EC8-History-of-Education-english-munotes

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VEDIC AND POST–VEDIC EDUCATION
Unit Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Education
1.3 Purpose the studying Vedas
1.4 To sum up
1.5 Unit end exercise
1.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will he able to
 Discuss fundamentals of Ancient Indian Educations
 Analyse the meaning of the terms attached to ancient education
system
 Understand the purpose of studying Vedas
 Enumerate the main characteristics of education system in
 Vedic and post Vedic period
 Explain the basic meaning of Swadhyaya.
 Explain the duties of teacher and student during Vedic & post
Vedic period.
 List forms of educational system during Vedic period.
1.1 INTRODUC TION
The education system which was evolved first in ancient India is
known as the Vedic system of education. In other words, the ancient
system of education were based on the Vedas and therefore it was
given the name of Vedic Educational System. Some scholars have sub
divided Vedic Educational period into Rig-
Veda pe riod, Brahmani period, Upanishada period, Sutra (Hymn) period,
Smriti period etc but all these period, due to predominance of the
Veda s, there was no change in the aims and ideals of educations. That is
why, the education of these periods, is studied under Vedic period. munotes.in

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History of Education
2 “Swadesh Pujyate Raja, Vidwan Sarvatra Pujyate”
“वदेश पूयते राजा , वान सव पूयते”
This verse widely quoted in India illustrates the significance of education
in India.
The education system of Vedic period has unique characteristics and
qualities which were not found in the ancient education system of any
other country of the world. According to Dr. F. E. Key, “To achieve
their aim not only did Brahmans develop a system of education which,
survived even in the events of the crumbling of empires and the chang es
of society, but they, also through all those thousands of years, kept a glow
of torch of higher learning”
In the words of Dr. P. N. Prabhu, “Education in ancient India was free
from any external control like that of the state and government or any
party politics. It was the kings duties to see that learned Pundits, pursued
their studies and performed their duty of imparting knowledge without
interference from any source what so ever”
1.2 FUNDAMENTALS OF ANCIENT INDIAN
EDUCATION
The ancient education system has be en a source of inspiration to
all educational systems of the world. The ingredients, which our present
system, lacks, and which were the predominant facets of our ancient
system relate to admission policies (upnayan), monitorial system, low
teacher pupil ratio, healthy teaching surroundings, free schooling and
college education, sympathetic treatment, role of punishment in
discipline, regulation governing student life.
1. Developing the wholesome personality:
The primary aim of any system of education should be development of a
whole some personality. The Brahma nic system of education stood on
former grounds of lofty ideals because its primary aim was development
of personality and character. Moral strength and moral excellence were
developed to the fullest extent, which we lack so utterly. The moral
stature of our educated people is deplorably low. Moral values are at
stake “The old values, which held society together are disappearing and
as there in no effective
programme to replace them by a new sense of responsibility. Innumerable
signs of social disorganisation are evident everywhere and are
continually on the increase. These include strikes increasing
lawlessness, and a disregard for public property corruption in
public life “The social moral and spiritual values which our ancient
system developed in the educand have been totally lost sight of.
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3 2. Making formal and Informal Educations Responsible :
Imparting and receiving of education was as sacred as anything can be,
for example, education started and ended with certain prescribed religious
rituals like upnayan and samvartan. The disciple was to de vote himself
whole heartedly to the cause of learning while he remained with his
teacher. Not every boy was required to enter student ship it was still a
custom to receive education at the hands of his father. How many of the
parents look after their children now in this respect. The ancient system
gave an equal important to informal education as it did to the formal one.
3. Starting Academic sessions solemnly:
In most cases the boy went to a teacher for studentship. The maximum
age of entrance into school was different for different castes. The
period of schooling was long, at least 12 years for one Veda. The
academic sessions started with a special ceremony “upkarman’ on the
Guru Purnima (Full month of Shravana) and as solemnly closed on
Rohini (Fullmoon month of pausha) with ‘utsarjan’. The whole
session was punctuated with holidays especially on new moon full
moon days of the month.
4. Adjusting School Hours:
The school in the Ancient Education System, lasted for 7 to 8 hours a
day. In fair weather classes were held in the open under shady groves. In
the rainy season schools ran in a set of apartment. Temple colleges
of the past had been of great renown for having spacious buildings for
classroom, hostels and residential quarters for teachers. Gurukuls and
Ashrams were generally situated on the river banks or on the lake.
The whole atmosphere was quiet, calm and peaceful. It must be noted
that schools and colleges were not kept for away from human habitation.
5. Close Contact:
Never in the history of education you will find such a close contact
between the teacher and the taught. The teacher was the spiritual father,
he was is to nurse, when the pupil fell sick, he was to feed, clothe and
teach his student as he fed, clothed and taught his son. The student also
regarded the teachers as he regarded his parents, king & god. Both were
united by communion of life. In fact they communed together.
6. Emphasising Discipline:
The student had to observe strict regulations. Instruction was important,
but was even more significant than teaching was discipline –
discipline inculcated through strict obed ience to laws and regulations
of student life, discipline that was rooted in morality and religion
A student was required to give up lust, anger, greed, vanity, conceit and
over joy. It was ordered to him not to gamble, gossip, lie, backbite,
hurt feelings of others, dance, sing, look or talk or touch the other sex munotes.in

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4 and kill animals. It was demanded of every student whether rich of poor
that he should lead a simple life in the Gurukul or in the Ashram.
7. Low – Teacher pupil Ratio:
In all schools and colleges the pupil – teacher ratio was too low.
Individual attention was maximum. The number of students in a school
was kept very small. But when, under certain conditions the enrolment
increased, the teacher sought the co-operation of more advanced and
senior boys who were appointed as monitors (Pittiacharya). In the
absence of teacher entire work was entrusted to them.
8. Respecting Childs Personality:
Punishment had practically no place in the school system. Puplis received
very sympathetic, treatment from their teachers. Their personality was
respected Teachers were required to use sweet and gentle speech in
dealing with pupil.
9. Providing Free Education
Education was free. It was free because no student was required to
pay any fees. It was free also because no outside agency could
interfere in the matte rs of education. There was perfect autonomy. No
external authority no external beneficiary, no politics was permitted to
enter the school or college system.
A student had to pay nothing in return for education he recieved in a
Gurukul or Ashram. Access to go od education depe nded not on wealth
but on talent. The student was expected, if desired but never compelled to
offer a field, cow, horse or even vegetables to his teacher according to his
financial position in the society. Education could not be bought one could
go up the Ladder as his abilities permitted.
SALIENT FEATURES OF ANCIENT INDIAN EDUCATION
Ancient Indian education was primarily the education of the Veda s. The
source springs of education were Brahmans, Upanishads and
Dharma Sutras. Amar Kosha, the writings of Aryabhatta, Panini,
Katyayana, Kaut ilya, Patanjali, the medical treatises of Charaka and
Susruta were other elements of Brahmanic literature. The Brahmanic
education has been a source of inspiration for determining educational
aims and objectives to future generations.
Dr. A. S. Altekar says that the Brahmanic education aimed at ‘Infusion
of a spirit of piety and religiousness, formation of character, development
of personality, inculcation of civil and social sense, promotion of social
efficacy, & preservation and spread of national culture.
1. Infusion of Spiritual & Religious Values:
The primary aim of ancient education was instilling into the minds, of
pupils a spirit of being pious and religious for glory of God and good of munotes.in

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5 man. The pursuit of knowledge was a pu rsuit of religious values. The
life of the pup il was full of ritual acts. Prayers were common every pupil
was required to perform religious ceremonies duly. He had to participate
in all religious festivals. Education without religions instructions was not
education at all. It was believed that a keener appreciation of spiritual
values could be fostered only through a strict observance if religious rites.
2. Character Development
In no period of the History of India, was so much stress laid on
character building as in the Vedic period Vyas Samhita states, “The result
of education is good character and good behaviour. A conquest does not
make a hero nor studies a wise – woman. He who has conquered his
senses is the real hero. He who practices virtue in really wise.”
Wisdom consisted in the practice of moral values. Control of senses and
practice of virtues made one a man of character. Moral excellence could
come only through praticising moral values. Example was better than
precept. The teacher and the taught were ideals of morality, for both
practiced it all through their lives.
3. Development of Civic Responsibilities and Social Values:
The inculcation of civic virtues and social values was an equally
important objective of education in Ind ia. The Brahmachari after his
education in the Gurukulas went back to the society to serve the rich
and the poor, to relieve the diseased and the distressed. He was required
to be hospitable to the guests and charitable to the needy. After a
certain period of studies he was required to become a hou seholder and to
perpetuate his race and transmit his culture to his own off springs.
4. Personality Development:
The Guru in the ancient times realized that the development of
personality is the sole aim of education. Human personality was regarded
as the supreme work of God. The qualities of self-esteem, self confidence,
self restraint and self respect were the personality traits that the
educator tried to incukate in his pupils through example.
5. Preserving and Diffusing National Culture:
Vedic culture was kept intact and transmitted through word of mouth
to succeeding generations. Every individual was required to commit to
memory at least a portion of the sacred scriptures. Everyone was required
to serve as a medium of transmission. The members of the priestly class
learnt the whole of Vedic Literature by heart & passed it on.
The ancient Indian education system was also successful in Preserring and
spreading its culture and literature even without the help of art of
writing it was only because of the destruction of temples and
monastries by invaders that literature was lost. The cultural unity that
exists even today in the vast- sub continent in due to the successful munotes.in

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6 preservation and spread of culture and the credit goes to Ancient
Education System.
1.3 PURPOSE OF STUDYING VEDAS:
Vedas occupy a very important place in the Indian life. The basis of
Indian culture lies in the Vedas which are four in number – Rigveda,
Samveda, Yajurveda, and Atharavaveda.
The Rigveda is the oldest scripture of the world. It became the
fountain head of the subsequent knowledge that followed. It contains
1028 hymns and contains 10,522 verses. It deals with the four stages of
life viz celibacy, family life, forest life and renunciation. The
second veda is Yajurveda, which lays down the procedure of sacrifices.
It contains 1,984 verses. The third veda ‘samveda’ is very important
for the history of Indian music it contains 1,875 verses. Lastly the
Atharvaveda primarily deals with medical sciences. It contains 5,977
verses.
1. Rigveda: “RIK” means parise. Rigveda contains praises for the dieties
like indra, agni, Rudra and the two Ashwini gods, Varuna, Maruti,
Savitru and Surya. Tapping the energies of the nature is given high
importance in Rigveda. It contains 1017 hymns (poems) to it praise the
gods.
2. Yajurveda: ‘Yajuish’ means rituals. Yajurveda contains different
rituals and sacrifices to be conducted to pacify gods. When a mantra
is recited and its power is felt, then to make the mantra useful, a certain
type of offerings to be done to the concerned god. Yajurveda explains
about these offerings to be made to gods through Agni (fire).
3. Sama veda: ‘Sama’ means song. Samveda contains verses to be
sung. These verses are built in their root from using the 7 notes. Sa, Re,
Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni which are the basis of the classical music now
existing in Ind ia. These notes aid the liberation of soul by stimulating the
energy centres (chakras) in the human body.
4. Atharvaveda: Atharvaveda contains useful rituals to attain
worldly happ iness. It contains description of diseases, how to cure
them, sins and how to remove their effects and means of acquiring
wealth. Atha vaveda is more applicable to modern society since it dea ls
with different subjects like science, Medicine, Mathematics,
Engineering, Technology etc.
The knowledge and wisdom of the Vedas is said to have been
revealed by God to the enlightened ones. The Vedas have been
translated in almost all the major languages of the world. What are
the Vedas? What have been their objectives? Why were they written?
These questions are being debated since long. Many commentato rs have
expressed their views on these issues but the commentary written by
Soyan is accepted as most authentic. He has explained the meaning of
Veda in his book entitled Krishna Yajurveda. According to Sa yan veda munotes.in

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7 is a symbol of that thing through which one attains his objective and
protects oneself from bad traits, undesirable things and behaviorus.
Vedas have their own characteristics features. Through them we are able
to know about the culture, civilization life and philosophy of people
in ancient India. Vedas symbolise the chief objective of human life
which has been deliberance from this world of truths and deaths. This
objective has always been unchangeable. The Indian philosophy of
life, has never accepted life as purposeless. The deliberance of soul
has been the chief objective of this philosophy of life from time
immemorial. This fact is very clear from the study of Rigveda.
The contents of the Veda may be categarised under the following three
heads:
2. The ‘jnana’ or knowledge and Wisdom
3. The ‘karma’ or actions or code of conduct
4. The ‘upasana’ or dedication and devotion to God
The vedas are intended to serve a different purpose they have to be learnt
by heart understanding the correct way of pronouncing the Mantra, by
listening to the rendering of the Mant ras by the guru (teacher). The
veda mantra so learnt should become the guide in our daily life in
our Karma-aanushtaana, Tapas, Isvara aaradhana etc. If, in India, the
vedas retain their original vitality even today, it is because these hymns
are being continuously repeated by student and teachers of the vedas,
and the purity of the sounds and accents of the worlds are retained in
that process. It is only by practicising, the vedas injunctions that we can
obtain the grace of God, both for our individual welfare and for the
welfare of the whole world.
The study of the vedas has been confined in these days to a few
professionals (Purohits) who are not even accorded a proper status in
society.
The vedas are the roots of our religion. All other paraphemalia,
like feasts and festivals are like the leaves and fruits of that tree.
Though embedded in mud, the internal core of the roots is as fresh
and fragrant as the fruits and flowers on the top. To us Veda adhyayana
and their employment in the sacraments of our daily life are important.
For that purpose it is necessary to learn them by hea rt, understand their
meaning and recite them in the prescribed manner.
The purpose of veda is to understand Him. To propogate the
transcende ntal knowledge of the absolute truth is the purpose of veda.
The real purpose of the vedas is to direct one back home, back to
Godhead. The purpose of vedas is to gradua lly bring one to the point of
Nivrtti. The vedic instruction, the whole vedic instruction is for this
purpose, to know what is God, what is our relationship with God and
how to act in that relationship. If we follow the regulations given in the munotes.in

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8 vedas, then automa tically we reach to the highest stage of perfection that
is the purpose of vedas.
Therefore you will find different subject matter dealt in vedas, and unless
we have a bona fide teacher of the vedas, it is very difficult to
understand vedic language and take advantage of it.
Acceptable features of Education of Vedic period for modern
Education.
There is a wide gap of Education between Ancient Indian Education and
modern Indian Education. Still there are several elements of ancient
education which can find room in modern education both in theory and
practice.
1. Idealism
We are living in modern age but we feel proud of the civilization and
culture of our ancestors inherited to us. Even now we give importance to
religion, god and desireless deeds. We give more preference to character,
spiritualism, philosophy rather than wealth, materialism and science. The
present world gives reverence to wealth, power violence and diplomacy
whereas we rely in truth, non-violence and mortification. We still
believe in idealism and wish to lead an ideal life.
2. Discipline and Teacher – Pupil Relationship
The sense of discipline and the cordial relation between teacher and
pupil of vedic age is well known to the world today we see the
educational environment has become so venomous due to indiscipline
that is has become an uncountable problem. The sense of discipline can
be developed if teacher pupil relationship can be made to adopt the ideal
relationship between teacher and pupil.
3. Subject of studies
The study of Sanskrit language and Sanskrit literature in neglected to a
greater extent. It is this literature which is enriched by the sense of
peace, humanity, universal brotherhood which should be vital part of
our curriculum.
4. Teaching Method
In ancient period Shravan or Listening. Manan or meditation and
Nididhyaana or realization and experience, question and answers,
discourse, lecture discussion and debate methods were prevalent. These
methods can be still used in our classrooms faithfully.
5. Simple Life of Students
In vedic age students used to lead a simple life and sober life. Nowadays
the life style of our young generalion has altogether changed they like to
lead luxurious and majestics life, full of fashion and show. They have
given up the principle of ‘Simple Living and High Thinking’ and adopted munotes.in

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Education of work and economy
9 its reverse principle i.e. High Living and Simple Thinking. The whole
balance of the life is disturbed. In order to make their life healthy and
smooth they. Should be made to realize the importance of ancient style
of life.
6. All Round Development of Child
The main aim was integral and all round development in ancient Indian.
The same aim is kept in view in modern education. The an cient education
never neglected physical development although the main emphasis was
given the intellectual and spiritual development. For this a peaceful,
calm, clean, attractive and
natural environment far away from town and villages was provided to
students. Although, we profess to look after physical, moral spiritual
emotional and intellectual development of pupil in modern schools yet it
is only bookish knowledge which gets the most of an attention. This idea
of all round development of child must be adhe red to practically.
7. Equality of Opportunity.
The educator was democratic in his approach in the field of education.
All students rich or poor, prince and common were treated alike. In
modern Indian too, the constitution has adopted the principle of Equality
in the field of education. However, in almost all public schools, and
professional institutions this principle is practically ignored and
neglected.
8. Education for Self sufficiency
The ancient schools followed the p rinciple of education for self
sufficiency. The school was small integrated community self sufficient
in every way. The students used to grow their food products, tended
cows, collected firewood’s and erected cottages themselves under the
guidance of teacher. Modern education also lays stress upon preparing
students to prepare themselves for their future life. Vocational subjects
have been included in the curriculum in order to vocationalize education
but much is needed to the done in this direction in order to achieve the
desired aim.
9. Free and Univeralization of education
Education was free and universal. The fee, if any, was to be paid, after
attaining education from the earnings of the young man who got
education, in the form of ‘Guru Dakshina’. During education the
boarding and lodging was free for almost all these students. After
independence our constitution framers made it clear that it is the duty of
all government to provide free education to every child of 0-14 yrs age
group. Many programme for this cause has been adopted but still desired
objective has not been achieved.
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10 Thus we can say that the education of vedic age has its significance in
Modern age.
1.4 TO SUM UP
The ancient Indian education system was successful in preserving
end spreading its culture and literature even without the help of art of
writing. It was only because of the destruction of temples and
monasteries by invaders that the literature was lost. The cultural unity
that exists even today in the vast sub-continent is due to successful
preservation & spread of culture. The education system infused a sense of
responsibilities and social values. The ancient education system achieved
its aims to the fullest extent.
Ancient education emerged from Vedas. The basis of Indian culture
lies in the Vedas.
1.5 UNIT END EXER CISE
1. Discuss predominant facets of our ancient education system.
2. Why do we have to study Vedas. State some of the constraints that
hinders study of Vedas.
3. Make a list of words with appropriate meanings that were used in
ancient education system (E.g. Upana yan :- initiation ceremony,
Samyartan :- Concluding Ceremony / Acharya : Teacher)
4. What were the chief characteristics of education in ancient India?
To what extent can they be utilized in evolving an effective
national system of education in the century today.

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EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM IN VED IC AND
POST-VEDIC PERIOD
Unit Structure
2.1 Main characteristics of Education system in Vedic Era
2.2 Education in post Vedic period
2.3 Female Education
2.4 Swadhyaya or self learning
2.5 To sum up
2.6 Unit end exercise
2.1 MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF EDUCATIONAL
SYSTEM :
In vedic era education had a very prominent place in society. It was being
considered as pious and important for society.
In the eyes of Aryans, education was the only means to acquire,
prosperity in the field of physical, mental, spiritual and social
developments. Education was must for everybody for becoming
cultured. In absence of education people were considered as uncultured
and animal like thing. Education was an instrument to show new pat hs
and knowledge to us. Education opens our hidden qualities and helps
people to attain Salvation. It can be regarded as “Third Eye’ of
human beings. Through education only a man gets rid from debt of Guru
and so was the feeling of people at that time. In short by putting different
logic, we can say that education was the most important aspect of human
life of that period. Terms such as knowledge, awakening, humility,
modesty etc. are often used to characterize education in the vedic period.
The main charac teristics of vedic education can be briefly
enumerated as follows:
1. Knowledge:
Education is knowledge. It is mans third eye. This apho rism means
that knowledge opens mans inner eye, flooding him with spiritual and
divine light, which forms the provision for man’s journey through life.
Through education, the de velopment of every aspect of human life
become possible. Knowledge protects an individual like a moth er,
inspires him to follow the path of good conduct as father does, and gives
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12 Education leads to the development of personality. The word ‘Veda’
originates from the root ‘vid’ which bears the meaning of knowledge.
Sayana declares that the veda is a means to the obtaining of the adorced
that which is worthy of worship, as well as means to the banishment of
the underised, the evil. Knowledge of the four Vedas (Rigveda,
Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda), along with the knowledge of
Shruti, Smriti, etc; provided an individual, with new knowledge which
broadened his intellectual ho rizon.
2. Aims of Education:
The ultimate aim of education in ancient Indian was not knowledge as
preparation for life in this world or for life beyond, but for complete
realization of self for liberation of the soul from the chains of life both
present and future.
During this period, education had an idealistic form, in which the
teachers (acharyas) laid stress upon worship of God, religiousness,
spirituality, formation of character, development of personality, creation
of an aptitude for the development of culture, nation and society.
The immediate aim of education however was to prepare the different
castes of peo ple for their actual life through vocational education. Passing
of examination and getting a deg ree, as considered to be at present was
not the aim of education the aim was moral, religious and spiritual. So
far as discipline is concerned it was not external at all but self discipline.
3. Methods of Instruction
It was a pupil centered education. No single method of instruction was
adopted, though recitation by the pupil followed by explanation by the
teacher, was generally followed. Besides question – Answer, Debate
and Discussion, Story telling was also adopted according to need. There
was no classroom teaching. However monitorial system was prevalent
and senior pupils were appointed to teach Juniors. Travel was regarded
as necessary to give finishing touch to education so the methods of
teaching gene rally practiced during vedic period were mainly Maukhik
(oral and other method was based on Chintan (thinking or reflection)
In the oral method the students were to memorize the mantras
(Vedic Hyms) and Richayas (Verses of Rigveda) in order that there
might not be changed wrongly and they might remain preserved in their
original forms. Under the oral methods these prosodies were
thoroughly taught on which Richayas happened to be based. Special
emphasis was laid on the various lines of a particular verse, their
pronunciation and meanings. In this oral method correct pronunciations
was specially emphasized. For this instruction in grammar and
pronunciation was compulsory for all. Thinking method was another part
of the teaching method. Through this an attempt was made to preserve
the veda mantras (vedic hymns) and Richayas (vedic verses) Manan was
higher method of teaching than a thinking. Thorugh Manan the meanings
of vedic mantras the meanings of vedic mantras were developed and munotes.in

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Educational System in Vedic
and Post-Vedic Period of work and economy
13 preserved in ones own mind. This method was used to encourage the
highly intelligent students by guiding them to make research, similarly
in ancient days, Manan (Reflection) was a method specially
adopted for highly intelligent students.
4. Medium of Instruction
As the se educational institutions were manag ed and organized by
Brahmans and all the books written in Sanskrit, therefore the medium of
instruction was Sanskrit.
5. The ‘Upnayana’ Ritual
The word ‘upnayana ‘means to take close to, or to being in touch with. A
ceremony called the upna yana ceremony was performed before the child
was taken to his teacher. This ceremony was performed at the ages of
8,11 and 12 for the Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas, respectively. The
ceremony signaled the childs transition from infancy to childhood and
his initiation into educational life. In this context, the term ‘upanayana’
means putting the students in touch with his teacher. With the passage of
time, the ceremony came to be conferred to the brahmins class only.
6. Celibacy or Brahamacharya
Every student was required to observe celibacy in his specific path of life.
Purity of conduct was regarded as of supreme importance. Only the
unmarried could become students in a Gurukul. On entering student
life, the student was made to wear a special girdle called a ‘makhla’. Its
quality depended on the caste of the student. Brahmins wore a girdule of
moonj grass, the kshatriyas of string gut-taanta and the vaishyas a girdle
made of wool. The clothes worn by them were also accordingly of silk,
wool etc. The students were not allowed to make use of fragrant,
cosmetic or intoxicating things.
7. Alms System
The student had to bear the responsibility of feeding both himself and his
teacher, this was done through begging for alms, which was not
considered bad. Since every domestic knew that his own son must be
begging for alms in the same way at some other place. The reason
behind the introduction of such a practice was that accepting alms
induces humility. The student realized that both education and
subsequent earning of livelihood were made possible for him only
through society’s service and its sympathy. For the poor students,
Begging for alms was compulsory and unavoidable, but even among the
prosperous, it was gene rally accented practice.
8. Status and Service of the Teacher
The status of teacher was very high. They commanded full respect and
honoured even by kings. Teachers were regarded as Brahma Vishnu and
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14 Teachers on their part, behaved like true parents and treated their pupils
will full compassion. The teacher,- taught relationship was cordial and
conducive. Every student was required, while residing in the Gurukul,
to serve his teacher compulsorily. Any violation of the Guru’s
instructions was regarded as a sin and subject to stern punishment. The
students duties included obtaining such daily necessities as water, a
twig for brushing the teeth etc. for this guru. The teachers also ensured
that the students should not be distracted from their studies while
performing such duties during the vacations in which the student returned
home he was not required to perform any service for the te acher.
9. Practicability
Apart from intellectual aspect of education its practical side was not
lost sight of and along with art, literature and philosophy, students
got a working knowledge of animal husband ry, agriculture and other
professions of life. In addition education in medicine was also imported.
According to Dr. Alteker, the purpose of education was not to provide
general knowledge about a variety of subjects, but to produce specialists
of the best kind in various spheres.
10. Education for the Individual
The nature of education was much more individualistic rather than joint in
groups. All round development of a childs personality was the chief aim
of education. Every teacher devoted himself to be integral development of
each student. He aimed at the physical and intellectual development of his
wards the maximum attention was devoted to t he individual
development of every student, but there was no provision for the
education of the incapable and the hand icapped, especially those who
were lacking in mental and moral qualities as were known for moral
turpitude.
11. Duration of Education
In the house of the teacher, the student was required to obtain education
up to the age of 24, after which he was expected to enter domestic life
students were divided into three categories:
a) These obtaining education up to the age of 24 – Vasu b) These
obtaining education up to the age of 36 – Rudra c) These obtaining
education up to the age of 48.- Auditya.
12. Curriculum
Although the education of this period was dominated by the study of
Vedic Literature, historical study, stories of heroic lives and discourses on
the puranas also formed a part of the syllabus. Students had necessarily to
obtain knowledge of metrics. Arithmetic was supplemented by the
knowledge of geometry. Students were given knowledge of four Vedas
– Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda. The syllabus took
with in its compass such subjects as spiritual as well as materialistic munotes.in

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Educational System in Vedic
and Post-Vedic Period of work and economy
15 knowledge, Vedas, Vedic grammar, arithmetic knowledge of gods,
knowledge of the absolute, knowledge of gh osts, astronomy, logic
philosophy ethics, conduct etc. The richness of the syllabus was
responsible of the creation of Brahman literature in this period.
13. Equal Opportunities to all
The education was free and accessible to all who sought it . there was no
discrimination on the basis of caste, creed, colour etc. and the students
of all strata of society received education on an equal footing.
14. Plain Living and High Thinking
The education institutions were residential in the form of Gurukulas
situated in forest, where teachers and pupils lived toget her. Education
imparted was in the pure, colm and charming atmosphere of the
Gurukulas and Ashramas and emphasis was laid on the development of
character through ‘Plain Living and High Thinking’.
15. Academic Freedom
Due to academ ic freedom students remained busy in thinking and
meditation. It enhanced originality among them
16. High place to Indian culture
Indian culture was full of religious feelings and it was assigned a very
high place in the field of education
17. Commercial Education and Mathematics Education
Commercial education and Mathematics education is also one of the
chief features of vedic period. The ideas of the scope and nature of
commercial education can be held from manu. Knowledge of
Commercial geography, needs of the people of various localities,
exchange value and quality of articles and language spoken at different
trade centre were considered necessary. Theory of banking was also
included in the course. Though there were no organized educational
institutional training was usually imparted in the family.
As far as Mathemat ics education is concerned, ancient Indian quite
early evolved simple system of geometry. Shulva sutra are the oldest
mathematical works probably compased between 400 BC and 200 A.
D. Aryabhata (476.52 BC) is the first great name in Indian
Mathematics. The concept of Zero also belonged to this period.
2.2 EDUCATION IN POST VEDIC PERIOD
To attain salvation by realizing the truth has been the aims to education
during this period only that education was regarded true which helped
one be realize this supreme truth. According to the Upanishads ‘truth’,
alone is the knowledge and the other worldly knowledge is untruth. The
worldly knowledge was regarded as ignorance. Upanishads maintain munotes.in

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History of Education
16 that one cannot attain salvation through worldly knowledge because
through this, one becomes involved in illusion (Maya).
Chief Features of Post – Vedic Education
1) Upanayan Sanskar
Upanayan Sanskar was considered important both in the vedic and
post vedic periods. This is evident at several place in the Rigveda. But
different values were adhered to in two periods. It was not necessary
during the vedic period to have the upana yan ceremony before starting
education. But during the post vedic period. Upanayan ceremony was
considered necessary for starting education. The Upanayan ceremony
became so important during the post vedic period, that is was usually
regarded as second birth of the individual. For the B rahmans this became
very important. Brahmans began to be called as Dvij (the twice born or
born again). It was after the Upanayan that a Brahaman boy could be
called a Dvij.
2) The Important Place of the Teacher
During this period the teacher (Guru) enjoyed a predominant place not
only in his Gurukul but in the entire society. He was regarded as a
great guide for all. To his pupils he showered all love and affection and
use to teach them whatever he knew, but before doing this he always
tested the deservingness of a particular pupil. During the vedic and post
vedic period the teaches place was second to that of God only. He was
more respected than king in society. During the upanishadic period as
well, when self study (Swadhyaya|) was considered as dignified, the
place of Guru in society remained intact. It was belived that no
knowledge could come without the assistance from the Guru. In other
words, it was believed that attainment of saluation was not possible
without the help of Guru.
3) Curriculum during post-Vedic Period
During this period the curriculum included more subject than during the
vedic age. Ved Mantras (hymns and verses) were principally taught in the
vedic period. During the post-vedic period various types of Literatures
were produced pertaining to the different Veda s. In addition to
religious subjects, many worldly subjects were also included in the
curriculum. It consisted of Vedas, History, Puranas, Gramm ar,
Mathemat ics, Braham-Vidya, Nirukti (etymological interpretation of
words), astronomy, dance, music etc.
Question answer system prevailed during his period. Through this
system difficult and abstract ideas were made simple. The terse spiritual
elements were explained. Examples, stories and help of certain
biographies were also, taken in one system for elucidating certain points.

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Educational System in Vedic
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17 4) Daily Routines of Students
During post – vedic period the Ashramas (schools) were gene rally
organized and run by Guru (preceptors). It was compulsory to
adhe re to laid down rules of discipline and conduct.
a) Practical Education
Practical Education converted of three parts 1. To beg alms 2. To
prepure fire for the yagnakund 3. To look after the animals and other
fellow beings of the ashrama (school) besides they were also expected
to do agricultural work. There were varying alms of all these aspects
of practical education. Begging of alms was meant to teach profiteers,
preparing of fire for the yajnakund signified mental development of
students. Rearing up Ashrama animals and doing agricultural work for
self dependency.
b) Mental development
Hearing, Thinking and Meditation were three parts of mental education.
For full mental development all there three aspects were considered
necessary. Thinking over the heard things and perception through
meditation were the accepted methods of mental development. This is
true even today.
c) Moral Development
Leading a disciplined and controlled life is the real basis of moral
education. Moral education affects the condu ct of the individual. Only
oral instruction cannot improve one’s conduct. Therefore observance
of celibacy was considered necessary for good conduct.
5) Duration of Education
Duration of edu cation during the post vedic period was almost the
same as in the vedic age. This duration was of about twelve years
although the number of subjects of study were increased. However there
was no uniform rule for the duration of education me find examples in
which students continued to story longer than twelve years.
6) Convocation Address
After receiving education for twelve years students used to assemble near
their teacher (Acharya ) for blessing before going home. The Acharya on
this occasion used to give some pieces of advice for happy and smooth
running of their future life. The teacher used to fell them how to lead a
life of householder (Grihastha), how to take care of the society and the
nation and how to serve the humanity as a whole. The teacher used to
tell all these in a ceremony which was known as samavartan
7) Supreme knowledge
It was compulsory for the students to have full faith in teacher.
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History of Education
18 knowledge of supreme truth who has full faith in the teacher. So a
student was always in search of a real Guru for attaining real knowledge.
8) Women’s Education
Many changes were introduced in women education during post vedic
period. This led to fall of women education. During the vedic age the
women enjoyed equal educational right. During post vedie period they
were deprived of the social and religious rites. They were not
allowed to participate in religious functions. Now they did not enjoy
the same status as before thus the path for their social & mental
development was blocked. But an upward trend again appeared in the
status of women during upaishadic period. They were given social &
educational rights again & equal status with men was once again
provided.
9) Varna system and Education in Society
The Varna system in the vedic age was based on one’s work or duty
(karma). During vedic period one could choose a particular profession as
he liked and accordingly his varna was determined. But during the post
vedic period varna came to be determined by birth. Consequently the
whole society was divided in to four varnas
– Brahman, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, & Shud ra.
However the position of varnas during the post vedic period had not
dege nerated so much as it is found today.
Educational Achievements of Vedic age were as follows:
1. Ed ucation empha sized the development of spirituality the ashram
system was adopt ed for paying of the individuals debt towards the
Gods, his forefathers, his teacher and society.
2. The minds of the parents were first prepared to instill in them a desire
for the education of their children. It has been said that those parents
are the enemy of the child who do not teach their children.
3. Great attention was paid to the development of childs character.
Teachers laid stress on integral development of the individuals
personality.
4. Social skill was evolved through training in fulfillment of duties
5. Efforts were made for the preservation and propagation of the national
culture.
6. Education was free. Its expenses were borne by the society and the
king
7. White living an Gurukul the child imbibed education in a
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Educational System in Vedic
and Post-Vedic Period of work and economy
19 8. A student was compelled to obey the ideals of the Gurukul. He had to
shoulder the burden of existence through begging for alms. This
practice developed humility and tolerance in the student
9. In developing the students character attention was paid to his nature,
early experiences upbringing and circumstance
10. Self study (Swadhyaya) was considered more important
11. The medium of education was divine pronouncement
12. The examination was oral one. The student was required to give oral
answers in a congregation of scholars. It he satisfied them, he was
given a degree or little. The consensus of the scholars opinion was
essential for obtaining such a title.
13. During this period vocational education was also in vogue
Military, Science, Agriculture, Animal Husbandry, Vete rinary Science,
Medicine etc were among the subjects taugh t. Chemistry was
also taught. Arts and Handicrafts were highly respected. Education
in Commerce was very popular.
2.3 FEMALE EDU CATION
During the vedic age women were given full status with men. For girls
also the Upanayan (initiation ceremony) was performed and after that
their education began. They were also required to lead a life of
celibacy during education. They used to study the Vedas and other
religious and philosophy books, they were free to participate in
religious and philosophical discourses. Many ‘Sanhitas’ of Rigveda
were composed by women. In Gurukulas the gurus treated male and
female pupils alike and made no distinction what-so-ever.
The education of women also began at home where they learnt letters of
alphabet. They were also instructed the works of home and family. As a
matter of fact ‘Home’ was the main centre of Education of girls in
‘Home-Science’. The rich family employed teachers to teach their
daughter at home. In other cases, the process of teaching girls was
completed by the family Purohits or by the educated elders. There
were provisions of girls hostels where worthy lady teachers took care
of their education. Though there was no provision of co-education, it was
not prohibited at all. Women were given education in religion, literature
and along with these they were instructed in dance, music and other
fine arts. Women were honoured and respected in society. Therefore
women education was at its peak at the time. Women were regarded as a
great source of power, place, satisfaction and knowledge for men. It was
thought that without women, men could not progress. Therefore
girls during vedic period was taught like boys. The vedic period
consistently believed that despite the difference in physiology
woman in no way intellechrally inferior to man she possess
excellent memory, intelligence and other mental faculties and hence she
has the capacity to obtain any type of education. It also believed that a munotes.in

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History of Education
20 woman’s fulfillment lies in womanhood and latters in motherhood. It
is because of this that the nature of feminine education differs from
that of ma sculine education. She should be skilled in household duties.
The importance of women has been explained in the Vedas at various
places. In these days there have been many great women who due to
their deep scholarship and penance were regarded as woman sages.
Lopamudra, Apalla, Ghosh, and Vishwavara were some of the great
women sager who were held in high esteem. Yagyavalkya has m entioned
names of Maitreyi, Kaua nitiki as women who composed commentaries
(Richa) on the Veda s, while Brahman has mentioned the name of
Gandbrava. Grabita as instances of women who obtained highest
education.
Many has gone so far as to say that it is the duty of parents to give their
daughters an integral education. They should also be given education in
various arts.
2.4 SWADHYAYA OR SELF LEARNING
Shikshavali deals with the discipline of Shiksha (which is the first of the
six vedan gas or “limbs” or auxiliaries of the Vedas) that is the study of
phonetics and pronunciation.
It consists of Twelve Anuraka
1. First Anuraka of this valli starts will Shanti Mantra. ‘Om sham no
Mitra…..”
2. Second Anuraka lists contents of Shiksha discipline
3. Third Anuraka is about intimate connection between syllables.
4. Fourth Anuraka consists of Mantras & rituals
5. Fifth & Sixth anurakas try to describe Brahman
6. Seventh describes a meditation called Paanktha Upasana
7. Eight Anuraka states greatness of Holy Syllable OM.
8. Ninth Anuraka explain a pious way of life to be led by person
aspiring realization of Brahman.
9. Tenth Anuraka is a Mant ra for self practice (swadhyaya) or
meditation.
10. Eleventh is set of instructions that Acharya gives to his disciple
11. Twelfth Anuraka concludes the Shikshavalli with Shanti Mantra
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Educational System in Vedic
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21 The Ninth Anurak emphasizes heavily on Learning, studying and teaching
(Swadhyaya and P ravacharna) and ordains that this should be done all
through the life of an individual.
Swadhyaya literally means study of the self the main practice is the
study of the yogic scriptures but it also interludes Japa (mantra
repetition). Not any yoga or spiritual book qualities a proper material of
Swadhyaya. It is the study of the self through chanting and recitation of
sacred texts. Through maintaining focus on the text our capacity for
concentration increases.
Ishwar gita while describing Swadha yaya has stated that Japa is
swadhyaya. It methods both Shravan and Manan (Listening and
contemplation). Japa is of 2 types Oral & Mental. The Art of self
education, contemp lation and study that leads to self realization is
Swadhyaya.
The student studied self and constantly did japa of the mantra
received from a teacher, contemplating the meaning of the mahavakyas
the great sentences of the Upanishads during pre- vedic and post-vedic
education.
Swadhyay teaches us three basic things. “Self identity (Swa-swaroop)
“Self power (Swa-shakti) “Self duty (Swa-kartavya)
1) Self identity: This divine identity enlighten us with new wisdom
2) Self power: Their powerful feeling of how can I be weak, how can
I loose any battle of life, why should I consider myself, inferior
to anyone when God resides in all of us. Thus feeling will lead us
to every success in our lives, materialistic or spiritual
3) Se lf duty: What is our real duty in life? Is it just to amass the
wealth. To run after the materialistic pleasures of life, can this be
real duty of us.
Beyond, Bhog-Jeevan we should live Bhaav Jeevan and we have to
unde rstand and experience that life. Beyond that is the bhad ra-jeevan,
and we also have to live such a life. Realizing this duty, our lives will get
a new meaning these are some of the basic, things that we try to learn in
Swadhyay. Doing regular Swadhay keeps. Collecting positive thoughts
which keep cleaning our intellect which in turn will increase our self
esteem to live a truly successful & meaningful life.
2.5 TO SUM UP
In vedic era education had the prominent place in society. It was
considered as pious and important for society. Education was must for
everybody for be coming cultured. Relationship between Guru and pupils
were very cordial during vedic and post- vedic period. By means of
education efforts were being made to infuse “Satyam Shivam and
Sundaram” inside the students. A great importance was attached to veda munotes.in

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History of Education
22 in education system, self study Swadhyaya was considered more
important during that period. The vedic period favored women education.
2.6 UNIT END EXERC ISE
1. Enumerate chief characteristics of Vedic Education.
2. Explain features of Post-Vedic Education.
3. Write brief note on
i) Swadhyaya
ii) Female Education during Vedic period.
4. What changes due we see in post vedic period.

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23 3
DUTIES OF TEACHER AND STUDE NT IN
VEDIC AND POST-VED IC EDUCATION
Unit Structure
3.1 Teacher – Importance and duties
3.2 Duties of a student
3.3 Forms of Educational Institutions
3.4 To sum
3.5 Unit end exercise
3.1 TEACHER – IMPORTANCE AND DUTIES
In Bhartiya Darshan ‘Guru’ has significant place. It consists of two
words, Gu-ru. The word ‘Gu’ indicated darkness and ‘ru’ means
controller. It means to avoid darkness or ignorance.
In Vedas the term achariya is used for guru. Guru is considered greatest
treasure of knowledge.
In educative process teacher and students are the two component s, a
teacher provides physical, mate rialistic and spiritual knowledge to his
students. The educative process is teacher centred. Guru satisfies the
curiosity and needs of his students. The success of life of the students
depends of guru teaching and guidance. Students were under the full
protection of their Gurus during their learning period. Guru was the
spiritual father of his pupils. Gurus were taking care of their pupil in
same manner as a father takes care of his son. Gurus used to pay need for
the comprehensive development of personality of their pupils. If so
required Gurus used to serve their pupils by do ing medical
treatment. As a Guru he was to give his pupil full attention and with- hold
no part of knowledge from him. He was not to use the pupil for his own
purpose except in times of distress. He was to arrange boarding and
lodging for his pupils in the Gurukula, supervise health and
character of his pupils, nurse the sick pupil, answer satisfactorily to
the questions of pupils, treat each pupil equally, make no
discrimination between rich and poor and on the basis of caste. He
would take all possible measures for all round development of
personality of his pupils and did not charge any fee from his pupils.
This account shows that guru commanded highest regard not only
from his pupil but from all classes of society and even from rulers. He
was considered and worshipped as God disciple.
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History of Education
24 3.2 DUTIES OF A STUDENT
When a student was to become a pupil of any Guru, the recognized way
of making application to him was to approach him with fuel in his hands
as a sign that he wished to serve him and help to maintain his sacred
fire. With ‘Upanayan’ ceremony the disciple (shishya) gained the
generous shelter and patronage of his gurus.
The term ‘shishya’ indicates the following qualities. a) He is to be
administered guru
b) He is able to obey his guru
c) He may be punished by his guru d) He is be wished by his guru
e) He is to be Preached by his guru f) He is to be treated equality
g) He is devoted committed to acquired wisdom
In the Dharam Sutra, there are rules laid do wn for the conduct of
both teachers and pupils. The pupil was subjected to a rigid discipline
and was under certain obligations towards his teacher. He should
remain with his teacher as long as his course lasted and not live with
anybody else.
Certain menial services had to be performed by the pupil for his teacher.
These included fetching of water, collecting of fuel and sweeping the
place around the fire. Begging of his food was also a duty which the pupil
has to perform. Food might be accepted from men of all castes except
outcastes. When he returned from his begging tour the pupil had to
announce what he had received and after getting permission from his
teacher he might eat according to the prescribed rules, “in silence,
contended and without greed”.
There were rules for the respect due from pupil to teacher. Strict
obedience was enjoined. The pupil was on no account to contradict
the teacher and was always to occupy a seat or couch lower than the
teacher. He was always to rise in the morning before his teacher was up,
and retire to rest at night after him. If spoken to by the teacher he must, if
lying or sitting, rise from his couch or seat before he answered. If the
teacher walked, the pupil was to walk after him. The teachers name was
not be procured by the pupil.
Rigid rules were laid down for the conduct of pupil. These included
hygienic moral and religious precepts and the regulation of good manners.
It was the duty of the pupils to bathe daily, and to avoid honey, meat,
perfumes, sleep in daytime, say their morning and e vening prayer
daily and perform their religious rituals regularly. The pupils had
to keep away from sex, anger, pride, greed and other character
demean ing characteristics characters lies. They also had to keep
away from gambling committing violence on cows, telling lies abusing,
backbiting, killing of animals, taking things not offered. They were to munotes.in

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Duties of Teacher and Student
in Vedic and Post-Vedic
Education
25 observe chastity and self restraint strictly. Tongue, arms and stomach had
to be kept in subjection.
Simple living and high thinking should the their motto. Observation of
Brahmacharya or celibacy was compulsory for all pup ils.
3.3 FORMS OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
There were six types of major institutions of education during vedic
period. They were Gurukulas. Vedic tolls. Charan, Parishad , Charak ,
Parivrajakacharya and Sammelan. Let us discuss three of th em.
1. Gurukulas
Gurukulas were the dwelling houses of gurus situated in natural
surroundings away from noise and bustle of cities. Parents sent their
wards at the age of five years to nine years according to their castes after
celebrating their Upanayan Sanskar. Pupils lived under the roof of their
guru called ‘antevasin’ under the direct supervision of their Guru. The
Chhandogya Upanishad described, such pupils as ‘Acharya Kulavasin’. It
was compulsory for these Acharya Kularasins to live with the guru
throughout the period of education, leading life of celibacy.
Gurukula as the na me indicates was the family of the teacher and
his residence where the students used to stay during the pe riod of
study. Gradually, the Gurukula were extended to include a number of
buildings. However the institution was built up around the family of
teacher. The primary duty of the student was to serve the teacher and his
family. The students were like sons of the teacher and the whole
institution lived like family.
2. Paris hads
Parishads were bigger educational institutions where several teachers used
to teach different subjects. This may be compared to a college parishad
in Upanishads, has been used for a conference
of learned men, assembled for deliberations upon philosophical problems.
Later on the ‘Parishads’ were set up at the places where learned men lived
in good number and gradually these institutions became permanent
centres of imparting knowledge. In the words of Dr. R. K. Mukherjee,
‘Parishad’ correspondences to University of students belonging to
different colleges.
3. Sammelan
Sammelan literally means getting together for a particular purpose. In
this type of educational institutions scholars gathe red at one place for
learned discussions and competitions generally on the invitation of the
king. Scholars were appropriately rewarded.
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History of Education
26 3.4 TO SUM UP
The basic tenet of the ancient educational tradition was the paying of
social debt. Teachers took up this profession to pay off their debt to
society. They enjoyed the highest social status. Examples from the
educational sphere in this period can be useful for us in organizing
our education system in the contemporary world. Teachers should
imitate their ancient forerunne rs the gurus of old. They should also
maintain highest standards in their own conduct because students are
profoundly influenced by their teachers conduct. Just as the teachers
should mould their own conduct, the students too should respect their
teachers as their own parents.
3.5 UNIT END EXERC ISE
1. Indicate the role of a teacher in vedic system of education.
2. Discuss importance of teacher taught relationship in ancient
India.
3. Critically comment teacher taught relationship in modern
education in comparison to ancient education.
4. What were the duties of students towards their teacher.
5. Discuss the duties of students in vedic system of education .
6. “Teacher were regarded as architects of vedic civili zation
comment”.
7. Write short note on forms of educational institutions.


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27 4
BUD DHIST EDUCATION SYSTEM
Unit Structure
4.1 Learning Objectives
4.2 Introduction
4.3 Characteristics of Buddhist Education
4.4 Metho ds of Teaching
4.5 Merits of Buddhist Education
4.6 Demerits of Buddhist Education
4.7 Lets Sum Up
4.8 Unit End Questions
4.9 Sugge sted Readings
4.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
 Explain the characteristics of Buddhist Education.
 Explain the merits and deme rits of Buddhist Education.
4.2 INTRODUCTION
The most important system of education in medieval period was the
Budd hist system of education. Buddhist education came into the
existence in the 5th century B.C. Brahman deprived the common
peop le of th eir right to education and hence the emergence of
Buddhism rented the people the freedom to obtain
education and to practice their religion themselves. Lord Buddha imparted
to life a pe rfectly practicable form. Consequently a practicable region and
a practical education system became a variable to the common peop le.
Buddhist system of education was monastic. All castes were admitted to
Buddh ist sangh. The history of education in Buddha period is inter-
related with the history of monasteries and V ihara because there were no
independent educational institutions or centers, other than those
religious centers. Those centers were highly responsible for the spread of
Budd hism in India by 600B.C.
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History of Education
28 4.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF BUDDHIST EDU CATION
1. The Core of Buddha’s teaching-the Buddha teaching contains three
major points discipline, meditation and wisdom. Wisdom is the goal
and deep meditation or concentration in the crucial process toward
achieving wisdom. Discipline through observing the precepts, is the
method that helps one to achieve deep meditation; wisdom will then be
realized naturally. Buddh a’s entire teaching as conveyed in the sutras
never really depart from these three points. Budd hism encompasses the
entire collection of works by Buddha Shakyamuni and is called the
Tripitaka.This can be classified into three categories sutra, Vinaya
(precepts or rules) Sastra (Commentaries) which empha size me ditation,
discipline and wisdom respectively.
2. The goal of Buddha’s teaching-the goal of Buddhist education is to
attain wisdom. In San skrit, the language of ancient India, the Budd hist
wisdom was called “Anuttara-Samyak-Sambhodi” meaning the perfect
ultimate wisdom. The Buddha taught us that the main objective of our
practice or cultivation was to achieve this ultimate wisdom. The Buddha
further taught us that everyone has the potential to realize this state of
ultimate wisdom, as it is an intrinsic part of our nature, not something
one obtains externally. The B uddhist education system aimed at
regaining our intrinsic nature. it also teaches absolute equality which
stemmed from Buddha ’s recognition that all sentient beings possess this
innate wisdom and nature. Buddha ’s teaching helps us to realize that
innate, perfect ,ultimate wisdom .With wisdom, we can then solve all
our problems and turn suffering into happiness.
3. Admission in monastery-monasteries was the centre for imparting
education during the Buddhist period. For admission the student had to
present himself before the teacher and request him for giving
education. The teacher was fully responsible for education of his
pupil. In turn, the pupil had also to be responsive to the instructions
received from the teacher. The student was not at all accountable to any
other Bhikshuk in the monastery.
4. Pabbajja- Pabbajji was an accepted ceremony of the Buddhist
monasteries. Pabba jji means ‘going out’. According to this ceremony the
student after being admitted to a monastery had to renounce all his
worldly and family relationship. An individual belonging to any caste
could be admitted to a monastery and after being admitted he d id not
belong to any caste. After admission he had to change his old clothes and
all old ways and the manners of living. For the Pabbajja ceremony the
minimum age was eight years.
5. Upasampada- After the Pabbajja ceremony education continued for
twelve years. When the student received twelve years education he had to
undergo the Upasampada ceremony. This ceremony was democratic in
nature. The Shraman had to present himself before all other monks of
the monastery. One could be admitted for the Upasampada ceremony
only when the majority of the monks voted in favors of the same. munotes.in

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29 After the Upasampada ceremony the Shraman was regarded as a full-
fledged mem ber of the monastery. On this occasion all his worldly and
family relationship ended.
6. Duration of Education-the total period of education was 22
years. Composed of 12years as Pab bajja and 10 years Upasampada.
7. Curriculum- there were two types of education primary and
higher education. In primary education reading, writing and arithmetic
were taught and in higher education religion philosophy Ayurveda,
military training was included. Everyone was free to choose his subject
without any restriction.
8. Method of teaching-The curriculum was spiritual in nature. The aim
of education was to attain salvation. So the study of religious books was
most important. Sutta, Vinaya and Dhamma Pitak were the main subjects
prescribed for study. The method of teaching was mostly oral in nature.
Teacher gives lecture on good behaviour and required topics and students
were listen with attention.A fterwords students were expected to me mories
the same. The teacher educates the students through lectures and
question answer method. Attendance of every monk was compulsory.
The medium of Buddhist education was the common language of the
peop le.
9. Women education- Women education during Buddhist period was
at its lowest ebb, as the women folk were despised in the sense that
Lord Buddha had regarded them as the source of all evils. So he had
advised during his life time not to admit women inmonasteries.but after
some time due to the insistence of his dear pupil Anand, Buddha had
permitted about 500 women along with his step mother for admission
in the Vihars with many restriction and reservations.
Strict rules were enforced for women monks. The first two years was the ir
probation period. The women monks were not allowed to meet any male
monk in loneliness and their residence was arranged separately at a
distant place. They were not given any permanent post in the sangh.
Some monk could give her religious instruction twice a month in the
presence of another monk.
10. Qualities and Responsibilities of the teacher- The teacher himself
must spend at least ten years as a monk and necessarily must have the
purity of character, purity of thoughts and generosity. Both the teacher
and student were responsible to the monastery. But regarding
education, clothes, food and residence of the student monk, the teacher
was fully responsible. The teacher was also responsible for any treatment
of the student whenever he fell ill.
11. Daily routine of students-on rising in the morning the student will
arrange everything for the daily routine of the teacher. He will cook food
and clean his clothes and utensils. Whatever he required through begg ing
alms, he would place before the teacher. The student was always to obey
the teacher and none others. He would keep the monastery and its munotes.in

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History of Education
30 surroundings clean. The student had to prepare himself to receive
education at any time whene ver the teacher required him.
12. Boarding and Lodging of the Students-In Buddhist period, there
were no organized Gurukuls, but the education was imparted through
monasteries and viharas.The teacher and the students lived together.
Buddhist Vihara were fine and well furnished separate rooms for
dining,bath ing,sleeping,reading,studying and discussions. The monk and
the students in Bu ddhist period were following the ‘simple living and
high thinking”principle.their lives were full of purity, nobelness,
dutifulness and humanity.
13. Astang Marg- the word Samma means 'proper', 'whole',
'thorough ', 'integral', 'complete', and 'perfect' -
1. Samma-Ditthi — Complete or Perfect Vision
2. Samma-Sankappa — Perfected Emotion or Aspiration,
3. Samma-Vaca — Perfected or whole Speech
4. Samma-Kammanta — Integral Action.
5. Samma-Ajiva — Proper Livelihood.
6. Samma-Vayama — Complete or Full Effort, Energy or Vitality.
7. Samma-Sati — Complete or Thorough Awareness.
8. Samma-Samadhi — Full, Integral or Holistic Samadhi.
14. Four Nobel Truths-
1. All life knows suffering..
2. The cause of suffering is ignorance and clinging.
3. There is a way to end suffering.
4. This is the way to end suffering:
15. Rules for shramner—
1. Not to kill any living being
2. Not to accept anything given to him.
3. Live free from the impurity of character.
5. Not to tell lie
6. Not to take food at improper time
7. Not to use luxurious things
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31 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-
1. Explain Pabbajja and Upasampada Ceremony.
2. Ident ify four Nobel Truth taught by Buddha.
3. Write the Goal of Buddha’s teaching.
4.4 METHODS OF TEACHING-
Budd hist education aimed at purity of character. Buddhist education
was training for moral and psychological development of the student. One
had to attain the stage of bodhisattva. Following were the methods of
teaching.
1. Verbal Education-the art of writing had been well developed up to
the Buddh ist period. But due to the shortage and non availability of
writing material verbal education was prevalent. The teachers used to
give lessons to the student who learnt them by heart. The teachers used to
put questions on learning the lesson by heart.
2. Discussion- discussion is one of the methods of teaching in
Budd hist period because it impressed the general public. Scholars
discussed the important questions. Discussion continued till cleared every
kind of doubts.
3. Evidances-to established the disputes point the following evidences of
eight kinds were required theory, cause, example, parallelism,
contradiction, evidence, argument and induction.
4. Prominance-the important of discussion encouraged the logic in the
Buddhist period. The controversial matters could not be decided without
logical arguments.
5. Tours- the main aim of the Budd hist monks was to propagate
Budd hism. Hence some Acharyas like Rahul and Sariputta gave the
importance to tours for educating people. After completion of the
education the student were encouraged to undertake long tours to gain
the real and practical knowledge.
6. Conferences- conferences were arranged full moon and first day
of the month in Buddhist sangh. The monks of different sangh assembled
and put forward their doubt s freely. The attendance of every monk was
compulsory in such conferences. An annual conference was arranged in
which a well-renowned monk would challenge the whole sangh to
disprove his purity.
7. Meditation- some Buddhist monks are more interested in isolated
spiritual meditation in lonely forests and caves. Only those monks were
considered fit for lonely meditation who had fully renowned the worldly
attraction and had spent enough time in the Sang hs has gained the
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32 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-
1. Ident ify the different methods of teaching in Buddhist Education.
4.5 MERITS OF BUDDHIST EDU CATION
1. Well organized centers- Buddhist education was imparted in well
organized centers, monasteries and V ihara which were fit places
for the purpose.
2. Cosmopolitan-Buddhist education was free from communal
narrowness.
3. Simple and austere-Bhikshus led a life of austerity and simplicity.
4. Total development- Buddhist education laid much emphasis on the
physical mental and spiritual development of the students.
5. Disciplined Life- both the teachers and students led disciplined life.
6. Ideal student teacher relationship.
7. Inte rational importance- Buddhist education helped to gain
international importance it also developed cultural exchange between
India and other countries of the world.
4.6 DEMERITS OF BUDDH IST EDUCATION
1. Buddhist education could not give the proper attention to the
occupational, industrial and technical education.
2. It gave severe blow to the social development because it derided family
ties. Leaving their family life Buddha Bhikshus devoted their whole
lives to sangh and Buddhism.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-
1. Explain the merits of Buddhist Education.
4.7 LETS SUM UP
Budd hist education aimed at purity of character. Vihars or monasteries
are the centers of education in Buddhist education; monks are
receiving the education in a viharas.Cordial relationship between the
teacher and the students. The total period of education was 22 years,
12years as Pabbajja and 10 years Upasampada. The teacher
responsible for food, clothing and residence and also moral and religious
education.Aq uisition of knowledge through lecture and question answer
as well as different types of teaching methods like discussion, tours
,conferences, meditations evidences and prominence etc.

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33 4.8 UNIT END QUESTIONS-
1. what has been the special features of Buddhist system of
education? Explain.
4.9 SUGGESTED READINGS-
 Damal B.D. and Dash B.N, (2005) “Education in Modern
Indian”, Kalyani Publisher, New Delhi.
 Ghosh, S.C, (2007) “History of Education in India”, Rawat
Publications.
 Nurullah and Naik (1951) “A History of Education in India”,
Macmillan, Bombay.
 P.L. Rawat, (1995) “History of Indian Education”, Ram Prasad
and sons, Agra.
 N.jayapalan(2005) “History of Education in India”, Atlantic
Publishers &Distributers,New Delhi.


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34 5
BUD DHIST AND BRAHMANICAL
EDU CATION
Unit Structure
5.1 Learning Objectives
5.2 Introduction
5.3 Development of Brahmanic Education
5.4 Principles of Brahmanic Education
5.5 characteristics of Brahmanic Education
5.6 A comparison between the Brahmanic and the Buddhist
educational system
5.7 Women Education in Buddhist period.
5.8 Educational Centers in Buddhist period
5.9 Lets Sum Up
5.10 Unit End Questions
5.11 Sugg ested Readings
5.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
 Explain the development of Brahmanic education.
 Explain the principle and characteristics of Brahmanic
education.
 Ident ify the similarities and dissimilarities of Brahmanic and
Buddhist education.
 Discuss the female education during Buddhist Period.
 Describe the various educational centers in Budd hist Period.
5.2. INTRODUC TION-
Many people may know about Buddhism, but few seem to unde rstand its
connections with Vedic culture and how many aspects of it have
origins in the Vedic philosophy
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35 5.3. DEV ELOPMENT OF BRAHMANIC EDU CATION-
At the end of the Brahmans are certain treatises as “Aranyakas” or forest
books, which form a transition to the “Upnishadas”.these are treatises
wholly given to philosophical speculation and represent the last stage of
the Brahmans literature. The higher philosophical knowledge, which
they set forth, came to be recognized as the “Vedanta” and crown of
vedic literature. The leading ideas of this philosophical speculation are
that the Vedic literature. World has been evolved from the ‘Atman’, or
universal soul, and that this is also the self within us.
From the ‘Upnishadas’ we get many more sidelights on the ancient
Brahmanic education. These treatises profess to give a kind of higher
enlightment, and refer to pupils as having studied all the ‘Vedas’ and
sacrificial ritual and yet without the knowledge of the answers to the
deeper philosophical speculation, which troubled earnest seekers after
truth.
In the early Vedic school it seems that instruction was confined to
young Brahmins and was regarded mainly as a preparation for their
vocation as priests, but before 500b. c. the education of young, kshatriyas
and vaishyas had also come under Brahmanic control. It also became the
exclusive privilege of Brahmans to give instruction to them useful for
their future life and this mark the growing influence of the priesthood.
The ceremony of initiation and investiture with the sacred thread
came to be regarded for the Aryan as the preliminary to school life. The
three castes which has this privilege, namely, brahmanas, kshatriyas and
vaishyas were called ‘dvija’ or’ twice-born’, because the ceremony of
initiation was looked upon as a second birth.
Brahmanic education was not only of long standing, but was highly
organized, and the literature of the later period shows elaborate rules
formed for its regulation. This literature is known as the “sutras” the
sacred books which had to be mastered by the student has increased to
a huge bulk, and it was necessary to condense their teaching into
some convenient form. “Sutras” or threads consist of pithy phrases, in
which brevity had been carried out to such an extent that it was difficult
to understand the “sutra” without commentary. The rules which applied to
education are contained in the “dharma sutras”. Dharma is one of the
important terms in the whole Sanskrit literature. It includes the sacred
ideas about duty, justice, religion and morality. The dharma sutras
contain regulation relating to social life and many rules dealing with the
duties of teachers and student s.
Brahmanic education has continued from very early time’s right down the
present day, and throughout that long period, though there was some
change and development its salient features have remained the
same.buddhism had little influence in changing the educational system.
Although Akbar and others patronized it, yet orthodox Muslim
sovereigns destroyed Brahmanic places of learning, Brahmanic learning
continued. Thus B rahmanic education continued in spite of difficulties. munotes.in

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History of Education
36
Brahmanic schools of Sa nskrit learning indeed scattered all over the land
in numerous towns and villages. These schools were known as “tols”
(Sanskrit school).sometimes in a town of special sanctily.or even of
political importance numbers of these “tols” were established side by side
and constituted a kind of university.
In ancient times probably most Brahmans passed through the period of
studentship, but they did not necessarily all become teachers and
according to Manu-a-law-giver –certain other occupations are admitted
as allowable for a Brahman. With regard to kshatriyas and vaishyas, who
were also eligible for studentship, it was impossible to say many of them
unde rtook the responsibilities of this position. They must have preferred
vocational school to Brahmanic Sanskrit schools.
Not only did the Brahman educators developed a system of education
which survived the crumbling of empires and the changes of
society, but they also through all these thousands of years, kept aglow
the to rch of higher learning and numbered among st them many
thinkers who have left their mark not only on learning of india, but upon
the intellectual life of the world.
5.4. PRINCIPLES OF BRAHMANIC EDU CATION -
1. B rahmanic education was very particular about the age of starting
education it started after the Upanayan sanskar.
2. The student lived with the Acharyas in the Gurukul.
3. Brahmanic education stress on the formation of character of the
student.
4. The education in Brahmanic period was based on psychological
principles.
5. Brahmanic education was not only theoretical but also gave the
practical knowledge to face the struggles of life and became
successful in the future career.
5.5. CHIEF C HARACTERISTICS OF BRAHMANICAL
EDUCATION SYSTEM
1. Religious elements.
2. Character building
3. Personality development
4. Self-control and Self-Reliance
5. All round development munotes.in

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37 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Write the Principles of Brahmanic education.
2. Ident ify the characteristics of Brahmanic education.
5.6 A C OMPARISON BETWEEN THE BRAHMANIC
AND THE BUDDHIST EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM
SIMILARITIES:
There are various similarities and dissimilarities between the Brahmanic
and the Buddhist educational systems. The following has been the
similarities between the two:
SIMILARITIES:
1. The aims of education of the both systems have been same, i.e.,
the salvation of the soul.
2. In both the periods’ education was imparted in a natural environment
away from the noise and the din of the city or village life.
3. The Brahmacharis (Students) of the Brahmanic periods and the
Bhikshuks (monks) of the Buddhist period i.e., the students of the
two periods were required to lead a hard and disciplined life of
similar nature.
4. The students of both periods used to go out daily for begging alms.
5. In both the periods the students were required to observe non
violence.
6. The students of both periods were to follow similar rules of conduct.
DISSIMILARITIES:
1. Education during the Brahmanic period was individualistic in the
sense that the Brahmachari (Student) received education by living
as a member of the Guru’s (Teacher’s) family. Education in the
Buddh ist period was given in monasteries. Hence its form was
collective.
2. Ed ucation given in a Buddhist monastery was better organized, whereas
education given in the Gurukul was not organized at all, as it was
more dependent on the whim of the moment as the Guru thought
appropriate.
3. In the Brahma nic pe riod, the method of teaching was discussion,
debates, conferences and Sabhas and a lso the individual system of
education but in the Buddhist system no individual system of
education. munotes.in

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History of Education
38 4. During the B rahmanic period the student coming from rich
families but in the Buddhist period everyone has the right to
education.
5. During the Brahmanic period the Medium of teaching basically in
Sanskrit but in the Buddhist education was the common language of
the peop le.
6. In B rahmanic period the students were taught Vyakaran,nyaya
shastra,smriti,and Jyotish And in Buddhist period the students were
taught dhammasastra Sutta, Vinaya and Dhamma Pitak as well
as Ayurveda, philosophy and military training.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Compare the Brahmanic and Buddhist system of education.
5.7 WOMEN EDU CATION IN BUDDHIST PERIOD
Budd hist nunne ries went out of vogue from about the 4th century
A.D.; so at the time when Buddhist monasteries had developed into
colleges of international reputation, women did not receive any
education because of their early marriages. In the early history of
Buddhism, however the pe rmission was given to women to enter the order
and gave a fairly good impetus to female education, especially in
aristocratic and commercial sections of society. Large number of ladies
from these circles joined the order and became life-long students of
religion and philosophy. Their example must have given an indirect
encouragement to the spread of education among lay women as well.
Besides this, the rules of admission of women in Sangh were hard
enough. Two years of probation was fixed for women-monks for their
permanent membership. The assent of the whole Sangh was also
considered essential. Moreover, they had to live separately, and they were
instructed by a special monk twice in a month. They could not live lonely
with the teacher too. Buddhist Sangh had given attention to the cultural
development and social uplift of the women. Mostly women entered the
Sangh out of keen interest and deep religious feelings. Some had also
joined it to get rid of the troubles of the wordly affairs. As the
Bhikshunis did not like to maintain inferior position, so they naturally
were more interested in the studies leading pious life. Though, Buddh ist
literature does not speak much of the system of the education of
Bhikshunis, yet there are some references of new comer
Bhikshunis and taking charge of their education. It makes clear that
there must have been some arrangement for their education. There were
Bhikshunis whose spiritual knowledge was very high and they could
influence a good number of people. There is a story of a Bhikshuni
named “Sumka” whose lectures influenced the audience very much.
Many Bh ikshunis took the duties of social services also. They serve
the sick, orphans, etc., and considered it to be their prime duty. Some of munotes.in

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39 them had studied the philosophy deeply and had become poete ss and
writers. Some of them had even gone to foreign countries to preach
Buddh ism. Sheelbhattarika, Prabhu devi and Viyanka were famous in
those days as poets and writers. The sister of the Emperor Asoka
Sanghamitra was very famous Bhikshunis, who had done remarkable
services of Budd hism. Some of them had studied even politics and took
active part in politics of the day.
(i) Takshshila
‘Takshshila’ was the most important educational centre of Ancient
India, with widespread reputat ion in India and in foreign countries. It
attracted hundreds of scholars from various countries of the world. They
came there to quench the thirst of their knowledge. Being situated at the
distance of twenty miles in the west of Rawalpindi, ‘Takshshila’ was the
capital of Gandhara Kingdom.
According to Valmiki Ramayana, Prince Bharat had founded this city and
appointed his son Taksha as the ruler of the territory. The city was named
after him.Due to geographical situation and prosperity, Takshshila had to
suffer the disasters of foreign invasions. It saw many ups and downs.
As a result of these political changes the educational atmosphere of the
‘Gurukul’ was also influenced, resulting in changes in the system. This
place was conquered by Persians in the 6th century B.C., IN 2nd
century B.C. by Greeks, in 1st century B.C. by ‘Sakas’, in 1st century
A.D. by Kushans and in 5th century A.D. by Huns. The ruins of the
city prove that it was destroyed and rebuilt many a times.
Nevertheless, the invaders maintained their capital in this very city
and also preserved its prosperity. Thus, the educational elements of the
place were influenced by the contact of different cultures. Takshshila was
also not an organized university. It may be called an educational centre
of different special subjects where special and higher studies were
carried on.Students were admitted according to the decision of the
teacher. The students were taught the subjects of their own choice.
They completed their education according to their sweet will. There
was no examination system prevalent. No degree or diploma was
awarded to the students who completed their education.
Only higher studies were conducted in Takshshila and so the students of
more than sixteen years of age were admitted in the University. Perhaps
the fees were also realized in the beginning. This fee was about 1,000
coins current at that time. Those students, who were not able to pay
fees, had to pay it in the form of manual labour. Sometimes, the
students were allowed to pay the fees even after finishing their
education. Those student s, who were unable to pay fees in any form, were
educated out of charity. Some meritorious students without proper
resources were awarded the government scholarships. In Takshshila
poor and the rich all kinds of students were given opportunity to study. munotes.in

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History of Education
40 Normally the studen ts in Takshshila resided with their teachers in
boarding houses, but some lived outside too.
Curriculum: As Takshshila was the centre of higher education so its
education system may be divided into two categories – Literary or
General and Scientific or Industrial education. In Literary or Arts
departments, all the religious literatures were included. Besides
Atharva Veda other three Vedas, Rig Veda, Yajur Veda and Sam Veda
were the foundation-stone of the education. Learning of Veda s, Vyakaran,
Philosophy, Literature, Jyotish etc., the Brahmanical literature, the
Buddhist literature were also taught in this centre.
In regard to Scientific or Industrial education, 18 handicrafts and
technical subjects like Greek architecture and a rts were taught. The
18 arts were – Ayurveda, surgery, archery, warfare, Jyotish, prophesy,
book -keeping, trade and commerce, agriculture, chariot-driving,
mesmerism, snake-charming, hidden treasure investigation, music,
dancing and painting. Practical experiments were also conducted in
scientific and industrial education. The students had to prove their
practical ability and efficiency. Some evidences are found to prove that
some of the students, as university scholars (graduates) gave public
demonstration of their skill going from one place to the other.
In the University of Takshshila there was no difference between the rich
and the poor. Those who paid it in form of manual labour were
treated equally. All of them led a simple life. There was no difference in
standard of living of the students.
In Takshshila Greek langua ge was also taught. The students were also
taught in the art of Greek warfare. The medical course in the University
was completed in seven years. Jeevaka could become complete medical
graduate only after completing the seven years course of the Takshshila
University. This place remained the centre of learning up to 465 A.D.
According to K.S. Vakil: “it was a seat of Hindu and Budd hist
culture, where hundreds of teachers and students flocked from different
parts of India and outlying countries of Asia long before the b eginning of
Christian era.”
(ii) Kashi
The modern name of the city in Varanasi. Formerly it was called
Banaras. Kashi, Bana ras and Varanasi are the names of the same city
situated on the banks of Ganga. In the Vedic period, Aryan culture was
limited up to the western parts of India. In the old Vedic literature,
there is no mention of Kashi. It shows that up to that period it had not
gained its prominence as city as ‘Tirth’ and a centre of learning. In the
later Vedic period, i.e., (Upanishad period) it began to gain
prominence as a centre of Aryan culture and learning. The king of
Kashi named Ajatasatru was renowned for his learning of Upanishads.
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41 kings had sent their princes to Kashi for higher learning. Besides this,
evidence shows that many Acharyas of Kashi were the scholars of
Takshshila.
In the 7th century B.C. Kashi became the most famous centre of
learning in Northern India. The students began to flock here too, for
higher studies of various branches of knowledge like Takshshila. Here
too all the 18 crafts were taught. This was besides the Vedic studies.
Together with learning, Kashi became the centre of Hindu religion also.
Probably this was the reason, which Lord Buddha decided to start
preaching from near about Kashi. He actually started his preachings from
Sarnath, which is situated at a distance of 5 miles from Kashi. Gradually,
in the reign of Asoka, Sarnath became the famous seat of Buddhism. It
went on prospering till the 7th century A.D.
(iii) Nalanda
In the state of Bihar at a distance of 7 miles in the north of Rajgarh and in
south-east of Patna at a distance of 43 m iles, is situated Nalanda, where
ruins are still displaying its ancient glory.
In the beginning it was a small village, which later on flourished as
the centre of Buddhist religion and learning. It is said that Lord Buddha
had delivered many lectures while staying in Pravarik forest of Nalanda.
His prominent disciple Sariputra was born in Nalanda. In Nalanda
the Vihara was established by Emperor Asoka. He had built a
“Sangharam” (residents of Budd hist nuns) but as a university it did
not flourish before the 3rd century A.D. Nagarjuna came to study here
about 300 or 330 A.D. from far south. But as the period of Nagarjuna and
Ayurveda could not decided on reliable evidences, therefore the history of
Nalanda as a centre of learning begins from 450 A.D.
Fahian visited the p lace in 410 A.D. but Dr. Mukerji says that he had seen
some other village named Nal, which in ‘Sudarsan Jatak’ is named as
Nalak or Nal village, and thus he could not visit the actual centre of
Nalanda. Some scholars think at that time it might have been the centre
of Brahma nical learning instead of Budd hist. Whatsoever case might
be, but the gory of this centre was beyond doubts in and after 5th entury
A.D. At the time of the Chinese pilgrim Yuan Chwang (629-645), it
was the most important seat of learning.
(iv) Vala bhi
Valabhi situated on the eastern side of Kathiawar. This centre also
flourished about the same period when Nalanda was in its glory. Valabhi
was a parallel centre of the Hinayana School of
Budd hism as Nalanda was the centre of Mahayana School. It was a
capital of an important kingdom and side by side a part of an international
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42 In the middle of 7th century, Sthirmati and Gunmati, the eminent scholars
of Buddhism, were in this centre. This centre was famous not only as a
centre of Buddhist culture and learning but also for the religious
tolerance and mental freedom. The graduates of Valabhi were appointed
in high government services.
(v) Vikramshila-
This place was situated in Magadha on the banks of the Gangas not
very far away Nalanda. It is said to have included a hundred and seven
temples and six colleges. It was founded by king Dhammapal at the
close of the eight century and continued until it was destroyed about the
same time as Nalanda.
A learned and pious sage was always appointed as head of the monastery.
The subjects taught were similar to those taught at Nalanda, including
grammar, metaphysics and logic and ritualistic books.
Pund its who where eminent in learning were rewarded by having their
images painted on walls of the university, and the title of PANDIT was
conferred on distinguished scholars by king himself. Six of the most
learned of the sages of this foundation were appointed to guard the
gates, gatekeepers to examine the fitness of applicants seeking admission
to the university.
(vi) Odabtapuri and Jagaddala-
were other Buddhist centers of learning in India, but little is known about
them and their sites have not been identified with certainty. The former
was founded by a certain king Gopala, who was king of Bebgal and
extended his power westwards over Magadha or South Bihar. It dates
from about the middle of the eighth century A.D.
Hiuen Tsiang mentions several other Buddhist centers (monasteries),
where he stayed during his travels in India, in which teaching was given
and in some of which he himself spent much time in study.
(vii) Kanchi-(2nd century B.C. to 13th century).
Kanchi University was famous in south India, and its main activity was to
spread Buddhist and Jainism in the southern parts of India. The
commercial community was of a great help for spreading Buddhism and
Jainism. Among the subjects taught in the university engineering,
sculpture and architecture were prominent subjects. The proof of
this could be found in the huge splendid temple carved in big stones.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Write short notes on
A) Women Education in Buddhist period.
B) Any two Educational centers in Buddhist period. munotes.in

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Buddhist and Brahmanical
Education

43 5.9 LETS SUM UP
In Brahmanic periods the main aim of education was all round
development of human life. Education was started after the Upanayan
sanskar. The student and teacher relationship was ideal in nature. The
student had to study in the Gurukuls for about 12 years. In the curriculum
all useful subjects were included like Vyakaran Nyayashastra
etc.Buddhism threw its colleges open to all, irrespective of any
consideration of caste or country. The rise of organized public
educational institutions may be justified attributed to its influence. It
raised the international status of India by efficiency of its higher
education, which attracted students from distant countries like Korea,
China, Tibet and Java. The cultural sympathy which the countries in
eastern Asia feel for In dia even today is entirely due to the work of the
famous Buddhist colleges of ancient India. Bu ddhist education also
helped the development of Hindu logic and philosophy by initiating
and encouraging comparative study.
5.10 UNIT END QUES TIONS
1. Discuss the similarities and dissimilarities between Brahmanic and
Buddhist system of education.
2. Explain the different educational centers in Budd hist period.
5.11 SUGGESTED READING.
 Damal B.D. and Dash B.N, (2005) “Education in Modern
Indian”, Kalyani Publisher, New Delhi.
 Ghosh, S.C, (2007) “History of Education in India”, Rawat
Publications.
 Nurullah and Naik (1951) “A History of Education in India”,
Macmillan, Bombay.
 P.L. Rawat, (1995) “History of Indian Education”, Ram Prasad
and sons, Agra.
 N.jayapalan(2005) “History of Education in India”, Atlantic
Publishers &Distributers,New Delhi.
 Mukherjee,R.K.,Ancient Indian Educational Brahmanical and
Buddhist ,Delhi Banarassidas 1960(ED)
 Mukherjee,S.N. “History of Education in India” (modern period),
Baroda,Acharya Book Depot,1967
 Chaube s.p. (2008) “History and Problems of Indian Education”
Agarwal Publication,Agra.
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44 6
ISLAMIC EDUCATION

Unit Structure
6.1 Learning Objectives
6.2 Introduction
6.3 Need of Islamic Education in modern education system
6.4 The concept of Education in Islam
6.5 State Patronage and Growth of Education in Muslim Period
6.6 Important Educatio nal Centers
6.7.Primary E ducation Maktab
6.8.Secondary E ducation Madrasah
6.9 Education of Women
6.8 Teacher – Pupil Relationship
6.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
 After the unit the students will be able to
 Explain the Need of Islamic Education in Modern Educati on System
 State the Concept of Education in Islam
 Analyze State Patronage and Growth of Education in Muslim Period
 State the Importance of Education in Muslim Period
 Describe the Important Educational Centers
 Analyze Primary Education and Maktab
 Analyze Secondary Education and Madrasah
 Discuss Education of Women
 Explain Teacher – Pupil Relationship
6.2 INTRODUCTION
"Educate your children; they must live in a time different from yours."
Society has viewed education as an important part of life for many
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Islamic Education
45 through the eighth grade level, they would be fine living their life and
raising a family.
According to the definition of Thomas Moore “Education is an education,
the art of educating or bringin g out what is latent in a person. In its early
forms, the word was used of basic physical nurturing, bringing out the
undeveloped powers of the physical body, and could even be applied to
animals. In its deepest form, education is the art of enticing the s oul to
emerge from its cocoon, from its coil of potentiality and its cave of hiding.
Education is not the piling on of learning, information, data, facts, skills,
or abilities – that’s training or instructing – but is rather making visible
what is hidden a s a seed.” The purpose of education is to gain the
knowledge and skills necessary to make informed and reasonable
decisions. Any other consequences should be treated as merely incidental.
Islam gives importance to education, which is the process of teachin g and
acquiring or learning knowledge (which includes beliefs, values, attitudes,
manners and skills). Education in Islam plays important role in developing
every individual to be successful in realizing the very purpose of man's
creation.
Islam attaches s uch great importance to knowledge and education. When
the Qur'an began to be revealed, the first word of its first verse was 'Iqra'
that is, read. Education is thus the starting point of every human activity.
A scholar (alim) is accorded great respect in t he hadith. According to a
hadith the ink of the pen of a scholar is more precious than the blood of a
martyr, because a scholar builds individuals and nations along positive
lines. In this way he bestows a real life to the world. On the one hand
Islam plac es great emphasis on learning, on the other, all those factors
which are necessary to make progress in learning have provided by God.
One of these special factors is the freedom of research.
6.3 NEED OF ISLAMIC EDUCATION IN MODERN
EDUCATION SYSTEM
Islam g ives us complete manifesto of spending our lives. This is not only
spiritual and ethical values we learn from Islam, but it also teaches the
right ways of managing family issues, doing business, implementing laws
and even running the governments with takin g active part in international
political atmosphere. If we analyze the problems of so -called civilized
nations in today’s world we will find them searching peace of mind and
any good system which could control there day by day collapsing family
life and so cial values. This is only Islam which has the complete solution
of human mental, physical and social needs. These facts prove that
modern education systems and the involved learning material are not
fulfilling the demands of mankind today, and it’s an imme diate need of
deploying the correct Islamic teachings into the world of education.

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46 6.4 THE CONCEPT OF EDUCATION IN ISLAM
The meaning of education and of what it involves is of utmost importance
in the formulation of a system of education and its impleme ntation.
Supposing I am asked: What is education?, and I answer: Education is a
process of instilling something into human beings. In this answer ‘a
process of instilling’ refers to the method and the system by which what is
called ‘education’ is gradual ly imparted; ‘something’ refers to the content
of what is instilled; and ‘human beings’ refers to the recipient of both the
process and the content. Now the answer given above already
encompasses the three fundamental elements that constitute education: th e
process, the content, the recipient; but it is not yet a definition because
those elements are deliberately left vague. Furthermore, the way of
formulating the sentence meant to be developed into a definition as given
above gives the impression that what is emphasized is the process.
Supposing I reformulate the answer: Education is something
progressively instilled into man. Now here we still encompass the three
fundamental elements inherent in education, but the order of precedence
as to the important c lement that constitutes education is now the content
and not the process
6.5 STATE PATRONAGE AND GROWTH OF EDUCATION
MUSLIM PERIOD PATRONAGE
During the Muslim period education received a great patronage of state.
The Muslim rulers established many Maktab s, Madarsas, libraries etc.,
and patronised many scholars. They also granted scholarships to many
students.
Arab and Central Asian peoples brought Muslim educational models to the
subcontinent in both the medieval and early modern periods. Within
decades o f the Prophet Muhammad's death in 632 C.E., Arab mariners
began to trade, reside, and intermarry with local women in south India .
Turkic peoples and other Central Asians raided northern India around
1000 C.E. and thereafter established several foreign -conquest empires.
Muslim rulers promoted urban education by endowing libraries and
literary societies. They also founded primary schools ( maktabs ) in which
students learned reading, writing, and basic Islamic prayers, and secondary
schools ( madrasas ) to teach advanced language skills, Koranic exegesis,
prophetic traditions, Islamic law ( shari a ), and related subjects. Often
attached to mosques , Islamic schools were open to the poor but were
gender segregated, often only for boys. Muslim girls of affluent families
studied at home, if they received any education beyond learning to recite
the Koran. From the beginning of the Mughal empire in India in 1526 until
the end of Mughal political presence in 1848, Persian was the court
language, and elite boys could attend Persian schools to learn literature,
history, ethics, law, administration, and court protocol. Subjects such as
medicine, mathematics, and logic also formed an important part of the
curriculum in centers for Islamic learning. More intimate settings for the
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47 professed mystic doctrines). These new educational models did not
necessarily displace older ones, although state patronage patterns shifted.
Sanskrit academies continued to teach young male Brahma ns literature
and law; apprenticeship and commercial schools taught boys the skills
needed for business. Education for girls was the exception rather than the
rule.
MUSLIM PERIOD
India witnessed a large number of Mohammedan invasions in the
beginning of t he eighth century A. D. Mahmud of Ghazni invaded India
and established a large number of schools and libraries in his own country
by the looted wealth.
Later on when the Muslim rulers established permanent empire in India,
they introduced a new system of e ducation. Consequently the ancient
system of education was greatly changed. In fact, the education during the
Muslim period was much inferior than that of the Hindu period. No
Muslim ruler except Akbar did commendable works in the field of
education.
Let u s now briefly discuss the Different Aspects of education during the
Muslim period.
Aim
The foremost aim of education during the Muslim period was the
extension of knowledge and the propagation of Islam. During this period
education was imparted for the pro pagation of Islamic principles, laws and
social conventions. Education was based on religion and its aim was to
make persons religious minded. It further aimed as the achievement of
material prosperity.
Organisation
During the Muslim period education was o rganised in Maktabs and
Madarsas. Primary education was given in Maktabs and higher education
was given in Madarsas. In Maktabs children were made to remember the
tenets of ‘Quran’ (Koran). Reading, writing and primary arithmetic were
imparted to them. Bes ides they were given the education of Arabic script,
Persian language and script. The stories of Prophets and Muslim ‘Fakirs’
were also told to the children. Children were also imparted the knowledge
of art of writing and conversation. The system of oral e ducation was
mostly prevalent in those days. The children were sent to Madarsas after
completing the primary education. There were separate teachers for
different subjects. Special emphasis was given to the education of Islam.
Religious and secular subject s also taught in Madarsas. The religious
education included the study of Quran, Mohammed and his conventions,
Islamic laws and Islamic history etc. The secular education included the
study of Arabic literature, grammar, history, philosophy, mathematics,
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48 6.6 IMPORTANT EDUCATIONAL CENTRES
Many cities played a prominent part in imparting higher education during
the Muslim period in India. It is desirable to discuss about a few of them
in deta il.
(i) DELHI
Early Muslim rulers made Delhi their capital. Moghul queens also did not
leave any stone unturned to add to the glory and beauty of this metropolis
of India. It was quite natural for Delhi for this reason, to become a centre
of Muslim educat ion. it was Nasiruddin, who established “Madarsa -i-
Nasiria’ in Delhi under the Chairmanship of ‘Shiraz’. Other rulers of Salve
dynasty also maintained Delhi as an important seat of Muslim education.
Allauddin Khilji established many Madarsas in Delhi and a ppointed
renowned teachers therein. These institutions had more than 40 learned
Muslim theologians and teachers of Muslim Law. During the days of
Allauddin Khilji, Delhi had become a centre of Literateurs and Arists.
During the reign of Mohammad Tuglag and his successor, FirozTughlaq
Delhi continued to enjoy the status of an important seat of Muslim
education.
During the reign of the Moghuls, Delhi not only maintained its original
status but it also improved it. It now became the most important seat of
Musl im education in Northern India.
Humayun had established institution for the study of astronomy and
Geography in Delhi.
Akbar added certain institutions to it where Arabic, Persian, Grammar,
Philosophy and astronomy were also taught. It is said that even ak bar’s
‘Aaya’ had established a big institution in Delhi in 1561, and the famous
scholar Badayuni had received education in this very institution.
Jahangir and Shahjehan also maintained the status of Delhi and
contributed to its importance in whatever way t hey could.
Aurangzeb tried to transform Delhi into a city of orthodox Muslim
education. with this point in view he established many new educational
institutions and gave financial aid to the existing ones. After him the
decline of the importance of Delhi s tarted.
(ii) AGRA
It was Sikandar Lodi who made Agra an important centre of Muslim
education. He had established many Maktabs and Madarsas in this city
where students of foreign countries also came to study. In the words of
Mr. Jaffar, “In coruse of tim e a splendid city sprang at the selected site and
took the name of Agra which played prominent part in shaping the
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Islamic Education
49 After Sikander Lodi, Babar and Humayun also established certain
Madarsas in Agra. But it was Akbar who made Agra not only a centre of
learning and education but also a seat of culture, craft and fine arts. During
his reign, Agra had become a huge university where scholars and learned
men came from far and wide. Mr. Jaffer in his book entitled Muslim
Education in India has described this situation very nicely : “Men of
learning and erudition from Arabia, Persia, and Bokhara poured into it in
ever increasing number at the prospect of receiving better patronage from
the Rulers of India, who were remarkable for their munificence…. The
result was that in course of time Agra grew into a great literary city,
containing several schools and colleges where people flocked from far and
wide for higher education.”
Near Agra there is a famous city of Fatehpur Sikri, where Akbar had built
many schools. After his death, Jahangir and Shahjehan added certain
Madarsas and education institutions to the existing ones and also gave
financial aid to them. During the reign of Aurangzeb Agra had assumed a
very important place as a seat of Islamic Education. But with the downfall
of Moghul empire, Agra also declined in its reputation.
(iii) JAUNPUR
During the reign of Turks, Afghans and Moghuls, Jaunpur also enjoyed
the state of important seat of Muslim education. It is said that Sher Shah
Suri received his education in one of the schools of the city. This seat of
education had institutions of various and varied type. Here students from
far a wide received education and acquired knowledge of history, political
science, philosophy, and warcrafts as well.
Ibrahim Sharki was the man who established many Madarsas in Jaunpur
and arrangement for their finances was made by the State. Moghul rulers
from Humayun to Shahjenhan paid due regard to this city and tried to
maintain it as a seat of learning. This city was famous for handicrafts and
fine arts as well. During the rule of Mohammad Shah 20 institutions were
established in this city. With the downfall of the Moghul empire the
importance of this city as a seat of learning also started f ading.
(iv) BIDAR
It was a city in the south under Bahmani rulers. It was a famous seat of
learning and Mohammad Gawan had established many Maktabs and a big
Madarsa over hear. In this Madarsa very learned Maulvis, had been
appointed. Attached to this Mada rsa there was a big library which housed
about 3,000 books on Islamic theology, culture, philosophy, medical
science, astronomy history, agriculture etc. There were Maktabs in the
rural as well and through them Arabic and Persian were spread. Bahmani
ruler s were very particular about spreading education. There was not a
single village under this rule, which did not have at least one institution. It
was, therefore, quite natural for Bidar to be a very important seat a Islamic
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50 The medieval period witnessed the growth of Madarsas, representing a
system of higher education suited to the genius of new settlers, the
Muslims. Not much is known of the early madarsas, Muhammed Ghori is
reported to have established several madarsas at Ajmer , to be followed by
a chain of madarsas at different places by successive rulers. Madarsas
enjoyed political patronage with lands to maintain their structure and
organisation often with individual cash or land grants to the teachers and
students as well.
6.7 PRIMARY EDUCATION
Ibn Sina wrote that children should be sent to a Maktab school from the
age of 6 and be taught primary education until they reach the age of 14.
During which time, he wrote that they should be taught the Qur'an , Islamic
metaphysics , language , literature , Islamic eth ics, and manual skills (which
could refer to a variety of practical skills)In the medieval Islamic world,
an elementary school was known as a Maktab , which dates back to a t least
the 10th century. Like Madrasah (which referred to higher education ), a
Maktab was often attached to an endowed mosque. In the 11th century, the
famous Persian Islamic philosopher and teacher Ibn Sīnā (known as
Avicenna in the West), in one of his books, wro te a chapter about the
Maktab entitled "The Role of the Teacher in the Training and Upbringing
of Children", as a guide to teachers working at Maktab schools. He wrote
that children can learn better if taught in classes instead of individual
tuition from private tutors , and he gave a number of reasons f or why this is
the case, citing the value of competition and emulat ion among pupils as
well as the usefulness of group discussions and debates . Ibn Sīnā
described the curriculum of a Maktab school in some detail, describing the
curricula for two stages of education in a Maktab school.
Maktab
Maktab (Arabic : (other transliterations include Mekteb , Mektep , Meqteb ,
Maqtab ), also called kuttab (Arabic: “school”), is an Arabic word
meaning elementary schools . Though it was primarily used for teaching
children in reading, writing, grammar and Islamic subjects (such as Qur'an
recitations), other practical and theoretical subjects were also often taught.
Until the 20th century, Maktab were the only means of mass education in
much of the Islamic world .
While in Arabic, Maktab refers to only elementary school, the word
Maktab is also used in Persian language in Afghanistan and is an
equivalent term to school , comprising both the primary and secondary
schooling.
History
In the medieval Islamic world , an elementary school was known as a
Maktab , which dates back to at least the 10th century. Like Madrasah
(which referred to higher education ), a Maktab was often attached to a
Mosque . In the 10th century, the Sunni Islamic jurist Ibn Hajar al -Haytami munotes.in

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Islamic Education
51 discussed Maktab schools. In response to a petition from a retired Shia
Islamic judge who ran a Madhab elementary school for orphans, al -
Haytami issues a fatwa outlining a structure of Maktab education that
preve nted any physical or economic exploitation of enrolled orphans.
In the 11th century, the famous Persian Islamic philosopher and teacher,
Ibn Sina (known as Avicenna in the West), in one of his books, wrote a
chapter dealing with the Maktab entitled "The Role of the Teacher in the
Training and Upbringing of Children", as a guide to teachers working at
Maktab schools. He wrote that children can learn better if taught in classes
instead of individual tuition from pr ivate tutors , and he gave a number of
reasons for why this is the case, citing the value of competition and
emulation among pupils as well as the usefulness of group discussions and
debates . Ibn Sina described the curriculum of a Maktab school in some
detail, describing the curricula for two stages of education in a Maktab
school
6.8 SECONDARY EDUCATION
Ibn Sina refers to the secondary education stage of Maktab schooling as
the period of specialization, when pupils should begin to acquire manual
skills, regardless of their social status. He writes that children after the age
of 14 should be given a choice to choose and specialize in subjects they
have an interest in, whether it was reading, manual skills, literature,
preaching, medicine , geometry , trade and commerce , craftsmanship , or
any other subject or profession they would be interested in pursuing for a
future career . He wrote that this was a transitional stage and that there
needs to be flexibility regarding the age in which pupils graduate, as the
student's emotional development and cho sen subjects need to be taken into
account.
Madrasah
Madrasah is the Arabic word for any type of educational institution ,
whether secular or religious (of any religion). Madrasah stems from
Academy in Persian these Universities in Persia were renowned academy
of learning in the city of Gundeshapur during late antiquity, the
intell ectual center of the Sassanid Empire. It offered training in medicine,
philosophy, theology and science. The faculty was versed not only in the
Zoroastrian and Persian traditions, but in Greek and Indian learning as
well. According to The Cambridge History of Iran, it was the most
important medical center of the ancient world.
Later before the Islamic invasion: The Nezamiyeh s are a group of the
medieval institutions of higher education established by Khwaja Nizam al -
Mulk A Persian, in the eleventh century in Iran. The name nizamiyyah
derives from his name. Founded at the beginning of the Seljuk empire ,
these Ash‘ari -Shafi‘i theological schools are considered to be the model of
Madrasah , or Islamic religious schools.
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52 Definition
Madrasa h literally means "a place where learning and studying are done".
The word is also present as a loanword with the same innocuous meaning
in many Arabic -influenced languages, such as: Urdu , Bengali , Hindi ,
Persian , Turkish , Azeri , Kurdish , Indonesian , Malay and Bosnian . In the
Arabic language, the word Madrasah simply means the same as school
does in the English language, whether that is priv ate, public or parochial
school, as well as for any primary or secondary school whether Muslim ,
non-Muslim, or secular . Unlike the u nderstanding of the word school in
British English, the word madrasah is like the term school in American
English, in that it can refer to a university -level or post -graduate school as
well. For example, in the Ottoman Empire during the Early Modern
Period , Madrasah had lower schools and specialized schools where the
students became known as danişmend s. The Hebrew cognate Midrasha
also conn otes the meaning of a place of learning; the related term midrash
literally refers to study or learning, but has acquired mystical and religious
connotations.However, in English, the term Madr asah usually refers to the
specifically Islamic institutions.
6.9 EDUCATION OF WOMEN
Although there was Pardah system during the Muslim period yet Islam did
not oppose the education of women. These two contrary factors influence
the education of women in two ways. The girls were entitled to receive
education equal to that of the boys up to a definite age but thereafter their
education was stopped. However, the girl to higher classes used to
continue their studies at home.
Now a day is the most important th ing and developing countries like
Pakistan needs educated women for the development of country. Educated
women can teach and guide her children more efficiently which will lead
them for bett er future and being a good Muslim . Due to importance of
female education the Arabic Girls College For Islamic Studies was
founded in 1995.[[Arabic Girls College For Islamic Studies|Arabic Girls
College For Islamic Studies] is a non commercial, non political and non
sectarian organization which is providing quality education to the students
without any charges since 1995
6.10 TEACHER – PUPIL RELATIONSHIP
Due to the changing viewpoint towards the education, great ideal of
teacher – pupil relationship whic h existed in the Ancient India, had greatly
declined in the Muslim Period.
In the modern civilization nature of relationship between the teacher and
the taught does not count. But in Islamic scheme of education it holds a
very crucial position. In the pres ent world education is an industry; the
teacher is salesman and the student is buyer. Islam may not allow its
educational institutions to turn into business centers. It considers the
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53 be sincere in their attitude towards each other. The relationship between
the two is to be governed by certain Qur’anic principles.
The Qur’an has used a number of terms to draw a comprehensive and
clear picture of its scheme of life. These are of vario us categories. Certain
terms represent the nature of acts to be carried out in Islamic life, and
some other terms serve as underlying principles. ‘Adl (justice), ihsan
(excellence), jihad (utmost endeavor), and taqwa (God -consciousness) are
the most import ant underlying principles for life as suggested by the
Qur’an. These principles generally stand misinterpreted hence
misunderstood. According to general perception, ‘adl is an act to be
carried out only in the court of law, ihsan is applicable in social li fe, jihad
has a role to play in the battlefield, and taqwa is a form to be demonstrated
in mosque and devotional matters. These principles are of general and
universal nature. Their applicability transcends the limitations of time and
place. Educational pl aces are also to be governed by these principles.
Teacher -student relationship is to be established and strengthened further
on the basis of these above -mentioned principles.
The prophet was a teacher for mankind (62:2). While addressing his
followers he o nce observed: "My position among you is that of your
father". Since the Prophet is the role model for Muslims, he is to be
followed by the teacher in his teaching profession. The teacher has to
interact with his students in the way their biological fathers treat them. A
father loves his children and is always concerned about their welfare; he
wants to see them developing from all angles, physically, emotionally,
morally, and intellectually. The teacher has also to feel concerned about
how to ensure his stud ents’ growth, mentally as well as morally.
One of the attributes of the Prophet as mentioned in the Qur’an is
gentleness. Ayah 3:159 reads: " And it was by Allah’s grace that you deal
gently with your followers: if you had been severe and harsh hearted, th ey
would indeed have broken away from you ". It is clear from this Ayah that
the secret of the Prophet’s success, among other things, was his gentle and
kind approach to his disciples. A teacher who has the mission of imparting
knowledge to his students has to act in the same manner so as to ensure
success in his task.
The Qur’an condemns Jewish scholars and priests for their dubious
character in these words: " Do you bid other people to be pious, the while
you forget your own selves ---and yet you recite the divine writ? Will you
not, then, use your reason ?" (2:44). A Muslim teacher’s conducted,
whether in public or in privacy, should correspond to his assertions. If the
teacher’s person does not reflect Islamic character, students may not be
expected to be si ncere to him in learning from him. This disturbance of
relationship between the teacher and the taught may disturb the whole
process of education, causing students to feel confused.

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54 6.11 UNIT END EXERCISE
1. Explain the need of Islamic Education in modern e ducation system
2. State the concept of Education in Islam
3. Analyse State patronage and growth of education this period
4. State the importance of Education in Muslim period
5. Describe the Important educational centres
6. Elaborate Primary education and Maktab
7. Describe Secondary education and Madrasah
8. Discuss Education of Women
9. Explain Teacher – Pupil Relationship
References
 www.scribd.com/.../ Muslim -Education -System -Past-and-Present
 www.jamiatulama.org/images/Makatib_Final.pdf
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madrasah

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55 7

ANGLICIZATION OF EDUCATION
(1836 -1855)
Unit Structure
7.0 Learning Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Exponents of Oriental Education and the Anglicists
7.3 Macaulay’s Minutes and its Effect
7.4 Female Education
7.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After going throu gh this unit, you will be able to:
 Identify the significance of the Charter Act of 1813.
 Know the exponents of Oriental Education and the Anglicists
 Explain the controversies between Anglicists and Orientalists.
 Understand Macaulay’s Minutes and its Eff ect.
 Discuss the female education during British Period.
 Describe the various recommendations of Wood’s Despatch of 1854.
 State the merits and weaknesses of the Despatch and its impact on Indian education system
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Although, before 1813, Missionaries and various religious groups had brought some basic education unofficially to the Indian masses but it was through the Charter Act of 1813 that a state system of education was officially introduced in the Indian history. In this unit, we are going to discuss and identify the significance of the Charter Act, the controversies between the Anglicists and Orientalists and Macaulay’s Minutes during the British period in India. We will also discuss the female education during the British period. Lastly, we will discuss the historical events leading to various recommendations of Wood’s Despatch, its merits and weaknesses and finally the impact of the Dispatch on the Indian Education System. munotes.in

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56 7.2 EXPONENTS OF ORIENTAL EDUCATION AND THE ANGLICISTS
Charter Act of 1813
In the pre -British period in India, there were four methods of education at work viz., the instruction given by the Brahmanas to their disciples; the tols, or seats of Sanskrit learning; the maktabs and madrassas for Mohamedans; and scho ols in almost every village. In the 18th century, Indian masses received religious education pertaining to Christianity through Christian missionaries. However, when the East India Company came to India they did not allow the missionaries to propagate religious education to the common people in India. They felt that, the education from the missionaries would encourage religious sentiments among the people in India that could affect the business policy and the diplomatic role of East India Company. Therefore, from 1793 to 1813 the company did not permit the missionaries to work for the Indian people. This created an agitation against the East India Company that the Company was opposed to the teachings of Christ and neglected providing education for the Indians. Interestingly, the agitation was supported by many in England and introduced an education clause which was known as Charter Act of 1813. This Act ultimately made a State system of education in India.

In this clause, Governor -General -in-Council directed that a sum of one lakh of rupees, each year shall be set apart for the revival and improvement of literature and encouragement of the learned natives of India, and for the introduction and promotion of knowledge of the science among the inhabitants of the British territories in India. For the first time official money was allotted to expand the education of the Indians. This clause of the Charter Act of 1813 compelled the East India Company to accept responsibility for the education of the Indian people. As a result, from 1813 to 1857, the company opened many schools and colleges under their control, which laid the foundation of the English system of education in India.
Divisions among the British: Orientalists vs. Anglicists
The Charter Act created a co ntroversy between the anglicists and
orientalists on the medium of instruction. In addition, the Charter Act of
1813 did not clarify the objectives of education and the methods for
improvement of literature of the learned natives in India. The Charter Act
had stressed on allotting the money only. No specific regulations were
made for establishing the schools and colleges in India. The controversy
arose mainly for the following reasons:
 Regarding the aims of education during that time, different groups of
people had different opinions. One group preferred the propagation of
oriental literature, whereas the other group stressed the need to
introduce western literature among the Indian people.
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57  There were also some forms of conflicts and controversies among
agencies to be employed for organizing the schools and colleges. One
school of thought opined that missionaries should be an agency for
educational management while another group believed that it will be
better if Indians themselves played the role for condu cting the
educational institutions. A third school of thought recommended the
establishment of the schools by the Company itself.
 Regarding the medium of instruction also there were three opinions.
The first opinion was that the Western sciences and knowl edge should
be promoted through the classical languages which would be the
medium of instruction, namely Sanskrit and Arabic. The second school
of thought was favourable towards the modern Indian language and
lastly, the third school of thought held that e ducation should be given
through the medium of English.
 Methods of education also created the controversy among the people
of India. There were two opinions regarding the methods. The first
opinion was that education always filters down from the upper cla sses
of the society to the common masses. It was known as ‘Downwards
Filtration Theory’. The other opinion preferred that the Company
should itself take the responsibility for educating the masses.
It was only in 1823, the Governor -General -in-Council appoi nted a
“General Committee of Public Instruction”, set up in Calcutta for
implementing the legislation of 1813. This had the responsibility to
grant rupees one lakh for education. That committee consisted of 10
(ten) European members. It began its work by p atronising oriental
learning, since majority of its members was Orientalists. The
committee decided to spend major portions from the grant for the
improvement of oriental literature.
Interestingly, during this time, there was a rapid change in attitude
towards the importance of English education, mainly due to the
missionaries and the political influence of the English language.
Therefore, the decision for granting the money became a problem for
the Council of East India Company. The Court of Directors of t he East
India Company asked the Government of India to take the decision
with regard to spreading of education. However, the Court of Directors
of the East India Company was in favour of English education.
This controversy went on for twelve years. Even, the General
Committee of Public Instruction was not able to decide the medium of
instruction by vote, because out of ten members, five supported
English language as the medium of instruction. These were the
Anglicists. The rest i.e. the Orientalists suppor ted oriental or classic
languages as a medium of instruction. This is the famous Anglicists
and Orientalists controversy. The Orientalists’ were not willing to
accept European knowledge and science unless it was presented to
them through the classical lang uages. The Orientalists wanted to
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58 the other group the Anglicists wanted to abolish the preservation of the
oriental education.
In 1835, these arguments were put before Lord Macaulay , who
rejected the arguments of the Orientalists through a very forceful
minute wherein he supported the education of the classes and made a
vigorous plea for spreading Western learning through the medium of
English. Lord William Bentinck also accepted Mac aulay’s
recommendations and sanctioned it officially. In 1837 English was
made the court language and a Government Resolution of 1844 threw
high posts open to Indians. These measures resulted in a rapid growth
of English education. The missionaries also es tablished a number of
English schools and colleges.
Check your Progress
1. Discuss the significance of Charter Act of 1813 of the Indian
education system?
2. What are the main reasons for the controversy of Anglicists and
Orientalists?
7.3 MACAULAY’S MINUTES A ND ITS EFFECTS
Lord Macaulay landed in India on June 10, 1834 and was immediately
appointed as president of General Committee of Public Instruction. Lord
Macaulay wrote a minute on 2nd February 1835, where he made the
decision regarding the controversy. Lo rd Macaulay stressed the
implementation of the English language as a medium of instruction
through the minute. According to him, English was the best medium of
instruction. He held the view that this would enable the emergence of a
class of people in the I ndian society, who would be well versed in English
language, Western ideology, taste and opinion. By introducing the English
language for the education of the Indian masses, Macaulay’s opinion was
that the public mind of India might expand under the Englis h system and
through the English language. It may educate the people into a capacity
for better governance. In the minute, Macaulay wrote, “We must at present
do our best to form a class who may be interpreters between us and the
millions whom we govern -a class of persons, Indian in blood and colour,
but English in tastes, in opinions, in morals and in intellects.” Thus,
Macaulay anglicized the education in India.
In his minute, Macaulay criticized the oriental learning as “a single shelf
of good European library was worth the whole native literature of India
and Arabic”. Macaulay believed that English should be introduced
because it is a language of the ruling class and higher classes of Indians
have gained the familiarity.
In fact, some people of the hi gher classes in India and the Company
appreciated the contribution of Macaulay and considered him as the
torchbearer in the path of progress. However, Lord Macaulay was not free
from some of the criticisms. Some Indians blamed Macaulay for his severe munotes.in

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59 conde mnation of oriental literature and religion. Lord William Bentinck,
the Governor –General of India, accepted Lord Macaulay’s Minutes and
passed the resolution to accept English language as a medium of
instruction for the Indian education system. Funds woul d be spent on
English education only. Schools and colleges of native learning would not
get funds.
Check your Progress
1. What did Macaulay’s Minutes state? How did Macaulay solve the
Anglicists and Orientalists controversy through his minutes?
2. Macaulay was appreciated as ‘the torch bearer in the path of progress’,
Explain within 50 words.
7.4 FEMALE EDUCATION
India under British rule started receiving some attention with respect to
education due to the Charter Act of 1813. Education in India obtained full
recognition in the famous Macaulay's Minutes of 1835. However,
education of women in India remained absent from the Indian society. The
girls during this period especially Hindu society were not given formal
education. They were given education related to h ousehold chores. The
development of women education in India is usually dated from 1849,
when the British government in India opened the Bethune school. It is
only when the "Wood's Despatch", containing Educational development
programme was passed in 1854 by the East India Company that a special
reference was made of education and employment of women and the
Government assumed direct responsibility for making women literate.
Some progress of women's education particularly at first stage of
education that is primary level, was reported only in respect of a separate
school for girls. Some women were also imparted training for appointment
as teachers in girls' schools. However, it is only from the year 1882, when
systematised educational data began to be collec ted quinquennially (a
period of five years), that the progress of women's education came to be
assessed.
From 1882 -1947, the progress of girls’ education was reported to be slow
but steady, confined as it was to the affluent sections of the society or
those families, which were in the favour of foreign rulers. Nevertheless,
starting from no education at the advent of British rule that is zero per cent
of the total enrolment of educational institutions under formal system, the
enrolment of women increased t o nearly 25 per cent of the total enrolment
by the end of the British regime (1947) and this, is in no way a mean
achievement. Due credit should be given to the foreign rulers at least for
initiating the process of educational development of women as a par t of
the formal system of education in India.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Explain the efforts made by the British with regard to female
education in India?
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60 8
INDIAN EDUCATION AND
EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS
Unit Structure :
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Indian Education Commission Recommendations regarding
primary, secondary and University Education.
8.3 The University Commission (1902)
8.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will be able to
 State the main recommendations of Indian Education Commission for
the development of Primary, Secondary and University education.
 Enumerate the major recommendations of University Commission to
reoraganise and s trengthen the education system.
 Examine critically the findings observations and recommendations of
Hartog Committee.
 Understand the meaning and causes of Filtration theory.
8.1 INTRODUCTION
During East India Company period there was a great demand for English
education because it was attached with employment given by East India
Company prior to it, British Government in England signed on charters in
1813 and reviewed in 1833. In 1813 the East India Company was
compelled to accept responsibility for the education of the Indians. The
government wanted the advice of Macaula’s on the implications of clause
43 of the Charter Act of 1813. Macaula’s presented his length minutes to
Lord Bentick in 1835. In the minute, he advocated education of the classes
in Ind ia and made a vigorous plea for spreading Western learning through
the medium of English. This minute was accepted by Bentick and it
opened a new chapter in the educational history of India.
Later the member of British parliament took cognizance of debate s,
discussions and controversies in Indian education at the time of renewal of
the charter Act of East India Company in 1853. They felt that they could
not ignore education in India. They had to examine Indian education
thoroughly. British Parliament appoi nted a special parliamentary munotes.in

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61 committee to suggest a suitable educational policy for India. The
Committee studied the progress of Indian education till 1853.
On the recommendation of the committee, the Director of East India
Company decided a policy of educ ation for India and sent a Despatch in
1854. The Despatch imposed upon the Government the task of creating a
properly articulated scheme of education from Primary school to
University. Woods Despatch ended the monopoly of Missionaries in the
field of educa tion. Considering the various suggestion of Woods
Despatch, British Government at London constituted a body named
General council of Education in India. Lord Ripon on the request of
General Council of Education in India constituted Indian Education
Commiss ion. (Hunter Commission 1882).
Various Commissions and committees were appointed consequently
(Indian University Commission 1902, Sadler Commission 1917 -19,
Hartog committee report 1929, Abbot Wood committee report, Wardha
scheme and Sergeant Report to make recommendations in education.
8.2 INDIAN EDUCATION COMMISSION 1882
RECOMMENDATIONS REGARDING PRIMARY,
SECONDARY AND UNIVERSITY EDUCATION
Immediately after coming to India as Governor General Lord Ripon
appointed the first Indian Education Commission on 3rd February, 1882.
Sir William Hunter was made its Chairman so it is popularly known as
Hunter Commission.
The constitution of the Commission
i) Chairman – Sir William Hunter.
ii) Total Members – 20
iii) Indian Members – 07
Name of the Indian members
1. Syed Mahmud
2. Anand Mohan Basu
3. P. Ranganand Mudaliar
4. Hazi Gulam
5. K. T. Telang
6. Maharaja Jitendra Mohan Tagore
7. Bhoodev Mukherje
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62 The Director of Education, Mysore Mr. B. L. Rice was appointed as the
Secretary of the Commission. The commission worked and surveyed the
problems for ten months and submitted its report in March 1883. The
report ran into sixty pages and in all contained 220 proposals.
Objectives of the Commission :
1. To assess the position of primary education and to give suggestions for
its reforms.
2. To evaluat e the work of the missionaries in the field of education.
3. To find out the Government institutions should be allowed to continue.
4. To assess the utility of the grant -in-aid system. To find out the attitude
of the Government towards the private Indian enterp rises in the field
of education. To find out if they received encouragement from the
Government.
After analyzing these objections of the commission, we can say that
government wanted to divert the attention of Indians from higher
educations and direct it towards primary education, the education of the
masses.
In short, the Commission wanted to make the following enquires :
1. Condition of primary education and methods of its expansion.
2. The position of state institutions and their importance.
3. Position of mi ssionary institutions in the general scheme of Indian
education.
4. Attitude of Government towards private enterprise.
The Commission also undertook an enquiry into system of grant -in-aid
Further the Commission gave suggestions of concerning secondary and
collegiate education.
Recommendations :
1) Primary Education :
a) Regarding the policy of the Government to be followed towards
primary education, the commission made the following
recommendations.
i) Primary education should be regarded as the instruction o f the
masses through the vernaculars in such subjects as will fit them for
their position in life, and should not necessarily be regarded as a
portion of instruction leading up to higher education of the
university.
ii) While every branch of education can jus tly claim the fostering care
of the state, it is desirable, in the present circumstances of the munotes.in

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63 country, to declare the primary education of the masses, its
provision, extension and improvement, to be that part of the
education system to which the strenuou s efforts of the state should
now be directed in a still larger measure than heretofore.
iii) Primary education be extended in backward districts, especially in
those inhabited mainly by aboriginal races by the instrumentality of
the department pending the cre ation of school boards, or by willing
to set up and maintain schools.
b) Regarding the Legislation and, Administration, the commission
recommended that the control of primary education should be
handed over to District and Municipal boards.
c) On the sub ject of encouragement of Indigenous Schools, the
commission expressed the opinion that these schools deserve
encouragement and incorporation into the official system of
education.
B) School Curriculum : The commission recommended that :
i) It should be adapte d to the environment and should be simplified
wherever possible.
ii) Practical subjects like Indian methods of arithmetic and accounts
should be introduced.
iii) School Managers should b free to choose the textbooks for their
schools.
iv) Utmost elasticity should be permitted with regard to the hours of the
day and the season of the year during which the schools are to
function.
v) Instruction should be through the mother -tongue of the children.
C) Training Institutions : The commission recommended that in order
to rai se the standard of primary education, the teachers should be
properly trained and for this purpose normal schools should be
established.
1) Finance : The commission recommended that :
i) A specific fund should be created for primary education.
ii) The accounts of the primary education fund in municipal areas
should be separated from those for the rural areas in order to avoid
the expenditure in municipal areas of money meant for the villages.
iii) The local funds should be utilized mainly for primary education and
only incidentally, if at all, for secondary and collegiate education.
iv) It should be the duty of the Government to assist the local finds by a
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64 2) Secondary Education :
i) The commission recommended that for the expansion and spr ead of
secondary education, the government, through the system of grant -
in-aid, should give the organization and administration of secondary
education into the hands of efficient and able Indians and get itself
relieved of the responsibility of running sec ondary education.
ii) The government may, however, open its schools at such places
where it is not possible for the Indian public to run such schools.
iii) At least one model high school may be opened in such districts
where they may be required in the interest o f the people and the
people themselves may not be advanced enough due to financial
problem to establish such schools for themselves state government
should provide them with a grant -in-aid.
iv) In the upper classes of high school, there should be two divisions ;
one leading to the Entrance examination of the universities, and the
other of a more practical character intended to fit youths for
commercial or non -literary pursuits. English should continue as the
medium of instruction at this stage of education.
3) Higher Education : The commission recommended that
i) While giving grant -in-aid to the colleges, the rate of aid to each
college should be determined by the strength of the staff and the
expenditure on maintenance. The efficiency of the institution and the
need s of the locality.
ii) In case of need, non -recurring or special grant may be given to the
colleges for establishing library or for other educational equipments.
iii) Varied and vast curricula should be arranged in the colleges so that
the students may offer subj ects of their choice and aptitude.
iv) Meritorious and promising students may be sent to England for
higher education on Government scholarships.
v) To raise moral standard of students, such books should be compiled
as may contain principles of religion and hum an religion at large.
vi) The number of students receiving free education should be limited.
vii) Private colleges should be authorized to charge lesser fee as
compared to Government colleges.
viii) In appointment of teachers, preference should be given to those
person s who have received their education in European universities.
Merits of Hunter Commissions Recommendation :
1. The Commission made recommendations on almost all aspects of
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65 2. It specially analysed the aspects of primary education and tries to
make it a responsibility of the State.
3. It made primary education practical and useful by including in its
curriculum subjects like agriculture, medicine, trigonometry,
arithmetic and accounts.
4. The commission showed liberal attitude towards Indians by no t
giving place of prominence to Christian Missionaries in Indian
education. Thus the propaganda of Christianity through education
was checked to some extent.
5. It rendered service to Indian society by making primary education as
the instruction of masses th rough the medium of Indian languages.
6. It did a good job in recommending primary education in such
subjects as will fit Indians for their position as life, and primary
education be not necessarily regarded as a portion of instruction
leading up to higher e ducation.
7. The recommendations made by the commission in the field of
female education, education of Muslims, adult education, and the
education of Harijans, backward classes, aboriginals and Hill tribes
proved of great value and significance.
8. The recomme ndations of the commission with regard to grant -in-aid
system went a great way in improving and regularizing the system.
Demerits of Hunter Commissions Recommendation :
1. The commission made the recommendation that in order to expand
secondary education, t he Government through the system of grant -
in-aid should give the administration and organization of secondary
education into the hands of efficient and able Indians, and get itself
relieved of the responsibility of running secondary educations. This
recomm endation was to prove a great hurdle in the development of
Indian education.
2. The recommendation that private institutions should charge less fees
than the Government institutions was not only unfair but it also
created unhealthy competition in education.
3. The commission shifted the responsibility of primary education from
the Stage to the local Bodies improperly. The lack of resources and
the lack of efficiency in these Bodies proved very harmful to the
development of education.
4. By recommending examinatio n results to be the main basis giving
grant -in-aid to primary schools, the commission greatly harmed
primary education because then it became only examination
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66 5. The recommendation of establishing separate Muslim schools for
primary education encou raged communalism.
6. The commission continued English as the medium of instruction at
the secondary level but did bit specify the medium at middle level.
This policy increased the indifference to Indian languages.
7. Its recommendations regarding vocational e ducation were very
superficial and did not have any impact.
8. Not much and worthwhile attention was given to training institutions
by the commission.
9. The commission did not give any serious thought to the curriculum
of higher education.
10. According to A. N. Basu, “Secondary education succeeded in
producing literary minded persons and failed to turn out the
practically minded workers best suited to the battle of life.”
11. Report of the Calcutta university commission asserted, “Although
their hopes upon the syste m of instruction becoming more thorough
and more scientific, they had no measures to recommend whereby it
could be made so.”
In spite of these short comings of commission’s recommendations, its role
in expanding education in India is no less significant.
8.3 THE UNIVERSITY COMMISSION (1902)
Lord Crizon pointed out that no change had been seen in university
education because they failed to follow the guidelines of London
University.
Some of the major defects noticed in the development of collegiate
educat ion in India were lopsided development of liberal education and to
the neglect of professional education in general and technical education in
particular, uneven spread of higher education among different
communities and followers of different sections, ne glect of women
education and Indian languages.
Hence it was considered worthwhile to go into various aspects of
university education n India. Lord Curzon accorded the top priority to his
programme of university reform. He appointed the Indian University
Commission with Sir Thomas Releigh as its Chairman in 1902. Indian
members were also associated with the commissions in June of the same
year. The commissions recommendations of university education have
been regarded merely ‘rehabilitation and strengthenin g the existing
system’.

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67 Purpose of the Commission:
Lord Curzon appointed the commission on 27th January 1902 “to inquire
into the conditions and prospects of the universities established in British
India, to consider and report upon any proposals which h ave been or may
be made for improving their constitution and working and to recommend
to the Governor General -in-council such measure as may tend to elevate
the standard of university teaching and to promote the advancement of
learning.
Recommendations of the Commission :
The recommendations of the Commission can briefly be put as under :
1) Teaching Universities – For teaching Universities following
recommendations were made by the commission.
i) The reorganisation of the administration of universities and t he
territorial jurisdiction of each university to be defined.
ii) A much more strict and systematic supervision of the affiliated
colleges by university, and he imposition of more exacting
conditions of affiliation.
iii) A much closer attention to the conditions under which students live
and work; provision of adequate library facilities etc.
iv) Substantial changes in curriculum, and in the methods of
examination.
v) The assumption of teaching functions by the university within
defined limits.
vi) Central Colleges under t he university where affiliated colleges
should send their students for advanced studies and their lecturers to
teach.
2) English Language – For teaching English the following suggestions
were given –
a) Matriculates found incapable to follow college lectures .
b) Evil traced down to the teaching of English at school level. It was
recommended that :
i) English should not be taught till student is able to know what is
being taught to him.
ii) Language classes be small.
iii) An Englishman should train the teachers of English .
iv) Text books at school leaving examination.
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68 3) Other Languages – For other languages, following suggestions
were given :
i) Vernaculars be encouraged upto M.A.
ii) Classical languages be studied because the rich li terature leads to
good mental training.
4) Examinations – Concerning examinations, following suggestion
were given –
i) Teaching found to be subordinate to examinations.
ii) Examination was a necessary evil.
iii) Abolition of intermediate Examination not favored.
iv) Opposed the practice of appearing privately at the examinations.
The object of this commission was not to introduce revolutionary changes
but to reorganise and strengthen the existing system.
Terms of Reference :
“To enquire into the conditions and prospec ts of the Universities
established in British India, to report upon the proposals which have been
or may be made for improving their constitution and working, and to
recommend to the Governor General such measures as may tend to elevate
the standard of Uni versity teaching and to promote the advancement of
learning.”
Extracts from the Report :
Teaching Universities : We think it suitable that undergraduate students
should be left in the main, to the colleges, but we suggest that the
Universities may justify their existence as teaching bodies by making
further and better provisions for advanced courses of study.
Stress on English : The declared object of policy which led to the
establishment of Indian universities was the expansion of Western
knowledge by mean s of English language in the higher branches of
instructions. The proper teaching of English must for this reason be
regarded as the most important matter in the curriculum of the high
schools and the universities.
Teachers whose mother tongue is not Engl ish, should be passed through a
training college where they may be tested in expression an elocation by an
Englishman before they are given certificates to teachers.
Classical Languages of the East – Need for Critical Appraisal :
With regard to teaching o f Sanskrit we have to remark that the teachers
whether European or Indian ought to have critical knowledge of the
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69 From the evidence we have, we are led to conclude that the teaching of
Arabic in the majority of Indian Colleges leaves much to be desired.
Though fewer complaints have reached us with regard to Persian, we are
not satisfied that the teaching of that language is as efficient or in as
efficient hands as it might be.
Encouragement o f Vernacular Languages of India :
Speaking generally, we fear that the study of Vernacular languages has
received insufficient attention and that many graduates have a very
inadequate knowledge of their mother tongue. We hope that the inclusion
of Vernacul ar languages in the M.A. Course will give encouragement to
their scholarly study.
Need for University Examination :
Examinations are required only in order to determine how far teaching has
been successful. A man becomes a graduate, not of a particular co llege,
but of the University and it is not possible to contemplate his being
examined for a degree by the staff of the college to which he belongs,
without the assistance of outside examiners.
General Scheme of Examination :
We think it desirable that the re should be uniformity in the nomenclature
(name or designation) of the examinations and degrees in Arts and Science
at the different universities. We, therefore, suggest that the three
examinations should be called the Matriculation Examinations, the
Intermediate Examinations and the Examinations for the degree of B.A. or
B.Sc. respectively.
Restriction of Private Solution :
We desire to express the opinion that no private student should be
admitted to the Intermediate Examinations or to the examination for the
degree of B.A. or B.Sc. unless by a special order of the time of making the
order.
Matriculation and Government Service :
It appears to us that until passing the Matriculation Examination ceases to
be a gratification for employment under Governmen t, the examination will
always be more restored to than a school find examination by those whose
object is to obtain employment.
Looking at the matter solely as it concerns the advancement of learning;
we think that it would be of great benefit to the Uni versities if the
Government would direct that a Matriculation Examinations should not be
accepted as a preliminary or full test of fitness for any post in Government
Service.
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70 Other Recommendations :
1. Instead of recognizing the Universities, the Senate and Syndicate
should be recognized.
2. The number of members of the Senate should be reduced and their
terms should be five years.
3. The number of members of Syndicate should be between nine and
fifteen.
4. There should be a proper representation of the teachers an d the
scholars of the affiliated colleges in the University Senate.
5. Affiliated colleges should strictly be supervised by the universities.
6. Universities should appoint teachers to impart higher studies.
7. Hostels should be built for students.
8. According to t he position of students, arrangement for scholarship
should take place.
9. A managing committee should be there for every college, which
besides managing the college concerned, should also appoint
competent teachers and pay attention towards the discipline o f the
students and the construction of buildings and hostels etc.
According to Nurullah and Naik, “The report of the Indian Universities
Commission submitted in 1902 does not contain any discussion of the
fundamental problems of the University organizatio n, presumably because
they were not being discussed in England.”
The recommendations of the Commission refer mainly to following five
topics :
i) The reorganisation of university Government.
ii) A much more strict and systematic supervision of the colleges by the
University, and the imposition of more exact conditions of
affiliation.
iii) A much closer attention to the conditions under which students live
and work.
iv) The assumption of teaching functions by the University within
defined limits.
v) Substantial changes in c urricula, and the methods of examinations.
The truth is that Commission, failed to make any impact on Indian
Education.
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71 9
WOOD’S DESPATCH OF 1854
Unit Structure
9. 1 Wood’s Despatch of 1854 and its Recommendations
9.2 Lets Sum Up
9.3 Unit End Exercise
9.4 References
9.1 WOOD’S DESPATCH OF 1854
Wood’s Despatch is a very important educational document and holds a
unique pl ace in the history of Indian education. It placed the responsibility
of education of the Indian people fully on the Company and stated quite
explicitly that it must never be neglected. The Despatch gave new
direction to education in India and in a way this direction has its clear
impact on today’s education in the country.
Historical Events Leading to the Despatch
It is known that the Charter of the East India Company had to be renewed
after every twenty years. In 1833 while renewing the Charter Act the
British Parliament increased the sum of money to one million per year
from the one lakh to be spent on education in India.
When the time for renewal came in 1853, education in India had come to
suffer numerous problems. The directors of the Company decided to lay
down a definite policy for education in India. Therefore, it became
necessary to make a comprehensive survey of the entire field of education.
As such, a selection committee of the British Parliament was set up in
order to institute an enquiry into the measures for their reforms. The
Committee studied the issue thoroughly and reported that the question of
the Indian education should not be ignored and its development will not be
in any case harmful to the British Empire. The Board of Directors
favour ably considered the suggestions of the Committee. Sir Charles
Wood was the president of the Board of Control. Therefore, the
declaration issued on July 19, 1854 was known as “Wood’s Despatch”.
The famous thinker John Stuart Mill, a clerk of the company at that time,
wrote the Despatch. Based on the recommendations of the Wood’s
Despatch, new educational policies were formed.
Recommendations of the Wood’s Despatch
Wood’s Despatch is a long document of 100 paragraphs and deals with the
various aspects of gr eat educational importance. The recommendations are
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72  Aims and Objectives of Educational Policy: The Despatch first
throws light on the aims and objectives of educational policy of the
Company in India. It gave highest priority to the responsibility of
Indian Education and other responsibilities of the Company. The
Despatch had the following objectives in view:
a) To impart Western knowledge and information about the western
culture to the Indians
b) To educate the natives of India s o that a class of public servants
could be created
c) To promote intellectual development and also raise the moral
character of the young generation
d) To develop practical and vocational skills of the Indians people so
that more and more articles could b e produced and also to create a
good market for consumption of those goods .

 Department of Education: The Wood’s Despatch, for the first time,
recommended the creation of a Department of Public Instruction
(D.P.I.) in each of the five provinces of Bengal, B ombay, Madras, the
Punjab and the North Western provinces. The head of the Department
would be called the Director and he was to be assisted by a number of
inspectors. The D.P.I. had to submit an annual report to the
government about the educational progre ss in his province.
 Expansion of Mass Education : - Another major recommendation of
the Despatch was expansion of mass education. It was observed that
the common people were deprived of educational opportunities and
therefore much emphasis was given on the increase of setting up
primary, middle and high schools. The Downward Filtration Theory as
proposed earlier was discarded and in its place, importance to primary
education was given. Elementary education was considered to be the
foundation of the educatio n system.
 Establishment of Universities: - The Despatch recommended the
establishment of universities in the three Presidency towns of Calcutta,
Bombay and Madras. The universities were to be modelled after the
London University. The senate comprising of a Chancellor, a Vice -
Chancellor, and fellows who were nominated by the Government. The
Universities would confer degrees to the successful candidates after
passing the examinations, (of Science or Arts Streams) conducted by
the Senate. The universities were to organize departments not only of
English but also of Arabic, Sanskrit and Persian, as well as law and
civil engineering.
 Training of Teachers: - Wood’s Despatch recommended the
establishment of teacher training schools in each of the provinces.
There s hould be training schools for teachers of engineering, medicine
and law. The qualified teachers should be given better pay scales. The
Despatch further emphasized on the provision of scholarships to the
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Wood’s Despatch of 1854

73  Professional E ducation: - Wood’s Despatch encouraged professional
education. It recommended the establishment of medical, engineering
law and other institutes of professional education. The Despatch stated
that in order to develop vocational efficiency of people and to make
people realise that the British rule was progressive. Another reason for
the encouragement of vocational education was to control the problem
of unemployment.
 Introduction of network of Graded Schools all over India: -
Wood’s Despatch recommended the establishment of a network of
graded schools all over the country. At one end were the universities
and the colleges, then the high schools followed by the middle schools
and the bottom of the middle schools and at the bottom of the network
were the prima ry schools, both government and indigenous. Both the
Anglo -vernacular and vernacular schools were to be included in the
same class. This system was recommended in order to enable an
individual to receive higher education after completing the different
levels of schools education
Demerits of the Wood’s Despatch
 The Despatch, in reality promoted Western literature and knowledge
and government offices showed preferences for persons educated in
English.
 The education planning and management schemes remained only in
black and white.
 It neglected general education. Only the privileged class received
education. Indigenous schools remained neglected. Priority was given
to people educated on Englis h pattern with regard to government
posts. M. R. Paranjpe stated that, “the authors did not aim at education
for leadership, education for the industrial regeneration of India,
education for the defence of the motherland, in short, education
required by th e people of a self - governing nation.
 Departments of Education were opened in the five provinces but they
could not promote the real interest of education
 The system of grant -in-aid did not operate in proper sense, i.e., there
was always the paucity of fun ds, the irregularity of their release and
biased attitude towards the privately managed schools.
 The Wood’s Despatch had a partial attitude towards the Christian
missionaries; Christian religious books were easily made available to
the students, in the lib raries.
 The three universities were modelled on the London University and
the Government’s policy of nominating members to the senate was
biased. Therefore higher education was not related to Indian
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74  The Despatch succeeded in only producing a cla ss of clerks and
accountants.
 Wood’s Despatch could not remove the imbalance in Indian education
system. The rich people sent their children to English medium
schools, and the government gradually stopped financial aid to the
indigenous schools and so the existence of these schools became
jeopardised. It failed to develop character initiative and leadership
among students.
Inspite of all the limitations, the Wood’s Despatch was recognized as the
Magna Carta of Indian Education. The objective of the Despatch was very
sincere but the government could not implement the various suggestions
and recommendations. The Department of Education was created in the
five provinces with a Department of Public Instruction, inspectors and
other officers. In 1857, three unive rsities were also established in Calcutta,
Bombay and Madras. The main provisions of the document were of great
historical importance. It provided a boost to secondary education and to
some extent to primary education also. It was however, observed that
some of the most important recommendations of the Despatch were not
carried out for a long time and some were given effect in a distorted form.
During the first thirty years after the Despatch, government institutions
gradually increased and besides the Chri stian Missionaries other private
enterprise were not encouraged.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1.Explain the historical Events Leading to the Wood’s Despatch.
2.What were the main objectives of Wood’s Despatch?
3.State the recommendations given by Wood’s Despatch?
4.Discuss the merits and demerits of Wood’s Despatch.
9.2 LET US SUM UP
The Charter Act of 1813 officially stated the system of Education in India.
It compelled the East India Company to accept responsibility for the
education of the Indian people by grant ing one -lakh rupees. There was a
controversy between the Anglicists and Orientalists in terms of aims of
education, agencies of education, medium of instructions and methods.
Lord Macaulay through his minutes ended the controversy by making
English languag e as a medium of instruction. Some people of the higher
classes in India and the Company appreciated the contribution of
Macaulay and considered him as the torchbearer in the path of progress.
Some Indians blamed Macaulay for his severe condemnation of ori ental
literature and religion. Lord William Bentinck, the Governor –General of
India, accepted Lord Macaulay’s Minutes and passed the resolution to
accept English language as a medium of instruction for the Indian
education system. munotes.in

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Wood’s Despatch of 1854

75 Women’s education in In dia started in 1849, when the British government
in India opened the Bethune school. However, the progress of girl’s during
1882 -1947 was slow but steady. The East India Company passed “Wood’s
Dispatch”, containing Educational development programme in 1854 . A
special reference was made of education and employment of women and
the Government assumed direct responsibility for making women literate.
A major recommendation given by Wood’s Despatch was to spread
education among the common people and to make them vocationally
efficient. Universities set up in 1857 imparted such education as to
promote Western knowledge and culture in India. Wood’s Despatch was
called the ‘Magna Carta of Indian Education’.
9.3 UNIT END EXERCISE
1. Discuss the controversy between Orienta lists and Anglicists.
2. Discuss the Macaulay’s Minutes and its effect on Indian Education
System.
3. Explain the state of female education during pre independence period.
4. Mention five main recommendations of Wood’s Despatch.
5. Discuss the impact of the Wood’s De spatch on Indian education?
9.4 REFERENCES
 Damal B.D. and Dash B.N, (2005) “Education in Modern Indian”,
Kalyani Publisher, New Delhi.
 Ghosh, S.C, (2007) “History of Education in India”, Rawat
Publications.
 Nurullah and Naik (1951) “A History of Education in I ndia”,
Macmillan, Bombay.
 P.L. Rawat, (1995) “History of Indian Education”, Ram Prasad and sons,
Agra.
 Saikia, S. (1998) “History of Education in India”, Guwahati Manik
Prakash Publications.
 Singh, Y.K. (2005) “History of Indian Education System”, PHI Pub lication

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76 10
THE HARTOG COMMITTEE
(1928 -29)
Unit Structure
10.1 The Hartog Committee (1928 -29)
10.2 The Filtration Theory of Education
10.3 To Sum Up
10.1 THE HARTOG COMMITTEE (1928 -29)
When the political movement was at its climax, the national leadership
was tryi ng hard to evolve a system of education which could suite the
needs of the country. The Government of India Act 1919 could hardly
satisfy those who were pressing the Government for more. And hence the
British Government thought of reviewing the matters by appointing
another Commission under the chairmanship of Sir John Simon. The
Simon Commission appointed an Auxillary Committee to enquire into the
various aspects of Indian Education under the chairmanship of Sir Philip
Hartog. The Hartog committee focussed its attention on primary,
secondary and higher education. Its recommendations about female
education were also remarkable.
1) Findings of Hartog Commission Regarding Primary Education :
After thorough exploration the committee found that the progress in the
field of Primary Education was far from satisfaction. The main reason was
wastage and stagnation.
According to Hartog Report, “Wastage means the premature withdrawal
of children from schools at any stage before the completion of primary
course. In thi s way wastage causes the non utilization of the means of
primary education due to withdrawal in the middle.”
By stagnation means detention in lower class of a child for a period more
than one year what was needed for that class. The main reason of
detentio n in the lower class was the percentage of failures at the
examination of the class. If a child fails once or more than once in one or
more classes, the child cannot complete primary education in the required
duration. Thus time, money and energy were wast ed on stagnation many
children leave scheme.
The factors responsible for “Wastage and Stagnation” according to Hartog
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77 a) Illiteracy and poverty of parents harmed the interest of the children
both ways. Their illiteracy do not provide the children with suitable
environment to retain their literacy after leaving the primary school.
On the other hand their poverty posed a difficulty before them in
buying books whiles their children at schools.
b) About 60% of primary schools are single teac her schools where all
the subjects are taught by one teacher. This one teacher also has no
training qualifications. The schools are not inspected regularly due to
insuffi9cienty of inspecting staff and their standard goes of
degenerating.
c) The method of te aching by the teachers employed is unscientific and
stereotyped. The schools do not have proper and enough educational
materials and equipment. The curriculum too is not very scientific
and up to date.
d) There is not much regularity observed in school – certain schools
hold sessions very irregularly and it is not proper to call them school
even.
e) The committee also found the Act governing primary education most
defective. The responsibility of compulsory primary education is left
to the local bodies which are inefficient, incompetent and money
Less organizations.
f) The distribution of schools over the Indian rural areas as well as
urban areas is also defective. There are large areas without a single
school while there are areas where there are many school indul ging
in competition for children.
g) There is utter poverty in the village due to which villagers employed
their children in the work of agriculture at a very early and tender
are, thus depriving them of the schooling.
Other problems in the way of the progre ss of primary education :
i) The majority of the Indian population lives in villages and so
primary education is more of a rural problem than as urban one. But
the committee felt that primary education can be easily organized in
town and cities while it prese nts many problems in villages.
ii) The villagers are poor, illiterate and conservative who do not
appreciate the value of education. They are unwilling to send their
children to schools. Children help their parents in the work of
agriculture and sending them to school means financial and
economic loss which they are unable to bear.
iii) Every village does not house primary school and the children have to
go to other villages to attend school. There are no good means of
transport and communication. During winter an d rainy seasons, it
becomes difficult for children to go to distant villages to read in
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78 iv) Villages do not have hygienic conditions where epidemics often
break out. On account of unhygienic condition and seasonal illness,
children are prevented from going to schools.
v) There are very serious barriers of caste, religion and communal
feelings and all these factors make the spread of primary education
hampered and complicated.
Recommendations of the Hartog Committee : To raise the deteriorating
condition of primary education, the commi ttee made the recommendations
i) The primary education should be made compulsory but there should
be no hurry about it. First of all the environment and circumstances
of the area in which the primary education is to be made com pulsory
should be studied and basis of plan should be drawn. This plan
should be properly thought upon and studied and only then the steps
should be taken.
ii) The government itself should undertake the responsibility of
inspection and control of the primary schools. The present system of
handling these schools over to local bodies cannot work with
success.
iii) In place of increasing the number of primary school, the emphasis
should be on qualitative development. In other words, a policy for
the consolidation of the primary education should be adopted and
firm steps should be taken in this direction.
iv) The duration of the primary education should be at least four years
and all efforts should be made to raise the standard of primary
education.
v) The schedule of the s chool be drawn up in accordance with the
environment and circumstances of the area in which the school
existed.
vi) The schools, in which the number of students is very small and there
is no provision for good education, should be closed.
vii) The curriculum of th e primary school should made more liberal and
scientific according to the environment and circumstances of
particular area of their existence. Attention should also be paid to
make it practical and valuable to the students in life.
viii) Special attention shoul d be paid to the lowest class in the primary
schools and efforts should be made to reduce wastage and stagnation
prevailing therein.
ix) Primary schools should made to serve as centers for rural uplift
works, medical relief, about education of male literacy, sanitation
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79 x) There should be improvement in the standard of the primary school
teachers. For this purpose, training institutes for the training of
teacher should have better equipments and more efficient staff. From
time to time refresh er courses should be organized.
xi) Salary and service conditions should improved and made more
attractive.
xii) Inspection staff should be increased in order to keep an eye on the
efficiency and working of these schools.
Education: Hartog Committee’s recommendat ions regarding the
reorganisation of primary education were significant and very well
considered. These were welcomed by the government officials but the
Indians did not appreciate and showed not much enthusiasm. They were
not particularly happy with the p olicy of consolidation. The leaders
thought that expansion of primary education was required more than
consolidation. The government accepted and implemented the
recommendations and went ahead with the policy of consolidation. As a
result, this policy had an adverse effect on the development of primary
education. In fact the idea of making primary education compulsory was
almost thrown out of the window.
2) Report Regarding Secondary Education : Hartog committee made
only a cursory study of secondary educa tion and indicated certain glaring
defects and suggested some remedies to remove them.
Defects of Secondary Education :
i) It was very much dominated by the Matriculation Examination. The
education was imparted with a view to passing the examination and
had no other purpose.
ii) The number of failure was too high resulting in the wastage of
human talent time and resources.
Recommendations : The committee made the following recommendations
to remove the defects :
i) The curriculum of Middle vernacular examination wa s too narrow
and to enable students to do anything of practical value in life. It
recommended the remodeling of the course keeping in view the rural
needs and requirements.
ii) The committee recommended the introduction of industrial and
commercial course in High Schools. The students should be
encouraged to offer these courses since they would be of great help
to them in practical life.
iii) There should be provision for alternative courses in High school
which would help the students to make their own choice acc ording
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History of Education
80 iv) Examination should be held at the completion of Middle stage of
Anglo -vernacular course. This would serve as a store and clearing
house. On the basis of the result of the examination students could
be drafted in the line of study suited to their talent and aptitude and
those who do not have any aptitude for further study could be drafted
in the line of study suited to their talent and aptitude and those who
do not have any aptitude for further study could be drafted into life.
v) There should be improvement in the quality of the training colleges
for getting highly trained and well qualified teachers. Training
colleges should employ modern methods and organize refresher
courses from time to time.
vi) The salary and service conditions of teachers should be improved so
as to attract really talented and capable teacher. Teacher should also
be given better social status.
vii) The committee found no security of service for teachers. Their
service could be terminated at a short notice. So there sho uld be
provision of security of service. Proper contracts or agreements
should be drawn at the time of appointment of teachers.
Evaluation : The Hartog committee made two vital recommendations.
One was the Introduction of industrial and commercial subject s at the
High School level, so that students could take up practical occupation and
not to run after clerical jobs. The other was the provision of the security of
service for the teachers and attractive salary for them. But unfortunately
these recommendati ons were not accepted by the government.
3) Observation of the Committee in Respect of Higher Education :
The committee found the following defects in higher education.
i) The number of Universities had gone up but their standard was
going down. The examin ation standard of Calcutta University was
becoming lower.
ii) The aim of higher education to inculcate the taste for learning and
preparing right type of person for the society was not being fulfilled
at all. The graduates on leaving the college had no intell ectual
interest, no discipline, no experience in the world of art, no training
of leadership and had no sense of responsibility.
iii) There was unhealthy competition between the Universities. This
prompted them to pay more attention to number than to improve t he
standard of education.
iv) Due to overcrowding in Colleges and Universities, there activities
had become unbalanced and atmosphere became unconducive to
produce right type of leaders. They also failed to develop corporate
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81 v) The Honour s courses were not properly organized and that this had
led to unbalanced growth of education.
vi) There was wastage in the field of Higher education. Examination
results were poor years after year.
vii) The committee regretted the low standard of English language .
Many students were unable to follow lectures. The defect did not lie
with Universities only for they had to depend upon those secondary
school which fed them.
viii) The libraries in the Universities were not well equipped and rich.
They needed much for higher education.
Recommendations of the Committee with Regards to Higher
Education :
i) Affiliating Universities should be established along with unitary
residential and teaching Universities. Countries like India could not
meet requirements of higher education t hrough unitary Universities
alone, the teachers in affiliated colleges should be appointed by the
Universities to raise the standard of Higher education.
ii) In order to enable teachers to keep themselves up to date in their
fields of knowledge Universities s hould provide and maintain well
equipped libraries.
iii) The standard of secondary education should be raised in order to
improve the standard of Universities.
iv) The Universities should concentrate on improving the standard of
teaching, learning and research wor k.
v) Honours courses should be introduced in selected Universities with
the collaboration and co -ordination of University teachers and
college teachers.
vi) Technical education should be introduced at Higher Education level.
Every university should have an Empl oyment Bureau to help
graduates in getting suitable jobs.
vii) Departmental Examinations should be held in order to recruit the
University graduates in Administrative service.
viii) An Inter -University Board, as proposed at all India Inter University
conference hel d at Shimla in 1902 should be established and regular
annual meetings of the representative should held regularly.
Evaluation :
The report on Higher Education of Hartog Committee was welcomed by
the Government and steps were taken to implement them. The s uggestion
of for establishing affiliating Universities was a good one for a country
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History of Education
82 of Inter University Board (b) The incorporation of a five new universities,
(c) The democrat ization of the older Universities by substantially
increasing the number of elected seats on senate (d) Large expansion in
the number of colleges and students (e) Opening of new faculties (f)
Provision of several new courses of studies and research. Develo pment of
inter college and inter University activities (h) Provision for military
training (i) Greater attention to be paid to physical education health and
residence of student and lastly the recruitment to I.E.S. was discontinued,
a new Provincial (class 1) service was introduced in its place.
4) Recommendations Regarding Women Education :
Hartog Committee made the following recommendations with regard to
Women education.
i) The education of girls should be given as much importance as the
education of boy s and equal amount of money should be spent on
both.
ii) In every province, experienced and educated ladies should be
appointed to draw up plan for the expansion of women education.
iii) Representation should be given to ladies in all local and educational
bodies .
iv) More primary school for girls should be established in rural areas
and wherever possible girls should be made to study in boy’s
schools.
v) Arrangements for higher education for girls should be made in
village and towns.
vi) Secondary school curriculum for g irls should be different form that
of boys Home science, Hygiene, Music etc. for girls should be
included in curriculum.
vii) Girls should be encouraged to take higher vocational and technical
courses.
viii) Women teachers should be encouraged and they should be giv en
course Teacher training.
ix) Lady inspecting staff should be appointed in greater number to
inspect girl’s school particularly.
x) Education for girls at the primary level should be made compulsory.
5. Regarding Education of Harijans :
Untouchability was a great social evil in India and Harijans were ill treated
in society, Gandhiji could not dream of Swaraj without eradicating un -
touchability completely. The government was also aware of this. Hartog
committee recommended that Harijans should be given educa tion along
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83 that Harijans should not be educated in separate school but with other
people.
6. Regarding Education for Muslims :
Till now the government was following the policy of divi de and rule.
Whenever and whatever possible, it gave preferential treatment to
Muslims. This was true with regard to education also. In spite of this
Muslims could not be brought at part with Hindu. Hartog committees
examined in detail the education of Mus lims and made the following
recommendations.
i) The Government should pay greater attention to the education of
Muslim as they were educationally back ward. They should be
educated in school and colleges meant for other people. Separate
institutions for Musl im would create segregation. So no separate
institutions for Muslim should be established.
7. Regarding Vocational Education :
The feeling of nationalism was gaining strength among Indian people.
They were demanding more and more development of industria l,
technological and vocational education is India. The government was also
emphasizing the education of Law, Medicine, Engineering, Forestry,
Commerce, Veternity Science and Agriculture. Hartog Committee
recommended the technological and occupational inst itutions should be set
op. The Universities should also make provision for technological and
industrial education.
The recommendations of the Indian Universities commission (1902) were
incorporated in the Indian Universities Act 1904 which Limited the siz e of
the senates, authorized teaching by the university, and imposed some more
close supervision on its work. The Indian universities Act led to the
improvement in college education. Special grants were offered to colleges
to improve teaching, equip librar ies and laboratories and provide hostel
accommodation to students. The syndicate was recognized statutorily. The
new Senate became move manageable. Its efficiency increased. Affiliated
colleges improved
10.2 DOWNWARDS FILTRATION THEORY IN
EDUCATION
Durin g the British rule in India, the downwards filtration theory was
adopted in the country. Filtration means coming of something to the
bottom from the top. Thus the filtration theory in education meant coming
down of education or knowledge from the top to th e bottom i.e. from the
higher class people to the lower classes or the general people.
There were many reasons for adopting this policy. Different views have
been expressed about this policy some people think that this policy was
adopted because of the na rrow -mindedness and selfish attitudes of the
English who intended to educate only a few for getting clerks for running munotes.in

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84 their administration and this group in turn would influence the general
public for accepting the British rule in the country. Infact, acc ording to
some persons the main reason for adopting this policy was the meagre
financial resources with the company for educational purposes. The
company thought that it could not provide education to entire mass. So it
decided to educate only a few. But t his ‘few’ were the people of higher
classes because they alone could catch up the opportunity for English
education.
Meaning of Filtration Theory :
Filtration theory means “Education is to be filtered to the common people.
Drop by drop, the education shou ld go to the common public so that at due
time it make take the form of a vast stream which remained watering
desert of the society for long times and high class of people should be
educated and common people gain influence from them.”
Causes of Filtration Theory :
The following were the causes which led to make the Filtration Theory the
Government policy.
1. Need Money for Mass Education. The Company Government
needed various types of workers to run the business of government.
They wanted to have cheap serv ants who may work in different
capacities. This aim could be fulfilled only by an educated higher
class of people of India. So the government started the policy of
education of higher class.
2. No Money for Mass Education. The Government did not have
enough money to take responsibility of educating the masses.
3. British Belief. British rulers concluded that if the standard of living
and ideas of the people of higher classes in society could be changed
through English education then the people of the lower clas ses will
also be influenced and they shall be loyal to the British Government.
4. Loyal Indians. If some people from higher classes in society,
educated on English lines, could be given higher posts in
Government services, then naturally they will use their influence for
controlling the masses from going against the government rule.
5. Further Expansion. After educating some people, the responsibility
of educating other people could be left to them.
Thus, Filtration theory fulfilled the aim of Lord Macaulay an d the
directors of the Company. It decided the education policy of India
supported by the higher authorities. The higher education began to
progress rapidly. The declaration of Lord Hardinge of 1844 gave
preference to people educated in English schools for the Government
service. So the main aim of education was securing Government job for
which a large number of Indians started reading in English schools. After
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The Hartog Committee (1928 -29)

85 common people. Thus, educa tion created a false vanity among the
educated persons. They became more self -centered. They started thinking
themselves higher than an ordinary Indian. They maintained very little
touch with common people. They became Anglicised to such an extent
that eve n their daily routine and behaviour became Westernised.
Sometimes it used to be worse than that of the European officers. The
higher and rich class went on progressing and common people went on
degenerating. ‘Filtration Theory’ continued to cast its shadow upto 1870
after which it faded from Indian soil.
Causes of Failure : Thus, Filtration Theory failed as a government
policy in India due to following reasons :
1. Expansion of Mass Education. The Government began to increase
the number of English schools. It was, however, unable to provide
jobs to all the educated Indians. Naturally many of them started new
schools to get themselves employed. This began to create more job
seekers.
2. Awakening. As the number of schools increased a lot, this system
only fulfille d the need of education of the common people. Educated
on Western lines some people were of wide vision and without
caring for Government services and self -interest they started schools
for educating general public. Thus, an awakening took place. People
became conscious of their real status. Later on -led by Mahatma
Gandhi they played leading roles in the National Movement and the
British rulers had to leave India.
10.3 TO SUM UP
Woods Despatch (1859) was the first Milestone of Indian education
because it h ad suggested the various ways and means for the development
of Indian education. Indian Education Commission (1832) was considered
as second milestone of Indian education. It gave its valuable suggestions
in the field of education at various stages. Almost all the aspects of
education were covered by it.
The objective of the Indian University Commission (192) was not to
introduce revolutionary changes but to reorganise and strengthen the then
existing system. If we go through the impact of Hartog committee s Report
we find that the committee came to conclusion that quality of education
should be given preference instead of expanding the number of school to
bring education to the masses. The Hartog committee focused its attention
on primary, secondary and hig her education. Its recommendation about
female education were also remarkable. The Downward Filtration Theory
resulted in a great weakness of the existing system of education wherein
good education is available to the small minority which has the capacity to
pay and the children of the masses are compelled to relieve the
substandard education. The theory helped in perpetuating the tyranny of
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86 Check your Progress
1. State and Discuss the recommendations of Indian Education
commission for the development of
a) Primary Education
b) Secondary Education
c) University Education
2. Why Indian Education Commission was important for the
development of Primary education.
3. What were the main recommendations of University Commission
(1902).
4. What is the contribu tion of Hartog Committee report regarding
a) Primary Education
b) Secondary Education
c) Women Education
d) Higher Education
5. Explain Filtration Theory of Education.
References :
1. Suresh Bhatnagar (2004). Education in India, Loyal Book Depot,
Meerut.
2. Safaya Srivastav a Singh (2007), Development of Education in
Emerging India and its current problems, Dhapat Rai Publications
Company.
3. Bharti Sharma, History of Indian Education, Vohra publishers and
Distributors, New Delhi.
4. Suresh Bhatnagar, Anamika Saxena, Sanjay Kumar D evelopment of
Educational System, R -Lall Book Depot.
5. C.P.S. Chauhan, Modern Indian Education, Policies, progress and
problems, Kanishka Publishers, Distributors, New Delhi.
6. F. L. Bhatia, B. N. Ahuja, Modern Indian Education and its problems
Surjeet Public ation.

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87 11
IMPORTANT DEVELOPMENT IN
EDUCATION DURING 1921 -1937
Unit Structure :
11.0 Objectives
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Inter University Board
11.3 Establishment of New Universities
11.4 Teachers Training
11.5 Technical Education
11.6 To Sum up
11.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you be able to :
 Explain important developments in the field of education during
1921 -37.
 List the functions of Inter -University Board.
 Know about the recommendations of various commissions and
Committee Reports toward s a) establishment of New Universities
b) Teachers Training c) Technical Education.
11.1 INTRODUCTION
The period (1921 -37) is remarkable for two events the introduction of
Government of India Acts 1919 and 1935. The first of these introdu ced
diarchy in the provinces a sort of dual government and the second ushered
in provincial Autonomy. Some subjects were under popular control and
education was one of them. In 1935 all the subjects came under the control
of provincial ministers and legisl atures. They did their best to expand
education to the utmost. The period 1921 -37 is significant in the history of
Indian education also because it witnessed a number of remarkable events.
Laws, which governed universal primary education, were passed.
Teac hing and residential universities saw the light of the day. An auxiliary
committee Simon Commission examined the defects of education in 1928.
Wood and Abbot Committee on vocational education (1936 -37) drew the
attention of the public towards the inefficie ncy of literary education. This
period was of great educational thinking in the field of primary education
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88 school education. In the field of higher education the progress was not less
unmar kable. The quantitative as well as qualitative improvement was
exceptional.
11.2 INTER -UNIVERSITY BOARD
The following institution defines nature, standards, curriculum etc of
education.
1. The Inter -University Board
2. The University Grants Commission.
3. State University grants committees.
4. National Council of Educational Research and Training.
They are mainly responsible for the co -ordination and development of
higher education.
Inter -University Board (Association of Indian Universities) :
The Inter -University Board came into existence as the result of a decision
taken at the First conference of Vice -Chancellors in Simla in May 1924.
At that time, India, Ceylon and Burma were its members. Today its
membership consists of 47 Indian Universities, Universities of C eylon and
Five Indian institutes of Technology. In addition some institutions of the
stature of a university are also its associate members. This institution has
now been renamed as the Association of Indian Universities.
Functions of Inter -University Boar d :
The prime function of this board is to bring about harmony at various
levels of higher education for this, it performs the following functions :
1. It provides the Vice -Chancellors a suitable forum for the discussion
on common problems.
2. It lays emphasis u pon the determination of standards and the
financing of rules for their implementation.
3. It provides the government as well as the U.G.C. with a valuable
source of information concerning the problems of higher education.
4. In the capacity of a representativ e it brings about to the government
and the public at large the views of Universities.
The United Kingdom Committee of Vice -Chancellors defined the
functions in the following ways. It is said that, despite, this board offers
recommendations to Universities for formulating general policies. It
acquaints the education ministries and University Grants Committees with
the U.G.C. or other institutions concerned with Universities. In addition to
these activities the I.U.B. also performs the following functions : munotes.in

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Important Development in
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89 1. Functions as a department of information for the International
University Organisation.
2. Arranging the exchange of professions
3. Providing the communication and collation in order to give a boost
to the activities of the Universities.
4. Giving recognition to t he curricular degrees and diplomas of Indian
Universities in foreign countries and vice -versa.
5. Sending representatives to the Imperial conference on higher
education.
6. Solving disputes regarding the recognition of degrees.
The Kothari Commissions view on t he I.U.B are as follows :
1. The work of the I.U.B. should be organized and its membership
should be made more effective. Every University falling within the
purview of the U.G.C. act must be made a member of the board.
2. At present the membership of this inst itution depends upon the
institution itself, i.e., it may allow a university to become a member,
or refuse membership. Similarly the universities are also free to seek
or avoid its membership seek or avoid its membership. This is the
main weakness of the I .U.B. Each university should automatically
get membership of this Board.
3. Today, it is general practice for every university to grant recognition
to the certificates of every other university. The Board should make
it a duty to ensure that the degrees, cert ificates and diplomas of
Indian universities are accepted by foreign universities. This is an
important task because many of our talented and brilliant students
face difficulties in getting admission in foreign universities because
the degree of their univ ersity is not recognized by the foreign
university, to which they are seeking admission.
4. The council also functions as a clearing house of information for the
universities. However, the Board should also set up committees for
providing guidance and advice on research, examinations etc.
It is undoubtedly true that this Board does play a significant role in
establishing harmony between the various aspects of higher education.
11.3 ESTABLISHMENT OF NEW UNIVERSITIES
In the field of higher education the progre ss was not less remarkable. The
quantitative as well as qualitative improvement was exceptional. Perhaps
it was because of the impact of the Calcutta University Commission
(1917 -19). Five new universities were created : Delhi (1922), Nagpur
(1923), Andhra (1926), and Agra (1927); Travancore (1937). The number
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90 universities were reorganized and reformed. For example, Madras
University undertook teaching and research work. Bombay University
unde rtook the charge of the school of Chemical Technology; Allahhbad
University became a teaching and residential university. The enrolment
figures rose up as a result of reform and reorganisation all the universities
had Arts and Science faculties. The medium of instructions continued to
be in English. Hostel -library and other facilities could not be expanded
due to shortage of funds.
Let us see the development in the establishment of universities from the
beginning of 20th century
The Indian universities co mmission (1902) appointed by Lord Curzon as
Viceroy resulted in the universities Act of 1904 under which it was
resolved that universities should also be teaching universities and the
stringent rules should be framed for affiliation and disaffiliation of
colleges. This led to a rapid rise in the student enrollment during the next
decade. The Government of India Resolution of Education at policy
(1913) stressed the need of separating teaching and examining functions of
the universities and emphasized the nee d for having both teaching and
examining universities. The Calcutta University was the first to set up its
own teaching departments under the leadership of sir Ashutosh Mukherji,
following the universities Act of 1904. With this development, universities
became the primary organization and colleges became secondary though
reverse was true before 1857. Students, out of a total for the whole India
of 58,000 a large number compared to the literate population (Hartog
1939). This shows that with the rapid rise in the enrollment, the quality of
education had gone down.
In the meantime, the national freedom movement had gathered momentum
and some enlightened Indians took keen interest in education.
Consequently, six new universities came into existence between 191 3and
1921. These included Banaras Hindu University (1916), Patna university
(1917) split from Calcutta University. Osmania universities (1918),
Lucknow University split from Allahabad (1920), and Aligarh Muslim
University (1920), which were established by Acts of central legislature.
These were all Central universities that time prior or this erstwhile MAO
College Aligarh and central Hindu college at Benaras were both affiliated
to the universities of Allahabad. The Osmania University of Hyderabad
uses Urdu as a medium of instruction through. English was a compulsory
subject.
With the establishment of Delhi, split from Punjab (1922) Nagpur, split
from Allahabad (1923), Andhra, split from Madras (1926), Agra split from
Allahabd (1927), and Annamalai (1929) un iversities the total number of
universities became 16 by 1930. This sudden spurt in the number of
universities was due to favourable recommendation of Calcutta university
commission (1917 -19). Most of these universities were teaching
universities. At the s ame time, during the period of Non -cooperation
movement. Gandhiji founded Gujarat Vidyapeeth, Kashi Vidyapeeth, munotes.in

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91 Tilak Maharashta Vidyapeeth. Bihar Vidyapeeth and Jamia Millia Islamia
to provide strength to the National freedom movement.
However, during 19 29-47, the official effort to develop higher education
was slow due to some political problems related to freedom struggle
breakout of the Second World War in 1939. Therefore, only 3 more
universities could be set up during this period – Kerala (1937), Utk al
(1943) and Sagar (1946). In this way the number of universities
established before independence was 19. Rajasthan University Jaipur and
Punjab University Chandigarh were set up in 1947, because Punjab
University Lahore was transferred to Pakistan during partition. Thus, the
total number of universities set up by 1947 -48 became 20 with about 500
affiliated colleges and 2.15 lakhs of students. Total number of universities
set up by 1947 -48 became 20 with about 500 affiliated colleges and 2.15
lakhs of stu dents.
11.4 TEACHERS TRAINING
The Britishers changed the educational system according to their own
system, their need and philosophy. Advanced system of education was
incorporated. The monitorial system of training the teachers and the semi -
formal system of teachers training was not recognized. The major goal in
the field of education was to educate Indian children in British system.
Britishers started formal system of teacher education Danish Mission
established a formal training centre at Serampur (West Bengal). This was
the first step in the field of training the teachers in India. After this three
more institutions one each at Madras, Bombay and Calcutta were opened
for training the teachers. These were called Normal Schools. Normal
Schools were also o pened at Poona, Surat and Calcutta. The number of
primary schools was increased. Three more training institutions were set
up at Agra, Meerut and Varanasi. IElphinston made arrangements for
training of teachers There attempts of training aimed at preparin g Indians
for lower levels. Major recommendations of Woods Despatch 1854
regarding teachers training was that the normal schools for training the
suitable persons for teachers job should be started.
Recommendations by Education policy (1904) :
As Lord Cur zon, the then viceroy of India, felt the need of training of
teacher, it was boldly stated in the Government of India Resolution on
Education Policy, “If the teaching in secondary schools is to be raised to a
higher level. If the pupils are to be cured of their tendency to rely upon
learning notes and text -book by heart, if in a word, European knowledge is
to be diffused by the methods proper to it then it is most necessary that the
teachers should themselves be trained in the art of teaching.” The
Educatio n policy further states the following about the content and
duration of the course “For the graduates, the training courses should be
one year university course, leading to university degree or diploma. The
course should be clearly directed towards imparti ng to them the
knowledge of the principles which underlines the art of teaching and some
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92 teaching should be clearly associated with its practice, and for this purpose
good prac tising school should be attached to each college.
Due to these recommendations, more training schools and colleges were
set up. Curriculum was revitalised and practicing schools were attached to
them for imparting practical skill in teaching.
Recommendat ion by Calcutta University Commission (1917 -19) :
Under the Chairmanship of Sir Michael Sadler. The Calcutta University
Commission popularly knows as Sadler commission, recommended that a
Department of Education should be set up in each university with a
Professor of Education as its Head. It also pointed out the need for
attaching to a training college a small experimental school in addition to a
large practicing school. The first was to provide opportunity for
educational experiments, while the second was to accustom the students in
training to the methods which may be used in every good school under
normal conditions of work. Due to these recommendations, the number of
training colleges increased teacher training curricula were improved some
of the univer sities established their Departments of education.
Recommendation by Hartog Committee (1929) :
The Hartog Committee found out that in primary schools only 44 percent
teachers were trained and that only 28 percent had completed middle
course. Therefore the committee recommended the following :
i) The standard of general education for primary teachers should be
raised.
ii) The duration of their training should be sufficiently long.
iii) Primary training institutions should be well staffed for greater
efficiency.
iv) Frequ ent refresher courses and conferences should be arranged for
the continued professional growth of the primary teachers already
in service.
Due to these recommendations the system of teacher training then
prevalent in the country was re -oriented on more pr ogressive lines. In
1932 a new degree of B.Ed was instituted for the first time by the Andhra
University in 1936 Bombay University was the first to start post -graduate
degree. M.Ed. in Education. Wardha scheme of Education 1937
recommended that it was cons idered desirable to give preference to local
persons in appointment as teachers. It was considered necessary to appoint
only trained teachers. Two types of curricula as enumerated below were
provided for the training of the teachers.
a) This required a perso n undergo study in an institution for three years.
b) Short –term training: for this the teachers had to devote only one
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93 11.5 TECHNIAL EDUCATION
The institutions opened by the British government for technical education
in India can be counted on figur es. For instance, the first industrial school
was set up in Madras in 1842 and the first Engineering College in the U.P.
in 1841 followed by three other Engineering institutions in the presidency
towns of Bombay, Calcutta and Madras about 1856. There were the
institutions for technical and engineering education that flourished till the
end of the Second World War.
Regarding Technical Education :
Saddler Commissions (1917) made following recommendations.
1. Teaching of Applied Science and Technology at the uni versity level.
2. Degree and Diploma in applied science and Technology should be
awarded on the completion of the designed courses.
During the period (1921 -47) through liberal education was holding sway
vocational education began to receive attention both at the school and
university level. In 1921 we had 803 students in Engineering the
professional institutions prepared youths mainly for government jobs for
example the Rourke Engineering College prepared Engineers for Civil and
irrigation purposes. Hartog Co mmittee (1929) recommended that
vocational, technical and industrial education should be encouraged at the
secondary level.
For the first time in 1931 the Government of India invited Abbot, the
Chief Inspector of Technical schools, and Wood, the Director of
Intelligence, Board of Education, England to advise the Government
whether any vocational or practical training should be imparted in
primary, secondary and higher secondary schools or whether the technical
or vocational institutions already in existenc e could be improved. The
Government was advised to establish a Junior Technical school a part -time
Technical school and school of Arts and Crafts in each province.
Abbort Wood Report 1937 recommended the establishment of a single
polytechnic school where training in many vocations should be given,
instead of special individual schools for the training in individually
different vocations Regarding Technical education the following
recommendations were made.
1. Technical education should be directly linked wit h economic and
industrial development of the country.
2. A large number of training centers should be established for the
training of managers, supervisors, technicians and skilled workers.
3. An employment advisory committee should be constituted in each
provi nce with sub -committees for engineering, agriculture and
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94 4. For technical training, co -operation of industry should be sought.
5. Polytechnic institutes should be opened at important centers.
The second part of Wood – Abbot Report was writt en by an authority with
an international reputation Mr. Abbort examined each and every aspect of
the problem very critically. His suggestions were practical and thorough
and were based on proper understanding of Indian conditions as a result of
his suggest ions few technical schools and the Delhi Polytechnic were
established. The Delhi Polytechnic in the first institute of its type in this
country.
11.6 TO SUM UP
The progress of primary educations, secondary education during 1921 -
1937 was remarkable as it was a period of great educational thinking. The
Compulsory Education Acts which were passed during this period gave a
great impetus to the expansion of Primary and Secondary education, the
quality of Higher education also became better. Before 1921 most of the
universities were examining bodies. The number of teaching and
residential universities increased. The older six universities were
reorganized and reformed. The establishment of Inter -University Board (I,
U.B) in 1927 led to the qualitative growth of Higher education.
Due to recommendation made by various committees the number of
training colleges increased, Reforms were brought about in the system of
teachers training. The technical education began to receive attention both
at school and University l evel.
UNIT END EXERCISE
1. Enlist the functions of Inter University Board (I.U.B.)
2. Explain the important developments during 1921 -37 in the following
fields of education.
1. University Education
2. Teachers Training
3. Technical Education.

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95 12
VARIOUS COMM ISSION S & POLICIES
ON EDU CATION
Unit Structure
12.0 Objective
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Secondary Education commission – 1953
12.3 Education commission 1964-66
12.4 National policy on Education 1986
12.5 Rammurthy Review committee - 1990
12.6 Let us sum up
12.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will be able to:
State the names of various commission on education
Explain the main recommendations of secondary education
commission
Describe the recommendations of education commission
Tell the challenges of education
Describe the salient features of National Policy on education
Discuss the programme of action for the implementation of the p olicy.
Describe Rammurthy Review Committee.
12.1 INTRODUC TION
In order to un derstand, analyze and diagnose various problems of
education of our country, you should know the background of the existing
system of education and to unde rstand how it has developed it’s various
characteristics steps, it becomes necessary to have a review of various
reports and recommendations of different committees, commissions
and policies. In this unit you will know about some committees,
commissions & policies framed in post independen ce period for the
development of education. They are:
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96 Secondary Education commission(1952-53)
Education Commission (1964-66) &
National Policy on Education (1986)
Rammurthy Review Comm ittee (1990)
12.2 SEC ONDARY EDUCATION COMMISSION
(1952-53)
When the attention of Government of India was drawn towards the
falling standard of Secondary Education, as it was termed as the
‘weakest link’ by Radhakrishnan Commission, Secondary Education
Commission was appointed with Dr. A.L. Mud aliar, as chairman.
The main recommendations of the Commission are as under-
Main Recommendations
1. New Organisational Pattern
1. Under the new organisational structure, education should
commence after four five years period of primary or Junior Basic
education and should include
a) the Middle or Senior Basic or Junior Secondary stage of 3 years,
and
b) the Higher Seconda ry stage of 4 years.
2. The present Intermediate stage should be replaced by the Higher
Seconda ry stages which should be of four years’ duration, one year of
the present Intermediate being included in it.
3. As a consequence of the preceding recommendations, the first
degree course in the University should be of three years’ duration.
4. Multi-purpose Schools should be established wherever possible,
to provide varied courses of interest to students with diverse aims,
aptitudes and abilities.
2. Technical Education
1. Technical schools should be started in large numbers either separately
or as part of multi purpose schools.
2. Central Technical Institutes should be established in larger cities
which may cater to the needs of several local schools.
3. Wherever possible, technical schools should be located in close
proximity to appropriate industries and they should function in close
co-operation with the industry concerned.
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97 4. A small cess to be called the “Industrial Education Cess” should
be levied on industries and the proceeds of this cess should be used for
the furtherance of technical education.
3. Public Schools
1. Public Schools should continue to exist for the present and the patte rn
of education given in them should be brought into reasonable
conformity to the general pattern of national education. Such schools
should gradually become self- suppo rting, but during the transitional
period of the next five years, State or Central assistance should be
given to them on a gradually diminishing scale.
2. The State or the Centre should provide for certain free studentship in
them to be given on the basis of merit to selected students.
3. A number of residential schools should be established, more
particularly in certain rural areas, to provide proper opportunities for
the education of children and particularly to meet the needs of
children whose education suffers at present owing to the exigencies of
service of their parents.
4. Study of Languages
1. The mother tongue of the regional langua ge should generally
be the medium of instruction through out the seconda ry school stage,
subject to the provision that for linguistic minorities special
facilities should be made available on the lines sugge sted by the
Central Advisory Board of Education.
2. During the M iddle School stage, every child should be taught at
least two language s. English and Hindi should be introduced at the
end of the Junior Basic Stage, subject to the principle that no two
langua ges should be introduced in the same year.
3. At the High and Higher Secondary stage, at least two languages
should be studied, one of which being the moth er tongue or the
regional language.
5. Curriculum in Secondary Schools
1. At the M iddle School stage, the curriculum should include (i)
Lang uages (ii) Social Studies (iii) General Science (iv) Mathemat ics
(v) Art and Music (vi) Craft, and (vii) Physical Ed ucation.
2. At the High School or Higher Secondary stages, diversified courses of
instruction should be provided for the pupils.
3. A Certain number of core subjects, should be common to all students
whatever the diversified courses of study that they may take; these
should consist of (i) Languages (ii) General Science (iii) Social
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98 4. Diversified course of study should include the following seven
sgroups:
(i) Humanities (ii) Sciences
(iii) Technical Subjects (iv) Commercial subjects
(v) Agricultural subjects (vi) Fine Arts
(vii) Home Sciences;
as and when necessary additional diversified courses may be
added.
6. Methods of Teaching
1. The methods of teaching in schools should aim not merely at the
imparting of knowledge in an efficient manner, but also at inculcating
desirable values and proper attitudes and habits of work in the
students.
2. The emphasis in teaching should shift from verbalism and
memorization to learning through purposeful, concrete and realistic
situations and, for this purpose, the principles or “Activity M ethod”
and “Project Methods” should be assimilated in school practice.
7. Education of Character
1. The education, of character, should be envisaged as the responsibility
of all teachers and should be provided through every single aspect of
school programme.
2. In order to promote discipline personal contact between teacher
and the pupils should be strengthened; Self- Government in the form
of house system with perfects or monitors an student-councils, whose
responsibility will be to draw up a code of conduct and enforce its
observance, should be introduced in all schools.
8. Religious and Moral Instruction
1. Religious instruction may be given in schools only on a voluntary basis
and outside the regular school hours, such instruction being confined
to the children of the particular faith concerned and given with the
consent of the parents and the manage ments.
9. Examination and Evaluation
1. The numb er of external examinations should be reduced and the
element of subjectivity in the essay-type tests should be minimised
by introducing objective tests and also by changing the type of
questions.
2. In order to find out the pupil’s all round progress and to
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99 be maintained for every pupil indicating the work done by him
from time to time and his attainments in the different spheres.
3. In the final assessment of the pupils due credit should be given to
the internal tests and the school records of the pup ils.
4. The system of symbolic rather than numerical marking should be
adopt ed for evaluating and grading the work of the pupils in
external and internal examinations and in maintaining the
school records.
5. There should be only one public examination at the
completion of the seconda ry schools course.
Check your progress - I
Q.1 Explain the main recommendations of the Secondary
Education Commission.
12.3 EDUCATION COMMISSION (KOTHARI
COMM ISSION) 1964-66
After having considered the views of two Commissions on University
Education and Secondary Education, the government of India appointed
another Commission in 1964 to cover all aspects and stages of
education, with Dr. D. S. Kothari, the then chairman
U. G. C., as its chairman. It was titled as Education commission, but
has been popularly known the Kothari Comm ission. Apart from having
experts from India, the Commission included distinguished educationists
from UNESCO, USSR, USA, Japan and England. In the history of
Indian Education, it is the first Commission to make a coordinated and
comprehensive survey of all the branches of edu cation.
The report of the Commission, released on 29th June 1966, is a
voluminous document of about 700 pages. It has been hailed as referred
for all change and reform in Education. Although it is 20 years old, yet
it maintains its fragrance and freshness. Even the new National Policy
on Edu cation (1986) has been mainly based on its recommendations. It
is termed as ‘Bible for Teachers’ and should be read with flair.
The report has been devided into three parts: Part I : General Problems
Part II : Education at Different stages and in Different sectors
Part III : Implementation
Its recommendations have been discussed under following 19 chapters:
I. Education and National objectives
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100 III. Teacher status
IV. Teacher Education
V. Enrolment and Manp ower
VI. Towards Equalisation of Educational Opportunity
VII. School Education : Problems of Expansion
VIII. School Curriculum
IX. Teaching Methods, Guidance and Evaluation
X. School Education: Administration and Supervision.
XI. Higher Education: Objectives and Improvement
XII. Higher Education: Enrolments and Programmes
XIII. The Governance of Universities
XIV. Education for Agriculture
XV. Vocational, Technical and Engineering Education
XVI. Science Education and Research
XVII. Adult Education
XVIII. Education Planning and Administration
XIX. Educational Finance.
Although detailed recommendations have been discussed in relevant
chapters, the major recommendations are as under:
Major Recommendations:
1. Reconstruction of Education
The Commission has called for a d rastic reconstruction of Indian
education and recommended that if education is to develop adeq uately,
the per capita expenditure should rise more than four times – from Rs. 12
in 1966. to Rs. 54 by 1985-86.
2. Free Education
The Commission said that the country will have to work towards the goal
of totally free education. But in the meantime, at least primary education
be made free before the end of the 4th plan.
3. Medium of Instruction
Regional languag es should be the medium of instruction at the school
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101 4. Language Development
The study of Eng lish should be promoted right from the school
stage. Although English will serve as a link language in higher
education yet Hindi will take its place in due course. The Commission has
also suggested that Three Language Formula should be modified.
5. Science Teaching
The Commission has laid sufficient stress upon the teaching of Science
and recommended that Science Education should begin from the earlier
stage.
6. Teacher’s Salaries
The teachers must be paid more and their salaries should range from Rs.
150 to Rs. 1600.
7. Eradication of Illiteracy
Further the Commission is of the view that vigorous efforts should be
made to remove illiteracy and percentage of literacy should rise to
80% in ten years time.
8. Indian Education Service
There should be an Indian Education Service and the centre should issue a
statement of policies for the guidance of states.
9. Concurrent List
Two members of the Commission have expressed the view that higher
education should be included in the Concurrent List. But the others were
of the opinion that the centre had adequate powers under the present
system to evolve a policy.
Check your progress – II
Q.1 Name the chapters under which Education Commission
report recommendations have been given.
Q.2 What are the major recommendations of Education
Commission?
12.4 NATIONAL POLICY ON EDU CATION (1986)
“The new policy would be egalitarian. An att empt would have to be made
to give access to the best type of education to the most intelligent
children, no matter from which section of society they came from.”
- Rajiv Gandhi
With the dawn of indepe ndence on Augu st 15.1947, emerged a
new thinking to reform and recast a system of education which may
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102 India. The exercise of change started with the constitution of University
Education Commission in 1948 with Dr. S. Radhakrishnan as its
chairman. The Commission gave very useful recommendations, regarding
reform and change in university and college education. On their
suggestion, another commission named as Secondary Education
Commission under the chairmanship of another distinguished
educationist, Dr. A. L. Mud aliar was set up in
1952 to probe into the deficiencies of Secondary Education and to being
desirable changes in it. The matter did not end here. A feeling
emerged in the country that instead of having different commissions on
different facets of education, we should have a global view of education.
Obviously, therefore, another commission under the name of Education
Commission with Dr. D. S. Koth ari as chairman, was set up in 1964
with a view to consider changes required in the total system of
education.
All these three commission gave very pertinent, meaningful and relevant
recommendations to provide new directions to the prevailing system of
education in order to meet changing needs and aspirations of the
society. Apart from bringing minor patches of change here and there, the
structure and system of education remained where it was. The target
of compulsory universal education remained a dream. Vocationalisation
of secondary education was only on papers. Revitalising the standards of
education continued to be a slogan. Northing was done to make education
job oriented. The a ims of higher education were never defined or
concretised. The students of universities and colleges after completion
of their education, continued to be unsuccessful job-hunters.
Under this melee and dismal scenario of education, emerged a new
thinking from our youthful Prime Minister Shri Rajiv Gandhi.
Immediately, after taking over the reigns of the Government, he
pledged to do something practically after evolving a new pattern of
education through National Policy on Education. in August 1985, he
came out with a document “Challenge of Education – a Policy
perspective.” The emergence of this document was an important stage in
the process of reviewing and reshaping the education system to
enable it to meet the challenges of the future and also to improve its
efficiency and quality. This document categorically stated that a policy
takes concrete shape only in the process of implementation. If those
involved with programme planning, resource allocation and the
actual operation of the teaching learning process, do not understand
their tasks or take these casually, no worthwhile results can accrue. This
document successfully provided the basis for a nation-wide
debate to formulate the new education policy.
As per plan, hundreds and thousands of seminars, symposia and
discussions were held all over the country to suggest the direction in
which our new policy should emerge. On the basis of the view-points
available from various social organisations, expert bodies like that of
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103 Research and Training (NCERT), National Institute of Educational
Planning and Administration (NIEPA) and numerous regional and state
level bodies, a new document titled as “National Policy on Education”
was thrashed and deliberated upon by the parliament in May 1986.
The members of the parliament were not satisfied with its various
recommendations since they wanted a commitment for the
implementation of its beautiful recommendations, fearing it may not meet
the deadly fate of earlier three Commissions on Edu cation. The then
Human Resource Development Minister, Shri P. V. Narsimharao was
successful in consoling the members of the parliament that he would
come out with a plan of action shortly and took a vow to implement all
the elements of this policy.
As was expected, in August 1986, he fulfilled his commitment
by placing on the table of parliament a document titled ‘Programme of
Action giving specifically the target dates for implementing various
programmes as contained in the policy.
We are glad and feel satisfied, since the implementation, as contained in
Programme of Action, has already started and some thing is being done in
this direction.
Let us have a critical look on these important document:
CHALLENGE OF EDUCATION (1985)
The first document of M inistry of Education, Government of India, as the
initial step to evolve national policy on education, was released in August
1985. It was titled as “Challenge of Education – a policy Perspective”. It
comprised 119 pages and presented thought ful observation, analysis
and developments regarding various facets of education since 1947, on
following four areas:
I. Education, Society and Development
II. An Overview of Educational Development
III. A Critical Appraisal
IV. An Approach to Educational Reorientation
These broad areas have been discussed under following main
points:
I. Education, Society and Development
1. Social Development
2. Role of Education
3. Priorities in Educational Development
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104 5. Values and Mode rnity
6. Towards a New Education Policy
II. An Overview of Educational Development
1. Growth of Institutions.
2. Enrolment.
3. Retent ion and Drop-outs.
4. Non-formal Education and Literacy
5. Teachers
6. Expenditure
7. Differential Outreach and Amenities
8. Employment Interface
III. A Critical Appraisal
1. Elementary Education
2. Adult Education and Functional Literacy
3. Secondary Education
4. Vocationalisation
5. Higher Education
6. Teacher Education
7. Manag ement Education
8. Teachers and Teacher Education
9. Some General Issues.
IV. An Approach to Educational Reorientation
1. Goal Orientation for Educational Planning.
2. Linkages between Education and Society.
3. Factors facilitating Educational Restructuring.
4. Constraints on Policy Making.
5. Internal Constraints.
6. Technological Constraints.
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105 8. Legal Constraints.
9. Financial Constraints.
10. Constraints of the Total System.
11. Perspective of Policy formulation.
12. Approaches to Resource Mob ilisation for Education.
13. Elements of a Strategy for Educational planning.
14. Universalisation of Elementary Education.
15. An Alternative Model for Elementary Education.
16. Adult Education.
17. Voluntary Agencies.
18. Innovation in North Eastern Hill University (NEHU).
19. Emergence of Capitation Colleges.
20. Teacher Training.
21. Inbreeding and Parochialism
22. Social Relevance, Diversification and Quality.
23. Vocationalisation of Higher secondary Education.
24. Social Relevance and Technical & Management Education.
25. Higher Education: Social Relevance and the Need for
Diversification.
26. Quality and Education.
27. Examination System.
28. Manag ement System for Education.
29. Depoliticisation of Education.
30. International Co-operation.
31. Design for an Integrated Strategy of Education.
NATIONAL POLICY ON EDUCATION (1986)
As a follow up measure to a nation-wide debate on various issues
confronting education, based on the document “Challenge of Education- a
Policy Perspective”, Government of India released the National policy
on Education in May 19 86. While preparing this document, it was
borne in m ind that India is standing on the threshold of the twenty
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106 at the turn of the century. They will be face to face with unprecedented
oppo rtunities and challenges. To prepare for these and also to create a
national environment for peaceful and harmonious development, it was
found necessary to re-shape the education system.
The new Education Policy, based on the conclusion of nation-wide
debate and numerous other considerations, comprises
29 full scape pages. Its contents, well digested and properly organised,
have been presented in following 12 parts:
I. Introductory
II. The Essence and Role of Education
III. National System of Education
IV. Education for Equa lity
V. Reorganisation of Education at Different Stages
VI. Technical and Management Education
VII. Making the System Work
VIII. Reorienting the Content and Process of Education
IX. The Teacher
X. The Management of Education
XI. Resources and Review
XII. The Future
Admitting that Education is a unique investment in the present and
the future, some significant and new features, spelled out in the Policy,
are as under:
Salie nt Features of the Policy
I. The Essence and Role of Education
1. All Round Development
In our national perception education is essentially for all. This is
fundamental to our all round development material and spiritual.
2. Acculturating Role
Education has an acculturating role. It refines sensitivities and
perceptions that contribute to national cohesion, a scientific temper
and independence of mind and spirit – thus furthering the goal of
socialism, secularism and demo cracy enshrined in our Constitution.
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107 3. Development of Manpower
Education develops manpower for different levels of the economy. It is
also a substrate on which research and development flourish, being the
ultimate gurantee of national self-reliance.
4. Unique Investment
Education is a unique investment in the present and the future. This
cardinal principle is the key to the National Policy of Ed ucation.
II. National System of Education
1. Concept of National System
The concept of National System of Education implies that, up to a
given level, all students, irrespective of caste, creed, location or sex,
have access to education of a comparable quality. To achieve this, the
Government will initiate appropriately funded programmes. Effective
measures will be taken in the direction of the Common School System
recommended in the 1968 Policy.
2. New Structure of Education
The National System of Education envisages a common educational
structure. The 10+2+3 structure has now been accepted in all parts
of the country. Regarding the further break-up, the first 10 years efforts
will be made to move towards an elementary system comprising 5
years of primary education and 3 years of upper primary, followed by 2
years of High School.
3. Common Core System
The National System of Education will be based on a national
curricular frame work which contains a common core along with other
compone nts that are flexible.
4. Responsibility of Nation
The Nation as a whole will assume the responsibility of providing
resource support for implementing programmes of educational
transformation, reducing disparities, universalisation of elementary
education, adult literacy, scientific and technological research etc.
5. Life Long Education
Life-Long education is a cherished goal of the educational process. This
presupposes universal literacy. Opportunities will be provided to t he
youth, housewives, agricultural and industrial workers and professional
to continue the education of their choice, at the pace suited to them. The
future thrust will be in the direction of open and distance learning.
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108
III. Education of Equality
1. Disparities
The new Policy will lay special emphasis on the removal of disparities
and to equalise educational opportunity by attend ing to the specific
needs of those who have been denied equality so far.
2. Education for women’s Equality
(i) Status of Women. Education will be used as an agent of basic change
in the status of women. In order to neutralise the accumulated distortion
of the past, there will be a will-conceived edge in favour of women.
(ii) Empowerment of Women. The National Education System will play
a positive, interventionist role in the empowerment of women. It will
foster the development of new values through redesigned curricula,
text-books, the training and orientation of teachers, decision-makers and
administrators, and the active involvement of educational institutions.
This will be an act of faith and social eng ineering.
(iii) Women’s S tudies. Women’s studies will be promoted as a part
of various courses and educational institutions encouraged to take up
active programmes to further women’s development.
(iv) Removal of Illiteracy. The removal of women’s illiteracy and
obstacles inhibiting the ir access to, and retention in, elementary
education will receive overriding priority, through provision of
special support services, setting of time ta rgets and effective monitoring.
(v) Vocational and Professional Courses. Major emphasis will be laid
on women’s participation in vocational, technical and professional
education at different levels. The policy of non- discrimination will be
pursued vigorously to eliminate sex stereo- typing in vocational and
professional courses and to promote women’s participation in no n-
traditional occupations, as well as in existing emergent technologies.
3. Education of Scheduled Castes
The central focus in the SC’s educational development is their
equalisation with the no n-SC population at all stages and levels of
education, in all areas and in all the four dimensions-rural male, rural
female, urban male and urban female.
4. Education of Scheduled Tribes
Priority will be accorded to opening primary schools in tribal areas. The
construction of school buildings will be unde rtaken in these areas on a
priority basis under the normal funds for education, as well as under
the N.R.E.P., R.L.E.G.P., Tribal welfare Schemes, etc.
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109 5. Other Educationally backward Sections and Areas
Suitable incentive will be provided to all educationally backward sections
of society, particularly in the rural areas. Hill and desert districts, remote
and inaccessible areas and islands will be provided adequate institutional
infra-structure.
6. Minorities
Some minority groups are educationally deprived or backward.
Greater attention will be paid to the education of these groups in the
interests of equality and social justice. This will naturally include the
constitutional guarantees given to them to establish and administer their
own educational institutions, and protection to the ir languages and
culture. Simultaneously, objectivity will be reflected in the preparation
of textbooks and in all school activities, and all possible measures will be
taken to promote an integration based on appreciation of common
national goals and ideals, in conformity with the core curriculum.
7. The Handicapped
The objective should be to integrate the physically and mentaly
hand icapped with the general community as equal partners, to
prepare them for normal growth and to enable them to face life with
courage and confidence.
8. Adult Education
(i) Instruments for Liberation. Our ancient scriptures define education
as that which liberates – i.e. provides the instruments for liberation from
ignorance and oppression. In the modern world, it would naturally include
the ability to read and write, since that is the main instrument of learning.
Hence the crucial importance of adult education, including adult literacy.
(ii) Up gradation of Skil ls. The critical development issue today is the
continuous up-gradation of skills so as to produce manpower resources of
the king and the number required by the society.
(iii) Strengthening the Exi sting programmes. Since participation by
beneficiaries in the developmental programmes is of crucial importance,
systematic programmes of adult education linked with national goals such
as a lleviation of poverty, national integration, environmental
conservation. Energisation of the cultural creativity of the people,
observance of small family norm, promotion of women’s equality, etc.
will be organised and the existing programmes reviewed and
strengthened.
(iv) Mass literacy Programme. The whole Nation must pledge itself
to the education of illiteracy, particularly in the 15-35 age group.
The Central and State Governments, political parties and their mass
organisation, the mass media and educational institutions must
commit themselves to mass literacy programmes of diverse nature. It
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110 voluntary age ncies, employers, etc. Concerted efforts will be made to
harness various research agencies to improve the pedagogical aspects of
adult literacy. The mass literacy programme would include, in addition to
literacy, functional knowledge and skills, and also awareness
among learners about the socio-economic reality and the possibility to
change it.
(v) Programme of the Adult and Continuing Education. A vast
programme of adult and continuing education will be implemented
through various ways and channels, including-
a) establishment of centres in rural areas for continuing
education;
b) workers’ education through the employers, trade unions and
concerned agencies of government.
c) post-seconda ry education institutions;
d) wider promotion of books, libraries and reading rooms;
e) use of radio, TV and films, as mass and group learning media;
f) creation of learners’ groups and organisations;
g) programmes of distance learning:
h) organising assistance in self-learning; and
i) organising need and interest based vocational training
programmes.
IV. Reorganisation of Education at Different Stages
1. Early Childhood Care and Education
Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) will receive high
priority and be suitably integrated with the Integrated Child
Development Services programme, wherever possible. Day-care centres
will be provided as a support service for universalisation of primary
education.
2. Elementary Education
Higher priority will be given to solve the problem of children dropping
out of school. It shall be ensured that all children who attain the age
of about 11 years by 1990 will have had five years of schooling, or its
equivalent through the non formal stream Like- wise, by 1 995, all
children will be provided free and compulsory education upto 14 years of
age.
3. Operation Black-board
Under this scheme, immediate steps will be taken to improve the primary
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111 in primary schools, including at least two reasonab le large rooms that
are usable in all weather, and the necessary toys, black-boards, maps,
charts and other learning material. At least two teachers, one of whom a
woman, should work in every school, the numb er increasing as early as
possible to one teacher per class.
4. Non-Formal Education
A large and systemat ic programme of non-formal education will be
launched for school drop-outs, for children from habitations without
schools, working children and girls who cannot attend whole-day
schools.
5. Secondary Education
(i) Seconda ry education begins to expose students to the differentiated
roles of science, the humanities and social sciences.
(ii) This is an appropriate stage to provide children with a sense of history
and national perspective give them oppo rtunities to unde rstand their
constitutional duties and rights as citizens.
(iii) Conscious internalisation of a healthy work ethos and of the values of
a humane and composite culture will be brought about through
appropriately formulated curricula.
(iv) Vocationalisation through specialised institutions or through the
refashioning of seconda ry education can, at this stage, provide
valuable man-power for economic growth.
The Policy
Access to Seconda ry Education will be widened to cover areas
unserved by it at present. In other areas, the main emphasis will be on
consolidation.
6. Pace Setting Schools (Navodaya Vidayalayas)
(i) Provision of Good Education. It is universally accepted that children
with special talent or aptitude should be provided oppo rtunities to proceed
at a faster pace, by making good quality education available to them,
irrespective of their capacity to pay for it .
(ii) Role of Navodaya Vidyalayas. Pace-setting Schools or Navodaya
Vidyalayas intend ed to serve the above said purpose will be established in
various parts of the country on a given pattern but will full scope for
innovation and experimentation.
(iii) Aims of Navodaya Vidyalayas. Their broad aim will be:
(a) To serve the objective of excellence, coupled with equity and
social justice (with reservation for SCs and STs).
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112 (b) To promote national integration by providing oppo rtunities to
talented children, largely rural, from different parts of the country to
live and learn together.
(c) To develop their full potential.
(d) To become catalysts of a nat ion-wide programme of school
improvement.
(iv) The schools will be residential and free of charge.
7. Vocationalisation
Vocational Education will be a distinct stream, intended to prepare
students for identified occupations spanning several areas of activity.
These courses will ordinarily be provided after the seconda ry stage, but
keeping the scheme flexible, they may also be made available after
Class VIII. In the interests of integrating vocational education better with
their facilities the Industrial Training Institutes will also conform to the
larger vocational pattern.
8. Higher Education
a) Autonom ous colleges will be helped to de velop in large numbers
until the aff iliating system is replaced by a freer and more creative
association of universities with colleges.
b) Courses and programmes will be redesigned to meet the demands
of specialisation better.
c) A major effort will be directed towards the transformation of teaching
methods. Audio-visual aids and electronic equipment will be
introduced, development of science and technology, curricula and
material, research and teacher orientation will receive attention.
This will require preparation of teachers at the beginning of the
service as well as continuing education thereafter. Teachers’
performance will be systematically assessed.
9. Open University and Distance Learning
I. The open University system has been initiated in order to augment
opportunities for higher education and as an instrument of
democrating education.
II. The Indira Gandhi National open University established in 1985 in
fulfilment of these objectives, will be strengthened.
III. This powerful instrument will have to be developed with care
and extended with caution.

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113 10. Delinking Degrees from Jobs
De-linking will be applied in services for which a university degree need
not be a necessary qualification. Its implement ation will lead to a re-
fashioning of job specific courses and afford greater justice to tho se
candidates who, despite being equipped for a given job, are unable to get
it because of an unnecessary preference for graduate candidates.
11. Rural University
The new pattern of the Rural University will be consolidated and
developed on the lines of Mahatma Gandhi’s revolutionary ideas on
education so as to take up the challenges of micro- planning at
grass-root levels for the transformation of rural areas. Institutions and
programmes of Gandhian basic education will be supported.
V. Technical and Management Education
Although, the two streams of technical and manage ment education are
functioning separately, it is essential to look at them toget her, in view of
their close relationship and complementary concerns. The re-organisation
of Technical and Management Education should take into account the
anticipated scenario by the turn of the century, with specific reference to
the likely changes in the economy, social environment, production and
manage ment processes, the rapid expansion of knowledge and the
great audan ces in science and technology.
VI. Making the System Work
The country has placed boundless trust in the educational system. The
people have a right to expect concrete results. The first task is to
make it work. All teachers should teach and all students study.
The strategy in this behalf will consist of:
a) a better deal to teachers with greater accountability;
b) provision of improved student’s services and insistence on observance
of acceptable norms of beha viour;
c) provision of better facilities of institutions; and
d) creation of a system of performance appraisals of institutions
according to standa rds and norms set at the National or State
levels.
VII. Reorienting the Content and Process of Education
1. The Cultural Perspective
I. Cultural Content. The curricula and process of education will be
enriched by cultural content in as many manifestations as possible.
Children will be enabled to develop sensitivity to beauty, harmony and
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114 II. Cultural Enrichment. Resource persons in the community,
irrespective of their formal educational qualifications, will be invited to
contribute to the cultural enrichment of education employing both the
literate and oral traditions of communication.
III. Cultural Tradition. To sustain and carry forward the cultural
tradition, the role of old masters, who train pupils through traditional
modes will be supported and recognised.
2. Value Education
I. Moral Values. The growing concern over the erosion of essential
values and an increasing cynicism in society has brought to focus the
need for readjustments in the curriculum in order to make education
of social and moral values.
II. Eternal Values. In our culturally plural society, education should
foster universal and eternal values, oriented towards the unity and
integration of our people. Such value education should help
eliminate obscurantism, religious fanaticism, violence, superstition and
fatalism.
III. Positive Content. Apart from this combative role value education
has a profound positive content, based on our heritage, national goals
universal perceptions. it should lay primary emphasis on this aspect.
3. Books and Libraries
I. Availability of Books. The availability of books at low prices its
indispensible for people’s education. Effort will be made to
secure easy accessibility to books for all segments of the
population.
II. Improvement of Quality. Measures will be taken to improve the
quality of books, promote the reading habit and encourage creative
writing.
III. Author’s interest. Author’s interest will be protected.
IV. Translation of Foreign Books. Good translation of foreign books
into Indian languag es will be supported..
V. Children Books. Special attention will be paid to the production
of quality books for children, including text books and work
books.
VI. Improvement of Libraries. A nation-wide movement for the
improvement of existing libraries and the establishment of few ones
will be taken up. Provision will be made in all educational
institutions for library facilities and the status of librarians improved.

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115 4. Work Experience
Work experience would comprise activities in accord with the interests,
abilities and needs of students, the level of skills and knowledge to
be upgraded with the stages of education. This experience to be helpful
on his entry into the workforce. Pre- vocational programmes provided at
the lower secondary stage will also facilities the choice of the
vocational courses at the higher seconda ry stage.
5. Education and Environment
There is a paramount need to create a consciousness of the environment.
It must permeate all ages all sections of society beginning with the
child. Environmental consciousness should inform teaching in schools
and colleges. This aspect will be integrated in the educational process.
6. Mathematics Teaching
I. Mathe matics should be visualised as the vehicle to train a child to
think, reason, analyse and to articulate logically. Apart from being a
specific subject, it should be treated as concomitant to any subject
involving analysis and reasoning.
II. With the recent introduction of computer in schools, educational
computing and the emergence of learning through the unde rstanding of
cause-effect relationships and the interplay of variables, the teaching of
mathematics will be suitably redesigned to bring it in line with modern
technological devices.
7. Science Education
I. Science education will be strengthe ned so as to develop in the child
well defined abilities and values such as the spirit of inquiry,
creativity, objectivity, the courage to question and an aesthetic sensibility.
II. Science education programmes will be designed to enable the
learner to aquire problem solving and decision making skills and to
discover the relationship of science with health, agriculture, industry and
other aspects of daily life. Every effort will be made to extend science
education to the vast numbers who have remained outside the pale of
formal education.
8. Sports and Physical Education
Sports and physical education are an integral part of the learning
process and will be included in the evaluation of performance. A nation-
wide infrastructure for physical education, sports and games will be
built into the educational edifice.
9. The Role of Youth
Opportunities will be provided for the youth to involve them selves in
national and social development through educational institutions and
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116 other of existing scheme s, namely, the National service Scheme, National
Cadet Corps, etc. outside the institutions, the youth will be encouraged to
take up programmes of development reform and extension. The National
Service Volunteer Scheme will be strengthened.
10. Evaluation Process and Examination Reform
The objective will be to re-cast the examination system so as to ensure a
method of assessment that is a valid and reliable measure of student
development. Following measures will be taken:
a) The elimination of excessive element of chance and
subjectivity.
b) The de-emphasis of memorisation.
c) Effective use of the evaluation process by teachers, students and
parents.
d) Improvement in the conduct of examinations.
e) Introduction of concointal chang es instructional materials and
methodology.
f) Introduction of the semester system from the secondary stage in
a phased manne r.
g) The use of grades in place of marks.
VII. The Teacher
1. (a) The status of the teacher reflects the socio-cultural ethos of a
society; it is said that no people can rise above the level of its teachers.
(b) The methods of recruiting teacher will be reorganised to ensure merit,
objectivity and conformity with spatial and functional requirements,
(c) Teachers’ associations must play a significant role in up holding
professional integrity, enhancing the dignity of the teachers and in
curbing professional misconduct.
2. Teacher Education
a) Teacher education is a continuous process and its pre-service and
in-service compone nts are inseparable.
b) District Institutes of Education and Training (DIET) will be
established with the capability to orgainse pre-service and in-
service courses for elementary school teachers and for the
personnel working in non-formal and adult education.
c) Se lected Secondary Teacher Training Colleges will be up- graded
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117 IX. The Management of Education
1. At National Level
The Central Advisory Board of Education will play of pivotal role in
reviewing educational development, determining the changes required
to improve the system and monitoring implementation
2. Indian Education Service
A proper managem ent structure in education will entail the establishment
of the Indian Education Service as an All India Service.
3. At State Level
State Government may establish State Advisory Boards of Education
on the lines of CABE.
4. At District and Local Level
a) District Board of Education will be created to manage education
up to the higher seconda ry level.
b) Local communities, through appropriate bod ies, will be assigned a
major role in programmes of school improvement.
5. Voluntary Agencies and Aided Institutions
Non-government and Voluntary effort including social activist groups
will be encouraged, subject to proper manageme nt, and financial
assistance provided.
X. Resources and Review
1. Resources
Education will be treated as a crucial area of investment for national
development and survival. The National Policy on Education,
1968, had laid down that the investment on education be gradua lly
increased to reach a level of expenditure of 6 percent of the national
income as early as possible. Since the actual level of investment has
remained far short of that target, it is important that
greater determination be shown now to find the funds for the programmes
laid down in this Policy. While the actual requirements will be computed
from time to time on the basis of monitoring and review, the outlay on
education will be shapped up to the extent essential for policy
implementation in the Seventh plan. It will be ensured that from the
Eighth Five Year plan onwards it will uni- formally exceed to 6 percent of
the National income.
2. Review
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118 be made to ascertain the progress of implementation and the trends
emerging from time to time.
XI. The Future
The future shape of education in India is too complex to envision
with precision. Yet, given our tradition which has almost always put a
high premium on intellectual and spiritual attainmen t, we are bound to
succeed in achieving our objectives.
PROGRAMME OF ACTION (1986)
While discussing and adopting the National Policy on Education (1986)
in the parliament, a promise was made by Shri P. V. Narsimharao, the
then Minister of Human Resource Development, that he would present
in the pa rliament a Programme of Action for the implementation of the
policy.
In consequence, the ministry constituted a number of Task Forces and
with their help and recommendations discussed and adopted in the
parliament the Programme of Action. The Programme of Action in
meant of provide an indication of the nature of actions which will be
needed in order to implement the directions of the policy. It provides a
broad strategy within which detailed schemes will be subseque ntly
drawn up. This Programme of Action has been spelled out in 24 chapters
or areas stated below:
I. Early Childhood Care and Education
II. Elementary Education, Non-Formal Education
Operation Blackboard and
III. Seconda ry Education and Navodaya Vidyalaya
IV. Vocationalisation of Education
V. Higher Education
VI. Open University and Distance Education
VII. Rural Universities and Institutes
VIII. Technical and Management Education
IX. Making the System Work
X. Delinking of Degrees from Jobs and Manpower Planning
XI. Research and Development
XII. Education for women’s Equality
XIII. Education of Schedu led Castes/Scheduled Tribes and other
Backward Sections
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119 XIV. Minorities’ Education
XV. Education of the Handicapped
XVI. Adult Education
XVII. Content and Process of School Education XVIII. Evaluation
Process and Examination Reform XIX. Youth and Sports
XX. Lang uage Development
XXI. The Cultural Perspective
XXII. Media and Educational Technology (Including use of
Computer in Education) XXIII. Teachers and their Training
XXIV. Management of Education
Check Your progress – II
Q.1 Explain the National System of Education.
Q.2 Explain the recommendations of National Policy on Teacher
Education.
Q.3 State the name of 24 chapters in which programme of action
(1986) has been spelled.
12.5 RAMMUR THY REVIEW COMMITTEE:-
Committee for the Review of National Policy on Education
(1986): 1990
The committee to review the National Policy on Education 1986,
was formed on 7th November 1990 with Acharya Ramamurthy
as Chairman and sixteen others as membe rs. This Committee’s report
bears the title “Towards an Enlightened and Humane Society”. The
Committee was appointed to review the National Policy on Ed ucation
1986 and make recommendations regarding the revision of the policy and
action necessary for implementation of the revised policy within a time-
frame.
Major Recommendations: Removing Deficiencies
Selection of students should be regulated through stringent aptitude and
attainment and not merely on university grade or mark. The training
programme should be competence-based and there should be an
integration of theory and practice for situational app lication.
Affective aspects to be taken care or so as develop in students the
qualities such as empathy, attitude towards profession, society and
develop values.
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120 In-service and refresher courses should be specified and related to the
specific needs of teachers. In-service programmes should take due care of
the future needs of teachers growth. Evolution and follow up should be
part of the scheme. Research should support better management including
delivery system of the programme.
Development of innovative strategies and pilot trial of significant
activities should be encouraged to en sure the effectiveness of the
programme. District Institutes of Education and Training should have the
major responsibility for organizing in- service courses for elementary
school teachers. A strong distance education system of in-service
education should be developed using Television, Radio and print media.
It can be strengthened by occasional contact programmes.
All institutions should be strengthened with continuous supply of
relevant learning material including journals. Provision should be
made for every teacher to attend in-service programmes according to the
specific needs and requirements.
The first degree in tea cher education should not be given through
correspondence education.
Preparing Teachers for the New Thrusts
In the light of the new thrusts which the Committee is proposing for the
education system, the teacher training would have to be totally
revamped with a view to equip the teacher with the following
attributes:-
a) Empathy and a social perception of the need profiles of children from
different educationally backward sections of society.
b) Understanding of the status of women in society and the need to
introduce a gender perspective in all dimensions.
c) Capability of imparting education in all aspects of cognitive and
affective domains as well as psychomot or skills.
d) Aptitude for innovative and creative work.
e) Pe rception of the interventionist role of education in a stratified
society and the ability to give operational meaning to this role.
f) Preparedness for vocationalisation of entire educational process and
aptitude for integration of work in academic learning.
g) Ability in special areas such as pre-school education, education for
the handicapped children, continuous and comprehen sive
evaluation, activity based learning, scientific methods of
acquiring knowledge etc.
h) A sensitive unde rstanding of her/his role in a decentralized and
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121 The new thrusts towards Universalisation of Elementary Education would
require the teacher of the elementary stage to be trained in the following
concepts, methods and skills.
 non-formalization of the school which would involve introduction
of child centered approach, upgraded classroom, disaggregated
and continuous evaluation, and a sensitive understanding of child’s
behavior.
 reaching out to the unserved habitations and those sections of
children who have not so far responded to schooling by organizing
‘para-schools’.
 linking up with Early Childhood Care and Education and adopting
its playway and activity based approach into the primary school.
 developing school into a community school where school
becomes a nucleus of several social and cultural activities of the
village besides becoming a centre through which developmental
and social welfare services may be made available to the village.
 mobilizing resource; both human and otherwise, for en richment of the
learning environment through introduction of singing, drawing, clay
mode ling, folklore and folk singing in the classroom.
 developing content on the basis of the minimum levels of learning.
 community improvement by communicating the expected learning
outcomes in simple forms and arranging oppo rtunities where the
community could directly what their children have gained from the
school;
 capability to guide vocationalisation of entire elementary
education.
 unde rstanding of how to integrate different subjects into an organized
whole.
Internship Model of Teachers Training
The internship model is firmly based on the primary value of actual field
experience in a realistic situation, on the development of teaching skills
by practice over a period of time, on supervised teaching under the
guidance of more experienced and skilled persons, on role modeling as a
time tested pedagogical principle. It is ‘inductive’ because it expects to
draw theoretical insight after exposure to a range of personal experiences
and observations. A deductive model first gives instruction in basic
principle to real life situation later on.
To make a success of the internship model of training the following are
required:
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122  realistic field situation for teachers
 long duration
 supervised teaching in the field
 good role models
 trainers who are themselves skilled and effective teachers
Training High School Teachers
The new National Council for Teacher Education syllabus for B.Ed.
course should be circulated to all Teacher Training Institutions
and State/Union Territory Governments for detailed comments before the
matter is finished. The Committee considered the integrated model of
teacher education which has been practiced by the four Regional
Colleges of Education. In the model,
following class XII, trainee is given a four year course integrating subject
and methodology. At the end a B.Sc. B.Ed. degree is awarded. The
Committee observed t hat this model provides the necessary
professional touch to the training and therefore needs to be encouraged.
Preparing Teacher Educators for Leadership Role
The committee notes the following situation with concern:
(a) Educational objectives and strategies are planned in isolation
of those who have to implement them, i.e., teachers and teacher educators.
Consequently, they interpret the objectives and strategies according to
their own perception and this can even result in action that may be
diametrically opposite of what was intended.
(b) Teachers and teacher educators do not have any concern role in
policy implementation or its monitoring. Their role is confined to doing
only what they are told.
(c) The teacher training institutions, irrespective of th eir level or status,
are essentially service institutions, meeting the expectations of policy
framers.
(d) The teachers, teacher educators and the training institutions must be
assigned a leadership, strategy formulation, implementation and
monitoring role. Unless this is done, the system is unlikely to respond to
exhortations to change and serve the society. They lack today the
necessary motivation, aptitude and competence to assume the leadership
role but this cannot be excuse for not taking the first step forward in the
right direction. With appropriate inputs and mechanism for their
growth, a process needs to be generated right away to ultimately place
the responsibility where it legitimately belongs. In this, the teacher
educator would have a pivotal role.
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123 The committee presents the following profile of a teacher educator: A
Teacher educator should:
1. Shou ld preferably belong to the cadre of school teachers and must
have experienced the system at least for a few years.
2. Shou ld also have exposure to the outside world at large in order to
acquire a broader perspective.
3. Shou ld be of high academic competence.
4. Shou ld possess as integrated view of knowledge and conviction in the
interventionist role of education.
5. Shou ld have a historical and socio-economic unde rstanding of the
problem and issues faced by Indian society, as also the world.
6. Shou ld have empathy and burning concern for the under p rivileged.
7. Shou ld have competence for research and an aptitude for using
research as a powerful tool for educational and social development.
8. Shou ld be distinguished by having personal attributes such as:
a) Ability to think and work with a sense of independen ce. b) Ability to
act against the prevalent or populist opinion. c) Ability to convince
and catalyze people.
d) Ability to lead both by precept and practice. e) Ability for creative
and sustained action.
f) Ability to mobilize resources, both human and financial, from within
and outside the community.
g) Ability to work with different segme nts of society, including the
Government.
h) A high motivation for need achievement which will include:
a. A desire to achieve
b. Ability to work even when demotivating factors are present.
c. A willingness to accept responsibility and feel accountable.
d. High inter-personal skills.
In order to develop such a teacher educator, a special programme of
education, having the necessary status and resources would have to
be developed. The programme would give adeq uate weightage to
cognitive, affective and operational components of the role expected of a
teacher educator. Institutions running these programmes must play an
active role in educational policy making, planning, implementation and
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124 situation in which the trainees of a teacher educator programme would
receive training.
Continuing Teacher Education
The proposed educational complex may be given the responsibility for
co-ordinating and organizing in-service teacher training programmes for
the teachers in the area of its coverage. In particular, the complex can
provide an effective channel of communication between the
school and District Institute of Education and Training.
Miscellaneous Issues
The practice of u sing teacher training institutions as a dumping
ground for unwanted or troublesome persons should be stopped forthwith.
Instead, competent persons may be brought into these institutions from
schools and other Government institutions on a rotational basis.
The continuation of a teacher may be linked with the completion by
her/him of the requirement of updating her/his knowledge from time to
time.
In a national workshop held by National Institute of Educational
Planning and Administration (Dec.1989) a detailed articulation was
made that-all necessary administration and financial powers be
vested the Head of the institution (i.e. primary / middle / high schools)
so that she/he may function with autonomy to fulfil the assigned role.
District Institute of Education and Training
The State Governments must ensure full autonomy to District
Institute of Education and Training for em barking upon programme of
research and training so that these are to play their expected role in
bringing about quality improvement and reform.
In view of the new thrusts given by this Committee to education, District
Institute of Education and Training would have to unde rtake fresh
responsibilities and develop competence in the respective areas as
enume rated below:
a) Universalization of Elementary Education;
b) Early Childhood Care and Education;
c) Women’s education with emphasis on giving a gender
perspective to the entire educational process;
d) Ed ucation for promoting equity and social justice among Scheduled
Castes/Scheduled Tribes and other educationally backward sections of
society, including minorities;
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125 f) Examination reforms, modularization, multiple entry and exit
points.
Status of Implementation of the Centrally Sponsored Schemes of
Teacher Education
Emergent steps should be taken for getting completed all the phases in
teacher education institutions for which financial assistance has
been given by the Government of India.
Further financial assistance to States which have not so far completed the
earlier phase of project implementation should be avoided-i.e. until
physical progress is demonstrated in regard to funds but not yet used.
As the faculty of the District Institutes of Education and Training is the
most crucial element in the teacher education programme, emergent
urgent attention may be given to the filling up of all the posts.
Recruitment rules for manning these points should also be got issued
by the State Governments urgently.
Curriculum Development Centre in Education 1990
The Curriculum Development Centre programmes was taken up by the
University Grants Commission in order to promote excellence in teaching
at undergraduate level and post graduate level.
Aims of the B.Ed./B.T./B.A. B.Ed. Course
The main objectives of education at present as given in the syllabus of the
various universities are.
i) To develop an awareness of the role of teacher in realizing the
objective of school education.
ii) To develop competence to teach at least two school subjects on the
basis of the accepted principles of learning and te aching.
iii) To develop skill for continuously evaluating pupil growth.
iv) To develop understanding, interest, attitudes and skills which enable
him to foster alround growth and development of pupils under
this care.
v) To develop competence to act not only as leader of the children
but also as a guide of the community and as a liaison between the
school and community.
Minimum Entry Requirement
A bachelor’s degree is the minimum requirement for admission
to the B.Ed/B.T. Courses. Where the course is offered as a four year
integrated Course (B.A. B.Ed. Or B.Sc. B.Ed.) the entry requirement
is eligibility for admission to undergraduate courses of the respective
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126 Nature and Duration of the B.Ed./B.T. Programme
The B.Ed. programme is offered as a regular course in all universities. In
a few universities the correspondence courses for B.Ed. is also
condu cted. The duration of the course is one year in all the u niversities.
The Shivaji University offers B.A. B.Ed. Programme of four years
duration, So also the Regional College of Ed ucation.
Curriculum
The course of study for the B.Ed. Programme consists of two parts.
Part I: Theory
Part II: Practicals
Wide variation is seen in theory pape rs offered in different universities.
Three to four core papers, 2 optional and one specialization paper is the
pattern commonly followed.
The practicals consist mainly of Teaching Practice, Practical work related
to theory papers and other practical work.
Examination System
External and Internal of examination system in theo ry is prevalent in
almost all universities. Some universities have internal assessment for
theory papers also and in such cases the ratio between internal and
external varies from 1:4 to 1:2.
Four models for B.Ed. Programmes are as follows: Mod el 1: B.Ed. 1 year
Core paper
Optional paper Elective paper Practice Teaching Practical work
Mod el 2: B.Ed. 1 year (Semester System) Ist Semester IInd Seme ster
Core pape rs Core pape rs
Optional paper
Practical
Mod el 3: B.Ed. 1 year and 5/6 months’ Internship
Part I: Theory Core pape rs Optional papers Special papers
Part II: Teaching Practice and Internship
Mod el 4: B.Ed. (Basic) 1 year
Theory: core paper
Practical: Special paper
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127 Training of Teachers to Impart Education According to
Revised Curriculum
Teachers in college of education or here afterwards referred to as
teacher-educators will have to play a key role in implementation
of any teacher education programme. The new curriculum suggested has
enriched content and widened scope and hence orienting teacher-
educators is essential for its effective implementation.
Two models are presented for organizing orientation courses to orient
teachers with new curriculum.
Mod el 1: empha sizes on establishing the new agency for conducting
these courses.
Mod el 2: empha sizes an orientation by the national curriculum centre
with the help of state and district resources.
Model No. 1
1) Establishment of one Central Institution of Teacher
Education and one State In stitute of Teacher Education in each state.
2) The Central and State Institute of Teacher Education will be centers
of excellence in teacher-education and will be provided with all
facilities. It would be better if these Institutes are developed
completely as new institutions with all modern facilities rather than
modifying present teacher- education institutions. They should be
modeled like the National Institute of Banking Management, Pune,
Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Bombay, Indian Institute of
Management, Ahmadabad or like Indian Institutes of Technology.
3) All the orientation courses will be mainly organized by these institutes
supported by other teacher-education institutes.
4) Teacher educators attending courses in these institutes will be given
all financial assistance needed.
5) All modern methods of training will be u sed in these institutes
like use of modern media-videotapes, computer programmes, etc.
6) Selective admission in these institutes will inspire teacher
educators to work hard and completion of course in these institutes will
also provide financial gains to teacher edu cators.
7) Every teacher educator shall have to undergo at least one course in
these Institutes within every five years of his service.
8) These Institutes will offer variety of courses useful to teacher educators
including orientation for new curriculum.

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128 Organizing other Orientation Courses
The courses are to be organized at three levels: (a) National level
(b) State level
(c) University level
(a) National level courses: These are meant for key personnel who will
further work as resource persons, can be arranged at two three places in
the country.
(b) State level courses: For state level courses personnels who will
further work as resource persons, can be arranged at two three place in
a State.
(c) University level Courses: In ea ch university there will be courses for:
Principals/Heads; Teacher Educators.
It is suggested that four weeks’ programmes may be organized for all
core subjects to orient teacher-educators for their new t eaching strategies.
Two weeks orientation programme will be organized for elective and
optional subjects for subject enrichment teaching strategies:
Resource Pers ons
Competent persons be appointed as resource persons for each subject. A
national and State level list of resource persons be prepared for each
subject. A competent resource person is likely to inspire teacher educator.
The orientation courses will be workshop type and hence more empha sis
should be given on activities on the part of teacher educator rather than
lecturing.
Model No. 2
The model provides 3 levels of orientation courses:
1. National level orientation programmes for state key resource persons
(who will be the leader trainer for this new curriculum in his/her
state) at national curriculum centre.
2. State level orientation programme for principals/ Heads and teacher
educators from each district (who will be the leader trainer for this new
curriculum in his/her district).
3. District level orientation programme for every teacher educator
of that district.
(1) Key Resource Persons should be oriented with the philosophy
of new curriculum, with objectives, instructional techniques, evaluation
technique for theory papers. Implementation of practice teaching and
arranging practical work as well as the method of organizing internship
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129 programme. The number of participants should not be more than 20 in
one programme.
The training should be arranged at the National Curriculum Development
Centre, University of Kerala with the help of concerned members of
Undergraduate Committee. At least two persons in each state may be
selected for this training who may act as the key Resource Persons
responsible for the training of all the te acher educators of that state. These
persons should also be given training in organizing training programmes
in states. The duration of this training may be from 10 days to 15 days.
(2) These trained Key Resource Persons will be made in charges
of orientation programmes for th is curriculum in their states. They will
prepare a plan of training of all the teacher educators in implementing
new curriculum and will clarify his new role in training college. Two
teacher educators from each Institution will be selected for training in
these phases. In one course not more than 40 teachers will be trained. The
National Committee member will also be consulted Key Resource
Persons for making training programmes.
(3) In third phase, these orientations courses may be conducted at
district level. All the teacher educators working in training depa rtments in
that district will be atte nding the orientation programmes. The principal
and the lecturer trained at state level has to play the role of the
Trainer/Incharge for these District Training Programmes. The d uration
of this programme may be 10-15 days. Not more than 40 teachers will be
oriented in one course. The course will be operated till all the teacher
educator of that district are oriented.
(4) In India there are about 360 colleges for preparing
seconda ry teachers. On an average if we put 15 teacher educators in
one college, the number of teacher educator will not be more than
5400.
(a) We require two national level orientation programmes to train about
40 key resource persons.
(b) Two State level training courses.
(c) 130 district level training programmes.
(d) TA/DA and other expenditures should be met by either the state
Government or University Grants Commission for all these
training programmes. The textual material should be prepared and
distributed in all the training courses.
After the new curriculum is accepted and implemented the members of
the present Curriculum Committee should visit, inspect, supervise
and suggest regarding the proper implementation of the curriculum
in some randomly selected Training Colleges/University Department
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130 centre, and suitable measures may be adopted for improving the
conditions.
The national curriculum centre should be made responsible for
organizing further refresher courses for the experienced and
orientation courses for new teachers in the profession. The national centre
should also be given finances for publishing on education through which
new trends, new tendencies, latest developments recent advances
and conclusion of researches on teacher education and curriculum
will be communicated to the teacher educators occasionally. This bulletin
will also help in professional development of the teacher educators.
Check your progress - III
Q.1 What are the major recommendations of Rammurthy Review
Committee?
Q.2 Explain the profile of a teacher educator as recommended by
Rammurthy Review Committee.
Q.3 Explain the areas on which DIET should take responsibility to
develop competence.
12.6 LET US SUM UP
As we have discussed, you are able to know that when the government
felt the need of evaluation of education in the country about several
aspects of education development, it set up commissions, committees &
framed new policies on education for educational development of
country.
In this unit you know:
Secondary Education Commission: Under the chairmanship of Dr.
A. L. Mudaliar, in 1957. therefore, it is also known as Mudaliar
Commission. The main recommend ations are given under the following
headings.
 New organisational Pattern
 Technical education
 Public schools
 Study of languages
 Curriculum in secondary schools
 Methods of teaching
 Education of character
 Religions of moral instruction &
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131 Education Commission: Under the chairmanship of Dr. D. S. Kotha ri
in 1964. It has been popularly known as Kothari Commission.
The major recommendat ions are as under:
 Reconstruction of education
 Free education
 Medium of instruction
 Lang uage development
 Science teaching
 Teacher salaries
 Eradication of illiteracy
 Indian education service
 Concurrent list
The main features of this report are:
 Introduction on work experience
 Stress on Moral education
 Vocationalisation of seconda ry education
 Strengthening the centres of advance study
 Special emphasis on the training and quality of teachers for
schools
 Education for agriculture and research in agriculture & allied
sciences.
The huge and voluminous report put fourth by the commission,
shows how we are facing hardship now a days and how can we come
over these hardships and meet the demands of our national development.
It was a unique in the history of Indian edu cation.
National policy on education 1986:
“Education in India stands at the cross roads today, neither normal linear
expansion nor t he existing pace and nature of improvement can meet the
needs of the situation”.
The new policy would be egalitarians. An attempt would have to be
made to give access to the best type of education to the most intelligent
children, no matter from which section of society they came from”-
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132 Rajiv Gandhi
This policy based on the conclusions of nationwide debate and
numerous other considerations comprises 29 fullscape pages.
The salient feature of the policy are under the headings as:
 The essence and role of education
 National system of education
 Education for equality
 Re-organisation of education at different stages
 Technical & Management education
 Making the system work
 Re-orienting the content and process of education
 The teacher
 The management of education
 Resources and review
 The future
Rammurthy Review Comm ittee - 1990 :
This Review Committee bases the title a towards an enlightened and
Human Society. The main objective of this committee is to implement
the revision of the National Policy within a timeframe. Ma jor
recommendations are given on the following hea ds:
 Removing deficiencies
 Preparing teachers for the view thrusts
 Internshop model of teachers training
 Training High-School teachers
 Preparing teacher educators for leadership role
 Continuing teacher education
Besides DIET has given the full responsibility to develop
competence in the areas like:
 Universalisation of elementary education
 Early childhood care and education
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133  Education for S.C., S.T & OBC
 Vocationalisation of Education and
 Examination reforms etc.
UGC was taken curriculum developme nt programme to promote
excellence in teaching.
Unit end Exer cises :
Q.1 Explain the curriculum pattern of secondary school as
recommended by seconda ry Education Commission.
Q.2 Explain the areas discussed under challenges of Education (1985)
Q.3 Explain the aims and role of Navodaya Vidyalayas.
Q.4 Write short notes on :
a) Delinking degrees from job. b) Operational Blackborad.
c) Programme of Action (POA). d) Pace setting School.
e) Leade rship role of teacher educators
f) Major recommendations of Rammurthy Review Committee
Reference:
Dr. kohli V. K. “Indian Education and it’s Problems” Vivek
Publishers, Harayana
Bhatnagar Suresh “Kothari Commission Recommendations and
Evaluation with a Text on National Policy on Education.”
International Publishing House, Meerut.


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134 13
SOME PROBLEMS OF INDIAN
EDUCATION
Unit Structure
13.1 Learning Objectives
13.2. Introduction
13.3 Problems of Wastage and Stagnation
13.4 Examination Reforms
13.5 Inclusive Education
13.6 Education for Marginalized Groups
13.7 Lets Sum Up
13.8 Unit End Questions
13.9 Suggested Readings
13.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit you will be able to
 Identify and understand the meaning and causes of wastage and
stagnation in education.
 Understand the need for examinat ion reforms.
 Critically evaluate the meaning, need and problems of inclusive
education.
 State the importance of education of the marginalized groups.
13.2. INTRODUCTION
The purpose of education cannot be doubted. Yet there is a large part of
the popula tion which suffers deprivation in all walks of life in general and
in education in particular. Efforts have been made to make a significant
contribution to economic, social and educational progress of the people of
India. However, the country faces some pr oblems. These include wastage
and stagnation in education and education of the marginalized groups. The
examination reforms are needed to make education more challenging as
well as equitable. Exams have to be set, organized and conducted without
creating s tress and evaluate the students in the right manner. There is great
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135 opportunities for education must ensure inclusion of all in the process of
education.
13.3 PROBLEMS OF WASTAGE AND ST AGNATION
IN EDUCATION
Meaning of Wastage
Wastage means premature withdrawal of children from schools at any
stage before completion of the courses. Wastage can occur at the primary,
secondary or at the higher education levels. Any student, who receives
education at any stage, is expected to complete his education within the
prescribed period. If one withdraws from the course before completion,
then that individual or individuals are deemed to be wastage to the course.
In Primary Education, the main objectiv e is the attainment of stable
literary through five year schooling. If a child entering school leaves it or
is withdrawn from school before completing class V, it leads to wastage in
education. Such students who do not complete the study of their
curriculu m and consequently the time, money and energy expended on
such students prove to be sheer wastage. Hence the most popular use of
the word "Wastage" in education means the wastage of time, effort and
money. A rough and ready method to measure wastage is to compare
diminution in enrolment from class to class in series of years.
Meaning of Stagnation
The students at every stage of education are expected to pass the
examination after finishing the whole course. But it has been found that in
general practice man y students are not able to pass the examinations in
one class or in more than one class within the prescribed period. Thus,
they fail and remain in the same class. These failed students repeat the
same class and course whereas their other colleagues pass t hat class and
study in the next upper class. This process has been called the process of
stagnation. Thus stagnation means the stay of students in a particular class
for more than one year. 'Stagnation' in education means the detention of a
student in a cl ass for more than one year on account of his unsatisfactory
progress. Thus stagnation also in a way means wastage.
It was the Hartog Committee (1929), which for the first time pointed out
that the "massive wastage and stagnation are taking place in primary
education. Primary Education is ineffective unless it at least produces
literacy". Loss due to wastage and stagnation at the secondary education
can be clear by looking at the results of the secondary school final exams
every year. University education to o is not free from wastage and
stagnation. The problems of wastage and stagnation exist in a greater
degree at this stage of education. This leads to great 'wastage' of public
money is taking place every year in the University Education.
This indicates tha t there is some indifference towards the serious loss of
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136 money and energy of the students, their parents or guardians and their
ambitions and aspirations in life.
Causes of Wastage and Stagnation
The causes of wastage and stagnation can be categorised as economic,
educational and social.
Economic Causes: Parents involve their children in domestic work or in
work outside the home to supplement family earnings, due to poverty.
Financial h andicap and no time to study is responsible for wastage and
stagnation. Even though there is the provision of free education of their
children, immense poverty makes the people unable to meet other
expenses connected with the education. Again, out of pover ty children
lack minimum diet and are unable to stay for long in schools.
Social Causes: Class and caste distinctions prevail in India, the former in
urban areas and the latter in rural areas. In the case of girls, an early
marriage prevents their educatio n. There is an opposition to send grown up
girls to schools especially to the mixed schools without women teachers.
Muslim parents are quite orthodox about their girls. Even in the case of
boys some parents due to caste restrictions do not want their child ren to
mix with upper caste boys and girls.
Sometimes children in schools suffer from diseases and they are
withdrawn for a long period from school causing wastage. Death of one of
the parents or both causes much hardship to children. Orphan children
drop-out from school without completing education, and so the wastage.
Educational Causes: Educational causes are responsible for another 30%
of wastage. According to the Government of India "The educational
institutions being ill -equipped, poorly housed and w ith dull and depressing
environment unfortunately could not exercise effective influence".
Children are not attracted to schools. Lack of adequate hostel facilities,
too much of over -crowded schools with high pupil -teacher ratio become
the main causes of wastage and stagnation. Again, increased number of
single -teacher schools, inefficient teaching, lack of teacher -pupil contact,
and frequent transfer of teachers disturbed the quality of instruction which
ultimately cause much wastage and stagnation.
Further, inefficient and poor quality of teachers, defective examinations,
uninteresting curricula, lack of proper parental attitude, absence of school
health services and school mid -day meals are responsible for much of
wastage and stagnation in schools.
Reme dial Measures
Statistics indicate huge wastage at the Primary stage. Of every 100 pupils
that enter class I only 40 reach class V and only 20 reach class VIII.
Therefore, steps are required to be taken for fighting against such alarming
wastage of those 80 students out of every hundred who leave school
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137 1. Stagnation and wastage can be reduced by concentrating on quantitative
improvement by universal provision and universal retention, as also
for qualitative improvement of pup ils.
2. Qualified teachers should be appointed to create better quality in the
instructional programme to attract children.
3. Fresh admissions should be made at the beginning of the school session
within two months from the date of commencement of school year. It
should not be done throughout the year.
4. As far as possible provision should be made for starting of Pre -Primary
Schools to admit children below 6 years of age. So that it will be a sort
of pre -registration and preparation of the pupils to get a dmitted in
schools. It will avoid the enrolment of under -aged or over -aged
children.
5. The curriculum must be made modest, simple and interesting so that it
can be implemented most efficiently.
6. Improvement, of the professional competence of teachers ma y be made
by providing training both at the pre -service and in -service levels.
Necessary guide/hand books for teachers and work books for students
and other literature should be provided.
7. Adequate and attractive school buildings should be provided. Nece ssary
equipment and teaching aids should be supplied for making education
more interesting and effective.
8. Teacher -pupil ratio may be maintained at such a level as to ensure
adequate individual attention to be paid to each individual in every
class parti cularly in class -I. As far as possible only trained and
competent teachers should remain in charge of class I.
9. As matter of policy it has been adopted that children from class I may
be liberally promoted to class II and the like, without any detention a t
any stage.
10. Provision of part -time schooling may be made for the benefit of
children who cannot attend the school during regular hours on account
of domestic and economic liabilities.
11. Effective supervision and inspection may be provided in schools .
12. Best possible use may be made of the existing resources, both human
and material. The schools may be graded according to efficiency and
standards. This will provide ground for qualitative improvement of
schools, which ultimately will go a long way in reducing wastage and
stagnation.
13. Special provision should be made for educating the mentally retarded
children by opening special institutions in each State or at the district
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138 14. To reduce wastage and stagnation in a bigger way, pupils be give n
nutritious diet at the mid -day meals under the School Health Service
Programme. Existing mid -day meals system should be carefully
regulated.
Check Your Progress
1. What is the meaning of the terms wastage and stagnation?
2. Explain the causes of wastage and s tagnation?
3. State the remedial measures which can be undertaken to overcome the
problem of wastage and stagnation?
References
1. www.preservearticles.com/. ../wastage -and-stagnation -in-education. 6
May 2011 .
13.4 EXAMINATION REFORMS IN INDIA
Need for Examination Reforms
The Indian education system is criticized for a number of gaps in its
examination system. It is criticized for not keeping pace with the d emand
of the outside world, for not being scientific and comprehensive for not
considering the practical skills required for good adjustment and for its
traditional methods of measurements.
Time and again various committees and commissions have tried to a ddress
the inherent malice in the examination system. After independence,
University Education Commission (1948 -49), Secondary Education
Commission (1952 -53), the Kothari Commission (1964 -66) and the
Yashpal Committee (2009) have suggested examination refo rms. Dr. S.
Radhakrishna, who chaired the University Education Commission (1948 -
49), said that “we are convinced that if we are to suggest one single reform
in the university education, it should be that of the examination…and if
examinations are necessary , a thorough reform of these is still more
necessary”. Some recommendation of The Radhakrishna Commission
with regard to improvement of examination system are: -
 Essay type test question to be supplemented by the introduction of
objective type test.
 The wo rk done by the students all through the year should also be
taken into consideration and 1/3rd mark should be reserved for it.
 There should be one public examination at the end of each of the 3
years of the degree course and not only one examination at the end of
the three years.
 Nobody should be appointed as an examiner unless he has 5 years
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139  Viva Voce examination should be held to test the competence of the
candidate in general knowledge.
 The system of grace mark should be abolished.
The Secondary School Commission on Secondary Education (1952 -53)
chaired by Dr. Mudaliar also recognized the lack of validity, reliability
and objectivity in examinations. The National Education Commission
(1964 -66) chaired by Dr. Kothari too pointed towards the need for
educational reforms and examination reforms.
Till today there are various problems and shortcomings that pervade
India’s system of education on the whole and in the area of examinations
in particular. The system of examination as it is conducted today lacks
reliability, validity and objectivity. The examination system of India has
remained unchanged from many years. In the education system of India,
ability of a student is decided by an exam. In this system there is no place
for performance of a student in full academic session. Scoring more and
more marks in exams has become the only aim of a student.
NCERT’s National Curriculum Framework – 2005, a more current reform
document has placed emphasis on examination reforms. The NC F-2005
traces the source of a wide range of systemic ills in the public examination
system which renders millions as ‘failed.’ The NCF also criticizes the
examination system as an obstacle to curricular reform.
Problems with the Present Examination System
 The entire education system is centered around examinations.
 Evaluation means to conduct the examination and to give marks and
ranks to students.
 Student’s knowledge is often limited to rote memorizing and
reproducing the same in the examinations. Their i nnate talents are not
recognized; instead their capability in writing examination is being
tested. It is restricted to only by - hearting /rote memory.
 There is no uniformity in evaluation. Different types of evaluation
systems are prevailing in different B oards i.e. Government, ICSE,
CBSE etc. There is no flexibility in the conducting of tests. It is the
rigid Board examinations that are only helping in classifying students
as meritorious and slow - learners i.e. in turn pass/fail This leads to
unhealthy dis crimination.
 The tests and examinations conducted at present are only testing the
memory power of the students; they are not measuring the higher order
skills of learning like analysis, synthesis and problem solving.
 The examinations are mechanical Correct ing and posting of marks is
done routinely. There is no scope for remedial teaching and testing to
know how far a student is lagging behind. Examinations are not
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140 co-curricular activit ies, social -personal qualities, health status and
level of competencies.
NCF 2005 also emphasized the need for reforms in present examination
system by making them child friendly and stress free. A serious look into
the issue should help bring about some c hanges taking off its demerits for
making examinations an important tool in assessment of child. The HRD
ministry has agreed to the proposed changes. There is a body of research
and studies conducted by eminent Indian educationists behind this move,
which have been repeatedly mentioned in various education committees
formed to reform and revitalize the Indian education system.
Reforms Proposed in the Examination System
 To follow what is espoused in Right to Education (RTE) 2009.
Evaluation should have a b roader framework and it should not be
limited to examinations alone. Exams should include students’
displays, projects, seminars, collection of information and reports.
 The examinations should not create fear or stress for the student.
 Evaluation should be continuous and comprehensive and it should be
the part and parcel of daily teaching learning process. It should not
restrict to rote – memory.
 When construction of knowledge becomes primary in curriculum the
evaluation should be continuous and comprehensi ve i.e. along with the
teaching – learning process.
 The assessment should be based on day to day activities.
 The examinations should not be restricted/limited to writing but
extended to assessment tools like observation, discussion, note -
taking/recording, collection of opinions etc. the assessment should not
only be teacher – based but also on peer groups, parents and other.
Reforms Suggested in Examinations
 Examinations are to be considered a part of evaluation system.
 Instead of 3 terminal examinations , 2 should be conducted.
 A test is to be conducted after completion of every unit; with this we
will know the children’s achievements and their level. It helps to know
the competency level of the child for remedial teaching.
 The most important item in the test is the nature of questions. They
should be above the level of rote - learning.
 The open – ended questions which allow the students to think and write
and express their views on their own should be given importance. To
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141  Entrance examinations and Board examinations are to be abolished.
 Teachers are to be encouraged to prepare their own question – papers
to conduct examinations.
 In –service training programmes should conducted for teachers to
devel op their ability to make question papers innovatively.
 They must be given adequate skills to prepare Question – Banks.
 Open book system is to be introduced for languages and social studies.
The same test paper is to be used after re – teaching and relearni ng for
slow –learners /non achiever.
 Model question - papers should be developed.
 Class X Board examinations are to be abolished and they should be
made optional.
 Oral tests also should be included in examination system.
 Evaluation in co - curricular activ ities like art and games can use
tools/techniques like rating scales, checklists, observation techniques,
interviews to assess the co -curricular activities like physical education,
social, personal qualities, art, games, health and sports. The same
things should be recorded in the progress reports of the students
through grades. The school -implemented activities like wall -
magazines, student dairies and teacher dairies and teacher dairies are
also to be evaluated.
 After conducting the examinations the stude nts progress is to be
communicated to their parents as per the RTE Act 2009 children’s’
progress and achievement should also be displayed online.
In 2011 the ministry of HRD has proposed the following:
 Scrap the compulsory class 10 board exam, for it is me rely a source of
unneeded pressure for both students and parents. For a student
studying within the same institution, an internal assessment is
sufficient to determine the subjects he must pursue further. However, a
provision will be made for an optional a ll-India exam for students
entering pre-university / junior college after class 10.
 Invite Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in the education sector as India
becomes an attractive economy. However, even big names like
Harvard and Wharton must adhere to Indi an norms, both in terms of
fee, and reservations. These are strategically termed as affirmative
action.
 Improve the quality and standard of primary education in government
schools, which by the Right to Education bill is meant to be free for
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142 Check Your Progress
1. Critically evaluate the problems with the present examination system?
2. What some of the re forms proposed in the examination system?
3. State the recent measures proposed by the MHRD Ministry.
References
1. indiacurrentaffairs.org › Education (2010) Examination Reforms and
Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation
2. indiacurrentaffairs.org › Education 24 Dec 2010 – Reforms proposed
in the examination system.
3. Krishna Kumar (2009) The long road to examination reforms in ‘The
Hindu’.
4. Pradhan S.K. (2009) Examination Reform in the U.G Commerce
examination system: An Introspection, Department of Commerce, St
Anthony’s College. Shillong
5. Shivya (2009) Education Reforms in India
13.5 INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
With the growing importance of equal opportunities for education for all,
one of the important aims of schools has become to include students with
special needs in the regular classrooms. The Government of India has
enacted the legislation Persons with Disa bilities (Equal Opportunities and
Full Participation) Act, 1995 (PWD Act) to achieve the goal of providing
access to free education in an appropriate environment to all learners with
disabilities till s/he attains the age of eighteen years. The Act endeav ors to
promote the integration of learners with disabilities in mainstream schools.
Concept of Inclusive Education
The concept has evolved towards the idea that all children should attend
the mainstream school (equal learning opportunities) regardless of t heir
cultural and social backgrounds as well of their differences on abilities and
capacities.
Inclusive Education means that all students in a school, regardless of their
strengths or weaknesses in any area, become part of the school
community. They are i ncluded in the feeling of belonging among other
students, teachers, and support staff. The Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA) and its 1997 amendments make it clear that schools
have a duty to educate children with disabilities in general ed ucation
classrooms.
Inclusion is more than just physical access to schools. It is including
learners in all aspects such as social inclusion, curriculum accessibility
and emotional inclusion. As such i nclusive education is a developmental munotes.in

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143 approach seeking to address the learning needs of all children, youth and
adults with a specific focus on those who are vulnerable to marginalization
and exclusion.
Inclusive Education is defined as a learning environment that promotes the
full personal, academic and pro fessional development of all learners
irrespective of race, class, gender, disability, religion, culture, sexual
preference, learning styles and language. (The National Commission on
Special Needs in Education and Training (NCSNET1998) and National
Committ ee for Education Support Services (NCESS 1998))
Scope of Inclusive education
The concept of Inclusion is often discussed as though it applies only to
Special Educational Needs (SEN), but it has much wider scope. According
to Booth and Ainscow (2000) inclusion in education involves:
 Valuing all students and staff equally.
 Reducing student’s exclusion from schools and focusing their increase
participation in the cultures, curric ula and communities of local
schools.
 To respond to the diversity of students in the locality, there is a need
for restructuring the culture, policies and practices in schools.
 Reducing barriers to learning and participation for all students in the
schoo ls. Especially those who are categorized as ‘having special
educational needs’.
 Learning from attempts to overcome barriers to the access and
participation of particular students to make changes for the benefit of
students more widely.
 Viewing the diffe rence between students as resources to support
learning, rather than as problems to be overcome.
 Acknowledging the right of students to an education in their locality.
 Improving schools for staff as well as for students.
 Emphasizing the role of schools in building community and
developing values, as well as in increasing achievement.
 Fostering mutually sustaining relationships between schools and
communities.
 Recognizing that inclusion in education is one aspect of inclusion in
society.
Problems Relat ed to Inclusive Education
Lack of Awareness: The biggest challenge to inclusion of children with
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144 Teachers lack knowledge of disabilities and experience with disabled
students,
Negative Att itude of the Teacher: Teachers, like the general public, have
negative views on both disabled students and mainstreaming. Teachers
have negative attitude to mainstreaming emotionally disturbed and
mentally retarded students.
Appropriate Environment : Most s chools do not have the environment to
make children with special needs feel welcome. There is lack of resources
and infrastructure.
Lack of Attention to Individual Development : The current education
system does not allow for individual development of child ren at their own
pace. Teachers are unable to cope with differences in children.
Lack of Training : Teachers cannot identify and work with children who
are different not because they don’t want to, but due to lack of training.
This makes children with spec ial needs vulnerable, particularly in the
Indian milieu. The teachers do not know how to deal with these children.
Large Classroom Size : In a typical Indian class of fifty children, children
with special needs, fall outside the teacher’s tolerance level.
Non-Acceptance : Their nondisabled peers do not accept these students
due to their inability and slowness to participate in normal activities.
Steps Taken
1. In India, the government and NGOs are initiating measures to review
and plan appropriate strategies for students with special needs and
inclusive education. These measures include evolving policy
guidelines, analyzing practices, developing teacher -training
programmes, and creating resource persons and special teachers by
establishing linkages to complem ent each other.
2. The National Curriculum Framework for School Education
(NCERT, 2000) has recommended inclusive schools for learners with
special educational needs by making appropriate modifications in the
content, presentation and transaction strategies, preparing teachers and
developing learning friendly evaluation procedures.
3. Children with special needs can be part of mainstream education with
early intervention. If a child’s specific learning difficulty can be
detected by class III, then with right sup port of teacher the child can
overcome the difficulty by the time he reaches middle schools.
Therefore, training for teachers at pre -primary and primary levels is
most important. In fact, such training should be given to student -
teachers at the pre -service level. So that they are trained to cater to
children with special needs when they join the schools as a teacher.
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145 4. Those working in the field of education feel that teacher -training
programmes at all levels M. Ed, B. Ed and D. Ed require a complete
overha ul. Teachers need to be sensitized and equipped to help students
with different needs. Any innovation in teaching will benefit all
learners.
5. Support services for teachers with mainstreamed classes appear vital
to teacher attitudes. Having psychologists or special education teachers
who can provide information and assistance on a specific disabled
child, behaviour management, or teaching techniques, will make
teachers more positive toward inclusive education.
Check Your Progress
1. What is the meaning and scop e of inclusive education?
2. Identify some problem of inclusive education. What are some of the
measure being taken with respect to inclusive education?

13.6 EDUCATION OF THE MARGINALIZED GROUPS
Defining Marginalization
Marginalization is generally describ ed as the overt actions or tendencies of
human societies, where people who they perceive to be undesirable or
without useful function are excluded, i.e., marginalized. The people who
are marginalized are outside the existing systems of protection and
integ ration. This limits their opportunities and means for survival.
The Encyclopaedia of Public Health defines marginalization as, 'to be
placed in the margins, and thus excluded from the privilege and power
found at the center".
Merriam -Webster's online dic tionary definition of the term, marginalize, is
"to relegate to an unimportant, or powerless position within a society or
group".
The concept of marginality is generally used to analyse socioeconomic,
political, and cultural spheres, where disadvantaged pe ople struggle to
gain access to resources and full participation in social life. In other words,
marginalized people might be socially, economically, politically and
legally ignored, excluded, or neglected, and, therefore vulnerable.
Marginality' is demean ing, for economic well -being, for human dignity, as
well as for physical security.
Nature of Marginalization
 Marginalization is a multidimensional, multicausal, historical
phenomenon. There are no general laws to understand and
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146  Marginalization can be due to class , in relation to specific social,
cultural, economic and political conditions, as well as ideological
systems, social awareness, and human action.
 Marginalization varies in different settings . The religious, ecological
system, patriarchy, political economy of a country, and the overall
social system have an impact on the marginalization of specific groups
or an individual.
 Marginalization also varies from culture to culture . This can be seen in
relation to elderly people living in different countries and cultures. The
strong and supportive traditional family system in some cultures often
provides better respect and care to elders than the public aided system
available in others.
 Level of awareness a mong the marginalized groups plays very
important role. Organized communities which are aware of their
rights, demand more justice than unorganized communities. This also
depends upon the support of the political -economic system of the
country where they l ive in. Democratic institutions are favourable for
most of the disadvantaged groups.
 Marginalization happens simultaneously at the micro and macro
levels . Marginalization occurs at different levels, i.e., individual,
group, community, and global . Discrimi nation across different social
institutions, such as family, schools and neighbourhood, at work
places, or places of worship. Many communities, a result of
colonization, experience marginalization such as aboriginals, or
women too face discrimination. Glob alization too has increased the
gap between rich and poor nations. The influx of capitalism,
information technology, company outsourcing, job insecurity, and the
widening gap between the rich and the poor, impacts the lives of
individuals and groups in man y capacities.
Types of Marginalization
Some broad types of marginalization such as social, economic, and
political have been identified.
i) Social Marginalization: Socially marginalized people are largely
deprived of social opportunities. There are those born into marginal
groupings e.g., lower castes in India, or members of ethnic groups suffer
discrimination. This marginality is typically lifelong. They lack the
required social and cultural capital to participate in mainstream
development processes. Thei r social networks are weak and vulnerable.
They are deprived of access to resources, such as, economic, educational,
cultural, and other support systems. This creates social isolation and limits
their participation in the development process.
ii) Economic Marginalization: Some individuals or groups can be
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147 their income varies. Poverty and economic marginalization have both
direct and indirect impact on people's health and wellbeing.
iii) P olitical Marginalization: Political marginalization does not allow the
group to participate democratically in decision making, and, hence, they
lose their right to every social, economic, and political benefit. In every
society, lack of political empowerm ent affects large sections of people,
including women, ethnic minorities, migrants, disabled persons, elderly.
Causes of Marginalization
Some of the important factors that are responsible for marginalization are
exclusion, globalization, displacement, and disaster both natural, and
manmade.
i) Exclusion: Marginalization is a process that denies opportunities and
outcomes to 'those 'living on the margins', while enhancing the
opportunities and outcomes for those who are 'at the centre'.
Marginalization comb ines discrimination and social exclusion. It offends
human dignity, and it denies human rights. Caste and class prejudice, in
many societies across the globe, exclude many groups and communities,
and hinder their active participation in economic and social development.
ii) Globalization: Globalization has increased openness which has
promoted development at the cost of equity. It is viewed that globalization
has enhanced the gap between haves and have -nots and thus boosted
marginalization. While it is true that some middle income developing
countries, as well as the most populous countries, India and China, are
gaining out of globalization, yet the impact is not equally universal.
iii) Displacement: The development programmes implemented by the
government and increasing construction of development projects
consistently displace a massive number of tribal, poor, and weaker
sections. This results in marginalization of already marginalized people.
iv) Disasters -Natural and Unnatural: Disasters, are a global phenomena
and a serious challenge to development. Vulnerability is linked to broader
social issues such as poverty, social exclusion, conflict, education, health,
gender issues and marginalization. There are three broad classifications of
disasters.
Natur al: earthquake, volcanic eruption, hurricane, tornado, ice storm,
flood, landslide, wildfire, insect infestation, and disease outbreaks.
Manmade: Can be associated with technological advances, i.e.,
explosives, unexploded ordinance, toxic spills, emission s of radio -
isotopes, and transportation accidents. It also includes incidents involving
hazardous materials such as carcinogens, mutagens, or heavy metals.
Dangers are posed by structural failure of devices and machines or
installations, and plants, such as bridges, dams, mines, power plants,
pipelines, high rise buildings, vehicles, and trains. munotes.in

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148 Social: These include incidents primarily involving social unrest, such as
hijacking, riots, demonstrations, crowd rushes, and stampedes, terrorist
incidents, as we ll as bombings, shootings, and hostage taking.
Marginalized Groups
Some of the most vulnerable marginalized groups in almost every society
are:
i) Women: Under different economic conditions, and under the influence
of specific historical,
cultural, legal and religious factors, marginalization of women can be seen
from their exclusion from certain jobs and occupations. Women belonging
to lower classes, lower castes, illiterate, and the poorest region have been
marginalized more than their better off counter parts.
ii) People with Disabilities: People with disabilities have had to battle
against centuries of biased assumptions, harmful stereotypes, and
irrational fears. The stigmatization of disability resulted in the social and
economic marginalization of gen erations with disabilities, and thus has left
people with disabilities in a severe state of impoverishment for centuries.
iii) Elderly: Ageing is an inevitable and inexorable process in life. For
most nations, regardless of their geographic location or dev elopmental
stage, the 80 year olds, or over -age group is growing faster than any
younger segment of the older population. Elderly women form the
majority of marginalized groups among them.
iv) Ethnic Minority: The term, ethnic minority, refers to margina lised
people of the same race or nationality who share a distinctive culture. A
minority is a sociological group that does not constitute a politically
dominant voting majority of the total population of a given society. It may
include any group that is su bnormal with respect to a dominant group, in
terms of social status, education, employment, wealth, and political power.
Every large society contains ethnic minorities . They may be migrant,
indigenous or landless nomadic communities, or religious minoritie s that
have a different faith from the majority.
v) Caste Groups: The caste system is a strict hierarchical social system
based on underlying notions of purity and pollution. Brahmins are on the
top of the hierarchy and Shudras or Dalits or the Scheduled Castes
constitute the bottom of the hierarchy. The marginalization of Dalits
influences all spheres of their life, violating basic human rights such as
civil, political, social, economic and cultural rights. Literacy rates,
purchasing power and poor housin g conditions among Dalits are very low.
Physical segregation of their settlements is common. However, in recent
years due to affirmative action and legal protection, the intensity of caste -
based marginalization is reducing.
vi) Tribes: The Tribes are margi nalized across nations, whether it is
advanced countries like USA, Australia or the developing and munotes.in

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149 underdeveloped countries in Asia and Africa. In India, the population of
Scheduled Tribes is around 84.3 million and is considered to be socially
and economi cally disadvantaged group. They are mainly landless with
little control over resources such as land, forest and water. They constitute
agricultural, casual, plantation and industrial labourers. This has resulted
in poverty, low levels of education and poor access to health care services.
The Indian Context
In the Indian context the marginalized are categorized as the scheduled
castes, scheduled tribes, denoted tribes, nomadic tribes, and other
backward classes.
Education of the Marginalized in the Indian Context
The Education Commission 1964 -66 in its report stressed on the
equalization of educational opportunity. One of the most important
objectives of education is to equalize opportunity enabling the
marginalized, backward or the underprivileged classes to use education for
improvement of their conditions. Policies on education 1968, 1986 and
1992 all stressed upon speedy action for the promotion education of the
deprived sections of the society.
Measures for Education of the Marginalized
 Incentives to families to send their children regularly to schools till
they reach the age of 14.
 Pre-matric scholarships for all children regardless of incomes.
 Constant micro planning and verification to ensure enrolment,
retention and successful completion of courses .
 Remedial measures to better their chances for further education and
employment.
 Recruitment of teachers from scheduled castes.
 Provision of hostel facilities.
 Location of school buildings, balwadis, and adult education centres to
facilitate participati on specially in rural areas, hill and desert districts
or remote and inaccessible areas.
 Priority given to opening schools in tribal areas with help of tribal
welfare schemes.
 Developing curricula and instructional materials in tribal languages
with facili ty to switch to regional language. Also the curricula in the
states to depict rich cultural identity of the tribal people.
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150  Residential schools including ashram schools, anganwadis, non formal
and ad ult education centres to open on priority basis.
 Incentive schemes, scholarships for higher education with emphasis on
technical, professional and para -professional courses.
 Remedial programmes to help overcome psycho -social impediments.
Check Your Progres s
1. What is the meaning and scope of marginalization?
2. Who are the marginalized people in general and in particular in the
Indian context?
3. What are the causes of marginalization?
4. What steps have been taken by the Government of India for the
education of th e marginalized groups?

13.7 LETS SUM UP
Efforts have been made to reach education to all. However, there is
wastage and stagnation in education. There are economic, social and
educational causes that hinder the education of children coming from
lower st rata of society. The marginalized groups existing in society
namely the scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and other backward classes
have historically suffered deprivation in all walks of life in general and in
education in particular. Efforts have been m ade towards economic, social
and educational progress of the marginalized people of India. The
examination reforms have been suggested right from the time of
independence by various committees set up for the purpose. The latest
document from the NCERT, the NCF 2005 has clearly laid out the much
needed reforms and the HRD ministry currently is keen to implement the
reform. There is great diversity in the population and the government of
India has passed regulations with respect to inclusion of all irrespecti ve of
any kind of disability. There are efforts to provide equal opportunities and
inclusion of all in the process of education.
13.8 UNIT END QUESTIONS
1. Explain the meaning and causes of wastage and stagnation. What
measures can be undertaken to overcome the problem of wastage and
stagnation?
2. Give the exam reforms given by NCF 2005. In your opinion can they
be successfully implemented?
3. What are the problems of inclusive education? munotes.in

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151 4. Who are the marginalized in the Indian society? What are some of the
measur es undertaken for their education?
13.9 SUGGESTED READINGS
1. www.preservearticles.com/.../wastage -and-stagnation -in-education . 6
May 2011.
2. indiacurrentaffairs.org › Education (2010) Examinatio n Reforms and
Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation
3. indiacurrentaffairs.org › Education 24 Dec 2010 – Reforms proposed
in the examination system.
4. Krishna Kumar (2009) The long road to examination reforms in ‘The
Hindu’.
5. Pradhan S.K. (2009) Examination Reform in the U.G Commerce
examination system: An Introspection, Department of Commerce, St
Anthony’s College. Shillong
6. Shivya (2009) Education Reforms in India
7. Aggarwal, J.C. (2004) Development of Education in India , Delhi,
Shipra Publications
8. Ainscow, M. (1999). Understanding th e Development of Inclusive
Schools. London: Falmer Press
9. Alexander, Cara, and Philip S. Strain. (1978). A Review of Educators'
Attitudes Toward
Handicapped Children and the Concept of Mainstreaming.
Psychology in the Schools 15 390 -396. Retrieved Septembe r 12, 2008
from http://www.ericdigests.org/pre -927/teacher.htm
10. Ballard, K. (Ed.) (1998 ). Inclusive education: International voices on
disability and justice. London: Falmer Press.
11. Barton, L. (19 97). Inclusive Education: Romantic, Subversive or
Realistic? International Journal of Inclusive Education , 1(3), 231 -242.
12. Booth, T. & Ainscow, M. (Eds) (1998). From Them to Us: An
International Study of Inclusion in Education. London: Routledge.
13. Hannah, Ma ry Elizabeth, and Susan Pliner. (1983). Teacher Attitudes
Toward Handicapped Children: A Review and Synthesis. School
Psychology Review 12 12 -25. Retrieved September 12, 2008 from
http://www.eri cdigests.org/pre -927/teacher.htm 12
14. indiacurrentaffairs.org › Education (2010) Examination Reforms and
Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation munotes.in

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History of Education
152 15. indiacurrentaffairs.org › Education 24 Dec 2010 – Reforms proposed
in the examination system.
16. Kanbur, Ravi. (2007), Conceptualizing Economic Marginalization,
(Key-notes for the Living at the Margins Conference Cape Town,
March 26, 2007), www.people.cornell.edu/pages.
17. Krishna Kumar (2009) The long road to examination reforms in ‘The
Hindu’.
18. Murshed. Marlsoob (ed.) (2002), Globalization, Marginalization, and
Develop ment, London, New York: Routledge.
19. Nomani, Farhad and Sohrab Behdad (2002), The Nature of
Marginalization of
Women b Work Force in the Post -Revolutionary Iran, paper presented
at Middle
East Economic Association, New Orleans, 5 -7 January 200 1.
20. Pradhan S.K . (2009) Examination Reform in the U.G Commerce
examination system: An Introspection, Department of Commerce, St
Anthony’s College. Shillong
21. Sinha, N. (2001). Governmental strategies towards education of the
disabled: tapping open learning for the educatio n of the disabled.
[Paper presented] National Workshop on Inclusive Education for
Children with Disabilities: Prospects and Challenges. NIPCD and
Planning Commission NIPCD and Planning Commission, New Delhi.
22. Sebba, J. & Ainscow, M. (1996). International D evelopments in
Inclusive Schooling: Mapping the Issues. Cambridge Journal of
Education, 26 (1), 5 -18.
23. Sen Malini, (September 24 2007). A School for All. Education Times ,
Times of India
24. Shivya (2009) Education Reforms in India
25. Toye, Michael and Jennifer Infa nti (2004), Social Inclusion and
Community
26. Economic Development: Literature Review, Pan-Canadian
Community Development Learning Network Project Framework,
27. UNICEF’s (2000). Report on the Status of Disability in India.
Retrieved August 8, 2007, from www.unicef.org
28. UNESCO (1994), The Salamanca Statement and Framework for
Action on Special Needs Education. UNESCO/Ministry of Education
and Science, Madrid

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153 14
TRENDS AND ISSUES IN EDUCATION
Unit Structure
14.1 Learning Objectives
14.2. Introduction
14.3 National Knowledge Commission
14.4 Impact of Globalization on Higher Education
14.5 Millennium Development Goals Given by UNESCO
14.6 Privat ization of Higher Education
14.7 Lets Sum Up
14.8 Unit End Questions
14.9 Suggested Readings
14.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit you will be able to
 Identify the current trends in higher education with respect to National
Knowledge Commission and Millennium Development Goals given
by UNESCO.
 Identify the current issues in higher education with respect to impact
of globalization on and privatization of higher education.
 Understand the different aspects of the trends and iss ues affecting
higher education.
 Critically evaluate the importance of these trends and issues.
14.2 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of higher education is to make a significant contribution to
economic development, social progress and political democracy in
independent India. The changing global scenario has brought about newer
trends such as the setting up of the National Knowledge Commission to
look into matters pertaining to higher education. The Millennium
Development Goals given by UNESCO for worldwide popul ation has
implications for improvement of the quality of life for people world over.
The proportion of the Indian population, about 7 per cent in the relevant
age group, that enters the world of higher education has made several
demands on the system of hi gher education. There are certain issues, such munotes.in

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154 as privatization and globalization because of which, the opportunities for
higher education as well as the quality of higher education in most of the
Indian universities leaves much to be desired. These are a cause for great
concern.
14.3 NATIONAL KNOWLEDGE COMMISSION
The National Knowledge Commission (NKC) was constituted on 13
June 2005 by the Prime Minister of I ndia, Dr. Manmohan Singh . The
Commission was to be a think -tank which would consider the possible
policies that might sharpen India's comparative advantage in the
knowledge -intensive service sectors. The NKC website was launched in
February 2006.
The Commission, in particular, was to advise the Prime Minister's Office
on policies related to education, research institutes and reforms needed to
make India competitive in the knowledge economy . The Commission was
to recommend reform of the education sector, research laboratories, and
intellectual property legislation. It was also to consider whether the
Government could itself upgrade its use of the latest techniques to make
its workings more transparent.
The National Knowledge Commission (NKC) at the start consisted of
eight members with Sam Pitroda , as the Chairman.
Terms of Reference of the NKC
 Build excellence in the educational system to meet the knowledge
challenges of the 21st century and increase India’s competitive
advantage in fields of knowledge.
 Promote creation of k nowledge in science and technology laboratories.
 Improve the management of institutions engaged in intellectual
property rights.
 Promote knowledge applications in agriculture and industry.
 Promote the use of knowledge capabilities in making government a n
effective, transparent and accountable service provider to the citizen
and promote widespread sharing of knowledge to maximize public
benefit.
The Organizational Structure of the NKC
The organizational structure of the NKC is flat. The Secretariat is he aded
by an Executive Director and consists of around 8 -9 research associates. It
also has four advisors who advise the commission on different issues. The
Secretariat of the Commission is located in Chanakyapuri, New Delhi.

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155 Working of the NKC
The NKC con sults a wide range of stake -holders and experts on each area
before submitting the recommendations to the Prime Minister. Each area
has a working group which is headed by a prominent person in that field.
The Working Group members meet several times to sub mit a report to the
NKC. The NKC members then hold discussions on the report before
submitting it to the Prime Minister. After submitting the
recommendations, an extensive coordination also takes place with the
Planning Commission of India and relevant ministries of the Government.
As many of the components of the education sector remains state subjects
in India, NKC representatives also visit various state governments and
conduct deliberations with secretaries of education departments for
reforming of the education sector at the state level.
Major Thrusts
In December 2006, the Commission brought out a 'Report to the Nation
2006'. It includes the follow ing recommendations submitted to the Prime
Minister on libraries , knowledge , E-governance , translation , languages ,
and national portals . Many of the recommendations of the NKC are
already in the implementation stage by different ministries of the
Government. This includes areas such as libraries, e -governance and
translation.
Some of the major areas under work are higher education, vocational
education, entrepreneurship and school education.
Five Key Areas of the Knowledge Paradigm
The National Kn owledge Commission deliberations have focused on five
key areas of the knowledge paradigm.
Providing access to knowledge by providing means through r ight to
education , language , translation , libraries , networks and p ortals .
Knowledge concepts are organized, distributed and transmitted through
the education system which covers many aspec ts such as s chool education ,
vocational education , higher education , medical education , legal
education , management education , engineering education , open and
distance education , open educational resources , thus enabling the
individuals to make better informed decisions and keep abreast of
important issues and trends.
Knowledge creation can be enhanced by either using existing resou rces
better, or discovering new resources. India must therefore examine issues
such as science and technology , legal fr amework for public funded
research , intellectual property rights (IPRs) , innovation and
entrepreneurship .
Knowledge application can promote technological change and facilitate
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156 markets and industry. Initiatives in the areas of agriculture, small and
medium enterprises (SMEs) and traditional knowledge can demonstrate
that knowledge can be very effectively applied for the betterment of the
quality of life for all and in particular the rural poor.
Development of be tter knowledge services will simplify many different
points at which citizens interact with the State. Technology provides us
with an opportunity to ensure accountability, transparency and efficiency
in government services. E -governance is one of the ways in which citizens
can be empowered to increase transparency of government functioning,
leading to greater efficiency and productivity.
NKC Recommendations for Higher Education
The objectives of reform and change in the higher education system must
be expa nsion, excellence and inclusion.
For Expansion 1. Create many more universities i.e. nearly1500
universities nationwide or some clusters of affiliated colleges could also
become universities to attain a gross enrolment ratio of at least 15 per cent
by 2015;
2. Change the system of regulation for higher education by establishing an
Independent Regulatory Authority for Higher Education (IRAHE),
independent of Government, its ministries and all other stakeholders;
3. Increase public spending and diversi fy sources of financing which can
necessarily come from both public and private sources;
4. Establish 50 National Universities of the highest standard. They can be
an example for the rest of the nation, and train students in a variety of
disciplines, incl uding humanities, social sciences, basic sciences,
commerce and professional subjects, at both the undergraduate and post -
graduate levels.
For Excellence 1 . Existing universities need to be reformed by
restructuring their curricula at least once in three y ears, supplementing
annual examinations, with continuous internal assessment, transition to a
course credit system, become the hub of research, attract and retain
talented faculty members,
2. Restructure undergraduate colleges affiliated to universities b y
providing autonomy to colleges, or remodel as community colleges, and
by establishing Board of Undergraduate Education for affiliation.
For Inclusion a needs blind admissions policy should be adopted making
it unlawful for educational institutions to tak e into account any financial
factor while admitting a student. The needs are to be measured by such an
index which could include social background covering caste (keeping in
view regional variations), religion and gender, family education history ;
family i ncome, type of school distinguishing between government and
private schools and between schools from different locations, the medium
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157 areas and accounting for regional deprivation by sorting districts along an
index of infrastructure or access to social benefits and physical disability .
The government should support a well -funded and extensive National
Scholarship Scheme targeting economically underprivileged students and
students from historically socially disadvantaged groups, particularly
students from rural and backward areas.
Check Your Progress
1. Why was the National Knowledge Commission set up? What were the
terms of reference of the Commission?
2. Describe the five key areas of the k nowledge paradigm?
3. What are the NKC recommendations for higher education with respect
to expansion, excellence and inclusion?

14.4 IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON HIGHER
EDUCATION
Defining 'Globalization'
'Globalization' is commonly used as a way of describi ng the spread and
connectedness of production, communication and technologies across the
world. ‘Globalization' is also referred to the efforts of the International
Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank and others to create a global free
market for goods and services. Globalization in the sense of connectivity
in economic and cultural life across the world has been growing for
centuries. However the speed of communication and exchange, the
complexity and size of the networks involved, and the sheer volume of
trade, interaction and risk can be labeled as 'globalization'.
Globalization involves the diffusion of ideas, practices and technologies. It
is something more than internationalization and universalization. It isn't
simply modernization or westernization . It certainly isn't just the
liberalization of markets. Anthony Giddens (1990: 64) has described
globalization as 'the intensification of worldwide social relations which
link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by
events occ urring many miles away and vice versa'. This involves a change
in the way geography is understood and localness is experienced.
Although it offers opportunity, it brings considerable risks, for example
those linked to technological change.
Characteristics of Globalization
 In economic terms , a rise in internationalized advertising and
consumption patterns, a reduction in barriers to the free flow of goods,
workers, and investments across national borders, and
correspondingly, new pressures on the roles of wo rker and consumer
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158  In political terms , a certain loss of nation -state sovereignty, or at least
the erosion of national autonomy, and, correspondingly, a weakening
of the notion of the "citizen".
 In cultural terms , a tension between the ways in w hich globalization
brings forth more standardization and cultural homogeneity, while also
bringing more fragmentation through the rise of locally oriented
movements due to the desire of preserving one’s identity. Sometimes
this merger, between the global a nd the local is termed "the glocal."
 In educational terms , there is a growing understanding that
globalization, is reflected in an educational agenda that privileges, if
not directly imposes, particular policies for evaluation, financing,
assessment, stand ards, teacher training, curriculum, instruction, and
testing.
Globalization and Education
Globalization has affected many areas of human life, including education.
Globalization has created an information based society. Educational
scenario is rapidly ch anging because of globalization. The developments
in technology and communication systems have brought about changes in
the teaching and learning systems across the world. New ideas, change in
values and knowledge, have changed the roles of students and te achers
too. Education is now expected to shape children, the future citizens of the
world into ‘global citizens’, with a broad range of skills and knowledge.
As such it is the need of the hour to include subjects which reflect this
global outlook and provi de individuals with a better chance of
employment, which in turn leads to a better lifestyle, power and status.
Technological advancements have introduced technology in the
classrooms which have changed the way education is being delivered to
the students. There is reliance on electronic sources such as the emergence
of video conferencing and communication and information based
technology, the Internet, with massive network of computers located
throughout the world, to deliver the material. The rapid growth of
television services, and influence of this media of mass communication,
has also contributed to preparing a knowledgeable people. As a result, the
barriers of distance are being broken down at a rapid rate, due to this key
aspect of globalization. Ther e is no need to be physically present in an
educational institution in order to learn.
Impact of Globalization
 The spread of education internationally, as a result of globalization, has
affected cultures worldwide.
 The capitalist society is gradually bec oming global with a strong
emphasis on free trade. munotes.in

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159  Educational institutions are becoming more market oriented, focusing
their energy more on creating funds rather than providing sufficient
education for students.
 Due to this free trade there is inclinatio n to end protection to education
so that there is more competition and privatization in the education
sector.
 Universities and colleges around the world are forced to compete in
the global capitalist market and engage in entrepreneurial activity to
sustai n themselves. This has changed institutional approaches to the
development of overseas education.
 University courses must now be cross -cultural in content, and cater to
students entering higher education outside of their own country.
 Due to globalization there have been changes in the labour market,
which have resulted in need for more knowledge and skilled workers,
and workers with deeper understandings of languages, cultures and
business methods from all over the world.
Problems and Opportunities due to Globalization
Globalization of higher education creates both challenges and
opportunities. Education will be the answer to many problems raised by
globalization.
 Educational goals are seen to be an area of great concern in the era of
globalization. It i s here that universities play a crucially important role,
for creating better society. It is impossible to ignore the local
universities’ need to reflect on the impact of globalization.
 Universities providing a high quality education for the globalised
world must focus on internationalism and cross -cultural
communication.
 Education should not become a means of westernizing the world but it
should treat each unique culture and society with respect, realizing that
global education is not only learning about the West, but also studying
different cultures of the world, using different approaches, ways of
teaching and different media.
 Due to globalization, there has been commodification and the
corporatization of institutions of higher learning. The state is gra dually
withdrawing from higher education and many state run institutions
have been privatized and are being run as businesses. The private
sector model of education delivery prevents the development of a
meaningful approach to achieve the distinctive purpo ses, and
objectives of education.
 Corporations operate on the principles of cost reduction and profit
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160 packaging of product in compact, and measurable terms. Applied to
education, these approac hes would possibly negate its basic fabric and
purpose. Education has always encouraged and represents openness,
inquiry, diversity, research and limitless learning. Corporatization of
education would make it elitist - the one provided by corporations for
the masses and the poor who cannot afford going to the traditional
institutions of learning, and the other for the rich and the affluent.
 It is desirable that the state offer public services such as education than the
private sector management. If the stat e gives up its control over education
and education policy, then there is the risk of diminishing it to the status of a
packaged product by profits can be made. Openness, diversity, scholarship,
research and disinterested learning will be its biggest victi ms.
Importance of Global Education
A global education should teach about issues that cross national
boundaries, and interconnected systems on ecological, cultural,
economical, political and technological. Such a program can draw upon
expertise in many are as such as humanities, social science and
environmental science.
In the present borderless information society, education needs to respond
to the demands of a rapidly globalizing world. This can be done by raising
awareness of environment, peace, cultural and social diversity, increased
competitiveness, and the concept of a global village. Such education is the
requirement of the knowledge or information society. Education prepares
the individual to connect - and live in harmony - with the environment
aroun d him. Globalization has changed the size, nature and quality of that
environment. The challenge for higher education, therefore, is to reform,
create and develop systems that prepare the individual to work in a
borderless economy and live in a global soci ety. In other words, our
educational institutions need to produce global citizens.
Check Your Progress
1. Define globalization and state its characteristics.
2. Critically examine the impact of globalization on education.
3. What is the role of education in the era of globalization?
4. Why is there a need for global education?

14.5 MILLENIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS (UNESCO)
The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs ) are a United Nations
initiative. These are eight international development goals that all 192
United Nations member states and at least 23 international organizations
have agreed to achieve by the year 2015. The aim of the Millenni um
Development Goals (MDGs) is to encourage development by improving munotes.in

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161 social and economic conditions in the world's poorest countries. They
include eradicating extreme poverty , reducing child mortality rates,
fighting disease epidemics such as AIDS , and developing a global
partnership for development. There were earlier international development
targets but these were officially established at the Millennium Summit in
2000, where all world leaders present adopted the United Nations
Millennium Declaration .
The MDGs focus on three major areas of human development , with the
main focus towards increasing basic standards of living.
 bolstering human capital ,
 improving infrastructure, and
 increasing social, economic and political rights
The objectives of human capital focus on improving nutrition, healthcare
(including reducing levels of child mortality , HIV/AIDS , tuberculosis and
malaria , and increasing reproductive health ), and education.
The objectives for infrastructure focus on improving infrastructure
through increasing access to safe drinking water, energy and modern
information/communication technology; amplifying farm outputs through
sustainable practices; improving transportation infrastructure; and
preserving the envi ronment.
The objectives for social, economic and political rights focus on
empowering women, reducing violence, increasing political voice,
ensuring equal access to public services, and increasing security of
property rights.
The MDGs emphasize that indi vidual policies needed to achieve these
goals should be tailored to individual country’s needs. Therefore most
policy suggestions are general. They also emphasize the role of developed
countries in aiding developing countries, as outlined in the eighth goa l.
Goal Eight sets objectives and targets for developed countries to achieve a
“global partnership for development” by supporting fair trade , debt relief
for developing nations, increas ing aid and access to affordable essential
medicines, and encouraging technology transfer. Thus developing nations
are not seen as left to achieve the MDGs on their own, but as a partner in
the developing -developed pact to reduce world poverty.
In the MDGs there are eight goals with 21 targets, and a series of
measurable indicators for each target. The MDGs are:
1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
2. Achieve universal primary education
3. Promote gender equality and empower women
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162 5. Improve maternal health
6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases
7. Ensure environmental sustainability
8. Develop a global partnership for development
Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger targets at making half
the proportion of people living on less than $1 a day, achieve decent
employment for women, men, and young people, making half the
proportion of people who suffer from hunger.
Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education by 2015, by having all
children complete a full course of primary schooling ,
Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women by eliminating
gender disparity in primary and secondary education preferably by 2005,
and at all levels by 2015.
Goal 4: Reduce child mortality rates by reducing by two -thirds, between
1990 and 2015, the u nder-five mortality rate.
Goal 5: Improve maternal health by reducing by three quarters, between
1990 and 2015, the maternal mortality ratio and a chieve, by 2015,
universal acc ess to reproductive health.
Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases and have them
halted by 2015 and begin to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS , achieve, by
2010, universal access to treatment for HIV/AIDS for all those who need
it, and have halted by 2015 and begin to reverse the incidence of malaria
and other major diseases.
Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability by integrating the
principles of sustainable development into country policies and programs,
reverse los s of environmental resources, reduce biodiversity loss,
achieving, by 2010, a significant reduction in the rate of loss, halve by
2015, the proportion of the population without sus tainable access to safe
drinking water and basic sanitation (for more information see the entry on
water supply ), by 2020, to have achieved a significant improvement in the
lives of at least 100 million slum -dwellers.
Goal 8: Develop a global partnership for development by developing
further an open, rule -based, predictable, non -discriminatory trading and
financi al system, addressing the special needs of the least developed
countries (LDC), addressing the special needs of landlocked developing
countries and small island developing States, dealing comprehensively
with the debt problems of developing countries throu gh national and
international measures in order to make debt sustainable in the long term,
by co -operating with pharmaceutical companies, providing access to
affordable, essential drugs in developing countries, and co -operate with
the private sector, maki ng available the benefits of new technologies,
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Trends and Issues in Education
163 The Indian Context
The Millennium Development declaration was a visionary document,
which sought partnership between rich and poor nations to make
globali zation a force for good. Its signatories agreed to explicit goals on a
specific timeline. The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) set
ambitious targets for reducing hunger, poverty, infant and maternal
mortality, for reversing the spread of AIDS, tuberculo sis and malaria and
giving children basic education by 2015. These also included gender
equality, environmental sustainability and multisectoral and international
partnerships.
Government's claims
The Government of India claims that the country is on track to meet the
MDG targets by 2015. It argues that the number of people living below the
poverty line has reduced . It claims that child and maternal mortality rates
are reducing at a pace commensurate with its plans. It maintains that many
government -sponsor ed schemes have increased public resources in several
key sectors. The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee
Scheme has increased rural employment. The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan , a
national policy to universalise primary education, has increased e nrolment
in schools. The Reproductive and Child Health Programme II, the
Integrated Child Development Services and the National Rural Health
Mission have resulted in massive inputs in the health sector. It states HIV
rates are low and that deaths due to tu berculosis and malaria show
downward trends. It asserts that the Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking
Water Mission and the Total Sanitation Campaign address crucial MDGs.
Check Your Progress
1. What are the aims and objectives of Millennium Development Goals?
2. State the Millennium Development Goals and the specific targets to
be achieved.
3. How far has the Government of India achieved the Millennium
Development Goals?

14.6 PRIVATIZATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION
Towards Privatization of Higher Education in India
The 1990s saw major developments and turn of events in higher education
in India. According to Jandhyala B.G. Tilak of the then National Institute
of Educational Planning and Administration (Privatisation of Higher
Education in India, 2002), public funding for high er education should be
drastically reduced. In 1997, the Government of India in its proposals for
subsidies accorded higher education the status of a ‘non -merit good’ for
the first time while elementary education remained ‘merit -good’ which
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164 However, the road ahead for India is directly linked to creation of quality
higher education institutions in a big way to meet the challenge of being
the knowledge hub, which India is fast losing. The G overnment resources
for higher education are simply not enough. Government supervision of
higher education is dismal. Recourse to quality private higher education,
both university and non -university, India needs to have a proactive
demand based policy towa rds private higher education including foreign
institutions/universities desirous of setting up campus in India or entering
into joint -ventures.
Gradually there has been a general trend towards liberalization and
opening of education sector to private ini tiative. Steps such as offering tax
concessions/fiscal incentives for setting up campuses are under
consideration. Thus the era of serious thought on privatization of higher
education in India has began.
Meaning of Privatization
Privatization connotes a w ide range of ideas. Privatization implies
induction of private ownership, management and control of organizations.
Privatization can imply deregulation meaning thereby lesser control of the
government. It refers to expansion of private sector and reductio n of
public sector. It also means that areas reserved for the public sector will be
opened to the private sector. The shift towards privatization reduces the
role of the government and increases the role of the private, cooperative
and local government. Th e areas of shift are mainly decision making and
responsibility of money and administration.
A brief look at the public higher education landscape reveals the
privatization exists in one form or another on almost every college
campus. Broadly defined, ‘priv atization is the act of reducing the role of
government or increasing the role of the private sector in an activity or in
the ownership of assets” (Savas in Gilmer, 1997). It is thought that
privatization will lead to better higher education product at a r educed cost
to the exchequer.
Education and Privatization
Applied to the education sector, privatization can be seen as part of the
wider reform of the public sector. Education is both a private and social
investment. It is therefore the responsibility of both the individual
including the student, his family and even his employers and the society
which includes the community and the state. The areas of shift in the
education sector are mainly decision and responsibility of money,
administration and a relev ant curriculum of high quality.
Privatization is management by private sector with total absence of
government intervention. Such institutions generate their own funds
through higher fees, user charges and full use of resources. They survive
on the p hilosophy that they do not have to pay for those who can pay.
Privatization of higher education has emerged in several forms and types
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Trends and Issues in Education
165 1. Privatization within government higher education institutions takes
place in the form of introducing self -financing courses within
government institutions.
2. Converting government aided private institution in to private self
financing institution.
3. Allowing expanding self financing private institution with recognition
and also without recognition , which may be termed as commercial
private higher education institutions.
Factors Responsible for Privatization of Higher Education (Need for
Privatization)
1. Need for competitive efficiency : Main justification for privatization
rests heavily on the grounds of efficiency to promote a more
competitive economic environment. Operation of public sector
enterprises is considered inefficient. It is believed that private
ownership and control are more efficient in terms of resource
allocation and work.
2. Growth in p opulation: India has a population of nearly one hundred
and seven cores. In order to provide to a large number of people, more
private institutions are needed. To fulfill the demand for higher
education of young people in the country privatization of highe r
education is needed.

3. Financial burden on government : Higher education in India is in
financial stress. The government can no longer bear the financial
burden of public enterprises. Current spending on education in India is
not more than 3.5% of GDP. The center itself concedes that the
minimum should be 6%. Very little is being spent on higher education.
This compares unfavorably with the international levels. Therefore
there is a need to evolve policy through which private resources are
mobilized.
4. Educat ion is an economic good : Education is no more being as a
social service but as a necessary economic input. Investment in
education is treated as a factor contributing to the development of
human resources. In this effort private initiative can help since t he
private sector is the beneficiary of the knowledge industry.
5. Quest for quality : Private institutions do not require long procedures
for procurement of human as well as material resources. In order to
purchase and maintain good qualitative infrastructure and equipment
like furniture, buildings, different types of laboratories and qualified
and competent academic staff, who can be paid as per the demand,
there is a need for privatization. munotes.in

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166 6. Rapid growth of school education : Growing number of schools
natura lly push the demand higher education which the government is
not able to provide.
7. Fulfilling the need for skilled manpower : There is very little initiative
from the public sector due to limited freedom. Private institutions are
free to initiate modern and advanced courses in order to fulfill the
demand for subjects which facilitate economic development of the
market and the nation.
8. Curtailment of corruption : In order to control the corruption in the
government sector, private sector is much needed. Privat ization stops
the corruption to some extent and brings about some discipline. As a
result there will be capacity utilization.
9. Desire for more autonomy : Privatization of higher education will
provide autonomy to institutions and there will be less dependen cy on
the government. This will remove political interference in areas of
administration, management and finance.
10. Synergy for information based economy : In the present times there is
a need for interaction between UGC, academic institutions of higher
learn ing, industry, R&D institutions and funding agencies. This could
be achieved by a synergy process wherein they will be partners in
various activities, complementing each other in reaching their visions,
objectives and goals.
11. Technological developments: Information revolution has been brought
about and strengthened due to technological developments such as
microchips, genetics, communications, robots, lasers, growth of
satellite TV and computer technologies. Due to limited resources
public sector cannot mee t the demands of the industry and other
sectors of economy. Thus private sector can undertake to train
manpower in technology and respond to market demands.
12. Greater responsibility with the recipients of education : Over the years
education has been consider ed as a free public good thereby devaluing
education. Privatization of education where the recipient will bear the
full cost will help bring greater responsibility in them. As a
consequence, students are likely to demand greater efficiency and
quality in t eaching.
Privatization, by definition, is a process, rather than a state. The term may
also encompass a wide array of models. In some systems, privatization has
arisen as a result of deliberate policy, but in others, it is the result of
unplanned changed .
Gilmer’s (1997) model of production and finance rely on the idea that
production and finances are of primary concern since they are uniquely
distinguishing characteristics of privatization. This four part typology
separates privatization into four model s. munotes.in

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Trends and Issues in Education
167 1. Public production with public finance . This is typical government run
and financed model that public higher education operates from a large
extent through decreasing extent.
2. Public production with private finance . This is a diversification of
revenue model that includes such schemes as increasing tuition and user
fees and other revenue generating strategies in higher education such as
private fund raising.
3. Private production with public finance . This model includes a myriad
of modus operating including contracting, de regulation, franchises, grants
and subsidies and vouchers.
4. Private production with private finance . This area includes load
shedding and divesture. This form of privatization occurs when the
government decides to stop providi ng a particular service and leaves it to
the market to provide the service.
Advantages of Privatization
Privatization will enhance
 Decentralization and debureaucratization of educational institutions
 Initiatives in educational reforms
 Innovativeness in t eaching and evaluation
 Tailor made services and provision of wide choice of courses and
subjects to students
 Competition
 Quality education and training
 Shaping of the curriculum according to global, national and local
needs
 Availability and better maintena nce of resources
 Transparency in all procedures
 Fulfill the need of the country in liberalization, privatization, and
globalization.
 Utility of human and physical resources in proper way
Fears in Privatization
Privatizing education
 Will adversely af fect the poor
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168  Does not address issues of equality, fairness and responsibility
 Exorbitant fees will deprive many of availing education
 Accountability problem will arise
 Courses in humanities and social sciences wil l be sidelined due to no
economic gain
 Civic and democratic values may not get passed down
 Apprehensions about job security and retrenchment of staff
 Cost saving will lead cost cutting
 Collected funds may be misused by the owners
 Favoritism towards family members and friends
 Benefits remain un proven
Current Trend in Privatization of Higher Education
In view of the expanding role of World Trade Organization (WTO), higher
education has become an item under it. Foreign universities are being
encouraged to c ome to India to set up independent operations or
collaborate with existing Indian Institutions, colleges/institutes. There is
no need for government approvals in FDI in education. While a regulatory
set up is required to ensure that there is no cheating or hoax, the fixation of
fees should not be in state control. On the issue of admissions, private
player may be given the discretion for admission, but will have to justify
merit. Perhaps a Tribunal on Admission Disputes can be set up for those
aggrieved by the admission policy of an institution.
Check your progress
1. Explain the concept of privatization of higher education?
2. What are the factors responsible for privatization of higher
education?
3. What are the advantages of and fears in privatization of higher
education?
4. Explain the models of privatization.
14.7 LET US SUM UP
In this unit we have studied the trends and issues in education. The
National Knowledge Commission as well as the Millennium Development
Goals have given new directions to view education in a different context
placing responsibility on the authorities and the incumbments.
Globalization and privatization represent the current trends in education. munotes.in

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Trends and Issues in Education
169 Adequate measures have to be taken to ensure that these factors do not
leave anyone without ed ucation and good quality of life.

14.8 UNIT END QUESTIONS
1. Why was the National Knowledge Commission set up? What were the
terms of reference of the Commission?
2. Explain the five key areas of the knowledge paradigm? What are the
NKC recommendations for h igher education with respect to
expansion, excellence and inclusion?
3. What are the characteristics of globalization? How has globalization
impacted education in India?
4. What is the role of education in the era of globalization?
5. What are the aims and objecti ves of Millennium Development Goals?
How far has the Government of India achieved the Millennium
Development Goals?
6. Explain the concept and models of privatization of higher education.
Why is privatization needed in higher education? Discuss the
advantages and fears in privatization.

14.9 SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Background page , United Nations Millennium Development Goals
website, retrieved 16 June 2009.
2. Field, J. (2000) Lifelong Learning and the New Educational Order ,
Stoke of Trent: Trentham Books Giddens, A. (1990) Consequences of
Modernity , Cambridge: Polity.
3. Giddens, A. (1991) Modernity and Self Identity , Cambridge: Polity.
4. Held, D., McGrew, A., Goldblatt, D. and Perraton, J. (1999) Global
Transfo rmations - politics, economics and culture , Cambridge: Polity
Press.
5. http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/poverty.shtml
6. http://www.unm illenniumproject.org/press/07.htm
7. http://www.hindu.com/2007/08/11/stories/2007081161010900.htm
8. http://w ww.hindu.com/2007/12/30/stories/2007123060141000.htm
9. Millennium Development Goals Indicators: MDG Dashboard
(downloadable database) munotes.in

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History of Education
170 10. MDG Progress Moni tor produced by UN
11. Powar, K.B. and Johar, K.L.: Private Initiatives in Higher Education.
12. World Bank Site on MDGs Development Goals information site
13. Wikipedia accessed June 2011.
14. Satish Tandon, (September 2005) Globalization: Impact on Education,
www.satishtandon.com/globaledu.html
15. Tilak, J.B.G.: “The Challenging Concerns in Economics of Indian Education
in Perspectives in Education Vol. 17, 2001.
16. The Hindu : Tamil Nadu News : Vice -Chancellors constantly under political
pressure, laments academic
17. The Hindu : National : Knowledge panel clarifies suggestions
18. The NKCL website.
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