
management rivalries. Although there may be conflict between groups,
their members may still come into contact with one another. Contact
between the intergroup can promote forgiveness and sometimes result in a
reconciliation between groups. This contact between groups can also help
group members form new opinions about the other, reduce prejudice, and
promote acceptance. An example of group -group conflict would be if two
coffee shops in one town are fighting to bring in more customers than the
other. Another factor that could cause problems between groups is
geographic location. Conflict tends to have negative consequences for
both the individual and the organization. There are numerous negative
effects of group -group conflict. For example, individ uals in the group tend
to have an increased lack of interest in work, higher job dissatisfaction,
and more work anxiety .
4.2.3 Causes of Conflict :
There are five main causes of conflict: information conflicts, values
conflicts, interest conflicts, relation ship conflicts, and structural conflict.
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118 a. Information conflicts arise when people have different or insufficient
information, or disagree over what data is relevant. Allowing
sufficient time to be heard, in a respectful environment facilitated by a
neutra l person can allow parties to clear up information disparities.
b. Values conflicts are created when people have perceived or actual
incompatible belief systems. Where a person or group tries to impose
its values on others or claims exclusive right to a set o f values,
disputes arise. While values may be non -negotiable, they can be
discussed and people can learn to live peacefully and coherently
alongside each other.
c. Interest conflicts are caused by competition over perceived or actual
incompatible needs. Such conflicts may occur over issues of money,
resources, or time. Parties often mistakenly believe that in order to
satisfy their own needs, those of their opponent must be sacrificed. A
mediator can help identify ways to dovetail interests and create
opportun ities for mutual gain.
d. Relationship conflicts occur when there are misperceptions, strong
negative emotions, or poor communication. One person may distrust
the other and believe that the other person’s actions are motivated by
malice or an intent to harm t he other. Relationship conflicts may be
addressed by allowing each person uninterrupted time to talk through
the issues and respond to the other person’s concerns.
e. Structural conflicts are caused by oppressive behaviors exerted on
others. Limited resources or opportunity as well as organization
structures often promote conflict behavior. The parties may well
benefit from mediation since the forum will help neutralize the power
imbalance.
Regardless of the cause of conflict, an experienced mediator can help
parties shift their focus from fighting to resolution. Since they are
necessarily unbiased, neutrals create an environment where parties can
trust the process and work toward a solution.
4.2.4 Definition of Conflict Management :
Conflict Management is the p ractice of being able to identify and handle
conflicts sensibly, fairly, and efficiently. Since conflicts in a business are a
natural part of the workplace, it is important that there are people who
understand conflicts and know how to resolve them. This i s important in
today's market more than ever. Everyone is striving to show how valuable
they are to the company they work for and at times, this can lead to
disputes with other members of the team.
4.2.5 Conflict Management Style :
Though conflict is a norm al and natural part of any workplace, it can lead
to absenteeism, lost productivity, and mental health issues. At the same
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119 Managing People as well as leads to increased flexibility and a better unde rstanding of
working relationships. However, conflict needs to be effectively managed
in order to contribute to the success of organizations.
A critical competency for today’s working professionals is to understand
that we each have our own way of dealing with conflict. human resource
(HR) professionals around the world, there are five major styles of conflict
management -collaborating, competing, avoiding, accommodating, and
compromising.
“Each strategy has its own benefits; there is no right or wrong confl ict
management style,” says Dr. Barbara Benoliel, “Understanding how you
instinctively respond to conflicts as well as having increased awareness of
other management styles may help how you typically approach specific
situations and lead to efficient and e ffective conflict resolution.”
Five Major Conflict Management Styles*
Knowing when and how to use each style can help control conflict and
lead to an improved working environment, resulting in a better bottom
line.
i. Collaborating Style : A combination of bei ng assertive and
cooperative, those who collaborate attempt to work with others to
identify a solution that fully satisfies everyone’s concerns. In this
style, which is the opposite of avoiding, both sides can get what they
want and negative feelings are m inimized. “Collaborating works best
when the long -term relationship and outcome are important —for
example, planning for integrating two departments into one, where
you want the best of both in the newly formed department,”
Dr.Benoliel says.
ii. Competing Style : Those who compete are assertive and
uncooperative and willing to pursue one’s own concerns at another
person’s expense. Dr.Benoliel explains using this style works when
you don’t care about the relationship but the outcome is important,
such as when comp eting with another company for a new client. But,
she cautions, “Don’t use competing inside your organization; it
doesn’t build relationships.”
iii. Avoiding Style : Those who avoid conflict tend to be unassertive and
uncooperative while diplomatically sidestepp ing an issue or simply
withdrawing from a threatening situation. “Use this when it is safer to
postpone dealing with the situation or you don’t have as great a
concern about the outcome, such as if you have a conflict with a co -
worker about their ethics of using FaceTime on the job.”
iv. Accommodating Style : The opposite of competing, there is an
element of self -sacrifice when accommodating to satisfy the other
person. While it may seem generous, it could take advantage of the
weak and cause resentment. “You ca n use accommodating when you
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120 Educational Management and Leadership
120 build the relationship,” Dr.Benoliel says, “such as going out for lunch
with the boss and agreeing, ‘If you want to go for Thai food for lunch,
that’s OK with me.’”
v. Compromising Style : This style aims to find an expedient, mutually
acceptable solution that partially satisfies both parties in the conflict
while maintaining some assertiveness and cooperativeness. “This
style is best to use when the outcome is not crucial and you are losing
time; for example, when you want to just make a decision and move
on to more important things and are willing to give a little to get the
decision made,” Dr.Benoliel says. “However,” she adds, “be aware
that no one is really sat isfied.”
“It’s incredibly important to not be afraid when conflict arises because
there are things you can do, such as becoming more skilled and qualified
by building a repertoire for responding to reduce conflict,” says
Dr.Benoliel.
Although it's one of t he most valuable skills you can have in today's
professional world, conflict management is something than many
individuals shy away from. Conflict is inherently uncomfortable for most
of us, in both personal and professional contexts, but learning to
effec tively handle conflicts in a productive, healthy way is essential -
especially at work.
This is especiall y true if you are in a leadership position . It's in your best
interest - and in the best interest of your team - to be able to effectively
manage conflicts as they arise. Learning strategies to resolve conflict is an
essential part of leadership .
While conflict resolution is a skill that is best built through years of
practice and experience, starting out with some of the most common and
effective conflict resolution strategies will give you a strong foundation to
work from for years to come.
4.2.6 The Top 5 Conflict Resolution Strategies :
1. Don't Ignore Conflict :
If you're someone who dislikes dealing with conflict, it might seem
tempting to just put your head in the sand and pretend it doesn't exist,
hoping it will resolve itself on its own. While this sometimes can happen,
the truth is that the vast majority of the time, this will only cause the
situation to get wor se. Ignored conflicts have a tendency to fester over
time and reappear at inopportune moments, so do your team a favor and
address conflicts when they occur, nipping a potentially toxic situation in
the bud as soon as you recognize it.
2. Clarify What the Issue Is :
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121 Managing People the situation? What ne eds are not being met? What does each party see as
an appropriate resolution? Make sure that all parties involved understand
that you are acting as an impartial mediator, and let them know they can
feel comfortable to share sensitive information.
3. Bring Involved Parties Together to Talk :
Once you've had a chance to talk to all involved parties separately, bring
them together in a meeting so that they can hash out their differences in a
neutral environment. This is a time for brainstorming, active listening, and
being open to different perspectives - the goal is to come to a common
understanding of what the problem is, what role each individual is playing
in the conflict, and what some possible solutions might be.
4. Identify a Solution :
After both parties have had a chance to discuss the situation at hand, it's
time to identify what a satisfactory resolution might be - and how to get
there. Ideally, by this point, both parties will understand the other's side,
and oftentimes the conflict will be resolved just through facilitated, open
dialogue. However, if the situation requires further resolution, you will
need to step in a nd help them negotiate a reasonable solution. This phase
can require some time and effort, as it requires both parties to set aside
their differences and preferences and find some common ground to work
towards (which may involve not getting everything they want out of the
situation). Then, work with both individuals to come up with a concrete
list of steps that will result in the solution being achieved.
5. Continue to Monitor and Follow Up on the Conflict :
Just because a solution has been identified and ad dressed doesn't mean it
will just go away. As a manager, it's your responsibility to check in with
both parties to ensure that the conflict has truly been dealt with, and that
the steps identified to reach a solution are being followed. If all seems to
be going well, simply remember to stop and observe from time to time,
just to see if things really are going smoothly or if there are still lingering
tensions under the surface that need to be handled. If it's clear that the
solution didn't work, or wasn't th e right resolution for the situation, make
sure to be proactive in working with both parties to readjust expectations,
identify alternative solutions, and continue their dialogue to create a
positive and healthy work environment.
Check your progress :
1. What are the causes of conflicts.
2. What are the strategies followed for the conflict management.
3. Write short note on the types of conflicts
4. What are the measure conflict Management style.
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122 4.3 ANGER MANAGEMENT 4.3.1 Meaning of Anger :
Anger is a normal, healthy emotion, neither good nor bad. Like any
emotion, it conveys a message, telling you that a situation is upsetting,
unjust, or threatening. If your knee -jerk reaction to anger is to explode,
however, that message never has a chance to be conveyed. So, while it’s
perfectly normal to feel angry when you’ve been mistreated or wronged,
anger becomes a problem when you express it in a way that harms
yourself or others.
You might think that venting your anger is healthy, that the people around
you are too sensitive , that your anger is justified, or that you need to show
your fury to get respect. But the truth is that anger is much more likely to
have a negative impact on the way people see you, impair your judgment,
and get in the way of success.
4.3.2 Effects of An ger:
Chronic anger that flares up all the time or spirals out of control can have
serious consequences for your:
 Physical health: Constantly operating at high levels of stress and
anger makes you more susceptible to heart disease, diabetes, a
weakened immu ne system, insomnia, and high blood pressure.
 Mental health : Chronic anger consumes huge amounts of mental
energy, and clouds your thinking, making it harder to concentrate or
enjoy life. It can also lead to stress, depression, and other mental
health prob lems.
 Career : Constructive criticism, creative differences, and heated
debate can be healthy. But lashing out only alienates your colleagues,
supervisors, or clients and erodes their respect.
 Relationships : Anger can cause lasting scars in the people you l ove
most and get in the way of friendships and work relationships.
Explosive anger makes it hard for others to trust you, speak honestly,
or feel comfortable -and is especially damaging to children.
If you have a hot temper, you may feel like it’s out of yo ur hands and
there’s little you can do to tame the beast. But you have more control over
your anger than you think. With insight about the real reasons for your
anger and these anger management tools, you can learn to express your
emotions without hurting others and keep your temper from hijacking your
life.
4.3.3 How anger management can help you? :
Many people think that anger management is about learning to suppress
your anger. But never getting angry is not a healthy goal. Anger will come
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123 Managing People management isn’t to suppress feelings of anger, but rather to understand
the message behind the emotion and express it in a healthy way without
losing control. When you do, you’ll not only fee l better, you’ll also be
more likely to get your needs met, be better able to manage conflict in
your life, and strengthen your relationships.
Mastering the art of anger management takes work, but the more you
practice, the easier it will get. And the payo ff is huge. Learning to control
your anger and express it appropriately will help you build better
relationships, achieve your goals, and lead a healthier, more satisfying life.
Tip 1: Explore what’s really behind your anger
Have you ever gotten into an ar gument over something silly? Big fights
often happen over something small, like a dish left out or being ten
minutes late. But there’s usually a bigger issue behind it. If you find your
irritation and anger rapidly rising, ask yourself, “What am I really a ngry
about?” Identifying the real source of frustration will help you
communicate your anger better, take constructive action, and work
towards a resolution.
Is your anger masking other feelings such as embarrassment,
insecurity, hurt, shame, or vulnerabil ity?:
If your knee -jerk response in many situations is anger, it’s likely that your
temper is covering up your true feelings. This is especially likely if you
grew up in a family where expressing feelings was strongly discouraged.
As an adult, you may have a hard time acknowledging feelings other than
anger.
 Anger can also mask anxiety : When you perceive a threat, either
real or imagined, your body activates the “fight or flight” response. In
the case of the “fight” response, it can often manifest itself as anger or
aggression. To change your response, you need to find out what’s
causing you to feel anxious or scared.
 Anger problems can stem from what you lea rned as a child : If you
watched others in your family scream, hit each other, or throw things,
you might think this is how anger is supposed to be expressed.
 Anger can be a symptom of another underlying health problem ,
such as depression ( especially in men ), trauma, or chronic stress .
Clues that there’s more to your anger than meet s the eye :
 You have a hard time compromising : Is it hard for you to
understand other people’s points of view, and even harder to concede
a point? If you grew up in a family where anger was out of control,
you may remember how the angry person got their way by being the
loudest and most demanding. Compromising might bring up scary
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124 Educational Management and Leadership
124  You view different opinions as a personal challenge : Do you
believe that your way is always right and get angry when others
disagree? If you have a strong need to be in control or a fragile ego,
you may interpret other perspectives as a challenge to your authority,
rather than simply a different way of looking at things.
 You have trouble expre ssing emotions other than anger: Do you
pride yourse lf on being tough and in control? Do you feel that
emotions like fear, guilt, or shame don’t apply to you? Everyone has
those emotions so you may be using anger as a cover for them. If you
are uncomfortable with different emotions, disconnected, or stuck o n
an angry one -note response to situations, it’s important to get back in
touch with your feelings.
Tip 2: Be aware of your anger warning signs
While you might feel that you just explode into anger without warning,
there are in fact physical warning signs in your body. Becoming aware of
your own personal signs that your temper is starting to boil allows you to
take steps to manage your anger before it gets out of control.
Pay attention to the way anger feels in your body :
 Knots in your stomach
 Clenching you r hands or jaw
 Feeling clammy or flushed
 Breathing faster
 Headaches
 Pacing or needing to walk around
 “Seeing red”
 Having trouble concentrating
 Pounding heart
 Tensing your shoulders
Tip 3: Identify your triggers
Stressful events don’t excuse anger, but understanding how these events
affect you can help you take control of your environment and avoid
unnecessary aggravation. Look at your regular routine and try to id entify
activities, times of day, people, places, or situations that trigger irritable or
angry feelings.
Maybe you get into a fight every time you go out for drinks with a certain
group of friends. Or maybe the traffic on your daily commute drives you
crazy. When you identify your triggers, think about ways to either avoid
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125 Managing People Negative thought patterns that can trigger anger :
You may think that external factors -the insensitive actions o f other people,
for example, or frustrating situations -are causing your anger. But anger
problems have less to do with what happens to you than how you interpret
and think about what happened.
Common negative thinking patterns that trigger and fuel anger
include:
 Overgeneralizing : For example, “You ALWAYS interrupt me. You
NEVER consider my needs. EVERYONE disrespects me. I NEVER
get the credit I deserve.”
 Obse ssing over “shoulds” and “musts ”: Having a rigid view of the
way a situation should or must go and getting angry when reality
doesn’t line up with this vision.
 Mind reading and jumping to conclusions : Assuming you “know”
what someone else is thinking or feeling —that they intentionally
upset you, ignored your wishes, or disrespected you.
 Collecting stra ws: Looking for things to get upset about, usually
while overlooking or blowing past anything positive. Letting these
small irritations build and build until you reach the “final straw” and
explode, often over something relatively minor.
 Blaming : When anyt hing bad happens or something goes wrong, it’s
always someone else’s fault. You tell yourself, “life’s not fair,” or
blame others for your problems rather than taking responsibility for
your own life.
When you identify the thought patterns that fuel your a nger, you can learn
to reframe how you think about things. Ask yourself: What’s the evidence
that the thought is true? That it’s not true? Is there a more positive,
realistic way of looking at a situation? What would I say to a friend who
was thinking thes e things?
Tip 4: Learn ways to cool down quickly
Once you know how to recognize the warning signs that your temper is
rising and anticipate your triggers, you can act quickly to deal with your
anger before it spins out of control. There are many techniques that can
help you cool down and keep your anger in check.
 Focus on the physical sensations of anger : While it may seem
counterintuitive, tuning into the way your body feels when you’re
angry often lessens the emotional intensity of your anger.
 Take some d eep breaths : Deep, slow breathing helps counteract
rising tension. The key is to breathe deeply from the abdomen, getting
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126 Educational Management and Leadership
126  Get moving : A brisk walk around the block is a great idea. Physical
activity releases pent -up energy so you can approach the situation
with a cooler head.
 Use your senses : You can use sight, smell, hearing, touch, and taste
to quickly relieve stress and cool down. You might try listening to a
favorite piece of music, looking at a treasured photo, savouring a cup
of tea, or stroking a pet.
 Stretch or massa ge areas of tension : Roll your shoulders if you are
tensing them, for example, or gently massage your neck and scalp.
 Slowly count to ten : Focus on the counting to let your rational mind
catch up with your feelings. If you still feel out of control by the time
you reach ten, start counting aga
Tip 5: Find healthier ways to express your anger
If you’ve decided that the situation is worth getting angry about and
there’s something you can do to make it better, the key is to express your
feelings in a healthy w ay. Learning how to resolve conflict in a positive
way will help you strengthen your relationships rather than damaging
them.
 Always f ight fair : It’s okay to be upset at someone, but if you don’t
fight fair, the relationship will quickly break down. Fighting fair
allows you to express your own needs while still respecting others.
 Make the relationship your priority : Maintaining and stren gthening
the relationship, rather than “winning” the argument, should always
be your first priority. Respect the other person and their viewpoint.
 Focus on the present : Once you are in the heat of arguing, it’s easy
to start throwing past grievances into t he mix. Rather than looking to
the past and assigning blame, focus on what you can do in the present
to solve the problem.
 Be willing to forgive : Resolving conflict is impossible if you’re
unwilling or unable to forgive. Resolution lies in releasing the ur ge to
punish, which can never compensate for our losses and only adds to
our injury by further depleting and draining our lives.
 Take five if things get too heated : If your anger starts to spiral out of
control, remove yourself from the situation for a few minutes or for as
long as it takes you to cool down.
 Know when to let something go : If you can’t come to an agreement,
agree to disagree. It takes two people to keep an argument going. If a
conflict is going nowhere, you can choose to disengage and move o n.
Tip 6: Stay calm by taking care of yourself
Taking care of your overall mental and physical well -being can help ease
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127 Managing People  Manage stress : If your stress levels are through the roof, you’re more
likely to struggle controllin g your temper. Try practicing relaxation
techniques such as mindfulness meditation, progressive muscle
relaxation, or deep breathing. You’ll feel calmer a nd more in control
of your emotions.
 Talk to someone you trust : Nothing eases stress more effectively
than chatting face -to-face with a friend or loved one. The person
doesn’t have to provide answers, they just need to be a good listener.
But talking about your feelings and seeking a different perspective on
a situation is not the same as venting. Simply venting your anger at
someone will only fuel your temper and reinforce your anger
problem.
 Get enough sleep : A lack of sleep can exacerbate negative though ts
and leave you feeling agitated and short -tempered. Try to get seven to
nine hours of good quality sleep .
 Exercise regularly : It’s an effective way to burn -off tension and ease
stress, and it can leave you feeling more relaxed and
positive throughout the day. Aim for at least 30 minutes on most days,
broken up into sh orter periods if that’s easier.
 Be smart about alcohol and drugs : They lower your inhibitions and
can make it even harder to control your anger. Even consuming too
much caffeine can make you more irritable and prone to anger.
Tip 7: Use humor to relieve t ension
When things get tense, humor and playfulness can help you lighten the
mood, smooth over differences, reframe problems, and keep things i n
perspective. When you feel yourself getting angry in a situation, try using
a little lightheartedhumor. It can allow you to get your point across
without getting the other person’s defenses up or hurting their feelings.
However, it’s important that you laugh with the other person, not at them.
Avoid sarcasm, mean -spirited humor. If in doubt, start by using self -
deprecating humor. We all love people who are able to gently poke fun at
their own failings. After all, we’re all flawed and we all make mistakes .
So, if you’ve made a mistake at work or you’ve just spilled coffee over
yourself, instead of getting angry or picking a fight, try making a joke
about it. Even if the joke falls flat or comes out wrong, the only person
you risk offending is yourself.
Whe n humor and play are used to reduce tension and anger, a potential
conflict can even become an opportunity for greater connection and
intimacy.

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128 Tip 8: Recognize if you need professional help
If, despite putting these previous anger management techniques into
practice, your anger is still spiralling out of control, or if you’re getting
into trouble with the law or hurting others, you need more help.
Anger management classes allow you to meet others coping with the
same struggles and learn tips and techniqu es for managing your anger.
Therapy , either group or individual, can be a great way to explore the
reasons behind your anger and identify triggers. Therapy can also provide
a safe place to practice new skills for expressing anger.
Check your Progress:
1. What are the bad effects of anger.
4.4 TIME MANAGEMENT Time is most limited commodity on the earth. We all get the same 24
hours – so why do some people seem to achieve more with their time than
others? The answer: good time management.
Time management is the process of organizing and planning how to divide
your time between different activities. Get it right, and you'll end up
working smarter, not harder, to get more done in less time – even when
time is tight and pressures are high.
The highest achievers manage their time exceptionally well. And by using
Mind Tools' time -management resources, you too can make the most of
your time – starting right now!
4.4.1 Obstacles to Time Management :
Higher education leaders have heavy workloads and responsibilities that
often cause them to work long days. It is common for leaders to attend
conferences, participate in training, and read books and articles on ti me
management but struggle to implement what they learn.
Most of them realize the value of prioritizing, setting daily goals, using
project management tools, delegating, doing the most challenging tasks
early, providing training to their staff to empower t hem to work more
independently, and keeping themselves accountable, but they don’t do it.
Their struggle with time management is not caused by lack of knowledge
but inability to change their behavior. They may be unaware of the reasons
why they continue to repeat old habits instead of implementing new
practices, or they may understand their reasons but not know how to
change.
Typically, they blame themselves for their lack of organization and self -
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129 Managing People both. They look at their situation from a highly pragmatic perspective and
often feel discouraged or even stuck.
Unconscious Obstacles :
Time management is emotionally charged and the first step to making
improvements is to deal with emotio ns. People don’t always know
consciously what drives their decisions and behaviors. In a nutshell,
individuals are programmed to do what they expect to bring pleasure and
avoid what they expect to create pain. This evaluation of pleasure and pain
is rarely conscious and is highly subjective, as it is based on the person’s
past experiences, beliefs, fears, and needs. Here are some common
unconscious obstacles to effective time management.
1. Seeking perfection :
Seeking perfection will cause managers to spend an excessive amount of
time on each project. They may attach too much importance to small
details that no one else will notice. They might check their work too many
times, start doubting themselves, and add complexity that doesn’t bring
more value. The un necessary time spent perfecting one task will be sorely
missing for another task, creating unwarranted delays. Seeking perfection
can also increase pressure, inflate the level of difficulty perceived, and
cause procrastination.
2. Needing control :
Some peo ple have a strong need to feel in control and are reluctant to
delegate because they believe the best way to get something done
correctly is to do it themselves. Instead of using their human resources
strategically, they take responsibility for more tasks than they can handle.
They will create delays and even bottlenecks when they micromanage
their staff and insist on reviewing other people’s work. They may also
over-complicate projects by requesting modifications that are their
personal preferences but don ’t objectively add value to the tasks.
3. Task avoidance :
Managers are likely to keep themselves busy with comfortable tasks and
procrastinate on an intimidating one such as writing a report. Avoidance
can be caused by various reasons including
(1) too much pain perceived in completing the task,
(2) lack of intrinsic motivation and interest in the task,
(3) lack of external pressure to complete the task,
(4) rationalizing why it is acceptable to wait,
(5) attaching more importance to other tasks th an this one,
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130 Educational Management and Leadership
130 (7) being intimidated by the size of the task instead of tackling it in
manageable chunks,
(8) not feeling creative or energetic enough and choosing easier tasks
instead, or
(9) choosing a task that meets the individual’s emotional needs (e.g.
meetings or phone calls to meet the need for interaction and
connection or answering e -mails for instant gratification and
sense of being productive).
4. Fear of failure :
Lacking confidence in one’s ability to successfully complete a project will
create fear and procrastination. The intimidating project will be pushed to
the last minute, creating more stress and pressure. This pattern is common
for people who
(1) worry too much about how they are perceived and tend to focus
more on criticism than service to others,
(2) are new at their jobs and don’t feel competent enough, informed
enough, or prepared enough to complete the tasks successfully,
(3) have a critical supervisor who is very dif ficult to please,
(4) exaggerate in their minds what is at stake and create unjustified
anxiety,
(5) work in an environment that is unsupportive and feels unsafe, or
(6) have been treated poorly in the past and still carry the fear of
being criticize d or punished, even if their current work
environment is healthy.
5. Desire to please :
People who have a strong need to please others tend to have difficulty
saying no to requests, even when they are not certain they can deliver on
their promises. As a res ult, they will over -commit and find themselves
unable to meet deadlines. Their fear of disappointing someone or letting
someone down will often become a self -fulfilling prophecy because they
lack healthy boundaries. They are also likely to let people take too much
of their time, call them too often, ask for too many favors, and assign them
projects that should be directed elsewhere. They tend to make unnecessary
sacrifices because they want to be liked, and prioritize what other people
want over what they t hemselves need.
6. Need for connection :
Occasionally, managers overestimate how much time they should spend
nurturing relationships on campus by engaging in long conversations with
co-workers. Leaders with an open -door policy who lack self -discipline
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131 Managing People their welcome. While relationships are of the utmost importance and
leaders need to know how to inspire teamwork, loyalty, and collaboration,
they should not assume that quantity of conversat ions is an indication of
quality. Many high achievers will lose motivation when they question
whether other people are working or socializing. An excessively laid back
atmosphere can hurt morale and dedication. When friendships seem to be
more important th an work, standards are likely to get lower and so will
productivity.
7. Seeking comfort and familiarity :
Not everyone embraces change. In fact, most people are highly resistant to
change. Many individuals prefer to keep doing what is familiar,
comfortable , and predictable, even if it is not optimal. Breaking old habits
require commitment and self -discipline. If someone does not set a clear
intention to change and create structure for accountability and follow -
through, they will revert back to doing things the way they always have.
Improving time management is not difficult but it feels too unfamiliar and
uncomfortable to some people.
8. Being reactive rather than proactive :
Some managers describe their work as putting out fires all day. Their lack
of struct ure and organization causes them to spend their workdays reacting
to emails, calls, meetings, and crises to resolve. They believe they cannot
make time to create processes or systems, or train their staff to do more or
work independently. They are busy kee ping their heads above water and
don’t know how to make time to improve their workflow and
effectiveness. Their attachment to the belief that they don’t have any time
available prevents them from implementing time management strategies.
9. Taking pride in being overworked :
When someone takes pride in personal sacrifice and being overworked,
they will not improve their time management. Being able to leave the
office on time each day would damage their self -image. Their self -worth
and identity are tied to how hard they work therefore; finding ways to
create free time may be appealing consciously but will be rejected
unconsciously. They will sabotage their efforts to achieve work -life
balance because they think hard work is more honorable. Their inner
conflict will keep them from changing habits.
10. Feeling not good enough :
Similarly, when leaders have a relentless inner voice telling them they are
not good enough or are not doing enough, they will continue to work
excessively to prove their worth and find self -acceptance. Their inner
critic will sabotage efforts to improve their time management because the
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132 Educational Management and Leadership
132 Overcoming Unconscious Obstacles :
The first step to overcoming these obstacles is to become aware of them.
Self-reflection can be facilitated easily and effectively by a coach. Once
the person understands the reasons why they have difficulty implementing
better time management practices, they can find solutions and commit to
changing old habits.
Managers who now understand what need(s) they were unconsciously
trying to meet can find new vehicles to meet these needs, making it
possible to change the unwanted behaviors. Briefly acknowledging their
fears will allow them to think of solutions to find reassurance and make
the fears disappear. Identifying long -held beliefs that cause dysfunction
will give them an opportunity to change perspective and liberate
themselves from old patterns.
Work habits are determined by the unconscious mind until we choos e to
consciously observe our own decisions and behaviors and choose to make
changes. Intentions alone are not effective because obstacles need to be
brought to the surface to be overcome.
The gap between knowledge and action, meaning knowing what to do and
actually doing it, can only be filled by addressing the emotional side of
time management. Stop struggling with your heavy workload and old
habits. I invite you to click here to schedule a co mplimentary call with me
to discuss how I can help you making lasting changes and regain control
over your schedule. You can’t keep doing the same thing and expecting
different results, right? Let me take away the stress and make your work
life much easie r.
4.4.2 The Benefits of Good Time Management :
When you know how to manage your time effectively, you can unlock
many benefits. These include:
 Greater productivity and efficiency.
 Less stress.
 A better professional reputation.
 Increased chances of advancem ent.
 More opportunities to achieve your life and career goals.
Overall, you start feeling more in control, with the confidence to choose
how best to use your time.
And by feeling happier, more relaxed, and better able to think, you're in a
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133 Managing People How Well Do You Manage Your Time? :
Start by assessing your existing approach. How good are you at organizing
your time so that you get the important things done well? Can you balance
your time between different activiti es? And when you do make time to do
something, are you able to focus – and get it finished?
How Good Is Your Time Management ?:
This will show you what you're getting right, as well as h ighlight wh ere –
and how – you can improve :
Good time management takes a shift in focus from activities to results .
Being busy isn't the same as being effective. In fact, for many people, the
busier they are, the less they actually achieve.
1. General Time -Management Tools :
Mind Tools has a range of resources designed to improve your time
management overall. These offer practical solutions to common time -
management challenges, as well as ways to change key habits for the
better.
How to Be More Organized explains why your environment needs to be
as organized as your thinking! There are practical tips from highly
organized people, plus ideas for using technology to take more control of
your time.
And, since good time management relies on planning, recording and
reflecting on your activities, we explain some of the best -known tools for
doing this, including Activity Logs , To-Do Lists and Action Programs .
2. Prioritization :
You can achieve more when you start dedicating time to the rig ht things.
But how do you know what those things are?
Eisenhower's Urgent/Important Principle is a way to distinguish between
demands, so that you prioritize them wisely.
The Action Priority Matrix includes a downloadable worksheet for
exploring how much time to give to different activities (if you should be
doing them at all!).
3. Scheduling :
You may know what you ne ed to do – but when should you do it? Timing
is everything.
It pays to get tough tasks done while you’re still feeling fresh, for
example, as we explain in Is This a "Morning" Task?
And you can boost your efficiency, gain people’s trust, and use adrenaline
to your advantage, by reading How to Meet a Deadline . munotes.in

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134 4. Goal Setting :
The most successful "time managers" ha ve clear targets to aim for. They
develop SMART Goals , allowing them to allocate their time effectively.
Treasure Mapping is a powerful way to see your goals clearly – so that
you're motivated to give them the time they need. Personal Mission
Statements are also helpful for being organized and staying committed to
your plans.
5. Concentration and Focus :
It's no good just making the time to pursue your priorities. You have to use
that time well, too. We have a collection of resources devoted to doing just
that, including advice on minimizing distractions , and getting into a
focused state of " flow ."
There's also detailed guidance on using you r time well when
you're working from home , and when you're doing your job on the move .
4.4.3 Maintaining Relationship with BOSS :
The relationship between employee and boss is an important one for all parties
involved. It is obviously a crucial one for the employee —their manager can
make changes in their role and has significant sway over their progression and
success within the company.
However, it is also important for the manager to have a healthy relationship
with their employees. This is because having motivated employees that
understand and respect the manager’s outlook means better qualit y work and a
more positive and cooperative atmosphere in the workplace. This remains true
now even for companies with a remote workforce .
Having these strong rela tionships means the whole organization functions
better. Ultimately, it impacts profitability, reputation, and attractiveness as
seen by clients of that company. However, these complex relationships are not
formed overnight and require some thought and con sideration.
Below are six ways that employees can improve their relationship with their
boss and hopefully reap the rewards of that enhanced relationship.
1. Take the initiative :
Upper management is always looking for and rewarding employees who are
innov ative and proactive when it comes to approaching projects.
Demonstrating your enthusiasm and novel ideas will show that you’re not
someone who just turns up because they have to, but that you are adding value
to the company.
2. Structure appropriate discus sion time :
Having a quality dialogue with your boss is clearly one of the best ways you
can go about fostering a better relationship. However, this doesn’t mean that
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135 Managing People not expecti ng you. In fact, constant interruptions are more likely to have the
opposite effect that you are looking for. The better option is to book a properly
scheduled meeting with them with defined time limits. This shows that you
respect their schedule.
In addit ion, because it is a blocked meeting, the time you do spend together is
focused entirely on the topic that you have brought up for discussion. This
could be anything from the implementation of new collaboration software to
organizing a business event.
Use the meeting time wisely to focus on how you can help them achieve
company objectives rather than booking in time for “a chat”. Make sure to set
an agenda. Discuss short and long -term goals and ask plenty of questions so
that you get out the maximum value from the meeting.
3. Use personal communication :
Using personal communication can be a difficult balancing act. However, if
used correctly it can endear you to your manager in a way that talking about
business simply cannot.
This doesn’t mean being over familiar. There is a fine line between a few
sincere inquiries about their life and making inappropriate comments that may
make your boss feel uncomfortable.
The key here is to express real interest in their life outside of the context of
work but to not overextend into places that would be considered too personal.
For example, asking about their weekend or about a hobby of theirs shows that
you care without ove rstepping the mark.
Understandably, this is now more difficult to achieve with the pandemic still
heavily influencing workplaces. However, this doesn’t mean that you can’t
video call your boss using one of the 8 Skype alternatives that won’t break the
bank to catch up with them.
4. Maintain a positive work ethic :
If you are not the most confident communicator, one of the best indirect ways
of improving your relationship w ith your boss is to work hard. Even if your
boss doesn’t regularly come and visit your team and talk to you directly, the
information that you are an efficient worker will get back to them in office
chat or more concretely in your performance review. This is more important
than ever as some businesses now function with most of their
employees working remotely .
This is the perfect demonstration of the ma xim “actions speak louder than
words”. Your work ethic should also extend to your preparation for
presentations and meetings. If you come to these sharing platforms with plenty
of detail and well -thought -through ideas, you can show your boss that you are
someone they should get to know as a valuable member of the team.
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136 5. Ask for feedback :
Asking for feedback from your boss does several things. From the boss’s
perspective, it shows that you care enough about the project and your future
performance to want to know how to improve. This demonstrates that you are
not doing the projects assigned to you because it's your job but because you
are genuinely invested in your work they can help the business succeed.
It also shows that you are moving forward, which in dicates to your boss that
you are thinking about promotion and development. Just showing this intent
keeps your name in the forefront of their mind when they are considering
employees ready to progress.
In terms of how to actually ask for feedback, again y ou should ask for a
properly structured meeting time that can yield good quality results. Come up
with a specific agenda for how you would like the feedback to go.
When you are receiving feedback, it is important to listen actively to what they
are saying and take note of how you can improve in the future. This will show
that you take this process seriously and that you aren’t just doing this to tick a
box.
Lastly, show that you understood the feedback by implementing those
recommendations in the next proj ect you work on. Showing that you
understood and properly processed your boss’s advice conveys to them that
not only do you respect their guidance but that you are capable of
improvement.
Again, real -life meetings are more difficult to organize these days. However,
there are plenty of other communications platforms you can use to reach out in
this way, including video conferencing.
6. Talk about goals :
Both e mployer and employee have things that they want to achieve, both
personally in respect to their career and more generally in terms of goals for
the company. Making sure that you are aware of your boss’s goals and that
they are aware of yours can make a mas sive difference to the effectiveness of
your relationship and the advancement of your career .
Letting your boss know exactly what your plans a re and how fast you see
these goals being achieved helps them understand what they can do to help
you. Being open about what you want from the company or your boss should
hopefully prove to them that you are ambitious, honest, and forward -thinking.
Having goals that the boss and employee are both aligned on is also good for
the employer as it should boost employee engagement in the company with
more cooperative investment in the outcomes.
This information sharing needs to go both ways. In fact, it would pro bably be
more helpful for you to know what your employer’s vision is for the company
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137 Managing People on achieving gives you not only an insight into their world generally but a clue
to how you can behave to align yourself with their goals.
4.5 LET US SUM UP Conflict is the ever -prevailing emotion of the human, he gets influenced
by the nature, culture and behaviour of other human and this brings about
difference in the interest of two individu als and caused conflict if not
handled appropriately. There are various psychosomatic ways to handle
the conflict.
Anger is another negative emotion of the human. Anger has many
negative effects on body and mind, ultimately it affects relationships,
family and career. Anger can be managed by various self -counselling
techniques.
Time is the most scares commodity on the earth but if used wisely can
become the important factor for one’s success. We come across the
people who complains about he shortage of tim e and blame it for being
unsuccessful, on the other hand if managed properly one attends the
epitome of this success.
4.6 UNIT END EXERCISE A) Choose the correct alternatives from the following.
1. People use verbal language when talking to one another. Another way
people communicate is by using body language. What is body
language?
a. Expressions and gestures that a person makes with his body
b. Ways that you raise or lower your voice
c. Running away from an argumen t
d. Trying to get friends to be on your side
2. Which of the following suggestions is the best way to communicate to
calm an argument?
a. Yell and cross your arms to protect yourself.
b. Look away from the person you are disagreeing with.
c. Use an even tone.
d. Get an adult even if you are not being bullied or in danger.

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138 3. It is a good idea to think about the other person's perspective when
you have an argument. What does 'perspective' mean?
a. Point of view or opinion
b. Accent
c. Bullying behavior
d. Facial expression
B) Answer the following questions.
1) Find the symptoms of anger, and list the strategies to handle the
anger.
2) What are some healthy and unhealthy responses to conflicts.
3) What are some of key conflict resolution techniques? Which one
would you use best.
4) What a re the triggers of anger?
5) What are the benefits of time management?
4.7 REFERENCES  MacDonald, Kevin (2009 -04-01). "Evolution, Psychology, and a
Conflict Theory of Culture". Evolutionary Psychology. 7 (2):
147470490900700206. doi:10.1177/147470490900700206. ISSN
1474 -7049. S2CID 4247168.
 ^ Jump up to:a b Afzalur Rahim, M (2011), Managing Conflict in
Organizations, Transaction Publishers, ISBN 978 -1-4128 -1456 -0
 ^ M. Afzalur Rahim (31 October 2010). Managing Conflict in
Organizations. Transaction Publishers. p . 15. ISBN 978 -1-4128 -1456 -
0. Retrieved 11 October 2012.
 ^ M. Afzalur Rahim (31 October 2010). Managing Conflict in
Organizations. Transaction Publishers. p. 16. ISBN 978 -1-4128 -1456 -
0. Retrieved 11 October 2012.
 ^ Rahim, M. Afzalur. (2011). Managing confl ict in organizations (4th
ed.). New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers. ISBN 978 -1-
4128 -1456 -0. OCLC 609872245.
 ^ MacLean, John (2001 -10-20). "Obituary: Michael Nicholson". The
Guardian. Retrieved 2020 -07-18.
 ^ Jump up to:a b Nicholson, Michael (1992) . Rationality and the
analysis of international conflict. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 0 -521-39125 -3. OCLC 23687612. munotes.in

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139 Managing People  ^ Fischer, Michael D. (September 2012). "Organizational Turbulence,
Trouble and Trauma: Theorizing the Collapse of a Mental Health
Setting". Organization Studies. 33 (9): 1153 –1173.
doi:10.1177/0170840612448155. ISSN 0170 -8406. S2CID 52219788.
 ^ Fischer, Michael Daniel; Ferlie, Ewan (January 2013). "Resisting
hybridisation between modes of clinical risk management:
Contradictio n, contest, and the production of intractable conflict".
Accounting, Organizations and Society. 38 (1): 30 –49.
doi:10.1016/j.aos.2012.11.002. S2CID 44146410.
 ^ Sidorenkov, Andrey V; Borokhovski, Evgueni F; Kovalenko, Viktor
A (October 2018). "Group size an d composition of work groups as
precursors of intragroup conflicts". Psychology Research and
Behavior Management. 11: 511 –523. doi:10.2147/prbm.s178761.
ISSN 1179 -1578. PMC 6207408. PMID 30498379.
 ^ Jump up to:a b "Types of Group Conflict: Guide for Manage rs |
High Speed Training". The Hub | High Speed Training. 2017 -03-06.
Retrieved 2020 -07-18.
 Videbeck, Sheila L. (2006). Psychiatric Mental Health Nursing (3rd
ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 9780781760331.
 ^ Alia -Klein, Nelly; Gan, Gabriela; Gila m, Gadi; Bezek, Jessica;
Bruno, Antonio; Denson, Thomas F.; Hendler, Talma; Lowe, Leroy;
Mariotti, Veronica; Muscatello, Maria R.; Palumbo, Sara; Pellegrini,
Silvia; Pietrini, Pietro; Rizzo, Amelia; Verona, Edelyn (January
2020). "The feeling of anger: Fro m brain networks to linguistic
expressions". Neuroscience &Biobehavioral Reviews. 108: 480 –497.
doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.12.002. PMID 31809773.
 ^ "Anger definition". Medicine.net. Retrieved 2008 -04-05.
 ^ Harris, W., Schoenfeld, C.D., Gwynne, P.W., Weis sler,
A.M.,Circulatory and humoral responses to fear and anger, The
Physiologist, 1964, 7, 155.
 ^ Raymond DiGiuseppe, Raymond Chip Tafrate, Understanding
Anger Disorders, Oxford University Press, 2006, pp. 133 –159.
 ^ Anger,The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language,
Fourth Edition, 2000, Houghton Mifflin Company.
 ^ Jump up to:a b Michael Kent, Anger, The Oxford Dictionary of
Sports Science & Medicine, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0 -19-
262845 -3
 ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h Raymond W. Novaco, Anger,
Encyclopedia of Psychology, Oxford University Press, 2000 munotes.in

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140  Phillip Brown (2014). 26 Words That Can Change Your Life: Nurture
Your Mind, Heart and Soul to Transform Your Life and
Relationships. BookB. pp . 76–. ISBN 978 -0-9939006 -0-0.
 ^ Richard Walsh (2008). Time Management: Proven Techniques for
Making Every Minute Count. Adams Media. pp. 232 –238. ISBN 978 -
1-4405 -0113 -5.
 ^ Richard Walsh (2008). Time Management: Proven Techniques for
Making Every Minute Co unt. Adams Media. pp. 161 –163. ISBN 978 -
1-4405 -0113 -5.
 ^ Patrick Forsyth (2013). Successful Time Management. Kogan Page
Publishers. pp. 90 –93. ISBN 978 -0-7494 -6723 -4.

*****
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141 5
MENTORING MENTORSHIP
Unit Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Meaning and Definition
5.2.1 Characters of Mentor
5.2.2 Meaning of Mentee
5.2.3 Principles of Mentoring
5.2.4 Need and Significance of Mentoring
5.2.5 Importance of a Mentor in E ducation & Professional Development
5.3 Models of Mentoring
5.4 Skills of Mentoring
5.4.1 Critical Skills of mentoring
5.4.2 Role of mentor in Education
5.5 Let Us Sum Up
5.6 Unit End Exercise
5.7 References
5.0 OBJECTIVES  Knowledge of the concept and principles of mentoring
 Explain the meaning of mentee
 Identify the need and importance of mentoring
 Elucidate the models of mentoring
 Applying and developing the skills of mentoring
 Understanding the role of mentoring
 Developing attitude towards mentoring
5.1 INTRODUCTION The concept of Mentoring is as old as the human civilization. The culture
of ‘Mentoring’ dates back to ancient Greece, when Odysseus entrusted his
friend Mentor with the responsibility of his son Telamachu’s education in
his absence. The relationship between Telamachu and Mentor came to be
known as ‘Mentoring’. Indian history is also filled with examples of
Mentoring in the form of Guru Dronacharya and Arjuna or Chanakya and
King Chandragupta Maurya. According to Lewinson, a mentor is a
teacher, sponsor, counselor, developer of skills and intellect, host guide,
exemplar and most importantly supporter and facilitator in the realization
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142 adult. A Mentor is a person who s ystematically develops another person’s
abilities through intensive tutoring, coaching and guidance. Mentoring is a
process whereby a senior employee acts as a friend, philosopher and guide
to the new recruits. Mentoring performs both career related functi ons as
well as psychological functions. Effective mentoring program first
develops the positive mentoring relationship and then, focuses on guiding
the desired behavioral changes. Mentoring process can be formal and
informal, structured and unstructured.
In the education system, mentoring is a complex and multidimensional
process for guiding, teaching, influencing, and assisting students and new
teachers (Bey and Holmes, 1992). Therefore, the effect may be different
between the mentor and the recipient. To create interests in education and
to make a special contribution to society as an educated entity, the proper
application of mentoring during education is essential. Teachers and
mentors are in most cases an integral entity; because mentoring is one of
the qualities that an ideal teacher has. ‘Mentor’, ‘mentor teacher’, and
‘teacher mentor’ are three different subjects. The scope of the first one is
detailed, while the distance between the last two depends on the field of
application and purpose. Mentorin g extends beyond motivation and
direction. The source and scope of mentors are wide, such as family
members, friends, colleagues, teachers, etc. A ‘mentor teacher’ usually
leads, guides, and mentors’ students, colleagues, and other employees in
an educati onal institution depending on a work situation characterized by
mutual trust and confidence. Its field of application and purpose are wide,
but it is not like a mentor.
5.2 MEANING AND DEFINITION A mentor is an individual with expertise who can help devel op the
personality of a mentee. A mentor often has two primary functions for the
mentee. The career related function establishes the mentor as a coach who
provides advice to enhance the mentee’s performance and development.
The psychosocial function establ ishes the mentor as a role model and
support system for the mentee. Both functions provide explicit and
implicit lessons related to professional development as well as general
work –life balance. The term mentee is used here to refer to the broad
range of i ndividuals who may be in the role of “learner” in mentoring
relationships, regardless of the age or position of the mentor and mentee.
1. According to David Clutterbuck, ‘mentoring involves primarily
listening with empathy, shar ing experience, professio nal friendship,
developing insight through reflection, being a sounding board,
encouraging’.
2. According to Jacobi, ‘mentoring is a one to one helping relationship
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143 Mentoring Mentorship

3. According to Vickie L. Nadolski, ‘mentoring is linking an
experienced person (mentor) with a less experience person (mentee)
to help their personal and professional growth’.
Mentoring is a broader concept as compare to teaching. Mentoring is
process where the mentor is a more experienced and knowledgeable
person. Th e mentor identifies the strength and weakness of the mentee and
passes best practices and knowledge to groom the mentees personality.
The mentor influence’s and motivates that causes higher achievements,
acquisition of skills and advanced knowledge. The re lation between thee
mentor and mentee could be more informal. The knowledge is passed
through higher teaching learning techniques such as brain storming,
discussion or cooperative techniques etc.
5.2.1 Characteristics of Mentoring :
1. Mentoring requires a high degree of mutual trust between the mentor
and the mentee.
2. Effective communication is the key to the mentoring programmes.
3. The success of mentoring depends on the availability of the mentor
and predictability.
4. It is a systematic process of building a partnership.
5. Self-esteem and confidence is necessary for effective mentoring.
6. Mutual respect between each other is also required.
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144 5.2.2 What is Mentee :
A mentee is a person who is under the tutelage or training of a mentor who
teaches them new skills to help them achieve their goals.A mentee is a
person who receives advice, training, or guidance from a more
experienced or skilled mentor. A mentee will often have specific skills or
competencies they want to learn from their mentor, and t he mentor may
spend a designated amount of time tutoring or teaching them. Typically, a
mentor and mentee will establish goals together and meet regularly to
practice or learn new skills throughout the mentoring program.
5.2.3 Principles of Mentoring:
Mentees Mentoring is an interactive learning and educational experience,
provided to assist in personal and career development. Below are some
principles that may be helpful before starting a mentoring relationship.
Mentees who participate in the programme un derstand that mentors are
busy professionals volunteering their time and experience. They
understand that the mentor's role is to inspire and guide, and not
necessarily to help organise work or offer employment.
Trust :
Mentoring requires a trusting, co nfidential relationship based on mutual
respect. Mentoring is a process through which the mentor motivates,
inspire and guide. The mutual trust is essential for the development of
mentee. For example, in case they doubt each other’s capabilities then
there is a little room for improvement and enhancement.
Uncoerced relationship :
Mentoring involves a clearly bounded relationship that is close and
uncoerced (unlike friendship or parenting). For any kind of learning,
willingness and interest are the two import ant factors. These aspects
ensure strong tie between mentor and mentee that will grow indeed.
Time Frame :
Mentoring involves a definite time commitment. The time of mentor is
crucial and apart from mentoring has to fulfil professional commitment
too. Hence the mentor and mentee follow a fix schedule.
Growth and development :
A mentoring relationship is planned f or enhancing specific growth goals of
a mentee; not for organizational requirements such as employee
evaluation.
Goals and commitments :
The purpose of mentoring must be mutually established by the mentor and
mentee with clearly defined goals/ outcomes.
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145 Mentoring Mentorship Mode l behaviour :
Mentors should model performances for mentees thereby providing them
with opportunities to observe and develop insights.
Improvement :
Mentees must show progress by “raising the bar” for themselves as their
insights and skills increase.
Object oriented :
The mentoring relationship ends when the mentee is able to operate
independently.
Initiate :
In order to sustain the mentoring relationship, mentee should take
initiative to ask mentor questions, that will help mentor know educational
and professi onal interests and objectives of mentee.Do not vacillate to ask
for the services that the mentor is ready to offer.
Honour commitment :
Mentoring is a demanding job and mentor is a busy professional. The
mentor has many responsibilities and commitments. The refore, the mentee
must be appreciative of mentor’s time and investment. It is necessary to
respond in a timely manner.
Clear Communication :
Maintain contact with mentor if you have questions or would like to
discuss something. Identify needs and communica te clearly to the mentor.
It may be helpful to put some focused energy into organising thoughts and
concerns.
Be receptive :
Be willing to learn new things, obtain another perspective, and be
responsive to suggestions and constructive criticism.
Follow thr ough :
Act onmentor's suggestionsin a timely manner and then report back to
mentor.It is crucial to identify objectives as well as keep the relationship
focused and moving forward. Do come to meetings prepared.
Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity:
Guides both the mentor and mentee to consider personal differences so
that any differences do not bias their interactions. This principle also
serves as a reminder that in some mentoring relationships there may be a
power differential that could impact the pr ocess.
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146 Integrity:
Both the mentor and mentee need to do what they have agreed to do when
establishing the relationship. If a point of conflict or confusion arises, each
person should be willing to resolve that issue.
5.4.4 Need and Significance of the Me ntor:
Support growth :
Mentors encourage and enable another person's professional or personal
development. A mentor can help focus their efforts by setting goals and
giving feedback. As a result, companies that want to build employees'
skills often create m entoring programs. The mentors' knowledge can help
train and create a high -quality and productive workforce. Employees
appreciate workplaces that encourage development, as it can demonstrate
that their employer values them and wants to see them grow.
Serve as a source of knowledge :
Mentors can provide specific insights and information that enable the
mentee's success. For example, they offer instructions on how to perform
particular tasks or develop useful skills. Individuals starting their career
can benef it from such guidance, as it helps them feel comfortable in the
role more quickly. For example, a mentor can help a person starting a
business learn how to develop their initial business plan and budgets.
Help to set goals :
A mentor can help their mentee s et personal or professional development
goals. For effective goal -setting, they can create SMART goals —specific,
achievable, relevant and time -based. These goals can help focus the
mentee's efforts and make it easier for the mentor to track and assess
progress. They may identify smaller tasks in pursuit of a larger objective
to develop specific skills or meet particular priorities.
Maintain accountability :
A mentor helps hold their mentee accountable for their goals. By tracking
progress, the mentor helps t he mentee stay focused and on track towards
completing them. It can also ensure that the mentee does not forget about
the goals they have set. Knowing that someone else is watching can serve
as motivation, as the mentee likely does not want to let the ment or down
by failing to meet goals.
Offer encouragement :
When the mentee finds themselves struggling to perform their job or reach
a goal, they can turn to their mentor for support. This encouragement can
motivate them to keep moving forward despite challeng es. A mentor can
also identify and express their mentee's strengths to instil confidence in
them. Having a strong sense of confidence can make the mentee less likely
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147 Mentoring Mentorship Help to make connections :
A mentor can help build their mentee' s professional network. When the
mentee identifies professional or personal goals, the mentor can connect
them to potential opportunities or individuals who can help them. As the
mentor typically has more industry experience or a higher -level career,
these connections can be valuable for career advancement.
Willing to listen :
When an individual has ideas, they can use a mentor as a resource to
discuss or try them. The mentor can provide unbiased advice or opinions
using their relevant knowledge and experien ce. With these insights, the
mentee can better understand what steps to take and whether to pursue the
idea or walk away. Similarly, a mentor can also listen and advise them on
daily concerns, such as workplace conflicts.
Serve as a trusted ally :
Trust rep resents a core element of mentoring relationships. The mentee
must trust that the mentor has their best interests in mind and will provide
accurate and honest guidance. The business world can also be competitive,
so they need to rely on one another to keep confidential information
private when necessary. Communicating regularly and following through
on their promises demonstrate two methods of establishing trust in these
relationships.
Offer constructive feedback :
A trusting mentorship relationship enables honest feedback. By
establishing trust, the mentee understands that constructive criticism aims
to build their professional growth rather than make them feel bad. Mentors
can identify weaknesses and advise them on ways to improve. Because
this is a profess ional relationship, the mentor plays an objective role.
Meanwhile, a friend may hesitate to identify the mentee's weaknesses
because they do not want to appear critical.
Provide guidelines :
For individuals just starting their career, a mentor can help set guidelines
on professional expectations. For example, they may clarify the priorities
of the role and proper workplace behaviors. These guidelines can help the
mentee establish appropriate work habits that enable them to focus and
perform their job success fully. These effective work habits can help them
be more productive and impress their supervisors.
Have relevant experience :
When possible, individuals should choose mentors who have the
experience relevant to their profession or goals. When mentors convey
their successes, the mentee can use them as an example to strive toward
and copy the steps they took. Mentors can also share the mistakes they
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148 about the mistakes' negative impacts b ut do not have to suffer the
consequences themselves. Learning about these experiences can also help
prepare the mentee for the challenges they can expect to face and provide
demonstrable advice on how to overcome them.
Mentors are a free resource :
Mentors hip typically occurs due to networking or company programs, so
mentors do not seek payment. They offer to serve this role because they
genuinely want to help the other individual grow and establish a more
authentic and personal connection. The lack of paym ent also opens up
mentorship for all types of people, rather than restricting this resource to
only those who can afford it .
5.2.5 Importance of a Mentor in Education & Professional Development :
The world has witnessed great people achieving massive things when a
mentor was by their side. Mentors have always been working behind the
curtains and pushing their mentees to acquire the best. Let’s get to know
about the importance and the role of a mentor in facilitating the
educational and professional developme nt of their mentee.
 A mentor essentially helps the student take informed decisions at each
and every stage of their academic and professional quest.
 They are the guides that light up our way ahead, whether we are stuck
in our career choices or need assist ance at any crucial stage of our
lives.
 You might land up at your most desired job position or execute your
business idea, but to know the ropes, you require guidance from
someone you can trust.
 A mentor provides you with information that might not really be in
any book. These details come from their experience and expertise in
the field.
 Mentors have tried and tested certain ways through the world and
know what works when. For example, if you are heading for a
negotiation with a client, a mentor will kno w what exactly to say and
what to avoid to take the lead.
 Mentors not only physically strengthen and support their mentees but
also provide psychological and personal development.
“Show me a successful individual and I’ll show you someone who had
real pos itive influences in his or her life. I don’t care what you do for a
living —if you do it well I’m sure there was someone cheering you on or
showing the way. A mentor.” – Denzel Washington

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149 Mentoring Mentorship 5.3 MODEL OF MENTORING There are a number of different types, or ' models', of mentoring.
Mentoring can be implemented in different ways for different purposes,
because some types of mentoring may be better than others for achieving
certain objectives.
For example, where high -potential graduates might benefit most from 1: 1
mentoring, those returning to work after maternity or paternity leave may
gain more from the shared experience of peer mentoring.
Equally, if you're focusing on knowledge retention, reverse mentoring
would not be the best model to use. However, when it c omes to digital
skill sharing, it could be ideal for younger employees to mentor older
employees.
Here are some of the key types of mentoring to consider when starting
a program:
 One-on-One Mentoring : This is the traditional model of mentoring,
where one m entor and one mentee agree to enter a mentoring
relationship to help the mentee develop, improve, and achieve. In this
type of mentoring, the mentor has more experience in an area that the
mentee is interested in, and so can act as an advisor and guide.
 Peer Mentoring : Peer mentoring involves colleagues of a similar age
and experience level mentoring each other. They may take turns
acting as 'mentor' and 'mentee', but overall, peer mentoring is about
creating a formal support system, learning together, and holding one
another accountable.
 Group Mentoring : This style of mentoring involves one mentor
working with several mentees in a group. Group mentoring helps
reach and impact more mentees in a short amount of time, and is
particularly useful if organisation s are short on good mentors –
helping to promote a culture of inclusion. Practising mentoring in a
group setting also helps improve everybody's teamwork skills.
 Speed Mentoring : Speed Mentoring refers to quick one -off
mentoring sessions aimed at learning a key piece of information or
skill. This style of mentoring encourages brief but impactful
knowledge sharing, without the focus on creating long lasting
relationships. Speed Mentoring can work alongside a traditional
mentoring program by allowing mentees t o build long -term
relationships while also learning new things on an ad -hoc basis.
 E – Mentoring : Finally, with remote work becoming more common
and necessary, E - Mentoring is another type of mentoring that
businesses can utilise. Just because your people are not all in the
office, doesn't mean mentoring programs have to get put on hold.
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150  Reverse Mentoring : Exactly as it sounds, reverse mentoring is when
a more junior person mentors a more senior person. All one -on-one
mentoring relationships have the potential to utilise reverse
mentoring, as there is always plenty, we can learn from one another.
These various types of mentoring are all valid, and can serve different
purpose s within your organisation. It might take some trial and error until
you find the best type of mentoring for your people and your goals, but all
of them will help contribute to a culture of learning and knowledge
sharing.
5.4 MENTORING SKILLS Core Mentorin g Skills Both mentors and mentees should utilize the
following core skills in their mentoring partnerships.
1. Listening Actively :
Active listening is the most basic mentoring skill; the other skills build
on—and require —it. When you listen well, you demonst rate to your
mentors and mentees that their concerns have been heard and understood.
As a result, they feel accepted by you, and trust builds. The way you
indicate you’re listening intently is by performing several observable
behaviours. For example, if yo u’re an excellent listener, you:
 appear genuinely interested by making encouraging responses such as
“Hmmm . . .” and “Interesting . . .” or sometimes reflecting back
(paraphrasing) certain comments to show you’ve grasped the meaning
and feelings behind t he message;
 use appropriate nonverbal language such as looking directly into
people’s eyes, nodding your head, leaning slightly toward them,
frowning, or smiling where appropriate;
 avoid interrupting mentors and mentees while they’re talking;
 remember an d show interest in things they’ve said in the past (“By the
way, how did the meeting with your manager go?”); and
 summarize the key elements of what each of you said.
Resist the impulse always to turn the conversation to your experiences and
opinions and to find immediate solutions to problems you may be hearing.
Listen carefully first; problem solve much later. If your mentors and
mentees have a habit of immediate problem solving, see if you can help
them be better listeners and problem explorers.
2. Buildi ng Trust:
The more that your mentors and mentees trust you, the more committed
they’ll be to your partnerships with them, and the more effective you’ll be.
This trust develops over time —if your mentors and mentees observe
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151 Mentoring Mentorship  keep confidences shared by your Mentors and mentees;
 spend appropriate time together;
 follow through on your promises to them;
 respect your mentors’ and mentees’ boundaries;
 admit your errors and take responsibilit y for correcting them; and
 tactfully tell your partners if and why you disagree or are dissatisfied
with something so they’ll know you’re honest with them.
Particularly with cross -difference (e.g., gender, culture, style, age)
mentoring, trust building is crucial and has to be developed over time.

3. Encouraging:
According to Phillips -Jones’ research, the most valued mentoring skill is
giving encouragement. This includes giving your mentoring partners
recognition and sincere positive verbal feedback.
When wa s the last time you received too much praise? If never, you’re not
alone. Effective mentors encourage their mentees, which in turn helps
increase the mentees’ confidence and enables them to develop.
At the same time, successful mentees make a point of posi tively
reinforcing their mentors, which serves to keep the mentors focused and
motivated. Provide genuine, positive feedback to your mentors and
mentees on a regular basis.
While there are many ways to encourage, and mentors and mentees
can differ in the t ypes and amounts of encouragement they like, you
can:
 compliment your mentoring partners on accomplishments and actions;
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152  praise them privat ely, one -on-one;
 commend them in front of other people (being sensitive to any
cultural and style preferences regarding public praise);
 express thanks and appreciation;
 write encouraging memos or e -mail and leave complimentary voice
mail; and
 let them kno w how you use any help they give you.
Be certain that your praise and encouragement are sincere. In mentoring,
err in the direction of too much praise, rather than too little. Some human
development experts recommend a ratio of four or five praises for eve ry
corrective remark.
4. Identifying Goals and Current Reality :
Whether you’re a mentor or mentee, you should have a personal vision,
specific goals, and a good grasp of current reality. As a mentor, be clear
on and talk to your mentees about their visions , dreams, and career/life
goals. They’ll be interested in your current reality (your view of your
strengths and limitations as well as the current reality of situations within
your organization) and want help recognizing theirs as well.
As a mentee, you al so need this skill. Before asking for help, you should
know your tentative goals, strengths, what development you need, and the
specific assistance you’d like. You should discuss these with your
mentors. The more aware you are of these, and the more accura tely you
can convey them to potential helpers, the more likely they’ll be to assist
your next steps. To demonstrate this mentoring skill:
 know what’s important to you, what you value and desire most;
 recognize areas in which you’re able to perform well, ve ry concrete
examples of behaviours you can perform at the good -to-excellent
level;
 identify specific weaknesses or growth areas observed in yourself and
ones noted by others;
 set tentative one - to five -year goals to reach in your personal life and
career; and
 describe accurately the reality of your abilities and situations.
Effective mentors and mentees are constantly fine -tuning this self -
knowledge, incorporating new feedback and observations on a regular
basis. Peter M. Senge, in The Fifth Discipline, men tions these skills as part
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5.4.1 Critical Skills for Mentors:
In addition to the core mentoring skills described above, mentors use
several specific competencies in an attempt to help me ntees develop.
1. Instructing/Developing Capabilities :
Probably all mentors do some teaching or instructing as part of their
mentoring. The skill is especially important in formal mentoring. This
seldom means that you’ll give formal speeches and lectures. I nstead, your
instructing will usually be more informal —from modelling specific
behaviours to conveying ideas and processes one -on-one, in a tutoring
mode. You’ll:
 be a “learning broker” as you assist your mentees in finding resources
such as people, books , software, websites, and other information
sources;
 teach your mentees new knowledge, skills, and attitudes by
explaining, giving effective examples, and asking thought -provoking
questions;
 help your mentees gain broader perspectives of their organizatio ns
including history, values, culture, and politics;
 demonstrate or model effective behaviours, pointing out what you’re
trying to do; and
 help them monitor performance and refocus steps as needed.
A key part of your instruction is teaching the mentorin g process. You can
do this by making process comments —pointing out, naming, and
otherwise getting your mentees to recognize which aspect of mentoring
you’re doing at the time —and why?
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154 2. Inspiring :
One skill that separates superb mentors from very good ones is an ability
to inspire their mentees to greatness. By setting an example yourself and
helping your mentees experience other inspirational people and situations,
you can help them onto future paths that excite and motivate ––even
beyond their original dre ams. Mentors vary in their ability to be inspiring.
See if you can:
 do inspiring actions yourself which challenge your mentees to
improve;
 help them observe others who are inspiring;
 arrange other inspirational experiences for them;
 challenge them to r ise above the mundane and do important things in
life; and
 help them recognize inspiring actions they took in the past and ways
to excel again.
It’s always tempting to tell mentees what to do and, in fact, to have them
follow in your footsteps. Your chal lenge as a mentor is to ensure that your
mentees identify and pursue their own form of greatness, not necessarily
yours.
3. Providing Corrective Feedback:
In addition to giving frequent and sincere positive feedback, effective
mentors should also be willing a nd able to give mentees corrective
feedback. When you observe your mentees making mistakes or
performing in less than desirable ways, you should be direct with your
mentees, letting them know what you perceive and providing some better
ways for handling th e situations. It will probably be better for them to hear
it from you than from others. This is an aspect of the mentor’s protection
skill, Managing Risks, described later. One of the first things you can
discuss with your mentees is if and how they’d like to receive this
feedback. People are more willing to hear corrective feedback if they’ve
given permission and know in advance it’s coming. At the same time,
you’ll be more likely to give feedback if you’re invited to do so. Attempt
to:
 use positive, non -derogatory, business -like words and tone of voice
with mentees when their behaviours or products aren’t satisfactory;
 give corrective feedback in private;
 give the feedback as soon as feasible after the performance;
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155 Mentoring Mentorship  offer useful suggestions for them to try next time, offering to be a
resource when that time occurs.
Use the Encouraging skill much more often than the skill of Providing
Corrective Feedback.
4. Managing Risks:
Another distinguishi ng characteristic of effective mentors is their
willingness and ability to protect their mentees from disasters. One of your
tasks is to prevent your mentees from making unnecessary mistakes as
they learn to take appropriate risks. This skill of Managing R isks builds
closely on the core skill of Building Trust, identified earlier. Some refer to
this riskmanagement process as helping mentees “step out on the branch,
then fly when ready.” You’ll:
 help your mentees recognize the risks involved in actions and
projects, including some risks (and mistakes) you’ve experienced;
 make suggestions to help them avoid major mistakes (business,
career, financial, personal, and other) in judgment or
 action; help them learn to prepare well, get wise counsel, then trust
their own decisions and actions; and
 if requested in difficult situations, intervene as your mentees’
advocate with others. Mentees and mentors in many corporations have
identified Managing Risks as an increasingly important mentoring
skill.
5. Opening Doors:
Mentors are usually in a position to provide visibility for their mentees.
This means opening the right doors that allow them to meet people and to
demonstrate to different audiences what they can do. Research has shown
that when mentors vouch for mentees in this way, their work is much more
likely to be well received. To open doors, you’ll: • put in a good word to
people who could help your mentees reach desired goals;
 personally introduce your mentees to appropriate contacts;
 make certain your mentees’ abilities are noticed by others;
 give your mentees assignments or opportunities that enable them to
interact with important colleagues, suppliers, or customers; and
 suggest other resources for your mentees to pursue.
You’ll probably open doors for your mentees only when you believe
they’re ready to go through them. Since your reputation may be affected
by your doing this, you’ll first want to see your mentees as capable and
trustworthy. Explain this process to your mentees as part of the
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156 5.4.2 Role of mentor in Education :
Mentors can be found across different fields and professions. They could
be an academic mentor, professional mentor, sports mentor, etc. Terms
such as advisors, motivators, coaches, etc, are often used interchangeab ly
for mentors. All these terms together are what makes a good mentor. Let’s
go through the fundamental role of a mentor in any field.
 To begin with the basics, the role of a mentor is to understand your
capabilities and interests. They simply do not start with random
instructions. They try to know what you are capable of and then guide
you accordingly.
 A mentor simply doesn’t tell you what to do or how to do something.
They break down the goal plan for you and guide you with the
advantages and drawbacks o f actions to take for each step. They
might tell you about their past mistakes for you to draw an analogy.
 A mentor serves as a positive pillar for the mentee. In situations gone
astray or losses, they also push you to your best potential and suggest
ways to come out of it.
 A mentor should not abstain from constructive criticism . Honest
criticism or appraisal is essential for a successful and fruitful
relationship between the mentor and the mentee.
 Another vital role of a mentor is to respect the opinions and ideas of
their mentee. Holding a senior position doesn’t mean there isn’t any
more room for learning. A good mentor will encourage such ideas and
boost their mentee’s confidence.
 A mentor also helps you develop a good attitude while dealing with
peop le in different positions.
 Actively listening to the mentee is another crucial role of a mentor.
This quality cannot be emphasized enough and must never be
overlooked. Listening to someone and merely hearing are two very
different concepts and a mentor mu st always be good at the former.
 A mentor must not hide his failures and always be open to feedback
and doubts. These failures don’t mean the mentor isn’t good enough.
On the contrary, it shows that the mentor has been able to overcome
these obstacles and prove himself as a dynamic achiever.
5.5 LET US SUM UP Mentoring has long been recognized as a powerful tool in career
development. Early career psychologists are advised to find mentors,
either informally on their own, or to participate in formal mentor ing
programs. Regardless of how a mentor and mentee are matched, etiquette
and ethics demand that the relationship be conducted in a professional
manner with consideration and respect for both individuals. Mentoring is a
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157 Mentoring Mentorship mentees identify several mentors who can address a variety of career -
related needs. Successful mentorships often evolve into friendships with
both partners learning and providing support for the other.
5.7 UNIT END EXERCISE 1. Define mentoring.
2. Elucidate 3 principles of Mentoring.
3. How mentoring is essential for professional development?
4. Illustrate with example the importance of mentor in education.
5. Which models of mentoring you will use in a classroom?
6. Elucidate the role of a men tor in education.
7. Explain five skills of mentoring
5.8 REFERENCES  http://www.aims -international.org/aims12/12A -CD/PDF/K709 -
final.pdf
 https://www.nmu.edu/Webb/ArchivedHTML/UPCED/mentoring/docs
/Role -mentor.pdf
 https://my.lerner.udel.edu/wp -
content/uploads/Skills_for_Sucessful_Mentoring.pdf
 https://www.mentoring.org/wp -
content/uploads/2019/11/Full_Toolkit.pdf
*****
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158 6
FINANCE MANAGEMENT IN
EDUCATION
Unit Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 An Overview
6.3 Finance Management in Education
6.3.1 Meaning of Financial Management
6.3.2 Objectives of Financial Management
6.3.3 Functions of Financial Manageme nt
6.3.4 Role of Financial Management in Education
6.3.5 Areas/Components of performance of Financial Management in
Education
6.4 Financial Planning
6.4.1 What is planning?
6.4.2 Definitions of planning
6.4.3 Financial planning - Meaning and Definitions
6.4.4 Objectives of Financial Planning
6.4.5 Need of Financial Planning
6.4.6 Conclusion
6.5 Concept of Budget and Budgeting, Revenue generation strategies in
Education
6.5.1 Budget: Concept
6.5.2 Budgeting: Concept
6.5.3 Budgeting and Forecasting
6.5.4 Pur pose and Objectives of Budgeting
6.5.5 The Budgeting Process
6.5.6 Fundamental Principles of Budgeting
6.5.7 Revenue generation strategies: Meaning and Definition:
6.5.8 Revenue generation strategies/tactics
6.5.9 Conclusion
6.6 Cost Management
6.6.1 Co st Management: Concept and Meaning
6.6.2 Process of Cost Management (steps involve in the process of
cost management)
6.6.3 Cost -Concept
6.6.4 Types of Cost
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159 Finance Management in Education 6.6.6 Cost -Benefit Analysis
6.6.7 Framework Model of Cost -Benefit Analysis
6.6.8 Criticism of Cost -Benefit Analysis of Education
6.6.9 Calculation of Benefit Cost Ratio (BCR)
6.6.10 Cost -Effectiveness
6.6.11 Calculation of Cost Effectiveness Ratio
6.6.12 Distinguish between Cost Benefit Analysis and Cost
Effectiveness
6.6.13 Conclusion
6.7 Let’s Sum Up
6.8 Unit End Exercise
6.9 References
6.0 OBJECTIVES After reading this unit you will be able to:
 State the meaning of concept of Finance Management in Education.
 Define the term – Finance Management in Education .
 Expla in the concept of Financial Planning.
 Analyze the objectives and need of Finance Planning.
 Define the terms - Budget and Budgeting
 State the Revenue Generation Strategies in Education.
 Define the concept - Cost Management.
 State the types of Costs of Educ ation.
 Explain the concept of Cost Benefit Analysis, Cost Effective
Analysis.
 Differentiate the Cost Benefit Analysis, Cost Effective Analysis.
6.1 INTRODUCTION Finance is the Lifeblood of Education system. Without blood, body cannot
function. Same way Fin ance and its management is a vital part of the
Education System. It is hard to ignore this aspect because as much as it is
concerned with our goals, product/outcomes as well as kind of career the
finances drives all. Specific knowledge of financial managem ent is need
of time and success of any system.
The capital requirements will depend upon factors like cost of current and
fixed assets, promotional expenses and long - range planning. Capital
requirements have to be looked with both aspects: short - term and long-
term requirements. Capital/funds raising can be done by choosing option
of owned or borrowing capital in a manner that the cost of capital is
minimum under capital structure. The capital structure is the composition
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160 kind and proportion of capital required in the organisation. This includes
decisions of debt - equity ratio - both short -term, and long - term. But most
of the educational institution may relied on grants, course fees, donations,
charity, capitation fees, loans, etc. and Ministry Budget will also support
for implementing educational policies.
Under Budget, Timeframe plan/ financial planning cycle will be operated
according to the short term, medium term and long te rm need of funds i.e.
for 5, 10, 20 years, etc. The effective and adequate financial and
investment policies must set for the growth or expansion of educational
programs but before applying these policies there is a need to have project
analysis at differe nt levels. Analysis of expenditure or cost spent as an
investment in any project with the outcomes/benefits of the project, will be
consider for the success or failure of the project. The cost effectiveness
will also help to know the success of investment. The cost benefit analysis
and cost effectiveness helps to check the success of the project. It also
necessary to take right decision of investment.
A reasonable balance between outflow and inflow of funds helps to
maintain stability. It also assures that there will be adequacy of fund for
contingencies.
6.2 AN OVERVIEW According to Oosthuizen (2003:213), financial management in education
is the distribution and use of money for the purpose of providing
educational services and producing learner achievement . Financial
management in contemporary education management aims to:
 estimate the needs of local educational training;
 obtain finances in accordance with the estimated needs;
 administers the finances thus obtained in a legally correct manner.
In order t o facilitate the above, Owen (2006:54) mentions that financial
numeracy is a core skill for all managers. Most financial management
skills involve the allocation of resources and the setting of targets,
expectations and priorities. The core financial skill s required by all
managers allow them to successfully - set budgets, manage budgets and
manage costs.
Financial planning is an important function of financial management. This
function has to be performed whether the business is big or small.
Similarly, a n ew as well as an existing business must perform this function
very carefully because it is concerned with the procurement and effective
utilization of funds. With the help of Financial Management Financial
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161 Finance Management in Education A budget is, 'A quantitative expression of a plan for a defined period of
time. It may include planned sales volumes and revenues, resource
quantities, costs and expenses, assets, liabilities and cash flows.' while
Budgeting is the process of designing, implementing and operating
budgets. It is the managerial process of budget planning and preparation,
budgetary control and the related procedures. Budget tries to execute the
financial plan to accomplish the organizational goals. To survive in t he
competition and in the society and grow need to have innovation and
creative ideas/ plans and to make plan successful there is a need of large
funds. Large fund can be possible through the variety of programmes or
activities conducted to generate revenu es. There are various strategies
applied by each and every organization to generate revenue for the
survival, growth and expansion of the organization.
Every product or service has cost. Cost is generated in terms of money.
Spending of money is called expe nditure. So, Cost and Expenditure are
related concept. In educational institution need to spent money for
production and distribution of educational services. Educational cost is
paid by student at individual level, Institution also spends cost for
infrast ructure, staff, administration and other technologies, equipment, etc.
Society also contribute for educational system, Government spend funds.
Thus there are various costs of education. To bring effectiveness of cost
need to analyses the fund as an investm ent gives good output or outcomes.
At what ratio Educational cost or investment proves benefited. All need to
analyses to know the effectiveness of cost or investment made under the
Budget In all these Financial Management plays a vital role specially for
Educational System which is now considering as an investment and this
investment must give good return or outcomes in the way of productive
manpower for the national growth.
6.3 FINANCE MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 6.3.1 Meaning of Financial Management (What i s Financial
Management?):
Financial management is defined by Pandey (1995) as that management
activity which is concerned with the planning and controlling.
Financial management relates to strategic planning, organising, directing,
and controlling of finan cial plan, programs or course of actions undertaken
by an organisation or an institute. It can cover the all activities relating to
allocation and utilisation of the funds in an optimistic manner.
Management principles are also applicable in financial mana gement of
any institution or organization. Financial management also plays an
important role in fiscal management. Financial management is done by the
financial manager and his team/committee members. Financial
management is essential to achieve the ultima te goals and objectives of the
organizations,
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162 6.3.2 The Objectives of Financial Management:
1. Maintaining enough flow of funds for the organization.
2. Helping in searching better sources of fund at the minimum cost.
3. Guiding for optimum and efficie nt utilization of funds.
4. Guiding on the strength and weaknesses of their organization
accordingly financial planning can be done.
5. Generating new safe opportunities of investment for healthy growth.
6. Attempting to achieve good returns to the inve stors on their
investment.
7. Assisting in framing of capital structure of the organization.
6.3.3 Functions of Financial Management:
The role of Financial management is varied in nature. It is based on the
following aspects of Management:
 In financial planning and acquisition of funds, financial management
helps institution as a guide.
 It organises funds effective manner as per the need of the
organization.
 It provides guideline to the organisations during critical financial
decisions;
 It helps organiza tion to achieve the goals and better outcomes.
 It supports to improve quality, goodwill and the overall developments
of an organization.
 It provides better strategies for economic stability of an organisation.
In Short, the financial management is generall y relating to procurement,
allocation and control of financial resources of an Organization /
Institution.
6.3.4 Role of Financial Mangement in Education:
Financial Management of Educational System or Educational Institutions
refers to that management acti vity that is concerned with decisions on how
to procure funds, of an organization's financial resources, disburse
resources for the implementation of educational programs .
Financial management help in raising of funds and ensuring that the funds
so that it can be utilized in the most effective and efficient manner. Due to
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163 Finance Management in Education Assist head of Institution by providing innovative techniques to keep a
record of their stewardship in financial matters with intention for the
benefit of the Management, Administrator and government who set
Educational policies and courses for the different levels of studies.Regular
inspection or verification of ca sh receipts and payments and safe guarding
of cash balances.It is, also, the supervision of cash receipts and payments
and safe guarding of cash balance.
6.3.5 Areas / Components of Performance of Financial Management
in Education:
1. Procurement and rais ing of funds.
2. Allocation of financial resources for different educational institutions.
3. Optimum utilization of funds.
4. Supervision of cash receipts and payments with managing cash and
debts.
5. Maintaining regular records and safeguarding of ca sh balance.
6. Developing dynamic Managerial structure.
7. Setting Forum, Boards, Committees, Councils, etc. for effective
implementation of financial policies in education.
8. Developing Educational Programs, Payrolls and other Services with
Teaching -Learning activities, etc. at Institutional, State and Central
level for the sake of attainment goals of National Educational policy.
9. Budget making at Institutional, State and Central level.
10. Developing infrastructures, institutional set up and managi ng assets
and structures of educational institutions.
11. Preparing financial reports
12. Setting Rules and Regulations
13. Generating effective financial system to manage budgeting and
accounting to anticipate the needs of the educational plan/goals, ti me,
place and availability of resources.
Thus every management attempts effectively to accomplish the set goals /
destination, then how come financial management in Education can be an
exceptional one. It is also contributing more dynamically to serve the
society by rendering outcomes through trained -skilled human resource
who will contribute in economic growth of a nation.
Financial Management in Education is contributed in setting of financial
Planning, organizing, coordinating of financial Plan and evalu ating the
success / failure of implemented plans.
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164 6.4 FINANCIAL PLANNING: OBJECTIVES AND NEED OF FINANCIAL PLANNING 6.4.1 What is Planning?:
When it is said that Management is sum of planning, organizing,
controlling and coordinating functions, Planning i s root or topmost
function and without this no other function can be proceeded.
Planning is a key factor of management which helps to know in advance
what the organization wants to achieve and how this goals/objectives can
be achieved. It is the first poin t of a set management process.
6.4.2 Definitions of Planning:
 Planning involves all those managements activities which deal with
setting the organizations goals/objectives and determining how these
can be achieved (De Beer &Rossouw, 2005:10). In the conte xt of this
study it relates to the planning of financial matters of a school.
 According to Nel (2000:160), planning is the most important element
of any activity andwithout it there will be no goals towards which the
staff can work. Planning is thinkingahe ad and anybody who plans
anything (also school finances) must ask questions suchas why, what,
when, where, who and how. The answers to these questions will then
determine the way forward.
6.4.3 Financial Planning (Meaning And Definitions):
Financial planni ng means, it is a consistent cycle of recognizing financial
objectives, organizing those goals and planning for how to accomplish
them. In fact, it is a step -by-step approach to meet the goals of an
organisation. Financial Planning is the process of estima ting the capital
required. It is the process of framing financial policies in relation to
procurement, investment and administration of funds of an enterprise. A
newly established as well as an existing organisation must perform this
function very carefull y because it is concerned with the procurement and
effective utilization of funds, so a carefully prepared financial plan will
not only ensure the economical and sufficient procurement of funds but
their proper utilization also.
The process begins at finan cial planning, many times in the form of cash
flow and forecasting balance sheet.A carefully prepared financial plan will
not only ensure the economical and sufficient procurement of funds but
their proper utilization also which results in success of busin ess.
According to Benjamin Franklin, “If you fail to plan, you are planning to
fail.” You may have several different financial goals you wish to achieve
but to reach them at the right point in life; you need to have a financial
plan in place at a very youn g age. munotes.in

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165 Finance Management in Education The above thought of Franklin on financial plan/planning is
supplementary to the following definitions -
In accordance to Ekweueme P. “Finance is that art as well as science of
managing money, its concerned with each process, market, organizations
and instrument involved in transfer of cash among as well as in between
government and business.”
According to Walker and baughn “Financial planning pertains to the
function of finance and includes the determination of the firms’ financial
objectives, financ ial policies and financial procedures.”
In global economy, the effectiveness and efficiency of any organization or
a company depend on a number of factors which may be classified like
functions, communication, financial planning and control and
management planning. There’s need to have a proper understanding of the
objectives of the company’s financial planning otherwise it’s difficult to
identify goals and set achievable targets for your goals.
6.4.4 Objectives of Financial Planning :
Making estimation of total capital requirement:
The first step in financial planning is to determine the actual investment or
capital required. The capital requirement basically done for the short -term
and long -term purposes. Capital requirement depends on several factors
like the requirement of current or fixed assets including advertisement and
operation expenses. Estimation will be prepared as per the set goals of a
system. It is also change as per diversion or expansion program introduced
in the educational system. Growth/e xpansion includes any kind of new
course/ program launched as per the market demand. i.e. introduction of
IT or any vocational courses, Soft skilled/ Life skilled program, Degree/
Post degree Program, etc. So, financial planning help in estimation for
such expansion of a system.
Deciding the availability and timing of sources of funds:
Determining the sources and timing of funds is very crucial. The required
amount of funds should be available at the right time according to business
needs. Financial plannin g helps in determining the right source of funds
and its availability at the right time as per current requirements. While
deciding the sources of raising funds, it is also need to ensure regularity of
fund adequacy for routine conduct of programs, activit ies, etc. at different
levels. Basically, timeframe plan/ financial planning cycle will be set
according to the short term, medium term and long term need of funds i.e.
for 5, 10, 20 years, etc.
Framing of capital structure:
A business’s capital structure is considered the composition of total
external or internal equity -debt ratio of capital. As per the need and
present financial status, the organization set the capital structure i.e. how
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166 includes the decision on the debt to equity ratio and the kind of investment
required both in the short and long term.But most of the educational
institution may relied on grants, course fees, donations, charity, capitation
fees, loans, etc. and Minis try Budget will also support for implementing
educational policies.Financial Planning help to maintain the fund structure
flexible in nature to anticipate changing need as per change in the short
term as well as long term goals of an organisation/Departmen t/ University/
Ministry level.
Maintaining balance between excess and shortage of funds:
The prime objectives of financial planning to prevent the system from
raising unnecessary funds. Excess funds are just unnecessary engage of
money which cannot generat e any revenue for a system. Same way
shortage of fund will also effect on completion of task/goal. So, balance
between the excess and shortage of fund need to maintain for better
outcomes/result. It ensures a reasonable balance between outflow and
inflow o f funds so that stability is maintained. It also assures that there
will be adequacy of fund for contingencies.
Selecting best optional strategies for Risks/Uncertainties:
Financial planning detects the risks and issues related to the action plan set
to ac hieve. After detecting the issues at the planning stage, the specific
optional strategies are prepared to solve the detected issues. It helps to
complete the task and saves the time, money and energy. As future is
uncertain and risk is the other name of th e business, so whenever there is a
need of fund in any emergency or contingency, planning only help to
procure and allot such fund to face the uncertainties.
Framing the objectives, policies, procedures, programs, budgets, Cost -
benefit and Cost Effective A nalysis, etc.
It helps in preparing the objectives, policies, procedures, programs,
budgeting, Costing and Cost Benefit Analysis, etc. of a concern. This
ensures effective and adequate financial and investment policies for the
growth or expansion of educat ional programs. One of the objective of
financial planning to help in making of policies towards cash control,
lending, borrowings, etc. by ensuring sufficient liquidity of funds. A
finance manager frame ensures that the scarce financial resources are
maxi mally utilized in the best possible manner in order to get maximum
returns on investment. It helps in preparing Budget at Institutional level or
Departmental level or University level or Ministry level for the
implementation of set educational policies in upcoming time.
6.4.5 Need of Financial Planning:
To avoid wastage and increase savings :
Financial planning needed for avoiding wastage and save money/fund for
future purpose. It may be possible through getting insight view of
incomes/gains and expenditures /losses. It is easy to detect loopholes and munotes.in

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167 Finance Management in Education cut down the unnecessary costspractically. This automatically increases
savings of the system in the long run. Continuous planning helps to plan
for the organizational expansion and growth.
To increase the goodwi ll and Image in the market :
A good financial planning helps to update and upgrade the quality of the
product or career or skills of an institution. Through good advertisement
and marketing any institution can build a better image in the society. For
socia l awareness there is a need of good funding. Standard of work in the
institution can be updated and upgraded only when fund provisions are
make it available on right time. Modernisation, diversion and adopting
new advance techniques in the teaching and lea rning process or other
educational programmes can be possible only with the help of financial
planning.
To be prepared for emergencies or contingencies :
Financial planning helps in creating a fund during contingencies, It
assured about raising funds in ca se of any loss, contingencies aroused.
The emergency fund can help topay for varied expenses on time. Without
planning it is not possible to insight review and study what is need of
today and tomorrow. All investment decisions can be possible with
financia l planning. As future is uncertain and risk is the other name of the
business, so planning is needed to face the uncertainties.
To achieve the set goals and objectives of an organization :
The financial planning is needed not only to set the goals and objec tives
but to achieve them on time to time. It is not just about increasing the
savings/investment and reducing expenses/costs but need to plan how,
when, what and where need of financial plan. According to strengths and
weaknesses all will be decided throu gh the cost analysis, budgeting,
forecasting, etc. With all arrangements /availability of funds new goals
and objectives will be set and vice versa.
To generate wealth/long term investment :
To purchase plot, machinery, building, assets, furniture, etc. req uired lots
of fund. This long term investmentis not short term goal but it need to plan
from the beginning. Investment in others securities like shares, debentures
bond, mutual funds, fixed deposits, etc. is only possible when the financial
plan being cont inuously successful. All such investments are also
important for the growth and expansion of any educational institution.
Dream of generating such wealth/investments can be possible only
through a good and effective financial planning as it requires lots o f fund.
To cond uct employee welfare programmes:
Manpower is the backbone of success of any institution. Human resource
is very important factor of production. If we utilize such resource in an
effective manner, then there will be better outcomes in such ac tivity. So,
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168 work/job. They must get security of job, promotion, appreciation,
compensation for additional work, insurance, gratuity, pension schemes,
etc. in which institution they work . These all requires lots of funds with
financial planning to make provisions for any employee welfare programs.
To conduct HRD pr ogrammes / Enrichment Programmes:
Educationalinstitution is a training centre of a child. Education is a
demand of the socie ty. To impart quality education or teaching -learning
experiences, need to train staff. Training is essential due to changes
occurred in ICT, Educational policies, Teaching -Learning
Programs/Methodologies, Educational Technologies, etc. There is need
conduc t such training programmes for teachers’ professional growth and
other enrichment programmes for their skill, education, leisure time, etc.
So, for all such workshops, seminars and sending for training requires
funds which is possible through financial pla nning. It is expensive but
need of a time.
To manage for Capital payment and Revenue payment :
Every year, organization has to manage for Capital payments like Amount
paid for the purchase of Assets, redemption of share capital and
debentures, repayment of long drawing by the proprietor, premium paid on
the purchase of Assets and payments for Goodwill etc. Also has to manage
for Revenue payment like payments of salary, wages, cash purchases,
payment to creditors, bills payable, compensation for breach of con tract
for the supply of goods, payment of interest on the bank loan and GS, etc.
Such all the payments can be possible through sufficient funds. For
procurement and allotment of funds need financial planning.
To implement the right plan and monitor effecti veness of financial
plan regularly:
The financial planning process does not end once you invest your money.
It need to monitor how the funds are performing regularly. If there are no
positive outcomes, there is a need to replace them with better performing
funds. For instance, financial priorities may change after changes in
technologies, Methodologies, etc. Financial planning needed to check the
effectiveness of the plan by achieving goals of the organization or not
accordingly modification will be made in the plan to achieve the major
goals.
To hel p in External Audits and Review:
Some of the organizations have always been legislatively forced to need
audits prepared every year, others have a concerns for performing external
reviews and external audits. Pr ovided costs are an issue in some of the
institution, then maybe they can choose to go for external audit at least
once in three years. Thus proper financial plan helps to review income and
expenses, cut the cost and to save for future deal in the long run . munotes.in

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169 Finance Management in Education To help in preparing the objectives, policies, procedures, programs,
budgeting, Costing and Cost Benefit Analysis, etc. of a concern :
A finance manager frame ensures that the scarce financial resources are
maximally utilized in the best possible manner i n order to get maximum
returns on investment. It helps in preparing effective policy, Program,
Budgets, Cost Benefit Analysis, etc. and then evaluate through audit,
review of reports, etc. to check the effectiveness of the plan.
6.4.6 Conclusion:
Benjamin Franklin has rightly said, “If you fail to plan, you are planning
to fail.” You may have several different financial goals you wish to
achieve but to reach them at the right point in life; you need to have a
financial plan in place at a very young age.
After putting the time -frame for financial plans. This financial planning
should track and check that plan is working as it has designed or not
through its implementation and control to know the set objectives are
achieved and if then at what level.
Check You r Progress 1:
1. What is Financial Management?
2. What is Financial Planning?
3. Briefly explain the Objectives and need for financial Planning.
6.5 CONCEPT OF BUDGET AND BUDGETING, REVENUE GENERATION STRATEGIES IN
EDUCATION 6.5.1 Budget: Concept:
Accordin g to Ox ford and Cambridge Dictionaries:
The word budget comes from the Old French word bougette meaning
"small leather purse", which in turn is a diminutive of the Gaulishbouge
for "leather pouch, purse".
The common usage of the word "budget" refers to a f inancial plan by an
individual or an organization based on their projected income and
expenses. By extension, it also is used in the sense of the amount that
individual or organization has available to spend.
A financial statement in which a government rec orded how much money it
plans to spend on particular things in the next year and how it will be
arranged. To plan carefully how much money to spend on something is
consider as budget.
A budget is the sum of finances allocated for a particular purpose and t he
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170 them. It may include a budget surplus, providing money for use at a future
time, or a deficit in which expenses exceed income.
Corporate Budget :
The budget of a company is often compi led annually, but may not be a
finished budget, usually requiring considerable effort, is a plan for the
short -term future, typically allows hundreds or even thousands of people
in various departments (operations, human resources, IT, etc.) to list their
expected revenues and expenses in the final budget. In other way, the
budget of a government is a summary or plan of the intended revenues and
expenditures of that government. There are three types of government
budget = the operating or current budget, the capital or investment budget,
and the cash or cash flow budget.
Cash flow/cash budget :
A prediction of future cash receipts and expenditures for a particular time
period. It usually covers a period in the short -term future. The cash flow
budget helps the business to determine when income will be sufficient to
cover expenses and when the company will need to seek outside financing.
6.5.2 Budgeting: Concept (Meaning, Definitions):
Budgeting is a systematic approach, that predicts revenues and
expenditures o f an individual, family, group, business entity, or
government. A realistic report helps businesses trace their financial
performance. This is crucial for decision -making.
Budgeting can involve making a comprehensive list of expenditures or
focusing on a f ew categories. Some people prefer to write their budget out
by hand, while others use a spreadsheet or budgeting app. There’s no
correct way to budget — what works for one person might not work for
another.
Budgeting is the managerial process of designing, implementing and
operating budgets. Budgeting is the highest level of accounting in terms of
future which indicates a definite course of action and not merely reporting
but controlling through the timely feedback.
They are classified into personal, corpor ate, government, static, flexible,
master, operating, cash, financial, and labor subtypes.Incremental, zero -
based, activity -based, participative, negotiated, and value proposition, etc.
the another different methods of budgeting.
6.5.3 Budgeting and Foreca sting:
Forecasting is a process of predicting the future state of world, in
connection with those aspects of the world which are relevant to and likely
to effect on future activities.
Any organized business cannot avoid anticipating or calculating future
conditions and trends for the framing of its future policy and decision. munotes.in

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171 Finance Management in Education Forecasting is concerned with probable events whereas budgeting relates
to planned events. Budgeting should be preceded by forecasting, but
forecasting may be done for purpose other th an budgeting.
Thus, in forecasting an estimate of what is likely to happen is made
whereas budgeting is the process of stating policy and programme to be
followed in future. Further, forecasting does not implicate any sense of
control while budgeting is a tool of control since it workout actions which
will bring in practice according to desire so that it can be relevant to the
future situation but may or may not exist.
6.5.4 Purpose and Objectives of Budgeting:
The overall purpose of budgeting is to set pla n for different business
operational phases to coordinate activities of different departments of the
organsation and attempts to bring control over it. To achieve the purpose,
a budget could be attaining the following objectives:
1. To anticipate the firm ’s future financial condition and future need for
funds to be required in the business with a view to keep the firm
solvent.
2. To decide the capital structure as per the available sources of funds at
the least cost.
3. To predict the firm’s future sales , production cost and other expenses
in order to earn desired amount of income and minimise the business
losses.
4. To support for the efficiency development of various departments,
divisions,centres of the organisation.
5. To build coordination among th e different departments of the
institution toward the common objectives
6. To have control on the efficiency of organisations relating to cash,
stock, sales/outcomes, results, etc.
7. To decides the duties of the departmental heads.
8. To ensure centra lised control over the institution through the
budgetary system.
6.5.5 The Budgeting Process:
(Reference to Article published on Wallstreetmojo.com on budgeting)
The budgeting process usually starts with the receipt of top management’s
forecasts and market ing project objectivesto the heads/ Jr. executives for
the coming year, along -with the schedule for budgets completion.
A firm's activities process is dependent on sales of goods or services, etc.
The preparation of a sales estimate necessitates an assessm ent of the
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172 (considering internal and external elements) will be in the following
period for which the budget is recommended and ascertained.
The marketing manager's sales forecast is then presented to the budget
committee for discussion. The budget committee, where top management,
carefully evaluates the projection in light of historical results and future
forecasts proposed by economists and statisticians, and, if required,
suggest s revisions to the estimate or requests a thorough restudy and
revision.
The President of the organisation approves the sales projection, which
then becomes the organization's sales budget, based on the budget
committee's proposal. The budget for sales is matched by a budget for
selling and distribution costs. The net sales revenue projected in the
coming year is calculated by adding the two budgets together.
The firm's Production Budget is created after the sales budget, as well as
the selling and distribu tion cost budget. The production budget is based on
production predictions that are created after taking into account the sales
budget, the maximum and minimum completed goods stock to be
maintained, plant capacity, and the availability of various producti on
elements.
The production budget (expressed in quantities to be produced) can be
turned into a Production Cost Budget once the planned production for the
budget period has been determined. Materials Cost Budget, Labor Cost
Budget, and Overheads Budgets m ake up the Production Cost Budget.
The materials cost budget indicates the anticipated cost of materials
needed for projected production and sales of goods and services. The cost
of materials is calculated using the quantity to be utilised and the rate per
unit. The production department is in charge of determining the required
quantities, while the purchasing department is in charge of determining the
rate.
The Labour Cost Budget forecasts the direct labor costs that will be
incurred in carrying out the in tended production. In order to prepare this
budget, first to know how long it takes to complete one unit of labor and
how much need to pay for it.
Overheads A budget is a list of expected overheads (both fixed and
variable) that have to pay during the budg et period. This budget is created
using overhead projections from all the departments of the organization.
Once substances value price range, labour value price range and overheads
price range are prepared, a complete manufacturing value price range may
be drawn. This price range is commonly provided withinside the shape of
a value sheet.
In order to gain aggressive face over its competitors on sustainable basis,
then an enterprise must increase new merchandise or new tactics for munotes.in

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173 Finance Management in Education generating present merchand ise at minimal value. Thus, the enterprise has
to incur expenditure on studies and improvement effort.
The Research and Development Budget is drawn up into two parts:
(i) Fixed or constant expenses necessary to maintain research and
development work at th e irreducible level; and
(ii) Costs to be incurred on completing the projects in hand or on those to
be taken up. It is the management to decide which new projects are to
be taken up and whether any of the existing projects in hand is to be
given up.
Capi tal Budget is prepared to estimate receipts and payments on capital
account as opposed to revenue account. Following the decision of the
management about the capital expenditure to be made during the budget
period, capital budget is drawn up to show month -wise receipts and
payments on capital account.
A Cash Budget showing expected receipts and payments on revenue
account is prepared separately.
Once separate budgets for sales, production finance and other activities
have been prepared and finalised and th e targeted sales, cost of sales,
expenses are determined, the targeted profit and loss account and balance
sheet can be drawn.
These statements together are known as Master Budget.
The budget process is shown in figure 1 Budgeting process framework

Figure 1. Budgeting process framework
6.5.6 Fundamental Principles of Budgeting:
When budget is considering as an effective technique of managerial
decision makin g, certain principles need to be followed. munotes.in

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174 These principles are:
1. Support of Management :
For Successful implementation of the budget there is need of full support,
guidance and cooperation of top level managementis essential to get cent
percent outcomes.
2. Participation of Employees:
At all levels of management should participate in setting targets, preparing
and implementing the budget with the cooperation of junior
staff/employees definitely make them carefully think about the
forthcoming period devel opment and prepare budget accordingly, but
same time motivate them to put efforts to achieve budget levels.
3. Statement of Organizational Goal :
There should be clarity in statement of organisational goal. Goals should
be set within the framework of organi sational objectives, policies and
strategies.
4. Responsibility consideration :
Every staff is given some responsibility towards the managerial tasks.
Outcomes or results will be checked throughperformance appraisal.
Responsibility reports often contain co mpletion of task of budget to actual
comparisons.
5. Organizational Structure :
There should be a need to set the Structure of an organisation and
allotment of authority. Everyone should be aware of the Role and
responsibilities of Budget Committee and its President in the organization.
6. Flexibility :
During the implementation of Budget some changes required to
introduced, then assumptions will be set in that particular year, so budget
will be restated.
7. Results Communication :
Proper communications system s should be established for management
reporting and information service so that received information/data can be
presented to the concerned manager timely. Remedial action will be taken
accordingly and communicated top to the bottom and vice versa.
8. Sound Accounting System:
A good accounting system must be developed which help to generate
precise, accurate, reliable and prompt information.
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175 Finance Management in Education 6.5.7 Revenue Generation Strategies in Education:
What is Revenue Generation? / Concept of Revenue Generation
(Including Definitions):
The term Revenue Generation also refers to the process of creating an
income through the production of goods and services. For an individual,
generating revenue means doing things that will eventually lead to the
creation of income to the person like work on a job, make investments, or
start a business.
In business, revenue generation means that a company takes active steps
and measures to generate income by selling its goods and services.
According to Investopedia, Revenue is defined as :Revenue is the money
generated from normal business operations, calculated as the average sales
price times the number of units sold.
Revenue generation means the process of taking steps and actions to
create an income, generate revenues, and bring in cash. Revenue
generation in business is one of the most important functions allowing the
institution to plan income and sales targets and take the necessary steps to
achieve such targets.
6.5.8 Revenue Generation Strategies: Meaning a nd Definition:
Hofer and Schedal (1978), described strategy as a game plan through
which aims and objectives of an organization is achieved. They also
defined strategy of revenue generation as the fundamental patt ern
ofpresent and planned resource department, and environmental interaction
that indicate how the organization will achieve its aims and objectives.
However, for effective revenue generation, Hofer and Schedal (1978),
suggested the following strategies:
I. Introduction of additional sources of revenue.
II. Providing an incentive for extra efforts of the revenue generation
staffs.
III. Periodic raiding by officer of the revenue generation.
IV. Efficient and effective collection of existing taxes.
V. Public enlightens and campaign that will educate the tax payer on the
importance of prompt payment.
6.5.9 Revenue Generation Strategies/Tactics:
Different tactics exist, according to each business i.e. Profit making or
Non-profit Making. These tactics will be applied for all department not
only sales or marketing. Indeed, to be competitive, to stand up from your
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176 Some examples of tactics:
 generating more prospects
 increasing your conversion rate (through website, live chat,
promotion, etc.)
 developing an ideal customer profile
 implementing best practices to guide the implementation of your
revenue strategy
 increasing the average price per sale
 generating more leads
 planning to increase the conversion of leads to customers
 Identifying the id eal customer profile
 Finding ways to reduce cost of production and overhead costs
 Finding ways to increase sales
 Looking at opportunities to upsell or cross -sell to customers
 planning to launching new products and services
 Considering entry into new mar kets
 Considering acquisitions and M&A
As the rule of the identity is “jo dikhtahaibiktahai”, it does not mean only
highlighting the product or service by advertisement but also to show
work, result, quality, reliability, loyalty and utility of your product or
service.
Till organization does not apply tactics, it cannot generate revenue which
is essential for the growth and expansion business of the orgnisation.
SIX WAYS UNIVERSITIES CAN INCREASE/GENERATE THEIR
REVENUE STREAM
(AN ARTICLE BY GARETH HILL, 18TH MARCH, 2021):
The Pandemic period have been tough for the higher education sector as a
whole. A fluctuating economy has put traditional revenue streams and
external funding which was at risk. In addition, high fees, changing in the
lifestyle of students and, more recently, the global pandemic has also led
to the potential risk of reduced student numbers; adding to the uncertainty
and pressure.
It means a growing necessity for innovation and creative ways to better
utilise expertise and resources. In this article, author suggests : munotes.in

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177 Finance Management in Education The following six ways that these can provide opportunities for Higher
Education / Universities to generate new, growing and sustainable revenue
streams for better future.
Professional Training :
Professional training courses offer ed to the general public, private sector
or industry bodies. Skills training, Continual Professional Development
(CPD) and sector specific learning is a growing and potentially lucrative
sector and universities have the knowledge and the facilities to offe r these
services, as long as they have the right tools such as course booking and
management systems in place.
Commercial Services :
Creating the link between faculty expertise and the private sector, through
schemes such as Knowledge Transfer Partnerships (KTP) and consultative
services. A dedicated department that’s focused on business development
and finding new commercial opportunities and partnerships that can yield
long-term sustainable income.
Conferencing & Events :
It may have commonly used by the pa ndemic, but these will be services
required again in the future. To maximise the revenue opportunities,
educational institutions will need to be able to actively promote and then
create an efficient user experience for staff and visitors, from sign -up to
event management.
Non-Term Accommodation Rental :
With universities having to invest in quality accommodation to remain
competitive with new students, it creates an opportunity to utilise these
rooms when the students are not there. Getting occupancy into th ese
rooms in the off -term can be an effective utilisation of space and
resources; whether for tourism, linking up with local events in the area or
overnight business stays.
Rental of Meeting Rooms and Facilities :
In a similar vein, universities will have m any hundreds of different rooms,
halls and similar facilities that spend a significant proportion of their time
empty. Are they able to become additional revenue generators by offering
them up to the public for hire? With more and more businesses moving
away from fixed office space, the need for temporary and flexible meeting
space is likely to grow in the coming years.
Sports, Camps and Activities :
From 3G football, rugby and hockey pitches, to gym space, tennis courts
and other sporting facilities, making it easy to managing bookings to the
public when not in use academically can offer further opportunities,
utilising the resources a university will already have. Furthermore, with munotes.in

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178 parents always on the lookout for activities for their kids in school
holida ys, a university campus seems to be a perfect space to run camps,
classes and activities while the students aren’t around.
Universities have natural resources that can and should be able to generate
a sustained level of revenue via commercial avenues. The talented minds
to be able to innovate, create and turn these into commercially viable
outlets will undoubtedly exist among university staff up and down the
land. However, to make it a success, there needs to be the will to actually
do it, and an investment in the tools to make each initiative a success.
“8 WAYS UNIVERSITIES CAN GENERATE ALTERNATIVE
REVENUE” BY DIFFERENT AUTHORS ON THE
TEMPLATE.NET WEBSITE BLOG
(Https:// Www.Template.Net/Blog/University/University -Revenue
Alternatives/ ) ARE EXPLAINED BELOW:
Aside from providing the best quality education and improving university
ranking, university administrators also focus on generating revenue for
their institution. Ho wever, tuition fees alone aren’t enough to have
consistent revenue. So, what they do is to look for alternative means to
generate revenue. There are some alternative means and how they help
boost the revenue of universities.
Being Op en to Partnership Oppor tunities:
Public -private university partnership opportunities open countless benefits
for higher education institutions. One good example is partnering with
bookstores and other businesses offering educational materials. Some
universities struggle to make room in their budget for educational
materials. The students’ purchase of the partnering business’s educational
materials will give them revenue, and a certain percentage or estimate of
that revenue will go to the university’s pocket.
Taking Advantage of Local Industries :
Local industries such as film, sports, and corporate companies are entities
that universities can approach to help boost their revenue. Some
universities offer their activity centers and facilities as a venue for TV
commercials, movie set s, reality TV shows, and sports matches. That
approach is a sure way to earn revenue. Local industries are willing to pay
big to make use of on -campus venues for their activities and events.
Offering Corporate Training Programs :
Higher education institutio ns such as Harvard University have been
offering corporate training programs for professionals and company
executives. Those kinds of higher education coursework are expensive,
and the high profile students under such programs are fully capable of
paying t hem on time. That said, universities offering corporate training
programs will likely enjoy a steady inward flow of revenue.
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179 Finance Management in Education Focusing on Retention :
Some university administrators look no further than their students in
optimizing their revenue. In order t o keep earning revenue from their
students, university administrators must also focus on formulating
strategies to retain students, keeping them from dropping off or
transferring to other universities.
Establishing an Open and Diverse Culture :
Establishin g an open and diverse culture may not be a direct alternative
means of generating revenue, but doing so certainly is effective. In that
case, more students will be interested to enrol and pursue their desired
profession. More students mean more revenue for a university. Other than
that, a university that has diversity has more potential to gain partners,
both in the private and public sectors, that can help them optimize their
revenue rate.
Focusing on Auxiliary Services :
Universities are required to provid e an extensive checklist of auxiliary
services to their students, especially to those who are from other towns,
cities, and states. Probably next to student tuition and fees, quality food
choices are products that most students are willing to purchase desp ite a
higher price. Other than that, university administrators can also invite
outside food businesses to rent a space on -campus and sell their
consumable products to students.
Selling Merchandise :
Many types of businesses from various industries sell merc handise
secondarily aside from their main products. Universities, for one, also sell
merchandise to boost their revenue. Merchandise such as t -shirts, jackets,
hoodies, caps, notebooks, pens, etc. are excellent examples. Any product
that showcases the bran d and school spirit of a university have high
marketability, especially to its students, alumni, and other people who may
be fans of its varsity sports teams. Universities can sell their merchandise
on campus, retail stores, and online stores, depending on their preference.
Having a Social Media Presence :
Countless advanced data analytics had shown that having a presence in
social media is effective in marketing and increasing sales for a business.
Due to that, universities have their own social media page/ account on
Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, etc. One great approach for universities to
earn revenue in social media is by having their own You tube channel. On
You tube, they can publish videos regarding educational topics that are
interesting for general vi ewers. Their channel can garner millions of
subscribers in that way.
Universities are large institutions no doubt. When it comes to operating
and running large institutions, loads of financial resources are involved in
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180 Educational Management and Leadership
180 other sources for revenue. Along the way in looking for alternatives,
they’re also improving the quality of their educational services and student
welfare procedures. Plus, in doing so, they get to earn a steady foo ting in
the community.
MR. RICK SHERIDAN FOCUSED ON SOME NEW STRATEGIES
OF REVENUE GENERATIONS THROUGH ARTICLE
PUBLISHED IN JOURNAL -UNIVERSITY BUSINESS, IN
OCTOBER, 2011 AS BELLOWS :
 Custom publishing of textbooks,
 Selling intellectual property
 Do research for local business
 Sell faculty consultation services
 Internet business
 Partner with a discount card company
 Specialized classes
 International student summer programs
Cost Savings Options:
 Close unused parts of the campus
 Use temperature control devices:
 Use room lighting control devices
 Use daylight instead of electricity
 Waste managementhe place.
 Solar panels on rooftops
 Save water
 Use purchasing cards
 Reduce the academic overlap between areas
Cost Sharing Options:
 Reduce printing costs
 Join or create co llective buying groups
 Charge for expenses related to sponsored research activity
 Utility sharing
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181 Finance Management in Education Unused Building and Equipment Rental :
 Rent out the football or basketball stadium for community events such
as concerts, swap meets, etc.
 Rent out alumni center space
 Facility rentals
 Lease roof space for cellular tower antennae
Miscellaneous Ideas:
 Identify your brand
 Use a database to track deferred maintenance
 Offer a second chance to qualified students
 Allow faculty to supplement their ow n salaries
 Generate more cost -savings ideas
Fundraising:
 Employ "personalized" telemarketing
 Endow classrooms and buildings and even individual courses
 Surplus sell or auction off
 Host an interesting event
6.5.10 Conclusion:
The common usage of the word "b udget" refers to a financial plan by an
individual or an organization based on their projected income and
expenses. By extension, it also is used in the sense of the amount that
individual or organization has available to spend.Budgeting is the
managerial process of designing, implementing and operating budgets.
There are various purposes, processes and principles regarding to the
Budgeting which need to consider during organizational budgeting
specially schools/ universities. Every Budget is requiring to a ccomplish
the objectives and conduct the activities/projects smoothly. But for
growth/expansion, there is a need of fund/revenue that need to be
generated. Revenue generation means the process of taking steps and
actions to create an income, generate reve nues, and bring in cash. Every
organization can adopt different Revenue Generation Strategies which
help to achieve the milestone set by organization within specific time.
These Strategies help as self -fund raising tools which make organization
confident a nd successful in accomplishment of set goal.
Check Your Progress -2:
1. What is the objectives Budgeting?
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182 Educational Management and Leadership
182 6.6 COST MANAGEMENT: MEANING AND TYPES OF COSTS, COST BENEFIT AN ALYSIS, COST EFFECTIVE
ANALYS IS 6.6.1 Cost Management: Concept, Meaning:
Cost Management is the process of planning, implementing and
controlling the costs associated with running of any activity. It includes
collection, application, analysis and reporting cost information to more
effectively budget, forecast and monitor costs.
According to Gartner Glossary :
Cost management is the process of planning and controlling the costs
associated with running a business. It includes collecting, analyzing and
reporting cost information to more ef fectively budget, forecast and
monitor costs. Cost management practices can be applied to specific
projects or to the company's overall operating model. Cost management
typically focuses on generating savings and maximizing profits in the
longer term.
What is Cost Management? :
(As per Article of accountingtoo ls.com, Cost Management is .. )
Cost management is the control of actual or forecasted costs incurred by a
business. It is essential for a company to employ proper cost management,
or else it will have difficulty consistently generating a profit.
6.6.2 Process o f Cost Management (Steps Involve in The Process o f
Cost Management):
Step 1 - Collect Cost Information :
This information typically comes from the general ledger for actual costs,
but the informati on can also be ascertaining through an activity -based
costing system applied in a system.
Step 2 - Review for Cost Reduction Opportunities :
This step can include the segregation of costs into fixed, variable, and
mixed costs, reviewing costs on a trend line , analyzing the impact on
bottleneck operations, and comparing costs to those of benchmark
companies.
Step 3 - Report Results :
Report the results of the analysis to management, with recommended
actions.
Step 4 - Install Controls :
Set up controls to ensure th at changes imposed by management are
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183 Finance Management in Education Step 5 - Monitor Changes :
Monitor any changes imposed by management as a result of this analysis,
to see how the alterations have modified the cost profile of the business.
(ARTICLE on Cost Management August 1987, in PM Network Journal
By Georgas, P. C. | Vallance, G. V.)
Cost Management is one of the primary functions of Project Managers.
When integrated with the scope/quality of the project and time
management, these three functions fo rm the core of Project Management.
The cost management function maintains its important focus at every stage
throughout the life cycle of a project. In listing the reasons for the success
of a project, the management of cost is the most important as all pr oject
aspects affect this function. What counts for the owner is the “bottom
line”?
6.6.3 Cost: Concepts:
Relationship between 'expenditure' and 'cost'.
Both are not the same.
The term cost and expenditure are used interchangeably, but most of the
time, w e use the term 'cost' and refer to cost per student pertaining to a
particular level (primary, secondary, higher secondary or university).
Similarly, cost per student to the state for a particular course or level is
calculated. From the point of view of th e individual, cost of acquiring
education does include expenditure on books and stationery, school fees,
travel cost and in case of students making use of hostels, it will also
include rent of hostel accommodation, mess charges, etc.
In an educational ente rprise, we have to measure the cost incurred by the
supplier of education and by the consumer of education separately. This
necessitates a re -consideration of cost in economics so that it can suitably
be applied to education, in fact, when we try to apply the concept of cost
to education, difficulties arise due to the production of education is not
materialistic and it is considering as ‘Public ‘service’ inherent nature of
the activity of education. These difficulties are: the definition of
'production' res ulting from education; the identification of the 'economic
transactors' connected with education; and the fact that education has the
character of a 'public service'.
The cost of an educational plan or innovation is often expressed in terms
of its total co st to indicate the value of the total resources devoted to it.
Unit cost is cost per educational unit, e.g., cost per student, cost per
school, cost per teacher, etc. Cost per student may imply:
a) cost per student enrolled:
b) cost per student actually attending school; or
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184 Educational Management and Leadership
184 Educational costs may be divided into three categories: those related to the
students; those related to the teachers; and those related to buildings and
equipment. In a nor mal growing state, a composite unit including all three
could be adopted. Unit costs are likely to rise due to changes in the price
level, increase in learner population, rise in the educational standards,
demand for education as well as the pressure for r aising the level of
school -going age. It is essential to break up the expenditure on education,
both by the government and private institutions, into different components
like recurring expenditure and capital expenditure. Recurring expenditure
(or cost) a s the name suggests takes place regularly at certain intervals.
Capital expenditure or costs, on the other hand, are one time investments.
6.6.4 Types o f Costs:
The Unit Cost of Education:
The unit cost of education is cost per unit. The unit cost is gene rally
calculated perstudent enrolled. But it may be calculated per graduated
student, per -course, and perinstitution. It is arrived by dividing the total
costs of education by the total number of students.
The Total Cost of education:
The total costs of e ducation are the sum total of all the expenditures
incurred by the students -parents and that incurred by the
institutions/government/society. It takes in account all expenditures
incurred towards salaries of teaching and non -teaching staff, amortized
cost of buildings, equipment, and other materials of an educational
institution; household cost of students on books, stationery, living in
hostels, and cost of foregone earnings.
The Current cos t:
The current costs include those expenditures which are incurre d on current
/regulatory based activities, such as payment of salaries of teachers and
non-teaching staff; depreciation of buildings, equipment etc. If the
expenditures should not be classified under the head of the current costs
unless the part or all of such expenditures are used up during the current
year.
The Capital cost:
On the other hand, consists of outlays incurred for future. The capital costs
includeexpenditures incurred for developments of the infrastructures,
construction of new buildings for c lassrooms, hostels, school -offices,
laboratories, purchase of equipment, etc. If the use is extended beyond the
current year, the relevant outlays should be co nsidered as the capital costs.
The Direct Cost :
The direct cost of education consists of expendi tures explicitly incurred by
the students or their families and the educational institutions for education.
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185 Finance Management in Education fees, books, additional costs of hostel, boarding, school uniforms/clothin g,
transportation to and from school, etc. The educational institutions incur
explicit expenditures'on salaries of teaching and non -teaching staff, library
books, capital outlay, equipment and chemicals for the laboratories. These
and any other explicit ex penditures on education are included in the direct
costs of education.
The Indirect Cost:
The Indirect costs are often called as the opportunity costs of education.
The indirect costs are also called as the Imputed cost. Unlike the direct
costs, the indir ect costs of education are implicit rather than explicit. The
indirect cost of education consists of the costs of earnings forgone by the
students. The students, instead of enrolling and attending school/college,
could have taken -up a job and made some inc ome. By attending the
school, the student foregoes the income that he may have otherwise
earned.
The Private Cost :
The private cost includes all expenditure incurred by the students -parents
to meet
(a) the tuition costs,
(b) the non -tuition costs, and
(c) earnings forgone.
While estimating the tuition costs paid by the students, normally we
deduct from the fees paid financial aids, scholarships, etc. received by a
student. In other words, only the net tuition costs are included in the
private cost o f education. In the non -tuition private costs, we include items
such as books, stationery, equipments, cost of maintenance of students
(lodging and boarding), and transport.
The Social Cost :
The Social cost of education is sum total of the private and the
institutional cost of education. The private cost consists of net tuition
costs, non -tuition costs. The institutional costs consists of both the current
or operating cost and the capital costs of education borne by the schools,
or society.The opportunity cost or income foregone is not included in the
computation of the total social costs of education to the whole society.
The Variable costs :
Whatever the production level, a firm always bears certain footed
expenses viz., rent of premises occupied, maximum staff salary
requirement, etc. and certain variable expenses which depend on the
production level or, in other words, which vary according to the number of
units produced. The variable cost includes school books, teaching staff
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186 Educational Management and Leadership
186 The Fixed C ost:
For all practical purposes, expenditure on permanent staff salaries (both
teaching and nonteaching) for permanent staff can be treated as fixed
cost.In the case of a teaching establishment like a school or a university,
the fixed expenses include, for example, the capital cost of the building,
the equipment and harnessing or their corresponding annual rents, etc.
The Normative Cost :
Normative costs are generally laid down by the respective public
authorities like the Central or State Government or loca l bodies. There are
Cost in Education norms with regard to, for example, salaries. Salary
scales of teachers, the number of students per teacher, total amount of
money to be spent per teacher, etc. are planned on expected lines. But
these norms may not nec essarily match the cost or expenditure actually
incurred.
The Actual costs :
Very often, it so happens that positive or actual costs prevalent for each
level and type of education are different from the normative or expected or
planned costs. The Actual cos t is spent at actual level and as per norms. As
per the social need time it can be occurred.
The Opportunity cost :
The cost of an alternative that must be forgone in order to pursue a certain
action. Put another way the benefits you could have received by taking an
alternative action.
Opportunity cost refers to what you have to give up to buy what you want
in terms of other goods or services. When economists use the word "cost,"
we usually mean opportunity cost.
When economists refer to the "opportunity cos t" of a resource, they mean
the value of the next -highest -valued alternative use of that resource
The next -best alternative use for these resources :
Eg: A PTA tells a head -teacher it has some money for the purchase of
microscopes. The head accepts with gra titude, although feeling that a
higher priority would be to expand the basic equipment in one of the
laboratories.
The Prime Cost :
Costs between resources related to a school’s prime educational function
and those relating to its subsidiary administrative , transport and catering
functions.

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187 Finance Management in Education The Subsidiary cost :
The division of total school costs into such categories, with percentages
for each, is important.
It makes it possible to monitor the percentage over years and see if the
proportionate and actual e xpenditure on the subsidiary categories is
shrinking or rising.
6.6.5 Benefits o f Education :
It is the value addition and technical upgradation of human resource so
that it can foster the national productivity, growth and development.
Quantitative Benefits :
It can be expressed in terms of number of students educated and declared
successful in the examination during the year of their education. It is
necessary to make to students learn so as to succeeded in the examination
and secure the pass certificate.
Qualitative Benefits:
It can be expressed in terms of ‘Value Added’ by the educational process.
This is done by equipping the students with knowledge, skills, attitudes
and social and behavioral norms. For this purpose, it is seen whether the
aim of educati on have been fulfilled or not.
6.6.6 Cost -Benefit Analysis:
The process of weighing the total expected costs vs. the total expected
benefits of one or more actions in order to choose the most profitable
option
Cost / benefit analysis: Concept, Meaning and Definitions:
The Corps of Engineers initiated the use of CBA in the US, after the
Federal Navigation Act of 1936 mandated cost –benefit analysis for
proposed federal -waterway infrastructure. The Flood Control Act of 1939
was instrumental in establishing CBA as federal policy, requiring that "the
benefits to whomever they accrue [be] in excess of the estimated costs.”
The term ‘Cost benefit analysis’ is a systematic comparison of the
magnitude of the cost and benefits of some form of investment in order to
achieve the economic profitability. Cost Benefit analysis is the process
where the rate of return analysis on the cost invested in present.
Cost-Benefit has its origins in the water development projects of the U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers. The Corps of Engi neers had its origins in the
French Engineers hired by George Washington in the American
Revolution. Under these projects may kind of investments were made and
analysed time to time and benefit or rate of return was analysed
comparatively. Further, Academi c economist discovered that The Corps
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188 Educational Management and Leadership
188 Economists have influenced and improved the Corps methods since then
and /cost benefit analysis has been adapted in most of the public decision
making projects.
It is a technique that is used to determine options that provide the best
approach for the adoption and practice in terms of benefits in labour, time
and cost savings etc. (David, Ngulube and Dube, 2013).
The Cost Benefit Analysis is also de fined as a systematic process for
calculating and comparing benefits and costs of a project, decision or
government policy relates to its present investments.
Mostly all sort of investments is nothing but a sacrifice of the present
consumption in order to secure future benefits/returns in the way of better
output or income. Cost -benefit analysis provides a means of appraising
these future benefits in the light of the costs that decided to utilise at
present. The purpose of such analysis is to provide a meas ure of the
expected yield of the investment, as a guide to the rational allocation of
resources.
The importance of such an analysis can be understood from its
underlying assumptions given as follows:
1. Resources are scarce;
2. These scarce resources can be used for alternative purposes;
3. Decision makers want to use them in a rational way, i.e.,
4. Where they provide the maximum benefit; and
5. Their costs and benefits can be measured.
To the extent that these assumptions are not valid in any partic ular case,
cost-benefit analysis will have its limitations. However, in practice, what
we are taking into consideration is only a part of the costs and benefits
involved. For instance, when a child goes to school, both the child and the
parents have to spe nd a lot of time in effecting his/her education. Besides
the time devoted to this which involves cost, certain other preparations
like personality development, personal and social adjustment of the child
also involve cost. The types of costs involved are i ntangible in value and
cannot be measured in terms of money. Similarly, in the case of benefits,
there could be certain non -pecuniary and intangible benefits accruing to
both the individuals as well to society, viz. improved communication,
social mobility, the pleasure of acquiring further knowledge, improved
social adjustment, etc.
Therefore, in cost -benefit analysis, we take into account that part of cost
and benefit which can be measured in terms of money. As you know,
investment is made at the present to reap some benefits in thefuture. And
investment is viable when benefit exceeds cost.
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189 Finance Management in Education A generic cost –benefit analysis process has the following steps:
Define the goals and objectives of the action.
List alternative actions.
List stakeholders
Select mea surement(s) and measure all cost and benefit elements.
Predict outcome of costs and benefits over the relevant time period.
Convert all costs and benefits into a common currency.
Apply discount rate.
Calculate the net present value of actions under conside ration.
Perform sensitivity analysis.
Adopt the recommended course of action.
Evaluation
CBA attempts to measure the positive or negative consequences of a
project. A similar approach is used in the environmental analysis of total
economic value. Both cost s and benefits can be diverse. Costs tend to be
most thoroughly represented in cost –benefit analyses due to relatively -
abundant market data. The guiding principle of evaluating benefits is to
list all parties affected by an intervention and add the positiv e or negative
value (usually monetary) that they ascribe to its effect on their welfare.
6.6.7 Framework Model o f Cost -Benefit Analysis:
(According to Dr. R.A.Sharma )
The Framework Model considers the premium cost of a special program to
be the investment amount, cost. One the cost of a special program is
established; the investigator must evaluate the program based on the
student’s Strengths and weaknesses to find out “What degree does this
program enhance the student’s ability to achieve in adult life to their
fullest potential in terms of independence and productivity.” While
searching answer of above question, the investigator should have two
fundamental indicators of life success i.e.
 Vocational achievement and independence; and
 Residential independence .
For each indicator two projections are made by the evaluator.
In essence, the first projection quantifies the level of independence a
person is realistically expected to achieve form the implementation of
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190 Educational Management and Leadership
190 The second qua ntifies the probable level of independence assuming that
the students receives education through commencing a general program.
The difference between the two projections yield the net benefit for the
respective indicators; the net benefit taken together y ield the total program
benefit.
The Framework document provides extensive detail on complete process
(data) to use in the quantification of the projections. Cost and Benefits of Education Aspects or Components Inputs Outputs Cost (Expenditures on Education) Benefits (Returns) (Direct and Indirect) Establishment Cost Building, Laboratories, library, Infrastructure, Play ground National Benefits, Social Benefits, Individual Benefits- job opportunities, job satisfaction, Additional goods. Volume of /education- Knowledge acquired, skills learnt, Value orientation Qualitative benefits, Quantitative benefits, Economic benefits, Non-economic benefits Recurring Cost Staff, Administration, Maintenance, Games and Sports Resources Physical capital, Human Capital
Once the Costs and Benefits have been calculated, with the given
instructions the evaluator interpret the results and study the Cost and
Benefits analysis outcomes for final decisions.
6.6.8 Criticism o f Cost -Benefit Analysis Of Education :
As per the Economists and Educationalist raised number of theoretical and
practical objections / criticisms to cost benefit a nalysis of education as
follows:
1. Earning differentials reflect differences in the natural ability,
motivation, social background sex, occupation, non -formal education,
etc. will definitely effect on the benefits of education.
2. Education does not assure develop workers/employees more
productive but act as a screening device/ filter and help to identify
superior natural ability. Day by day there is a demand of higher and
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191 Finance Management in Education 3. Earning differentials cannot be measure differences in the form of
productivity of workers but to imperfections in measuring direct
economic benefits of the labour mar ket.
4. Beside these direct benefits, education generates indirect or spillover
benefits that is to say education may raise the productivity of people
rather than the educated worker himself or herself and not shown up
in earning differentials.
5. Rate of return calculations assume full employments of educated
workers whereas in developing countries are experiencing
unemployment of graduates and secondary school leavers.
6. Rate of return calculations reflect present and past demand and supply
condition s whereas it is future demand and supply that concern the
planner. Thus rate of return provides a poor tool for educational
planning.
7. Private rate of return is meaningless as individuals do not make
educational choices as they were taking their individu al financial
investment decisions.
Thus the above critics have attacked and rejected the whole concept of
CBA of education and further it suggests the way it is modified.
6.6.9 Calculation o f Benefit Cost Ratio (B CR):
Let us assume that the benefits for se condary education and higher
education are Rs. 600.00 and Rs. 1200.00 respectively per year. Let us
fiuther assume that these benefits would accrue to the individual
concerned for 20 years (i.e., twenty years of employment), and that the
rate of interest f or these years remains at 6 per cent per annum.
The higher the ratio, the higher the profitability of investment for that
level of education. The benefit -cost ratio for both secondary education and
higher education is calculated using the following formul a: By (Gillis et
al, 1983)
(1 )(1 )t1 1 CttinBi itntBCR
Where :
B, = benefit per annum (Rs.600/ - for secondary and Rs. 1000/ - for
higher education)
C, = cost per annum (Rs. 100/ - for secondary and Rs. 200/ - for higher
education)
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192 Educational Management and Leadership
192 t = time (3 years cost time, and 20 years’ benefits time)
n
∑sum total of the years of costs incurred and benefits received.
Benefits Cost of secondary education
(1 )(1 )t1 1 CttinBi itntBCR
The Benefit formula 1 B / ( 1 )nttti can b e simplified as follows: 32 0121232 0(1 ) (1 ) (1 ) (1 )tt ttBBBBiiii
Similarly, The Cost Formula can be simplified as follows: 312123(1 ) (1 ) (1 )tt tCCCiii
Therefore,

Benefit for Benefits Cost of Higher Education,

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193 Finance Management in Education Conclusion:
In this investment, the project found fea sible as BCR is more than
1(BCR>1)
The above example shows BCR of Secondary Education is Higher than
Higher Secondary Education as the educational investment is higher in
Secondary Education.
6.6.10 Cost -Effectiveness :
Effectivenessis the fullest possible attainment of the goals and objectives
of the school/Education, Improved performance, possibly against
performance indicators, such as improved examination results or test
scores (but only if this is not caused by some external factor such as
improved qual ity of student intake)
Improved student attitudes and behavior;
Better parent and community relations
Improved school environment
Cost -effectiveness :
Relates efficiency to its cost.
More cost -efficient – greater efficiency at the same cost or the same
efficiency at lower cost.
A cost -effectiveness analysis includes a cost and effectiveness review. The
accuracy of a cost -effectiveness analysis depends on the cost and
effectiveness metrics it employs. On the other hand, there are considerable
differences betw een the methods utilised to make these assessments.
Cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) is a technique for measuring the
relationship between the total inputs, or costs, of a project or activity, and
its outputs or objectives. Both costs and effectiveness m ust be quantified,
but it is not necessary to measure them in monetary terms.
Costeffectiveness analysis, therefore, must be distinguished from cost -
benefit analysis, which attempts to measure both the costs and benefits of
a project in financial terms by means of a rate of return. Cost -effectiveness
analysis was developed for the evaluation of public policy in such fields as
military defence, where the objectives are clearly definable and
measurable, but not in money terms. It has more recently been used f or
project evaluation for other areas of public policy including health and
education.
The CEA is typically represented as a ratio, where the numerator is the
cost of the gain and the denominator is the gain in from a measure.
Quality -adjusted life years a re the most often used outcome metric
(QALY).To compare the cost -effectiveness ofthese interventions,
calculate the incremental quality -adjusted life years(QALYs) produced by
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194 Educational Management and Leadership
194 The idea of QALYs is illustrated in Figure 1. Quality Adjusted Life
Years

The above figure 1. Quality Adjusted Life Years (QALYs) is focused on
the educational levels i. e Primary to Secondary Level, where different
educational programs/strategies applied in a ef fective manner and
outcomes received after certain age are improved the Quality of life i.e.
from age 8 to age 12 measured on X -Axis and Quality of Life with
acquired Knowledge before and after the education on Y -Axis where Zero
indicates Quality before Ed ucation and it improves in upward direction.
The cost spent on effective strategies/programs at different levels is also
considered with the growing age of a student for higher level of Education
which improves the quality of life with rich knowledge.
The idea of cost -effectiveness is implemented to the making plans and
control of many kinds of prepared activity. It is extensively used in lots of
components of life like Educational need of life which is very essential for
quality life. And after completion of each level of education Quality will
be improved. But at each level the cost of education will be different and
Secondary education will have proved better than Primary for Quality
livelihood. The strategy applied at secondary education is more advance
and approachable to the students to convert them a better citizen and
trained human resource available for the societal as well as national
growth.
The price paid —higher efficacy with the same or little -changed expenses,
or lower costs with the same effect iveness. Spending on the school's
promotion results in more students enrolling; purchasing increases the
number of educational visits and off -campus learning opportunities. With
little additional expense, peer tutoring raises student achievement. The
relationship between inputs and outputs' quality and quantity are both
factors that affect cost -effectiveness.
It takes into account decision alternatives for both costs and consequences,
and attempts at (higher) achievement of predetermined objectives or munotes.in