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UNDERSTANDING POLITICAL
SOCIOLOGY
Unit Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Weberian Approach
1.3 Marxian Approach
1.4 Behavioral Approach
1.5 Summary
1.6 Questions
1.7 References
1.0 OBJECTIVES
• To learn about Weberian Approach and the concepts discussed by
Weber like Authority, Bureaucracy.
• To understand Marxian Approach of Class and the role of State
according to the approach
• To learn about the Behavioral Approach in Political Sociology.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
In his book Introduction to Political Sociology, Lewis A. Coser discusses
about the "political sociology." He asserted that Political Sociolog y is a
subdiscipline o f Sociology that is concerned with the social roots and effects
of the current power structures within o r between the societies, and the
resulting social and political conflicts in the distribution of power. It makes
an effort to comprehend the connection between the government and the
public. Additionally, it highlights the effects of competing social press ures
on the social decision -making authority. Political Sociology is a
multidisciplinary field of study. The discipline also examines the role of
political institutions in social development (and revolution), researching the
connection s between democracy a nd industrialization . It also looks into the
comparative analyses of welfare systems . Political sociology has also
contributed to a better understanding of the state's role in the formation of
national identity a1a. Given this background , in this chapter we w ill be
looking into few theore tical approach namely Marx ian approach, Weber ’s
approach and Behavioral approach with reference to Political Sociology. munotes.in
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2 Studying this topic would help in understanding the subject of political
sociology in a better way. Both Karl Marx and Weber are classical thinkers
whose contribution can be applied even t o understand present conditions .
These thinkers are the classical thinkers and their theories and conc epts can
be applied to understand the political situation, structure, complexity and
growth too. Let us now look into the different approaches in detail.
1.2 WEBERIAN APPROACH
Max Weber as a thinker emphasized on researching the social component
of political issues. According to Weber, a group is considered political if to
some extent its administrative staff regularly directs, monitors to maintain
its existence and order within a given territorial area like sta te. Weber also
tried to discuss the differences between the study of organizations that make
an effort to influence the political organization's activities and of direct
agents with the system who use the legal force.
He also discusses the link between economic power and political decision -
making, the different ideologies of political movements , interest groups,
and the sociopsychological correlates within the political behavior and
organization. Let us now look into two of his importance concepts – namely
Bureaucracy and Types of Authority. Authorities have power. Hence,
Weber discusses about three types of authority.
Traditional Authority –Traditional power is given to people without
regard to their credentials. The individual’s claim is based purely on their
ancestry; hence they are not required to have any unique abilities to exercise
it. In m any preindustrial civilizations, tradition s and custom are highly
valued . Even in the modern monarchies where a king, queen, or prince
enjoys power because she or he hails from a royal family, are examples of
traditional authorities.
The Charismatic Authority – The charismatic individuals possess
charisma and have influential capacity. An individual's outstanding
personal traits and the pow er influences the followers. Charismatic people
may have power over a whole society or only a small portion of a bigger
population. They can exercise power both positively and negatively: Joan
of Arc, Adolf Hitler, Mahatma Gandhi, Martin Luther King. Each of these
people has outstanding personal attributes that inspired admiration from
their followers and compelled them to carry out their requests or directives.
The Rational/ Legal Authority – The individuals who possess legal
authority have power which is legally given to them like judge, police man.
A conviction in the validity of a society's laws and rules, as well as in the
authority of leaders to act in accordance with these laws to make choices
and establish policy, is the foundation of rational -legal authority, which
emanates from the law. Modern democracies, where power is granted to
individuals chosen by voters and the regulations for exercising that power
are typically laid out in a constitution, charter, or other written instrument,
are characteri zed by this type of authority. munotes.in
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3 Understanding Political Sociology • Bureaucracy
Bureaucracy is a particular type of organization that is characterized
by complexity, a clear chain of command, permanency, professional
management, hierarchical coordination and control, and legal power.
Bureaucracy is best when it is impersonal, logical, and works on the
basis of laws rather than on affiliations with family, friends,
patriarchal, or charismatic authorities. Both governmental and private
institutions use bureaucratic organization .
The most influential bureaucracy theorist is Weber (1864 –1920), who
wrote about the historical evolution of bureaucratic structures as well
as the ideal features of bureaucracies. According to Weber, the
characteristics of bureaucracy set it apart from other kinds of
organization based on legal sources of power. A ccording to Weber,
bureaucracy has the advantage of being the most technically advanced
type of organization , with specialized knowledge, certainty,
continuity, and unity .
However, Weber's theory of bureaucracy highlights not only its
relative technical a nd competency benefits but also attributes its
existence as a type of organization . One of the essential components
of bureaucratic organisation is continuity. Uniform rules and practises
for written communications and official behaviour are necessary for
rational -legal authority. A bureaucracy may follow precedent and
standard operating procedures because of its files , or historical
records, which provide it organisational memory. By lowering the
expenses associated with each transaction, standard operating
procedures help companies become more efficient.
Bureaucracies have distinct lines of authority . The hierarchy o f
bureaucratic authority places responsibility at the top and others with
no or less authority at the bottom.
One of the fundamental components of bureaucracy is the
professionalisation of management, with full-time employees whose
focus is solely on managing the organisation. For example - The
group of civil servants, who have earned the posts by the successful
completion of tests based on merit, are the ones are one of the
responsible groups for profession alisation in government.
In the bureaucratic structure, rules are also essential because they give
processes and activities a consistent and logical foundation. The list
of rules is available in an organization's files. Codified rules and
precedents serve as the foundation for administrative decisions and,
more importantly, procedures.
• State and Bureaucracy
The rise of the modern nation -state was accompanied by a
corresponding elevation in the status of its administration, the
bureaucratization of the administration, and the indispensability of its munotes.in
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4 permanent officialdom. Weber observed bureaucratic forms of
administration in ancient Egypt, during the later stages of the Roman
Empire, in the Roman Catholic Church, and in imperial China. The
state is represented by the bureaucracy, which worked for the crown.
Building the state was basically associated with the standing of its
permanent officials and the increasing competence of its bureaucratic
infrastructure. In the developed countries the bureaucracy functions
with more rules, procedures, formal and legal way. However, in
developing countries things vary.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
1) What is Political Sociology?
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2) Discuss the Legal Authority in few lines.
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1.3 MARXISM APPROACH
Karl Marx and to some extent Friedrich Engels influenced the school of
thought known as Marxism in the middle of the 19th century through their
writings . Although Marx was not an economist, sociologist, or political
theorist, his ground -breaking theory combines these and other categories
into a single, cohesive whole. Therefore, despite the fact that Marx's thought
can be said to have economic, political, sociological, a nd other dimensions,
it cannot be reduced to a combination of these approaches or even to reduce
his conception of totality to a type of inter - or multi -disciplinarity.
munotes.in
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5 Understanding Political Sociology In particular, Marx insists that politics is a historical science and that states,
ideologies, and laws are components of larger superstructural relations that
serve to fix and reproduce minority rule in class -divided societies. Modern
political theory, on the other hand, tends to treat politics as a universal
characteristic of human commun ities. According to this viewpoint, politics
is best understood as an epiphenomenon of the relations of production
through which one class maintains its control over humanity's productive
interaction with nature. It has its origins in the emergence of clas s societies .
Due to its focus on the interactions between two economic classes —the
haves and the have -nots, or the owners and the workers —the Marxian
approach is sometimes known as the "class approach." It is predicated on
the idea that economic interacti ons between the two economic classes,
which have always existed in every society, affect ing political relations.
According to Almond and Powell's summary, "Marxist theory advances the
argument that the social class structure of a society dictates the structure
and functioning of the political system" .
Marxist theorists view politics as an outco me of the economic interactions
between the haves and the have -nots in society. The haves employ state
power —in the form of laws, regulations, and policies —to preserve their
system of oppression and exploitation of the have -nots. The haves oversee,
supervi se, and manage the entire process in order to exploit and maintain
the have -nots under their strict control. Economics is the foundation of
politics.
Marx views the individual as being separated into two categories: political
citizen and economic actor. Political alienation is represented by th e
dichotomy, which is made worse by how the bourgeois state runs its
affairs. Marx developed his theory of the state as the means by which the
privileged class subjugated other classes as a result of his observation of
society at the start of the 19th century. According to Marx, ideological
alienation manifests itself in various ways in economic, philosophical, and
legal systems.
• Marx on state
The Marxian approach sees the state as a mechanism of class, a tool
used by the wealthy to oppress the poor. At a certain point in social
evolution, the rich developed the state as a tool or machine to exploit
the poor. The communist society, which is fundamentally a classless
and stateless society, does not assign any pla ce to the state under the
Marxist paradigm.
Marxists categorically reject the central assumptions of liberal
theories of the state. They believe that regardless "liberal" or
"democratic" a state may profess to be, it largely acts as a weapon for
the power ful and dominant class to exploit the economically weak
class (i.e., the class of the poor and non -owners of the means of
production) but actually they are the class of the rich and owners of
means of production. In other words, the state primarily functio ns as munotes.in
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6 a means of establishing and upholding the hegemony of the wealthy
and powerful over the weak. Actually, in a society where classes are
at odds with one another, "the State is a political instrument, a means
for sustaining the supremacy of one class o ver another. In a way, there
is the political separation from their material existence as producers
and consumers was only furthered by the state.
Marxists have in fact claimed that the state and society's economic
structure cannot be understood independently and that the state
develops from and, in some ways, mirrors the class system (Oladipo,
1991: 165; Heywood, 2007: 94).
According to Marxists, there are few characteristics of the State.
which are in contrast to the direct organization of the a rmed people
that existed in tribal society, it is a public power. One characteristic
of the state is not its universal ability to impose coercion, which may
be found in some form in any society, but rather its public power,
which is an ability that does no t correspond with the majority of the
population and is wielded by a particular class of people.
The levying of taxes necessary for the maintenance of the equipment
of power is a precondition of the state organization of society. The
maintenance of the Sta te apparatus eats up an increasing amount of
society's resources as internal and external conflicts intensify and the
State apparatus expands . The subjects of the state are also split based
on geography rather than blood ties. A specific territory and its
inhabitants are directly under the control of the state, and this
territorial division of the populace has an impact on the growth of
economic ties and the establishment of political frameworks for their
control (Johari, 2005: 72 -73).
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
1) Wh o contributed to the development/ emergence of Marxian school.
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1.4 BEHAVIORAL APPROACH
An approach in political science known as behavioralism aims to provide
an objective, quantitative method for describing and forecasting political munotes.in
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7 Understanding Political Sociology behavior. It views that the subject matter of political science should be
restricted to events that are indep endently observable and quantifiable. It is
seen as one of the prominent approaches emerged in the 1950s and 1960s.
Based on the idea that social forces are mostly reflected in political
institutions and that society, culture, and public opinion should be studied
before politics. Behavioralists do this by establishing statistical correlations
between independent factors (causes) and dependent variables using the
methods of the social sciences, particularly psychology (presumed effects).
In contrast to study ing the characteristics of institutions like legislatures,
executive branches, and judicial systems, behavioralis ts are primarily
interested in examining the behavior , activities, and acts of specific
individuals. The systematic investigation of every uniq ue form of political
behavior is emphasized by behavioralism. Some academics point out that
behaviorism requires the careful application of scientific and statistical
techniques in order to standardize research procedures. Additionally, it is a
test of how to guarantee that the field of politics is studied objectively.
Political science should be researched in a manner analogous to the study
of natural sciences, it is typically asserted by supporters of the behavioural
approach. In this context, behavioral method proponents say that a political
scientist's primary responsibility is to gather and analyze factual data in an
objective manner.
Political science ha s moved in a considerably more scientific direction as a
result of behavioralists ' rise to prominence in the decades following World
War II. They frequently compare their studies with those of the so -called
traditionalists, who sought to explain politics using unquantified
descriptions, anecdotes, historical analogies, ideologies, and philosophy. A
behaviouralist might, for instance, study as to why cities dwellers tend to
support candidates who are more liberal while people in rural regions prefer
to support candidates who are more conservative.
Chicago School's renowned founder, Charl es E. Merriam is associated
closely with the Behavioural school of thought. He was the critical about
the conventional political theories, stating that they lack ed in-depth
scientific investigation. Additionally, he criticised the writings of historians
who did not consider the psychological, sociological, and economic factors
affect ing people’s existence. He argued for an interdisciplinary method of
studying politics. science, which would give the field a genuine scientific
nature. He preferred the study o f politics through the application of
quantitative methods has inspired political scientists to Consider political
behaviour to be the main research question. He was a steadfast admirer, so
He tried to use science to spread the message of democracy.
With Behavioural approach e lection was studied in to political science. The
Survey Research Center (SRC), established at the University of Michigan
in the 1940s, carried out ground -breaking statistical electoral analyses. The
findings of the SRC's investigations were used by Angus Campbell, Philip
Converse, William Miller, and Donald Stokes to establis h the idea of party
identification —the sustained psychological connection of a voter to a
political party —in The American Voter (1960). They asserted that the munotes.in
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8 widely acknowledged effects of religion, socioeconomic class, area, and
ethnicity only affect vot ing behaviour inasmuch as the voter has been
socialized —primarily by his parents —to identify with a certain party.
Behavioral techniques were quickly adopted outside of the US, frequently
by academics with ties to US colleges. Election studies were first c onducted
at Oxford University in the 1960s, and in Political Change in Britain: Forces
Shaping Electoral Choice, David Butler and Donald Stokes —one of the
writers of The American Voter —adapted a large portion of the American
study (1969). They discovered t hat political generation, or the historical
period in which a person was born, and "duration of partisanship," or how
long a person has been a partisan, also predict party identification.
They also discovered that party identity, which is initially passed down from
parents, can shift in response to historical events. Stein Rokkan, a well -
known Norwegian academic, was a pioneer in the use of cross -national
quantitative data to study the interaction between party systems and societal
divisions based on class, religion, and geography, which together explain a
great deal of voting behaviour. According to research by Rokkan, "centre -
periphery" tensions are significant because they lead to voting patterns that
differ from those of the country's centre of political and economic activity.
The surveys have produced useful information for examining trends over
time and have revealed, among other things, that modern European
ideological opinion clusters around the political centre, indicating that
stable democratic syst ems have taken root. European behaviouralists have
conducted research on a variety of political, social, economic, and cultural
issues. Transparency International, which was established in 1993 in Berlin,
also carried out global surveys to try and measure corruption. Guillermo
O'Donnell and Arturo Valenzuela examined the factors that have
undermined democracy in Latin America using public opinion polls, voting,
economic, and demographic data.
The influential Political Man: The Social Bases of Politics (1960 ) by
American sociologist and political scientist Seymour Martin Lipset, who
used statistical and historical data to show that social class as one of the
main determinants of political behaviour, a nd placed a strong emphasis on
the behavioural approach.
Although the approach did not have the same level of domination in
international relations as it had in domestic and comparative politics,
behaviourism had an impact there as well. The University of Michigan's
Correlates of War Project, established in 1963 , amassed a wealth of
quantitative data and quickly rose to prominence as a premier resource for
academics researching the origins of conflict and global unrest.
Additionally, behaviouralist made a name for itself in studies of the legal
and administrative systems.
Although behavioural science provided valuable insights into people's
political behaviour, it frequently offered little in the way of practical
administration. Studies on voting, for instance, hardly ever helped people
comprehend public policy. Behavioural research was frequently criticised munotes.in
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9 Understanding Political Sociology for being limited to subjects that could be studied quantitatively and for
being unrelated to important political matters. Intense methodological
discussions among behaviouralists (and within the field more gen erally)
frequently came across as technical and focused on topics of little interest
to the majority of people. In many parts of the world, behavioralists'
approach was useless since they required quantitative survey and electoral
data, which were sometime s unavailable in autocracies or less developed
nations.
The fact that behavioural research heavily relies on verbal responses to
surveys also raises doubts about its validity. Analysis of survey data has
revealed that respondents frequently provide social ly acceptable responses
and are likely to hide their true sentiments on argumentative issues. In
addition, the wording of the questions and the ranking of potential responses
can influence the findings, making it challenging to draw firm conclusions.
With time, behavioralism did not take over as the only methodology used
in political science, and many behavioralists eventually recognised the
value of traditionalists' unquantified insights. By the late 1960s, political
scientists had coined the term "post behavioural synthesis" too.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
1) Discuss Behavioural approach as seen by Charles E. Merriam
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1.5 SUMMARY
In this chapter we began with looking into the meaning of Political
sociology, Political Sociology is a subdiscipline of Sociology that is
concerned with the social roots and effects of the current power structures
within or between the societies, and the resulting social and political
conflicts in the distribution of power. The chapter also discusses about Max
Weber’s views on politics and we looked into two concepts discussed by
him like Bureaucracy which works like a organization that is organized,
elected, formal in nature. On the other hand, Marx views the capitalism and
state dominated by class and ineq uality. According to him the state is
influenced by that of the Capitalists and works primarily for the capitalists
interest. munotes.in
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10 1.6 QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the Behavioral Approach in the Political Sociology
2. Explain Marx view on State and his approach
3. Write a note about the Weberian approach towards Political
Sociology and discuss the types of authority.
1.7 REFERENCES
Peter Burnham, political sociology. Oxford Reference. Retrieved 1 Sep.
2022, from
https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100
334761 .
Mitzman, A. (2022, June 10). Max Weber. Encyclo pedia Britannica.
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Max -Weber -German -sociologist
https://ww w.iilsindia.com/study -material/683385_1600544455.pdf
Obo, Ugumanin & Coker, Maurice. (2014). The Marxist Theory of the
State: An Introductory Guide. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences. 5.
10.5901/mjss.2014.v5n4p527.
https://gawc.edu.in/uploads/attachments/2e24cc569c9d2e781293e3c8e330
dc60/pages -150-marxian -class -approach -to-political -sociolo gy.docx
https://pressbooks.howardcc.edu/soci101/chapter/14 -1-power -and-
authority/
7777777
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CONCEPT ON POLITICAL SOCIOLOGY
Unit Structure
2.0 Objective
2.1 Introduction: Basic Concepts
2.2 Political Culture: Definition, Typologies and Basic Theories,
Comparative analysis
2.3 Political Elite : Definition, Historical Background, Rise of Elitism,
Elite Theories
2.4 Political Development : Definition, Features
2.5 Bureaucracy : Max Weber, Karl Marx
2.6 Summary
2.7 References
2.0 OBJECTIVE:
Society and politics are dialectically related to each other on the basis of
which we can easily determine how far social variables are affecting the
political variables. Catlin rightly said that politics is the study of an
organized society. No doubt, if the social instinct are parochial in nature,
then it would definitely adversely affect the political phenomena. It is
through the study of Political Sociology that starts with society and
examines how it actually affects the polity, gives a concrete shape to know
about could a political system strengthen itself to attain the goal of social
welfare. Hence, in this module, we shall learn about the Basic concepts of
Political Sociology that are somehow the four pillars of socio -political
study. The concepts like Political Culture, Political Elite, Political
Development and Bureaucracy all together has provided a new orientation
and a new vista in political analysis.
2.1 INTRODUCTION:
The Political Sociology had its first origin in the European society came
into being after the breakdown of the trad itional society which ultimately
gave birth to a new modern society and that society exposed to common
view to differentiate the state and society. It seeks to understand the process
of interaction between government and society. It affects decision making
authorities and conflicting social forces and interests. It is the study of
interactions and linkages between politics and society, between a political
system and its social, economic and cultural environment. It is concerned
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12 interests and issues and political integrity and organization. It stands for the
interdependence of socio -cultural, economic and political elements. It is
identified with the study of the social bases of political behavior and
institutions. These political variables were deemed to be dependent upon
sociological variables. These social variables like society, class and status
are held as independent factors where as the political variables such as the
state, law, constitution and political parties are seen as exactly dependent
on the social variables. Martin Lipset , a famous American political
sociologist rightly identified the social determinants or bases of political
behavior. Political instituti ons and phenomena were held to be studied and
analyzed in terms of sociological variables such as class and group.
Political sociology starts with society and examines how it affects the
state and how it affects the society.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
1. Briefly explain the meaning of Political Sociology.
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2.2 POLITICAL CULTURE:
Who creates culture? Perhaps its we. To understand the tendencies for
present and future behavior in a country, we must know people’s values,
attitudes, apathy tec. Towards politics and their role in political system.
Hence, the widely -shared beliefs, norms, values that people share about
their government is political culture. The term 'political culture' is used in
the field of social science. It refers to historically -based , widely -shared
beliefs, feelings, and values about the nature of political systems, which
can serve as a link between citizens and government. It includes moral
judgments, political myths, beliefs, and ideas about what makes for a good
socie ty. A political culture is a reflection of a government, but it also
incorporates elements of history and tradition that may predate the current
regime. Political Culture is the manifestation of the psychological and
subjective dimensions of politics. It i s composed of the attitudes, beliefs,
emotions and values of society that relates to the political system and to
political issues, as quoted by A.R.Ball. It was Lucian Pye who summarized
political culture as the totality of attitudes, beliefs and ideas whi ch give
meaning and order to the political process. There are certain historical
foundations and symbols attached to this concepts that is perhaps the munotes.in
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13 Concept on Political Sociology founding stone for its sustainability in a political system. The Historical(eg.
The Glorious revolution of England,1688 and the French Revolution, 1789)
revolutions and the Geographical factors inculcated the feeling of liberty,
equality, belongingness, unity and integrity among the people. Other
reasons for the growth of political culture are the ethnic differences
(migration of Canadians into Europe), socio -economic structure, emotional
adherence and also religion and myth. The political culture blurs the
distinction between state and society. It presents a rosy picture of the state
which uses minimum force and operates largely as a “consensus society’.
In the absence of mature political culture, there shall be apathy, less
orientations , less participation of the people in the socio -political system
that may lead to degeneration of the society and politics in all sphere. Now
a days , political culture has acquired the status of huristic device as a tool
of analysis. It has indeed become a parameter for the analysis of political
system. According to Almond and Werba in their work “Civ ic Culture”
had talked about three dimensions of Political Culture. They are Cognitive
(to have knowledge and awareness), Affective (a feeling of involvement or
detachment) and Evaluative ( judgmental attitude). The basic objective
thorough which it works is first by means of Input that means the Demand
and Supports of the people as per their perceptions to the political system,
second way is the means of Feedback that is actually the action and reaction
to the Input that goes through a cyclic process and t he last one is the Output
which is the Decision taken in a political process. In this manner actually
the concept of Political Culture works. It is the most essential regulatory
force in the political system because none can deny the fact the society
comes prior the politics and it is society and its culture the actually shapes
the political system so that both can go hand in hand for the better
development of the society as a whole.
Different countries have different political culture due to its variety an d
diversity. It help us to understand how and why their governments are
organized in a certain way. It also gives us an idea about the role of
ideologies like democracy, monarchy, republic, etc. and to find out the
most suitable as per our political culture temperament. The American
political culture is based on five features. They are liberty, equality,
democracy civic duty and individual duty. They contain a number of core
ideals and values. The family is peculiarl y potent, while formal education
according to Almond and Verba is most vital in producing commitment to
democratic values. But all Americans does not share similar views. Certain
common values of Americans are self -help, competition and free enterprise,
future orientation or optimistic in nature. Understanding our own political
culture can also provide clues to political relationships, such as those we
share with each other or our governments. In the United States, we may be
tempted to think of political cu lture in terms of voting status as a Democrat
or Republican. However, it's important to understand that political culture
differs from political ideology. The term 'political ideology' refers to a code
of beliefs or views about governments and politics that may influence the
way we vote or whether or not we support certain legislative actions. For
example, two people can share a political culture, but have different political
ideologies. In other words, a right -wing conservative can be from the same munotes.in
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14 political culture as a left -wing liberal. In other words, political culture is
something we share, while a political ideology is something we use to
define ourselves and make political decisions. Even within the United
States, political culture varies from pla ce to place. They have a belief that
they consider themselves bound by common values and common hopes.
The American political culture that Tocqueville described in the 1830s has
changed over the years, but in many ways, it has remained remarkably the
same, even after the continent was settled coast to coast. The American view
has been characterized by several familiar elements: American political
culture puts a special emphasis on hard work, and is rife with stories of
successful businessmen and leaders.
If we look into the political culture of Britain , we find that it is influenced
by the combined nation’s history. It’s historically Christian religious life,
its interaction with the culture of Europe, the traditions of England, Wales,
Scotland and Ireland a re having a deep impact. Even the British literature
is particularly esteemed. To include few other features are equality,
regional diversity, humour, customs, conventions, diligence, class etc. The
values that the British people cherish are democracy, Rule of Law, mutual
respect, tolerance, dignity of those with different faiths and beliefs and many
more. Even they encourage sharing as well as collaborating and it is the most
significant that their children learn in their early years. They work harder
for working together towards a common goal as far as possible. Every
country has a political culture , widely shared beliefs, values, and norms
that define the relationship between citizens and government, and citizens
to one another. Beliefs about economic life are part of the political culture
because politics affects economics. A good understanding of a country's
political culture can help make sense of the way a country's government is
designed, as well as the political decisions its leaders make. For ex ample
there is still monarchical form of government in Britain. Although it doesn't
have any real political power. So there is a question why not to abolish
Monarchy there. Even their Upper House of the legislature i.e. House of
Lords is well known for its absentees and elite culture. Still these institutions
are there for only one reason it has been in there due to long -lasting
traditions and conventions. The British people do not want to break it or to
say their sentiments are attached with it. These ques tions can be puzzling,
unless we understand something about the British political culture.
In reference to Indian political culture first of all it would be more
appropriate to call it a land of “unity in diversity. There exists an
amalgamati on of both living in confrontation and cooperation. We might
give certain examples like bureaucracy in India although it works on the
principle of rules and rigidity but at the same time it also keeps in mind the
conventions and traditions (peculiar featur e of British political
culture)prevailing in the society. Similarly, reservation system in politics is
too based on caste and tribal division. We also try to keep a strong nexus
with our fellow -beings. A unified and interdependent community provides
a big support system to an individual. Guru -shisya systems, tribal culture
are also extending patronage to our beautiful political culture. The most
renowned political and social theorist Ashis Nandy in his Article “Culture,
State and the Rediscovery of Indian Politics” highlighted that the munotes.in
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15 Concept on Political Sociology relationship between the state and culture must be viewed in two manners -
first to look for the means through which culture can be made and then to
look from the standpoint of culture. He quoted “As the state grew, the focus
of national politics also shifted, from Parliament, with its dialogue between
governments and parties, to the media. One victim of this new political
culture is democracy itself”. Similarly another Indian political scientist
Rajni Kothari characterized Indian political system as One Party
Dominance and it is the caste that played a vital role in shaping and creating
Indian political culture. He led to a new focus on civil society.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
1. What are the aspects of Political Culture?
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2. According to Gabriel Almond and Sydney Verba, what are the
three types of political culture?
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2.3 POLITICAL ELITE:
Aristotle once said “From the hour of their birth, some are marked out
for subjection and some for command”. That is the exact philosophy behind
the concept of Political Elite. “Elite ’’ in general terminology means
“superior commodity”. It is derived from the word “Eligere” which stands
for “selection by choice”. Thus Political Elite means the superior people
(small in number) who are set apart from the rest of the society by their pre -
eminence. The three pillars of the concept from the Neo -Mechavellians -
Pareto, Ganeto Mosca and Michels had often denoted it with “Triple C” that
stands for Cohesiveness, Consciousness and Conspiracy. Pareto in his
“Mind and Society” talked about social st ratification that is a particular
feature of every society where some people actually possess extra –ordinary munotes.in
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16 qualities within themselves that keeps them some way different from others
in the society that owns normal qualities. His views was based upon
psychological standpoint where he mentioned about Residues and
Derivations. Residues are guided by impulses and sentiments while the
Derivatives supported logical motive and justifications. He divided
Residues into six parts. They are sociability, expressiveness and integrity
(features present in the Non -Governing elites) and the other three are the
innovation, consolidation and sex which are supposed to be the features for
the Governing elites. The Governing elites possess int elligence, ability, high
morale and caliber. But the Non-Governing elites, according to Pareto excel
in their distinctive fields. Pareto also gave a very unique significance of
political culture in terms of “Circulation of Elites” where always there is
seen the changeable position of Elites and Non - Elites on the basis of merit
and also through revolutionary change. So, political culture is not static. It
give way to innovations and dynamism. But Political Elite is often criticized
for its vagueness and uns cientific nature. It is also alleged that its hypothesis
is not borne out by history. Even it provides inadequate description. It gives
over-emphasis on richness and is mechanized atomistic in nature. Another
exponent Mosca in his book “Ruling Class” categorized the society into
two class as Ruler and Rules. He pointed out about certain specific features
of the concept other than Pareto. We find some hereditary touch in his
viewpoint that separated the ruler from the ruled one. He gave another new
concept that was the presence of “sub -elites” in the society other than the
elite class. It was Robert Michells who in his work “Political Parties” gave
an organizational approach to the concept of political culture. He highlighted
about the role of political parties in shaping political culture. Oligarchy as
well as people’s apathy were another features that Michels added. Another
protagonists of Political Elite are C.W.Mill, Robert Dahl and Harold
Lasswell who had focused over the power approach attached to i t. Mill
classified the society into three parts as political leaders, Corporation Heads
and Military chiefs who actually were the cohesive groups who were very
powerful people in the society. Robert Dahl sais that power is unevenly
distributed in the socie ty and is accumulative in nature. He also
supported the concept of sub-elites as propounded by Michels. Later
Harold Lasswell in his works “Psychopathology of Politics” and
“Politics:who gets What, When and How” used to say an elite must have
fox like cunningness and lion like strength. Other qualities that are needed
included love, affection, rectitude, knowledge, intelligence and skill. Some
other supporters of Political Elite were Marx, Berham, Veblan and Djilas
who main concern was over the economic approach. Marx talked about
Haves and Have -not. Berham pointed out about Managerial Revolution.
Veblan gave emphasis over the Industrialization of Society while Djilas
approach was over Political Bureaucracy.
But the concept of Political Elite is not flawless as observed by its critics. It
is alleged that it creates disharmony in society. Even to find out perfect
equilibrium is a difficult task. It also negates public opinion. And paves path
for social inequality as well as tensions that is the negation of democratic
culture. Inspite of these loopholes, one could not deny the fact that Political
Elite could be helpful if the Elites are more adaptable to the needs of the munotes.in
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17 Concept on Political Sociology people. But proper alertness and vigilance is too necessary from every
arena with the help of knowledge as well as tactics.
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
1. Examine the psychological approach to the study of Political
Elite.
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2. To what extent do you think that the power theory of Political
Elite deeply affects the political system?
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2.4 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT
Political Development can be defined as the increased differentiation and
specialization of political structures and the increased secularization of
political culture. According to Lucian Pye it is like adjustment between old
patterns of life and the new dimensions. Historically the concepts like
Behaviouralism, System approach and also the Structural –Functional
approach had a deep impact over its origin. Thus it came into being by the
efforts of Pye, Riggs, Coleman, Almond etc. It aims to uphold the weak
socio -economic and political strata of the Developing nations of most
particularly, Asia. Africa and Latin America. It was Lucian Pye who
discussed about the characteristics of Political Development in detail. He
said there are basically three features. T hey are Equality (mass participation,
universalism, just policy over recruitment), Capacity (output, efficiency,
rationality and secularism) and Differentiation (diffusion and specialization
of structures). Similarly Almond talked about Autonomy of sub - systems,
role of differentiation and secularization. The concept of Political munotes.in
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18 Development in fact passes through certain stages. According to Organski
in his work “Stages of Political Development” discussed about four stages.
They are political unification of primitive age, industrialization, national
welfare and abundance. The concept of Political Development has vast
scope. It includes economic development, stability, modernization,
democracy, mass participation, mass mobilization, administrative and lega l
process, nation -state system, social change, industrialization and inclusion
of inter -disciplinary approach. But at some point , Political Development
meets certain crisis in the way of its sustainability. The scholars had
discussed about six crisis that it often faces. They are Identity crisis,
legitimacy, penetration, participation, integration and distribution. Other
challenges that may be included like lack of precise definition, confusion,
lack of universalism, problem of Third World nations and also the
undefined role of elites. The problem may persists, but we can not deny the
fact that Political Development is a common process of successfully
sustaining new demands, goals and organization in a flexible manner. It
implies systematic change with reas onable alteration in the political
machinery to boost mass participation and over-all development.
Check Your Progress Exercise 4
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
1. What are the major issues and concerns in the study of Political
Development?
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2.5 BUREAUCRACY
Bureaucracy is a type of hierarchical organization which is designed
rationally to coordinate the works of individuals in the pursuit of large scale
of administrative tasks. It is characterized by expertness, impartiality and
absence of humanity. It is guided by well - defined rules and regulations
untouched with human sensitivity. The term Bureaucracy is derived from
the Latin word “Bureau” which means a writing table or desk. In French
“La Bure”, it signifies a cloth used to cover table of public offici als. The
term “cratic” is a Greek word that means “to rule”. Thus Bureaucracy is a
“rule of officials”. The term was first used by
Vincent de Gaurney of France (1745) in mid-18th century. It grew out of
growing discontentment over absolutism. It was Max We ber (Maximilian
Karl Emil Weber) who was a German Sociologist and a political economist munotes.in
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19 Concept on Political Sociology who very systematically discussed about the features of Bureaucracy. He
was born in Erfurt, Western Germany on April 21, 1864. He studied law
from the University of Hei dalberg and also spent a year as junior officer in
the German Army. In 1889, he received his Ph.D. His contributions
included “The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism”, “ Economy
and Society” and “ The Theory of Social and Economic organization”. They
are emphasis over impersonal rules, clear and specific functions, hierarchy
of positions, rule of control, separation between administrative and
proprietors, lack of monopoly and existence of written rules, decisions and
command.
Karl Marx's thought is interpreted and re - interpreted in several ways by
different groups like Frankfurt school, Existentialism, the Structuralisms,
Russian Communists, Chinese Communists, Trotskyists. He says that the
bureaucracy is the imaginary state of the real state. It is the spiritualism of
the state. The bureaucracy has the spiritual being of the society. In its
possession it is its private property. It functions like a private property of
the state authority. According to Marx, “the general spirit of bureaucracy is
secrecy, mystery, preserved inwardly by means of hierarchy and externally
as a close corporation”. Again Marx says the hierarchy of the bureaucracy
is hierarchy of knowledge. According to Marx, the bureaucracy is the state
formation of the c ivil society. It is state’s consciousness, the state’s will,
the state’s power as corporation. The mind of bureaucracy is the formal
mind of the state. Therefore, it makes the formal mind of the state. The
bureaucracy asserts itself to be the final end of the state. The above
observations of Marx views on bureaucracy that the bureaucracy protects
the interest of the state and the class interest of the state. He pointed out
about nation -states that arouse for the first time during 16th century. The
existence of kingship failed to control such a large area, thus it gave rise to
Bureaucracy that was entrusted with the function of administration that was
run by the administrative officials. Other changes also Marx had pointed
out that was existing in the contemp orary society. He ranked about the
dissolution of feudalism and the rise of Capitalism. It meant that more
and more people were now taking up jobs in factories owned by the
capitalists. They were supposed to even adjust themselves with so many
compromises just for the sake of employment and poverty. They were also
forced to work at low - salary. Marx had described how even children were
exploited in factories in England and soon spread in various European
countries during 19th century. Imperialism too was on e of the reason for the
growing impact of the capitalistic class in the society that kept on draining
the wealth of the colonies or under - developed nations. Such exploitation
being carried over by them soon started creating frustration in the minds of
the labourers. They wanted to get out of such humiliating condition.
According to Marx, all value is produced by human labour. But the workers
receive only portion of the value produced by them in terms of the wages.
The other portion was retained by the capitalists, actually constitute such
exploitation. And this exploitation was measured in accordance with the
capitalistic relation of production. Under these background, Karl Marx
interpreted his views views on Bureaucracy. He argued that Capitalism, like
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20 tensions which will lead to its destructions. Just as Capitalism replaced
feudalism, he believed socialism would replace Capitalism. It will lead to
a stateless and classless society. He named it as pure communism. This
would emerge after a transitional stage called as “ dictatorship of the
proletariat”, “Worker’s state” or “ Worker’s Democracy” Marx argued that
Capitalism will end through the organized actions of an international
work ing class. The conditions of this movement result from “the premises
now in existence”.
Check Your Progress Exercise 5
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
1. What does Bureaucracy mean in Political Sociology?
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2. What is Weberian model of Bureaucracy?
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2.6 SUMMARY
Hence with the study of these basic concepts of Political Sociology, we
get a clear idea how the various aspects of society altogether affects the
political system. No one can deny the fact that society comes prior to polity.
And a political system may n ot be studied completely by keeping itself
separated from social aspects. These social aspects has been deeply
influenced by culture, excellence, development as well as administrative
ethics. So these concepts of Political Sociology provides a new way of
understanding as well as evaluating the political system as a whole. munotes.in
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21 Concept on Political Sociology 2.7 REFERENCES
1. Almond, Gabriel A. and G.B.Powell (1966), Comparative Politics: A
Developmental Approach, Bostan, Little Brown
2. Ashraf, Ali and L.N.Sharma (1995), Political Sociology : A
Grammar of Politics, Hyderabad University Press
3. Ball, Allan R (1971), Modern Politics and Government, London,
Macmillan
4. Ckaraborty, Satyabrata (2005), Political Sociology, New Delhi,
Macmillan
5. Facault, Michel (1980),Power/Knowledge, Harvester, Brighton
6. Gramsci, Antonio (1978), Selection from Prison Notebook, London,
Lawrence and Wishart
7. Huntington, Samuel (1968), Political Order in Changing Societies,
New Haven, Yale University Press.
8. Kaviraj, Sudipta and Sunil Khilnani (2001), Civil Society: History
and Possibility, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
9. LaPalombara, Joseph (ed.), (1967), Bureaucracy and Political
Development, Princeton University Press
10. Morris -Jones W.H. (1974), The Government and Politics in India,
New Delhi, BI Publication
7777777
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22 3 STRATIFICATION Unit Structure 3.0 Objectives 3.1 Introduction to the Elite theory of democracy: Origin and characteristics 3.2 Assumptions of Elite Democracy 3.3 Criticism and evaluation 3.4 Conclusion 3.0 OBJECTIVES To understand the concept of who are elites To understand the elite theory of democracy To know the assumptions on which elite theory is based To critically evaluate the impact of the theory if implemented 3.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE ELITE THEORY OF DEMOCRACY In the twentieth century political thinkers attacked the classical liberal idea of democracy. The classic theory of democracy gave primacy to individual participation and political equality in government operations. The Pro pounders of elite theory based the idea of democracy on their personal experiences. They asked questions like; how practical it is for the ordinary man to participate in day-to-day politics? Is it possible for an ordinary citizen to stand the pressures of the political life? What impact will of clashing ideologies at individual level in a country, on democracy? The responses to these questions served as the beginning of laying the foundations of the elite theory of democracy. The two world wars were the reasons that compelled the scholars to relook at the classical theory of democracy. During the two world wars and the changing global scenario after that which included economic depression, rise in fascism, rising international competition and wars on such large scale placed importance on leadership. These changing scenarios removed political decisions from public scrutiny. There was a rise in the belief that only experts can preserve democracy. It was believed that the industrial munotes.in
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23 Stratification society requires more specialized skills to function and thus the role of a common man was reduced in the process of policy making. Who are elites? Elite is a term used to describe people who score high on scales of social values, power, wealth, or knowledge. Elite theory of political power talks about the unequal distribution of resources, skills and power. The theory makes an attempt to explain the power relations that exist in the society today. Very often the negotiation between the marginalized groups and the government can be studied through discussions made by elites and the common man. The Elitist View is a dominant minority that rules regardless of the form of government and this view is supported by some prominent like Pareto, Michels, Mosca and Mills. This means irrespective of the political class that holds the power the real negotiating power lies with the elite class. These scholars were skeptical about democracy because they were not sure if democracy would solve the real purpose because the ultimate power will still lie with the minority. The core of the elite theory of power is that in any society, there is a minority of the population which makes the major decisions in the society and rules the majority. This minority is called the “governing elite” or “political class” and they have their influence on government decisions and policymaking. The minority gains dominance due to influence through certain social, religious, heredity or personal qualifications/achievements and this is beyond the concept of ordinary elections. It's easier for the minorities to use their influence and navigate through the administrative delays which otherwise are difficult to do for a common man. Characteristics of elitism 1. Group Cohesion: this means elites can only survive and maintains their dominance when they are united in a society. An individual alone cannot control the majority thus the elites form cartels to retain and exercise their power. 2. Consciousness: Elites are conscious of the fact that power gives access to more power to access more of economic status, social influence, educational advantage etc. This helps the elite maintain their dominance over the majority for even the subsequent generations to come. The elite doctrine believes that the dominant minority cannot be controlled by the majority regardless of the democratic means and processes in place. 3. Conspiracy: Elites work with the elected representatives and other high officials in the hierarchy of the administration to influence the government policies in their favour. Sometimes they have access to munotes.in
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24 crucial information even before the information is put up for public. This helps them take more informed decisions with less risk and put them at an advantage over the general public or common man. Pareto’s concept of Circulation of elites Pareto and Mosca have given the concept of circulation of elites. There is a circulation that exists at two levels. One is between the different categories of governing elites and the second is the circulation between the governing elites and common man. Pareto’s concept of circulation of elites implies that the process is irregular but incessant as new men of money and power replace the old ones. The circulation of elites is aided and supplemented by raising religious and humanitarian sentiments. In such a time, the existing elite becomes softer, milder, and more humane and less apt to defend its power. According to Pareto and Mosco there are two classes of the power structure in all societies – A class that rules and a class that is ruled. The management of public affairs is generally in the hands of the influential minority of people which the majority has to accept whether willingly or unwillingly. The majority which does not hold much power has very less influence over the public policy. Robert Micheles in his book, “Political Parties” propounded the “iron law of oligarchy”. He was influenced by the theory of Max Webber and Pareto. He contended that organizational oligarchy resulted from the priorities of modern organization which are: skilled leadership, central power, and the distribution of tasks within a pro bureaucracy. The rule by an elite or oligarchy is unavoidable as an “iron law” within any democratic organization as a part of the tactical and technical necessities of the organization. No matter how democracies develop, they eventually become oligarchies. The elite theory briefly believes in following: The division of society in higher and lower is a Universal fact because people are born unequal in abilities and capacities. An elite is able to influence his power and effectiveness due to his merits as an intelligence and qualification. Elites survive in groups and these groups keep changing. New elites spring up and old ones lose their power and ultimately vanish. Sometimes by the way of revolutions the entire elite class is replaced by a new one. The general public has a neutral stance on politics and they need leadership in political matters. Elites provide this leadership. munotes.in
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25 Stratification In the contemporary times the elites are formed by three types of people: intellectual. Managerial and administrators. C.Right Mills called these elites as power elites. He mentioned three main elite, they are economic, military, and political. Questions: 1) Explain the elite theory of democracy? ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 3.2 ASSUMPTIONS OF ELITE DEMOCRACY Elite theory of democracy limits the public participation in the process of governance. Elite theory is based on the following assumptions. 1. The elite theory is based on the assumption that a common man is incapable of ruling. The idea of a common citizen being politically active is a myth. 2. According to elite theory, running a democracy is a very technical process. It requires skills to take right decisions and some prescribed methods are to be followed and the common man is not trained in it. 3. One of the most important assumptions is that different elite groups share common understanding of democratic value. 4. It is assumed that excessive political participation in a democracy is actually a threat to democracy as, if the untrained people would participate in the politics the entire structure will collapse. 5. Elites assume that the idea of democracy was never to increase the participation of common man in the process of governance in fact the goal was to create an efficiently functioning society. Questions: 1) Explain the various assumptions on which the elite theory is based. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 3.3 CRITICISM AND EVALUATION 1. Elite theory is highly assumption based. It ignores the core concepts of a democracy. According to Barry Holden if we do not allow the munotes.in
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26 participation of people in the democracy, we cannot be fully democratic. 2. Elite theory changes the very definition of democracy and combines the idea of growth with democracy. It reduces democracy to just numbers. It wants to focus only on managing the industries and other economic activities effectively. It rips democracy of its moral values. 3. For any democracy to d-function we require the spirit of fraternity and sense of belongingness to the community. But if we follow the guidance of elite theory and reduce democracy to just voting once in a while then this idea of community welfare and connectedness would vanish. 4. The elite theory does not want to take any risks. The main objective is to provide political stability at the cost of democratic values. Conclusion The elite theory of democracy challenges the classic theory of democracy which advocated for individual participation in the process of governance. It advocated a democracy where the powerful minority provides leadership with interference from the common people. It gives primacy to political stability than people’s participation. The idea of elite theory is very extreme and we cannot eliminate people and their opinions from the structure of democracy. At the same time, we cannot ignore the fact that in the globalized world cartels of elites exist but the aim of the democracy in the contemporary times should be to ensure peaceful existence of elite groups and people’s participation. Question: 1) Critically evaluate the elite theory of democracy and its impact on the democratic structures if implemented. 3.2 CASTE Structure Introduction Understanding cate system in India Caste and politics: Scope Issues in caste Politics Caste and electoral politics Conclusion Introduction munotes.in
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27 Stratification Caste plays a very decisive role in Indian politics. Political parties and caste organizations have been often seen mobilizing caste to address their concerns. Post-independence Indian political landscape has undergone some significant changes and these changes in turn have affected the caste system and its role in Indian politics. Caste’s traditional role was limited to the field of occupation and social structure. After independence with introduction to electoral politics and democracy its role was further expanded. There are a number of reasons for changes in the role of caste like state policies such as land reforms, welfare schemes for backward classes, reservation and infrastructural development. Over the years the presence of OBCs have become significant in Indian politics. Today's scenario is very different from that of immediately after independence when politics was dominated by people who belonged to higher castes. The relation between caste and politics is two ways, it's not just the politics that impacts caste but the caste also affects the politics. If we analyze various political parties especially the regional ones, it can be notices that a lot of them can be associated with one caste or another. This Unit will focus on explaining the role caste plays in Indian political system and its impact on the electoral politics. Understanding the caste system in India Caste can be defined as a hereditary endogamous group, having a common name, common traditional culture, common occupation, relative rigidity in matters of mobility, distinctiveness of status and forming a single homogeneous community. Caste system in India is a system of stratification which assigns a caste to every individual at the time of their birth. This classification is done into four hierarchically ranked occupational groups which are called varna. In the varna system, at the top of the hierarchical order are Brahmins. They are usually the priestly and the scholarly class. Next in line are Kshatriyas. They are usually the political class or the soldiers. They are followed in line by Vaishyas who are merchants. The lowest in the order are Shudras. They are usually labourers, servants, peasants or artists. Varna system has also introduced the practice of untouchability in India according to which some castes are impure and others should maintain appropriate physical distance from them. Each varna also includes within itself several sub castes, making this system even more complex. The cate system witnessed many changes since the second half of nineteenth century India. There were a lot of socio-religious movements which were carried out by prominent personalities and organizations. These movements were aimed at reforming the idea of caste in the people’s mind so that the evil practices like untouchability can be eradicated and society becomes more egalitarian. Some of the Prominet organizations include Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, Ramkrishna Mission and Theosophical Society. Some of the important personalities who led these protests and movements were Satya Sodhak Samaj movement led by Jyoti Rao Phule in Puna, the non-Brahmin movement led by E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker, known as Periyar in Madras and anti-untouchability movements led by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and Mahatma Gandhi. munotes.in
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28 After Independence the policy makers made conscious efforts to blur the lines of caste in the society. Constitutional provisions to safeguard the rights of lower castes were introduces, Fundamental Rights (Articles 14, 15, 16, 17) and Directive Principles of State Policy also contributed to transformation of the caste system. Gradually the process of urbanization, spread of modern education, growth of market economy and westernization led to transformation of the structure of caste. Especially education played a very prominent role in the process of transformation. People became more rational in their thought process. It made the society more liberal and broader minded. All this ultimately led to relaxation in the rules of caste system. Caste no longer restricted the freedom of an individual to choose her profession. InterCast interactions in various social spheres has increased during the contemporary times. Check your progress Exercise 1 1) Explain the caste system as is prevalent in India. Also explain the constitutional provisions preventing discrimination based on caste. Caste and Politics Scope The scope of caste and politics covers the issues related to different castes and caste institutions that mobilize them. These institutions also include political parties. The main issue that is the foundation of the discussion and analysis is the relationship that the lower and the upper castes have in the society, caste-based violence, reservation based on caste in the public institutions and their social and cultural recognition in the society. The center of the conflict is the competition amongst different castes and sub castes in order to get more share in the power structure. This conflict amongst castes translates into competition amongst political parties. The political parties then make strategies to mobilize people on the issues of caste to gain popular support and win elections. getting representation in various state institutions leads to the empowerment of the castes. Being part of Various public institutions like Lok Sabha, Vidhan Sabha, Vidhan Parishad, Local self-government bodies and various educational institutions lead to wide exposure to the castes which were historically denied access to these institutions. The upliftment of the lowers castes was possible due to state’s intervening social welfare policies. Broadly speaking the scope of castes and politics includes mobilization of various castes by the political parties in electoral and non-electoral issues. India has a quasi-federal structure and thus relation of caste with politics can be understood at various levels of the federal structure. Issues in caste politics There are various issues related to caste and politics which include caste-based violence, reservation and the concept of redistributive justice and the view of higher castes on it. 1. Reservation munotes.in
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29 Stratification Reservation is a form of affirmative action aimed at providing representation to the marginalized sections in the public institutions. here we will focus on the political dimension of the reservation of only one of the many marginalized groups that is caste. In India the scheduled castes and OBCs are entitled to reservation in public institutions for jobs, admission in educational institutions, institutions of local self-governance and legislative bodies. The issue of reservation in reference to caste is the most vibrant issue in caste politics. Different castes are involved in the politics of reservation. The castes which are excluded from receiving the benefits of reservation demand those benefits or they want certain other castes to be excluded. The castes which are entitled to these benefits want to retain them. There are issues within the castes that receive the benefits of reservation. The scheduled castes and OBCs also consist of different sub castes which vary on different educational, social and economic levels. There are conflicts amongst different sub groups as some claim that they have not been able to take full advantage of the reservation. There is a demand that the reservation quotas should be sub divided keeping in mind the disparities between different SCs so that the dominant castes do not take away all the benefits. For example, the farming communities such as the Jats in Rajasthan in 1999 and in Haryana in 2009, Maratha in Maharashtra in 2016 and Patels in Gujarat in 2015 launched agitation for their inclusion in the OBC category. As a result of the agitations Jats were included in the list of OBCs by the BJP government in Delhi and UP and by Congress government in Rajasthan. There were heated debates around the decision. The opponents of the reservation argued that the criteria to provide reservation should be based on merit or economic condition as otherwise it would affect the efficiency of the governance. Some castes included in the list of OBC are economically well off and politically dominant. The supporters of caste-based reservation argue that caste-based discrimination still exists and reservation is important to help these castes get the due share of respect in the society. It is also argued that caste-based reservation was meant for socially and educationally backward communities. Improvement in their economic status does not make them socially forward in the society. Hence constitutionally they are entitled to reservation. Difference of opinion amongst supporter and opponents of reservation has often led to agitations and counter agitations. These agitations have also turned violent sometimes marked by destruction of public property. Examples of some such agitations are: the implementation of mandal commission report which provided reservation in jobs to the OBCs in the central government institutions, the anti-reservation agitations in Gujarat in 1981 and 1985, in Bihar munotes.in
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30 in the year 1970s. The agitation against the Mandal Commission report affected a huge geographical area. It was spread to Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Bihar. In one such extreme incident during the agitation a student of Delhi University named Rajeev Goswami self-immolated himself. 2. Violence Incidents of violence related to caste and politics are more than often related to caste-based discrimination that may include exploitation of women, economic exploitation, access to public spaces or denial of access, celebration of caste-based leaders to name a few reasons. There are various examples from different parts of the country where lower castes had become victims due to unequal social status and economic inequalities. Oliver Mendelsohn and Marika Vicziany in their work “The Untouchables: Subordination, Poverty and the state of Modern India” (1998) and Dag-Erik Berg in his work “Dynamics of Caste and Law: Dalits, Oppression and Constitutional Democracy (2020) have discussed some cases of caste violence in Andhra Pradesh and Bihar. In Bihar a number of caste-based organizations emerged in 1970’s and 1080’s which often indulge in caste disputes which turned violent most of the times. A common issue that could be traced which led to such conflicts was the ownership of land titles between Dalits and higher castes. One of such disputes which caught national attention occurred in Pipra village of Punpun Division of Patna district in February 1980. The dispute was over the ownership of a piece of land. Two Dalits families were shot dead and houses of Dalits I the village were burnt. A similar incident took place in the year 1968 in Karmachedu village in Andhra Pradesh. The reason that led to the violence was the upward mobility of Dalits and control on political powers by lower castes. These incidents have deeper roots of anger and envy amongst the castes but the violence is usually triggered by a petty incident. In the above mentioned Karmachedu massacre the immediate cause behind the incident was when a Dalit boy was caught washing his buffalo in the water tank from where the upper caste drew water, he was beaten to death. This incident spiraled into large scale violence in the village. This incident was politicized by various parties in Andhra Pradesh. 3. Caste Symbolism and Politics Various caste symbols like historical figures, mythological tales and caste icons are important symbols to mobilize people on the basis of caste. People of a particular caste associate themselves with these symbols and it generates a sense of unity amongst them. One such example of the usage of caste symbol in state politics is in Uttar Pradesh by the Mayawati led government over years. the government has identified several villages in UP as Ambedkar Villages. These villages have substantial Dalit population and the government focuses on their welfare. These villages were given priority in the munotes.in
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31 Stratification developmental process. Mayawati Government also constructed Ambedkar Park in Lucknow and several other monuments and figures relating to socially backward classes. UP is not an isolated example. Almost all states in India have similar practices of glorifying caste symbols to please a certain section of society. Check your progress Exercise 2 1) Explain the role of caste in Indian Politics and the issues related to it. Caste and Electoral Practices Caste is one of the major determinants in the electoral behavior. Several studies have hinted that the co relation between the caste and electoral politics has undergone tremendous changes since the first general elections in 1952. After independence for the first decade politics was dominated by the dominant castes of different regions, in the country. Although the constitution gave right to vote to each and every adult irrespective of their caste yet there were incidents reported where the upper caste or the dominant caste did not allow the socially backward classes to cast their vote. This practice was popularly called booth capturing. During the decades of 1950s and 1060s when congress was the dominant party in the Indian political landscape, it enjoyed the support of multiple castes. It was supported by castes across the social hierarchy although the leadership during congress’s rule was provided by the upper and middle castes in the hierarchy. Paul R. Brass argues that congress party was a coalition of castes. After 1970 congress was not the dominant party in the electoral politics. India saw rise of multiple regional parties representing regional issues and aspirations. These parties usually represented the lower castes and were more inclusive while providing leadership through lower caste members. Lower castes form a huge vote bank for politicians and political parties. Sometimes the political parties indulge themselves in activities to glorify some caste symbols to please the members of a particular caste and get hold of their votes. It is a common practice to assign some portfolios in the cabinet only to certain members of socially backward classes as a symbol to appeal to that caste. The candidates are chosen by the various political parties on caste considerations to woe the voters. In the context of Indian politics caste is a very sensitive which can affect the election outcome significantly. Check Your Progress Exercise 3. 1) What is the impact caste on electoral politics in India? Conclusion Caste and politics are inter-related and they both influence each other with equal intensity. Caste plays an important role at national state and local level politics. The impact and effect of caste on the politics is such that some political parties are organized on lines of caste. Some of the national and regional parties that may not be founded on lines of cast yet they choose munotes.in
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32 candidates for certain regions based on the dominant caste in that region to increase their chances to win. The reservation policy has enhanced the role of caste in the electoral politics. However, caste based violent incidents have been the worst outcome of focusing too much on caste as it is a complex social issue in India. Despite India being a secular country caste does play an important role in the politics sometimes even divisive. 3.3 GENDER Structure Introduction Gender responsive governance Various laws and legislations for political participation of women in India Obstacles and barrier Way forward conclusion Objectives To understand the position of women with respect to political participation To help understand various women empowering laws that exist in India. To better understand the challenges in the process of achieving equal political status for women Introduction Since the mid twentieth century the issue of gender in politics had gained prominence. Under the issue of gender and politics we discuss the representation and participation of women in the field of politics. The impact of having in the male dominated field of politics is one of the objectives of this discussion. Gender issues can also be traced from gender differences in political attitudes, knowledge, and socialization and in women’s social movement activism, as these concepts help inform our understanding of women’s formal political outcomes. The world bank identifies women empowerment as one of the main elements of social development. The Millenium Development Goals and the Sustainable development goals highlight the need for gender parity especially in the field of politics. Depending on the socio-economic framework and the cultural landscape every country requires a different program to realize the goal of equal female participation in the society and political space. Empowerment means when one can become an active munotes.in
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33 Stratification decision maker. Empowering the women allows them to exercise their will while taking decisions. In the developed countries women have more possibilities to engage actively in the political areas where as in the developing countries like India, owing to various religious beliefs, integrated culture and social beliefs about the position of female in the society it becomes difficult for women to enjoy equal status in the field of politics. Gender Responsive Governance The Concept Paper on Gender Responsive Governance examines the manner in which governance processes can be understood through a gendered framework. It discusses the evolving and expanding notion of governance. Gender responsiveness in governance means … Equal participation of women and men in decision making Equal opportunities in influencing the management of economic, political and social affairs Equal access to benefits Some important elements of gender responsive governance are legislation including the national budget should be more women centric Women should be given equal access to make the decisions that affect them, their families, communities and country. Women's capacities should be built to claim their rights as well as training them as legislators and decision makers to be more gender-sensitive in their work. All the stakeholders including civil society should be involved in the process of women empowerment. Since independence various governments who have been in power have taken multiple initiatives to enhance the political participation of women in India. Womens participation is regarded as an essential element in the process of development. India has a policy of reservation of seats for women in the local self-government bodies. The 73rd and 74th amendment act increased the participation of women from marginalized communities. From the very first day from independence women have been assigned an equal status to that of men in the Indian society. Right to vote was extended to all after India became independent. Despite these attempts to empower women there are challenges that we need to overcome in order realize the goal of women empowerment. munotes.in
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34 Various Laws and Legislations for Political Participation of women in India The preamble: the preamble in the beginning of the constitution itself proclaims to give women an equal status on all spheres: - political social and economic landscape. The preamble is the essence of the constitution and has been quoted in multiple high court and supreme court judgements which examining the constitutional validity of a law. Part III of the Indian Constitution guarantees the Fundamental Rights of men and women. Article 14 guarantees the right to equality. According to it there shall be no discrimination by law or administration under normal circumstances. Article 15 clearly mentions that there shall be no discrimination on the basis of religion, race, sex or place of birth. This puts women at an equal footing to that of men and protects them from any form of unfair treatment. According to Article 15 part 3, there shall be nothing which shall prevent the country from making any special provisions for the benefit and upliftment of women. Article 16 confers the right of equality of opportunity in the matters of public employment. No citizen shall, on grounds of religion, race, sex, decent, place of birth or residence be eligible for, or discriminated against in respect of any employment or office under the State. Fundamental rights are justiciable in nature which means if they are violated the aggrieved party can approach high court or even supreme court directly. Part IV of the Constitution contains the Directives Principles of State Policy and the Directive Principles which are of the concern for the women directly and bear upon their status are: Article 39(a)—Right to an adequate means of livelihood equally for men and women. Article 39(d)—Equal pay for equal work for both men and women. The 73rd and 74th constitutional Amendment act of 1992 added the third tier to the political system of the country. Panchayati raj institutions at rural level and Municipal corporation in the urban areas were introduced as local self-governing bodies. The act makes a compulsory provision for reserving at least 33% seats in all these bodies for women candidates. Some states have reserved up to 50% of the seats. Some case studies have proved that women led villages have progressed immensely on indicators of women, health education and autonomy. The Indian Parliament has also enacted various statutes dealing with the problems of women in accordance with various international and regional agreements. A number of the important legislations are enacted for safeguarding the interests of women before as well as after independence. Question 1) Explain in detail various legal provision available in India to enhance women’s participation in politics. Obstacles and Barriers munotes.in
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35 Stratification The key factors responsible for low participation rates of women in politics are discussed as follows: 1. Illiteracy One of the main obstacles in realizing the goal of women empowerment is high illiteracy rates in India amongst men and women. Illiteracy limits the ability of woemn to understand the political system so that they can participate in it. It keeps them away from the current political developments and sometimes they remain ignorant to political issues. Due to illiteracy, many women are left out of the voters list and due to this they are not able to exercise their political right. It has been noticed that even the women who are elected representatives but are illiterate are not able to handle the office efficiently. Despite having all the sources of communication and information they are not able to utilize it to its utmost potential and take appropriate political decisions. 2. Poverty: Poverty is another barrier to political participation of women -. Often poor people do not give much importance to politics and participation in political events. They are more concerned about meeting ends on daily basis. Poor people are often influenced by the rich and well-off politicians. It been often noticed that the political parties and candidates offer free Bies to the poor people just before the elections to get the outcome in their favour. Recently there has been a heated debate in the country highlighting the concern around promising of free electricity, televisions etc by various political parties to the people of a state on condition of coming to power after elections. Its highly difficult to persuade the women from these marginalized poor families to actively participate in the politics. 3. The Institution of Marriage: The institution of marriage is another barrier which leads to less political participation of women in India. After marriage the political decisions of a women are often seen to be influenced by her family if she is not conscious enough to make political decisions. Politics is considered to be a male dominated and aggressive field and families usually do not prefer women to enter it. Clash in the political ideologies within a family also act barrier for women to take autonomous decisions. The domestic chores are usually not shared by the men and thus the responsibility to take care of the family lies soley on women. 4. The issue of Proxy panchayat heads: In the recent times some incidents have come to light where the elected women panchayat head was seen taking a back seat and her male relatives, usually father or husband taking charge as an active head and fulfilling all the official duties of a sarpanch. This is a way munotes.in
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36 in which the reservation for women is bypassed. When the male members of a family cannot contest from the seat reserved for women in that case, they nominate the women member of the family to contest the elections. When the women come to power the male members of the family exercise their official powers. Questions 1) Explain in detail various issues related to women’s participation in politics. Way Forward Following are some of the suggestions that can help increase the role of women in the political landscape in India. 1. Government along with think tanks and civil society should conduct survey to find out what are the reasons behind women lacking will to participate in active politics. These reasons should be studied in detail and appropriate policy decisions should be taken to improve the situation. We should try and understand what motivates women to participate and take initiative in this field. 2. Bringing about behavioral changes in the society can help us achieve the desired results. These behavioral changes should be initiated at the school level where boys and girls should be made aware about their equal roles in the society and their shared responsibility towards their country. 3. There should be appropriate laws and their strict implementation to stop the male members to act as proxy heads of panchayats in the place of the female family member. Such acts should be condemned by the government and heavy fined. 4. Women elected representatives should be asked about the problems they are facing while being in power. The government should try and address these issues which will encourage other women to participate in politics and governance. 5. Welfare schemes especially the ones which impact women’ education, health and independence should be diligently implemented so that they feel empowered to make their own decisions. Conclusion Women participation in the field of politics is very limited especially in the developing countries. In India government has taken various steps to improve the situation like making constitutional provisions related to equal participation of women and ensuring them fundamental rights at same footing as men. Yet there are a number of socio-cultural factors that prevent women from freely participating in political domain. Government should involve all the stakeholders and take appropriate policy decisions to help resolve the issues that act as obstacles in women’s participation in the field of politics. munotes.in
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4
SOCIAL AND POLITICAL DYNAMICS
Unit Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Political Culture: Types and influencing factors
4.3 Political Socialization: Agents
4.4 Political Participation: Means and Levels
4.5 Lets Sum up
4.6 Further Reading
4.7 Model Question
4.8 References
4.0 OBJECTIVES:
After going through this unit, y ou will able to:
• Students will understand the meaning and definition of political
culture, socialization and participation.
• Students will know the nature of culture, nature of Indian political
culture and determinants of political culture.
• Students will be able to analyse the nature and agents of political
socialization.
• Students will be able to understand the types, Level of Political
Participation and Factors affecting Political Participation.
4.1 INTRODUCTION:
This unit will familiarize the stu dents with the concepts like culture,
socialization and political participation. In this unit we shall discuss
different functions, nature, determinants and types of political culture.
Further we will discuss the relationship between socialization and poli tical
socialization as well as different agencies of political socialization.
Socialization is a process through which a child learns different social
qualities and succeeds to become a social being.
Political participation is important aspect for the suc cessful and effective
functioning of democracy. Democracy would not exist without regular and
active participation of citizen in the political process of the country. munotes.in
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38 4.2 POLITICAL CULTUR E – VARIOUS DEFINITI ON OF
POLITICAL CULTURE, D ETERMINANTS, TYPES
Political Culture is a term of recent origin. This terms was coined by Gabriel
Almond in celebrated article “Comparative Political Systems”. The system
theorists asserts that one political system is distinguished from another not
only in terms of its structur e but also respect of the Political Culture in
which it lays embedded.
4.2.1 Meaning and Definition of Political Culture:
A Political Culture “is composed of the attitudes, Beliefs, emotions and
values of society that relates to the political system and to political issues.”
It is defined as “the pattern of individual attitudes and orientations towards
politics among the members of a political system”. The common human
nature expresses itself in the form of certain values, beliefs and emotional
attitudes which are transmitted from one generation to another, though with
greater and lesser modifications and thus constitute the general culture of
that society.
The Political Culture can be seen “as the overall distribution of citizen’s
orientation to politica l objects”. Robert Dahl has singled out Political
Culture as a factor explaining different patterns of political opposition
whose salient elements are
1. Orientations of problem solving
2. Orientations to collective action
3. Orientations to the political system
4. Orientations to other people
Lucian Pye has studied the meaning of Political Culture in the context of
his concept of political development relating to the case of new states of the
Third World. The concept of Political Culture finds place in the subjective
realm. According to Almond and Powell, such individual orientations
involve three components.
a. Cognitive orientations implying knowledge accurate or otherwise, of
the political systems.
b. Affective orientations implying feelings of attachment, involvement,
rejection and the lik e about political objects and,
c. Evaluate orientations, implying judgments and opinions about the
political objects, which usually involve applying value standards to
political objects and events.
A Political Culture hinging on the fact that people’s at titudes and beliefs
towards the political system whether homogeneous or heterogeneous is a
product of several inter related factors, historical, geographical and socio -munotes.in
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39 Social and Political Dynamics economic. The three factors that constitute the foundations of the Political
Culture are ;
1. A study of history offers ample authentic evidence to prove the
continuity or discontinuity of a political system behind which the
foundations of a political culture can well be found out such as the
Indians learn from their British masters the values of parliamentary
democracy and efficiency of the constitutional means.
2. Geography has its own part in laying the foundations of a political
culture. In case the ethnic differences are allowed to develop in the
direction of hostile Political Culture, na tional integration suffers
heavily and different people in the name of their different nationalities
struggle for their separate sovereign states.
3. Lastly, the determinant of socio -economic development. A
predominantly urban industrialized society is a more complex society
putting a premium on rapid communication. Rural societies are not
geared to change and innovation and state with a predominantly
peasant population are more conservative.
Allied with this is the subject of secularization of the Politi cal Culture. It
has two attributes;
a. Pragmatic and empirical orientations and ,
b. Movement from diffuseness to specificity of cultural orientations.
Times changes and so changes the beliefs and values of the people
and this change should be in a pragmat ic and empirical direction and
that too in a way from diffuseness to specificity. The process of the
secularization of Political Culture means increasing political
awareness of the people enabling them to have a growing information
about their political sy stem and their role as a political actor in it.
4.2.2 Nature of Indian Political Culture: The Indian Political Culture
today may be described as low participation, with pragmatism
personalized and parochial character.
a. Low Political Participation: Poli tical participation in our country is
characterized by; (i) Political Apathy and (ii) Voting
b. Pragmatic Political Culture: The historical factors and forces have
contributed to the development of pragmatic and not ideological
nature of Political Culture in our country. The ruling party in India
keep adopting pragmatic orientation to their policies and programmes.
c. Personalised Political Culture: The personalized nature of the Indian
Political Culture is the result of incongruence between public interes ts
and the private interests. Unfortunately politics in India has not
established itself as “a professional activity” for promotion and
realization of political interests. It has remained an activity for
promotion of personal interests and for settlement o f personal scores
and issues. Hence, very often political processes and norms are munotes.in
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40 sacrificed and completely set aside only for formation of personal and
private interest, at the cost of national or public interests.
d. Parochial Character: The personalize d nature invariably results into
the parochial character of Indian Political Culture. Secular and
modern aspects of political behaviours are conspicuously absent in
our country. There is an ever growing tendency on the part of those
who occupy positions an d offices of power and command, to grab the
gains of political activity for themselves and to restrict them to their
own immediate and close circles.
Check your progress Exercise 1:
1) Write the nature of Indian Political Culture?
_______________________ _____________________________________
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_______________________________________ _____________________
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4.2.3 Nature of Political Culture:
a. Culture and Political Culture: Political Culture is only a part of the
longer general culture. Political Culture is only the set of political
values, attitudes and beliefs held by the society. The culture is all -
pervasive and covers all aspects of our life where as political culture
is a part of the totality of beliefs and va lue system of a society.
b. Restricted Nature: Political Culture consists of only those beliefs and
sentiments, political and non -political that give order and form to the
political process. Political Culture refers to the politically relevant
orientation s.
c. Content of Political Culture: Content of Political Culture differs from
society to society. Political Culture of India is very much different
from Political Culture of UK or USA. Some similar point can be there
in countries political culture but not fully similar. Every country must
define Political Culture for its society, the generally accepted scope
of politics and legitimate boundaries between public and private
sphere of life. The scope involves the kind of participation of the
people. Secondly the range of political issues is important. In some
countries one particular issue can be considered as political in other
country it may not.
d. Sub-Culture: In every society the differences between different
sections of population exists. Most Political Culture are in fact
heterogeneous. The differences is one of degree that is in some
societies. The differences are due to different orientations to politics
of different groups. A sub -culture is not a distinct set of attitude, munotes.in
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41 Social and Political Dynamics beliefs and values, but a se t of attitudes some of which are different
from the rest.
e. Symbols of Political Culture: Political attitudes, values and beliefs are
symbolized in societies, certain of these symbols and symbolic
activities like the national flag, the national anthem, n ational identity
and to enforce it. The function of such symbols is to sustain
commitment to the nation.
f. Ever -developing concept: Political Culture is not rigid, or fixed but it
responds to new ideas generated from within or imported from
outside. The nature of Political Culture of a society may change from
time to time due to the development of new ideas, industrialization,
spread of education etc. In the past colonial period, the Political
Culture of Afro -Asian and Latin American countries has undergo ne
radical transformation.
4.2.4 Types of Political Culture
Political system functions within the framework of a set of values, beliefs
and purpose which are described by Almond as the Political Culture of a
society. Almond outlines three basic models of Political Culture which
characterize the various attitudes towards political activity found among
individuals in different societies. The three fold classification of Political
Culture as given by Almond is as follows;
1. Parochial Political Culture: It exists in simple traditional societies
in which there is very little specialization and where actors fulfil a
combination of political, economic and religious roles, for example,
the clan chief of a tribal society fulfils political religious or cultural
roles at one and the same time. The individual members lack political
consciousness, political knowledge and information. In the absence
of knowledge, individual members have no feeling or opinion on the
system as a whole.
2. Subject Political Culture: It exist where there is high frequency of
orientations to the system as a whole and to its specifically output
aspects. Here the individual members possess adequate knowledge
about the system as a whole as well as its input and output processes,
but have no pos sibility of influencing the system. The individual
members have no opportunities of playing active role in politics. They
play passive role. This results in lack of efficacy towards authority.
Individual members obediently follow the instructions of politi cal
leaders. The society is viewed as a permanent hierarchical structure
in which every individual and group has a well -defined place with
which they ought to be content that it is believed that rulers are born
and not made, that is certain people are born to rule and most other to
be ruled.
3. Participant Political Culture: It exist is highly developed societies
where people take active part in the political sphere by considering
themselves as active members of the polity. They are well conscious munotes.in
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42 of their rights and duties. Almond makes it cl ear that as Political
Culture are more politically homogeneous, individuals should not be
taken as uniformly oriented to political actions.
In addition to this, Almond points out two more variables that should
be taken into account. Firstly, he refers to the Political Culture of a
systematically mixed variety. He deals with situations where there are
significant proportions of more than one pattern of orientations. Thus
he lays down four varieties;
a. Parochial -Subject Political Culture
b. Subject -Partici pation Political Culture
c. Parochial -Participation Political Culture
d. Civic Political Culture
Secondly, Political Culture and political structures are never
stationary and the process of congruence and incongruence operates
over a period of time owing t o rapid scientific and technological
changes. The degree of emphasis placed on particular values and
attitudes provides key to understand cultural pattern in a society. The
citizens are encouraged to join group which take an active part in
politics. The ru ling class assumes obedience from the governed and
conformity to the directives of the organs of government.
Check your progress Exercise 2:
1) Discuss different types of political culture?
____________________________________________________________
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____________________________________________________________
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____________________ ________________________________________
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4.2.5 Determinants of Political Culture
A Political Culture is a product of many interrelated factors. According to
Eric Rowe “Politics is an activit y carried on in human environmental and is
a product of the economy, the society and geography. These factors are
regarded as determinants of Political Culture.
1. Physical Factors: Political processes takes place in distinct physical
environment. A given political unit has a physical location. The
physical distance between East and West Pakistan were responsible
for the emergence of a distinct sub -culture in Pakistan which assumed
the form of a separatist movement and led to disintegration of
Pakistan and led to the formation of Bangladesh. munotes.in
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43 Social and Political Dynamics 2. Historical Factors: The contemporary political system is rooted in the
past. The traditions and conventions are regarded as sacrosanct and
any change in the ruling party does not affect the tradition, values and
belief systems.
3. Ethnic Factors: The ethnic or racial composition of a country is a
significant determinant of its Political Culture. The ethnic differences
in the US have adversely affected the political assimilation process.
4. Religion: Religion homogen eity contributes to the evaluation of
homogeneous political culture whereas religious differences retarded
its development. Thus the distrust in religious aspect is a major
hindrance to the evolution of homogeneous political culture in India.
5. Class Str ucture: An industrialized society will have a complex class
structure and each class group will have a distinct sub -culture of its
own.
6. Caste Structure: Caste system is a distinct institution of Indian society.
The Indian society is divided in between numerous castes and sub -
castes. In present time more and more caste groups are organized into
caste associations and each caste group possesses its distinct sub -
culture which in turn moulds the value system of the members of the
caste group.
7. Socio -Economic Structure: A predominantly urban industrialized
society is relatively more complex in comparison to an agrarian
society. The Political Culture of both the societies is bound to be
different. According to Alan Ball, rural societies are not geared to
change and innovation. Thus the level of socio -economic
development has repercussions for the Political Culture of a society.
8. Social Value System: The prevalent social value system also moulds
Political Culture of a society. In some societies the key pr ocess of
socialization tends to provide people with a strongly optimistic view
of life and a deep sense of basic trust in human relations. While the
later stage of political socialization emphasise on political actors.
9. Nature of Economy: The Political Culture of a community is also
affected by its economy which may be basically agricultural or
industrial and can be combination of both; one economy may provide
mere subsistence for the population and another provides a higher
standard of living. A particu lar economy will create particular
possibilities. The industrialization and urbanization have weakened
the hold of traditional values like caste system in India.
4.2.6 Importance of Political Culture:
The relevance of Political Culture is indicated by eve r increasing emphasis
on the study.
1. Political Culture is link between micro and macro politics: The study
of Political Culture enables us to link private socialization process of
working public institutions. The relationship between the attitudes
and mo tivations of individuals and the character and performance of munotes.in
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44 Political Sociology
44 the system can be systematically traced through the concept of
Political Culture.
2. Political Culture is a link between socio -economic forces and political
processes: Political Culture does no t merely understand the
connection between individual and system but also the connection
between socio -economic factors and political development. The study
of Political Culture brings out the significant not political dimensions
of their impact on the pol itical behavior of the individual.
3. Perspective on value system: The study of Political Culture gives
correct perspective on the value system and it enables to make a
rational choice between different values.
4. Useful in comparative study of governmen ts: The study of Political
Culture enables us to understand the different manner of working of
some political and constitutional phenomena in different states. The
study of Political Culture enables us to understand the differences in
the working of consti tutional and political institutions in different
countries.
5. Useful in understanding attitude of people: Political Culture enables
us to understand the attitudes of the citizens to the political system. It
enables us to understand the process of formati on of demands and
responses of elite to such demands.
6. Framework to study Political Development: It provides us the
framework to study a variety of political phenomena such as political
values, attitudes, ideologies, national character etc.
7. Useful i n study of Political Changes: An understanding of relationship
between Political Culture and performance of political systems
enables us to appreciate means by which progressive changes might
be affected.
8. Useful in cross -national studies: The concept o f Political Culture
helps us in making cross -national studies. It helps us to explain why
similar political phenomena produce dissimilar results of different
political systems.
9. Understanding Political process in the countries of the Third World:
The rise of the new countries of the Third World has made problem
of tradition to modernity to central concern of mankind. For
understanding problems of transitional societies, a study of their
transitional Political Culture is essential.
4.3 POLITICAL SOCI ALIZATION – DEFINITI ON,
NATURE OF POLITICAL SOCIALIZATION,
AGENCIES OF POLITICA L SOCIALIZATION:
Political Socialization is a branch of a tree called Socialization. Two
disciplines are combined to form a term called Political Socialization.
Political Socialization is the most important link between the social and
political system. munotes.in
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45 Social and Political Dynamics 4.3.1 What is Socialization?
Socialization has been conceived as a continuous life -long process of
learning and mutual process that is routed primarily in social interactions.
It is seen that individual are socialized in the general value -system and
behavioural pattern of the society.
But, at the same time they also instill values and norms of specific oth er
processes which takes place within the society chiefly because of the
existence and functioning of other system in it. One of such important
process is Political Socialisation which happens to be a significant ‘input
function’ of the political system th at regulates the society and in turn
political culture is sustained through the process of Political Socialisation.
This is the process whereby political attitudes and values are inculcated, as
children become adults and as adults are recruited into new ro les. Political
Culture is shaped both at individual and community levels and is
transmitted from one period to another (one generation to another
generation) because of the process of Political Socialisation.
Political Socialisation is a concept concernin g the ‘study of the
developmental process by which children and adolescents acquire political
cognition, attitudes and behaviours’.
Political Socialisation refers to a learning process by which norms and
behaviours acceptable to a well running political s ystem are transmitted
from one generation to another. It is through the performance of this
function individual are inducted into the political culture and their
orientations towards political object are formed.
4.3.2 Nature and essential elements of Poli tical Socialisation:
Lasswell says that political socialization ‘unquestionable meets the criterion
of significance in as much as it is an important feature of every past, present
and the future body of politics. Every community transmits with varying
degrees of success the mature practice of its culture to the immature. Every
stable sub -culture engage in a parallel process since it also distinguishes
between participation by the mature and the immature’.
Political Socialisation ‘is the process by which pol itical culture are
maintained and changed through the performance of this function
individuals are inducted into the political culture, their orientations towards
political objects are formed’. In other words it refers ‘is the process by
which political c ulture are maintained and changed through the
performance of this function individuals are inducted into the political
culture, their orientations towards political objects are formed’. In other
words it refers to the learning process by which norms and be haviour
appropriate to a well running political system are transferred from one
generation to another. Thus the aim of this concept is to train or develop the
individual in a way that they become well -functioning members of a
political community. Obviously it has a peculiarly psychological dimension
in the sense that it is the gradual learning of the norms, attitude and behavior munotes.in
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46 Political Sociology
46 acceptable to an ongoing political system. The process of political
socialization generally acts in a casual or imperceptible mann er. The study
of this concept is the means by which people learn political values and
morals not simply during active political participation but also in the stage
before they involve in an explicitly political activity. Thus its seen that
political social isation would integrate all political learning whether formal
or informal, or whether deliberate and unplanned at each stage of the cycle
of his life, including not only explicitly political leaning which affect
political behavior such as the learning whic h affect political behavior such
as the learning of the politically irrelevant social attitudes and the
acquisition of politically relevant personal characteristics.
The main emphasis of the concept of Political Socialisation is on the
transmission of pol itical moral from one generation to another. Political
Socialisation desires to achieve the goals of political stabilization. It stands
in the premise that a political system cannot function smoothly unless the
process of the internalization of political n orms and values are at work
simultaneously.
Check your progress Exercise 3:
1) What is Socialisation? Discuss the nature and essential elements of
Political Socialisation?
____________________________________________________________
_____________________ _______________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________ _______________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
4.3.3 Agents of Political Socialisation:
The process of Political Socialisation takes place through following agents.
1. Family: Family is the primary socialization s tructure encountered by
the individuals. It sets the entire socializaing process in motion and
retains an impact on the child over a long period of time. Family plays
a distinctive role in shaping child’s attitudes towards authority. An
early experience of participation in decision making process increases
the child sense of political competence provides him with skills for
political interactions and as such enhances the probability of his actual
participation in the political system when the child becomes an adult.
Family of the chile forms future political viewpoints by pushing the
individual in a gigantic social world.
2. School: School structure is the second powerful influence in political
socialization. School provides the adolescent citizen with know ledge
about the political world and the role in it to be played. It provides munotes.in
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47 Social and Political Dynamics children with more concrete perceptions of political institutions and
relationship. Generally the schooling pattern is turned in conformity
to the political ideology of the countr y. In practically all the state
schools form the basis of the socio -political system which not only
educate but also train the future responsible members of the nation.
Schools can play an important role in shaping attitudes about the
unwritten rules of th e political game, as the traditional British Public
Schools instill the values of public duty, informal political relations
and political integrity. Other higher educational institutions like
college and universities also play an important role in bringing about
political socialization among the grown up children.
3. Peer Group: The early childhood friends in the neighbourhood are
first person with whom children interact outside the family and they
appreciate their friends and their friend circle to a great extent. Friends
share in a conspicuous way and affect the actions of the children and
in building their socio -political actions. A peer -group by its activities
wants to influence the individual or puts pressure on him to accept its
ideas and attitudes an individual may become involved in political
activities because of the influence of his close friends.
4. Work Place: Work place experience in jobs occupations in formal
and informal organization also play remarkable role in the process of
political social ization. Participation in strikes collective
demonstration and other union activities help the individual in
shaping his political ideology, value stance and group behavior.
5. Political Parties: The role played by the government mechanism and
the politic al parties in the process of political socialization can’t be
ignored. Individual’s direct link with the functioning of government
structures effectively shapes his attitudes towards the political system.
The role of political parties that is more diffuse because of their need
to win wider support. The role of the government as a whole must be
looked into particularly in countries like West Germany and Russia
where financial support is given by the state to voluntary youth groups
and organization to encoura ge political education.
6. Mass Media: The role of mass media which today have become the
major instrument in mass media communication system. Exposure to
mass media is very important for the development of political
orientation among the individual. Peop le get excessive information
about politics from mass media. Mass communication has gained
importance today so far as it has been trying to maintain feedback
mechanism and research techniques for the assessment and
interpretation of public opinion. Mass me dia have been considered as
surveillance of the environment and its ‘watchdog roles’. Doing so
the mass media assist in encouraging political values along with social
values. They serve as the store house of political information
distributor of political m essage and powerful makes of public opinion. munotes.in
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48 Political Sociology
48 4.4 POLITICAL PART ICIPATION - DEFINITIO N,
TYPES, LEVEL OF POLI TICAL PARTICIPATION,
FACTORS AFFECTING PO LITICAL
PARTICIPATION:
Literally ‘political involvement’ means taking part in political activities. A
comp ulsory element in every political system is political participation. In
other words, political participation is a necessary ingredient of every
political system. Man is a social animal and necessarily a political animal.
Political participation refers to v oluntary activities of people. By involving
in the different matters of the state, political participation fosters stability,
order by reinforcing the legitimacy of political authority. A society which
consists of substantial part of the people, their part icipation is highly
explosive. In a non -democratic system political participation seems to be
well nurtured. Political participation assumes greater importance in a
democratic set up. Participation is a principal means by which consent is
granted or withdr awn in a democracy and the rules are made accountable to
the ruled. Political participation are always very high in modern stable
democracies. Political participation is too much complex phenomenon
liable to be influenced by variety of variables. Variable have a great impact
on the nature and extent of political participation. The main objective of
participation is to influence decision making.
Political involvement or participation is an important concept of research
and analysis by social scientists. It is the distinguishing mark of the modern
state. People participate in politics and are affected by politics. Modern
society is participant society whereas traditional society is non -participant.
In democracy we witness high level of political participation . Political acts
includes many more things such as obeying laws, paying taxes, expressing
support for government, working in a government projects, voting in
elections etc. are sometimes considered participatory acts. For political
participation will or in tention is more important. The main aim of
participation is to influence the decision making process. Political
participation can be analysed from both the broader and narrower angles. In
broader sense citizens participate in variety of issues. In particul ar we do
not limit our concern to the citizens participation in the electoral process
through voting and campaigning, citizens also control government officials.
They act as the instruments of control. Citizens try to influence government
decisions in rela tion to specific problems that concern them. There are
number of opportunities in modern democratic societies to participate in
politics. They participate in elections, become member of political parties,
freedom of speech, freedom of assembly and freedom of press. People share
in the selection of the rulers directly and indirectly, have role in the
formation of public policy. These activities include voting, seeking
information, discussing, attending public meetings, contributing financially
and communicat ing with representatives, speech writing, speech making,
registering voters, working in campaign etc. In the traditional societies only
the tribal heads, chiefs, regional leaders and landlords participated. They
simply engaged in political activity designe d by someone else. munotes.in
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49 Social and Political Dynamics The main purpose of participation in brief are;
1. Trying to influence the government - national and local.
2. Promoting individual and family welfare.
3. Promoting neighborhood facilities.
Who are politically active? An activist in politics is a person:
1. Better educated more well -to-do are much more likely to be active.
2. Who is a member of political organization
3. Who gives money to a political candidate.
4. Who frequently attends pol itical meetings.
5. Who takes part in electoral campaigns.
6. Who writes letters, articles on political topics.
7. Who talks about politics to the people,
8. Participation in processions and demonstration.
9. Distributing campaign literature.
10. Raisi ng or collecting funds.
11. Getting out the voter.
12. Contacting party leaders and government officials for help in solving
problems, and
13. Voting.
Prof. Milbrath classifies individuals on the basis of their political
participation into four categories , namely -gladiators, transitional, spectator
and apathetic. Ranking them in a descending order, he describes the most
highly politically active individuals as gladiators. They enthusiastically
participate in the functioning of political parties, contest va rious types of
elections and manage election campaigns. Next come transitionals who only
attend party meetings, contribute subscription to them and do such other
things. Following them are the spectators who do not only cast their vote,
but also participat e in processions, carry party flags etc. At the lowest rung
are the apathetic, these are persons who are politically indifferent and
disinterested. We in India too have all these types of persons among us.
4.4.1 Activities of Political Participation:
According to J.L. Woodword and F. Robert, political participation involves;
1. Voting at the Polls: The most important participation in a democracy
is the right of adult franchise. In the absence of this right democracy
is not possible. Thus in democracy the adult male and female have the
right to participate in elections. The age of participation however
varies in different countries from 18 to 21 years. munotes.in
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50 Political Sociology
50 2. Communication by Legislators: Modern democracies are generally
indirect the member of the people are so large that they cannot directly
participate in the political activities. Hence in most of the countries
people elect members of legislature. Before elections the candidate
contact the voters, educate them and ask for their votes. After
elections success ful candidates to the legislatures will constantly
maintain contact with the people. The voters also maintain direct
personal contact with the legislators since they have elected them for
the solution of their own problems. Some of them even threaten the
legislators that if they do not, solve their problems they will not allow
them to win future elections. The legislators who fail to do so or who
do not maintain public contact should not hope for victory in future
elections.
3. Participation in Political P arty: Every democracy has two or more
political parties. Each political party has a specific ideology and it
constantly propagates. This propagation is done by political workers
who are active members of a political party. Most of the political
parties hav e their network of workers in every village of the country.
Some political parties, however, are regional in character. Democracy
allows people to form any political party and actively participate in
any political group.
4. Propaganda of Public Opinion: Before elections and almost all the
time after it every political party tries to propagate its ideology more
and more. Each party as a right to propagate its ideas everywhere
through newspaper, magazines, platform and other means of
communication. Most of t he propagation is done through the lectures
by political leaders.
The above discussion makes it clear that in every state political participation
affective all the time and everywhere. In every country some political
activities are happening all the time and this is carried out by the
newspapers. Political movement are waged and activities of political
participation increased. No party ever sits idle. Those who are elected to
legislatures are busy in acting for their political party. Each political party
has political leaders from the village to the national level who are always
busy in political activities involving hundreds and thousands and sometimes
millions of persons. This may be seen in India. Before the election the speed
of political participation very much increases. From time to time the local
and national political issues are taken up to maintain activity, not only the
political issues but even non -political problems become the base of political
movements. Meetings are organized, processions take n out, memoranda
submitted and demonstrations are held. This type of political participation
is going on in every city in some form or the other almost all the time.
Check your progress Exercise 4:
1) Write different activities of Political Participation?
_____ _______________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________munotes.in
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51 Social and Political Dynamics ____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
______________ ______________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
4.4.2 Types of Political Participation:
Milbrath’s classification tends to show that political participation basically
is of four types.
1. Active: Active participation is one where people are able to bear the
costs. Costs in terms of money, time, resources, energy and so on. If
these costs are easily beared it is an active participation.
2. Passive: All people do not want to devote time, energy or money in
political activities. These people cannot be called as active
participants. They are known as passive participants. They are only
spectators. There are differences in income and resour ces. It is not
possible to all the people to bear these costs. They are not easily
available to all the people. Due to lack of resources, peoples
participation is not direct and active but it is negative and passive. The
people develops a sense of remotene ss. Participation is passive in the
sense they are unable to participate. Participation is possible only to
the rich people. They have resources, income leisure. Men differs in
terms of money and resources. So, political participation also differs
in men. All the people do not want to devote their time, energy or
money in political activities. These people cannot be called as active
participants. In other words, they are only spectators.
3. Instrumental: Instrumental political participation is essentially
directed to the achievement of concrete goals like securing party
victory or the passing of a Bill of just a rise in one’s status or
influence. Such type of participation is called as ins trumental. In
instrumental participation the person aims of achieving definite
purposes.
4. Expressive: It does not aim at the realization of any concrete goal. It
is concerned with some immediate satisfaction or a mere release of
feeling. It is directed towards a feeling of satisfaction. Expressive
participation does not have any definite objects. It only aims at
satisfaction. It is concerned with some immediate satisfaction. People
vote not to get any benefit from it but because they get satisfaction.
They participate because they have voting rights. There is no concrete
goal, no profit and no reward. It is a feeling of satisfaction that we
voted. Voting in the elections itself is a feeling of satisfaction. It is in
the sense that they gets satisfaction. Many voters vote for the
satisfaction. They are least worried about the victory of the candidate.
Thus some vote not because they are much interested in the political
results flowing from the elections. munotes.in
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52 Political Sociology
52 Classification of the voters as given by Verba and N ie: According to Verba
and Nie voters are divided into six types. These provide basis for political
participation.
1. Inactive: They constitute 22%. These inactive do not take part or
involved in political life at all. They constitutes political apathies or
political inactiveness.
2. The Voting Specialists: They constitute 21%. They simply vote and
do not do anything other than voting. They are voting specialists or
experts. They do not know extra.
3. The Parochial Participation: They constitute 4%. These persons only
vote but also maintain contacts or relations with the government of
public officials for achieving or securing special benefits with selfish
motives. They expect something from officials.
4. The Communalists: They constitute 20%. They not on ly vote, but also
engage in community actions for collective benefits. They vote and
also engage in community actions.
5. The Campaigners: They constitute 15%. They engage only in
campaigning elections, but not in other activities.
6. The Complete Activi sts: They constitute 11%. They engage in all
activities of political life. They are complete activists. They actively
involved in public life and political life.
Check your progress Exercise 5:
1) Discuss the classification of the voters as given by Verba and Nie?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_______ _____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
4.4.3 Factors of Political Participation:
Political participation is a comple x phenomenon which cannot be expressed
so easily. It is too complex. Too many variables work behind political
participation. It is the outcome of complex psychological, social and
political factors. These factors both promote and retard one’s will to
participate in political activities. By and large we can give the following
factors of political participation.
1. Psychological Factors:
a. Urge for Power: Participation provides psychological
satisfaction to man. Man is a curious animal. Men are munotes.in
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53 Social and Political Dynamics psychologic ally motivated to be in power and to seek power.
Men always seek power because of his happiness. He feel that
happiness in being powerful. Generally he seeks power to
achieve justice and to protect and safeguard the interests of all.
Power serves many ends . Political leaders seeks satisfaction
from political activities. Consciously or unconsciously political
leaders seeks satisfaction from the political activities. He has a
sense of power, pride and achieves social regard. In a society
where political activ ities are valuable more people will take a
recourse to political participation. Therefore it is a natural that
there is tough competition in the political filed.
b. Loneliness: Politics may offer new and many opportunities to
the lonely man. The excuse ma y be politics. Individual
participates in politics due to loneliness. Men does not want to
live and lead an isolated life or lonely life. He wants the
friendship and company of others. His anger, sympathy,
emotions these are all introduced by his participa tion. Common
activities create bonds of friendship. Psychology is more
important. It is the study of mind. Without the company of
others it is very difficult to lead a life. Politics offer lonely man
many opportunities. Aristotle, father of political scien ce long
ago said ‘a man who wants to live alone be may be either a beast
of a God. He may be sub -human or a super -human. If a man
lives in isolation his anger, wants, tensions and emotions are not
said by other. They will be found very much lonely. Formerl y,
they used to be surrounded by people all the time. They feel
frustration, this is no more. He finds a life a lonely burden.
Further political participation is determined by unconscious
conflicts and tensions. Politics is the important means of
releasing unconscious tensions and conflicts. Politics removes
or releases internal conflicts and tensions. Politics keeps him
free from mental conflict. Conflicts may arise either in his
family or social circle.
If he wants psychological satisfaction he has to pa rticipate. Whatever
strikes men it strikes that to mind. He gets psychological satisfaction
if he is with others, with his fellow beings. He becomes frustrated if
he lives alone. There is a psychological upset. Where is the sympathy
of others when man gets angry. He should live in the company of
others so as to lead a better and the happy life. Friendship, contacts
comes only through the common activities. Common activities create
the bonds of friendship. Everyone wants psychological satisfaction.
Man is a social, political as well as curious animal and curiosity is the
mother of invention. An isolated life is the most worst and frustrated
life. That is why psychological environment or stimuli is the basis of
political participation. Participation may be at tributed to conscious or
unconscious psychological elements. munotes.in
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54 Political Sociology
54 2. Social Factors:
Besides psychological factors, social factors, are also important basis
of political participation. Social environment comprises one’s own
religion, language, caste etc. The m ost important social factors are
education, occupation, income, age, residence, mobility, sex, religion,
race, class and so on and so forth. Thus it contains number of
elements.
a. Education: It is the most important factor influencing political
participa tion. Education widens or increase man’s field of
interests. The educated person is more conscious towards his
duties and responsibilities. Educated man is respected and
honoured everywhere. He has more self -confidence and ability
and therefore he can easi ly propagate his ideas. Thus he has
more ability of political participation. Education undoubtedly is
a very important factor of political participation. The higher
level of literacy, the larger is the turnout in elections.
b. Occupation: People who holds high posts or occupation or
profession there is a higher level of participation in political life
of public life. And those persons who holds the post of clerks,
attenders, peons their participation is low because they do not
get any leisure. They do not have time. That is why they cannot
show the higher rate of political participation. The same is true
in the case of labourers, manual worker etc. A clerical job is the
lowest or worst job. It denies the clerk to participate in public
life. They have less s ecurity in their work. As the clerical staff
work for long hours their political participation in such cases is
bound to be low. But as goes on high posts there is a higher level
of political participation. They have the time to discuss about
politics. The re is leisure. They enjoy both the leisure and
pleasure. No overtime. That is why the teachers and the
government servants participates maximum in the political life
in almost every country. In occupation most of the persons have
to face identical problems which brings them near to each other.
Occupation provides more occasions for political participation.
Teachers, government employees exhibit maximum
participation.
c. Women: Male members participates more in politics than the
woman why? By and large wome n in developing countries like
India are dominated by men. In other words, they are male
dominated. Further they are less informed about political issues
and public figures. Women are tradition lovers. Women have
number of responsibilities at home. Silence is here virtue.
Women are more involved in their families. So she is engaged
more in the family activities. The most important obstacle is her
children. They do not have the leisure as husbands have. Her
preoccupation is with the family. They are more bus y in their
family affairs. Women have to face number of problems that is munotes.in
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55 Social and Political Dynamics family problem, husband problem, children’s problems and her
own problems. That accounts for their low participation. Their
mobility is too low. They are more submissive to culture,
politically less competent. Further they are detached and are less
interested in politics. She is controlled by her husband father in
law and mother in laws. Females are generally more
conservative. Husband and other members of the family does
not permit he r to participate in politics. They have higher ethics,
more stability, higher cultural values which makes them misfit
or unfit in politics. Still, there are some women who participates
more in politics.
d. Age: Persons who have reached or attained the age of 55 and
above participate less in politics. That marks the end of their
active life. They lose self -confidence and thereby affects the
rate of participation. They do not, want to participate in political
life. No interest they take in politics with the age their mental
and physical abilities decreases. We find lower participation
among retired persons. They do not maintain political contacts.
Their interest definitely decrease. Their participation is too low.
Among the old and retired persons their menta l and physical
abilities decrease with age but their political status influence
and power increases. This is found even in the developing
countries like India. But with the increase of age political
participation and political interest definitely decreases . We find
lower participation among the retired persons.
e. Residence: People who belong to the well -to-do sections of
society, high level of income and education, live in
sophisticated houses and respectable localities takes greater
interest in politic al activities. It is a common phenomenon that
outsiders are not allowed to lead in the politics of the village,
city or constituency. As a rule, the leaders should have
permanent residence within the field of his leadership.
Permanent residence introduces him to local politics and
extends the period of contact with the local persons. His
manners, habits, conduct, language, problems, ambitions and
ways of thinking and behaving are according to local patterns.
Therefore he has more occasions for political par ticipation.
Those who are outsiders have very few occasions to participate
in local politics. As a general rule rural leaders are not as much
affective in urban areas. Thus, permanent residence along with
permanent occupation influences political participa tion. Those
who have occasionally change residence, face transfers are so
much involved in solving their personal problems and they are
left with little interest for political participation.
f. Income: Besides education, occupation, sex, income has an
important influence upon political participation. Higher income
provides leisure, diminishes his worries and give more
occasions for political contacts. They become naturally more munotes.in
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56 Political Sociology
56 active in politics. Income influences political participation.
Thus higher inc ome group persons participate more in politics
than lower income groups. And those who are highly oppressed
by the problems of bread and butter and they do not have either
time for understanding of political process. The level of political
participation of such people are generally very low.
3. Political Factors:
Besides the social factors, the political factors are also an important
determinants of political participation.
a. Attitudes of Government: If the field of politics is too vast, if
the politica l map of the country is too large, if the machinery of
political communication does not function properly, if the
government rules are rigid, if the institutions are too
complicated with rigid rules then participation is low or falls.
Then people develops somewhat a feeling of remoteness and
that seriously affects the rate of their political participation. On
the other hand, if the election rules are simple, participation is
high and easy. People will take more part in elections. If there
are more open comp etition, if government institutions are based
on well -established rules and procedures then participation is
high. If government encourages vote they vote in large
numbers. On the other hand, if the government discourages
people the rate of political parti cipation falls. Too much or too
low confidence in the government lowers the rate of political
participation. National and international crisis increase political
participation. Conductive atmosphere automatically inculcate
in the people an urge to take par t in political affairs of the
society. Political participation is high in West Austria, New
Zealand, England rather than third world countries like Iraq,
Iran, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal, Sri Lanka etc.
b. Political Parties: Political parties also play a n important role in
political participation. They play both expressive and
instrumental roles. In other words, their role is partly expressive
and partly instrumental. Political parties are the ‘Association of
men’. They bring about awakening among the peo ple. They also
induce people to participation in political activities. ‘No parties,
no democracy’. Political parties take the opinion of the people
to the government. They are the media of expression of the
demands of the people. Then extend political edu cation. They
bring about political awareness and awakening among the
people. They are the media. They always attempt to capture
power. They aims at bringing social consciousness. Political
parties encourage people to participate in politics. They
highlight political problems and suggest remedies. It arouses
symbolic force among its members. It plays a bit of practical
role in bringing people closer to the process. At the time of
elections, they choose the candidate propagate in the election munotes.in
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57 Social and Political Dynamics constituencies, explain the process of voting and extend
physical cooperation in making the election a success.
Thus political parties are closely related to the political
participation. Sometimes political parties wage movements.
Different types of political movements i ncrease political
participation. Each party has a large literature which is
distributed among the people on nominal payment. By reading
this literature the people increase their political knowledge.
They formulates programmes of action called ‘manifestos’,
nominate candidates, conduct election campaign and so on and
so forth. Thus political parties educate and train the people to
participate in political life. They are the important vehicles to
communicate the political opinions, ideology, principles to the
masses. Their diverse and varied activities stimulate the
common man’s interest in politics, provide an opportunity and
to act as a forum to participate in politics.
c. Elections: Free, fair and fearless election is the foundation or
corner stone of demo cracy. Besides political parties election
also influence political participation. Through elections one
may understand what are the central issues in current national
politics, how to judge them, who are the candidates in the
elections, where to find voter ’s register, how to search one’s
name in it, which polling station one would have to go and what
is the procedure of casting one’s vote. Thus elections looks like
a very convincing.
Besides these factors, other factors are also there which influences
political participation.
4. Bureaucracy:
Another important institution which has contributed to the rise in the
level of political participation is bureaucracy. It is a government by
experts of specialists. Bureaucracy manages numerous types of
operations, regulatory and developmental in nature. Bureaucracy is
based on documents and files. It has enabled to villagers to develop a
meaningful interaction with the world outside. To them, a
development officer, a tahsildar or even a police officer rings a ray of
modernity. Their actions their way of living and conducting are
limited by the villagers. Their role is important in solving of some of
economic development and social problems. It ind uces them to
participate in the political affairs of the community. It is playing a
very important role in the community development programmes in
which people participate. That helped them forget or cast off their
traditional ignorance, lethargy and polit ical indifference. As a result
villagers are now mixing with all types of activity including political
one. It may be however, be mentioned at the end that the improvement
in the villages, political participation does not entirely owe itself to
bureaucracy . The role of other factors, of course cannot be forgotten. munotes.in
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58 5. Populist Politics:
Another booster is the populistic nature of politics. It has a well -
established political strategy of the leaders. In this populistic political
issues and slogans plays a ve ry important role. These slogans catch
the sentiments of even the layman in the street and if possible arouse
his sentiments and emotions. These catchy, issues and slogans
stimulate the interests of the people in politics of the society. In this
connection s, we may refer to Gandhiji’s ‘Salt Satyagraha’. The
British had banned the manufacture of salt by the people. Gandhiji
was a great psychologist and he choose this commodity not because
it is cheap, but because it was used by each and every person in the
country. He led the historic ‘Dandi March’ to the sea and violated the
ban by making the salt himself. His march aroused a lot of enthusiasm
of the people. This single issue of salt contributed to the democratic
feature of political participation to an exte nt the extent that no amount
of speech making and resolution passing could do.
When decisions are taken in open, democratic manner, people treat
them as their own decisions and willingly and voluntarily accept
them, popular decisions command greater accept ability and are less
liable to be violated by the people. In recent years, late Mrs. Indira
Gandhi raised the ‘Garibi Hatao’ slogan and remarkably swept the
polls. Thus we find that populistics politics or policies constitute a
very important factor capabl e of pushing the people into the politics.
Slogans like ‘Jai Hind’ (long live India), Garibi Hatao’(remove
poverty), ‘Chhota Parivar Sukhi Parivar’ (small family happy family),
‘Ham do - Hamare do’, (we two - ours two), ‘Jiyo aur Jine Do’ (live
and let live) , ‘Mera Bharat Mahan’ (our India is great), are some of
the popular slogans emerged in the recent years.
6. Democratic Decentralisation:
Still another institutional device which has relevance to political
participation is that of democratic decentralizat ion. When power is
decentralized and vested in villages, towns and their elected councils
the residents of those localities feel interested in decision making
process. Their pleasure and enthusiasm increases. These bodies
immediately, touch upon their welf are. There is not direction and
command of any outside authority. Their interest gradually increases.
By and large they begin participating in the political activities of the
higher decision making councils.
At the village there is an institution called ‘ Gram Sabha’ and it has
been established in the context of the Panchayati Raj. The Gram
Sabha is a body of the whole adult population of the village. It holds
its sessions periodically and discusses and disposes of all the relevant
issues concerning the wel fare of the local community. To sum up,
democratic decentralization is a significant institutional device or
method to enhance the people’s sense of participation in political
actives. munotes.in
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59 Social and Political Dynamics 7. Issues and Ideologies:
Sometimes certain issues or situations emerg e which deeply affect the
functioning and the wellbeing of the system. They are widely defeated
attracting attention of everyone. Sometimes, debates are so serious
that individuals becomes active. These issues emerges suddenly. And
they have a great impact on the nature and level of political
participation. Political participation is associated with political
awareness. Voters may not be aware of the multiple and complex
issues. Some are strongly motivated by a single issue or some
important issues. Awarene ss affects the quality and amount of
participation. Political activities are likely to be aware of political
issues as compared to the ordinary citizens. For eg. internal
emergency declared the Mrs. Indira Gandhi. It was declared in June
1975 and lasted ti ll the beginning of the year 1977. The whole
phenomena of emergency in general and family planning issue in
particular had become highly controversial. As a result voters turnout
at the Lok Sabha poll jumped. It was 55.22 percent in 1971, but
turnout in 19 77 rose to 60.54 percent, issues like ideologies also play
a significant role in boosting up the level of political participation. In
this context, a reference may be made of communist ideology. It has
created the awareness and sensitiveness among the work ers and the
village farmers and makes them to take an increasing interest in
political activities.
4.5 LET’S SUM UP
The concept of Political Culture had developed after the 2nd World War, it
is important for any political system as it shapes the attitude, beliefs,
opinions and ideas of people towards the political system. The political
system of a country is influenced by its political culture.
Agents of political socialization influence, in one degree or another, the
individual’s political opinions. Such agents are family, peer groups, media,
educational institution etc. Political socialization is a concept concerning
the study of the developmental process by which children acquire political
cognition, attitudes and behaviour. Mostly political opinions are formed
during once childhood and political ideologies are influenced by the family
members.
Political participation not only deals with engagement with government and
the state but also with the active involvement in civil society. In modern
democracy, p eople govern themselves through their elected representatives.
4.6 MODEL QUESTIONS:
1. Briefly describe the term political socialisation and describe the
agents of political socialization?
2. What is political culture write its importance? munotes.in
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60 3. Define poli tical participation. Explain various types of political
participation in a democracy.
4. Explain the Determinants of Political Culture?
Write Short note on:
1. Political Culture.
2. Level of political participation.
3. Agencies of Political Socialisation .
4.7 REFERENCES:
1. Agarwal R.C., (1989), ‘Political Theory [Principles of Political
Science]’, S. Chand & Company Ltd.
2. Ali Ashraf & Sharma L.N., (2004), ‘Political Sociology: A New
Grammar of Politics’, Universities Press.
3. Farnen R.F., (2008), ‘ Political Culture, Socialization, Democracy and
Education: Interdisciplinary and Cross -national Perspectives for a
New Century’, Peter Lang.
4. Hague R., & Harrop M., (2001), ‘Comparative Government and
Politics - An Introduction’, Palgrave.
5. Johari J.C ., (2007), ‘Comparative Politics’, Sterling Publishers
Private Ltd.
6. Misra K.K., & Iyengar K.M., (1988), ‘Modern Political Theory’, S.
Chand & Company Ltd.
7. Pye L.W & Verba S., (2015), ‘Political Culture and Political
Development’, Princeton University Press.
8. Ray A., & Bhattacharya M., (1992), ‘Political Theory: Ideas and
Institutions’, The World Press Private Ltd.
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