EC-5-Guidance-and-Counselling-English-munotes

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1 1
BASICS OF GUIDANCE
Unit Structure:
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Meaning and Principles of Guidance
1.2.1 Meaning of Guidance
1.2.2 Guidance and Education
1.2.3 Principles of Guidance
1.3 Need and Importance of Guidance
1.4 Scope of Guidance: Guidance Services
1.5 Implications of Areas of Guidance in Global Context.
1.5.1 Personal
1.5.2 Educational
1.5.3 Vocational
1.5.4 A vocational
1.5.5 Social
1.5.6 Moral
1.5.7 Health
1.5.8 Leisure -time
1.6 Let us sum up
1.7 Unit End Exercises
1.8 Suggested Readings
1.0 OBJECTIV ES
After going through this unit you will be able to:
 Define the meaning of guidance
 Describe the need for guidance
 State the principles of guidance
 Explain different areas of guidance

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2 1.1 INTRODUCTION
We are social beings and, so in some way or other we need help and
guidance of others. Mother, father, grand parents, teachers and other
elders, home, school and society guide youngsters for successful living.
Due to explosion of knowledge, industrialization and changes in socio -
economic set up the need of professional guidance is felt in the present
day society.
In this unit you will be familiarized with concept, principles, need of
guidance and implications of areas of guidance on global context.
1.2 MEANING AND PRINCIPLES OF GUIDANCE
1.2.1 Meaning of G uidance:
Literally guidance means ‘to direct’, ‘to point out’, to show the path’. It is
the assistance or help rendered by a more experienced person to a less
experiences person to solve certain major problems of the individual (less
experienced) i.e. educ ational, vocational, personal etc.
Guidance is a concept as well as a process. As a concept guidance is
concerned with the optimal development of the individual. As a process
guidance helps the individual in self understanding (understanding one’s
strength s, limitations, and other resources) and in self -direction (ability to
solve problems, make choices and decision on one’s own).
1.2.2 Guidance and Education; Guidance and Counselling:
The aim of education is to achieve the fullest possible realization of
possi bilities inherent in the individual. Education fosters all aspects of an
individual’s personality. Guidance is an integral part of education and
helps in achieving the goals of education. Guidance is quite essential for
the development of individual which is the main objective of education.
The Education Commission (1964 -66) observes “Guidance should be
regarded as an integral part of education and not as a special,
psychological or social service which is peripheral to educational
purposes. It is “meant fo r all students not just for those who deviate from
the norm in one direction or the other”.
Jone, A.J., pointing out the relationship between guidance and education
observes, ‘All guidance is education but some aspects of education are not
guidance. Their objectives are the same the development of the individual
but methods used in education are by no means the same as those used in
guidance”.
Guidance and Counseling :
The terms ‘guidance’ and ‘counselling’ have been loosely or
interchangeably used. Guidanc e is a term which is broader than counseling
and it includes counseling as one of its services. Butter makes a logical
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Basics of Guidance
3 phase. In the adjustive phase, the emphasis is on social, pe rsonal and
emotional problems of the individual, in the distributive phase the focus is
upon educational, vocational and occupational problems. The ‘distributive
phase’ can be most aptly described as ‘guidance’ while the ‘adjustive’
phase can be considered as description of ‘counselling’.
1.2.3 Principles of Guidance:
Guidance is based upon the following principles.
(i) Holistic development of individual : Guidance needs to be
provided in the context of total development of personality.
(ii) Recognition of indivi dual differences and dignity: Each individual
is different from every other individual. Each individual is the
combination of characteristics which provides uniqueness to each
person. Similarly human beings have an immense potential. The
dignity of the ind ividual is supreme.
(iii) Acceptance of individual needs: Guidance is based upon
individual needs i.e. freedom, respect, dignity.
(iv) The individual needs a continuous guidance process from early
childhood throughout adulthood.
(v) Guidance involves using skills to comm unicate love, regard,
respect for others.
1.3 NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF GUIDANCE
Guidance is needed wherever there are problems. The need and
importance of guidance are as follows.
 Self understanding and self direction : Guidance helps in understanding
one’s st rength, limitations and other resources. Guidance helps
individual to develop ability to solve problems and take decisions.
 Optimum development of individual
 Solving different problem of the individual
 Academic growth and development
 Vocational maturity, v ocational choices and vocational adjustments
 Social personal adjustment
 Better family life
 Good citizenship
 For conservation and proper utilization of human resources
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4 Guidance is helpful not only for student and teacher in an educa tional
institution but also to the parents ,administrators, planners and community
members.
Check Your Progress – I
1. Define guidance
2. Explain the relation between guidance & counseling.
3. State the relation between guidance & Education.
4. Why do we n eed guidance?
5. What should be the principles of guidance?
1.4 DIFFERENT KIND OF SCHOOL GUIDANCE
SERVICES
The school is expected to provide more than just teaching and instruction.
A school guidance programme includes all those activities other than
instruct ional which are carried out to render assistance to pupils in their
educational, vocational, personal development and adjustment. The
fundamental aim of guidance programme being the maximum
development of the child, all guidance programme must be geared to ward
attainment of the goal. Guidance services can assist the pupils in knowing
themselves -their potentialities and limitations, making appropriate choices
in educational, vocational and other fields. Some of the important
guidance services are;
 The orient ation services
 Student inventory services
 Career Information services
 Counseling services
 Group guidance services
 Placement services
 Research and evaluation services
1.5 IMPLICATIONS OF AREAS OF GUIDANCE IN
GLOBAL CONTEXT
The students life is getting comp lex day by day. Students in the twenty -
first century have facing many perplex and difficult situations i.e. to make
wise curricular and other curricular choices, to acquire basic study skills
for optimum achievement, adjustment with peers etc. In its begin ning
guidance was concentrated on problems relating to vocations. It was
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5 gone for beyond this. It is now concerned with the entire individual in all
aspects.
The areas of guidance are very vast. The following are some of the
important areas of guidance.
1.5.1 Personal:
Students face many personal problems related to themselves, their parents
and family, friends and teachers, etc. They often have memories related to
home or family which creates feeling of disappointment in them. If their
parents are expecting too much of them it leaves them with a feeling of
incompetence and insecurity leading poor self -concept and self esteem.
The objectives of personal guidance are to help the individua l in his/her
physical, emotional, social, rural and spiritual development.
The aims and objectives of personal guidance are :
 To assist the individual in understanding himself/herself.
 To assist the individual involving the personal problems.
 To assist th e individual in taking independent decisions and
judgement.
 To assist the individual to view the world and the social environment
in right perspective.
 To assist the individual in making sound adjustments to different
problems confronted in life.
Personal guidance is necessary at all stages of life. At the elementary
school stage opportunities should be given to students for their self
expression. Personal guidance at this stage deals with the problems related
to feeling of insecurity, social acceptance, d iscipline etc.
At the secondary stage, the students have more intricate personal
problems. During the secondary stage adolescent students due to peculiar
physical, emotional and social developments undergo noticeable changes
in their attitude and behaviour . Personal guidance at this stage should
therefore focus on personal and social adjustment.
Personal guidance at the tertiary stage aims at helping them view life in
relation to reality. The scope of personal guidance at this stage is very
wider.
1.5.2 Educational Guidance:
If one closely examines the problems of young pupils in schools and
colleges, one would exactly realize the need of educational guidance.
Educational problems head the needs of students’ problems. So education
is an important guidance ar ea.
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6 Educational guidance is related to every aspect of education school /
colleges, the curriculum, the methods of instruction, other curricular
activities, disciplines etc. Educational guidance is the assistance given to
the individual (i) to understand his/her potentialities (ii) have a clear cut
idea of the different educational opportunities and their requirements (iii)
to make wise choices as regards to school, colleges, the course : curricular
and extra curricular.
Some of the aims and objectives o f educational guidance are:
 To assist the pupil to understand him/herself i.e. to understand
his/her potentialities, strength and limitations.
 To help the child make educational plans consist with his/her
abilities, interests and goals.
 To enable the stude nt to know detail about the subject and courses
offered.
 To assist the student in making satisfactory progress in various
school/ college subjects.
 To help the child to adjust with the schools, its rules, regulations,
social life connected with it.
 To hel p the child in developing good study habits.
 To help the child to participate in out of class educational activities
in which he can develop leadership and other social qualities.
At the elementary stage guidance programme must help the children to
make go od beginning, to plan intelligently, to get the best out of their
education and prepare them for secondary schools. Educational guidance
needs to be used in diagnosing difficulties, in identifying the special needs
of children.
At the secondary stage educa tional guidance should help the pupils to
understand themselves better, to understand different aspects of the
school, to select appropriate courses to get information about different
educational opportunities, to develop good study habits. The students
should be helped to be acquainted with the vocational implications of
various school subjects.
Educational guidance at the tertiary stages must oriented students about
purpose and scope of higher studies and helps them to stimulate their
studies. Each colleg e/ university must have a guidance unit with due
provision of guidance services.
1.5.3 Vocational Guidance:
You know that ‘bread and butter aims” is one of the main aims of
education. Due to advancement in science and technology and consequent
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7 thousands of specialized jobs/ occupations. In this context, there is a great
need for vocational guidance.
Vocational guidance is a process of assisting the individual to choose an
occupation, prepare for it, enter upon it and progress in it. It is concerned
primarily with helping individuals make decisions and choices involved in
planning a future and building a career. The purpose behind assisting the
youth to choose, prepare, enter and progress in a vocation is the optimum
growth of the individual.
Some of the aims and objectives of vocational guidance are:
 Assisting pupil to discover his/her own abilities and skills to feet
them into general requirements of the occupation under
consideration.
 Helpin g the individual to develop an attitude towards work that will
dignify whatever type of occupation s/he may wish to enter.
 Assisting the individual to think critically about various types of
occupations and to learn a technique for analyzing information ab out
vocations.
 Assisting pupils to secure relevant information about the facilities
offered by various educational institutions engaging in vocational
training.
 At the elementary stage, although no formal guidance programmes
are needed, the orientation to vocation can be initiated at this stage.
At this stage some qualities and skills which have greater vocational
significance viz. love and respect for manual work (ii) training in use
of hands (iii) spirit of cooperative work (iii) sharing (vi) appreciatio n
for all works (vii) good interpersonal relationship are to be
developed.
At the secondary stage vocational guidance should help the students to
know themselves, to know the world of work, to develop employment
readiness to develop decision making rules.
At the higher education stages it should be more formal one. The
objectives of guidance at this stage are to help the students to get
information about different career, training facilities, apprenticeship etc.
1.5.4 A vocational Guidance:
The individual student spends only a small portion of his time i.e. 4 t0 6
hours per day in school. The rest of the time needs to be effectively
managed and utilized by the child for his/her progress and development. A
vocational guidance helps the child to judiciously u tilize the leisure time.
The other co -curricular activities play an important role in all -round
development of the child .But many parents, teachers and children put
secondary importance to these activities. The students need to be properly
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8 that they are able to shape their interpersonal behavior in desirable
direction and widen their outlook.
1.5.5 Social Guidance:
We are social animals. But social relationships constitute a prob lem area
for most of the students. School/educational institution is a miniature
society and pupil from different socio -economic status, linguistic and
socio -cultural background read there. Students some time may face
problems in adjustment and social rela tionship. It is very important that
the students to be helped in acquiring in feeling of security and being
accepted by the group; in developing social relationship and in becoming
tolerant towards others. This is the task of social guidance. Formally soci al
guidance can be given by educational institutions whereas informal
guidance may be provided by Family, religious institutions, Media etc.
1.5.6 Moral Guidance:
Moral values occupy an important place in our life.Some times due to
influence of diverse fa ctors students tell lies and indulge in undesirable
practices. Moral guidance helps in bringing these students in to proper
track and help in their all round development.
1.5.7 Health Guidance:
Health is regarded as the wealth. Total health i.e. preventive and curative
is the goal of health guidance. The health guidance may be a cooperative
effort of Principal, Doctors, Counsellor/Psychologist, Teachers, Students
and Parents. For promoting preventive care the conditions of school
hostel, canteen needs to be checked. Similarly health education through
formal classes and information is essential in school education stages. In
the present day the concern of health guidance also pertains to guidance in
HIV/AIDs.
1.5.8 Leisure – time guidance :
Guidance for leisu re is basically a part of personal guidance. the individual
should know how to utilize his/her leisure time fruitfully. leisure generally
refers to free time a person at his disposal. leisure in modern time is
available to those who are technically trained and efficient. But,
unfortunately most of us do not know how to utilize the leisure time. That
is why guidance for leisure is necessary.
Leisure can be fruitfully utilized for two purposes. First of all Leisure
provides us time for personal development. One can increase his
efficiency by utilising his leisure time.
The second use of leisure is that it helps the individual to be more
productive by getting the necessary rest and recreation. Jones divides
leisure time activities into four groups.
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9 1. Escape ac tivities
2. General culture or appreciation activities.
3. Creative activities and
4. Service activities
It has also been suggested that individuals should spend their leisure time
in social welfare activities. For professional growth are must take active
interes t in the professional society of his profession.
Thus it is quite evident that guidance for leisure is extremely important in
modern society because it helps the individual to attain efficiency and
become a useful member of the society.
Therefore, it has b een suggested that in the school curriculum there should
be provision for teaching about various leisure time activities so that
children will able to know about them.
Check Your Progress – II
1. What are the different guidance services?
2. Differentiate between vocational & a vocational guidance.
3. Explain the use of leisure time guidance.
4. Write short notes on :
a) Objectives of educational guidance.
b) Need of vocational guidance.
c) Orientation services.
d) Personal guidance
1.6 LET US SUM UP
Guidance is a concept as well as a process. Guidance is different from
education and counseling. Guidance is based upon the principles of
holistic development of individual, recognition of individual differences
and dignity and acceptance of individual needs. Guidance is neede d
wherever there are problems. Guidance helps in optimum development of
individual, Solving different problem of the individual, Academic growth
and development, Vocational maturity, vocational choices and vocational
adjustments, Social personal adjustment ., Better family life, for
conservation and proper utilization of human resources, and national
development. Guidance is helpful not only for student and teacher in an
educational institution but also to the parents, administrators, planners and
community members. A school guidance programme includes all those
activities other than instructional which are carried out to render assistance
to pupils in their educational, vocational, personal development and munotes.in

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10 adjustment. The areas of guidance are very vast. So me of the important
areas of guidance are personal, educational, vocational, avocational,
health, social etc.
1.7 UNIT END EXERCISES
1. What is guidance? Discuss the need and importance of guidance.
2. Discuss the principles upon which guidance is based.
3. State the importance of educational guidance and vocational guidance.
4. Write short notes on:
a) Personal guidance
b) Guidance and education
c) Guidance and Counselling
1.8 SUGGESTED READINGS
Agrawal,R (2006) Educational,Vocational Guidance and Counsell ing,
New Delhi, Sipra Publication
Bhatnagar,A AND Gupta, N (1999). Guidance and Counselling: A
theoretical Approach(Ed), New Delhi,Vikash Publishing House
Jones, A.J.(19510.Principles of Guidance and Pupil Personnel work,New
Y ork,MiGraw Hill
Kochhar, S.K., (1985): Educational and Vocational Guidance in
Secondary Schools, New Delhi, Strling Publisher NCERT (2008).
Introduction to Guidance,Module -1,DEPFE,New Delhi


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11 2
TYPES AND AGENCIES OF GUIDANCE
Unit Structure :
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Types of Guidance: Individual and Group
2.2.1 Individual guidance
2.2.2 Group Guidance: Concept, Need and Significance
2.2.3 Organization of Group Guidan ce activities
2.2.4 Techniques of Group Guidance
2.2.5 Advantages of Group Guidance
2.2.6 Limitations of Group Guidance
2.3 Agencies of Guidance at different Levels
2.3.1 International Level Agencies
2.3.2 National Level Agencies
2.3.3 State Level Agencies
2.3.4 Local Level Agencies
2.4 Let us Sum up
2.5 Unit End Exercises
2.6 Suggested Readings
2.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to:
 define group guidance
 aware of the need and importanc e of group guidance
 know the practical consideration of organization of group guidance
activities;
 understand the limitations of group guidance activities; and deal
effectively with the problems of organization of such group guidance
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12  state the role and functions of different agencies at international,
national and state levels.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit you have learnt about meaning, importance and areas
of guidance. You have also learnt about different school guidance
services. O ne of the services is group guidance service .From the
organization point of view guidance can be of two types’ i.e. individual
and group. Many institutions/organizations work in the area of guidance
and counseling. In this unit you will learn about import ance of group
guidance and international, national and state level agencies of guidance.
2.2 TYPES OF GUIDANCE: INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP
2.2.1 Individual guidance:
Individual guidance is tailored to an individual. It is advice, strategy or
planning designed for a singular person or thing and their unique situation.
This is in contrast to general guidance which is frequently based on
demographic information such as age or income or meant for the general
population. The most common reference to individual guida nce is in
reference to children or students. This is ideally the role of guidance,
educational or career http://www.ehow.com/careers/ counselors.
Individual guidance can be used to refer to any advice, usually
professional advice, given to a person based on their unique
circumstances. This could include legal services, career counseling,
financial planning, medical or psychological advice or a number of other
areas where a trained professional is looked to for di rection in a given
area.
2.2.2 Group Guidance: Concept, Need and Significance:
Group refers to collection of people, interaction between individuals,
development of shared perceptions, the development of affective ties and
the development of interdependen ce of roles. For example many students
and teacher/teachers at one school may gather together to form a group.
Group guidance encompasses those activities of guidance which are
carried on in a group situation to assist its members to have experiences
desir able or even necessary for making -appropriate decisions in the
prevailing contexts. In a more specific term, it is guiding the individual in
a group situation. Group could be of any type ,but for guidance purposes a
group should have a common goal. Just c ollection of individual may not
be called a group for organizing guidance activities. Selection of group
members will have to depend on sharing a common problem, volunteering
to be members and willingness to group activities.
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Guidance
13 Jones, A.J(1951)define group guidance ‘as any group enterprise or activity
in which the primary purpose is to assist each individual in the group to
solve his problems and to make his adjustment’.
Group guidance is used to address the developmental needs of a functional
group consi sting of a number of students to implement programme that
would benefit them at all time.Students in group with common problems
and concerns are helped in groups i.e. small or large. In other words, if
guidance is to be available to all, it should be plann ed in groups.
Some of the objectives of group guidance are:
1. To help people in identifying common problems, analyse them and
find relevant solutions.
2. To place a wide range of information before people with common
problems which could be useful for them for finding solutions.
3. To provide a platform where people with common problems could
interact with each other and could be benefited by each other’s
perspectives, ideas and experiences.
4. To help in creating an atmosphere where people could get an
opportunity to express themselves and in the process analyze
themselves.
2.2.3 Organization of Group Guidance Activities:
Planning of group guidance activity may focus the following points.
1. Need Assessment : The need assessment must be done to find out
the common problem s of individuals in the group. This can be done
by administering questionnaire, checklists and interview.
2. Determining size of the group and time, venue for group
activities : Depending upon the group activity the size of the group
should be fixed. The size should be approachable and manageable.
The venue should be selected taking in to account the group selected
for activity.
3. Selection of members and role specifications: The participants
selection for group guidance activity is also very important. The
students for example should be communicated about their roles in
group activities.
4. Orientation of Members: The group goals should be clarified. It
should be stated in clear, objective and measurable terms.
5. Monitoring of activities and evaluation of outcomes: If we want
to conduct the activities purposefully, it should be properly
monitored taking into account the goal/s.Feedback about activity
needs to be collected from participants.
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14 Some of the common group guidance activities are: Class talk, career talk,
displays and exhibitions.
2.2.4 Techniques of Group Guidance:
A number of techniques are used in organizing group guidance.
Group Discussion: For example at senior secondary stage students should
have knowledge about different career. A group discussion ma y be
organized in the school. For organization of the group discussion proper
room/hall, group and relevant topic and expert/resource person should be
selected. The group discussion will be useful only if the members
participate effectively without the fea r and all the members have the
opportunity to participate. But the effectiveness of the group -discussion
depends upon the facilitator and the group selected.
Problem solving: For solving individual as well as common problems,
problem solving can be applied as a technique. It comprises of the
following steps;
 Existence of common problem
 Focused description of the problem
 Initiation of action for solving problem based on relevant facts
 Analysis of problem in the light of data collected
 Listing of possible sol utions and Evaluation of them
 Acceptance of degree of acceptance of solution in the group
Role play: In small group role playing can be adopted as a technique of
guidance. Role playing is a method where real life situations are simulated
by group members/p articipants. This provide new insight, intuitions, skills
and understanding of opposing viewpoints. The role playing may comprise
of the following steps;
 Existence of common problem
 Orientation of group to role playing and the problem
 Assigning of roles
 Preparation of other members/audience to observe intelligently
 Assessing the role play
 Concluding session and feedback
Other methods like case study and sociometric technique can be used as
group guidance technique.
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15 2.2.5 Advantages of Group guidance:
We have discussed about different activities and approaches of group
guidance. Some of the advantages of group guidance are as follows:
 Inspires learning and understanding: Interaction in group setting
inspires learning and understanding of students. The stud ent learns
from other member of group.
 Saves time and effort: Group guidance technique can save time and
effort of both the counselor and students. The time saved can be used
for the more difficult and complex problems of students.
 Improvement of student’s attitude and behavior
 Development of wholesome and helpful awareness of unrecognized
needs and problems of student/s
2.2.6 Limitations of Group Guidance:
Group guidance though serves a useful purpose, but they cannot be taken
as a substitute for individua l counseling. Group activities serve many of
the objectives of the school guidance programme, but not all of these.
Further students may feel hesitant to come out with their personal
problems in the group. So, in these cases group guidance cannot be of
help.
Group guidance activities serve useful purposes specially saving in time
and effort. While organizing these activities, some problems that a
counsellor may face are mentioned below:
A rigid type of administration is often a major cause of trouble. Gener ally,
when the counselor asks for time in the time table for conducting these
guidance activities, he/she may get a discouraging reply, the time table is
already full. No periods are free. So the counsellor is left with no other
choice than to take the sub stitute management period.
Lack of cooperation on part of the administration as well as the staff
members may also create problems in organizing such activities. Teacher
may feel this as an addition burden. Lack of adequate funds is another
problem.
Check Your Progress – I
1. What is individual guidance?
2. What is group guidance?
3. What are the objectives of group guidance?
4. How can you organize group guidance activities?
5. State the techniques of group guidance. Explain Role play technique of
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16 2.3 AGENCIES OF GUIDANCE AT DIFFERENT
LEVELS:
Different agencies i.e. government and private at international, national
and regional level have been doing significant works in the area of
guidance. These agencies are working in training /orien tation, career
guidance services or development of materials for guidance workers/
functionaries.
2.3.1 International Level:
International Association of Educational and Vocational Guidance
(IAEVG) is a worldwide guidance and counselling organization, whose
mission is to promote the development and quality of educational and
vocational guidance. IAEVG’ s mission is also to ensure that all citizens
who need and want educational and vocational guidance and counselling
can receive this counselling from a compet ent and recognized
professional. The objectives of the organization are as follows :
 To promote communication among persons and organizations active
in educational and vocational guidance.
 To encourage the continuing development of ideas, practice and
research in the field of guidance and counselling on each level,
national and international, in developing and developed countries.
 To advise government and national or international organizations on
the development of guidance systems and further the exchang e of
professionals and experts.
 To collect and disseminate information of interest in the field of
educational and vocational guidance practice, study and research
The Mission of IAEVG is to:
 advocate that all citizens who need and want educational and
vocational guidance and counselling can receive this counselling
from a competent and recognized professional
 recommend the basic nature and quality of service that should typify
the service provided to students and adults
 recommend the essential training and other qualifications that all
counsellors in educational and vocational guidance should have
 urge governments to enhance, facilitate or establish an agency,
institution, or office with responsibility to develop and maintain
 policies governing the pro vision of educational and vocaitonal
guidance
 the provision of training and continuing education programs for
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17  the development and provision of appropriate and effective methods
and materials for guidance
 the conduc t of research and development to create new, more
comprehensive, and better ways of conducting educational and
vocational guidance
 the development of appropriate methods of evaluation af counselling
and guidance
The Association publishes a newsletter thr ee times a year. Furthermore
IAEVG publishes the International Journal for Educational and Vocational
Guidance which is a refereed journal publishing articles in relation to
work and leisure, career development, career counseling and guidance and
career ed ucation. The website can be found at www.iaevg.org/
Cedefop , the European Agency to promote the development of vocational
education and training, is the European Union’s centre of expertise to
support the d evelopment of VET and evidence -based policy -making. One
important task for Cedefop is to provide guidance practitioners with
advice, research, analysis and information. On Cedefop’s website
European Training Village (ETV)there is an area with information o n
lifelong guidance (Choose lifelong guidance in the left menu). Here you
will find information on European guidance projects, links to publications
and research results, examples of good guidance strategies and practices
and a live network for all the act ors who have an interest in the field. The
website can be found at www.cedefop.europa.eu/
FEDORA is an organisation for those involved in student guidance in
institutions of higher education in Euro pe. The FEDORA network has
especially the focus on the higher student mobility across Europe and the
challenges that gives to the guidance practitioners. FEDORA contributes
to the further development of the guidance practitioners’ competencies so
they can better support, inform and guide the students on mobility issues.
FEDORA organizes congresses, conferences and summer universities and
each event takes place every three years. All types of events take place in
different countries in the FEDORA member sta tes each year. The website
can be found at fedora.plexus.leidenuniv.nl/
IAC (International Association for Counselling) wishes to encourage
the exchange of ideas, research findings and persona l experience in the
field of counselling and guidance. This happens, among others, through
organising conferences and publishing the International Journal for the
Advancement of Counselling. The website can be found at www.iac -
irtac.org/
The International Centre for Career Development and Public Policy ,
ICCDPP , has the task to facilitate international sharing of knowledge and
information concerning public policy and career development issues.
ICCDPP has a base for knowledge and information which contains
proceedings from international symposia, and reports and news provided
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18 supported by OECD, the World Bank, and the European Commissio n etc.
The website can be found at www.iccdpp.org
The Nordic Association of Educational and Vocational Guidance is a
coalition of national associations for education and vocational guidance in
the Nordic c ountries and the self -governing areas of Aaland Islands and
Faeroe Islands. The aim of NFUE is to strengthen professional educational
and vocational guidance in Nordic countries.
NAEVG organizes seminars and conferences and develops cooperation
with the Ba ltic countries. The website can be found at www.nfsy.org
The European Lifelong Guidance Policy Network aims to assist the
European Union Member States and the Commission in moving European
cooperation on lif elong guidance forward in both the education and the
employment sectors. The purpose is to promote cooperation at Member
State level on lifelong guidance and to propose appropriate structures and
support mechanisms in implementing the priorities identified in the
Resolution on Lifelong Guidance (2004). The ELGPN was established by
the Member States and the Commission has foreseen to support the
activities of the network in 2007 -2008 under the Lifelong Learning
Programme. The website can be found at ktl.jyu.fi/ktl/elgpn/
International Labour Organization(ILO):
The ILO is the international organization responsible for drawing up and
overseeing international labour standards. It is the only 'tripartite' U nited
Nations agency that brings together representatives of governments,
employers and workers to jointly shape policies and programmes
promoting Decent Work for all. This unique arrangement gives the ILO an
edge in incorporating 'real world' knowledge ab out employment and
work.The organization publishes the results of research related to
changing nature of work and employment which is important for policy
makers and other users.
2.3.2 National Level Agencies:
At national level the following organizations work in the area of guidance
and counseling.
National Council of Educational Research and Training(NCERT): The
Department of Psychology and Foundation of Education(DEPFE), a
Department under NCERT,New Delhi and Pandit Sunderlal Sharma
Central Institute of Vocational Education(PSSCIVE) ,Bhopal a
constituent of NCERT organize programme on guidance and
Counselling.Some of the functions of PSSCIVE are:
 To advise and assist the Ministry of Human Resource Development,
State Governments and Union Territory Admi nistration in the
implementation of the Vocational Education and Work Experience
Programme.
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Types and Agencies of
Guidance
19  To function as the technical wing of the Joint Council of Vocational
Education on all matters relating to Vocational Education Programme
(VEP).
 To promote, superv ise and guide the establishment of a
comprehensive management system for VEP.
 To serve as a resource institution for both formal and non -formal
VEP.
 To orient and train various key functionaries of VEP, including
teachers.
 To evaluate and monitor VEP in States/UTs.
 To ensure uniformity and maintain quality standards in vocational
teaching and learning.
To provide guidance and counseling on Vocational Education and
Training to the people at large.
DEPFE is the department of NCERT which coordinates guidan ce
activities in the country. The department runs an International Diploma
Course in Guidance and Counseling in collaboration with
Commonwealth of Learning, Canada. This course is offered at the
Department of Educational Psychology and Foundations of Educa tion
(DEPFE), NCERT New Delhi as well as five Regional Institutes of
Education located at Bhubaneswar Bhopal, Mysore, Shillong, and
Ajmer. Besides the department conducts training programme in the
field of guidance and counseling.
Central Institute for Res earch and Training in Employment Service
(CIRTES) was established in October, 1964 under the aegis of
Directorate General of Employment & Training (DGE&T), Ministry of
Labour , Government of India. Later, in 1970 and in 1987, the Institute
was expanded with the added responsibilities of developing career
literature and to provide guidance for the promotion of self -
employment. The Objectives of CIRTES are:
 Planning and conducting training programmes for Employment Service Personnel at State, National and International Levels.
 Conducting research into problems concerning the activities of the Employment Service.
 Development and publication of career literature and audio -visual aids for use in Vocational Guidance and Career Literature Programmes.
 Development of motivational material for promotion of self -
employment.
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20 1.TRAINING DIVISION Training Division caters to the training needs of all the Employment Officers of the country in placement, vocational guidance, employment market information, self -employment promotional activities and other related matters. Instructional materials and training aids are devised and developed to assist the States in organizing training programmes for the staff of their employment exchanges. Besides, special training programmes for the employment officers of foreign countries under various ILO bilateral programmes are organized on request basis. The Division also associates with other training organisations for imparting training in the field of vocational guidance and self -employment.
2. RESEARCH DIVISION
Research Division conducts studies on organizational, operational and procedural aspects of NES, labour market conditions and other related matters. Development of various tools and techniques and evaluation of various programmes of NES inter alia come under its purview.
3. CAREER STUDY CENTRE (CSC) CSC develops and publishes the career literature in the shape of bookelets and pamphlets/folders on various careers/occupations covering their job content, educational preparatory requirements, employment and self-employment opportunities, as a reference tool to meet the career planning needs of students, job seekers, Vocational Guidance Officers/Counsellors and others. These publications are disseminated to Employment Exchanges, University Employment Information & Guidance Bureaux ( UEIGBx), Coaching -cum-Guidance Centre for SC/ST, colleges, schools and also to other agencies engaged in vocational guidance activities, through Employment Exchanges as per their jurisdiction.
4. SELF -EMPLOYMENT GUIDANCE CELL (SEGC)
SEGC prepares informative and motivational material to assist Employment Officers in guiding and confidence building among job seekers for adopting self -employment ventures. It also provides training to the Employment Officers on self -employment promotional related activities.
Directorate General of Employment and Training(DGE&T),under Mini stry of Labour evolves policy and standards for vocational guidance activities through employment exchanges. Other organizations like University Grants Commission (UGC), All India Council of Technical Education (AICTE) also works on guidance and counseling.

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21 2.3.3 State Level Agencies of Guidance: At state level SCERT, Bureau of Educational and Vocational Guidance, Directorates of Employment work for guidance of students.
SCERT/State Guidanc e Bureaus coordinates guidance services at the state level. They organize state level training./orientation for guidance personnel.
State Directorates of Employment coordinates vocational guidance programme through employment exchanges in states. They also develop publication on occupational information.
Universities; In university employment bureaus facilities are provided for students.
2.3.4 Local Level:
At the local level some district employment exchanges, private agencies and institutional level org anizations work for guidance and counseling. The role of NGOs at different level for providing guidance activities is also very important.
Check your Progress – II
1. Write short notes on the following :
a) IAEVG
b) CIRTES
c) SEGC
d) ILO
e) SCERT
2.4 LET US SUM UP
Individual guidance can be used to refer to any advice, usually professional advice, given to a person based on their unique circumstances. Group guidance is used to address the developmental needs of a functional group consisting of a number of students to implement programme that would benefit them at all time Organization of Group Guidance Activities should focus on Need Assessment, Determining size of the group and time, venue for group activities, Selection of members and role specifications, Orientation of Members, Monitoring of activities and evaluation of outcomes. Problem solving, role play, group discussion, case study and sociometric are some of the important techniques of group guidance.
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22 At international level IAEVG, Cedefop, ILO, Nordic Association of Educational and Vocational Guidance work in the area of guidance. At the national level NCERT, CIRTES and DGE & T are important organizations in the field of guidance.
2.5 UNIT END EXERCISES
1. Explain the term group guidance.
2. Discuss any two group guidance activities which are carried out in school.
3. Discuss various techniques of group guidance with suitable examples.
4. Prepare a list of national and international agencies of guidance listing their works.
2.6 SUGGESTED READINGS
Agrawal, R (2006) Educationa l, Vocational Guidance and Counselling, New Delhi, Sipra Publication.
Bhatnagar, A AND Gupta, N(1999).Guidance and Counselling:A theoretical Approach (Ed), New Delhi, Vikash Publishing House.
Jones, A.J.(19510.Principles of Guidance and Pupil Personnel work,New York,MiGraw Hill.
Kochhar, S.K ., (1985): Educational and Vocational Guidance in Secondary Schools, New Delhi, Strling Publisher.


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23 3
BASICS OF COUNSELLING
Unit Structure:
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2. Concept of Counselling
3.2.1 Meaning of Counselling
3.2.2 Characteristics of Counselling
3.2.3 Functions of Counselling
3.3 Principles of Counselling
3.4 Goals of Counselling
3.5 Types of Counselling
3.5.1 Directive Counselling
3.5.2 Non directive Counselling
3.5.3 Eclectic Counselling
3.5.4 Online Counselling
3.6 Process of Counselling
3.6.1 Stages of Counselling
3.6.2 Skills of Counselling
3.7 C haracteristics & skills of a counsellor
3.8 Role & Functions of counsellor
3.9 Let us sum up
3.10 Unit End Exercises
3.11 Suggested Readings
3.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, students will be able to:
 Explain the concept of counselling
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24  Explain the process of counselling
 Explain the characteristics & skills of counsellor
 Describes the role & functions of a counsellor
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the first unit, you have read about guidance. Sometimes you may be
confused abo ut the two terms ‘guidance’ & counselling. In this unit, we
will discuss about the concept of counselling, its meaning, principles &
goals. We will also know about the process of counselling & role &
functions of a counsellor. Counselling is the central a spect of the whole
guidance programme. All the activities and Services of the guidance
programme leads to and help in the Counselling process. Counselling is
aimed at helping the individual in solving problems in future and also
enhancing personal, social , emotional, educational and vocational
development. Counselling has Remedial, Preventive and Developmental
value.
3.2 THE CONCEPT OF COUNSELLING
“Counselling the intimate and vital part of entire guidance. Webster’s
Dictionary defines Counselling as “con sultation, mutual interchange of
opinions, deliberating together.’ Wren says “counselling is a dynamic and
purposeful relationship between two people who approach a mutually
defined problem with mutual consideration for each other to the end that
the youn ger or less mature, or more troubled of the two is aided to a self
determined resolution of his problem.”
“Counselling is helping a person to come to see who he really is, what he
has and does not have, what he can do easily, what he can do with
difficulty and what he cannot do at all. It is a close sharing of a human
relationship with one who has for him a high regard; one who can offer
him unconditional acceptance, but one who has no guarantees, no
answers.”
Counselling is a process that occurs between tw o individuals…counsellor
and counselee (client)
It. takes place within a professional setting.
It is initiated and maintained as a means of facilitating changes in the
behaviour of the client. It is a professional task for professionally trained
people.
3.2.1 MEANING OF COUNSELLING
Though the term guidance and counselling is used interchangeably, both
the terms have different meaning. We have studied about guidance, now
we will know about counselling. In everyday life, we find counselling
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25 counsel patients, lawyers to clients and teachers to students. There is no
limitation to the problems or counsellors in providing counselling, so, let
us know what counselling is.
According to Web ster dictionary counselling is defined as “Consultation,
mutual interchange of opinions, deliberating together.”
“Counselling is a dynamic and purposeful relationship between two
people who approach a mutually defined problem, with mutual
consideration of each other to the end that the younger or less mature or
more troubled of the two is aided to a self determined resolution to his
problem” - Wren -
“Counselling is an interaction process which facilitates meaningful
understanding of self and environment and results in the establishment and
or clarification of goals and values for future behaviors” -Shertzer and
Stone. -
“Counselling is an accepting, trusting and safe relationship in which
clients learn to discuss openly what worries and upsets them, to define
precise behaviour goals, to acquire the essential social skills and to
develop the courage and self confidence to implement desired new
behaviour” - Merle M. Ohlsen. -
“Counselling is a process by which a troubled person (client) is helped to
tell and behav e in a more personally satisfying manner through interaction
with an uninvolved person (counsellor) who provides information and
reactions which stimulate the client to develop behaviour which enable
him to deal more effectively with himself and his enviro nment.” -Edwin
Lewis. -
If all the definitions are analyzed we can come to the following
conclusions.
 Counselling is a two way process.
 It involves two individuals.
 There is mutual relationships between the two individuals.
 It helps an individuals to gain s elf understanding self acceptance
and self realization
 It helps an individual to become happier more creative and better
adjusted.
Let us now discuss what Counselling is not.
Counselling is a process which included a number of activities like giving
inform ation, advice & counselling etc. But it is not an individual activity
like giving information / advice / suggestion / recommendation only.
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26 From this it is clear that what counselling is.
Counselling constitutes the three activities like -
I - Informing
A- Advising and
C - Counselling
Informing:
Here the role of the counsellor is to give appropriate and correct
information to the clients. For example you are a student and you need
counselling to select your course for the future. Here the role of the
coun sellor is to give you information about the availability of different
courses & its future prospects.
Advising:
In this stage the counsellor suggests appropriate courses of action. Here
the counsellor will offer you several options and recommends one
according to your aim or interest. For example if your aim is to be an
engineer, the counsellor will suggest you a course related to applied
mathematics.
Counselling:
In this stage counsellor helps the students to clarify his needs, feelings or
motivations so that he can make the appropriate decision for himself.
For example if you will tell, you have no aim or you can not decide what
you will do in the future. So the counsellor will ask you if you are not sure
about what to do in future but you must want to do something interesting
so describe about your idea. Like this the counsellor can motivate you to
find out your idea & can recommend you the course according to your
interest.
So counselling is student dependent rather than knowledge dependent. As
a coun sellor or a person needs skill rather than knowledge it needs high
level of interpersonal skills. So counselling is a process which constitutes
information, advising and counselling. You can think of these three
activities as a continuous spectrum of areas which merge into each other.
3.2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF COUNSELLING:
The concept of Counselling will be clear to you by knowing it’s meaning,
characteristics & functions.
Counselling involves two individuals - one seeking help and the other, a
professionall y trained person, who can help the first.
There should be a relationship of mutual respect between the two. The
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27 have trust and confidence in the counsellor. The aim of counselling is to
help a student form a decision, make a choice or seek direction. It helps a
counselee to acquire independence and develop a sense of responsibility,
explore and utilize his potentialities.
It is more than advice giving. The progress comes through the thin king
that a person with a problem does for himself rather than through solutions
offered by the counsellor.
Its function is to produce changes in the individual that will enable him to
extricate himself from his difficulties.
Emotional rather than purely intellectual attitudes are the raw material of
the counselling process. It helps an individual to know himself better,
gives him confidence, encourages his self -directedness and provides him
with new vision to grow.
Check Your Progress -I
1. Define Counsell ing.
2. Explain the characteristics of Counselling.
3.2.3 FUNCTIONS OF COUNSELLING:
Like guidance, counselling has also three fold functions adjust mental,
oriental and developmental.
Adjustmental Functions:
Rapid social change brought about by industrial ization and urbanization
has led to several perplexing problems. The pace of this change is ever on
the increase, thus making adjustment a continuous process of grappling
way with new situations. Counselling helps the student in making the best
possible a djustment to the current situations be it in educational
institution, occupational world, in the home & in the community.
Professional and individualized aid is given in making immediate &
suitable adjustment at problem points.
Oriental function:
Oriental function means to orient the person about his environmental
constraints & resources and her personal constraints & resources by giving
information and awareness in problems of career planning, educational
programming etc.
Awareness of the need to plan in t he context of the complexity of the
world of work is an essential pre -requisite of going through education and
preparation for after education. So oriental function is the important
function in the counselling process. It is a link between adjustment and
development function. If the person is properly oriented, he can develop
his plan properly & adjust suitable with himself and society.
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Guidance and Counselling

28 Developmental function
Developmental function means not only to help the students having
problems but also to help the st udents before the problems arise. For
example, we are giving vaccination to the child as a preventive measure.
Even then when the child suffers from a particular disease we take the
help of special doctor to cure it. So both the processes are coming under
health development. Likewise in the counselling process the function of
counselling is to prevent emergence & maladjustment and cure the person
having maladjustment to adjust with the problem situation. Therefore the
development function helps in.
 Self-development
 Self-realization
 Development of society and
 National development
So we can say that counselling has not only it’s functions towards the
individual but to the society & nation also.
3.3 PRINCIPLES OF COUNSELLING
We have already discussed the meani ng and principles of guidance. Now
we will discuss the principles of counselling.
The principles on which the process of counselling is based are -
 It involves a face -to-face relationship between two persons.
 It is emotional rather than purely intellectual attitude.
 It is more than advice giving. The progress comes through the
thinking that a person with a problem does for himself.
 It involves solution of immediate problem as well as the future
decision of the individual.
The counsellor should follow the abo ve principles while counselling to
make the process of counselling effective. It is not an easy task. To make
the process successful the counsellor should also follow certain principles
in his own self to develop his skills. He should follow the principles as
given below during counselling.
Warmth:
The Counsellor should communicate personal warmth and make the client
feel welcome valued as individuals.

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29 Acceptance:
The Counsellor should accept the person & his feelings for what he is
without criticizing hi m. He should also accept the person irrespective of
age, race, sex, etc.
Genuineness:
The counsellor should be very honest with himself and with client he
should be very open, friendly and undefensive.
Empathy:
Instead of showing sympathy to the person hav ing problem, the counsellor
should show empathy, which means to sense the feelings and experience
of another person.
In order to make good relationship the above qualities should be acquired
by a counsellor. He should imbibe these qualities to follow the p rinciples
of counselling properly.
Check you progress - II
Q.1 Write the full form of I A C, which constitutes the meaning of
counselling.
Q.2 The function which helps in self -realization is the ………… function
of counselling.
Q.3 Write the meaning of empa thy.
3.4 GOALS OF COUNSELLING:
“WELCOME TO THE COUNSELLOR’S CABIN”
When you enter “The Cabin” you will be greeted by a warm and friendly
atmosphere that invites you “Come on in and make yourself at home”.
Prominently displayed a copy of “The Serenity Praye r”, which serves as
both counselling mantra and mission statement. It reads as follows:
GOD GRANT ME THE SERENITY
TO ACCEPT THE THINGS I CANNOT CHANGE,
COURAGE TO CHANGE THE THINGS I CAN, AND
WISDOM TO KNOW THE DIFFERENCE.
SERENITY is an acronym use to ex plain the major components of
counselling program to help you determine if you would benefit from
engaging in this process.
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30 Evaluation - assess the problem by taking it apart and p utting it back
together
Relationships -Your relationships define and represent who you are.
Emotions - What are you feeling right now? It’s important to know.
Needs - Identify your needs; they are directly related to what you are
feeling.
Interpersonal skil ls - Life is a series of conversations. What is you style?
Treatment - Your personal plan of thinking, feeling, and acting differently.
You - Since you are the expert on you, you are the key to your success.
As a counsellor you should focus on wellness and personal growth and
work extensively on helping people to enhance the quality of their
relationships.
Many of clients are in search of meaning and direction in various life
settings including school, family, and career… all of which involve
relationships.
Empowerment over life comes through thinking clearly and making wise
choices. Unfortunately, problems can become so overwhelming it is
difficult to accomplish either one of these.
Counselling will equip you with life strategies to help you think, feel, an d
act differently in order to enhance the quality of your life.
If you read the above statements of Dr. Sacky’s Cabin, one of the
counsellor’s cabin you will understand the goals of counselling. The
acronym serenity is the goals of counselling.
Check you progress - III
1. Explain the Full form of “SERENITY”
3.5 THE TYPES OF COUNSELLING
Based on the nature of the counselling process and the role of the
counsellor, the following are the three types of counselling
Types of Counselling


Directive Counsel ling Non-Directive counselling Eclectic Counselling
-WILLIAMSON -CARL ROGERS -BORDIN
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31 3.5.1 DIRECTIVE COUNSELLING:
 B. G. Williamson is the chief exponent.
 The counsellor assumes the major responsibility of solving the
problem.
 Counsellor identifie s, defines, diagnoses and provides a solution to
the problem.
 Counsellor directs thinking by informing explaining, interpreting
and advising.
 Counsellor -oriented.
 Emphasis is on the problem.
Steps: Role of the Counsellor
 Analysis - collecting data from vari ous sources to understand the
client’s problem.
 Synthesis - interpreting and organizing data to reveal students
assets, liabilities, adjustments etc.
 Diagnosis - identifying the nature and cause of the problem.
 Prognosis -predicting the future development o f the problem.
 Counselling - taking steps to bring about adjustment
 Follow up - helping with recurrence or new patterns.
Merits
 Time saving and economical
 Gives happiness to the counselee as he gets a solution to this
problem.
 Emphasis is on the intellect ual rather than the emotional aspect.
Demerits
 Kills the initiative
 Makes him helpless
 Does not guide counselee to be efficient and confident
 Undemocratic
 Made dependent
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32 3.5.2 NON DIRECTIVE COUNSELLING (Client -oriented / Centered
Counselling):
 Chief exp onent - Carl Rogers
 Counselee is allowed free expression
 Counsellor only directs and guides
 Counsellor asks a few questions, so as to think about the solution
of the problem.
 Counselee takes active part, gains insight into the problem with the
help of the counsellor and arrives at the decision and action to be
taken
 Counsellor’s role is passive
 Goal is independent and integration of the client rather than the
solution
 Role of the counsellor is to create an atmosphere in which the
counselee can work out his own understanding
 Emotional aspect rather than the intellectual aspect is stressed
 Counselling relationship is the establishment of a warm,
permissive and accepting climate which helps the client to express
his self structure.
Merits
 Freedom of the indi vidual
 Relieves tensions due to catharsis
 Moves toward acceptance of himself
 Confronts weaknesses without feeling threatened
Demerits
 Time consuming
 Wisdom and judgement of the client cannot be relied upon
 All the problems cannot be sorted out through talking
3.5.3 ECLECTIC COUNSELLING :
 Chief exponent - Bordin (Thome)
 Counselling may be evaluated along a continuum from directive to
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33  Eclectic is a continuation and synthesis of directive and non -
directive counselling
 Both coun sellor and counselee are active and cooperative
 Both do the talking in turn
 The problem is solved jointly
The counsellor studies the needs and personality of the client and then
selects the technique (appropriate). Begins with directive but switches
over to non -directive or vice versa as demanded by the situation.
Steps
 Initial interview
 Develops rapport and does structuring so that client understands
what to expect from the counselling
 Tentative diagnosis and plan of counselling is formulated
 Gathers inf ormation about the client and the client needs to be
helped to assimilate this information
 Client achieves emotional release and gains insights, modifies
perceptions/attitudes about himself and situations
Check Your Progress -IV
1. Name the types of counsel ling with their exponents.
2. Differentiate between Directive and Non -Directive counselling.
3. Why is Eclectic Counselling preferred to Directive and Non -
directive counselling?
3.5.4 ON LINE COUNSELLING:
Online counselling refers to the provision of profe ssional mental health
counselling services concerns via the internet. Services are typically
offered via email, real time chat and video conferencing. Some clients use
online counselling in conjunction with traditional psychotherapy, and
others use it as a n occasional check -in tool for their lives.
Online Counselling:
Online counselling is simply communicating with a qualified,
professional counsellor/therapist by email or chat through your
computer, Instead of having to make a visit to your counsellor’s of fice;
you can receive the same professional care in the comfort of your own
home. If you have a microphone, we can speak to each other through
the computer.
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34 Whether you choose only a few email exchanges or on ongoing
dialogue with the counsellor over time , you have the opportunity to
share your concerns, pose questions, and gain further insight into the
problems you are addressing.
Advantages of using Online Counselling
 Convenient - any time, any place, whatever suits you
 Flexible - you control everything, receive help when you want it
 Can deal with embarrassing issues without having to see anyone
 Your anonymity is protected
 Get to the root of the problem quicker as writing lets you get in
touch with your feelings
 More cost and time effective as you can dea l with more issues in a
session
 No need to take time off work
 Receive specialized help no matter where you live in the world.
Why choose online counselling?
 Easy access to a professional counsellor or therapist though email
or live chat
 Select an experienc ed professional from many qualified to deal
with your problem
 You can select a counsellor who lives anywhere in the world
 Convenience - takes place in your home or wherever you are 24
hours a day 7 days a week
 Cheaper than regular counselling
 Anonymity and security
 Flexibility - either you can get quick answers or guidance to
problems or you can schedule regular sessions
Live Chat
The first few minutes of all Live chat sessions are completely
free of charge.
Since payment starts only when you choose to hire the counsellor,
you have the opportunity to discuss you questions and/or concerns,
negotiate a price that suits your budget and ensure that you feel
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35 Email
Email counselling is another form of online counselling t hat may suit your
needs.
 You may find that expressing concerns and questions in writing
helps organize and focus on your problem
 It is an extremely convenient way for you to communicate with a
counsellor
The benefits of online counselling with Live person
 Liveperson is one of the best and most well known online
counselling specialists
 You will have an enormous choice of professionals you can seek
help from - (experts in over 600 categories)
 You will find Liveperson very user -friendly
 You can consuit with p rofessionals in real time via Live chat and
email.
 You will find Liveperson is reliable, very easy to use and enables
you to get instant answers to your most urgent questions.
 I full recommend this service to you because so many people have
benefited from it.
Disadvantages of Counselling or Therapy by Email
Remote counselling via email carries many disadvantages as well as
advantages in comparison to traditional, face -to-face counselling.
Communication and the Counselling Relationship
Communicating only in troduces particular challenges for creating and
sustaining a working relationship.
Lack of Visual and Verbal Cues
It can be difficult enough to understand exactly what someone is saying in
a face -to-face setting, but stripped of the kinds of visual and aud itory
verbal cues which we take for granted when communicating in person the
struggle to understand takes on a whole new dimension. Part of the beauty
of the English lenaguage is that the same statement an take on a whole
range of subtle meanings: but with out that grin or frown that raised
eyebrow, that softened voice or dead -pan delivery, figuring out which
meaning a person intends can be a real challenge.
The lack of visual cues is also especially important for clients who would
like to discuss a visible physical disability and would like their counsellor
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36 Lack of Physical Presence
The lack of a physical presence of another person in the same room may
make some people feel less emotionally intimate and less comforted in
times of distress.
Asynchronous Nature of Email
It can be frustrating to have to wait for the counsellor to reply when using
email and other forms of communication that are asynchronous (meaning
that two people are writing at different ti mes, as opposed to conversing in
real time).
Urgency
In a similar vein, the inevitable time delay associated with email
exchanges precludes the kind of urgent attention (or even emergency
response) which is possible in a face -to-face setting
No Regular App ointment Times
Just as the freedom to work without fixed appointment times can be an
advantage for some clients, the absence of the structure which fixed
appointments provide can be a disadvantage for others. Many clients
prefer the structure of having to attend a session at the same time every
week.
Computer concerns
Relying on computers as a communications medium can bring technology
into the foreground of the counselling process as an unwelcome
participant.
Equipment and Internet Service Failures
Hardwar e or software failure or internet service failure can impact the
online availability of both counsellor and client. Ideally, the technology
becomes ‘transparent’, so it simply serves as a tool for communication,
without requiring attention in and of itself . In practice, however, even the
best technological tools sometimes require attention, and it can be
frustrating it this occurs during a counselling exchange.
Confidentiality and Privacy in Shared Environments
Using computers at work, in an internet cafe o r public library, or any other
environment where other people have access to the same equipment
introduces particular pitfalls for confidentiality and privacy in email
counselling.
Of course, there are thins that the face to face counselling covers that th e
e-therapy lacks. We are talking of the Non -verbal communication that is
missing when the screen separates people. Also, it may happen that a
person needs to be physically comforted when being in a counselling
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37 disadvantages, we as professionals, face our role with all our heart and
seriousness so as to make the best out of all the strengths of the online
counselling.
3.6 THE PROCESS OF COUNSELLING
Counselling is a process. It means that Counsell ing involves a sequence of
identifiable events spread over a period of time. The time taken, the
sequence of events, and dynamics involved, the nature and extent of
exploration, differ from individual to individual. However there are certain
basic stages, which form the essentials of counselling processes. The
process of counselling comprises of certain concepts, they are as follows:
Readiness:
The counselee are of two types i.e. one who seeks assistance voluntarily
and the other who are referred. The Couns elling presupposes a desire on
the part of the counselee that makes him come for the assistance. This
desire is referred to as readiness.
Counter Will:
People experience difficulty in asking for help and accepting it, because
they are reluctant to face the consequences of change or an admission of
inadequacy of failure. The negative feeling that holds back one from
seeking help is referred to, as counter will.
Case History:
Case History is a systematic collection of facts about the counselee’s past
and pres ent life. However focus of attention varies from case to case.
Rapport :
It is a warm friendly and understanding atmosphere created by the
counsellor, which is catalytical in the formation of an effective counselling
relationship. Warmth of relationship an d feeling of trust, which grows out
of unconditional acceptance are important in contributing to the
establishment of rapport.
Transference:
It refers to the counsellor transferring amotions originally felt toward
someone early in life. The counselee is en couraged to express his/her
feelings and emotions freely. The counsellor acknowledges these feelings
and handles in a therapeutic way.
Counter Transference:
This occurs when counsellor project their unresolved conflicts upon the
counselee. When counsellor feels uncomfortable and experience feelings
of anger, resentment or become overemotional. This is unhealthy.
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38 Resistance:
It refers to counselee’s move to oppose the counsellor’s attempt to work
towards set goals. This influences counselling outcome posit ively.
Resistance ranges from open hostility to passively resistant behavior like
being late for an appointment
3.6.1 STAGES OF THE COUNSELLING PROCESS:
A process is an identifiable sequence of events taking place over time e.g.
Process of human developme nt from birth to death.
The First Stage: Initial Disclosure:
Initially the client expresses two sets of feelings i.e.
i) I know I need help
ii) I wish I weren’t here.
 Therefore central task of the counsellor in this stage is to allay the
client’s fears an d encourage self -disclosure.
 Attending paying careful attention to the client’s words and actions.
Counsellor observes clients behavior for indications of content and feeling
not expressed in verbal message. It is the first contact between the client
and t he counsellor, but it remains important throughout the counselling
process.
In this stage, clients are helped to articulate their personal concerns and to
place those concerns in a context so that the counsellor can understand the
personal meanings and sig nificance the client attaches to them.
The main aim of this stage is promote trust in the client.
Following characteristics describe the helping relationship.
 Empathy - Understanding others experience as if it were yours.
 Genuineness - Being natural, consi stent in behavior and dependable
in the relationship.
 Unconditional positive regard - Caring without condition
 Concreteness - Using clear language to describe the client’s situation.
The Second Stage: In -depth Exploration
Client begins to formulate a new s ense of hope and direction.
 Counsellor at first discusses the diagnostic impressions of the
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39  As the relationship becomes more secure, the counsellor begins to
confront the client with observations about his/her goals or
behavior. This will help the client arrive at newly challenged and
refined views of self.
 Immediacy - is referred to in 3 ways.
i) General discussions about the progress of counselling relationship.
ii) Immediate response to the client’s statement disclos ing current
thoughts about counselling.
Iii) Counsellor’s personal response to a client in the present
This stage becomes emotionally stressful, because client faces the
inadequacy of habitual behaviors. In this stage client and counsellor come
to a mutua lly acceptable diagnosis of the problem.
The Third Stage: commitment to Action:
How to accomplish goals that have emerged in the previous two stages.
Client relates his behaviour to accomplish goals.
This stage includes identifying possible alternative cou rses of actions
(decisions) the client might choose.
Once an action decision is made the client tries some new behaviors. The
counsellor supports and reinforces the trying of new behaviors.
3.6.2 THE SKILLS OF COUNSELLING:
Listening - It is the process of hearing the other person.
a) During listening it is important to show that the counsellor is
listening through the ‘minimal prompts’ such as head nods, yes, no
etc. They indicate that ‘I am with you’. Overuse of these should be
avoided.
b) Behavioural asp ects of listening - (SOLER)
S - Sit squarely
O - Openness
L - Leaning
E - Eye contact
R - Relax
Aspects of Listening
Linguistic aspects - words, phrases, figures of speech
Paralinguistic aspects - timing, volume, tone pitch, ‘ums’ and ‘errs’,
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40 Non-Verbal aspects: facial expression, gestures, touch, body position, and
proximity to the counsellor, body movement and eye contact.
Attending and showing receptiveness
It is the act of truly focusing on the other person. It involves consciously
making ours elves aware of what the other person is saying and of what
they are trying to communicate to us.
Observing Body Messages
Non-verbal aspects of communication refer to body language. The way the
client expresses through the use of their body. They offer clue s about the
client’s internal status beyond the words. Morris calls it ‘Man Watching’.
Body language depends on context in which it occurs, the nature of the
relationship, individual’s personal style, personality of the person.
Therefore avoid assuming wha t person is saying with their body
languages.
Listening Blocks
 Attraction: Attention is focused on what you are feeling rather than
what client is saying.
 Physical condition: Sick/tired, without realizing it you tune out certain
things client is saying.
 Concerns: Preoccupied with you own concerns.
 Over -eagerness: Listen to only a part and respond.
 Similarity of Problems: Same as your own problem. Your mind
wanders.
 Differences: Different experiences of yours and client. Distracting.
Effective Listening:
 Attention focuses outward
 Suspension of judgment
 Attention to the behavioral aspects (SOLER)
 Avoidance of interpretation
 Development of free -floating attention
Communicating:
It is the exchange of ideas and opinions between two or more people
through speech, writing or signs. The communication included physical
setting as well as psychological predispositions of the receiver.
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41 Factors Involved in the communication
 Purpose: Specific
 Distribution:
 Environment
 Timing
 Feedback
 Follow -up
Causes of Communication Breakdown
 Lack of consideration of the other person’s feelings and
personality
 Use of technical language
 Not thinking about other, how they get affected (networking
missing)
 Lose human factor (envy, jealousy)
Clarificatio n: To get definite information through this to help clarify the
client’s thinking without pressurizing.
Concreteness: Using clear language to describe the client’s life situation.
It promotes clear insight in clients life and provides counsellor with a
fuller sense of the uniqueness of the clients experiences.
Restatement: Enables the counsellor to let the counselee realize that he is
being fully understood and accepted. Counsellor exactly repeats as said by
the client. Client thus gets a rest and a chance to collect his thoughts
before going forward.
Paraphrasing: The counsellor summarises. He chooses/selects those
ideas and feelings which seem most important and relevant and feeds them
back to the client in a more organized form.
Ways to Impede Communicati on
 Counsellor’s predispositions
 Premature advice giving
 Lecturing
 Excessive questioning
 Story telling
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42 Questioning:
What it is?
Questions are used to draw out information from others.
How to use it?
There are several types of question. Choose the most app ropriate:
Open -ended questions:
Open questions promote discovery and stimulate thinking. They are useful
to help the other person to start talking about a topic, outline a situation,
give a broad description of what happened and how he or she reacted.
Ther e are three broad types of open question:
Clarifying question
 “What specifically does that mean to you?”
 “Can I make sure I understand that…?”
 “If I hear correctly, what you are saying is…”
Creative questions
 “How have you seen others handle similar situat ions?”
 “What do you think about…?”
 “Would you like to talk more about it?”
 I’d be interested in hearing more”
 “What would be your approach if there were no constraints?”
Process questions
 “What would you like to get from this session?”
 “What do I need to c ommunicate to ensure everyone understands
your role?”
 “What authority do you think you need to complete this task?”
Follow -up or probing questions
The purpose of follow -up questions is to get information, broaden
decisions and understand reasons and motiva tions. Do not over use ‘why’.
It causes people to become defensive.
 “In what way would this help achieve greater customer
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43  “What other aspects of this should be considered?”
 “How would you involve others in accomplishing this plan?”
Follow -up questions are useful for probing - getting to the heart of a topic,
checking information and filling in detail.
A particular type of follow -up question is the reflective question, useful
for gaining a clearer understanding, revealing more information or
uncovering feelings.
 “You say you were pleased….”
 “Incompetent….”
 “You say he reacted to this How did he react….?”
Closed questions
Closed questions are those that lead to either ‘yes’ or ‘no’. They are useful
in checking facts quickly but can lead to a one -sided conversation.
Examples are:
 ‘Have you been shopping recently?’
 ‘Is there enough money in the bank?’
 ‘Have you done this sort of work before?’
A closed question can be useful lead into open questions once an area to
explore has been identified.
Less useful questions
Certain types of questions are less useful. Try not to use them - these
include:
Leading questions (“I assume you…”)
Hypothetical questions (“If you were in my place….”)
Multiple questions.
3.7 CHARACTERISTICS & SKILLS OF A
COUNSELLOR
A good counsellor should be:
 A good listener & good communicator
 Respectful to other person’s feelings & point of view.
 Kind, caring and understanding
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44  Trustworthy & respectful of people’s confidentiality
 Relaxed and calm
 Warm & approachable
 The ability to motivate & inspire clients.
3.8 ROLE & FUNCTIONS OF COUNSELLOR
Counsellor is a specialist in education. Counsellor’s responsibilities can be
classified into a) Diagnostic, b) therapeutic c) Evaluation and Research
with specia lized services and skills. A counsellor is selected by virtue of
interest, training, experience and competence.
The specific functions of a counsellor are:
 Orientation of Students
 Student appraisal
 Educational and Occupational information service
 Holding c ounselling interviews
 Placement
 Research and Evaluation
The Counsellor:
Design and initiate a comprehensive career development programme
Involve teachers, students, parents, community resources.
Plans students competencies for use in the classroom
Include Para professionals
Assist students in career selection, prepare them and progress in it.
The counsellor acts as a facilitator. The Counsellor need to keep up -to-
date information regarding new career trends and to participate in
professional experiences to improve their skills.
Check Your Progress -V
1) Teacher can be called a counsellor at home. Explain.
2) Why counsellor is called a facilitator?


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45 3.9 LET US SUM UP:
In this unit we have discussed
 The concept of counselling
 The Principles, goals, process or, stages & skills of counselling.
 Various types of counselling like:
 Directive counselling
 Nondirective counselling &
 Online counselling
 The characteristics, skills, Roles and functions of a counsellor.
This unit gives you an outline of counselling pr ocess. An analysis of
different types of counselling and it’s uses & misuses gives an idea of
using different types of counselling for different purposes in different
situations. In short, this unit is an attempt to describe the counselling
process & role & functions of the counsellors for effective counselling.
3.10 UNIT END EXERCISES:
Q.1 “Counselling is remedial, preventive and developments” justify.
Q.2 What is counselling. Explain the skills of counselling.
Q.3 What is online counselling? How can it h elp you?
3.11 SUGGESTED READINGS
Kochhar, S. K. (1990) Educational and vocational Guidance in Secondary
Schools”. Sterling publisher, New Delhi.
Bengalee, Mehro D. (1990) “ Guidane & Counselling,” Sheth Publication,
Mumbai.
Gibson & Michel (1986) “Introdu ction to Counselling and guidance.” Mac
Milan Publishing Company.
www.google.com

 
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46 4
GUIDANCE FOR POPULATION WITH
SPECIAL NEEDS -I

Unit Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Mentally Challenged learners
4.2.1 Slow Alearners
4.2.2 Mentally Retarded
4.2.3 Gifted
4.3 Learning disabilities
4.3.1 Dyslexia
4.3.2 Dysgraphia
4.3.3 Dyscalculia
4.4 Let us sum up
4.5 Unit End Exercises
4.6 Suggested Readings
4.0 OBJECTIVE
After reading this unit you will be able to :
 Define mentally challenged learners.
 State different types of mentally challenge of learners.
 Identify special pr oblems of slow learners.
 Explain learning disabilities.
 Tell examples of disability.
 Identify the learning disability of students.
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47 4.1 INTRODUCTION
Children who have been determined to require special attention and
specific necessities than other children . Special needs children face a lot of
emotional, social and psychological problems due to their disability. A
teacher can prove to be very helpful to students in providing personal and
academic support. A little help and concern from a teacher can help th em
stabilize their emotional, social and psychological levels into a more
balanced learner in the classroom. Under a teacher's guidance, students
will feel secure and more engaged in the learning process. Teacher
guidance can help students with special nee ds express their feelings and
communicate their needs freely in the classroom which will create a more
constructive student/teacher engagement and understanding.
Therefore by providing guidance to students with Special needs, teachers
can effectively help students towards a greater academic and social
adjustment to their learning environment.
4.2 MENTALLY CHALLENGED LEARNERS
SLOW LEARNERS: MEANING
Slow -learners are those who fail in school because of their low intellectual
abilities. Their IQ ranges from 55 / 60 to 85 / 90. They have a wide range
of abilities and a variety of characteristics depending on their background.
The term Slow -learners is used to cover various group of students
otherwise referred to ‘Dull’,‘Retarded’ or ‘Educationally Subnormal’.
Now the term Slow -learners is used more widely to indicate the fairly
large group of children whose learning is slowed down by one or more
factors of which limited ability may be one even though their intellectual
potential may be considerably higher.
Definitions
Knoff (1987) – Slow Learner is the one who learn or underachieve, in one
or more academic areas, at a rate that is below average yet not at the level
considered comparable to that of an educable mentally retarded student.
Types of SL:
 Very Backwa rd – Due to retarded mental development accompanied
by psycho -social deficiency.
 Ability not quite limited but having difficulty in learning than
average children due to school, family or personal factors.
 They may derive benefits from special classes not limited in
intelligence but have problems in reading and writing where as
arithmetic and other subjects are high. Their causes may range from
specific perpetual difficulties to emotional maladjustment. For them
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48  In some schools there are many SL, for them sometimes special class
is required. The children receive education in special school or class
move to a regular school after the backwardness is removed.
 These children are hard to identify as they even manage i n a less
advanced society and do not drew attention easily as deaf, blind or
physically handicapped do.
 The period at which their limitations arise are most obvious is that of
school years.
4.2.1 SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF THE SLOW -LEARNERS:
1. Since in physical app earance they look like normal children, parents
and teachers have the same expectations from them as from the latter.
2. When they are not able to live up to these expectations, parents and
teachers scold and punish them instead of trying to find out the
reason behind their failure.
3. Their classmates make fun of them.
4. Consequently, they are bewildered and confused, wondering what
wrong they have committed.
5. Since their basic needs of being loved, accepted and recognised are
not met, they develop emotional proble ms and behaviour difficulties.
6. They generally have a low self -concept due to their limited
experience of success and due to the low opinion expressed of them
by parents, teachers and others around them.
CHARACTERISTICS
1) In physical appearance they are no di fferent from normal children
and therefore likely to get admission into schools for normal children
where the curriculum is drawn up to meet the needs of average
children. So they find it extremely difficult to cope with the education
imparted in these sch ools, unless special provision is made for them
and the curriculum is oriented towards practical and real life
activities.
2) They are capable of being educated in ordinary schools and even
achieving a moderate degree of success, if they are allowed to
proce ed at a slower pace and the syllabus is adapted to suit their
abilities.
3) But, they will not be able to keep pace with the average children and
never be able to learn all the things we expect normal children to
master by the time they leave school.
4) They w ill not be able to go for higher studies despite all the guidance
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49 5) They have poor memories. Their attention span is short and they
cannot concentrate on one topic
6) Weakness in thinking capacity, finding o ut relationships, similarity,
familiarity, reasoning, object characteristic observing, poor language
and number concept development.
7) Poor verbal ability, Brief vocabulary.
8) Difficulty in abstractions.
9) Weakness in the memory.
10) Constant Feeling of Insecuri ty.
Physical Characteristics:
 Poor in dressing, using drawing & writing materials and tools.
 Need large practice in climbing, jumping, dancing, skipping, games
etc.
 Sometimes SL have better physical development than mental
development.
 Their capacity to le arn is reduced because of sickness, minor ailments,
malnutrition etc.
 Causes
 Poorer powers of retention.
 Weakness in Attention
 Physical or mental personal inadequacy.
 Having limited capacity for taking responsibility
 Unable to control feelings of aggressio n or outburst.
 Solation.
Showing the sign of slow learner doesn’t mean that the child is slow
learner, there are other factors that could cause the process of slow
learning
Emotional growth:
Feelings about one self and the developing of these feeling pos itive or
negative is called emotional growth, Emotional and social development
are often link together because they are relevant. In the initial stages child
learn the feelings of trust, fear, and love later on as he grow he develops
the feeling of friends hip, pride, and relationship which also guide toward
social -emotional development of the child.. if the child is ignore in this
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50 and they avoid trust initially parents and later on o ther people, they
isolated them self from the outer world. Furthermore, a neglected child,
feel him self rejected, and unsecured, it affect the developing skills of the
child to socialize with others children.
In this stage the changes are very rapid in ch ild and every change bring
new change in the behaviour of the child and each change brings about
new skills. Child develop multi skills in this stage, the most important one
is positive feelings about self and trust building with others
Environment:
Child ren react to their environment in early stages and he learns from the
environment in which they grow. Create a safe environment for them and
reduce the stress on your child and remove the things which are physical
threats to the children e.g.: abusive beha viour and unsafe toys etc
With whom the child is spending his time, what is their intellectual level.
And how they treat the child, when children have a secure environment, it
flourishes their abilities in positive direction. Studies show those children
who have better environment show better confidence in life and in
education.
Growth and opportunities of Learning :
Opportunities of learning is very necessary for the development of
children cognitive abilities, Parents should provide rich learning
enviro nment to their children and open new windows of learning
opportunities for them. They need simple playable activities and games to
develop their brains, Show them new things and arrange new activities for
them to enhance their thinking skill.
Absenteeism:
Absenteeism from the school is another factor which can affect the ability
of learning of a child, when a child is often absent from the class, he could
catch with other student in school, he need extra home work with the help
of parents to cover his sho rt coming other wise he lose his self confidence
EDUCATIONAL PROVISIONS
•Use of appropriate methods of learning
•–Motivation
–Learning Readiness
–A practical approach
–Concept formation
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51 –Consolidation
–Active metho ds
•Individualization of treatment
•Cooperation between various professionals
•Parent Education and Guidance
There are several other strategies that are useful. Computers are great to
use in the classroom. Computers never tire or get interrupted making the
drill and practice more effective and fun. It is important to allow the
student time to get out of his/her seat to let off energy and relieve a little
stress. A classroom that utilizes centers is good for this. In giving
instructions you should say the ch ild’s name or touch them before giving
the direction, write the directions on the board or paper for each child to
keep, and ask that the student repeat the direction orally. This helps to
reinforce the direction and gives them something to refer back to i f they
forget. Once the student turns in the work or answers orally, provide
immediate feedback. This assures the student of their answer or allows
them to correct the answer and keeps them on task. The most important,
strategies is to provide three or fou r hours of academic work. Slow
learners are not efficient learners and therefore require more hours of
academic instruction to keep pace.
A very big problem that every school faces, i.e. the difficulty to deal with
the slow learners. The teachers have the ir big headache over these
children. Handle them in homework & class work, understanding the
topic, etc are the areas concerned with the slow learners. We try to advise
them or we try to get result by hook or crook through putting negative
enforcement by p unishing them. It is estimated that due to that problem
many slow learners or dropout students are being termed as weak students
& thrown out of the school. But that is not the solution. The result of the
action of the throwing out the child out of the sch ool paves the way to
create a dark spot in the life of the victim child. Then, where are the
solutions? If the teachers will give time to think over those children,
definitely the solution comes in their hand. It is also the proof in history
that many slow learners have become qualified themselves as the scientists
& writers in their life. So, why not we experiment with these slow learners
who are with us? Have we thought over it? Have we tried to understand
the life of a slow learner? The following discuss ion may help the teachers
to improve the skill of the slow learners.
1. Psychological Analysis & Problem solution -
The more & more we think about the child the more we get the solution.
Firstly, we have to search the problem area of the child. The proble m of
the child may be his family or friends or his personal condition. If we go
for personal asking questions as a relative of his own, then we can be
assured about getting some difficulties for which the child is not reading.
Them we, from our level will try to get solution of this problem. munotes.in

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52 2. Guidance from his level -
Child has a level of his own. Level of understanding is different from one
child to another. The weak child more often can’t understand the studies
because he has not understood the previous formula / concept in the
previous classes. How can he understand the concept of class IX if he has
not understood the simple concept of class VII & VIII? That’s why the
child should be personally taught from his understanding level.
3. Encouragement in sm all success -
The greatest factor for the success of the life of the child is his
encouragement. If we try to find out the strengths of the weak child then
we come across some of them. If we try to applaud him with encouraging
words & give confidence he de finitely feels his importance & worth. Once
the child has grown his confidence means he will definitely improve. The
most important cause of his weakness is we; the teachers always give
importance to the good children & neglect the weaker in the class.
Encouragement can change the whole personality of a child.
4. Fixing the goal & Prescribi9ng a Time table -
The child should be persuaded to make a time table for the study purpose.
Sometimes some children have no goal regarding study. The teacher
should obs erve those children & inspire them to fix the goal for the life &
help him to make a time table for every day work so that the child will be
captured through the time table to do the things at write time.
5. Giving Memory tips -
More often the child forget s what ever he learns. That’s why he loses his
confidence on him & differentiates between him & the good students. The
teacher’s role is to give the tips such as ‘how to recall’, ‘in which way to
write systematically’, ‘when to learn’, ‘how to learn’ etc.
6. Giving importance in the class -
It’s always seen that the class room teaching goes on with the direction &
understanding of the strong children. But if the average children do not
understand your teaching & you are just running towards the completion
of syllabus then the whole teaching is a futile one. Some times it’s very
urgent to go near the weak child & ask personally whether he has
understood or not. Here the teacher’s asking approach should be very
polite & sweet, not rude.
7. Self reading method -
Most of the weak children are found that they neglect self reading. They
may have the language understanding problem for which they do not take
interest to read. If the teacher freely tells the child to come at home or to
him in extra time for understan ding the key words then little the child will
take interest to self reading. Then definitely he improves himself slowly. munotes.in

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53 8. Questions for Practice -
Some questions can be given time to time to engage the learner in the
habit of study. That is a practice wh ich can enable the student to come
across the learning point at a regular basis.
9. Special guidance beyond school hour -
Basically we the teachers now have become very professional. After
school hour we hesitate to give even a single minute to the childr en which
reduce our rapport. The weak children, they need special attention beyond
school hour that is personally to take up the child’s difficulty. We the
teachers, beyond school hour, either we waste time in gossiping or earn
money in tuition. If we give 1 hour extra time for the weak children then
definitely they will improve. Because it is very difficult to give time to the
weak ones in the classroom itself.
10. Seating arrangement -
More often we see that the strong children in the class room don’t wi sh to
sit with the weak children. The weak ones always sit with the weak. This
is another cause for the no improvement of the weak children. If the class
teacher prepares seating arrangements properly to benefit the weak
children -to make arrangement to sit the strong one with the weak one &
instruct to the strong one to help the weak one in studies then the weak
ones may be improved in studies.
11. Search physical or mental problem -
The teacher should find out any physical or mental problem of the child. A
child is not writing anything from the black board means may be some eye
defect. A child is not obeying the words of the teacher, may be some
mental problem is there. Some children are severely affected by the
physical problems which made them lazy to re ad & write. Firstly the
teacher / parent should find out the problems then treat them accordingly.
12. Creating confidence level in his interest areas -
The teacher should observe the child & secretly know the interest areas of
the child. Even if the chil d plays, act, does some work the teacher / parent
should find out his interest / specialty. Because every child is special. The
encouragement can be started from the child’s interest areas. When the
child builds his confidence in his interest area then we can expand &
inspire the same confidence in other areas also.
13. BE A FRIEND TO HIM -
Be a friend to the weak child. Teacher should try to knowingly mix with
the child more & more with him. Unknowingly when the friendship is
build with that child then th e child starts loving the teacher. The starting of
love starts the surrender of the child towards the same teacher. Then the
teacher, whatever he tells the child obeys it. The mystery of all success is
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54 Oh teacher! Many more children are waiting to catch your lovable hand.
They are searching you as a friend. They are so called by the society as
slow learners or weak ones but actually they are not. May be some
unfortunate moment misguided them. Is it not noble to improve them,
support them to develop in their own pace? Is it not wise to take care of
them?
The history has proved the slow learners such as Thomas Edison &
Gandhi as the world class Scientist & Leader respectively.
Every child is special. As every child has a soul, there is every possibility
of improvement, sooner or later. The goal of the soul is to develop. The
source of energy is lying within them but the only thing is to stretch the
hand of confidence towards them which will solve their problem &
improve th eir quality.
Check your progress -I
Write Short note on the following
1. Characteristics of a Slow learner.
2. Educational provisions for slow learner.
4.2.2 Mental retardation:
Introduction:
A developmental disability characterized by significantly s ub average
general intellectual functioning, with concurrent deficits in adaptive
behavior. The causes are many and include both genetic and
environmental factors as well as interactions between the two. In most
cases the diagnosis is not formally made unt il children have entered into
school settings. In the preschool years, the diagnosis is more likely to be
established by evidence of delayed maturation in the areas of sensory -
motor, adaptive, cognitive, social, and verbal behaviors. By definition,
evidenc e of mental retardation must exist prior to adulthood, where
vocational limitation may be evident, but the need for supervision or
support may persist beyond the usual age of social emancipation.
Definition:
Mental retardation is a developmental disability that first appears in
children under the age of 18. It is defined as an intellectual functioning
level (as measured by standard tests for intelligence quotient) that is well
below average and significant limitations in daily living skills (adaptive
functi oning).
Limitations in adaptive behavior must also be demonstrable in order to
satisfy diagnostic criteria for mental retardation. This criterion is important
because certain artistic or other gifts may not be revealed by formal IQ
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55 the demands of specific environments. Outside such environments, an
individual may navigate a normal course in life.
Levels of Mental Retardation:
Mental retardation varies in severity. There are four di fferent degrees of
mental retardation: mild, moderate, severe, and profound. These categories
are based on the functioning level of the individual.
Individuals with mental retardation are typically sub classified in terms of
the manifest severity of cognit ive disability as reflected by the ratio of
mental age to chronological age, or intelligence quotient (IQ). Sub average
intellectual functioning is defined as an IQ score of at least two standard
deviations below the mean, or approximately 70 to 75 or belo w. Mild,
moderate, severe, and profound degrees of mental retardation refer to
below the normal IQ for the general population.
Class IQ
Profound mental retardation Below 20
Severe mental retardation 20–34
Moderate mental retardation 35--49
Mild mental retardation 50–69
Borderline intellectual functioning 70–84

Mild Mental Retardation:
Approximately 85 percent of the mentally retarde d population is in the
mildly retarded category. Their IQ score ranges from 50 to 75, and they
can often acquire academic skills up to the sixth grade level. They can
become fairly self -sufficient and in some cases live independently, with
community and social support.
Moderate Mental Retardation:
About 10 percent of the mentally retarded population is considered
moderately retarded. Moderately retarded individuals have IQ scores
ranging from 35 to 55. They can carry out work and self -care tasks with
moderate supervision. They typically acquire communication skills in
childhood and are able to live and function successfully wi thin the
community in a supervised environment such as a group home.
Severe Mental Retardation:
About 3 to 4 percent of the mentally retarded population is severely
retarded. Severely retarded individuals have IQ scores of 20 to 40. They
may master very ba sic self -care skills and some communication skills.
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56 Profound Mental Retardation:
Only 1 to 2 percent of the mentally retarded population is classified as
profoundly retarded. Profoundly r etarded individuals have IQ scores under
20 to 25. They may be able to develop basic self -care and communication
skills with appropriate support and training. Their retardation is often
caused by an accompanying neurological disorder. The profoundly
retard ed need a high level of structure and supervision.
The American Association on Mental Retardation (AAMR) has developed
another widely accepted diagnostic classification system for mental
retardation. The AAMR classification system focuses on the capabiliti es
of the retarded individual rather than on the limitations. The categories
describe the level of support required. They are: intermittent support,
limited support, extensive support, and pervasive support. Intermittent
support, for example, is support ne eded only occasionally, perhaps during
times of stress or crisis. It is the type of support typically required for most
mildly retarded individuals. At the other end of the spectrum, pervasive
support, or life -long, daily support for most adaptive areas, w ould be
required for profoundly retarded individuals.
Causes:
Low IQ scores and limitations in adaptive skills are the hallmarks of
mental retardation. Aggression, self -injury, and mood disorders are
sometimes associated with the disability. The severity of the symptoms
and the age at which they first appear depend on the cause. Children who
are mentally retarded reach developmental milestones significantly later
than expected, if at all. If retardation is caused by chromosomal or other
genetic disorders, it is often apparent from infancy. If retardation is caused
by childhood illnesses or injuries, learning and adaptive skills that were
once easy may suddenly become difficult or impossible to master. In about
35 percent of cases, the cause of mental retard ation cannot be found.
Biological and environmental factors that can cause mental retardation
include genetics, prenatal illnesses and issues, childhood illnesses and
injuries, and environmental factors.
Genetics:
About 5 percent of mental retardation is c aused by hereditary factors.
Mental retardation may be caused by an inherited abnormality of the
genes, such as fragile X syndrome. Fragile X, a defect in the chromosome
that determines sex, is the most common inherited cause of mental
retardation. Single gene defects such as phenylketonuria (PKU) and other
inborn errors of metabolism may also cause mental retardation if they are
not found and treated early. An accident or mutation in gene tic
development may also cause retardation. Examples of such accidents are
development of an extra chromosome 18 ( trisomy 18) and Down
syndrome. Down syndrome is caused by an abnormality in the
development of chromosome 21. It is the most common genetic cause of
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57 Prenatal Illnesses and Issues:
Fetal alcohol syndrome affects one in 600 children in the United States. It
is caused by excessive alcohol intake in the first twelve wee ks (trimester)
of pregnancy. Some studies have shown that even moderate alcohol use
during pregnancy may cause learning disabilities in children. Drug abuse
and cigarette smoking during pregnancy have also been linked to mental
retardation.
Maternal infect ions and illnesses such as glandular disorders, rubella ,
toxoplasm osis, and cytomegalovirus infection may cause mental
retardation. When the mother has high blood pressure ( hype rtension ) or
blood poisoning ( toxemia ), the flow of oxygen to the fetus may be
reduced, causing brain damage and mental retardation.
Birth defects that cause physical deformities of the head, brain, and central
nervous system frequently cause mental retardation. Neural tube defect,
for example, is a birth defect in which the neural tube that forms the spinal
cord does not close completely . This defect may cause children to develop
an accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid on the brain ( hydrocephalus ). By
putting pressure on the brain hydrocephalus can cause learning
impairment.
Childhood Illnesses and Injuries:
Hyperthyroidism, whooping cough, chickenpox , measles, and Hib disease
(a bacterial infection) may cause mental retardation if they are not treate d
adequately. An infection of the membrane covering the brain ( meningitis )
or an inflammation of the brain itself ( encephalitis ) cause swelling that in
turn may cause brain damage and mental retardation. Traumatic brain
injury caused by a blow or a violent shake to the head may also cause
brain damage and mental retardation in children.
Environmental Factors:
Ignored or neglected infants who are not provided the mental and physical
stimulation required for normal development may suffer irreversible
learning impairments . Children who live in poverty and suffer from
malnutrition , unhealthy living conditions, and improper or inadequate
medical care are at a higher risk. Exposure to lead can also cause mental
retardation. Many children develop lead pois oning by eating the flaking
lead-based paint often found in older buildings.
Diagnosis:
A complete medical, family , social, and educational history is compiled
from existing medical and school re cords (if applicable) and from
interviews with parents. Children are given intelligence tests to measure
their learning abilities and intellectual functioning. Such tests include the
Stanford -Binet Intelligence Scale, the Wechsler Intelligence Scales , the
Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, and the Kaufmann
Assessment Battery for Children. For infants, the Bayley Scales of Infant munotes.in

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58 Development may be used to assess motor, language, and problem -solving
skills. Interviews with parents or other caregivers are used to assess the
child's daily living, muscle control, communicatio n, and social skills. The
Woodcock -Johnson Scales of Independent Behavior and the Vineland
Adaptive Behavior Scale (VABS) are frequently used to test these skills.
Treatment:
Training in independent living and job skills is often begun in early
adulthood. The level of training depends on the degree of retardation.
Mildly retarded individuals can often acquire the skills needed to live
independently and hold an outside job. Moderate to profoundly retarded
individuals usually require supervised community livi ng. Family therapy
can help relatives of the mentally retarded develop coping skills. It can
also help parents deal with feelings of guilt or anger. A supportive, warm
home environment i s essential to help the mentally retarded reach their
full potential.
Prognosis:
Individuals with mild to moderate mental retardation are frequently able to
achieve some self -sufficiency and to lead happy and fulfilling lives. To
reach these goals, they n eed appropriate and consistent educational,
community, social, family, and vocational supports. The outlook is less
promising for those with severe to profound retardation. Studies have
shown that these individuals have a shortened life expectancy. The
diseases that are usually associated with severe retardation may cause the
shorter life span. People with Down syndrome develop in later life the
brain changes that characterize Alzheimer's disease and may develop the
clinical symptoms of this disease as well .
Prevention:
Immunization against diseases such as measles and HIV prevents many of
the illnesses that can cause mental retardation. In addition, all children
should undergo routine developmenta l screening as part of their pediatric
care. Screening is particularly critical for those children who may be
neglected or undernourished or may live in disease -producing conditions.
Newborn screening and immediate treatment for PKU and
hyperthyroidism can usually catch these disorders early enough to prevent
retardation. Good prenatal care can also help prevent retardation. Pregnant
women should be educated about the risks of drinking and the need to
maintain good nutrition during pregnancy. Tests such as amniocentesis
and ultra sonography can determine whether a fetus is developing
normally in the womb.
Strategies:
 Activities should be divided into manageable parts and carefully
sequenced to offer a progression of skills.
 Repetition of important t asks may also facilitate learning. munotes.in

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59  Whenever possible, it is helpful to provide a demonstration so
participants can model the desired behavior.
 Use verbal instructions that are clear and easy to understand.
 Provide careful supervision of all activities e specially those in which
accidents or injuries are possible, but be careful not to overprotect
participants.
 Explain required learning tasks in terms of concrete concepts.
 Stress real life applications.
 Plan activities that are age appropriate.
 Plan act ivities that require skills useful in community living, job
training, etc.
 Try to ensure that the challenges of an activity correspond with the
skills of the participants.
 When possible start an activity at the participant’s current skill level
rather th an the lowest possible level.
 Small group and cooperative activities may facilitate social
development for those with deficiencies in adaptive behavior.
 Establish necessary rules for appropriate behavior, and use consistent
consequences.
Parental Concer ns:
All states are required by law to offer early intervention programs for
mentally retarded children from the time they are born. The sooner the
diagnosis of mental retardation is made, the more the child can be helped.
With mentally retarded infants, th e treatment emphasis is on sensori motor
development, which can be stimulated by exercises and special types of
play. It is required that special education programs be available for
retarded children starting at three years of age. These programs
concent rate on essential self -care, such as feeding, dressing, and toilet
training . There is also specialized help available for language and
communication difficulties and physical disabilities . As children grow
older, training in daily living skills, as well as academic subjects, is
offered.
Counseling and therapy are another important type of treatment for the
mentally retarded. Retarded children are prone to behavioral problems
caused by shor t attention span, low tolerance for frustration, and poor
impulse control. Behavior therapy with a mental health professional can
help combat negative behavior patterns and replace them with more
functional ones. A counselor or therapist can also help retarded children
cope with the low self -esteem that often results from the realization that
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60 also be valuable for the family of a retarded child to help parents cope
with painful feelings about the child's condition and with the extra time
and patience needed for the care and education of a special -needs child.
Siblings may need to talk about the pressures they face, such as accepting
the extra time and attention their parents must devote to a retarded brother
or sister. Sometimes parents have trouble bonding with an infant who is
retarded and need professional help and reassurance to establish a close
and loving relationship.
Check your progress –II
1. Define mental retardation. Explain it’s levels.
2. What is mental retardation. Explain it’s causes.
4.2.3 Gifted Children:
Meaning:
Someone who shows, or has the potential for showing, an exceptional
level of performance in one or more areas of expression.
Characteristics of Gifted Students:
• Learn Quickly and Easily
• Able to use abstract thought and critical reasoning
• Exhibit Verbal Proficiency
• Have a high energy level
• Become bored and frustrated
• Dislike repetition
• Receive negative adult attitudes to smartness
• Dominate Discussions
• Difficulty with listening skills
• Become frustrated with inactivity and lack of challenge
• Be extremely persistent
• Concentrate on tasks of high interest for extended periods of time
• Exhibit unusual emotional depth and intensity
• Be highly sensitive
• Be acutely perceptive
• Disrupt class routine
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61 • Perceived as stubborn or uncooperative
• Be unusually vulnerable
• Perceived as immature
• Be confused if thoughts and feelings not taken seriou sly
• Aim at perfection
• Exhibit independence and nonconformity
• Heightened self -awareness
• Relate more to older children and adults
• Feel frustrated
• Fear failure
• Challenge and question indiscreetly
• Exhibit rebellious behavior
• Social isolation
• Low self -esteem du e to seeing differences from peers as bad
• Seen as a “show off”
• Keen sense of humor
• Possess unusual imagination
Causes
• Experience
• Biological Factors
• Social Factors
• No single factor that “causes” giftedness
Difficulties for Gifted Children:
Perfectionism
Isolation
Underachievement – vs. Selective Achievement v Selective
Impostor Syndrome Impostor Syndrome
Masking Abilities Masking Abilities
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62
Depression
Anxiety
Suicide
Strategies for Teaching Gifted Students:
Create alternative activities th at go beyond the regular curriculum.
Work with students to design an independent project that they would be
interested in completing for credit
If possible, involve students in academic competitions in your area.
Create tiered assignments, which have diffe rent expectations for different
levels of learners.
Computers can be used to complete alternative activities and independent
projects. Program For Gifted
Acceleration and Enrichment:
Acceleration refers to the speeding up of instruction. Gifted children ar e
fast learners and require little repetition of information. Enrichment refers
to the increased depth of study of a particular topic. It extends the regular
curriculum. Both are needed in some form.
 Multiple Options:
Is the program a “one size fits all” program or are there various options
for the different needs of the different types of gifted children? A
profoundly gifted child has significantly different educational needs than
does a mildly gifted child, for example. In addition, a child may be
exceptionally gifted in math , but not in language arts. Multiple options are
essential.
 Student Learning Expectations
Learning outcomes must be clear. The students may have fun, but they
must also learn something new.
 Challenging Curriculum
Gifted children need a stimulating curriculum. Without it, they can "tune
out," losing interest in school. A curriculum for gifted children should
require them to stretch their minds.
 Flexibility
Flexibil ity is needed in order to respond to the needs of individual gifted
children. Rigid adherence to the system often prevents some gifted
children from appropriate challenges.

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63  Staff Development Plan
Teachers who have been trained to work with gifted child ren are much
more effective than those who have not.
 Guidance Component
Gifted children often feel isolated or "different." They sometimes don't
feel like they fit in socially with the other children. They also can be very
sensitive and have a harder time than other children dealing with the day -
to-day stress of school or growing up. The guidance can be individual or
group guidance.
 Honoring Academic Talent
Schools must honor all t alent areas in the same way athletic talent is
honored Names of achievers can be listed or announced in the same way
sports heroes are listed and announced.
TIPS FOR NURTURING GIFTED CHILDREN
 Appreciate gifted learners as children.
 Interact with families with gifted children.
 Recognize how the personal and instructional needs of a gifted child
differ from others.
 Appreciate the differences among high achievers, gifted learners,
and creative thinkers.
 Understand the developmental crises for gifted stude nts.
 Assure your child that being different is okay.
 Be an encourager.
 Emphasize that what is learned is more important than any grade.
 Be an active listener and elicit children’s perceptions.
 Follow their interests and leads in learning situations ra ther than
pressure them with your agenda.
 Talk up to them.
 Enjoy music, plays, museums, art, sports, and historical places
together and discuss the experience.
 Model life -long learning habits
 Facilitate real -life reading, writing, science, and math expe riences.
 Give books and learning games as presents, and then spend time
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64  Recognize that gifted children need to question and respond
critically.
 Maintain a sense of humor!
Check your progress -III

1. How will yo u identify gifted Child?
2. Explain the difficulties felt by gifted Children. What Strategies will
you adopt to teach gifted Students.
4.3 LEARNING DISABILITIES:
Dyslexia, Dysgraphia and Dyscalculia
What is a learning disability?
A child with a learning disability cannot try harder, pay closer attention, or
improve motivation on their own; they need help to learn how to do those
things. A learning disability, or learning disorder, is not a problem with
intelligence. Learning disorders are caused by a diff erence in the brain that
affects how information is received, processed, or communicated.
Children and adults with learning disabilities have trouble processing
sensory information because they see, hear, and understand things
differently.
Symptoms and typ es of learning disabilities and disorders
Motor difficulties and learning disabilities:
Motor difficulty refers to problems with movement and coordination
whether it is with fine motor skills (cutting, writing) or gross motor skills
(running, jumping). A m otor disability is sometimes referred to as an
“output” activity meaning that it relates to the output of information from
the brain. In order to run, jump, write or cut something, the brain must be
able to communicate with the necessary limbs to complete the action.
Signs that your child might have a motor coordination disability include
problems with physical abilities that require hand –eye coordination, like
holding a pencil or buttoning a shirt.
Math difficulties and learning disabilities:
Learning dis abilities in math vary greatly depending on the child’s other
strengths and weaknesses. A child’s ability to do math will be affected
differently by a language learning disability, or a visual disorder or a
difficulty with sequencing, memory or organizatio n.
A child with a math –based learning disorder may struggle with
memorization and organization of numbers, operation signs, and number
“facts”.
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65 Language difficulties and learning disabilities:
Language and communication learning disabilities involve th e ability to
understand or produce spoken language. Language is also considered an
output activity because it requires organizing thoughts in the brain and
calling upon the right words to verbally e xplain something or
communicate with someone else.
Signs of a language –based learning disorder involve problems with verbal
language skills, such as the ability to retell a story and the fluency of
speech, as well as the ability to understand the meaning of words, parts of
speech, directions, etc.
Reading diffic ulties and learning disabilities:
There are two types of learning disabilities in reading. Basic reading
problems occur when there is difficulty understanding the relationship
between sounds, letters and words. Reading comprehension problems
occur when the re is an inability to grasp the meaning of words, phrases,
and paragraphs. Signs of reading difficulty include problems with: letter
and word recognition , understanding words and ideas . reading speed and
fluency, general vocabulary skills.
Writing diffic ulties and learning disabilities:
Learning disabilities in writing can involve the physical act of writing or
the mental activity of comprehending and synthesizing information. Basic
writing disorder refers to physical difficulty forming words and letters.
Expressive writing disability indicates a struggle to organize thoughts on
paper.
Symptoms of a written language learning disability revolve around the act
of writing and include. They include problems with: neatness and
consistency of writing , accuratel y copying letters and words , spelling
consistency, writing organization and coherence.
Auditory and visual processing: the importance of the ears and the eyes.
The eyes and the ears are the primary means of delivering information to
the brain, a process sometimes called “input.” If either the eyes or the ears
aren’t working properly, learning can suffer and there is a greater
likelihood of a learning disability or disorder.
Professionals may refer to the ability to hear well as “auditory processing
skills ” or “receptive language.” The ability to hear things correctly greatly
impacts the ability to read, write and spell. An inability to distinguish
subtle differences in sound, or hearing sounds at the wrong speed make it
difficult to sound out words and und erstand the basic concepts of reading
and writing.
Problems in visual perception include missing subtle differences in shapes,
reversing letters or numbers, skipping words, skipping lines,
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66 coordination. Professionals may refer to the work of the eyes as “visual
processing.” Visual perception can affect gross and fine motor skills,
reading comprehension, and math.
Common Types of Learning Disabilities
Dyslexia Difficulty processing language Problems reading, writing, spelling , speaking
Dyscalculia Difficulty with math Problems doing math problems, understanding time, using money
Dysgraphia Difficulty with writing Problems with handwriting, spelling, organizing ideas
Dyspraxia
(Sensory
Integration
Disorder) Difficulty with fine motor skills Problems with hand –eye coordination, balance, manual dexterity
Auditory
Processing
Disorder Difficulty hearing differences between sounds Problems with reading, comprehension, langu age
Visual
Processing
Disorder Difficulty interpreting visual information Problems with reading, math, maps, charts, symbols, pictures
Diagnosis and testing for learning disabilities and disorders Specialists
trained to do psychological testing a nd result interpretation
 Clinical psychologist
 School psychologist
 Educational psychologist
 Developmental psychologist
 Neurophysiologist
 Psychometrist
 Occupational therapist (tests sensory disorders that can lead to
learning problems)
 Speech and language t herapist
Sometimes several professionals coordinate services as a team to obtain an
accurate diagnosis, including input from your child's teachers.
Recommendations can then be made for special education services or
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67 4.3.1 Dyslexia
Definition:
The term "Dyslexia" is used to cover a wide range of learning problems . It
refers to a specific difficulty in learning, either inborn or acquired, in
reading, spelling and written language. Th is may also be accompanied by
difficulty in number work. It is a neurological condition in which the child
has tremendous difficulty acquiring language skills, even though she may
be intellectually bright, with oral skills so good that she is able to bluff her
way through the early classes.
Dyslexia is a broad term defining a learning disability that impairs a
person's fluency or accuracy in being able to read, write, a nd spell, and
which can manifest itself as a difficulty with phonological awareness ,
phonologic al decoding , orthographic coding , auditory short -term memory ,
and/or rapid naming . Dyslexia is separate and distinct from reading
difficulties resulting from other causes, such as a non -neurological
deficiency with vision or hearing, or from poor or inadequate reading
instruction . There are three proposed cognitive subtypes of dyslexia:
auditory, visual and attentional. Although dyslexia is not an intellectual
disability, it is con sidered both a learning disability and a reading
disability . Dyslexia and IQ are not interrelated, since reading and
cognition develop independently in individuals who have dyslexia.
The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke gives the
following definition for dyslexia:
"Dyslexia is a brain -based type of learning disability that specifically
impairs a person's ability to read. These individuals typically read at levels
significantly lower than expected despite having normal intelligence.
Although the disorder varies from person to person, common
characteristics among people with dyslexia are difficulty with spelling,
phonological processing (the manipulation of sounds), and/or rapid visual -
verbal responding. In adults, dyslexia usually occurs after a brain injury or
in the context of dementia. It can also be inherited in some families, and
recent studies have identified a number of genes that may predispose an
individual to developing dyslexia".[
Signs and symptoms:
The symptoms of dyslexia vary according to the severity of the disorder as
well as the age of the individual.
The chronologi cal sequence of events:
1. In the first year the child may be a bit slow in acquiring the
alphabet and some aspects of sight vocabulary.
2. By about 7 years of age, the child may begin to have difficulty in
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68 3. As the child grows older and is not given appropriate help in
reading, writing and spelling, these will further lag behind the
chronological age.
4. The child, faced with his own failure, will show a low self esteem.
5. Another feature therefore, is a se condary anxiety problem which
manifests itself in many ways. The child may be withdrawn,
anxious, aggressive or 'playful '.
Preschool -aged children:
It is difficult to obtain a certain diagnosis of dyslexia before a child begins
school, but many dyslexic i ndividuals have a history of difficulties that
began well before kindergarten. Children who exhibit these symptoms
early in life have a higher likelihood of being diagnosed as dyslexic than
other children. These symptoms include:
 delays in speech
 slow lear ning of new words
 not crawling
 difficulty in rhyming words, as in nursery rhymes
 low letter knowledge
 letter reversal or mirror writing (for example, "Я" instead of "R")
Early primary school children:
 Difficulty learning the alphabet or letters order
 Difficulty with associating sounds with the letters that represent them
(sound -symbol correspondence)
 Difficulty identifying or generating rhyming words, or counting
syllables in words[33] (phonological awareness )
 Difficulty segmenting words into individual sounds, or blending
sounds to make words[34] (phonemic awareness )
 Difficulty with word retrieval or naming problems[35][36][37]
 Difficulty learning to decode written words
 Difficulty distinguishing between similar sounds in words; mixing up
sounds in polysyllabic words (auditory discrimination) (for example,
"aminal" for anim al, "bisghetti" for spaghetti)
Older primary school children:
 Slow or inaccurate reading (although these individuals can read to an
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69  Very poor spelling[38] which has been calle d dysorthographia
(orthographic coding )
 Difficulty reading out loud, reading words in the wrong order,
skipping words and sometimes saying a word similar to another word
(auditory processing disorder )
 Difficulty associating individual words with their correct meanings
 Difficulty with time keeping and concept of time when doing a
certain task
 Difficulty with organization skills ( working memory )
 Children with dyslexia may fail to see (and occasionally to hear)
similarities and differences in letters and words, may not recognize
the spacing that organizes letters into separate words, and may be
unable to sound out the pronunciation of an unfamiliar word
(auditory processing disorder).
DYSLEXIA SYMPTOMS:
A discrepancy between the pupil's ability and their actual achievement If
you notice that a child who appears to be average or bright when they are
talking to you is struggling to read, spell or cope with math/s, this may be
the strongest indicator that they may be dyslexic. It is very common for
dyslexic c hildren to be quite able, especially in the areas of creativity (art,
drama, drawing, etc) and physical co -ordination (physical education,
swimming, sports, model -making, etc.). However, there are differences in
the neural links in their brain that makes i t hard for them to deal with text
(and often with numbers) without extra support. A reading age or grade
level of two years below what you would expect from them is a sign of
possible dyslexia. Obviously, this could also be caused by other factors
such as lengthy absences from school due to illness.
A family history of learning difficulties:
Dyslexia is most often inherited through the genes. It can also be caused
by early ear infections. In both cases it is harder for a young child to
distinguish the diff erence between similar sounding words. The numbers
of boys and girls who are dyslexic are roughly the same.
Difficulties with spelling:
Spelling is the activity which causes most difficulty for dyslexic children.
Noticing spelling errors in short, simple words is the way in which most
dyslexic children first come our attention. Examples of words which cause
particular difficulty are: any, many , island , said, they, because , enough ,
and friend .
Other words will sometimes be spelt in the way that you would expect
them to be spelt if our spelling system were rational, for example
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70 Dyslexic children also experience difficulties with 'jumbled spellings'.
These are spelling attempts in whic h all the correct letters are present, but
are written in the wrong order. Examples include dose/does , freind/friend ,
siad/said , bule/blue , becuase/because , and wores/worse . 'Jumbled
spellings' show that the child is experiencing difficulty with visual
mem ory. Non -dyslexic children and adults often use their visual memory
when trying to remember a difficult spelling: they write down two or three
possible versions of the word on a spare piece of paper and see which
spelling 'looks right'. They are relying on their visual memory to help
them, but the visual memory of a dyslexic child may not be adequate for
this task.
Confusion over left and right:
A fairly quick way to establish this type of confusion is to ask a child to
point to your left foot with his o r her right hand. If you try similar
instructions - in a non -threatening environment - you will soon be able to
see if this causes difficulties or not. (Try it on a colleague - who is not
dyslexic - and you can see how a non -dyslexic person is able to sort out
the left and right elements quite readily.) You may also notice difficulties
with east and west, or in following directions like 'Go to the end of the
road and turn left, then right, etc'.
Writing letters or numbers backwards:
You will have noticed s ome children who mix up 'b' and 'd', or even 'p' and
the number 9. These letters are the same in their mirror image, and cause
regular confusion for a dyslexic person. Some pupils make a point of
always writing the letter 'b' as au upper -case or capital 'B ', as they find this
much easier to remember in terms of the direction it faces.
Difficulties with math/s:
One feature of dyslexia is difficulties with sequencing - getting things in
the right order. Math/s depends on sequences of numbers - 2. 4. 6. 8. et c.
Whilst many people are aware that dyslexic children and students have
problems with reading and spelling, they do not know that math/s can also
be a real challenge.
Difficulties organizing themselves:
Whilst you may quite reasonably think that all chil dren live their lives in a
mess, this is particularly so for dyslexic children and students, who may
have genuine difficulties with planning and thinking ahead to when a book
or pen might be needed next. They can really benefit from help with
organizing pa pers and folders under a simple color -coded system.
Difficulty following 2 - or 3-step instructions:
'Go to Mrs. Brown and ask her if Peter Smith is in school today. Oh, yes,
and ask if I can borrow her dictionary' - such an instruction is just too
much! It involves both sequencing and memory skills, and you would be
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71 information about Peter Smith! Dyslexic children love to take messages as
much as any other child, but it has to be a les s complicated instruction, e.g.
'Ask Mrs. Brown if I can borrow her stapler'.
Causes:
 Research shows that dyslexia is unrelated to home environment,
intellect or social class. Dyslexics usually follow the normal
distribution curve of IQ pattern, and sever al dyslexics have average to
above average IQ.
 Birth traumas such as oxygen deprivation, head injuries and certain
medications such as those for seizures are also one of the factors.
 Recent research also indicates that the brains of dyslexics differ
struc turally from brains of others. Their information processing system
also differs in a distinctive manner.
 There is also some evidence to suggest that dyslexia is largely
inherited.
Main characteristics:
 Adequate and sometimes above average ability to unders tand and
comprehend.
 Poor development of written language skills
 Lack of ability to differentiate between letters of similar shape, such as
'b' and 'd', 'p' and 'q'. Mirror image reversal of these letters.
 Lack of strong preference for either right -hand edness or left -
handedness.
 Tendency to transpose word images: to read 'saw' as 'was', 'on' as 'no',
etc.
 Serious inability to spell and learn things in sequence, such as months
of the year.
 Difficulty in spelling, reading and writing. Some children have
difficulty in spatial orientation too.
 Difficulty in copying notes and answering examination questions.
Diagnosis:
There is a grave danger of classifying a slow learner as dyslexic. A child
can be considered a dyslexic, if: her intelligence is high but her academic
achievements are low and she demonstrates a few of the recognised
dyslexic symptoms including:
1. a disparity between her actual reading ability and listening
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72 2. sequencing and visual memory deficit and
3. problems in spelling .
Treatment:
 Dyslexics learn best in highly structured environment.
 They have a poor visual memory for words and must go back to basic
phonics and phonetic techniques in a multi -sensory teaching approach.
 The magic formula is: drill, practice and repetit ion
There is no medicine or drug that can cure dyslexia, only remedial
teaching can.
Assessment:
Assessment of children with learning problems provides the basis for
remediation. Assessment information is of two types:
1. General information: This includes ca se history material, general
abilities of the child, observational data, etc. It gives an overall picture of
the child and suggests a beginning point for remediation.
2. Specific information: This gives results of direct measurement of the
students performan ce in language, arithmetic and other areas that provides
the basis for further instruction.
Assessment of general abilities: This is done to determine whether the
child functions at a lower or higher level of intelligence for her age. This
cannot be done o nly on the basis of academic records. A child may be
intelligent but due to lack of motivation or other factors perform poorly in
academics. Some of the other ways of judging the child's general abilities
are as follows:
 Observing the child's general capac ity in areas other than academics
compared to other children her age, such as, comprehension, ability to go
out and buy things, counting, understanding TV programmes, etc.
Observing the child when she plays with other children of her age group

A Dyslexic Child in the Classroom:
A guide for teachers:
Much can be done by integrating the child into the class environment
(which is predominantly a learning environment) where he/she can feel
comfortable and develop confidence and self esteem.
Class teachers ma y be particularly confused by the student whose
consistent underachievement seems due to what may look like
carelessness or lack of effort.
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73 These children can be made to feel very different from their peers simply
because they may be unable to follow sim ple instructions, which for others
seem easy. It is a class teacher's responsibility to provide an atmosphere
conducive to learning for all pupils within their class.
Class teachers need to have an understanding of the problems that the
dyslexic child may have within the classroom situation. Hopefully, with
this knowledge, a great deal of misunderstanding of a child's behaviour
can be prevented. In a positive and encouraging environment, a dyslexic
child will experience the feeling of success and self -value .
Of particular importance is an understanding of the problems that poor
auditory short term memory can cause, in terms of retaining input from the
teacher.
Examples of poor auditory short term memory can be a difficulty in
remembering the sounds in spoke n words long enough to match these, in
sequence, with letters for spelling. Often children with poor auditory short
term memory cannot remember even a short list of instructions.
The following items should provide useful guidelines for teachers and
parents to follow and support :
In the class:
 Of value to all children in the class is an outline of what is going to
be taught in the lesson, ending the lesson with a resume of what has
been taught. In this way information is more likely to go from short
term me mory to long term memory.
 When homework is set, it is important to check that the child
correctly writes down exactly what is required. Try to ensure that the
appropriate worksheets and books are with the child to take home.
 In the front of the pupils' h omework book get them to write down the
telephone numbers of a couple of friends. Then, if there is any doubt
over homework, they can ring up and check, rather than worry or
spend time doing the wrong work.
 Make sure that messages and day to day classroom activities are
written down, and never sent verbally. i.e. music, P. E. swimming
etc.
 Make a daily check list for the pupil to refer to each evening.
Encourage a daily routine to help develop the child's own self -
reliance and responsibilities.
 Encourage good organizational skills by the use of folders and
dividers to keep work easily accessible and in an orderly fashion.
 Break tasks down into small easily remembered pieces of
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74  If visual memory is poor, copying must be kept to a minimum. Not es
or handouts are far more useful.
 Seat the child fairly near the class teacher so that the teacher is
available to help if necessary, or he can be supported by a well -
motivated and sympathetic classmate.
Copying from the blackboard:
 Use different colou r chalks for each line if there is a lot of written
information on the board, or underline every second line with a
different coloured chalk.
 Ensure that the writing is well spaced.
 Leave the writing on the blackboard long enough to ensure the child
doesn't rush, or that the work is not erased from the board before the
child has finished copying.
Reading:
 A structured reading scheme that involves repetition and introduces
new words slowly is extremely important. This allows the child to
develop confidenc e and self esteem when reading.
 Don't ask pupils to read a book at a level beyond their current skills,
this will instantly demotivate them. Motivation is far better when
demands are not too high, and the child can actually enjoy the book. If
he has to la bour over every word he will forget the meaning of what he
is reading.
 Save the dyslexic child the ordeal of having to 'read aloud in class'.
Reserve this for a quiet time with the class teacher. Alternatively,
perhaps give the child advanced time to read pre-selected reading
material, to be practiced at home the day before. This will help ensure
that the child is seen to be able to read out loud, along with other
children
 Real books should also be available for paired reading with an adult,
which will of ten generate enthusiasm for books. Story tapes can be of
great benefit for the enjoyment and enhancement of vocabulary. No
child should be denied the pleasure of gaining access to the meaning of
print even if he cannot decode it fully.
 Remember reading sh ould be fun.
Spelling:
 Many of the normal classroom techniques used to teach spellings do
not help the dyslexic child. All pupils in the class can benefit from
structured and systematic exposure to rules and patterns that underpin
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75  Spelling ru les can be given to the whole class. Words for class spelling
tests are often topic based rather than grouped for structure. If there are
one or two dyslexics in the class, a short list of structure -based words
for their weekly spelling test, will be far m ore helpful than random
words. Three or four irregular words can be included each week,
eventually this should be seen to improve their free -writing skills.
 All children should be encouraged to proof read, which can be useful
for initial correction of spe llings. Dyslexics seem to be unable to
correct their spellings spontaneously as they write, but they can be
trained to look out for errors that are particular to them.
Remember, poor spelling is not an indication of low intelligence.
4.2.2 Dyscalculia:
"Dyscalculia" is a lesser -known learning disability that affects
mathematical calculations. It is derived from the generic name
"mathematics difficulty".
A student with any degree of mathematics difficulty may be considered to
have "dyscalculia" by some ed ucational specialists.
UNDERLYING CAUSES:
Dyscalculia has several underlying causes. One of the most prominent is a
weakness in visual processing. To be successful in mathematics, one needs
to be able to visualize numbers and mathematics situations. Studen ts with
dyscalculia have a very difficult time visualizing numbers and often
mentally mix up the numbers, resulting in what appear to be "stupid
mistakes."
Another problem is with sequencing. Students who have difficulty
sequencing or organizing detailed information often have difficulty
remembering specific facts and formulas for completing their
mathematical calculations.
SYMPTOMS:
 Many students with disabilities have histories of academic failure that
contribute to the development of learned helplessne ss in mathematics.
It is important that mathematics instructors recognize the symptoms of
dyscalculia and take the necessary measures to help students that are
affected. Some of the symptoms are:
 Students might have spatial problems and difficulty alignin g numbers
into proper columns.
 Have trouble with sequence, including left/right orientation. They will
read numbers out of sequence and sometimes do operations
backwards. They also become confused on the sequences of past or
future events munotes.in

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76  Students typica lly have problems with mathematics concepts in word
problems, confuse similar numbers (e.g., 7 and 9; 3 and 8), and have
difficulty using a calculator.
 It is common for students with dyscalculia to have normal or
accelerated language acquisition: verbal, reading, writing, and good
visual memory for the printed word. They are typically good in the
areas of science (until a level requiring higher mathematics skills is
reached), geometry (figures with logic not formulas), and creative arts.
 Students have dif ficulty with the abstract concepts of time and
direction (e.g. inability to recall schedules, and unable to keep track of
time). They may be chronically late.
 Mistaken recollection of names. Poor name/face retrieval. Substitute
names beginning with same l etter.
 Students have inconsistent results in addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division. Students have poor mental mathematics
ability. They are poor with money and credit and cannot do financial
planning or budgeting (e.g. balancing a checkbook). Short term, not
long term financial thinking. May have fear of money and cash
transactions. May be unable to mentally figure change due back, the
amounts to pay for tips, taxes, etc
 When writing, reading and recalling numbers, these common mistakes
are m ade: number additions, substitutions, transpositions, omissions,
and reversals.
Inability to grasp and remember mathematics concepts, rules formulas,
sequence (order of operations), and basic addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division facts. Poor long-term memory (retention &
retrieval) of concept mastery. Students understand material as they are
being shown it, but when they must retrieve the information they
become confused and are unable to do so. They may be able to
perform mathematics operat ions one day, but draw a blank the next.
May be able to do book work but can fails all tests and quizzes.
 May be unable to comprehend or "picture" mechanical processes. Lack
"big picture/ whole picture" thinking. Poor ability to "visualize or
picture" the location of the numbers on the face of a clock, the
geographical locations of states, countries, oceans, streets, etc.
 Poor memory for the "layout" of things. Gets lost or disoriented
easily. May have a poor sense of direction, loose things often, and
seem absent minded. May have difficulty grasping concepts of formal
music education. Difficulty sight -reading music, learning fingering to
play an instrument, etc.
 May have poor athletic coordination, difficulty keeping up with
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77 exercise classes. Difficulty remembering dance step sequences rules
for playing sports.
 Difficulty keeping score during games, or difficulty remembering how
to keep score in games, like bowling, etc. Often looses track of whose
turn it is during games, like cards and board games. Limited strategic
planning ability for games, like chess.
MITIGATIVE STRATEGIES:
Although dyscalculia may be difficult to diagnose, there are strategies that
teachers and parents should know ab out to aid students in learning
mathematics.
1. Encourage students to work extra hard to "visualize" mathematics
problems. Draw them or have them draw a picture to help understand
the problem, and make sure that they take the time to look at any
visual in formation that is provided (picture, chart, graph, etc.)
2. Have the student read problems out loud and listen very carefully. This
allows them to use their auditory skills (which may be strength).
3. Provide examples and try to relate problems to real -life situations.
4. Provide younger students with graph paper and encourage them to use it
in order to keep the numbers in line.
5. Provide uncluttered worksheets so that the student is not overwhelmed
by too much visual information (visual pollution). Espec ially on tests,
allow scrap paper with lines and ample room for uncluttered
computation.
6. Dyscalculia students must spend extra time memorizing mathematics
facts. Repetition is very important. Use rhythm or music to help
memorize.
7. Many students need o ne-on-one attention to fully grasp certain
concepts. Have students work with a tutor, a parent, or a teacher after
school hours in a one -on-one environment.
8. If possible, allow the student to take the exam on a one -to-one basis in
the teacher's presence .
9. The student might like instant answers and a chance to do the problem
over once s/he is wrong. Often their mistakes are the result of "seeing"
the problem wrong.
10. In early stages, design the test problems "pure," testing only the
required skills. In their early learning, they must be free of large
numbers and unnecessary destructive calculations.
11. Allow more than the "common" time to complete problems and check
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78 12. Most import antly, be PATIENT! Never forget that the student
WANTS to learn and retain. Realize that mathematics can be a
traumatic experience and is highly emotional because of past failures.
The slightest misunderstanding or break in logic can overwhelm the
student and cause emotional distress. Pity will not help, but patience
and individual attention will. It is typical for students to work with
until they know the material well and then get every problem wrong on
the test. Then 5 minutes later, they can perform the test with just the
teacher, on the chalkboard, and many times get all problems correct.
Remember that this is very frustrating for the teacher/parent as well as
the student. Patience is essential.
13. Assign extra problems for practice and maybe a special TA (teaching
assistant) or special education is assigned to assist the affected student.
14. When presenting new material, make sure the student with dyscalculia
is able to write each step down and talk it through until they
understand it well enough to teach it back to you.
15. Go over the upcoming lesson with so that the lecture is more of a
review.
16. Computer -assisted instruction (CAI) mathematics courses (instruction
targeted to special students) can be developed.
4.3.3 DYSGRAPHIA:
"Dysgraphia" i s a learning disability resulting from the difficulty in
expressing thoughts in writing and graphing. It generally refers to
extremely poor handwriting.
Most learning disabled students experience difficulty with handwriting
and probably could be considere d "dysgraphic".
Underlying Causes:
Students with dysgraphia often have sequencing problems. Studies
indicate that what usually appears to be a perceptual problem (reversing
letters/numbers, writing words backwards, writing letters out of order, and
very sloppy handwriting) usually seems to be directly related to
sequential/rational information processing. These students often have
difficulty with the sequence of letters and words as they write. As a result,
the student either needs to slow down in order t o write accurately, or
experiences extreme difficulty with the "mechanics" of writing (spelling,
punctuation, etc.). They also tend to intermix letters and numbers in
formulas. Usually they have difficulty even when they do their work more
slowly. And by s lowing down or getting "stuck" with the details of writing
they often lose the thoughts that they are trying to write about.
Students with an attention deficit disorder (especially with hyperactivity)
often experience rather significant difficulty with wr iting and formulas in
general and handwriting in particular. This is because ADHD students also
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79 addition, ADHD students are often processing information at a very rapid
rate and simply don' t have the fine -motor coordination needed to "keep
up" with their thoughts.
Some students can also experience writing difficulty because of a general
auditory or language processing weakness. Because of their difficulty
learning and understanding language in general, they obviously have
difficulty with language expression. Recall that written language is the
most difficult form of language expression.
Although most students with dysgraphia do not have visual or perceptual
processing problems, some student s with a visual processing weakness
will experience difficulty with writing speed and clarity simply because
they aren't able to fully process the visual information as they are placing
it on the page.
SYMPTOMS:
1. Students may exhibit strong verbal but particularly poor writing skills .
2. Random (or non -existent) punctuation. Spelling errors (sometimes
same word spelled differently); reversals; phonic approximations;
syllable omissions; errors in common suffixes. Clumsiness and
disordering of syntax; a n impression of illiteracy. Misinterpretation of
questions and questionnaire items. Disordered numbering and written
number reversals.
3. Generally illegible writing (despite appropriate time and attention
given the task).
4. Inconsistencies : mixtures o f print and cursive, upper and lower case, or
irregular sizes, shapes, or slant of letters.
5. Unfinished words or letters, omitted words.
6. Inconsistent position on page with respect to lines and margins and
inconsistent spaces between words and letter s.
7. Cramped or unusual grip, especially holding the writing instrument
very close to the paper, or holding thumb over two fingers and writing
from the wrist.
8. Talking to self while writing, or carefully watching the hand that is
writing.
9. Slow or l abored copying or writing - even if it is neat and legible.
STRATEGIES:
1. Encourage students to outline their thoughts. It is important to get the
main ideas down on paper without having to struggle with the details
of spelling, punctuation, etc
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80 3. Have students dictate their ideas into a tape recorder and then listen
and write them down later.
4. Have them practice keyboarding skills. It may be difficult at first, but
after they have learned the pattern of the keys, typing will be faster
and clearer than handwriting.
5. Have a computer available for them to organize information and
check spelling. Even if their keyboarding skills aren't great, a
computer can help with the details.
6. Have them continue practicing handwriting. There will be times
throughout a student's life that they will need to be able to write
things down and maybe even share their handwriting with others. It
will continue to improve as long as the student keeps wo rking at it.
7. Encourage student to talk aloud as they write. This may provide
valuable auditory feedback.
8. Allow more time for written tasks including note -taking, copying, and
tests.
9. Outline the particular demands of the course assignments/conti nuous
assessment; exams, computer literacy etc. so that likely problems can
be foreseen.
10. Give and allow students to begin projects or assignments early.
11. Include time in the student's schedule for being a 'library assistant' or
'office assistant' that could also be used for catching up or getting
ahead on written work, or doing alternative activities related to the
material being learned.
12. Instead of having the student write a complete set of notes, provide a
partially completed outline so th e student can fill in the details under
major headings (or provide the details and have the student provide
the headings).
13. Allow the student to dictate some assignments or tests (or parts
thereof) a 'scribe'. Train the 'scribe' to write what the stude nt says
verbatim and then allow the student to make changes, without
assistance from the scribe.
14. Remove 'neatness' or 'spelling' (or both) as grading criteria for some
assignments, or design assignments to be evaluated on specific parts
of the writin g process.
15. With the students, allow abbreviations in some writing (such as b/c
for because). Have the student develop a repertoire of abbreviations
in a notebook. These will come in handy in future note -taking
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81 16. Reduce copying aspects of work; for example, in Math, provide a
worksheet with the problems already on it instead of having the
student copy the problems.
17. Separate the writing into stages and then teach students to do the
same. Teach the stages of the writing process (brai nstorming,
drafting, editing, and proofreading, etc.). Consider grading these
stages even on some 'one -sitting' written exercises, so that points are
awarded on a short essay for brainstorming and a rough draft, as well
as the final product.
18. On a com puter, the student can produce a rough draft, copy it, and
then revise the copy, so that both the rough draft and final product can
be evaluated without extra typing.
19. Encourage the student to use a spellchecker and, if possible, have
someone else proo fread his work, too. Speaking spellcheckers are
recommended, especially if the student may not be able to recognize
the correct word (headphones are usually included).
20. Allow the student to use cursive or manuscript, whichever is most
legible
21. Encourage primary students to use paper with the raised lines to keep
writing on the line.
22. Allow older students to use the line width of their choice. Keep in
mind that some students use small writing to disguise its messiness or
spelling.
23. Allow s tudents to use paper or writing instruments of different colors.
24. Allow student to use graph paper for math, or to turn lined paper
sideways, to help with lining up columns of numbers.
25. Allow the student to use the writing instrument that is most
comfortable for them.
26. If copying is laborious, allow the student to make some editing marks
rather than recopying the whole thing.
27. Consider whether use of speech recognition software will be helpful.
If the student and teacher are willing to inv est time and effort in
'training' the software to the student's voice and learning to use it, the
student can be freed from the motor processes of writing or
keyboarding.
28. Develop cooperative writing projects where different students can
take on roles such as the 'brainstormer,' 'organizer of information,'
'writer,' 'proofreader,' and 'illustrator.'
29. Provide extra structure and use intermittent deadlines for long -term
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82 enforcing t he due dates by working after school with the teacher in
the event a deadline arrives and the work is not up -to-date.
30. Build handwriting instruction into the student's schedule. The details
and degree of independence will depend on the student's age a nd
attitude, but many students would like to have better handwriting.
31. Keep in mind that handwriting habits are entrenched early. Before
engaging in a battle over a student's grip or whether they should be
writing in cursive or print, consider whether enforcing a change in
habits will eventually make the writing task a lot easier for the
student, or whether this is a chance for the student to make his or her
own choices. Beware of overload, the student has other tasks and
courses.
32. Teach alternativ e handwriting methods such as "Handwriting Without
Tears."
33. Writing just one key word or phrase for each paragraph, and then
going back later to fill in the details may be effective.
34. Multisensory techniques should be util ized for teaching both
manuscript and cursive writing. The techniques need to be practiced
substantially so that the letters are fairly automatic before the student
is asked to use these skills to communicate ideas.
35. Have the students use visual graphic organizers. For example, you can
create a mind map so that the main idea is placed in a circle in the
center of the page and supporting facts are written on lines coming
out of the main circle, similar to the arms of a spider or spokes on a
wheel.
36. Do papers and assignments in a logical step -wise sequence. An easy
way to remember these steps is to think of the word POWER .
P - plan your paper
O - organize your thoughts and ideas
W - write your draft
E - edit your work
R - revise your work, producing a final draft
37. If a student becomes fatigued have them try the following:
Shake hands fast, but not violently.
* Rub hands together and focus on the feeling of warmth.
* Rub hands on the carpet in circles (or, if wearing clothing with some
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83 * Use the thumb of the dominant hand to click the top of a ballpoint pen
while holding it in that hand. Repeat using the index finger.
* Perform sitting pushups by placing each palm on the chair with fingers
facing f orward. Students push down on their hands, lifting their body
slightly off the chair.
38. Allow student to tape record important assignments and/or take oral
tests.
39. Prioritize certain task components during a complex activity. For
example, students can focus on using descriptive words in one
assignment, and in another, focus on using compound sentences.
40. Reinforce the positive aspects of student's efforts.
41. Be patient and encourage student to be patient with himself.
Strategies For Spelling Diffi culties:
1. Encourage consistent use of spell checker to decrease the overall
demands of the writing task and encourage students to wait until the
end to worry about spelling.
2. Encourage use of an electronic resource such as the spell check
component in a Franklin Language Master® to further decrease the
demands. If student has concurrent reading problems, a Language
Master® with a speaking component is most helpful because it will
read/say the words.
3. Have the student look at each word, then close the ir eyes and visualize
how it looks, letter by letter.
4. Have the student spell each word out loud while looking at it, then look
away and spell it out loud again several times before writing it down.
5. Have the students break the spelling list down into manageable sections
of only 3 to 5 words. Then take a break after mastering each section.
6. Have a scrabble board and computer accessible for affected students.
Check Your Progress – IV
1 Explain the Symptoms of
1. Dyslexia
2. Dys calculia &
3. Dysgraphia
2. Explain what strategies you will follow to handle the dyscalculia
students.
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84 4.4 LET US SUM UP
In this unit, we have discussed mentally challenged learners students with
learning diability. We have discussed the concept, characteristics &
symptoms of lear ners with special needs. We have also discussed various
strategies for different problems to handle then effectively. The knowledge
of this unit will help you to understand your child not only as a teacher but
also as a parents, enters & well wishers. You can guide the student directly
or indirectly to their parents or guardians. The knowledge you gain
through this unit if applied properly, then you can help the students with
special needs to adjust academically, socially & emotionally to their
personal as well as learning environment.
4.5 UNIT END EXERCISE :
Q.1 Who are mentally challenged learners? What is the role of
guidance towards them.
Q.2 What is learning disability? Explain the symptoms of dysgraphia.
Q.3 How will you identify gifted children? Expl ain the educational
provisions for gifted children.
4.6 SUGGESTED READINGS
Ames, L. & Chase, J. (1980). Don't push your preschooler (Revised ed.).
New York: Harper and Row.
Calkins, L., with Adellino L. (1997). Raising lifelong learners. A parent's
guide. Reading, MA: Addison -Wesley.
Chess, S. & Thomas, A. (1987). Know your child. New York: Basic
Books, Inc.
Johnson, D. (1999). The language of instruction. The Journal o f Learning
Disabilities Associate of Massachusetts, 9(2), 1 -6.
Lauren, J. (1997). Suc ceeding with L. D. Minneapolis, MN: Free Sprit
Publishing Co.
Lewis, R., Strauss, A. , & Lehtinen, L. (1960). The other child. New York:
Grune and Stratton.
Osman, B. (1979). Learning disabilities: A family affair. New York:
Random House.
Silver, L. (1998) . The Misunderstood Child: Understanding and coping
with your child's learning disabilities (3rd ed.). New York: Times Books.
Smith S. (1994). Different is not bad: different is the world; A book about
disabilities. Longmont, CO: Sopris West.
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85 5
GUIDANCE FOR POPULATIONS WITH
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Unit Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Disadvantaged Groups
5.3 Women Exploitation
5.4 Senior Citizens
5.5 Let us Sum up
5.6 Unit End Exercises
5.7 Suggested Readings
5.0 OBJECTIVES:
After reading this unit the student will be able to:
 State the Meaning of Underachievers
 Explain the Concept of underachievers
 State Signs and Symptoms of underachievers
 Explain the Causes of Underachievement
 List the Personal and School Characteristics of Un derachievers
 State the Suggestions for helping Underachievers
 Explain the Strategies for helping Underachievers
 Explain the Strategies for Improving Academic Performance
 State the Meaning of Overachiever
 Explain the Concept of Overachiever: Symptoms and Remedies
 Explain the Negative Aspects of Overachieving
 Explain how to Maintain Balance
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86 5.1 INTRODUCTION
Overachieving and underachieving are two conditions which are
experienced by many people. These are most commonly noticed in
children, in terms of aca demics, sports and other activities which they take
part in. Over -and-underachieving are issues that must be addressed by
confidence building. There are various ways helping a child become more
confident, and these should be seriously considered if parents hope to see
him or her grow into well -balanced adulthood.
5.2 DISADVANTAGED GROUPS
THE UNDERACHIEVERS: MEANING
‘Under achieving’ implies that children should be achieving a certain
norm at the certain age or time, and they currently are not.
The Underach ievers are often termed as the mistaken identity of low -
ability students. They are endowed with high intellectual potential but
suffer from the crisis of low scholastic performance . Certain traits such as
rebellious attitude, frequently lying, fear phobia with regard to success,
day dreaming, inattentiveness , etc may be either one reason in isolation or
multiple reasons in combination with another. It may also occur due to
physical deformities.
Underachieving is the state in which a person performs signifi cantly below
his or her obvious potential. Parents can more readily relate to the
problems faced by an underachieving child, because they tend to focus
heavily on reversing this trend for most of the child’s life.
CONCEPT OF UNDERACHIEVERS
Underachievers are kids who have a lot of potential but don't live up to
that potential in school. Underachievers span all social, economic, and
ability levels. Many underachievers have very high IQ's. Teachers and
parents often accuse underachievers of being lazy, of ha ving attitude
problems, or of not caring about themselves. Sometimes these kids get
into trouble at school and at home. Nobody realizes that underachievement
is the issue.
An underachiever child tends to have little interest in school work and
related activities, invariably blames others for mistakes, is generally
disorganized and either socializes too much or too little. The fact is that
though they seem to be op posite syndromes, overachieving and
underachieving are really related conditions that stem from low self
esteem.
Children who focus on achieving too much actually consider their
academic grades as barometers of their personal worth. Underachievers
are scar ed to perform well and may even be averse to trying – simply
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87 problematic parenting styles , such kids assume that they are not good
enough to succeed at anything.
Two types of under achievement have been identified. The first is where
children only achieve on occasions, apparently when the mood takes them.
More likely, their refusal to work or put themselves forward for selection
in a team can be linked with some emotional crisis that suddenly erupts: a
relationship may break up; a family problem may arise; a personality clash
may develop with a specific teacher. Generally, these children have few
long-term problems if they can get immediate help to overcome their
difficulty and their progress at school is closely monitored. These children
are known as situational underachievers.
The second type of underachiever is a much more serious problem for th e
school, the home and particularly for themselves. The chronic
underachiever has many characteristics that give him a label hard to
remove. Over 80 percent of identified underachievers are boys! They may
become aggressive, giving vent to their frustration by causing trouble or
they may become sulky and withdrawn and refuse to develop their talent.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF UNDERACHIEVERS
Commonly encountered characteristics of underachievers may include the
following :
1. Often impulsive with poor personal jud gment and adjustment abilities;
2. Poor test results at school and no hobbies or interests at home;
3. A low self -image, often displaying distrust, indifference, lack of
concern and/or hostility;
4. feel victimized or helpless and may not accept any respo nsibility for
themselves or their actions;
5. Feel rejected by their family and resist attempts to help by parents or
teachers
6. Choose friends with similar negative attitudes to school, show no
leadership qualities and may be less mature than their peer s;
7. Have little motivation with poor study habits; may refuse to do
homework or leave much work incomplete;
8. Either cannot plan for the future or set goals well below their true
ability or potential.
THE CAU SES:
underachievers are made and not born. It is the child's choice to
underachieve. We have to look at both sides of the education coin: the
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88 The pressure on children, especially at secondary school, to conform to the
mediocre often h as more influence than anything parents or teachers can
say. Fortunately, negative peer pressure is usually a passing phase. As the
pressure to succeed at the Higher School Certificate increases, so too does
the realization that one way to a happy and succ essful future is to work
hard to obtain a particular job or to gain a place at university or college.
Another cause of under achievement can be family background. There can
be difficulties when some members of the family perceive a bright child is
showing off.
If a child is frequently on the move, for one reason or another, it can mean
that he is never in a school long enough for any talent to be recognized by
himself or his teachers, let alone developed and nurtured. It's quite
possible for people with the potential to do exceptionally well, to go
through life without realizing that they have a gift which can, and should,
be developed.
The major cause of under achievement among the talented is emotional
disturbance between parent and child. Children like th is are angry at the
parents for some reason and vent their anger and frustration in many ways.
They feel they must hurt their parents by failing at school and not allowing
them to take pride in their achievements.
When conflict exists between the parents w hen one parent (often the
father) is a stern perfectionist and the other tries to compensate for this, the
child starts to achieve to please dad, but then feels pressure from mum
which carries the message : 'You don't need to work so hard!'. The child
beco mes confused trying to please both parents.
Sometimes the family has unrealistic, perfectionist expectations and the
child equates his/her own worth with doing well at school rather than
simply being an individual.
There might be a negative relationship wi th a father who feels threatened
by his son surpassing him and being more successful at school than he
was.
Some parents are 'pushy' and try to relive their own lives through their
children and force them along at too fast a pace, causing stress and
unhap piness. Such pushy parents cannot accept that their children are only
children. The child's only defense is to deliberately fail at school. A
vicious circle like this can only be broken if the parents learn to
understand what is happening.
The role model t hat a parent displays might not be acceptable to the child
and lead to his being constantly embarrassed and having a poor self
esteem.
Any of these problems is likely to create a poor self -image. Fearing
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89 complete work rather than be awarded a grade that he or she feels will not
reach the parents' expectations.
• Home origins of underachievement:
• The over welcome child
• Early illness
• Birth order (later, not first)
• Marital discord
• Conflictin g parenting styles
• Kind mom/ogre dad
• Wonderful dad/ogre mom
• Dummy dad
• Mousy mom
CHARACTERISTICS
All underachievers, whether dependent or dominant in their behaviour
exhibit:
• Forgetfulness
• Disorganisation
• Carelessness and superficiality on tasks
• Non-academ ic interests
• Manipulation of relations with parents and teachers
• Loneliness and social withdrawal
• Personal
• Low self -concept, negative self -evaluation
• Social immaturity, unpopular with peers
• Choose companions who do not like school
• Feelings of rejection, helplessness, feeling victimized
• Hostile toward adult authority figures
• Low aspirations for future, career, less persistent and assertive
• Externalization of conflicts, problems
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90 • School
• Lack of discipline in tasks, high distractibility
• Don’t see connection between effort and achievement outcomes
• Few strong hobbies or interests
• Resistant to influence from teachers, parents
• Withdraw in classroom situations
• Lack of study skills,
• Weak academic motivation
• Leave schoolwork incomplete, nap during study times
• Perform well on synthesis tasks but not on tasks requiring precise,
analytic processing
SUGGESTIONS:
It is essential to build the child's self -confidence and independence.
Encourage the child to see him or herself as a unique individual with a
valuable contri bution to make to family and society.
Never take away the thing or things that a child loves and succeeds in.
Don't lecture or nag a child. Reason is always preferable.
Don't pressure the child into doing something because you think it's a
good idea.
Don' t set artificial times for work to be done at all costs and make the
child feel that you are being a martyr. This reinforces the idea of failure,
not only at school but at home as well. Be more natural in your interest
and enthusiasm.
Don't keep checking u p on the child's progress. This seems to the child
that her or she is irresponsible and not in control of life. It also implies a
damaging lack of trust.
Learn to Trust the Child's Judgment.
Get used to saying things which make it clear that the child's fe elings are
important and that you value his or her opinions. Explain that it's all right
to feel angry but that it must be expressed in acceptable ways. Your
relationship with your child must be based on mutual respect.
It often helps an underachieving chi ld to point out achievable goals for
them. Put the goals in some priority order, but be flexible. Guide, don't
push.
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91 Give underachievers the opportunity to work at their area of ability and
make sure someone the child respects is available when help is ne eded.
Isolation is a fine fertilizer for under achievement.
STRATEGIES
Single -sided interests
• Identify “acceptable minimums for tasks
• Pick up pace of instruction
• Identify “have to have” skills and focus on these
• Help child focus on their single -sided inte rests
Claims of boredom
• Develop diagnostic - prescriptive instruction
• Compact the regular curriculum
• Use continuous progress for learning
• Fast paced content presentations
• Subject acceleration
• Find “cause” of boredom
Perfectionism
• Teach strategies for when t o quit, how to match effort to tasks,
setting goals, focusing on successes not failures, and separating
self-concept from products
• Role model mistake making
Peer Pressure to Underachieve
• Selectively encourage certain friendships
• Take interest in child’s fr iends
• Encourage extra - curriculars
• Teach strategies for resisting peer pressure
Lack of Organizational Skills
• Study habits training
• Strategies for developing work plans, priorities, balance, flexibility
• Provide consistent space and schedule for study at home
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92 Stress
• Teach time management techniques
• Relaxation exercises
• Exercise routines
• Socialization opportunities
STRATEGIES FOR IMPROVING ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE
• Supportive Strategies
Behaviors that affirm the worth of the child in the classroom and convey
the promise of greater potential and success yet to be discovered and
enjoyed
• Daily class meetings to discuss student’s concerns
• Directive atmosphere to show who is in charge
• Daily written contracts of work to be done
• Free time scheduled each day to show im port of relaxation, free
choice
• Use of concrete, predictable teaching methods
• Eliminate work already mastered
• Allow independent study on topics of personal interest
• Non authoritarian atmosphere
• Permit students to prove competence via multiple methods
• Teach through problem solving rather than rote drill
Intrinsic Strategies
Behaviors that are designed to develop intrinsic achievement motivation
through the child’s discovery of the rewards available as a result of efforts
to learn, achieve, and contribute to the group
• Daily review of/reward for small successes
• Allow students to evaluate work prior to teacher marking
• Frequent, positive contact with family about child’s progress
• Verbal praise for any self -initiating behaviors
• Assign specific responsibilities fo r classroom maintenance,
management
• Practice reflective listening, comment to clarify student statements
• Student sets daily/weekly/monthly goals with teacher approval
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93 Remedial Strategies
Behaviors that are used to improve the student’s academic performan ce in
an area of learning difficulty which led to experience of failure and loss of
motivation to engage in learning tasks
• Programmed instruction materials, students grade own papers upon
completion
• Peer tutoring of younger students in areas of strength
• Small group instruction in common areas of weakness
• Encourage students to work on projects not involving marks or
external evaluation
• Self-selected weekly goals for improvement
• Private instruction in areas of weakness
• Use of humor and personal example to app roach academic
weakness areas
• Familiarize students with learning styles and personal implications
for performance
OVERACHIEVER: MEANING:
Overachieving can be defined as performing far better than what is
expected. In academics, it is defined as one's acade mic performance which
is way higher than one's performance in standardized tests such as
intelligence quotient (I.Q.) tests.
A child may be an overachiever if he feels an impulsive need to get perfect
grades and be on top of everybody else in his class.
Overachieving – and the diametric opposite trait of underachieving – are
two rather common conditions in today’s times. The seed for either trait is
often planted in childhood, when many children fall into these categories
in terms of academic performance, sports and many other activities.
We define overachieving as a state in which a person performs far better
than what is expected – or even necessary.
An overachie ving child , for instance, feels prevailed upon to obtain very
high grades, with the objective being to top the class. Most parents would
not find anything wrong with this. After all, which parents do not want
their children to be the best among their pee rs?
This is precisely where the problem lies – children take their cue from
their parents in most things, and in this case the stage is being set for some
significant mental, physical, emotional and social problems in later life.
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94 Overachieving kids tend t o skip meals, sleep less than required and refrain
from social interactions and informal conversations. All that matters is
getting A’s. If such tendencies percolate over into adulthood – which they
invariably do – such a person is a prime candidate for so me rather large
social and health issues.
CONCEPT OF OVERACHIEVER
Overachieves are used to setting impossible goals and then meeting them,
but they can melt down when their extraordinary efforts fail. They can
also develop unhealthy habits, like working lo ng hours and skipping meals
and sleep. Few overachievers become truly dysfunctional, but it’s
important to recognize the warning signs before behaviour become
destructive.
1. Work Addiction:
Symptoms: Some overachievers use work to avoid negative feelings .
They constantly think and talk about work, can’t “turn it off” at the end of
the day, and don’t take vacations or lunch breaks.
What to do: Workaholics tend to drag out a task with unnecessary
attention to detail, so you need to establish their prioritie s for them and
monitor progress closely. Reward the results of their work, not the amount
of time they spend, and insist that they take lunch breaks and leave at a
decent hour.
2. Depression and Self -Criticism:
Symptoms: Inability to cope with failure is another warning sign. If a
colleague is Unusually quiet or low -energy, taking lots of sick days, or
skipping meetings and Company functions — particularly after a setback
at work — take note. “Everyone fails now and then, but it’s difficult for
overachieve rs to deal with that,”
“On occasion, you will see dysfunctional behaviour that drives the person
to the point of suicide when they’ve set a goal they can never, ever meet.”
What to do: Tread carefully. “Managers need to refer the person to a
professional psychologist for help and not try and deal with it on their
own,” Address the issue directly with the employee, but don’t tell them,
Instead, refer anyone with an emotional problem to a mental health
professional .
3. Unethical Behaviour:
Symptoms: Most ov erachievers don’t fall into this category, but some can
cross legal and ethical boundaries in order to reach their goals. If someone
on consistently breaks rules to get ahead — for example, neglecting to fill
out Paper work because it takes too much time a nd they can’t be bothered
,don’t ignore the problem. It could lead to serious legal issues.
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95 What to do: If an Overachiever has acted unethically, keep an eye on the
situation and record your observations. When you’ve gathered sufficient
evidence, approach the person with someone to serve as a witness. At this
point, they will realize they’ve crossed a serious line and will shape up or
get professional help.
4. Hypercriticism:
Symptoms: If an overachiever shows blatant disregard for other opinions
or active ly looks for faults in others, it can cause a serious rift with
colleagues. Sometimes criticism is necessary to improve performance and
get work done, but it becomes destructive when negative comments far
outweigh the positive ones.
What to do: A counsello r, can provide guidance without the overachiever
becoming alarmed at the stigma of professional help. Mentoring programs
that pair experienced members can also assist in putting hypercritical
overachiever back on the right track. Mentors can provide wise c ounsel on
tough workplace challenges and give feedback to develop new skills and
competencies.
5. Physical or Emotional Abuse:
Symptoms: Most warning signs are difficult for the overachiever to
recognize in himself. The biggest is a quick loss of temper, s uch as
swearing, yelling, huffing out of a room, or pounding on the table.
Sometimes an overachiever will tease other team members in order to
motivate them without realizing that it causes undue stress.
What to do: Set guidelines and clear boundaries. Mak e a list of
contingency plans.
THE NEGATIVE ASPECTS OF OVERACHIEVING
1. Loss of focus or passion
Overachievers are often spread quite thin. With only so many hours in the
day and so much energy and effort to give, you have to divide your
attention among a number of endeavors if you over schedule your time.
When you feel pressure to excel in every area, you may lose the chance to
discover a genuine personal interest or talent as you attempt to master all
your activities. Consequently, you are likely to lose sight of what you truly
like and to get less enjoyment from the things you do.
2. Poor physical health
The workload and time constraints of the typical overachiever leave
relatively little time for sleep. In fact, sleep deprivation is common among
oversc heduled students, with many of them sleeping less than six hours
per night. Excessively busy kids tend to suffer from poor eating habits, as
well. If you don't have the time to sit down to three solid meals per day,
you may have to grab food on the go, and such diets are often full of fats
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96 and mentally strong, so if you have too much to do, you may end up
sacrificing your health.
3. Poor mental health
“school demands and frustrations ” and “taking on too many activities or
having too high expectations” are the leading causes of teenage stress. The
desire to please others, as well as our culture’s clear emphasis on success,
is creating a generation of workaholics who are draining themse lves
mentally and emotionally.
4. Unhealthy self -image
Overachievers often bases their feelings of self -worth on their
accomplishments. The more they do, and the more they do well, the better
they feel about themselves. Reliance on external validation, th ough, can be
extremely harmful. If you focus on grades, test scores, awards, and other
external markers of success, you can lose sight of your inner identity.
Overachieving frequently causes students to forget that self -worth is
measured from within rather than by what others think or say.
5. Problems getting into college
The majority of colleges indicate that they are looking for all -round
students. Essentially, they prefer applicants who achieve balance among
their academic pursuits, their extracurricula r activities, and their personal
lives. When admissions officers look at resumes, they are attempting to
assess leadership, commitment, and integrity. If you're an overachiever,
beware. More is not necessarily better.
MAINTAINING BALANCE
1.Do what you like
Sit down and make a list of your commitments. Then, rank them according
to how much you enjoy each one. Weed out the activities from which you
gain little or no pleasure. Instead, create a schedule of activities that
reflects your true interests and passi ons, and don’t be afraid to cut
something out or to say no if you’re being pressured to stay involved. In
the end, you’ll be a happier person.
2. Schedule time to relax
If you never have a minute to rest or have fun, you are doing too much.
Take a look at your calendar and carve out specific times to ease off your
usually hectic pace. All work and no play will end up stressing you out.
3. Take care of yourself, inside and out
Make sure that you eat healthy foods and that you get a sufficient amount
of slee p each night. Also, remember that exercise is a necessary ingredient
for both a strong body and a strong mind. And when you’re feeling
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97 when you need it. Parents, friends, teachers, and c ounselors are all people
to turn to if you start to experience burnout.
Check your progress -I
1. Compare Underachievers and overachievers with respect to meaning,
concept, symptoms and causes.
2. Describe the strategies to improve academic performance of
Underac hievers.
3. Explain the Negative Aspects of Overachieving.
4. Describe the plan of action for helping Underachievers.
5. How would you as a teacher help Underachievers.
5.3 WOMEN: EXPLOITATION
Although, there are many groups of women who defend women‘s rights
they are still exploited. That is to say women are easier to be exploited
than men. women usually have law salaries .For example, women work
long hours in factories but they are given low salaries in comparison to
men Hence, women contribute themselves to the ir fact of being exploited
by accepting to work for minor wage.
In addition, women are exploited in media broadly. So, they become like
goods which are sold and bought. For instance, in advertisements we
usually see women presenting products or an idea abo ut products, but
unfortunately, they use their bodies to attract consumers. However, the
consumers do not focus on the quality of the product being advertised but
they focus on the quality of the women who advertise the product. In fact,
this is the purpos e of the advertisement agencies where very skilled people
work on those advertisements.
SEXUAL HARASSMENT AT THE WORKPLACE:
There is a pressing need to examine the aspect of sexual harassment at
workplace from the perspective of emancipation of women as well as the
abuse of the image in which a woman is cast.
India doesn’t have any legislation to deal with sexual harassment at work
places at the moment. The sexual harassment of women at work place
(prevention, prohibition and redressal) bill, 2006 is st ill under
consideration. Various women’s groups have been lobbying with
Parliamentarians to get it passed at the earliest. However, only time will
reveal as to when it shall actually come into force.
Till then, the guidelines that the Supreme Court has la id down in the
Vishaka case are to be followed. These guidelines encompass a
comprehensive definition of sexual harassment, directions for
establishment of a complaint mechanism and the duty under which
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98 legislators to formulate law on the basis of these guidelines. Abstract
guidelines by the Supreme Court without any established mechanism to
protect women in form of legislation mean that the only legal remedy
available to fight this evil i s approaching the Court under Art. 32 for
violations of gender equality, right to life and liberty and right to
profession which is subject to the condition of a safe environment
safeguarded as fundamental rights under the constitution under Art. 14, 15
and 21.
In light of the legal scenario that surrounds sexual harassment, working
women need to follow a code to protect them.
SUGGESTIONS:
Be Aware: It’s the simplest thing for safety that one can pursue,
rigorously and consciously. By being alert and detec ting any signs of this
heinous evil in your immediate surroundings, one can prevent such events
from taking place. Precautions like dressing appropriately, compliment the
need for awareness.
1. Trust your gut: No definition can comprehensively include all as pects
of sexual harassment and it is subjective as well. There is no bracket
formula to determine whether an act, perhaps bordering on somewhat
‘friendly’, constitutes an act of sexual harassment or not. But, for you,
anything that puts you in a discomfort zone, some place that you’d
want to extricate yourself from is sexual harassment.
2. Say no: The thin line of demarcation between sexual interest and
sexual harassment shouldn’t be disregarded. A sexual interest can be
doused by a negative reply. Also, just because the person concerned is
a senior, does not mean you cannot say no. Sometimes, a stinging
retort may work wonders; however, it can worsen the attention -craving
situation of the perpetrator at times.
It is essential to remember that these are only the basic things that one can
do to prevent such events from taking place and the first sign of any kind
of serious trouble, should necessitate a proper complaint at an official
level; either within the organization or before the police under section 354
of the Indian Penal Code dealing with assault or criminal force to a
woman with the intent to outrage her modesty, section 509 dealing with
word, gesture or act intended to insult the modesty of a woman or section
209 which deals with obscene acts or songs.
Bullying:
Bullying is the common denominator of harassment, discrimination,
prejudice, abuse, persecution, conflict and violence. When the bullying
has a focus (eg race or gender) it is expressed as racial prejudice or
harassment, or sexual discrimination and harassment, and so on. Although
bullying often lacks a focus, bullies are deeply prejudiced but at the same
time sufficiently devious to not reveal their prejudices to the extent that
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99 Dealing with workplace bullying
Step 1: Regain control
 Recognise what is happening to you as bullying
 Criticisms and allegations, which are ostensibly about you or your
performance and which sometimes contain a grain of truth, are not
about you or your performance. Do not be fooled by that grain of truth
into believing the criticisms and allegations have any validity - they do
not. The purpose of criticism is control ; it has nothing to do with
performance enhancement.
 Criticisms and allegations are a projection of the bully's own
weaknesses, shortcomings, failings and incompetence; every criticism
or allegation is an admission by the bully of their misdeeds and
wrongdoing, something they have said or done - or failed to do.
 You may be encouraged to feel shame, embarrassment, guilt and fear -
this is a normal reaction, but misplaced and inappropriate. Guilt and
fear are well -known as tactics of control. This is how all abusers,
including ch ild sex abusers, control and silences their victims.
 You cannot handle bullying by yourself - bullies use deception, amoral
behaviour and abuse of power. Get help. There is no shame or failure
in this - the bully is devious, deceptive, evasive and manipul ative - and
cheats.
Step 2: plan for action
 Find out everything you can about bullying.
 Overcome all the misperceptions about bullying (that "it's tough
management", etc).
Step 3: Take action
 Keep a log (journal, diary) of everything - it's not each incident that
counts, it's the number , regularity and especially the patterns that
reveal bullying. With most forms of mystery, deception, etc it's the
patterns that are important. The bully can e xplain individual incidents
but cannot explain away the pattern. It's the pattern which reveals
intent .
 Keep your diary in a safe place, not at work where others can and will
steal it; keep it at home, and keep photocopies of important documents
in a sepa rate location (not at work); in several cases the bully has rifled
the desk drawers of their target, stolen the diary and then used it as
"evidence" of misconduct.
 Keep copies of all letters, memos, emails, etc. Get and keep everything
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100  Carry a notepad and pen with you and record everything that the bully
says and does. Also make a note of every interaction with personnel,
management, and anyone else connected with the bullying. Expect to
be accuse d of "misconduct" and "unprofessional behaviour" and a few
other things when you do this.
 Record everything in writing; when criticisms or allegations are made,
write and ask the bully to substantiate their criticisms and allegations
in writing by providi ng substantive and quantifiable evidence ..
 Denial is everywhere. The person who asserts their right not to be
bullied is often blowing the whistle on another's incompetence (which
the bullying is intended to hide). Expect the bully to deny everything,
expect the bully's superiors to deny and disbelieve everything, and - as
evidenced by thousands of cases reported to my Advice Line - expect
personnel/human resources to disbelieve you and deny the bullying,
for they will already have been deceived by the bul ly into joining in
with the bully and getting rid of you. Click here for more on how and
why Human Resources often don't support targets of bullying.
 The serial bully likes to play people off against each other so try to
reunite yourself with your employer against the bully. Point out
professionally to your HR people that the serial bully is encouraging
the employer and employee to engage in adversarial interaction and
destructive conflict in which there are no winners, only losers.
Night Shifts for Women:
Before the amendment in the Factories Act, under s.66 women were not
allowed to work night shifts. However after the amendment was approved,
women are permitted to work between 10 p.m. to 6 a.m. in sectors
including the Special Economic Zone, IT sector and Textiles subject to the
condition that the employers shall be obligated to perform the duty to
protect them. This is clearly given in the proviso to the section which is as
following: “p rovided adequate safeguards in the factory as regards
occupational safety and health, equal opportunity for women workers,
adequate protection of their dignity, honour and safety and their
transportation from the factory premises to the nearest point of th eir
residence”.
Hence, women can now work night shifts in these sectors. If you work the
night shift, here are some things you have the right to expect, along with
some tips for you:
1. You can demand that your employer have any or all of the
following: femal e wardens, proper lighting, secure transport
facility, security at entry and exit points etc.
2. Be extra careful to prevent any mishap by staying alert.
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101 4. Keep the contacts of family, friends or r elatives who can quickly
be contacted in case of emergency.
5. If possible taking self defense classes.
Equal Opportunities for Women:
Not getting equal pay, being denied opportunities for growth and
promotion are some examples of the kind of economic expl oitation that
women are subjected to in certain sectors. In spite of legislation in place
(Equal Remuneration Act, 1976) it is widely observed that women are
usually underpaid as compared to their male counterparts performing the
same job. Delhi High Court in 2005 in its ruling in The Cooperative
Store Ltd. (Super Bazar) v. Bimla Devi and other laid down that
unequal pay is not only a violation of the said act but also, of Article 14 of
the Constitution, Right to Equality. Furthermore, India is a signatory to the
International Labour Organisation Convention for the Elimination of All
Forms of Discrimination against Women, to which India is a signatory,
specifically to Article 11 that deals with the elimination of discrimination
in the field of employment.
However, in spite of allegiance to an International Convention, having a
specific legislation in force and a High Court ruling declaring equal pay to
be incorporated in fundamental rights, the stark reality of the situation is
different. Women still get unde rpaid. What women can do in similarly
placed situations? Here are some tips:
1. Be Aware and Assertive: when one is aware of her rights, can one
assert the same by approaching the immediate head of the organization
or the concerned authority.
2. Be an efficient and a good worker: The organization will be
reluctant to lose an employee if you have carved out a niche for
yourself and are in the least indispensable.
3. Form a Group: Collective bargaining is powerful, so by rounding up
all the women in the organization who shall in most probability be
facing the same or similar problem and dealing with the situation
collectively is quite effective as well.
4. Seek Help: If things get out of hand, the only solution remaining is to
approach the Courts.
Forms of Violence ag ainst Women
Violence against women manifests itself as physical, sexual and/or
psychological harm. These categories of violence are not mutually
exclusive, and forms of Violence against women should be understood
broadly to encompass a range of behaviors d esigned to exert power and
control over women.
The UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women
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102 relationship between victim and executor (1) violence in the family; (2)
violence in the com munity; and (3) violence carried out by the State.
Violence carried out in the family includes domestic violence, also
referred to as intimate -partner violence or spousal abuse to clarify that the
executor and victim have a long -term rela tionship. Marital rape and child
sexual abuse are also types of Violence against women occurring in the
home.
Community -based violence includes rape and sexual assault, sexual
harassment in the workplace and in educational institutions, as well as the
exploitation of women and girls through human trafficking and
prostitution.
Violence carried out by the State includes the use of rape during war or by
law enforce ment, security or military forces both during armed conflict
and in peacetime or by peacekeep ing personnel in non -conflict settings as
well as abuse of women in State custody or under State control. These
categories serve as guidance to understand the scope of Violence against
women, but they should not be adhered to rigidly. Service -providers and
advocates who work with Violence against women survivors often
encounter forms of Violence against women that are not yet well -
recognized by law enforcement and legal systems, such as stalking or the
use of new technologies, the Internet and electronic ma il, to execute cyber
violence against women.
This compilation sometimes makes use of the term gender -based
violence. Gender -based violence (GBV) refers to harm that is executed
against a person (female or male) as a result of power inequalities that are
themselves based on gender roles. Due to gender discrimination, which
places women in vulnerable and disempowered positions, female victims
“suffer exacerbated consequences as compared with what men endure.”
KINDS OF VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN
Domestic violence
Violence against women in the family occurs in developed and developing
countries alike. It has long been considered a private matter by bystanders
-- including neighbors, the community and government. But such private
matters have a tendency to become pub lic tragedies.
Traditional practices
In India women fall victim to traditional practices that violate their human
rights. The persistence of the problem has much to do with the fact that
most of these physically and psychologically harmful customs are dee ply
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103 Female genital mutilation
According to the World Health Organization, 85 million to 115 million
girls and women in the population have undergone some form of female
genital mutilation and suffer from its adverse health effects.
There is a growing consensus that the best way to eliminate these practices
is through educational campaigns that emphasize their dangerous health
consequences. Several Governments have been actively promoting such
campaigns in th eir countries.
Son preference
Son preference affects women in India. Its consequences can be anything
from foetal or female infanticide to neglect of the girl child over her
brother in terms of such essential needs as nutrition, basic health care and
educ ation.
.Dowry -related violence and early marriage
In India, weddings are preceded by the payment of an agreed -upon dowry
by the bride's family. Failure to pay the dowry can lead to violence. Early
marriage, especially without the consent of the girl, is a nother form of
human rights violation. Early marriage followed by multiple pregnancies
can affect the health of women for life.
Violence in the community
Rape
Rape can occur anywhere, even in the family, where it can take the form
of marital rape or inces t. It occurs in the community, where a woman can
fall prey to any abuser. It also occurs in situations of armed conflict and in
refugee camps.
Sexual assault within marriage
In India sexual assault by a husband on his wife is not considered to be a
crime: a wife is expected to submit. It is thus very difficult in practice for a
woman to prove that sexual assault has occurred unless she can
demonstrate serious injury.
Sexual harassment
Sexual harassment in the workplace is a growing concern for women.
Empl oyers abuse their authority to seek sexual favours from their female
co-workers or subordinates, sometimes promising promotions or other
forms of career advancement or simply creating an untenable and hostile
work environment. Women who refuse to give in t o such unwanted sexual
advances often run the risk of anything from demotion to dismissal.
But in recent years more women have been coming forward to report such
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104 Prostitution and trafficking
Many women are f orced into prostitution either by their parents, husbands
or boyfriends -- or as a result of the difficult economic and social
conditions in which they find themselves. They are also lured into
prostitution, sometimes by "mail -order bride" agencies that pr omise to
find them a husband or a job in a foreign country. As a result, they very
often find themselves illegally confined in brothels in slavery -like
conditions where they are physically abused and their passports withheld.
Violence against women migran t workers
Female migrant workers typically leave their countries for better living
conditions and better pay -- but the real benefits accrue to both the host
countries and the countries of origin. But migrant workers themselves fare
badly, and sometimes tr agically. Many become virtual slaves, subject to
abuse and rape by their employers. Working conditions are often
appalling, and employers prevent women from escaping by seizing their
passports or identity papers.
Pornography
Another concern highlighted is pornography, which represents a form of
violence against women that "glamorizes the degradation and
maltreatment of women and asserts their subordinate function as mere
receptacles for male lust".
Violence against refugee and displaced women
Women and ch ildren form the great majority of refugee populations all
over the world and are especially vulnerable to violence and exploitation.
In refugee camps, they are raped and abused by military and immigration
personnel, bandit groups, male refugees and rival e thnic groups. They are
also forced into prostitution.
CHALLENGING TRADITIONAL ATTITUDES
The meaning of gender and sexuality and the balance of power between
women and men at all levels of society must be reviewed. Combating
violence against women requires challenging the way that gender roles
and power relations are articulated in society. In many countries women
have a low status. They are considered as inferior and there is a strong
belief that men are superior to them and even own them.
Changing people 's attitude and mentality towards women will take a long
time -- at least a generation, many believe, and perhaps longer.
Nevertheless, raising awareness of the issue of violence against women,
and educating boys and men to view women as valuable partners in life, in
the development of a society and in the attainment of peace are just as
important as taking legal steps to protect women's human rights.
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105 It is also important in order to prevent violence that non -violent means be
used to resolve conflict betw een all members of society. Breaking the
cycle of abuse will require concerted collaboration and action between
governmental and non -governmental actors, including educators, health -
care authorities, legislators, the judiciary and the mass media
The Declar ation provides a definition of gender -based abuse, calling it
"any act of gender -based violence that results in, or is likely to result in,
physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women, including
threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether
occurring in public or in private life".
The definition is amplified in article 2 of the Declaration, which identifies
three areas in which violence commonly takes place:
 Physical, sexual and psychological violence that oc curs in the
family, including battering; sexual abuse of female children in the
household; dowry -related violence; marital rape; female genital
mutilation and other traditional practices harmful to women; non -
spousal violence; and violence related to explo itation;
 Physical, sexual and psychological violence that occurs within the
general community, including rape; sexual abuse; sexual
harassment and intimidation at work, in educational institutions
and elsewhere; trafficking in women; and forced prostituti on;
 Physical, sexual and psychological violence perpetrated or
condoned by the State, wherever it occurs.
Finally, women are exploited everywhere even in developed countries.
Women’s exploitation makes them lose their morality and responsibility
towards their sons and their daughter. Women should be aware of
themselves to avoid this kind of exploitation which invades the societies.
FRAMEWORK OF GUIDING PRINCIPLES TO COMBAT
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN
Women’s rights as human rights: A critical strategy for al l advocacy
work is to clearly demonstrate that violence against women is linked to
other human rights violations and therefore States have commitments to
exercise due diligence. An important related principle behind all good
practices is that they address the root causes of violence against women,
such as structural inequalities between men and women, issues of power
and control and gender discrimination.
Women themselves at the center: Essential characteristics of all good
practices is that they empower wo men, economically, politically or in
other ways, to make changes in their lives and in society. Women
survivors, particularly service users, should be participants in program
design, implementation and evaluation. Effective interventions are those
that are based on understanding the needs articulated by women
themselves and not on behalf of women.
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106 Men are responsible and also engaged: A guiding principle of practices
addressing violence against women is that they target men. Programs that
address men range from those that acknowledge men’s responsibility as
executors of violence and establish appropriate prosecution and treatment
measures, to others that engage non -violent men as positive role models,
as activists in preventing violence against women and as advocates for
gender equality in all spheres.
Political commitment and leadership: Good practices are those that are
based on and supported by a clear political will from national authorities.
Leaders at all levels, in political office, representing relig ious authorities,
from the local community and even recognized sports figures or
celebrities, can influence how violence against women is perceived and
can play a role in changing societal tolerance for this problem.
Evidence -based approaches: All effectiv e interventions are underpinned
by accurate empirical data about the scope of violence against women, its
causes and its consequences for individual women survivors but also for
family members and society at large. Many interventions may have some
positive effect on alleviating violence in general e.g. limiting the depiction
of violent acts on television or in film,but an essential strategy to address
violence against women is acknowledgment and awareness raising of the
specific and underlying causes of thi s form of violence.
IDENTIFYING GOOD PRACTICES AND APPROACHES
Coordination, co -operation and partnerships: A multi sectoral
approach that coordinates and integrates a wide range of actors is a
principle that guides any work on improving overall response to violence
against women. The specific actors or stakeholders involved may vary
depending on the type of VAW addressed, but the strategy is the same – to
work with a broad range of professionals and services from the national to
the community and grass -roots level and to forge partner ships across
sectors.
Sharing of knowledge, skill building and training: The use of
knowledge -exchange and educational programs is a tactic, rather than a
strategy. Nevertheless, it is included here to illustrate the guiding pr inciple
that practitioners who are work ing on VAW should regularly and routinely
share information and participate in skill building. As a corollary, training
for service providers, law enforcement, the legal and health sectors, policy
makers and any othe r key stakeholders should be integrated into routine
staff development and be informed by agreed -upon standards and
guidelines.
STRATEGIES THAT UNDERLIE GOOD PRACTICES
Real change toward ending violence against women requires “a
coordinated and sustained e ffort on many levels.” Good practices are
supported by various strategies that determine on which level a project
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107 Interventions can be viewed along a spectrum from “micro level,” those
that provide for the needs of victims, change societal attitudes, build
awareness of women and men, to “meso level,” those that target local
institutions, and lastly “macro -level,” those that address higher -level
policy or legislative change. Put another way, some interven tions can be
characterized as short -term, those that aim for immediate improvement of
the situation and others take a long -term ap proach; they strive for system
change. Determining how short -term and long -term advocacy interact is
an important part of str ategy development that underpins good practices.
Although violence against women is a distinct social problem that should
be addressed through targeted initiatives, it also has important links to
other issues of women’s human rights, health and development . Therefore,
an effective strategy behind good practices is to approach violence against
women not as an isolated problem. It is an effective practice overall to
integrate anti -VAW messages into programs where there are significant
intersections, for examp le on HIV/AIDS prevention, reproductive health,
family planning, law reform, micro -enterprise development or land access
and use programs.
Prevention
The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that the prevention
of violence against women be considered a high priority for national
health, social and legal agendas of both industrialized and developing
countries. The WHO also defines prevention activities at three levels:
primary prevention (stopping violence from occurring); secondary
(immediate response s after violence has occurred to limit its
consequences) and tertiary (longer -term treatment and support for victims
of violence to prevent further adverse effects). Despite the recognized
value of primary prevention, experts note that there is a significa nt lack of
sustained and long -term investment in such efforts. Primary prevention
can take a number of forms but at their core they focus on changing
gender -related attitudes and stereotypes at the individual level, among
both men and women, and at the soc ietal level.
Awareness Raising Campaigns
Awareness raising is at the core of prevention efforts and can include
working with the general public to change societal attitudes and tolerance
of violence against women, to expose the public to the magnitude of t his
problem, to end secrecy about violence against women and to send a clear
message that it should not be tolerated. Awareness raising activities can
also target specific groups with narrow messages.
Included in this resource are examples of innovative co mmunication
methods specific to domestic violence, sexual assault and harass ment,
harmful traditional practices, trafficking and commercial sexual
exploitation, mainly in the form of posters and video clips.
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108 Public Awareness
Public awareness raising cam paigns can be used to initiate public debate
about violence against women and challenge social norms. Indeed, some
of the more promising awareness campaigns are those that use mainstream
media and com mon technology to promote seldom -heard or thought -
provo king messages about violence against women. For example, NGOs
have partnered with mobile phone providers to send anti -violence text
messages to their customers.75 The term “social marketing” describes the
use of techniques from the advertising world used t o promote messages of
social significance.
Global Campaigns
The UN is currently running several global campaigns to raise awareness
of specific aspects of violence against women and to call for further
action.
UNITE to End Violence Against Women (2008 -2015 ) focuses on global
advocacy; strengthened efforts and partnerships at the national and
regional levels; and UN leadership by example. States are urged to enact
or strengthen laws and enforce such laws to end impunity. The Secretary -
General will form a glo bal network of male leaders to assist in mobilizing
men and boys to become involved in the struggle to end violence against
women.
Empowering Women
Women themselves are a critical focus of any initiative to eliminate
violence against women. While there are , of course myriad projects
directed to women specifically, many, such as self -help groups or
telephone hotlines, these are services to assist women who have already in
some way identified themselves as experiencing or having survived
violence. Activists a gainst VAW point to the fact that some women lack
awareness that gender -based violence is not simply an inevitable part of
being female but are a human rights violation and mechanisms exist for
redress. Thus, awareness raising that targets women may have s ome of the
features of awareness rising for the general public, such as promoting the
unacceptability of violence against women. Most often, however,
awareness raising for women takes the form of outreach which can be
directed to women in risk groups, such as women who are preparing to
travel abroad for work or commercial sex workers, or to specific groups
who may have limited access to information, such as rural women, women
who lack education, women with disabilities, migrant or refugee women.
Legal liter acy is a specific form of outreach to provide women with
information about local laws with an aim to improve their understanding
of how to access the legal system to protect one’s rights. An important
principle behind all awareness raising materials for wo men is that they
contain messages of empowerment and give women concrete alternatives
to either avoid violence or escape it if it has already occurred.81 Economic
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109 because they are also ef fective components of assistance services for
women survivors of violence.
Key Actions
1. Designate appropriately trained, knowledgeable, and accountable
personnel to be responsible for recruitment and hiring of employees and
consultants. These personnel s hould be trained in human resources,
knowledgeable about the risks of staff misconduct with regard to sexual
violence, including sexual exploitation, and must be held accountable for
implementing internationally recognised standards in hiring practices.
2. When recruiting local/national and international staff, including short -
term consultants, interns, and volunteers, careful hiring practices should
include reference checks for all categories of employee. Reference checks
should specifically include questi ons seeking information about the
candidate related to any prior acts, personnel actions, or criminal history.
Careful reference checks can filter out those candidates with a history of
exploitative behaviour, particularly those who move from one emergenc y
situation to the next, or who have criminal records for sexual violence.
3. Do not hire any person with a history of perpetrating any type of
gender -based violence, including sexual exploitation, sexual abuse, or
domestic violence.
4. Coordinate with oth er organisations to establish systems for sharing
information about (names of) employees terminated for engaging in sexual
exploitation or abuse. Any such system must be established in accordance
with relevant laws governing employers and employees.
5. Rec ruit more women employees at all levels.
• Sexual exploitation and abuse are grounded in gender inequality;
therefore, activities in emergency situations must be conducted in a
gender -sensitive manner and the views and perspectives of women and
girls must be adequately considered.
• Human Resources must endeavour to increase the numbers of
local/national and international women staff hired to work in emergencies.
• Identify, understand, and address obstacles to employing women.
Recognise that women, especia lly if they are local/national, may have
some limits on their access to and availability for work. There may be low
literacy rates among adult females in the population, or cultural beliefs
that limit opportunities for women to work. Implement strategies a nd
employment schemes to accommodate women and remove obstacles.
Check your progress -II
1. Write Short notes on:
a) Bullying
b) Women Empowerment munotes.in

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110 5.4 SENIOR CITIZENS
Senior citizens provide much needed comfort and wisdom to their families
and communiti es, but there are also times when they need assistance. The
guidance center can help them with certain needs. If a senior citizen is
struggling to pay his or her rent, a worker at the guidance center can point
him or her to local non -profit groups that may offer utility vouchers
CONCEPT OF SENIOR CITIZENS
As we age, a great number of changes occur in our body. Such changes are
the root cause for various diseases. Heart disease is more commonly seen
in senior citizens. Most of the senior citizens do not eve n know that they
are at the risk of heart disease. As we age, our general activities get
reduced . As the body needs have reduced, the cholesterol or the bad fat
gets deposited in various tissues and even in arteries blocking them or
narrowing them resultin g in decreased blood flow to the heart. This
situation finally leads to heart attack due to blockage of blood supply to
the heart.
Senior citizens with diabetes are at increased risk for myocardial
infarction. Hence, it is essential to maintain appropriat e sugar levels by
regular usage of medications.
To avoid the risk of heart attack it is essential to follow certain practices.
They include consuming low fat or zero cholesterol foods, involving in
some sort simple exercises regularly, quit habits such as smoking and
consumption of alcohol. It is essential to take a healthy nutritious diet rich
in fresh fruits and vegetable. Thus, by knowing the facts of heart disease
in senior citizens, they can easily combat heart attack.
PROBLEMS AND ISSUES
Senior citiz ens who are living alone have been found abused, robbed,
humiliated, and, in many cities in India, they have been found murdered.
The most important problem senior citizens face today is loss of
independence. All other issues fall under this umbrella of in convenience
and distress. Whether older persons have financial hardships, failing
health or isolation
Deteriorating health, malnutrition, lack of shelter, fear, depression,
senility, isolation, boredom, non -productivity, and financial incapacity are
the m ost common problems that senior citizens all over the world face
today. These problems can be grouped into two categories that relate to
the physical and mental health and the financial capacity of the senior
citizen.
The rise in the number of those who are ‘non -productive’ and who do not
generate any ‘hope’ immediately raises an economic problem. It is also a
social problem: Who is going to provide support to them and how? Apart
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111 love and tender care. They would like to interact, be heard, be visible, and
would like a bit of space of their own and have a constructive and creative
role to play in society. Among the old , the problems of old women, single,
divorced and widowed, are different from those of old men.
1. Physical and mental health :
Stability of physical and mental health is a key concern that senior citizens
have to contend with as they go through their twi light years. The human
body is a system that wears out with long and repetitive use; and quite
easily, with neglect and abuse. Aging is a life -cycle stage where the
human capacity to think, act, relate, and learn starts to fatter and
deteriorate. Aging bre eds illnesses such as loss of memory, immobility,
organ failure, and poor vision. These are critical dysfunctions that could
sideline a senior citizen to a lonely and miserable life.
While a clean and discreet lifestyle in his or her prime could reduce th e
susceptibility of a senior citizen to dreaded post -retirement illnesses, the
onset of any dysfunction is one unpredictable happening even if the person
might have had robust financial health.
2. Financial capacity :
Possessing sustainable financial capa city before, during, and after the
inception of a senior status is both a basic problem and an elusive dream
for most people. This financial dilemma is a common among senior
citizens who are usually relegated to an abject position of economic
inactivity. L ack or absence of financial capacity creates a stressful life and
invites the entry of problems other than physical and mental health issues.
For instance, domestic problems in an extended family system can
aggravate the problem of a financially -destitute senior citizen.
A financially secure senior citizen with the same illness, however, may
have a longer life to live because money can give quick and convenient
access to life -giving remedies. Even with state -of-mind dysfunctions like
severe depression, bore dom, nervous breakdown, and self -pity, financial
capacity can buy options to rejuvenate and refresh a financially -capable
senior citizen, through travels, elderly recreation, social renewal, and
continuing education. A poor senior citizen in the same state of mental
degradation cannot afford to do the same; and more so, be back into the
mainstream of society.
Ageing marginalized
An overwhelming number of people live in rural areas but migration from
rural to urban areas is substantial, which creates problem s for the ageing at
both ends. If children go to urban areas leaving behind the aged in the
rural areas, that creates one set of problems, and if the old are taken along,
it creates another set of problems. The growth of the urban population has
been hapha zard, and there are acute shortages of housing and other
facilities. The health care system is woefully inadequate and there is
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112 programmes available to train people taking care of the aged. In other
words, the entire responsibility of taking care of the old continues to be
with the traditional institution of the family.
Ageing in urban areas
The entire responsibility of support and care of the ageing falls on the
male children with whom the age ing live. The composition of the family
in urban areas is becoming nuclear and smaller, as a result of which there
are fewer people available in the house to provide care and comfort to the
ageing. Those who are available are torn apart by the stresses of urban
living. Women too in the urban areas are now working outside the family.
They have fixed schedules of work and have other pressures on them.
Children are loaded with their studies, competitive examinations and
concerns for making their careers.
The a uthority that the ageing exercised on their children in the past as a
result of greater experience has almost vanished, and the aged are now
told, ‘You don’t know’. There are several reasons for this admonishment.
First, the children of the ageing are not in the same profession. Second, the
quantum of information which their children claim to have makes the
ageing look almost primitive. Third, the whole techno -economic situation
has now completely changed, which leaves the ageing bewildered and
redundant. W hen paucity of accommodation, high cost of living, general
stress and tensions at all levels are added to these, the problems of the
aged are extremely serious.
Discussion
In the past, ageing was not a serious issue and societies did not give it
priority. They dealt with it as a natural phenomenon. Family members
were responsible for the care and management of the old. But now the
situation is different. The size of the people in the ageing category is
already bulging and it is growing very fast. The proble ms posed by ageing
are by no means accidental and isolated. They have grown as a result of
the development process itself. At family, community and government
levels the problems of the ageing get no or very low priority. It is taken for
granted that the p roblem will get solved on its own or that it is a problem
of individual families, with communities and governments having nothing
to do with it. The family, where the ageing is supposed to get care and
comfort, is on the rocks and in any case shrinking. Th e members of the
family are spread around in pursuit of their careers.
The old, on their part, are not getting detached either. They think that they
are going to live for ever and that in any case this is not the time to quit.
They are bored looking after grandchildren, listening to religious
discourses and devotional music, making rounds of holy places or just
sitting before the small screen. They seek companionship, appropriate
creative and constructive roles.
In India even systematic thinking as to what should be the policy towards
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113 whirlpool of market forces and resultant consumerism. A shift from
consumption to conservation, from individual to community, is bound to
take place, which will be in keeping with the Indian ethos. It is possible to
be modern with the emphasis on conservation and focus on the
community. Taking care of the aged means highlighting the importance of
conservation and humanitarianism. It will also strengthen the community,
for the aged can be best taken care of within the fold of the family, bound
by filial rights, duties and obligations. There is no institution that can
replace the family but there is room to build into it the ideas of equality,
justice and freed om. All this will not happen automatically. The focus has
to be human development. That will provide new strength to the family
and further support from the community. Thus a combination of modern
knowledge and intense feeling for those who are non -product ive can
provide physical and emotional comfort to the old.
FACILITIES FOR THE SENIOR CITIZENS
The facilities for the Seniors citizens like retirement homes, medical aid ,
free meals, Indoor games and outdoor games transportation, nursing,
healthy, environm ent ,domestic help Books & magazines etc. to be
provided by the government.
Senior Citizens Discounts
Our governments are announcing many schemes every year for the senior
citizens. The Indian Railways and Indian Airlines give some senior citizen
discount s up to 30% but most of the senior citizens are not in a position to
avail the available facilities. All the Public Sector banks give 0.5 %
interest to senior citizens.
Senior citizens Retirement
The activities of senior citizens increase after the retir ement. All the
market and government related work has to be done by these elderly
persons after retirement. There are no senior citizen jobs available for
them., They have social problems &, housing problems.
The government should find some jobs for senior s citizens.. There are
groups of aging Senior citizens. These seniors have no activity to do
whole day. These senior people find difficult to spend the whole day
honorably. They need elder care by their own family members. There are
very few Retirement hom es. They need assisted living facilities.
These old people have all type of problems after retirement. They have
family problems. Their children do not want to live with them.. They have
to travel long distance to collect their pension or pay the electrici ty,
telephone, water bills. They are living in the houses bought against home
loans, and paying back the home loans out of pension.

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114 Senior citizen’s medical insurance
Senior citizens have health problems. They are getting injuries every day
due to uneve n surface of bad roads. No one is ready to help them .The
senior citizens health insurance required is not affordable.
Mental Illnesses
Senior Citizens are susceptible to a variety of mental illnesses. Depression
is the most common of these.
SIGNS AND SYM PTOMS OF DEPRESSION IN THE ELDERLY
 Sadness
 Fatigue
 Abandoning or losing interest in hobbies or other pleasurable
pastimes
 Social withdrawal and isolation (reluctance to be with friends,
engage in activities, or leave home)
 Weight loss; loss of appetit e
 Sleep disturbances (difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep,
oversleeping, or daytime sleepiness)
 Loss of self -worth (worries about being a burden, feelings of
worthlessness, self -loathing)
 Increased use of alcohol or other drugs
 Fixation on deat h; suicidal thoughts or attempts
 Unexplained or aggravated aches and pains
 Hopelessness
 Helplessness
 Anxiety and worries
 Memory problems  Loss of feeling of pleasure
 Slowed movement
 Irritability
 Lack of interest in personal care (skipping meals, forgetting medications, neglecting personal hygiene)  Lack of interest in activities you enjoyed doing
 Sadness or unexplained crying spells, jumpiness or irritability
 Loss of memory, inability to concentrate, confusion or
disorientation
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115  Persistent fatigue, lethargy, aches and other unexplainable physical
problems
If a senior citizen is depressed, you can make a difference by offering
emotional support. Listen to your loved one with pati ence and
compassion. Don’t criticize feelings expressed, but point out realities and
offer hope. You can also help by seeing that your friend or family member
gets and accurate diagnosis and appropriate treatment. Help your loved
one find a good doctor, ac company him or her to appointments, and offer
moral support.
Causes and risk factors that contribute to depression in the elderly :
 Loneliness and isolation – Living alone; a dwindling social circle due
to deaths or relocation; decreased mobility due to ill ness or loss of
driving privileges.
 Reduced sense of purpose - Feelings of purposelessness or loss of
identity due to retirement or physical limitations on activities.
 Health problems – Illness and disability; chronic or severe pain;
cognitive decline; d amage to body image due to surgery or disease.
 Medications – Many prescription medications can trigger or
exacerbate depression.
 Fears – Fear of death or dying; anxiety over financial problems or
health issues.
 Recent bereavement - The death of friends, family members, and pets;
the loss of a spouse or Helping a depressed friend or relative
TIPS FOR HELPING A DEPRESSED ELDERLY:
 Invite your loved one out. Depression is less likely when people’s
bodies and minds remain active. Suggest activities to do tog ether that
your loved one used to enjoy: walks, an art class, a trip to the
museum or the movies —anything that provides mental or physical
stimulation.
 Schedule regular social activities. Group outings, visits from friends
and family members, or trips to the local senior or community center
can help combat isolation and loneliness. Be gently insistent if your
plans are refused: depressed people often feel better when they’re
around others.
 Plan and prepare healthy meals. A poor diet can make depression
worse, so make sure your loved one is eating right, with plenty of
fruit, vegetables, whole grains, and some protein at every meal.
 Encourage the person to follow through with treatment. Depression
usually recurs when treatment is stopped too soon, so help your loved
one keep up with his or her treatment plan. If it isn’t helping, look
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116  Make sure all medications are taken as instructed. Remind the person
to obey doctor's orders about the use of alcohol while on medicatio n.
Help them remember when to take their dose.
 Watch for suicide warning signs. Seek immediate professional help if
you suspect that your loved one is thinking about suicide.
WAYS TO COMBAT AND PREVENT DEPRESSION:
 Getting out in to the world – Try not t o stay cooped up at home all
day.
 Connecting to others – Limit the time you’re alone.
 Participating in activities you enjoy – Pursue whatever hobbies or
pastimes bring or used to bring you joy.
 Volunteering your time – Helping others is one of the best ways to feel
better about yourself and regain perspective.
 Taking care of a pet – Get a pet to keep you company.
 Learning a new skill – Pick something that you’ve always wanted to
learn, or that sparks your imagination and creativity.
 Enjoying jokes an d stories – Laughter provides a mood boost.
 Maintaining a healthy diet – Avoid eating too much sugar and junk
food. Choose healthy foods that provide nourishment and energy, and
take a daily multivitamin.
 Exercising – Even if you’re ill, frail, or disable d, there are many safe
exercises you can do to build your strength and boost your mood —
even from a chair or wheelchair.
COUNSELING AND THERAPY
Studies have found that therapy works just as well as medication in
relieving mild to moderate depression. And u nlike antidepressants, therapy
also addresses the underlying causes of the depression.
 Supportive counseling includes religious and peer counseling. It
can help ease loneliness and the hopelessness of depression.
 Psychotherapy helps people work through s tressful life changes,
heal from losses, and process difficult emotions.
 Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) helps people change negative
thinking patterns, deal with problems in healthy ways, and develop
better coping skills.
 Support groups for depressio n, illness, or bereavement connect
people with others who are going through the same challenges.
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117 CURRENT SITUATION OF THE HEALTH ISSUES OF SENIOR
CITIZENS:
Every Senior Citizen has to cope up with his health and associated
problems by taking special care by way of proper life style, exercises,
regular walking without talking, yoga -pranayam, proper diet and keeping
busy physically and mentally by keeping in view the dictum -``Use it or
Lose it. ` Number of Senior Citizens suffering from Hyper Tension, Heart
Problems, Diabetes, Arthritis etc is very large. Facilities to diagnose and
treat old age ailments are very much limited and treatments, whether
surgical or by medicines are very very costly. With limited income and no
affordable health security schemes available to Senior Citizens, most of
the Senior Citizens do not dare to go for any treatment and leave
everything to God’s grace! Many are not able to travel independently to
Govt./Muni cipal hospitals, where they have to wait in long queues and
treatment mooted out to them is almost inhuman! Apart from ward boys,
even well educated Doctors taught to serve all with missionary zeal
misbehave with elders and even insult them. They are not a vailable on
their seats for a long time or remain busy chit -chatting! They along with
all medical and para medical staff in all Public & Private Hospitals should
be given periodical orientation course for treating Senior Citizens in a
proper way . This is e nvisaged in para 40 of National Policy on Older
Persons, 1999.
ACTION PLAN BY THE HEALTH MINISTRY
i) Implement all the provisions of NPOP, 99 in para 33 to 48 by 31 -3-
2008.
ii) Increase Govt/Municipal Hospitals and provide free treatment to all
Senio r Citizens, as done by Maharashtra Govt. Provide specific
number of earmarked beds in each hospital. Raise the image of the
Public hospitals by giving better and humane service.
iii) Make it statutorily compulsory to provide separate departments for
Geria tric, Alzheimer, and Hospice Care in each Hospital in Public as
well as Private sector.
iv) Fix outer limit of fees by Private Hospitals for treatment, pathological
examination, and consultations of Senior Citizens.
v) As many Senior Citizens are not mob ile, provide Mobile Hospitals and
make compulsory for each Doctor to visit certain number of such
Senior Citizens at their residence regularly.
vi) Provide free medicines to needy Senior Citizens for common ailments
like hyper tension, heart, diabetics, a rthritics etc by special budget
provisions, donors etc
vii) Provide user -friendly Medical Security Insurance on lines of Arogya
Kavach of Pimpri (Pune), Sahyadri Scheme of Pune, Yasashvini of
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118 viii) A simple directive of separate queues, which i s not implemented by
most of the Hospitals should be monitored.
x) Create a Health Welfare Fund. Provide Convalescent Homes, Holiday
Homes, Day Care Centres etc. Provide health care facilities in
Vrudhashrams.
xi) Provide opportunities for second careers , activity centres to keep them
active to utilize and maintain their mental health by holding
competitions by way of Essay writing, Quiz, Brain Storming Sessions
etc at District, State & Centre level periodically on subjects of social
& national interest t o get views & guidance from Think -Tank of the
Nation
xii) Crate health awareness literature for preventive measures & healthy
life style and make easily available.
xii) Health Ministry must, if necessary by legislation, make it compulsory
for every Corpor ate Body, Businessman and if possible, every
Employer to provide health facilities to all their surviving retired
employees and their spouses on par with serving employees. They
must be made to raise the pension, where it is paid, on every revision
of pay -scale of the post on which the employee had retired on the
same principle, as envisaged by Supreme Court.
Long lasting proper solution may lie in declaring the Health Care as a
fundamental right for every citizen right from the birth and insuring
everyone
ARE SENIOR CITIZENS AN ASSET OR LIABILITY?
The tag senior citizen is generally given to a person who is between 58
and 65 years of age and has superannuated from active service. This age
band fixed for retirement was based on the old system followed deca des
ago when longevity was lower than 60 years. With the advance in medical
sciences and health supporting systems, longevity now goes up to 75.
Perhaps, the retirement age needs revision to make use of the services of
experienced people for some more time in the interest of national
development.
Some senior citizens have the right attitude, take things in their stride, plan
well their post -retirement life and keep their body and mind in reasonable
good trim. They largely have a positive approach. There ar e others who
take a dim view of life and think of retirement as something of a
punishment. While the optimists keep themselves busy with productive
work, the pessimists become dejected, feel neglected and find fault with
everyone.
Family situations and fi nancial position do play a part in influencing the
lives of elders. Some are fortunate to live with their children or within
their reach in the same city/town. They lead a relatively satisfied life. The
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119 the children are within the country, the parents are fairly satisfied — they
can visit them or the children can come home for occasions like marriages
and festivals. The pangs of separation and the fear of loneliness, on the
other hand, increase if the children live abroad. Thus the elders' lives are
situation -dependent.
The presence of relatives and old -age homes, however comfortable,
cannot provide for emotional needs. Some people overcome the blues by
taking recourse to cultura l and social activities but others suffer silently.
Low income and poor health aggravate the misery.
Thus arises the question whether senior citizens are an asset or liability to
the families and society at large. The answer is they are undoubtedly an
asset if they have the right attitude to life. The present -day elders truly
represent the generation of the pre -Independence era known for a value -
based life. They were accomplished, humble and honest and practiced to a
large extent what was taught. As most s enior citizens are highly
experienced, they can contribute tremendously
The present time society needs to give senior citizens, a life of dignity in
their twilight years. Urbanization, migration, industrialization, women
entering in the labor force and ma ny such social changes has steadily
chipped away the joint family system. The result is that senior citizens are
now forced to face a life of despair and loneliness. There are very few
mechanisms to look into the problems of senior citizens.
We can solve s ocial problem by the change in social reality and
application of knowledge. Because the root of this problem is lack of
education, so we should provide education to this particular social group.
Educated senior citizen can deal with the problem in a better way. And
finally the family member of these people must understand that the old
person in their home is an asset not liability. The education and the
mindset of family member can reduce this problem form the society
Check your progress -III
1. Discuss the pro blems and issues of Senior citizens.
2. State the facilities for the senior citizens
3. Describe the Signs and symptoms of depression in the elderly
4. List the Causes and risk factors of depression in the elderly
5. Describe Tips for helping a depressed elderly
6. Sugge st Ways to combat and prevent depression
7. Identify Current Situation of the Health Issues of Senior Citizens
8. Suggest Action Plan by the Health Ministry
9. Justify “Are senior citizens an asset or liability?”
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120 5.5 LET US SUM UP
In this unit, we have discussed a bout the disadvantaged groups & their
problems. Particularly you know the underachievers, over achievers,
women & their exploitation at home & work, and senior citizens. You
know the causes, factors & facilities available by government & laws &
acts relate d to it to protect them from problems. Besides, one thing is
above all, that is the humanity. So if you will change you attitude, then
you can do a lot towards the disadvantage group by guiding them
properly. Your mindset in the family, institution & socie ty can change
others and ultimately can reduce the problem from the society.
5.6 UNIT END EXERCISES :
Q.1 Describe the strategies to improve academic performance of
underachievers.
Q.2 Explain how women are exploited at work place? How can you
deal it?
Q.3 Are senior citizens an asset or liability?
5.7 SUGGESTED READINGS
 Blanchard, J. (2002) Teaching and targets: self -evaluation and school
improvement, Routledge/Falmer
 Blanchard, J. (20 07) ‘Up close and personalised boosting creativity
and individual learning’, Curriculum Bri efing: Restructuring learning
changing curriculums, vol 5, no 3, Optimus Education
 DfES (2003) Every child matters: change for children, DfES
 Durrant, M. (1995) Creative strategies for school problems, Norton
 Dweck, C. (2000) Se lf-theories: their role in motivation, personality,
and development, Psychology Press
 Fielding, M. and Bragg, S. (2003) Students as researchers: making a
difference, Routledge/Falmer
 Harris, A. and Chapman, C. (2002) Effective leadership in schools
facin g challenging circumstances, NCSL
 MacBeath, J., Demetriou, H., Rudduck, J. and Myers, K. (2003)
Consulting pupils: a toolkit for teachers, Pearson Publishing
 Metcalf, L. (1999) Teaching toward solutions: step -by-step strategies
for handling academic, beh aviour and family issues in the classroom,
Simon & Shuster
 O’Connell, B. (1998) Solution -focused therapy, Sage Publications
 Rudduck, J. and Flutter, J. (2004) How to improve your school: giving
pupils a voice, Continuum Press

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121 6
COUNSELLING APPROACHES
Unit Structure:
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Cognitively Oriented Counseling Approaches
6.2.1 Trait and factor -oriented counselling approaches
6.3 Affectively oriented counselling approaches
6.3.1 Psychoanalytic approach to counselling
6.4 Conditions influencing counselling
6.4.1 Physical setting
6.4.2 Privacy
6.4.3 Recording
6.5 Legal and ethical considerations in counselling
6.6 Let us Sum up
6.7 Unit End Exercise
6.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will be a ble to:
 State the approaches to counselling
 Explain cognitive oriented counselling approach and affective oriented
counselling approach
 Describe the factors influencing counselling
 Discuss the legal and ethical considerations in counselling
6.1 INTRODUCTIO N
In the previous chapter, you have studied about the concept of
counselling, types of counselling and the role and functions of a
counsellor. You may observe that the perspective of counselling changes
from counsellor to counsellor. There are differences in training, Clients
and settings and even goals. But the basic perspective of counselling
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122 worth to note the commonalites. Common to all these perspectives are the
notions that:
 Couns elling is aimed at helping people make choices and act on them.
 Counselling is a learning process and
 Counselling enables personality development.
Therefore prospective counselors should be aware of major approaches to
counselling so as to enable them to a cquire a sound basis for developing
their own personal brand of counselling. The current trends in this area are
broadly classified into three approaches. They are :
 Cognitive approaches
 Affective approaches and
 Behavioural approaches.
The approaches are c losely paraller with the three aspects of personality -
cognition, affection and co -nation i.e. knowing, feeling and doing . In this
unit we will discuss the cognitive and affective approaches to counselling.
6.2 COGNITIVELY ORIENTED COUNSELLING
APPROACHES
Cognitive Approaches
As Feorge and Cristiani (1981) have pointed out, in the cognitive
approaches, the process of counseling is the curing of unreason by reason;
i.e., to help clients eliminate most emotional disturbances by learning to
think rationally, t o help them get rid of illogical, irrational ideas and
attitudes and substitute logical, rational ideas and attitudes. It is believed
that this process helps the client to attain rational behaviour, happiness,
and self -actualization. For example Transactio nal Analysis (TA) aims at
the internal dialogues of individuals, which occurs between
a. counseling is aimed at helping people make choices and act on them,
b. counselling is a learning process, and
c. counselling enables personality development
A recent and much accepted definition is :
“Counseling denotes a professional relationship between a trained
counselor and client. This relationship is usually person -to-person,
although it may sometimes involve more than two people. It is designed to
help clients to understand and their self determined goals through
meaningful resolution of problems of an emotional or interpersonal
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123 The merit of the definition by Burks and Steffler is that it is sufficiently
theoretical and at th e same time reasonably operational.
Theory and Practice of Counselling:
Theory and practice should go hand in hand. Many trained counselors
initially adhere to the theory while starting their career as counsellor.
However, even those who are fanatically ti ed down to one theory appear
to change over time. This is because the client is a human being and he is
the link between the theory and practice of the counsellor. Rigid theories,
like the Procrustean bed, repel the human psyche. When the man does not
fit into the theory the counselor its compelled to change his theory. This is
one of the most demanding challenges of counselling.
Counselors should keep their minds more receptive and flexible. The
psychological concept of individual difference must be under stood
thoroughly. Individual clients differing in their personalities come with
dissimilar problems, goals and aspirations. To believe that all those clients
would benefit from one kind of theory is unrealistic. It is useful to know
that all the well -know n theories have emerged from the practice of
individual counselor’s personal experience with counselees. This is why
we have different theories and practices. Trying to know theories as old
and new broadens our perspective. But what would be ultimately use ful is
the one that is carved out from the counselor’s experience with the various
ego states and the struggles between the real parts of their behaviour
(whether the same is productive or counter productive) and the behaviour
of others by identifying whic h ego state is in power at any given time. TA
thus gives the clients information about the various types of transactions
that occur among individuals and to help them identify the kinds of
behavior in which they are involved. The goal of TA is to help cli ents
review their past decisions and make new decisions about their present
behaviour. It is assumed that this would change their life direction into
developing an autonomous life style characterized by awareness,
spontaneity. This, it s believed that w ould, eliminate a life style
characterized by manipulative game - playing a self - defeating neurotic
tendencies.
Directive teaching is the core in all the cognitive approaches. For example
in Rational Emotive Therapy(RET) the counselor takes up an active
teaching role to educate clients. The RET counselor makes the client
understand that the latter’s internationalized sentences are quite illogical
and especially the current illogical thinking are self -defeating
verbalizations of the client. The success if th e counselor lies in bringing
illogical thinking forcefully to the client’s attention. He must also show to
the counselee how these thoughts are maintaining his unhappiness and
how a rethinking and maintenance of logically and rationality make him
happy and contented. In reality therapy, the meaning of reality and the
necessity to act responsibly are taught by the counselor.

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124 6.2.1 Trait and Factor Oriented counselling approaches:
The trait - factor approach has developed from a marriage of differential
psychology’s research and theories to Parson’s vocational guidance
concepts. The approach was born at the Minnesota Employment
Stabilization Research Institute and the University of Minnesota Test
Bureau as a practical response to educational and vocational a djustment
problems of the unemployed and students. It is still closely identified with
educational and vocational counseling. The approach has placed heavy
reliance on the scientific method by attempting systematically to observe
and measure individuals. T raits are categories that are used for describing
individual differences in behavior, and statistical methods of factor
analysis are used to ascertain how many factors are sufficient to account
for similarities and difference in individuals. Trait - factori sts have relied
heavily on empirical objective data for a logical problem –solving
approach to client problems. Thus, the approach may be placed in the
constellation of theories that are more cognitively than affectively
oriented. Its basic model of analys is, synthesis, diagnosis, prognosis,
counseling, and follow -up is a structured, stepwise attempt to help the
client become self -counseled. The major component of the model is the
integration of objective test data with client subjective data to arrive at a
differential diagnosis.
As it has evolved, the trait -factor approach has become more
developmental, dynamic, process -oriented, and eclectic. It has moved to a
person times environment fit approach, which is seen not as static but as
reciprocal and dynamic (Martin & Swartz -Kulstad,2000). Vocational
counseling, in particular, is not seen as fixed but as a continuing
experience with definable stages. The contemporary approach is eclectic
in that it sees merit and utility in cognitive therapies such as the rea lity,
rational -emotive, and behavioral approach is eclectic in that it sees merit
and utility in cognitive therapies such as the reality, rational -emotive, and
behavioural approaches. The logical basis of the approach relies heavily
on a mentoring and teac hing role by the counselor to influence and change
the irrational thinking and behavior of the client. A great deal of
knowledge, experience, and expertise is assumed of the counselor. Trait -
factor counseling is most commonly founding school, employment, and
rehabilitation counseling.
By including a broader diagnostic scheme, more advanced information -
processing concepts, and a more adaptive counseling style, the person
times environment fit approach has matured beyond the old trait -factor
model. The pers on times environment model includes these elements by
organizing personal constructs, the world of work, person times
environment interactions and then applying them in a problem -solving
seque3nce. Including current concepts of problem solving, information
processing, and attitude change has reinvigorated a venerable approach to
career counseling (Chartrand, 1991).
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125 Frank Parsons’ Trait and Factor Theory of Occupational Choice:
People perform best when they are in jobs best suited to their abilities
Frank parsons is regarded as the founder of the vocational guidance
movement. He developed the talent - matching approach, which was later
developed into the Trait and Factor Theory of Occupational Choice. At the
centre of Parsons’ theory is the concept of matchi ng. He states that
occupational decision making occurs when people have achieved.
 An accurate understanding of their individual traits (aptitudes,
interests, personal abilities )
 A knowledge of jobs and the labour market
 Rational and objective judgement about the relationship between their
individual traits, and the labour market.
This three -part theory still governs most current practice.
The trait and factor theory operates under the premise that it is possible to
measure both individual talents and t he attributes required in particular
jobs. It also assumes that people may be matched to an occupation that’s a
good fit . Parsons suggests that when individuals are in jobs best suited to
their abilities they perform best and their productivity is highest .
In his book, ‘Choosing a Vocation’ Parsons maintains that personal
counsel is fundamental to the career search. In particular, he notes seven
stages for a career counsellor to work through with clients:
1. Personal data: create a statement of key facts about the person,
remembering to include every fact that has bearing on the vocational
problem.
2. Self -analysis :a self -examination is done in private and under the
instruction of the counsellor. Every tendency and interest that might
impact on the choice of a life work should be recorded .
3. The client’s own choice and decision : this may show itself in the first
two stages. The counsellor must bear in mind that the choice of
vocation should be made by the client, with the counsellor acting as
guide.
4. Counsellor’s analysis: the counsellor tests the client’s decision to see if
it is in line with the “main quest”.
5. Outlook on the vocational field: the counsellor should be familiar with
industrial knowledge such as lists and classifications of industri es and
vocations, in addition to locations of training and apprenticeships.
6. Induction and advice: a broad -minded attitude coupled with logical and
clear reasoning are critical at this stage.
7. General helpfulness : the counsellor help[s the client to f it into the
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126 Much of Parsons ”work still guides career counselling today, though it is
not without criticism. Matching assumes a degree of stability within the
labour market. However, the reality is that the mar kets volatility means
individuals must be prepared to change and adapt to their circumstances.
It has been criticized for being overly cognitive and reductionistic. That is,
relying on objective measurements of traits may lead to an oversimplified
view of the human condition. Further, the very existence of valid and
reliable objective tests, and of stable traits, remains highly questionable.
Trait -factor counseling is also limited insofar as it only seeks to describe a
client’s potential rather than help h im achieve it. E.G, Williamson (1965)
was the only trait -factor theorist to address this question: he argued that
the counselor has the responsibility to promote the self -actualization of his
client, rather than just measuring it. Behavioral therapy, like trait-factor
counseling, is firmly grounded in the scientific method, and it is
committed to bringing experimental findings into clinical practice in order
to change clients’ behavior and resolve personal and social problems
(Corey, 1986). Behaviorism has its roots in Pavlov’s (1927).
Trait -factor counseling is the only counseling method which has its root in
vocational counseling. It dates back to 1908, when Frank Parsons founded
the Boston Vocational Bureau and stated his conviction that in order to
choos e the best career, one had to understand oneself, the characteristics
of different job environments, and the relationship between these
variables. Trait -factor theory was further developed during the testing
movement in the U.S./during the 1930’s by psycho logists like E.G.
Williamson, John Darley, and Donald G. Paterson (Downing, 1975).
Trait -factor counseling is an extremely cognitive approach based on the
scientific method and the theory of individual differences. Its major
underlying assumptions include the following:
1. Each person has a unique pattern of traits (i.e. interests, abilities, and
characteristics) that are relatively stable and rarely change after
adolescence.
2. These traits are measurable
Check your progress -I
1. Explain cognitive approa ch of counseling.
2. Explain Trait -factor oriented counseling.
6.3 AFFECTIVELY ORIENTED COUNSELLING
APPROACHES
As the term suggests the affective approaches in counseling focus their
attention to what is going on inside the individual, and particularly wha t
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127 Client - centered counseling of Rogers is perhaps the most well -defined
technique in the affective approaches. It also highlights an issue in
counseling; namely, how much responsibility can be placed on the client
for his own problem solving?
Rogers believed that when the individual perceived himself as behaving in
manner consistent with his ‘picture’ of himself, he generally experiences
feelings of adequacy, security, and worth. If on the other hand, he act s in a
manner different from the way he defines himself, he experiences what is
known as “threat” and feels insecure, inadequate, or worthless. Under
pressure and with no other alternative, he may then defend himself against
this threat using one or more o f the commonly described “defense
mechanisms” Unless counseling eliminates this defensive chain reaction
and strengthens his self -concept, the defensive behaviour would increase
vulnerability to further threat, guilt, thereby creating more distortion and
more self -defeating mechanisms. The role of the therapist is not just
eliminating the defense mechanisms. Rogers highlights the importance of ‘
Congruence’. It means the close ‘matching of awareness and experience’.
In this context, the client centered coun selors emphasizes the importance
of accurate communication. If a client is aware of communicating a
feeling which he is genuinely experiencing, his behavior is said to be
congruent or integrated. In incongruent communication the awareness and
experience o f the client are two different if not opposing things. So also
the recipient may experience an awareness of phony communication. The
implication here for the counselor is that the counselor should help client
to face courageously the incongruence between a wareness and experience
so that communication of his real experiences is in full awareness and not
distorted with defense mechanisms and neurotic constrictions.
The ‘self -theory’ of Rogers also assumes a perspective called
‘phenomenology’. According to thi s perspective, people’s ‘reality’ is that
which they perceive. The way to understand individuals is to infer the
‘phenomenological field’ from their behavior. In other words, the
‘internal frame of reference ‘ of the client is used in counseling with the
implication that counselors must attempt to perceive client’s perceptual
worlds as closely as they can. This is known as the empathic skill of the
counselor.
Individual client’s need to strive for wholeness is the focus in Gestalt
therapy and counseling. T his school of counseling gives importance to the
internal world of the individual. Striving for the gestalt or the wholeness is
actually a striving for an integration of thinking, feeling, and behaving.
The key concept here is awareness. It is believed tha t the counselors help
the clients work toward a total awareness of his experiences. Gestalt
psychologists po0ilnt out that such awareness permits self -regulation and
self- control in the direction of increased integration and creativity.
Recently, one of the major forces that have come to occupy an important
place in psychology is ‘Existentialism’. Unlike Psychoanalysis,
existentialism is a temperamental way of looking at life . It is basically a
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128 cognitive compartments. Man is essentially an emotional being rather than
a rational animal! The existence of man is unique because he is the only
being who reacts to the fact of his existence. The awareness of one’s own
existence and the poss ibility of non -existence alters the inner world or the
phenomenology. These new premises create new experiences and needs
that are yet to be known. The predicament of human beings is such that it
includes the individual’s capacity for increased self - aware ness, the search
for unique meaning in a meaningless world, being alone and being in
relation with others, freedom to choose one’s fate, responsibility, anxiety,
finiteness and death, and a basic urge for self -actualization. As a theory
existentialism is s ound and appealing, but the practice of counseling on the
basis of this theory is difficult. However, the existential counselor tries to
understand the client as ‘a being’ and as’ a being in the world’ Counselors
are supposed to expose his own inner realit y and at the same time be
human. This according to existentialists enables clients to become aware
of similar conditions and qualities in themselves. It is pointed out that
through his process clients come to recognize their potentialities and
achieve sel f-growth by accepting it as their respo0nsibility. In a nut shell,
it can be said that making the client accept responsibility for him selfish
the aim of existential counseling
The three basic approaches (Cognitive, Affective, and Conative) with their
differing foundations vary in their theory and practice of counselling By
about 1973, Patterson began to think in terms of commonalities among the
approaches. Fortunately most of the controversies existed only as
academic gymnastics at a theoretical level. T he practicing counselors were
undergoing transformation as the clients were not interested in theories
and their subtleties but were interested only in immediate problem solving.
This demand of the client to the counsellor had made many counselors to
aband on their dogmatic approach. Orientation of the counselors started
changing towards a pragmatic approach. The client and his needs became
more important than the counselor’s theory and dogma. This was how
‘personal theory’ emerged.
Here it is absolutely nec essary to point out that training in some known
approach is better than no training. Corey(19977) recommends the eclectic
approach as a framework to begin with . However, George and Cristiani
(1981) point out that although beginning counselors need a firm
understanding of all the major approaches, they should start first with a
thorough grounding in one theoretical approach to counselling. It is further
pointed out that judicious integration and assimilation of techniques from
other approaches could be don e with experience.
6.3.1 Psychoanalytic Approach to Counselling:
The original so called “taking therapy” involves analyzing the root causes
of behaviour and feelings by exploring the unconscious mind and the
conscious mind & relation of it. Many theories and therapies have evolved
from the original Freudian psychoanalysis which utilizes free association,
dreams and transference, as well other strategies to help the client know
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129 ‘Psychoanalysis’ was developed in the late 19th century by Sigmund
Friend. His therapy explores the dynamic workings of a mind understood
to consists of three parts. The hedonistic id, the rational ego and the moral
superego, Frend maintained that the condition of the unconscious mind is
profoundly in fluenced by childhood experiences. So in addition to dealing
with the defense mechanisms used by an overburdened ego, his therapy
addresses fixations and other issues by probing deeply into client’s youth.
Psychoanalysis has three main components:
1. a met hod of investigation of the mind and the way one thinks.
2. a systematized set of theories about human behaviour.
3. a method of treatment of psychological or emotional illness.
Under the broad umbrella of psychoanalysis, there are at least 22
theoritical orientations regarding human mentation and development. The
various approaches in treatment called ‘psychoanalysis’ vary as much as
the theories do. The term also refers to a method of studying child
development.
Psychoanalytical counselling is concerned w ith how we deceive ourselves
as to our intentions, desires and beliefs and how these deceptions creates
conflict between our expressed goals and our actions. It also give rises to
psychodynamic counselling. The term psychodynamic means pertaining to
the la ws of mental action and its use pre -supposes that there are some
principles that determine the relationship between mind and action and
that these can be formulated as a basis for therapeutic intervention.
Traditionally, the principles underlying psychodyn amic counselling as
presented as derivations of the psychoanalytic school founded by Sigmund
Fend. But current psychodynamic counselling draws from a much wider
range of theoritical influences. One of the most fundamental tenets is that
we are unaware of m any of our motives and that if these are known to us
we are able to make better, less conflicted choices. However, we are often
resistant to or defended against recognizing these hidden motives termed
unconscious by most psychodynamic theorists and hence a re unable to
change -indeed we seem to have a compulsion to repeat past behaviour.
These repetitions are thought to arise because of earlier experience where
our behaviour successfully enabled us to cope by ignoring or repressing
difficult feelings. Psychod ynamic counselling this has theory of why we
are enable to change, how this inutility arises and how it affects our lives.
Psychoanalysis is an intensive process, whereas psychoanalytic therapy is
based upon psychoanalysis but is less intensive. Psychodyna mic
counselling evolve from psychoanalytic theory, however it tends to focus
on more immediate problems, be more practically based and shorter term
than psychoanalytic theory.

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130
Goals of the psychoanalytic approach:
The goal of psychoanalytic approach a re:
 To make the unconscious conscious
 To strive to probe into the deeper part of the psyche.
 To get the issues that were not resolved during cognitive development.
 To understand and experience the issues and to bring change in the
character.
Principles of psychoanalytic theory:
The general principles are:
 Help the person to tell his or her story.
 Establish a solid working alliance
 Deal with resistance
 Gather background information and history.
 Select the problem or issue to be worked on explore the precipit ating
events.
 Collaborate with the client to form a diagnosis and treatment plan.
 Increase the client’s awareness regarding defensiveness.
 Revirit resistance to interventions.
 Explore the client’s transference.
 Examine how the past is impacting the present .
 Help the client behave more effectively.
 Provide feedback and confront discrepancies.
 Negotiate with the client regarding home work assignments.
 Remind the client of the termination date.
 End therapy as agreed upon with the client.
 Schedule follow up as needed.

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131 Check your progress - II
1. What is affective oriented counselling approach?
2. Explain the concept of psychoanalytic approach of counselling.
6.4 CONDITIONS INFLUENCING COUNSELLING
The counselling process is influenced by several characteristics that help it
become a productive time for the client and counsellor. Not all
characteristics apply to all situations, but generally, the following help to
bring about positive results.
 Structure
 Setting
 Client qualities
 Counsellor’s qualities
6.4.1 Physica l setting
Counselling can happen any where, but the professional generally works
in a place the provides:
 Privacy
 Confidentiality
 Quiet and
 Certain comfort
When working with a client, you want to send a message that you are
listening. This can be done by b eing attentive both verbally & non -
verbally. The following SOLAR acronym will remind you about your
physical setting which gives confidence to your client that you are
listening.
S: Face the client Squarely, that is, adopt a posture that indicates
involvem ent.
O: Adopt an Open posture sit with both feet on the ground to begin with
your hands folded, one over the other.
L: As you face your client, lean toward him or her. Be aware of their
space needs.
E: Maintain eye contact. Looking away or down seems that you are bored
or ashamed of what the client is saying. Looking at the person
suggests that you are interested and concerned.
R: As you incorporate these skills into your attending listening skills,
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132 6.4.2 Privacy
Trust is an essential component in t he development of helping
relationships. Counselors regard the promise of confidentiality to be
essential for the development of client trust. Most individuals seeking
counseling services assume that what they divulge counseling will be kept
in confidence by their counselor, with limited exceptions (Glosoff, Herlihy
& Spence, 2000). This is most likely true for children and adolescents as
well as adults. Managing confidentiality when counseling minors,
however, is more complex than when counseling adults. S chool
counselors must balance their ethical and legal responsibilities to their
clients, clients’ parents and school systems. This complex balancing act is
one reason that the topic issues in school counseling. In attempting to
weigh their legal and ethica l obligations, it is helpful for school counselors
to clearly identify those they consider to be “clients.” School counselors
are part of an educational community. As such, they consult with teachers,
administrators and parents. It is important for school counselors to clarify
that their consultation is on behalf of students and that only the students
are their clients (except if school counselors offer counseling to students’
families).
The Code of Ethics and Standards of Practice of the American Counselin g
Association (ACA, 1995) and the Ethical Standards for School Counselors
of the American School Counselor Association (ASCA, 1998) are two
resources available to help school counselors manage privacy and
confidentiality in their counseling relationships. School counselors can
also look to moral principles or “shared beliefs or agreed upon
assumptions that guide the ethical reasoning of helping professionals”
(Remley & Herlihy, 2001, p.3) upon which the codes of ethics are based.
The moral principles most o ften cited in relation to ethical practices of
counselors include the following :
 Veracity or telling truth
 Justice or fairness
 Nonmaleficence or doing no harm
 Beneficence or doing good
 Autonomy or respecting free choice
 Fidelity or keeping promises
The mo ral principle of beneficence refers to the responsibility to help
clients gain something positive from engaging in counseling. It also
includes counselors’ duty to “help society in general and people who are
potential clients” (Welfel, 2002, p.34). Autonom y refers to respecting the
freedom of clients to choose their own directions and make their own
choices within the counseling relationship. Respecting a clients’ autonomy
does not mean that counselors encourage clients to make decisions
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133 of community and cultural implications. It does mean that “counselors
refrain from imposing goals, avoid being judgmental and are accepting of
different values” (Herlihy & Corey, 1996,p.4).
Applyin g moral principles to situations involved in respecting the rights of
minor clients served in school settings is not always easy. To be effective
advocates for their clients’ rights, school counselors must have a good
grasp of issues related to the followi ng concepts: the legal status of minors
and the legality and ethics of privacy, confidentiality, privileged
communication, and informed consent. Each of these are reviewed along
with relevant ethical standards and factors that complicate school
counselors’ ability to maintain a relationship based on student’s
confidence that they can speak freely and without fear of disclosure.
Finally, implications for the practice of school counselors is presented.
The Legal Status of Minors
The ACA (1995) Code of Ethics and Standards of Practice specifically
references the term minor twice, both in relation to matters of consent. The
Ethical Standards for School Counselors (ASCA, 1998) include standards
specific to counseling minors throughout the entire document. Neither
setoff ethical guidelines, however, defines the term minor. Typically, 18 is
considered the legal age of majority, unless otherwise designated. Minors,
therefore, can legally be defined as those persons under the age of 18.
Amendment XXVI (1971) to the U. S. Constitution established the right of
18-year-old citizens to vote and by extension has influenced the generally
accepted age at which minors are extended other adult rights. For
example, 18 is cited in the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act
(FER PA) as the age at which the transfer of rights from parents to students
occurs (FERPA, 1974). School counselors, therefore are faced with 18 as
the age at which their clients are legally assumed to be mature, to have full
ownership and controlof their priv acy rights.
The legal concept of the age of majority has implications for minor
clients’ rights to make choices about entering into counseling as well as
their rights to privacy and confidentiality. Overall, although monor clients
have “an ethical right to privacy and confidentiality in the counseling
relationship… [the] privacy rights of minor legally being to their parents
or guardians ” (Remley & Herlihy, 2001,p. 184). Isaacs and Stone (1999)
noted that the Supreme Court has upheld parents’ legal right t o make
critical decisions about their children. (The term parents refers to all who
function in the parental role and have the legal rights of parents.) Many
people consider the decision to enter into counseling to be an example of a
critical decision. Fur ther, because counsellingis considered tobe a
contractual relationship, “minors cannot legally agree to be counseled on
their own” (Remley & Herlihy,p.179). There are some exceptions to this.
For example, many states have enacted laws allowing for individu als
younger than 18 to receive counseling or medical services without parental
consent. Additionally, most states have laws that allow minors to be
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134 to be deemed a mature minor and cap able of understanding the
ramifications of counselling.
6.4.3 Record Keeping
Counsellor’s record keeping practices are increasingly governed by
legislation. In some provinces, new Freedom of Information and
Protection of Privacy legislation and Personal He alth Information acts
have given counselors new guidelines about the way they keep records.
The federal Youth Criminal Justice Act will also influence counselors’
practices on record keeping. For school counselors, legislation regarding
the administration of public schools adds other imperatives. Some
provinces have synthesized these various legislative requirements into
policy statements that provide counselors with a guide for the management
of their counseling records.
In schools, pupil records are typic ally held in three areas: the cumulative
file in the main office; the young offender file if one exists, held in a
secure location by the principal and the counseling or special education
files normally maintained by the counselor and resource teacher.
The cumulative file component includes things such as identification
information, parent/guardian information, citizenship, school history,
relevant health information, academic information on marks, attendance,
awards and correspondence & legal documents. S ome counseling
information, such as results of psycho educational assessments that may
inform programming decisions can also be included in this file.
The counseling and special education files typically included additional
such as: special education or re source information; clinician reports and
meeting notes; referrals to other agencies; diagnostic testing results and
reports from service providers outside of the school such as hospitals and
treatment facilities.
The Youth Criminal Justice Act component c ontains information about a
young offender that may be used; to ensure compliance with a court order;
to ensure the safety of staff, students and others; and to assist in the
rehabilitation of the young offender.
Most legislation is in agreement that there are certain conditions under
which a person may be refused access to information in a file. They are: if
disclosure might cause an invasion of the privacy of a third party; if
disclosure could be detrimental to the education of the pupil; if disclosure
could cause physical or emotional harm to someone; or if disclosure could
interfere with an enactment or investigation.
Personal Health Information legislation. (Manitoba’s for example), adds
additional conditions under which access may be refused. These inc lude:
if disclosure may endanger the mental or physical health or safety of a
person; if disclosure may reveal information about person who has not
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135 supplied the info in confidence unde r circumstances where confidence
could be expected; or if the information was compiled for legal purposes.
The Youth Criminal Justice Act demands that the offender’s file must be
kept separate from any other record or the young person; that on other
person has access to the information except if authorized under the Act;
and that the record be destroyed when the information is no longer
required for the purpose for which it was disclosed.
In cases of divorced or separated parents, the Divorce Act of Canada states
that, “Unless the court orders otherwise, a spouse who is granted access to
a child of the marriage has the right to make inquiries, and to be given
information as to the health, education and welfare of the child.”
Provincial family law usually sup ports this notion as in Manitoba’s
legislation, for example, which states: “Unless a court otherwise orders,
the non -custodial parent retains the same right as the parent granted
custody to receive school, medical, psychological, dental and other reports
affecting the child”. (Family Maintenance Act Manitoba)
While the legislation described about is very similar from province to
province, it is important to check on the specific wording of these kinds of
acts in your own jurisdiction.
Counselors are often c oncerned about transferring information when a
student transfers to a new school. Generally, both the cumulative file and
the counseling or special education file must go to the new school. A
strategy that will help give counselors some sense of security i s to retain
the counselling records themselves, and place a notice in the cumulative
file to the effect that counseling information exists on this student and may
be obtained by contacting the counsellor directly. In this way, the records
can go form profe ssional to professional, and their security and privacy be
ensured. Many schools have the parents or students, (if they are the age of
majority) , sign a release from to allow the transfer of these records.
Lawyer, Robert Solomon and Consultant, Dennis Luc as have each offered
suggestion about effective record keeping. These ideas include:
 Keeping all entries in chronological order;
 Recording information while it’s fresh.
 Making any alterations with a straight line, dated and initialed;
 Sticking to behaviors and concise description
 Staying away from diagnosis & interpretation
 Limiting records only to directly relevant info;
 Including record keeping information in your informed consent
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136  Presenting issue:
 Past history of issue (if described in an earlier record);
 Current status of issue changes since last visit:
 Treatment/goals/homework/actions;
 Check -back date/time;
 Referral info: To whom, where, when, what was said;
 Administrative info: timetable, credits, et c.
To ensure the protection of your students and yourself, it is important to
check your employer’s policies on access to information, the CCA
Standards of Practice on record keeping, and the privacy legislation in
your province. If no workplace policy exi sts, it is critical that such a policy
on record keeping be created.
In some provinces, requests for information can be referred to the
individual appointed as Privacy and Access Coordinator for your school
hoard. This individual can, with input from you, decide to release the
whole record, release parts of it, or deny access altogether. Parents then
have the right of appeal to a provincial privacy adjudicator such as the
provincial ombudsman in provinces where these procedures are not
mandated, it is impor tant to follow the CCA policy that school counselors
should make every effort to ensure that there is a school -based procedure
in place to adjudicate any requests from parents or guardians for access to
counseling records.
As a proactive step to avoid misu nderstanding with students and parents, it
is essential to have a good informed consent form in place. A consent form
used in a school setting may say something like this:
“In all discussions between us you have a right to expect that anything we
talk abou t will remain confidential. We will respect and guard your right
to confidentially very carefully, but you need to know that are a few cases
where are a few cases where that may not apply. These are the situations
where information may by shared with someo ne else:
1) if you ask me to speak with someone else for you or give them
information you wish them to have
2) If I feel that you or someone else may being danger or in need or
protection,
3) If a court orders the release of information,
4) If required by law, as in cases of child abuse.
5) To consult with another professional person in confidence to try to
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137 Check your Progress III
1. Write short note on
a) Privacy in counselling
b) Record keeping in Counselling
c) Impo rtance of physical setting in counselling.
6.5 LEGAL AND ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN
COUNSELLING
Counselors like all professionals have ethical responsibilities and
obligations. The principal rule supporting ethical obligations is that the
counselor must act with full recognition of the importance of client’s
rights, the ethics of the profession. Counseling is not a value free or
neutral activity (Grant 1992). “It is a profession based on values, which
are orienting beliefs about what is good and how that goo d should be
achieved”. (Bergin 1985), the relationship of moral standards and values,
individual or cultural, in the life of that client.
Professional bodies of counselling have development ethical standards for
which they have made available to the practi tioners. Professional
organizations for practicing counselling and psychotherapy are :
 American Psychological Association (APA)
 British Association for Counselling (BAC) and
 American Counselling Association (ACA)
Need for ethical codes:
Ethical codes help professionalize and Protect an association by
government and promote stability within the profession. The need for
ethical cods are:
To control internal disagreement.
 To protect practitioners from the public
 To protect client from incompetent counselors.
Especially in mal practice issues. Clients can also use codes to evaluate
questionable treatment from the counselors.
Ethical Issues:
 Ethical codes are not set in stone. They serve as principles upon which
to guide practice.
 There are two dimensions to eth ical decision making:
o Principle ethics: Overt ethical obligations that must be addressed.
o Virtue ethics: Above and beyond the obligatory ethics and are
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138 Ethical Issues:
 Ethical codes and standards of practice for counselors have been
formulated by the American Counseling Association (ACA) and
American Psychological Association (APA).
 Ethical codes are guidelines for what counselors can and cannot
do.
 Each counselling situation is unique and sometimes the
counselor must interpret the code.
Ethical Issues that influence Clinical Practice
 Client Welfare: Client needs come before counselor needs and
the counselor needs to act in the clients best interest.
 Informed Consent Counselors need to inform clients as to the
nature of counseling and answer ques tions so that the client can
make an informed decision.
 Confidentiality: Clients must be able to feel safe within the
therapeutic relationship for counseling to be most effective.
What the client says stays in the session unless the client is
threatening h arm to self or others.
Ethical Issues that influence Clinical Practice
 Dual Relationships: When a counselor has more than one
relationship with a client (e.g. The counselor is a friend and the
counselor).
 Sexual Relationships: Professional organizations st rongly
prohibit sexual relationships with clients and in some states it is a
criminal offense.
Privileged Communication
 It is legal protection of the client which prevents a counselor
from disclosing what was said within the counseling sessions(s).
 This ri ght belongs to the client and not counselor.
 Laws concerning privileged communication vary from state to
state.
When to break confidentiality
 Tara off is Board of Regents of the University of California. A
landmark case with the end result being that couns elors have a
“duty to warn” if a client threatens another person’s life or with
significant bodily harm.
 When a child under the age of 18 is being sexually abused.
 If the counselor determines the client needs hospitalization.
 If the information is involved in a court action.
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139 Privileged Communication Doesn’t Apply
 When a counselor is performing a court ordered evaluation.
 When the client is suicidal.
 When the client sues the counselor.
 When the client uses a mental disorder as a legal defense.
 When an under age child is being abused.
 When a client discloses an intent to commit a crime or is
dangerous to others.
 When a client needs hospitalization.
Legal Issues and Managed Care
 Counselors have the duty to appeal adverse decisions regarding
their client’s.
 Coun selors have a duty to disclose to clients regarding the
limitations of managed care and the limits of confidentiality
under managed care.
 Counselors have a duty to continue treatment and are not
supposed to “abandon” a client just because the client does n ot
have the financial means to pay for services.
Malpractice
 When a counselor fails to provide reasonable care or skill that is
generally provided by other professionals and it results in injury
to the client.
 Four conditions must exist:
o The counselor has duty to client.
o The duty of care was not met.
o The client was injured in the process.
o There was a close causal relationship between the
counselor’s failure to provide reasonable care and the clients
injury.
Suggestions on Avoiding Malpractice
Pre-counseling : Make sure to cover all information counselling:
 The financial costs of counselling.
 Any special arrangements.
 The competencies of the counselor.
 Avoid dual relationships.
 Clearly indicate if a treatment is experimental.
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140  Help the client make an informed choice.
Suggestions on Avoiding Malpractice (Continued)
Ongoing Counseling:
 Maintain confidentiality.
 Seek consultation when necessary.
 Maintain good client records.
 Take proper action when a client poses a clear and imm inent
danger to themselves or others.
 Comply with the laws regarding child abuse and neglect.
Termination of Counselling:
 Be sensitive to the client’s feelings regarding termination.
 Initiate termination when the client is not benefiting from
services.
 Address the clients post -terminations concerns.
 Evaluate the efficacy of the counseling services.
An Ethical -Legal Decision Making Mode:
 Determine if an ethical -legal issue needs to be addressed.
 Address contextual issues such as culture and personal bias.
 Formulate an ethical -legal course of action.
 Implement an action plan.
Counselor Competence
 Counselors need to accurately represent their credentials and
qualifications.
 Counselors need to continue their education.
 Counselors need to only provide services fo r which they are
qualified.
 Counselors need to keep up on current information of the field
and especially in specialty areas.
 Counselors need to seek counselling when they have personal
issues.
Ethical and Legal concerns:
Major areas related to ethical 8 l egal issues must focus on the following
major areas:
 Informed consent
 Confidentiality
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141 Pertinent Legal and Ethical issues:
 Any appropriate course of action must be determined on a case
by case basis.
 Any policy requiring automat ic dismissal or withdrawal of a
student who expresses disturbing behaviour is legally vulnerable.
 The issue is often about assessing risk.
 A significant risk constitutes a high probability of substantial
harm not just a slightly increased, or remote risk.
 Any assessment must be based on a reasonable onedical
judgement relying on the most current medical knowledge and
the best available objective evidence.
If you analyse all the legal & ethical issues concerned with
counselling you can conclude it in the wo rds of mark Twain that a to
be good is noble, but to teach others to be good is nobler and less
trouble.
Governance of professional practice by Ethics and Law:
Law is created by legislature and courts. It governs citizens of federal,
country and state.
Whe reas Ethics rooted in philosophy crated by Professional associations
like APA & ACA. It govern members of profession & guide practice.
How can you consider an issue as legal or ethical? We can consider an
issue as legal if –
 Lowers are involved
 Matter has come to court
 The counselor may be in danger of being accused of misconduct.
Check your progress -IV
1. Explain the different ethical issues to be taken into consideration in
counselling.
6.6 LET US SUM UP
In this unit we have discussed about counselling app roaches. There are
three approaches to counselling like:
 Cognitive approach
 Affective approach &
 Behavioral approach
But in this unit we have discussed only two approaches like cognitive &
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142 the trait & factor approach of counselling with special reference to Frank
Person’s Trait & factor approach to occupational choice. In affective
approach we have discussed Psychoanalytic approach & it’s goals &
principles we have also go through physica l setting, Privacy & recording
as conditions which comes as the influential factors in counselling. As in
other professions legal & ethical issues are important, so it is also
necessary in counselling process.
6.7 UNIT END EXERCISES
1. What are the differe nt types of approaches in counselling. Explain
cognitive approaches to counselling.
2. What is affective oriented counselling approach. Explain the
psychoanalytic approach to counselling.

3. What are different conditions which influence counselling. Expla in the
importance of recording in counselling.
4. What is your opinion regarding considerations of legal & ethical
issues in counselling Justify your opinion.
Bibliography:
www. google.com



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143 7
COUNSEL LING IN CONTEMPORARY
TIMES
Unit Structure:
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Conflict resolution
7.3 Training for assertiveness
7.4 Stress management
7.5 Life style planning
7.6 Let us sum up
7.7 Unit End Exercises
7.8 Sugge sted Readings
7.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will be able to:
 Define conflict resolution
 Differentiate conflict management & conflict resolution
 Explain assertiveness training
 Tell the symptoms of stress
 Discuss how to reduce stress
 Plan your life style
7.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, you will read how to counsel people in current problems like
in the area of conflict, stress, life style planning & HIV/AIDS etc. you
know how now a days people are running after money and, wants to be
millionaire at night. High expectations and low achievement or low
expectations & high achievements make one frustrated. He may be in a
conflicting situation, sometimes he has to change his life style due to his
unexpected achievement. It makes one under stress. All these problems
should be handled carefully by counseling. One may not always get a
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144 counsel others to handle conflicting situation & stress by giving them
some training for assert iveness and life style planning.
7.2 CONFLICT RESOLUTION
Conflict resolution is a wide range of methods of addressing sources of
conflict – whether at the inter -personal level or between states – and of
finding means of resolving a given conflict or of con tinuing it in less
destructive forms than, say, armed conflict. Processes of conflict
resolution generally include negotiation, mediation, diplomacy and
creative peacebuilding. The term “conflict resolution” is sometimes used
interchangeably with the terms dispute resolution or alternative dispute
resolution. The process of arbitration, litigation, and formal complaint
processes through an ombudsman, are part of dispute resolution, and
therefore they are also part of “conflict resolution.” The concept of
conflict resolution can also encompass the use of non -violent methods
such as civil resistance (also often called nonviolent resistance) by a party
to a conflict as a means of pursuing its goals, on the grounds that such
means are more likely than armed stru ggle to lead to effective resolution
of the conflict.
CULTURE BASED
Conflict resolution as both a professional practice and academic field is
highly sensitive to culture. In Western cultural contexts, such as Canada
and the United States, successful con flict resolution usually involves
fostering communication among disputants, problem solving, and drafting
agreements that meet their underlying needs. In these situations, conflict
resolvers often talk about finding the win -win solution, or mutually
satisf ying scenario, for everyone involved (see Fisher and Ury (1981),
getting to Yes). In many non -Western cultural contexts, such as
Afghanistan, Vietnam, and China, it is also important to find “win -win”
solutions; however, getting there can be very different . In these contexts,
direct communication between disputants that explicitly addresses the
issues at stake in the conflict can be perceived as very rude, making the
conflict worse and delaying resolution. Rather, it can make sense to
involve religious, tri bal or community leaders, communicate difficult
truths indirectly through a third party, and make suggestions through
stories (see Vinod Swami (1992), conflict Mediation Across Cultures).
Intercultural conflicts are often the most difficult to resolve beca use the
expectations of the disputants can be very different, and there is much
occasion for misunderstanding.
IN ANIMALS
Conflict resolution has also been studied in non -humans, like dogs, cats,
monkeys, snakes, elephants, and primates (see Frans de Waal, 2000).
Aggression is more common among relatives and within a group than
between groups. Instead of creating a distance between the individuals,
however, the primates were more intimate in the period after the
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145 forms of body contact. Stress responses, like an increased heart rate,
usually decrease after these reconciliatory signals. Different types of
primates, as well as many other species who are living in groups, show
different types of conciliatory behaviour. Resolving conflicts that threaten
the interaction between individuals in a group is necessary for survival and
hence has a strong evolutionary value. These findings contradicted
previous existing theories about the general funct ion of aggression, i.e.
creating space between individuals (first proposed by Konrad Lorenz),
which seems to be more the case in conflicts between groups than it is
within groups.
In addition to research in primates, biologists are beginning to explore
reconciliation in other animals. Up until recently, the literature dealing
with reconciliation in non -primates have consisted to anecdotal
observations and very little quantitative data. Although peaceful post -
conflict behaviour had been documented going back to the 1960s, it
wasn’t until 1993 that Rowell made the first explicit mention of
reconciliation in feral sheep. Reconciliation has since been documented in
spotted hyenas, [2] lions, dolphins, [3] dwarf mongoose, domestic goats, [4]
and domestic dogs.[5]
Conflict resolution is an expanding field of professional practice, both in
the U. S. and around the world. The escalating costs of conflict have
increased use of third parties who may serve as an conflict specialists to
resolve conflicts. In fact relief and development organizations have added
peace -building specialists to their teams. Many of the major international
Non-governmental organizations have seen a growing need to hire
practitioners trained in conflict analysis and resolution. Furthermore, this
expansion of the field has resulted in the need for conflict resolution
practitioners to work in a variety of setting such as in businesses, court
systems, government agencies nonprofit organizations, government
agencies and educational institutions servi ng throughout the world.
EDUCATION
Universities worldwide offer programs of study pertaining to conflict
research, analysis, and practice. The Cornell University OLR School
houses the Scheinman Institute on Conflict Resolution, which offers
undergraduate, graduate, and professional training on conflict resolution.[6]
Additional graduate programs are offered at Georgetown University,
Eastern Mennonite University and Trinity College Dublin. [7] George
Mason University’s Institute of Conflict Analysis and Res olution offers
undergraduate, certificate and master programs in Conflict Analysis and
Resolution and a Ph. D. program in The Philosophy in Conflict and
Conflict Resolution. [8] Many students completing a doctoral program
enter the field as researchers, th eorists, analysts, policy makers and
professors in higher education.
Furthermore, the Pax Ledens Foundation based in the Netherlands is an
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146 International Relations scenario to help stu dents learn about the intricacies
of where conflict emerges in the world of international politics.
Conflict resolution is a growing area of interest in UK pedagogy, with
teacher and students both encouraged to learn about mechanisms that lead
to aggressiv e action, and those that lead to peaceful resolution.
In many schools in the UK, conflict resolution has now become an integral
part of the SEAL (Social and Emotional Aspects of Learning) programme,
chiming as it does, with the SEAL principles of developin g social skills
and an understanding of one own feelings.
WAYS OF ADDRESSING CONFLICT
Five basic ways of addressing conflict were identified by Thomas and
Kilmann in 1976:[9] [10]
 Accommodation – surrender one’s own needs and wishes to
accommodate the othe r party.
 A-voidance – avoid or postpone conflict by ignoring it, changing the
subject, etc. A voidance can be useful as a temporary measure to buy
time or an expedient means of dealing with very minor, non -recurring
conflicts. In more severe cases, conflic t avoidance can involve
severing a relationship or leaving a group. [11]
 Collaboration – work together to find a mutually beneficial solution.
While the Thomas – Kilmann gird views collaboration as the only
win-win solution to conflict, collaboration can a lso be time intensive
and inappropriate when there is not enough trust, respect or
communication among participant for collaboration to occur.
 Compromise – bring the problem into the open and have the third
person present. The aim of conflict resolution is to reach agreement
and most often this will mean compromise.
 Competition – assert one’s view point at the potential expense of
another. It can be useful when achieving one’s objectives out weights
one’s concern for the relationship[13]
The Thomas Kilmann Instrument can be used to assess one’s dominant
style for addressing conflict.
CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
Conflict management refers to the long -term management of intractable
conflicts. It is the label for the variety of ways by which people handle
grievances – standing up for what they consider to be right and against
what they consider to be wrong. Those ways include such diverse
phenomena as gossip, ridicule, lynching, terrorism, warfare, feuding.
Genocide law, mediation, and avoidance. Which forms of conflict
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147 predicted and explained by the social structure – or social geometry – of
the case.
Conflict management is often considered to be distinct from conflict
resolution. In order for actual confli ct to occur, there should be an
expression of exclusive patterns, and tell why the conflict was expressed
the way it was. Conflict is not just about simple inaptness, but is often
connected to a previous issue. The latter refers to resolving the dispute to
the approval of one or both parties, whereas the former concerns an
ongoing process that may never have a resolution. Neither is it considered
the same as conflict transformation, which seeks to reframe the positions
of the conflict parties.
COUNSELING
When personal conflict leads to frustration and loss of efficiency,
counseling may prove to be a helpful antidote. Although few organizations
can afford the luxury of having professional counselors on the staff, given
some training, managers may be able to perform this function.
Nondirective counseling, or “listening with understanding”, is little more
than being a good listener – something every manager should be.
Sometimes the simple process of being able to vent one’s feelings – that
is, to express them t o a concerned and understanding listener, is enough to
relieve frustration and make it possible for the frustrated individual to
advance to a problem -solving frame of mind, better able to cope with a
personal difficulty that is affecting his work adversely . The nondirective
approach is one effective way for managers to deal with frustrated
subordinates and co -workers.
There are other more direct and more diagnostic ways that might be used
in appropriate circumstances. The great strength of the nondirective
approach (nondirective counseling is based on the client -centered therapy
of Carl Rogers), however, lies in its simplicity, its effectiveness, and the
fact that it deliberately avoids the manager - counselor’s diagnosing and
interpreting emotional problems, which would call for special
psychological training. Listening to staff with sympathy and
understanding unlikely to escalate the problem. And is a widely used
approach for helping people to cope with problems that interfere with their
effectiveness in the ir place of work.
Check Your Progress - I
1. Define conflict resolution
2. Differentiate between conflict resolution & conflict management.
7.3 TRAINING FOR ASSERTIVENESS
Assertiveness training involves learning the basic social skills that deal
with c learly expressing yourself to others, persisting with your goals in the
face of opposition and appropriately standing up for your self in the midst
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148
UNDERSTANDING ASSERTIVE VERSUS PASSIVE AND
AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR
Passive behavior is characterized by its overly “nice” and submissive
quality, the individual engaging in passive behavior is typically afraid of
conflict and overly -afraid of social rejection. The passive individual
frequently holds the belief that if you behave “nicely en ough” to
somebody who is acting rudely, obnoxiously or pushy towards you, that
the rude person will eventually understand how “good” you are and will
gratefully stop acting in a rude, obnoxious an overly demanding fashion.
Frequently a passive individual k eeps his or her personal opinions,
feelings or desires to him or herself while looking for those things to say
that will best win the other person’s approval. Consequently, the passive
person frequently feels very frustrated and angry inside, believing tha t
people don’t truly “understand” him or her, or don’t really “care” about
them when they don’t intuit the passive person’s desires underneath their
“nice” behaviors. The passive individual cares too much about other
people’s approval and focuses too littl e on honestly expressing him or
herself to others and letting natural compatibility or natural
incompatibility determine one’s relationships.
Aggressive behavior is often seen as “bullying,” “intimidating” or
“manipulative” by others and is characterized by a lack or concern for
other’s opinions, feelings or desires. Often the basic goal of aggressive
behavior is the domination of others through verbal of physical display of
power and threats of violence or retaliation. While the aggressive
individual some times gets his or her way in the short run, in the long run
aggressive behavior is self - defeating, in that the aggressive individual
ends up having few friends and many social enemies. Also, with the
addition of alcohol or social conflict with another agg ressive individual,
aggression quickly and easily crosses the line into illegal and punishable
behavior.
Assertive behavior is characterized by a content search for a “win -win”
solution to social conflict, as well as by non -aggressive social methods for
standing up for oneself in the face of aggressive social criticism, attack or
manipulation. The individual maintaining an assertive position usually
maintain that he or she is the ultimate judge of his or her own behavior,
although other people are free to h ave their own opinions and approve or
disapprove as they see fit. An assertive person stands up for his or her
tastes, desires, values and opinions while respecting other people’s
freedom to have their own individual differences on these things. A person
who behaves assertively understands that he or she is naturally
incompatible with certain people and is naturally compatible with certain
other people, therefore social rejection is simply an acknowledgment of
social incompatibility with a given person and not a reflection of their
worth as a person. An assertive individual looks for naturally compatible
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149 ASSERTIVE SOCIAL CONVERSATION AND COMMUNICATION
Assertive social conversation and communication involves learning and
then practicing a number of basic skills involving self -expression, such as
self-disclosure
In self -disclosure students learn how to reveal aspects of their past history,
opinions, values and desires they normally would have been to anxious to
reveal in the past. A key element of successful assertiveness is the
development of rejection tolerance, so that disclosure of one’s self is not
seen to be as threatening as it is typ ically viewed by someone preoccupied
with the thought “but what will they think if a say that!!??” Free
information. Free information is the offering of facts about yourself in an
unsolicited fashion. Sometimes this free information is given to the other
person simply as a means of self -disclosure and as a means of enhancing a
valued relationship, sometimes free information is offered as an invitation
to the other person to relax and begin talking on a more personal, intimate
level.
PERSISTENCE
Persistence is often required in social situations where you are dealing
with a bureaucracy and are facing systematic resistence to your reasonable
requests. A key social skill practiced in assertiveness training that teachers
persistence is called.
Broken Record
Broken record involves saying what you want over and over again without
getting angry, irritated or loud, regardless of how the frustrator is
stonewalling your reasonable requests.
ASSERTIVELY COPING WITH CRITICISM
Assertiveness is the middle ground between passivity and aggressiveness.
Often when people are criticized they tend to react either by “lying down
and playing dead”; in other words by being completely intimidated by the
criticism and not standing up for themselves, or else people respond by
overre acting and becoming angry. Loud, insulting and obnoxious. We tend
either to give in to the criticizer of fight criticizer by criticizing back.
Either way the conversation goes downhill and the relationship suffers.
Dealing with criticism in a assertive fas hion involves learning and then
using the following social skills:
 Fogging
Fogging is simply agreeing with the criticism leveled at you, agreeing
in principle with the criticism, or agreeing with the odds regarding the
criticism leveled at you. In any of t he above cases, however, you hold
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150 criticism. You do not become defensive, angry, or intimidated,
however.
 Negative assertion
Negative assertion occurs when you offer free information about
yourself that you agree is negative. You offer that information,
however, in a way that also communicates that you accept yourself as
a person in spite of this negative trait or behavior. When you accept
yourself as you are – warts and all – others f ind it difficult to
manipulate you based on their criticizing your negative traits.
 Negative inquiry
Negative inquiry involves asking the person who is criticizing you if
they have any additional criticisms of you they would like to share.
Negative inquiry communicates to the other person that you do not
automatically reject yourself simply because you recognize you’re
human and have some negative behaviors and characteristics. It often
leads also to the compliant that is unexpressed but which is at the roo t
of the other person’s dissatisfaction with you.
All assertiveness skills are designed to lead up to the moment of
 Workable compromise
Where you and other person begin to non -manipulatively negotiate the
differences between the two of you, and
 Working a greements
Which you and the other person reach between the two of you and
which represent the solutions the two of you have worked out
regarding your differences.
Assertiveness training is usually conduced in a small group setting,
usually taking from four to six sessions. Occasionally, however,
assertiveness is taught in the context of individual counseling and as a part
of developing a student’s overall social skill level.
It’s easy to understand assertiveness on a conceptual level. What is
challenging, h owever, is mastering the assertive social skills to the degree
that you utilize them spontaneously in the midst of an argument or a
socially conflicted situation. That is where previous practice in a small
group setting can be so beneficial.
ASSERTIVENESS TRAINING GROUPS
Assertiveness training is presented by Counseling Services on an
occasional basis as the campus need for it arises. If you are interested in
developing your assertive social skills, call Counseling and Wellness
Services at 487-2538 Mondays through Fridays 8 am to 5 pm and let us
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151 group, invite you into individual counseling to develop your assertiveness
skills on a more private basis, or we will take your name and number and
call you when a group is getting ready to begin.
IMPROVING ASSERTIVENESS
Published by Bupa’s Health Information Team, May 2011.
This fact sheet is for people who would like information about improving
their assertiveness.
Being assertive means being confident enough to express your feelings
and opinions, while still valuing those of others. It’s important because it
impacts directly on the way in which you interact with other people.
ABOUT ASSERTIVENESS
Assertiveness involves being clear about what yo u feel, what you need and
how it can be achieved. This requires confident, open body language and
the ability to communicate calmly without attacking another person. Being
assertive means:
 Saying “yes” when you want to, and saying “no” when you mean “no”
(rather than agreeing to do something just to please someone else)
 Deciding on, and sticking to, clear boundaries and being happy to
defend your position, even if it provokes conflict.
 Being confident about handling conflict if it occurs
 Understanding how to negotiate if two people want different outcomes
 Bing able to talk openly about yourself and being able to listen to
others
 Being able to give and receive positive and negative feedback
 Having a positive, optimistic outlook
Learning to use these skills will help you to express your thoughts and
feelings freely, speak up for yourself, know your rights, reason effectively
and control your anger.
PASSIVE, AGGRESSIVE AND ASSERTIVE BEHAVIOUR
When you enter into a discussion or an argument, there are several
different ways in which you might behave and react to the situation.
For example, if you try to avoid any sort of conflict or feel that your views
are less important than others, you’re being passive. In this situation you
may use sarcasm, give in resentful ly, or remain silent at your own cost.
This is the opposite being aggressive, which is when you feel you always
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152 You may bottle up feeling that eventually explode, leaving no room f or
communication.
Being assertive is completely different to being passive or aggressive.
Assertiveness involves clear, calm thinking and respectful negotiation
within a space where each person is entitled to their opinion.
WHY IMPROVE YOUR ASSERTIVENESS?
If you lack assertiveness, it can affect your relationship both personally
and professionally. Being unable to communicate your needs clearly, or
unable to challenge ideas or beliefs that don’t fit with your own, can cause
tension between yourself and othe rs. You may, for example, believe that
people aren’t listening to you and become resentful, leading to build -up
anger and outbursts of rage. When this kind of behaviour lasts a long time,
it can lead to stress, anxiety or even depression.
By looking carefu lly at how you communicate with others, you can begin
to identify ways in which you can be more assertive and help to improve
your quality of life.
HOW TO IMPROVE YOUR ASSERTIVENESS
With a bit of practice of training, most people can learn how to become
more assertive. It’s a communication skill that you can improve and get
better at using in your everyday life.
Body language
The way in which you hold yourself has an important impact on how
you’re perceived and treated. Assertive people generally stand u pright, but
in a relaxed manner, and look people calmly in the eyes.
A good first step of becoming more assertive is to consider your own body
language. You can practice being assertive with a friend or in front of a
mirror by:
 Facing the other person, or yourself, and trying to stay calm
 Speaking clearly and steadily
 Showing that you’re listening
 Matching your body language to what you’re saying
Communication
Clear communication is an important part of assertiveness. Some
examples are listed below.
 Express your feelings. Try not to generalize your feelings by
saying ‘you’ in conversation when you actually mean ‘I’. Also,
you should recognize that you have choices and so say ‘I could’
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153  Say no. This is often di fficult because you don’t want to feel like
you’re letting people down, be seen as unhelpful, unable to cope,
or just find the other person intimidating. However, it’s important
to remember that you’re allowed to say no. Keep the conversation
clear and sim ple and don’t apologise for saying no.
 The broken record technique. This involves repeating your point
over again in a calm an firm voice until it’s clear to the person. It’s
particularly useful if you’re explaining something to a
manipulative person, or s omeone who isn’t listening.
TRAINING
Try searching on the internet or going to your local library so find out
details of assertiveness classes available in your area. Most adult
education institutions offer course in assertiveness training. Always find
out how experienced the counselor or therapist is before you start classes.
Self-help books and resources on the internet can also be helpful if you
would rather teach yourself the skills you need.
COUNSELING OF PSYCHOTHERAPY
If you think past experience a re having a negative, influence on the way
you behave, it may help to talk through these experiences with a trained
counselor. This may being back painful memories of unpleasant
experiences you have had, but it can help you to understand why you act
as you do. It will help you to think differently about yourself and to have
positive, assertive behaviour.
You may also find cognitive behavioural therapy useful. This is a therapy
that involves helping you to overcome unhelpful patterns in the way you
think and behave, including aggressive and passive behaviour.
Check Your Progress - II
1. Write short notes on the following
a) Aggressive behaviour.
b) Assertive behaviour
c) Self disclousre
d) Fogging
7.4 STRESS MANAGEMENT
Stress is a part of day to day living. As college students you may
experience stress meeting academic demands, adjusting to a new living
environment, or developing friendships. The stress you experience is not
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154 energizer. However, if you r stress level is too high, medical and social
problems can result.
What is Stress?
Although we tend to think of stress as caused by external events, events in
themselves are not stressful. Rather, it is the way in which we interpret
and react to events th at makes them stressful. People differ dramatically in
the type of events they interpret as stressful and the way in which they
respond to such stress. For example, speaking in public can be stressful for
some people and relaxing for others.
Symptoms of St ress
There are several signs and symptoms that may notice when you are
experiencing stress. These signs and symptoms fall into four categories:
Feelings, Thoughts, Behavior, and Physiology. When you are under stress,
you may experience one or more of the f ollowing:
Feelings
 Feeling anxious.
 Feeling scared.
 Feeling irritable.
 Feeling moody.
Thoughts
 Low self -esteem.
 Fear of failure.
 Inability to concentrate.
 Embarrassing easily.
 Worrying about the future.
 Preoccupation with thoughts/tasks.
 Foregetfulness.
Behavior
 Stuttering and other speech difficulties.
 Crying for no apparent reason.
 Acting impulsively.
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155  Laughing in a high pitch and nervous tone of voice.
 Grinding your teeth.
 Increasing smoking.
 Increasing use to drugs and alcohol.
 Being ac cident prone.
 Losing your appetite or overeating.
Physiology
 Perspiration /sweaty hands.
 Increased heart beat.
 Trembling.
 Nervous ticks.
 Dryness of throat and mouth.
 Tiring easily.
 Urinating frequently.
 Sleeping problems.
 Diarrhea/ indigestion / vomiting.
 Butterflies in stomach.
 Headaches.
 Premenstrual tension.
 Pain in the neck and or lower back.
 Loss of appetite or overeating.
 Susceptibility to illness.
Cause of Stress
Both positive and negative events in one’s life can be stressful. However,
major life ch anges are the greatest contributors of stress for most people.
They place the greatest demand on resources for coping.
Major Life Changes that can be Stressful
 Geographic mobility.
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156  Transfer to a new school.
 Marriage.
 Pregnancy.
 New job.
 New life style.
 Divorce.
 Death of a loved one.
 Being fired from your job.
Environmental Events that can be Stressful
 Time pressure.
 Competition.
 Financial problems.
 Noise.
 Disappointments.
How to Reduce Stress
Many stresses can be changed, eliminated, or m inimized. Here are some
things you can do to reduce your level of stress:
 Become aware of your own reactions to stress.
 Reinforce positive self - statements.
 Focus on your good qualities and accomplishments.
 Avoid unnecessary competition.
 Develop assertive behaviors.
 Recognize and accept your limits. Remember that everyone is
unique and different.
 Get a hobby or two. Relax and have fun.
 Exercise regularly.
 Eat a balanced diet daily.
 Talk with friends or someone you can trust about your
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157 o Evaluate how you are budgeting your time.
o Plan ahead and avoid procrastination.
o Make a weekly schedule and try to follow it.
 Set realistic goals.
 Set priorities.
 When studying for an exam, study in short blocks and gradually
lengthen the time you spend studying. Take frequent short breaks.
 Practice relaxation techniques. For example, whenever you feel
tense, slowly breathe in and out for several minutes.
Stress can have both positive and negative influences. If channeled
correct ly it can help with motivation, enabling a person to meet challenges
or confront problems. However, negative stress also has the potential to
effect peoples physical and mental health.
Eustress, acute and chronic stress are some of the most common types.
Eustress is a positive and productive form. Capable of improving
motivation as well as providing inspiration in certain instances. Acute
distress is a short -term reaction to certain stressful events like road rage,
while chronic stress occurs more frequent ly and may seem to be a regular
feature of a person’s life.
Stress management counseling is often useful at assisting people in
limiting the negative effects of stress, as well as preventing physical or
mental problems. It can help people to recognize the major causes of stress
in their life and make changes that will help them to react less to stressful
situations.
Check Your Progress - III
1. What is stress? How can you identify people having stress?
2. What is stress? Explain how can you reduce stress?
7.5 LIFESTYLE PLANNING
As society becomes more aware of each individual’s special needs,
techniques used in sociology and psychology are being applied to personal
fiancé as well. Lifestyle financial planning considers a person’s desires,
dreams, strengths , needs, and goals and fashions them into the overall
financial equation in order to bring those goals into reality.
Theretofore, planning has focused on maximizing the accumulation of
wealth. Lifestyle financial planning, however, focuses on maximizing th e
individual’s happiness. It de -emphasizes greed and embraces frugality. It
also helps individuals focus on realistic goals based on their desires,
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158 Many colleges, universities, and professional schools are implementing
lifesty le planning counseling programs to help their students focus on
what is important in both their personal lives and careers. Lifestyle
planning counselors help students make an inventory of those things in life
that are important to them, such as where they want to live, the types of
cars they want to drive, and the income they think they will need to
support their lifestyles.
The types of things people typically save money for haven’t changed, but
the way they look at them has. For example, people still nee d to save for
the down payment on a house but perhaps a smaller house. Buying a car?
Consider a previously owned luxury car or lower -quality, brand new one.
Or, when planning for college, it may make sense to go to community
college for two years and then finish the degree program in a more
prestigious school - it will cost a lot less.
Very often life throws us curves. How many people do you know who
wish they were in a different occupation or profession? What if your
personal relationship doesn’t work out? How will a break up, separation,
or divorce affect your lifestyle? Can you be financially prepared for it?
You should be. Lifestyle planning can help you reevaluate your personal
choices and make decisions that will help you be happier and more
productive. What about retirement? When planning for retirement, you
need to consider what you really want to do. This will determine how
much you need to save and how frugal you will need to be in order to plan
for your retirement.
The first step in lifestyle financ ial planning is to make a list of your
desires, dreams, strengths, needs, and goals. Then identity the financial
goals associated with them. It might be helpful to use a written
questionnaire to organize your thoughts. Questions such as “Where would
I like to live?” “What kind of car would I like to drive?” “What kind of
clothes do I like to wear?” “Where would I like to work?” and “What do I
like to do for entertainment and recreation?” can all be helpful in
pinpointing the lifestyle for which you need to plan. The answers to
questions like these will help you define and set reasonable financial
goals.
The lifestyle financial plan is how you will acquire the money necessary
for each of your goals. Money can come from earned income from work,
or earnings on your investments. As in all financial planning, you must
guard against inflation, taxes, and risk of loss of income due to death,
disability, or legal action. You must also consider how to invest savings to
help maximize growth while minimizing risk of inv estment loss over the
investment time horizon to your goal.
You can begin to implement your plan when you start to earn money and
save for your goals. Your goals can be short -term, intermediate -term, or
long-term. You should select investments according to the risk and return
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159 the safest investment while long -term goals can be invested more
aggressively.
But you’re not done yet. You should have mileposts along the way to see
how well you are progressing. When you made your plan, you decided
how much money you would need at a specific point in time in order to
achieve your financial goal. A milepost measure how far along the route
you are to achieving your financial goals. In some inst ances, you will be
ahead of schedule while in others you may be behind schedule. Or your
goals may change. Remember those curves? Be prepared to stop and
reevaluate your plans and change direction if necessary. It’s your life, so
live it the way that best meets your desires, dreams, strengths, needs and
goals.
Check Your Progress - IV
1. Explain the need of life style planning counseling.
7.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we have studied:
Conflict resolution:
Conflict resolution is sometimes used as dispu te resolution or alternative
dispute resolution. It is rightly sensitive to culture. It has also been studied
in no -humans. Five basic ways of addressing conflict are:
- Accommodation
- Avoidance
- Collaboration
- Compromise and
- Competition
Conflict management:
It is always distinct from conflict resolution. It refers to the long term
management of intractable conflicts. When personal conflicts lead to
frustration, counseling prove to be helpful.
Training for assertiveness:
It involves learning the basic social sk ills that deal with clearly expressing
oneself to others. We can improve assertiveness with a bit practice or
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- Body language
- Communication
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160 Stress:
It is a part of day to day living you can identify on in a stressful situation
by observing the following symptoms:
- Feelings
- Thoughts
- Behaviour
- Physiology
Both positive & negative events in one’s life can be stressful. Major life
changes & environmental events can be stressful. We can reduce it by
- avoiding unnecessary competition
- setting realistic goals &
- developing assertive behaviours etc.
7.7 UNIT END EXERCISES
Q1. What are the different current areas in counseling? Explain the
need of life style planning counseling?
Q2. What is assertiveness? Why training for assertiveness is nece ssary?
Q3. Write short notes on
a) Stress management
b) Conflict resolution
7.8 SUGGESTED READINGS
1. WWW.Google.com
2. Introduction to counseling & guidance
Robert L. Gibson / Marianneh Michell


 
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161 8
COUNSELLING INTERVENTION
STRATEGIES
Unit Structure
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Rational emotive therapy
8.3 Crisis Intervention techniques
8.4 Grief and bereavement Intervention strategies
8.5 Disaster management
8.6 Let us sum up
8.7 Unit E nd Exercises
8.8 Suggested Readings
8.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
 Explain rational emotive therapy
 State crisis intervention techniques
 Discuss grief and bereavement intervention strategies
 Provide help in disaster manageme nt.
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Intervention strategy is a consulting process of highly dedicated and
experienced licensed therapists committed to providing the most
professional counseling, wellness and recovery oriented services so
individuals, families and corpora tions seeking help for distressed loved
ones suffering from alcoholism, drug addiction, trauma, depression eating
disorders and/or other mental health issues. The objective of this unit is
therefore to explain about some strategies & techniques of interven tion to
help someone getting into the flow of day to day living by focusing on
their strength. In this unit we will discuss about:
- Rational emotive therapy
- Crisis intervention techniques
- Grief and bereavement intervention strategies &
- Disaster management.
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162 8.2 RATIONAL EMOTIVE THERAPY
Rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT), previously called rational
therapy and rational emotive therapy, is a comprehensive, active -directive,
philosophically and empirically based psychotherapy which focuses on
resolving e motional and behavioral problems and disturbances and
enabling people to lead happier and more fulfilling life. REBT was created
and developed by the American psychotherapist and psychologist Albert
Ellis who was inspired by many of the teachings of Asian, Greek, Roman
and modern philosophers. REBT is one form of cognitive behavior
therapy (CBT) and was first expounded by Ellis in the mid -1950s;
development continued until his death in 2007.
Rational emotive behaviour therapy focuses on uncovering irrationa l
beliefs which may lead to unhealthy negative emotions and replacing them
with more productive rational alternatives.
Underlying Theory of Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy
Rational emotive behaviour therapy (‘REBT”) views human beings as
‘responsibly hedonistic’ in the sense that they strive to remain alive and to
achieve some degree of happiness. However, it also holds that humans are
prone to adopting irrational beliefs and behaviours which stand in the way
of their achieving their goals and purposes . Often, these irrational attitudes
or philosophies take the form of extreme or dogmatic ‘musts’, ‘shoulds’ or
‘oughts’; they contrast with rational and flexible desires, wishes,
preferences and wants. The presence of extreme philosophies can make all
the difference between healthy negative emotions (such as sadness or
regret or concern) and unhealthy negative emotions (such as depression or
guilt or anxiety). For example, one person’s philosophy after experiencing
a loss might take the form: “It is unfortu nate that this loss has occurred,
although there is no actual reason why it should not have occurred. It is
sad that it has happened, but it is not awful, and I can continue to
function.” Another’s might take the form; “This absolutely should not
have happ ened, and it is horrific that it did. These circumstance are now
intolerable, and I can not continue to function.” The first person’s
response is apt to lead to sadness, while the second person may be well on
their way to depression. Most importantly of al l, REBT maintains that
individuals have it within their power to change their beliefs and
philosophies profoundly, and thereby to change radically their state of
psychological health.
REBT employs the “ABC framework” - depicted in the figure below – to
clarify the relationship between activating events (a); our beliefs about
them (b); and the cognitive, emotional or behavioural consequences of our
beliefs (c). The ABC model is also used to in some renditions of cognitive
therapy or cognitive behavioural ther apy, where it is also applied to clarify
the role of mental activities or predispositions in mediating between
experiences and emotional responses.
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163 1. comp of


The figure below shows how the framework distinguishes between the
effects of rational beli efs about negative events, which give rise to healthy
negative emotions, and the effects of irrational beliefs about negative
events, which lead to unhealthy negative emotions.





In addition to the ABC framework, REBT also employs three primary
insights:
1. While external events are of undoubted influence, psychological
disturbance is largely a matter of personal choice in the sense that
individuals consciously or unconsciously select both rational beliefs
and irrational beliefs at (B) when negative ev ents occur at (A)
2. Past history and present life conditions strongly affect the person, but
they do not, in and of themselves, disturb the person; rather, it is the
individual’s responses which disturb them, and it is again a matter of
individual choice whe ther to maintain the philosophies at (B) which
cause disturbance.
3. Modifying the philosophies at (B) requires persistence and hard work,
but it can be done.
Therapeutic Approach of Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy
The main purpose of REBT is to help cli ents to replace absolutist
philosophies, full of ‘musts’ and ‘shoulds’, with more flexible ones; part
of this includes learning to accept that all human beings (including
themselves) are fallible and learning to increase their tolerance for
frustration whi le aiming to achieve their goals. Although emphasizing
same ‘core conditions’ as person -centred counseling – namely, empathy,
unconditional positive regard, and counsellor genuinenss – in the
counseling relationship, REBT views these conditions as neither necessary
nor sufficient for therapeutic change to occur.
The basic process of change which REBT attempts to foster begins with
the client acknowledging the existence of a problem and identifying any
‘meta -disturbances’ about that problem (i.e., problems a bout the problem,
such as feeling guilty about being depressed). The client then identifies the (A) |Activating Event
 Active event
 Client’s immediate Interpretations of event (c) Consequences
 Emotions
 Behaviours
 Other thoughts (B) Beliefs
 Evaluations
 Rational
 irrational
Negative Event (A) Negative Event (A)


Rational Belief (B) Irrational Belief (B)
Healthy Negative Unhealthy Negative
Emotion (C) Emotion (c)
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164 underlying irrational belief which caused the original problem and comes
to understand both why it is irrational and why a rational alternative would
be prefera ble. The client challenges their irrational belief and employs a
variety of cognitive, behavioural, emotive and imagery techniques to
strengthen their conviction in a rational alternative. (For example, rational
emotive imagery, or REI, helps clients pract ice changing unhealthy
negative emotions into healthy ones at (C) while imagining the negative
event at (A), as a way of changing their underlying philosophy at (B); this
is designed to help clients move from an intellectual insight about which
of their be liefs are rational and which irrational to a stronger ‘gut’ instinct
about the same.) They identify impediments to progress and overcome
them, and they work continuously to consolidate their gains and to prevent
relapse.
To further this process, REBT advoc ates ‘selective eclecticism’, which
means that REBT counselors are encouraged to make use of techniques
from other approaches, while still working specifically within the
theoretical framework of REBT. In other words, REBT maintains
theoretical coherence w hile pragmatically employing techniques that
work.
Throughout, the counsellor may take a very directive role, actively
disputing the client’s irrational beliefs, agreeing homework assignments
which help the client to overcome their irrational beliefs, and in general
‘pushing’ the client to challenge themselves and to accept the discomfort
which may accompany the change process.
Criticisms of Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy
As one leading proponent of REBT has indicated, REBT is easy to
practice poorly and it is from this that one immediate criticism suggests
itself from the perspective of someone who takes a philosophical approach
to life anyway: inelegant REBT could be profoundly irritating! The king
of conceptual disputing favoured by REBT could easil y meander off track
into minutiae relatively far removed from the client’s central concern, and
the mental gymnastics required to keep client and therapist on the track
could easily eat up time better spent on more productive activities. The
counsellor’s a nd client’s estimations of relative importance could diverge
rather profoundly, particularly if the client’s outlook really does embody
significant irrationalities. Having said all that, each of the preceding
sentences includes the qualifier ‘could”, and w ith a great deal of skill, each
pitfall undoubtelly could be avoided.
Perhaps more importantly, it would appear that the need to match
therapeutic approach with client preference is even more pressing with
REBT than with many others. In other words, it see ms very important to
adopt the REBT approach only with clients who truly are suitable, as it
otherwise risks being strongly counter productive. On this point, however,
it is crucial to realize that some clients specifically do appreciate exactly
this kind of approach, and counselors who are unable or unwilling to
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165 Best Fit With Clients
REBT is much less empirically supported than some other approaches: the
requisite studies simpl y have not been completed yet, and the relevant data
point for determining the best match with clients are therefore thin on the
ground. However, one may envision clients responding particularly well
who are both willing and able to conceptualise their pro blems within the
ABC framework, and who are committed to active participation in the
process of identifying and changing irrational beliefs (including
performing homework assignments in support of the latter). Clients will
also need to be able to work coll aboratively with a counsellor who will
challenge and dispute with them directly, and a scientific and at least
somewhat logical outlook would seem a pre -requisite. REBT would be
less suitable for clients who do not meet one or more of the above.
Check Your Progress – I
1. Explain ‘ABC’ framework in Rational Emotive Therapy.
8.3 CRISIS INTERVENTION TECHNIQUES
Having the skills to deal with criszs enables you to feel confident and be
able to use those skills during emergencies. Crisis intervention skills ar e
critical not only for health care workers, but for any one who deals with
the public under stress.
CRISIS INTERVENTION
Definition
Crisis intervention refers to the methods used to offer immediate, short -
term help to individuals. Who experience an event t hat produces
emotional, mental, physical, and behavioral distress or problems. A crisis
can refer to any situation in which the individual perceives a sudden loss
of his or her ability to use effective problem -solving and coping skills. A
number of events or circumstances can be considered a crisis: life -
threatening situations, such as natural disasters (such as an earthquake or
tornado), sexual assault or other criminal victimization; medical illness;
mental illness; thoughts of suicide or homicide; and lo ss or drastic
changes in relationships (death of a loved one or divorce, for example).
Purpose
Crisis intervention has several purposes. It aims to reduce the intensity of
an individual’s emotional, mental, physical and behavioral reactions to a
crisis . Another purpose is to help individuals return to their level of
functioning before the crisis. Functions may be improved above and
beyond this by developing new coping skills and eliminating ineffective
ways of coping, such as withdrawal, isolation, and substance abuse. In this
way, the individual is better equipped to cope with future difficulties.
Through talking about what happened, and the feelings about what
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166 intervention aims to assis t the individual in recovering from the crisis and
to prevent serious long - term problems from developing. Research
documents positive outcomes for crisis intervention such as decreased
distress and improved problem solving.
Description
Individuals are mo re open to receiving help during crises. A person may
have experienced the crisis within the last 24 hours or within a few weeks
before seeking help. Crisis intervention is conducted in a supportive
manner. The length of time for crisis intervention may ra nge from one
session to several weeks, with the average being four weeks. Crisis
intervention is not sufficient for individuals with long -standing problems.
Session length may range from 20 minutes to two or more hours. Crisis
intervention is appropriate f or children, adolescents, and younger and
older adults. It can take place in a range of settings, such as hospital
emergency rooms, crisis centers, counseling centers, mental health clinics,
schools, correctional facilities, and other social service agenci es. Local
and national telephone hotlines are available to address crises related to
suicide, domestic violence, sexual assault, and other concerns. They are
usually available 24 hours a day, seven days a week.
Responses to crisis
A typical crisis interve ntion progress through several phases. It begins
with an assessment of what happened during the crisis and the individual’s
responses to it. There are certain common patterns of response to most
crises. An individual’s reaction to a crisis can include emot ional reactions
(fear, anger, guilt, grief ). Mental reactions (difficulty concentrating,
confusion, nightmares), physical reactions (headaches, dizziness, fatigue ,
stomach problems), and behavioral reactions (sleep and appetite problems,
isolation, restles sness). Assessment of the individual’s potential for suicide
and /or homicide is also conducted. Also, information about the
individual’s strengths, coping skills, and social support networks is
obtained.
Education
There is an educational component to cri sis intervention. It is critical for
the individual to be informed about various responses to crisis and
informed that he or she is having normal reactions to an abnormal
situation. The individual will also be told the responses are temporary.
Although the re is not a specific time that a person can expect to recover
from a crisis, an individual can help recovery by engaging in the coping
and problem -solving skills described below.
Coping and problem solving
Other elements of crisis intervention include help ing the individual
understand the crisis and their response to it as well as becoming aware of
an expressing feelings, such as anger and guilt. A major focus of crisis
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167 previously u sed but that have not been used to deal with the current crisis
may be enhanced or bolstered. Also, new coping skills may be developed.
Coping skills may include relaxation techniques and exercise to reduce
body tension and stress as well as putting though ts and feelings on paper
through journal writing instead of keeping them inside. In addition,
options for social support or spending time with people who provide a
feeling of comfort and caring are addressed. Another central focus of crisis
intervention is problem solving. This process involves thoroughly
understanding the problem and the desired changes, considering
alternative for solving the problem, discussing the pros and cons of
alternative solutions, selecting a solution and developing a plan to try it
out, and evaluating the outcome. Cognitive therapy, which is based on the
notion that thoughts can influence feelings and behavior, can be used in
crisis intervention.
In the final phase of crisis intervention, the professional will review
changes the i ndividual made in order to point out that it is possible to cope
with difficult life events. Continued use of the effective coping strategies
that reduced distress will be encouraged. Also, assistance will be provided
in making realistic plans for the futu re, particularly in terms of dealing
with potential future crises. Signs that the individual’s condition is getting
worse or “red flags” will be discussed. Information will be provided about
resources for additional help should the need arise. A telephone follow -up
may be arranged at some agreed -upon time in the future.
SUICIDE INTERVENTION
Purpose
Suicidal behavior is the most frequent mental health emergency. The goal
of crisis intervention in this case is to keep the individual alive so that a
stable s tate can be reached and alternatives to suicide can be explored. In
other words, the goal is to help the individual reduce distress and survive
the crisis.
Assessment
Suicide intervention begins with an assessment of how likely it is that the
individual w ill kill himself of herself in the immediate future. This
assessment has various components. The professional will evaluate
whether or not the individual has a plan for how the act would be
committed, how deadly the method is (shooting, overdosing), if mea ns are
available (access to weapons), and if the plan is detailed and specific
versus vague. The professional will also assess the individual’s emotions,
such as depression, hopelessness, hostility and anxiety. Past suicide
attempts as well as completed su icides among family and friends will be
assessed. The nature of any current crisis event or circumstance will be
evaluated, such as loss of physical abilities because of illness or accident,
unemployment, and loss of an important relationship.
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168 Treatment p lan
A written safekeeping contract may be obtained. This is a statement signed
by the individual that he or she will not commit suicide, and agrees to
various actions, such as notifying their clinician, family, friends, or
emergency personnel, should thou ghts of committing suicide again arise.
This contract may also include coping strategies that the individual agrees
to engage in to reduce distress. If the individual states that he or she is not
able to do this, then it may be determined that medical assi stance is
required and voluntary or involuntary psychiatric hospitalization may be
implemented. Most individuals with thoughts of suicide do not require
hospitalization and respond well to outpatient treatment. Educating family
and friends and seeking thei r support is an important aspect of suicide
intervention. Individual therapy, family therapy substance abuse
treatment, and/or psychiatric medication may be recommended.
CRITICAL INCIDENT STRESS DEBRIEFING AND MANAGEMENT
Definition
Critical incident stress debriefing (CISD) uses a structured, small format
to discuss a distressing crisis event. It is the best known and most widely
used debriefing model. Critical incident stress management (CISM) refers
to a system of interventions that includes CISD as well as other
interventions, such as one -on-one crisis intervention, support groups for
family and significant others, stress management education programs, and
follow up programs. It was originally designed to be used with high -risk
professional groups, such a s emergency services, public safety, disaster
response, and military personnel. It can be used with any population,
including children. A trained personnel team conducts this intervention.
The team usually includes professional support personnel, such as m ental
health professionals and clergy. In some settings, peer support personnel,
such as emergency services workers, will be part of the debriefing team.
It is recommended that a debriefing occur after the first 24 hours following
a crisis event, but befo re 72 hours have passed since the incident.
Purpose
This process aims to prevent excessive emotional, mental, physical, and
behavioral reactions and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) from
developing in response to a crisis. Its goal is to help individu als recover as
quickly as possible from the stress associated with a crisis.
Phases of CISD
There are seven phases to a formal CISD.
Q.1 Introductory remarks: team sets the tone and rules for the
discussion, encourages participant cooperation.
Q.2 Fact ph ase: participants describe what happened during the
incident.
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169 Q.4 Reaction phase: participants discuss the elements of the situation
that were worst.
Q.5 Symptom phase: participants describe the symptoms of distress
experienced during or after the incident.
Q.6 Teaching phase: team provides information and suggestions that
can be used to reduce the impact of stress.
Q.7 Re-entry phase: team answers participan ts questions and makes
summary comments.
Precautions
Some concern has been expressed in the research literature about the
effectiveness of CISD. It is though that as long as the provider (s) of CISD
have been properly trained, the process should be helpfu l to individuals in
distress. If untrained personnel conduct CISD, then it may result in harm
to the participant. CISD is not psychotherapy or a substitute for it. It is
not designed to solve all problems presented during the meeting. In some
cases, a refe rral for follow -up assessment and /or treatment is
recommended to individuals after a debriefing.
Medical crisis counseling
Medical crisis counseling is a brief intervention used to address
psychological (anxiety, fear and depression) and social (family c onflicts)
problems related to chronic illness in the health care setting. It uses coping
techniques and building social support to help patients manage the stress
of being newly diagnosed with a chronic illness or suffering a worsening
medical condition. I t aims to help patients understand their reactions as
normal responses to a stressful circumstances and to help them function
better.
Check Your Progress - II
1. Explain the meaning & purpose of crisis intervention.
8.4 GRIEF AND BEREAVEMENT INTERVENTION
STRATEGIES
The unique pain of grief has been recognized and described poignantly in
some of the most ancient text and oral traditions of world cultures, but it is
only in the last 50 years that formal organizations and professions have
evolved to address the specific social, psychological and spiritual needs of
those persons who have lost loved ones. As the field of grief counseling
has grown it has also diversified, drawing inspiration from evolving
theories of grieving, while continuing to respond to the needs of various
groups touched by often tragic loss. As it has done so, it has also begun to
attract the attention of social scientists who have evaluated and sometimes
criticized the field, raising questions about its basic assumptions, its social
role, and its clinical efficacy. Although present evidence does not support
the conclusion that formal bereavement services are of benefit to
everybody, it seems clear that they are of considerable help to many, and
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170 Models of Bereavement Intervention
Some observers distinguish between bereavement support, counseling and
therapy on the basis of who delivers the services and who receives them.
Bereavement support most commonly describes informal mutual sup port
groups for bereaved persons in the community, such as those offered by
many churches or synagogues, as well as those affiliated with national or
international organizations, such as Widowed Persons Services, Mothers
Against Drunk Driving (MADD) or The Compassionate Friends group for
parents who have lost children. But this category can also include services
coordinated by health or mental health professionals, such as bereavement
care or national networks of services. In these models support is
commonl y offered to all bereaved people, or all bereaved by a certain kind
of loss (such as those who have lost children or who have lost a loved one
to murder, suicide or an impaired driver), irrespective of their level of
demonstrated distress or psychological disorder. Support may take many
forms, ranging from simple provision of psycho educational material or
lectures on grief and trauma, through annual rituals of remembrance, to
home visits and support groups led by a veteran member of the group,
typically pr ofessional training. Such support services have the advantage
of minimizing the stigma of bereavement and mobilizing community
resources, especially in the form of the presence, understanding, and
practical counsel of others who have “been there” through h aving suffered
a similar loss and who are coping with their circumstances.
In contrast, grief counseling usually denotes services provided or
facilitated by a trained professional, such as a nurse, social worker,
counselor or psychologist. Counseling is mo re often provided to
individuals or families, though group counseling led by professionals is
also common. Grief therapy shares these features, but is usually
distinguished by its assumption that the client or patient is struggling with
a problematic react ion to the loss, such as a diagnosable case of depression
or prolonged grief disorder. For this reason, programs that focus on
prevention of future mental health problems, such as those for children
who have lost a parent or sibling, might more appropriate ly be termed
grief counseling rather than grief therapy, per se. Both forms of services
are provided in a range of settings such as hospitals, clinics and counseling
centers, though they also are offered by therapists of several disciplines as
part of thei r independent practice. Gradually there has been a move,
especially in the United States, toward considering grief therapy a
specialized form of practice beyond general counseling and therapy,
supported by certification programs such as those organized by the
association for Death Education and Counseling. In practice, however,
distinctions among most forms of bereavement interventions are inexact
and overlapping, in part because many setting offer services in multiple
formats (such as individual or group) by multiple volunteer or professional
support personnel. Generally speaking, professionally conducted grief
therapy is appropriate when community support services are inadequate to
deal with bereaved people who are struggling intensely for prolonged
period s because of personal vulnerabilities, such as a disposition to major
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171 indicated when the losses with which people must deal overwhelm both
the bereaved and those who attempt to suppo rt them, such as a premature
death of a young person or the murder of a loved one.
Theories of Grief counseling and Therapy
Judging from published literature on bereavement counseling, it is
probably safe to say the most programs and services place emphas is on
certain common factors, animated by the common assumption that it is
good, in Shakespeare’s phrase, to “give sorrow words” in contexts that
permit the expression of feelings related to the death of the loved one and
its aftermath. In keeping with the historical primacy of a psychodynamic
perspective with its focus on “working through” bonds with the deceased
in the service of “letting go,” and “moving on,” such therapy provides
opportunities to review the relationship with the deceased and find
symbol ic ways to “say goodbye” with the respectful witnessing of a caring
professional or other bereaved people. However, grief can be shared and
explored in media other than words, as through expressive arts therapies
that use drawing, painting, collage, mask w ork, sandtrays, music and more
to give symbolic form to emotions and meanings associated with the loss
and especially in group based programs, seek validation for them. In
cognitive -behavioral models of therapy, both individual and group
services also have incorporated an emphasis on education regarding basic
grief and trauma reactions as well as practical coping skills, such as
guidelines for seeking social support from others.
With the advent of contemporary grief theories, bereavement interventions
have begun to diversify to feature processes of adaptive mourning
emphasized by the various approaches. For example, some group
programs have been organized around the presumed stages of grieving,
with a series of weekly discussions of such topics as denial, an ger,
bargaining, depression and acceptance. Other therapists facilitate
theoretically important tasks faced by the bereaved, such as
acknowledging the reality of the loss, confronting the pain of grief, and
attempting to adjust to a world in which the dece ased is missing.
Alternatively, some research based programs have drawn inspiration from
reconstruction models of bereavement, using narrative procedures to
promote retelling of traumatic losses in order to better integrate them into
one’s life story. Othe r therapists help clients oscillate between the dual
processes of loss -oriented coping (e.g. managing the intrusions of grief,
seeking to relocate the relationship to the deceased) and restoration –
oriented coping (e.g. pursuing new activities and investm ent, taking on
new roles). Finally, a number of therapists promote systematic exposure to
strongly emotional cues of the loss, whether through concrete behaviors
such as visiting the cemetery or sorting through the loved one’s
belongings, or engaging in sy mbolic imaginary conversations with the
deceased in an empty chair; in order to seek understanding, forgiveness
and a sense of continuing connection.
Research on Bereavement Interventions
Volunteer support services have developed chiefly as a humane resp onse
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172 given impetus by cultural trends that view some form of therapy as a
legitimate response to a wide range of human suffering. Recently, the
same interventions have attracted the at tention of social scientists who
have attempted to understand processes of adaptation after profound loss
or trauma and how these can be facilitated by various programs and
procedures.
Studying bereaved people over time - even those who have the intended
benefit of therapy - has made it clearer how difficult and extended the
process of adapting to loss can be for many. For example, children
receiving family services after the death of a parent are at risk or
protracted disruptions of mood and behavior. Especi ally when the
surviving parent has trouble maintaining open communication and
effective structure and discipline. Conversely, parents who have lost
children to violent death from suicide, homicide or accidents typically
struggle with traumatic symptoms and grief for years or even decades, and
fathers in particular display little benefit from even systematic therapies
offering opportunities for sharing and discussion of coping strategies.
Such result suggest that grief therapy is not a panacea for the pain o f loss,
and that some people and families do not benefit greatly from the therapies
that have been offered.
Studies comparing the progress of bereaved people who are randomly
assigned to either treatment or no -treatment control groups underscore this
concl usion. Although most people who participate in grief counseling or
therapy report high satisfaction with services and also improve over time,
it cannot be assumed that such improvement reflects the effectiveness of
therapy, as they might well have experien ced a lessening of distress as a
function of natural processes of healing, their own efforts, or the social
support available in their families or communities. Currently, it remains a
matter of controversy whether grief therapy can at times actually
aggrav ate people’s distress, perhaps by fostering rumination on their loss
or in the case of group interventions overwhelming them with the negative
emotions of others. However, most reviewers of the scientific literature
would agree that the evidence for the ge neral effectiveness of grief therapy
relative to on treatment is surprisingly weak. In many studies of
interventions that are offered to all bereaved people, regardless of whether
or not they show serious signs of depression, anxiety or disabling grief,
those who receive treatment do no better than those who do not. Although
resolving the question of why this is so requires more research, it seems
probable that this largely reflects the resilience of the majority of bereaved
persons, whose grief is broadly in a normal range, and who ultimately will
adapt well where or not they receive formal intervention.
In contrast, those studies that screen the bereaved for distress, that offer
services only to clinically referred or self referred clients, or that
concent rate on complicated. Prolonged, or disordered forms of grieving,
are far more consistent in supporting the usefulness of grief therapy. For
example, one important study compared a 16 week therapy termed
complicated grief treatment (CGT) against a more gene ral interpersonal
psychotherapy (IPT) with a large group a bereaved people who met
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173 bereavement, therapists in the CGT condition promoted the dual goals of
helping clients both process their loss and seek restoration in a changed
world the required the development of new life goals. Key interventions
included not only psycho education about oscillating attention to these two
processes, but also manual -guided therapeutic procedures delivered in
three phases. The first of these was termed Revisiting, in which the client
was encouraged to tell and retell the story of the loss with eyes closed, as
the therapist prompted her or him to deeper emotional engagement with
the narrative. Clients were then instructed to listen to an audio recording
of the retelling between sessions to overcome tendencies to cope with the
loss through avoidance. In the next phase of reconnecting, clients were
encouraged to review primarily positive but also negative memories of the
loved one, as the therapist cultivated a significant continuing bond. This
work was continued in imaginal conversations, in which a renewed
connection to the deceased was fostered through two -chair dialogue with
the lost loved one with the support of the therapist. Finally, in Restoration,
clients were encouraged to envision viable life goals for themselves if
their grief were not so intense, and then begin to work towards these. IPT
followed its usual procedures by linking symptoms of grief to
interpersonal problems and working toward a realistic view of the
deceased and the development of satisfying relationships. Clients in both
conditions showed improvement over time. Significantly, however, CGT
was shown to be superior to IPT in reducing symptom s of complicated
grief and improving participants’ work and social adjustment, although the
two treatment yielded comparable outcomes on measures of depression
and anxiety. Other studies also reinforce the conclusion that specific
treatments for complicate d or prolonged grief can be effective over a few
months when they help clients think realistically and hopefully about their
situation, develop perspective on their loss, and orient to a changed future.
Interestingly, these therapies tend to share a focus on telling and exploring
the story of the loss in detail, whether in oral or written form, offering
support for exposure to his most unsettling features, and providing
opportunities for reconstructing a life plan in the wake of bereavement. As
research on their outcome continues to accumulate, there is reason to
belief that bereavement interventions can play a valuable role in
mobilizing support for survivors, especially in circumstances of traumatic
loss, and can mitigate the impact of prolonged and compli cated grief
reactions.
Check Your Progress – III
1. “Bereavement interventions can play a valuable role in mobilizing
support for survivors”. Explain with reference to research studies.
8.5 DISASTER MANAGEMENT
‘Disaster management can be defined as the organization and
management of resources for dealing with all humanitarian aspects of
emergencies, in particular preparedness, response an recovery in order to
lessen the impact of disaster.
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174 Types of Disasters
There is no country is immune from d isaster, though vulnerability to
disaster varies. There are four main types of disaster.
 Natural disasters. These disasters include floods, hurricanes,
earthquakes and volcano eruptions that can have immediate impacts on
human health, as well as secondary impacts causing further death and
suffering from floods causing landslides, earthquakes resulting in fires,
tsunamis causing widespread flooding and typhoons sinking ferries
 Environmental emergencies. These emergencies include
technological or industrial a ccidents, usually involving hazardous
material, and occur where these materials are produced, used or
transported. Large forest fires are generally included in this definition
because they tend to be caused by humans.
 Complex emergencies. These emergencies involve a break -down of
authority looting and attacks on strategic installations. Complex
emergencies include conflict situations and war.
 Pandemic emergencies. These emergencies involve a sudden onset of
a contagious disease that affects health but also disrupts services and
businesses, brining economic and social costs.
Any disaster can interrupt essential services, such as the provision of
health care, electricity, water, sewage/garbage removal, transportation and
communications. The interruption can se riously affect the health, social
and economic networks of local communities and countries. Disasters
have a major and long -lasting impact on people long after the immediate
effect has been mitigate. Poorly planned relief activities can have a
significant negative impact not only on the disaster victims but also on
donors and relief agencies. So it is important that physical therapists join
established programmes rather than attempting individual efforts.
Local, regional, national and (where necessary) inte rnational organizations
are all involved in mounting a humanitarian response to disasters. Each
will have a prepared disaster management plan. These plans cover
prevention, preparedness, relief and recovery (see below).
Disaster prevention
These are activ ities designed to provide permanent protection from
disasters. Not all disasters, particularly natural disasters, can be prevented,
but the risk of loss of life and injury can be mitigated with good
evacuation plans, environmental planning and design stand ards. In January
2005, 168 Governments adopted a 10 year global plan for natural disaster
risk reduction called the Hyogo Framework. It offers guiding principle,
priorities for action, and practical means for achieving disaster resilience
for vulnerable co mmunities.
Disaster preparedness
These activities are designed to minimize loss of life and damage – for
example by removing people and property from a threatened location and
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175 Prepared ness is the main way of reducing the impact of disasters.
Community based preparedness and management should be a priority in
physical therapy practice management.
Disaster relief
This is a coordinated multi -agency response to reduce the impact of a
disast er and its long -term results. Relief activities include rescue,
relocation, providing food and water, preventing disease and disability,
repairing vital services such as telecommunications and transport,
providing temporary shelter and emergency health car e.
Disaster recovery
Once emergency needs have been met and the initial crisis is over, the
people affected and the communities that support them are still vulnerable.
Recovery activities include rebuilding infrastructure, health care and
rehabilitation. These should blend with development activities, such as
building human resources for health and developing policies and practices
to avoid similar situations in future.
Disaster management is linked with sustainable development, particularly
in relation to vulnerable people such as those with disabilities, elderly
people, children and other marginalized groups.
Check Your Progress - IV
1. Write short notes on:
a) Disaster prevention
b) Disaster relief
8.6 LET US SUM UP
In this unit we have studied:
Intervention
It is an act performed to prevent harm to a patient or to improve the
mental, emotional or physical function of a patient.
Crisis Intervention
Counseling or psychotherapy for patients in a life crisis that is directed at
supporting the patient through the c risis and helping the patient cope with
the stressful event that precipitated it.
Intervention Strategies
In the sequence of examination, diagnosis, treatment and control, it is
necessary, especially in herd problems, to design a strategy for
intervening, either to test the hypothesis or to plan the treatment and
control sequence which may require a change in the environment, the
feeding regime or the breeding practices, for most efficient use of
resources the intervention may need detailed planning.

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176 Rationale Emotive therapy
It is a psychotherapeutic approach which proposes that unrealistic and
irrational beliefs cause many emotional problems. It is a form of cognitive
behavioral therapy the primary focus of this treatment is to suggest
changes in thinking that will lead to changes in behavior.
Grief and Bereavements Intervention Strategies
How individuals and families cope with dying, death grief, loss and
bereavement is as unique as a fingerprint. The response to the death of a
family member , rel ative or close friend places one in the category of
“bereaved”. Those who are bereaved experience grief, a person’s response
or reaction to loss, which encompasses physical, psychological social and
spiritual components. How one cope with other life events and adapts to
one’s present and future is also part of the grieving process.
Disaster Management
Disasters whether natural or manmade can strike at any time. They are not
limited to specific parts of world, though certain area might be more prone
to ce rtain specific type of disaster. In general, the response to a disaster is
in terms of relief and rescue operations after the event. The main
motivation behind disaster management is to minimize the losses at the
time of a disaster as well as ensure most e fficient utilization of resources
which are already scarce.
8.7 UNIT END EXERCISE
Q1. Explain rational emotive therapy
Q2. Write short notes on:
a) Purpose of crisis intervention
b) Phases of CISD
c) Models of bereavement intervention
d) Disaster management
8.8 SU GGESTED READINGS
1. Robert L. Gibson/ Marianne H. Mitchell Introduction to counseling
and guidance
2. McMilan Publishing Company , New York






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177 9
WORK, MENTAL HEALTH AND
GUIDANCE PERSONNEL
Unit Structure
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Meaning of work, Compensation and Incentives.
9.2.1 Meaning of work.
9.2.2 Meaning of Compensation
9.2.3. Meaning of Incentive
9.3 Relation between work and Lei sure, Work and Incentives
9.3.1 Work and Leisure
9.3.2 Work and Incentives
9.4 Meaning, Characteristics and Need for Mental Health
9.4.1 Definition and Meaning of Mental Health
9.4.2 Characteristics of Mental Health
9.4.3 Need for Mental Health
9.5 Role of Guidance Personnel in promoting and preserving Mental
Health
9.6 Let us Sum up
9.7 Unit End Exercises
9.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to :
 Define work, compensation and incentive
 Explain the relation between work and leisure an d work, and
incentives
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178  Discuss the role of guidance worker in promoting & preserving mental
health with relation to one’s nature of work.
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Work has evolved a lot since the industrial revol ution partly due to the
progress of sciences and technologies. Major transformations happened in
the organizational structure and culture, with their consequences on the
organizations of work. In this unit you will learn about work and it’s
relation with l eisure and incentives. You will also learn about mental
health, it’s need and role of guidance personnel in promoting and
preserving mental health.
9.2. MEANING OF WORK, COMPENSATION AND
INCENTIVES
9.2.1 Meaning of work
“Work is life, idleness is death”
With a few exceptions, nearly everyone has to work in order to make a
living. The most obvious reason to work is the sheer necessity for survival.
For those who wish to live a more affluent life, they work harder and
longer to get extra income or overtime remuneration. Work, then, is
equivalent to a higher standard of living.
“Work is either paid or unpaid. Paid work is what most people associate
with team ‘work’”
“Unpaid work, includes housework and school work. Most people in full
time employment work 5 days a week, although there has been an increase
in the number of people working at weekends and part time. In recent
years the ability to work flexible hours has grown it’s importance”.
“People do not necessarily enjoy work but they all enjoy the reward of
their work and the reward is so tangible and immediate that no one can fail
to appreciate it. Therefore it can be said that the primary objective of the
multitude to work is for survival and for tangible material reward”.
Major approaches to study of meaning of work: -
There are three major approaches to the study of the meaning of work, the
definitions of work, the orientations of work and the coherence of work.
As such we can define the meaning of work in three ways, as illustrated in
figure
The significance of work:
The concept of “meaning of work” can be defined as the significance of
the subject attributes to work, his representation of work, and the
importance it has in his life.
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179 Work is central in many cultures, although every culture has its own
values and conceptions about it. However, it seems that work is important
and significant for a majority of people considering the time that
individuals devote to work in their lives, the numerous functions which it
accomplishes for them and the fact that work is closely linked with other
important aspects of daily life such as family, leisure, religion and
community life.
The notion of “work” has several definitions but they all share the idea of
a purposeful activity. This notion generally refers to expanding energy
through a set of co -ordinated activities aimed at producing something
useful. Work may be pleasant or unpleasant and may or may not be
associated with monetary exchanges. Moreover it does not necessarily
have to be accomplished in the context of a job.
9.2.2 Meaning of Compensation -
In financial terms, the salary and wages you pay to your employees for the
work they do, no financial forms of compensation can also be offered to
attract and retain staff.
Ask any human resources consultant where financial compensation ranks
in the hierarchy of employee requirements, and you’re likely to get a range
of answers. Some say it’s the most important thing others declare wages
are the only important thing. Still others say that while financial
compensation isn’t the most important thing it’s important enough that if
your paid isn’t fair, all t he other employee benefits in the world may not
be enough to keep employees on board.
Obviously it’s important to know whether you are paying enough and how
to get the most for what you are paying. In addition, you have to know
how to bolster the actual do llars you lay out in salary and wages with non
financial compensation.
You don’t pay employees in a vaccum. That’s another way of saying that
the level of compensation that will attract and keep employees is set
primarily by other employers. While there’s no formula that will tell you
the ideal salary for each position within your company there are
appropriate ranges. Some of the key sources for determining suitable
salary ranges for your employees are –
1. Classified advertisement listings for specific pos itions both in your
daily newspaper and on the internet.
2. Professional and trade organizations for the specific fields in which
you’re hiring. Most organizations regularly publish salary data.
3. Human resources consultants.
4. Specialized recruiters in the appropriate fields.
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180 While no one can discount the importance of financial rewards, keep in
mind that today’s job candidates are more concerned with corporate
environment and quality of life issues than over before. In our executive
survey conducted b y Robert half. International Corporate Culture rivaled
employee benefits are important for candidates during job interviews.
Many small businesses use this trend as a competitive advantage, offering
such non financial perks as flexible work schedules, casu al dress days,
additional vacation time and tele commuting opportunities. The costs of
this approach are minimal, particularly when compared to the value added
benefits of improved recruitment, productivity and retention.
Regardless of the monetary and no n-monetary ways you compensate your
employees, creating an employee -friendly environment and determining
competitive compensation ranges take time Both require being flexible
and adaptable to changing workplace trends and local conditions. The
investment i s worth the difference between a good company and a great
company is its people.
9.2.3 Meaning of Incentive
A reward for a specific behavior designed to encourage that behavior also
called inducements.
Can you motivate employees during a recession with a successful
employee incentive plan?
By Stuart Jennings:
Bonus plans Pay for performance programs MBO programme commission
plans stock option stock appreciation rights.
Employee incentive plans go by many different names, you’ve
undoubtedly seen your share . But, with our economy struggling, how
should you approach your employee incentive plans differently to reach
your organizations goals? Or can an employee incentive plan actually
create the results you need?
9.3 RELATION BETWEEN WORK AND LEISURE,
WORK AN D INCENTIVES:
9.3.1. Work and Leisure
Work – work plays a major role in people’s like. When you think of work
there are several definitions depending upon your own experiences and the
society in which you live. In western societies, paid employment is
considered to be the most important type of work. Work is socially
defined and needs to be understood in particular contexts work provides
an individual with income, self identity and status.

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181 Leisure :
Leisure is also an important aspect of people’s lives . Leisure activities are
those associated with the beach, outdoor living and sport and form an
important part of an Australian identity.
Leisure can be defined – “as time not spent working or meeting the
necessaries of life”. It is also linked to quality of life issues. There is
strong relationship between the type of work an individual does and the
way they spend their leisure time.
Leisure has become a commodity to be purchased and this results in the
exclusion of some groups in society. Market forces ex clude the
unemployed the poor and elderly from participation.
Leisure can be divided in active and passive forms.
Interrelationship between work and leisure –The differentiation
between work and leisure is basic to all definitions. Generally work is
under stood to be remunerative, required by social norms and necessary for
the maintenance of the self and family Leisure is “non work i.e. leisure is
not remunerative, not required by social expectations, and not necessary
for status or survival. However, all n on work is not considered leisure.
The relationship between work and leisure – work is dependent upon
quality of life issues and varies with each individual depending upon their
choice of work. For some groups of people leisure is an extension of their
work activities. Leisure activities are related to job satisfaction and
involvement in work. Work also provides the financial means with which
to participate in leisure
Leisure activities engaged in by individuals are dependent on the work
undertaken and lev el of education. Professional sports people engage in
leisure activate and also receive monetary payments. For some people the
skills they have also extend into a means of earning a living. Educational
institutions provide individuals with necessary skills and the means to
participate in meaningful employment. This in turn also influences the
types of leisure activities undertaken and often provides status, control and
a degree of choice about participation in leisure activities. The media is
increasingly i nfluencing leisure activities.
9.3.2. Relationship between work and Incentives -
Managing employee performance is steadily rising to the top of many
senior leaders’ agendas. The fast pace of business, an ultra -competitive
marketplace and increasing custome r demands have made it difficult for
leaders to quickly and effectively respond to ever -changing market
conditions. Compounded by declining workforce productivity, escalating
employee disengagement and the forthcoming retirement of 76 million
baby boomers, companies are being forced to finally focus their attention
on their most valuable assets: their employees.
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182 Corporations worldwide are scrambling to find effective ways to attract
and retain the best talent, but also to elevate their performance,
produc tivity and service levels to new heights. Embodied in this quest is
the ability to align individual behaviors with strategic corporate objectives
and, importantly, to motivate and reward those who meet or exceed those
objectives. In today’s business climat e, organizations must achieve
maximum return on investment (ROI) in their people to boost corporate
performance and gain a competitive advantage.
The new ‘must have’
Employee performance is everything – it’s what distinguishes top
performing companies fro m those who are struggling. Statistics show that
companies who recognize their people outperform companies that don’t
by 30 to 40 percent. Businesses are beginning to understand the value of
investing resources to establish, market and support improved
performance improvement strategies for one compelling reason: satisfied,
motivated and dedicated individuals are increasingly critical to corporate
survival and imperative for growth.
When senior management discusses motivating employees, the
conversation typ ically turns to 401k plans, health care benefits, stock
options and other compensation vehicles. Recognition and incentive
programs are rarely mentioned in the context of that conversation, despite
the fact that 78 percent of companies have at least one pe rformance -
related program in place. This must change if leaders expect to take
advantage of the full arsenal of tools available to help them achieve their
corporate objectives. Research is proving that recognition and incentive
programs are powerful and ef fective vehicles for boosting corporate
performance and the bottom line. Smart Human Resource executives are
taking the cue and expanding their portfolio of solutions to include
incentive programs, as well as recognition programs in that arsenal.
Incentive s are commonly associated with sales initiatives; so few
professionals outside of the sales arena have fully embraced them as tried -
and-true methods for raising overall employee productivity. This is a
missed opportunity because we have learned that incent ive programs can
be used to inspire employees throughout the enterprise. A recent study
found that 88 to 95 percent of all incentive programs reach or exceed their
goals, and that the ROI on non -sales employee programs (200 percent) is
actually greater tha n the ROI on incentives directed to sales staff (134
percent).
Exploring the broader use of incentives compliments another innovative
corporate trend – aligning internal and external branding efforts to
maximize customer satisfaction and profitability. In ternal branding is
defined as motivating internal audiences (employees) to deliver the quality
service promised by advertising and sales. Research by The Forum for
People Performance Management & Measurement at Northwestern
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183 customer satisfaction, and a company’s profitability, even when the
employees did not have direct customer contact.
If you want employees to understand the corporate message and to treat
your customers the right way, you have to set the example by making sure
they have that message and they're treated with the same care and respect
you want them to demonstrate to customers. Internal branding also thrusts
motivation and performance improvement into the C -suite because brand
equity is a C -level priority, giving HR professionals an opportunity to
demonstrate the strategic value of recognition to the CEO.
Proven results = C -suite interest
We now have a growing body of compelling research from credible
sources around the world on the positive – and significant – impact of
recognition and incentive programs on a company’s financial
performance. The research demonstrates that companies who engage in
incentive and recognition programs are significantly outperforming their
competito rs (who don't run programs) in bottom line savings,
contributions to the profit line and shareholder return. This is important
news for companies seeking every possible advantage in the marketplace.
The research has attracted the attention of business lea ders and helped
them to realize that everyone in their company is affecting the
organization’s ability to compete and thrive. There’s no better vehicle for
a CEO to communicate what's important to the company than to recognize
and reward people for the beh aviors and results that drive the company
towards success. Recognition programs have proven to be a highly
effective means of aligning the boardroom and the lunchroom and
cascading the company’s strategic imperatives throughout the organization
and into th e hands of the people who can make them a reality…. people
who are often anxious to make a meaningful contribution.

Maximizing ROI
Frequently, companies run a number of disparate recognition and
incentive programs that span various departments. A common a pproach
has been to allow each department to implement a unique program with
goals and rewards specific to the individuals in that unit.
However, when you have independent programs within an organization
there is often poor accountability for ROI or clear line of sight to overall
results. Most companies don’t really know how much they’re actually
spending on programs let alone how much value they’re extracting from
them. Running a multitude of disparate programs also undermines the
opportunity for creating a consistent, over -arching performance -based
culture throughout the company. Additionally, there’s the danger that
employees will perceive that one department is favored over another or
that some managers are offering more generous awards.
Companies are consolidating many of their programs to decrease expenses
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184 corporate -wide program with numerous sub -programs and variations to
address the specific needs of different business units or geographical
locations. This consolidation helps strip -out cost and administrative
burden while insuring a unified message and application throughout the
enterprise.
Organizations are also becoming much more aware of all the contributors
to corporate succ ess and are implementing performance and recognition
programs to help align and recognize more employees for their
contributions to those successes. Employers have realized that everyone in
the company – not just the sales team – can contribute to revenue growth
and operational efficiencies that help a company prosper. Leaders need to
gain the support and buy -in from everyone who can influence company
results. Keep in mind that if you’re not actively engaging employees in
your goals, they may be working aga inst your efforts – even if it’s done
unintentionally and inadvertently.
Nowadays, some of those additional participants are likely to be based
around the world. The internet allows us to easily execute programs across
borders and many HR professionals are delighted to finally be able to offer
something better than watered down versions of their domestic programs
to those employees who live and work beyond the corporate office.
Offshore employees are pushing for these programs as well, unwilling to
be bysta nders in the company’s recognition efforts any longer. Online
program technology does the heavy lifting of language translation,
currency conversions, and creating multiple award catalogs that reflect the
brands and types of awards that will be compelling and relevant in
different countries.
Track and measure
Demand is rising steadily for more measurement in recognition and
incentive programs. Companies are looking to reward the quantifiable,
actionable behaviors of their employees and more metrics are bei ng
introduced into programs. There’s also a growing interest in tracking
program performance throughout its course, rather than waiting until the
end to assess the results.
Sales incentive programs have always been focused on measurement,
usually on revenu e growth or sales. Traditionally, recognition programs
have been more discretionary: you catch someone doing something
beyond the call of duty and reward them. Now many recognition programs
are also focusing on very specific corporate goals or initiatives to avoid
being viewed as an entitlement or risking programs being eliminated due
to ambiguous results.
Tracking metrics during the program allows you to quantify the end result
and also affect the outcome – you can intercede if a group is not
performing w ell and provide extra training or assistance. Or, you can
spread the word about a successful initiative so that everyone can benefit
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185 Inspire – reward – achieve
As workplaces change, employees are asked to adapt, learn, re -adapt, and
re-learn in order to ensure that companies themselves retain a competitive
edge. Recogn izing these employees for servi ce, achievement or
performance is vital to corporate health. A well -known veteran of
recognition, Herb Kelleher, former CEO of Southwest Airli nes believes
that “anyone who looks at things solely in terms of factors that can easily
be quantified is missing the heart of the business, which is people."
Herb has it exactly right on a number of levels. First, as companies have
automated their back o ffices with Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP)
solutions and implemented Customer Relationship and Supply Chain
Management systems (CRM), they have benefited significantly from the
efficiencies and cost savings of these applications. The next ‘big thing’ i s
to focus on implementing and improving those processes and programs
that manage our people assets. Recognition and incentive programs are a
proven, strategic opportunity to do just that. Few initiatives can deliver
such significant ROI and also advance t he company’s reputation as a great
place to work in the process.
Secondly, as people performance is increasingly being recognized as the
means with which companies can gain competitive edge, people are also
identified as the “method” to achieving those res ults. As more and more
leaders make the shift to a strategic view of recognition and incentives,
and the powerful dynamics of rewarding those individuals who directly
contribute to the success of the organization, the gap will widen between
the companies w ho thrive and those that will struggle or disappear.
Outdated view: Strategic view:
Employees as expenses Employees as assets and profit drivers
Recognition and incentive programs as a discretionary cost Recognition
and incentive programs as a major sourc e of shareholder value
Recognition and incentive program owners as administrators Recognition
and incentive program owners as thought leaders
Finally, Herb’s words remind us that the people we influence with
recognition and incentive programs are busy spen ding their day
influencing other vital corporate assets – customers! The link between
customer satisfaction and loyalty, and employee satisfaction and loyalty
has been firmly established: happy customers are a result of happy and
engaged employees. That me ans that putting performance programs to
work for you is far more than a nice idea. It’s the strategic and profitable
thing to do.
Check your Progress - I
1. Define work, compensation & incentives.
2. Differentiate between compensation and incentives.
3. Relate work with leisure.
4. Relate work with incentives. munotes.in