Communication-Theory-munotes

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INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
Unit Structure
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Characteristics of Communication
1.4 Types of Communication
1.5 Objectives of Mass Communication
1.6 Theories of Mass Communication
1.7 Models of Mass Communication
1.8 Summary
1.9 Questions
1.10 References
1.1 OBJECTIVES 1. To understand the term communication and its importance
2. To know the characteristics of communication
3. To understand the various theories and models of mass
communication
1.2 INTRODUCTION A human b eing is a social animal. He cannot survive without
communication. He has to live in the society in which he influences the
society and also gets influenced by society. One can't live in isolation. In
The film Cast Away the protagonist is castaway on an u ninhabited island.
He is the only man stranded on the island. Though he succeeds in
surviving by making some arrangements for his living, he feels isolated.
To spend his time better, he brings a ball from the rubble of the wrecked
plane and paints eyes, n ose, mouth on the ball and talks to that ball. This
way he tries to communicate and keep his spirits up. People want to
express their joy, mirth, desire, wish, thought etc. to each other all the
time. One cannot simply suppress this. It is human to express . In the old
days, society would excommunicate a person if he or she needed to be
punished for some reason. Excommunication was considered to be one of
the stringent punishments. The person would be cut away from society.
This tells us the importance of co mmunication in one's life.
Communication is as old as mankind. In the ancient days, man
communicated using gestures, facial expressions, painting, drawing and
imitating various sounds of birds, animals when the language was not
evolved. Since then, communi cation has come a long way. The methods of munotes.in

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2 communication have evolved and the mediums of communication have
changed. Various inventions like the invention of paper, woodblock
printing, movable types, Gutenberg's printing technique, steam engine,
telegraph, radio, TV, internet have revolutionized communication
throughout the history of mankind.
Communication means any transmission of a meaningful message which
is understood. If the message is not complete and meaningful, it cannot be
fully understood. If the medium chosen is faulty, the message may not be
received. If there is no receiver of the message or he/she is unable to
decipher the message the communication is not complete. In such cases, it
could be either miscommunication or no communication. Transmi ssion of
the message becomes communication only when it is understood,
acknowledged and reacted to by the receiver of the message. In the
communication process, both the sender of the message and the receiver of
the message are important. The word communic ation has been derived
from the Latin term 'communis' which means to make common, to impart
or to transmit a message. One can use words as well as actions, gestures,
body language, dress, secret code, facial expressions etc. to communicate
effectively.
1.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMUNICATION Communication is a two -way process :
One needs to have a sender and the receiver in the communication
process. The sender encodes and sends the message and the receiver
receives and interprets the message. This way, both pe ople can make
communication possible.
Communication is a flux :
It means it is never a static process. It is an ongoing process as it is a
cyclic process. The meaning of words are dynamic.They change as per the
context, socio -cultural factors etc.
The meani ng of the message depends upon various socio -cultural
factors and contexts :
Different contexts can give a different meaning to the same word. The
same word or the same gesture may have different meanings in different
cultures. For example in some parts o f the Western world kissing on the
cheek is considered as a way of greeting but that may not be considered as
a way of greeting in countries like India. It could be considered an obscene
act in the Indian continent. Language is the medium of communication
and we know very well that language itself is very flexible. The meaning
of any message or text would depend upon the various factors. The
reader's understanding of the text also depends upon various factors like
his own comprehension level and social -cultural background. The
language uses symbols to communicate. Words are nothing but symbols
and the words may give multiple meanings. The meaning of the words munotes.in

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3 Communication Theory may change or add on over the years. For example, 30 to 40 years ago the
word mobile meant 'able to move' a different meaning than it perceived
today. The moment someone utters the word mobile we perceive it to be a
mobile device used for communication.
Communication requires a channel :
It needs to be sent through a medium through which the message can be
sent. With the help of words, gestures, actions, signs, symbols etc. one can
communicate. One can send the message through Radio, TV, newspaper,
books etc. At least one medium is required to communicate.
1.4 TYPES OF CO MMUNICATION There are three type s of communication: Interpersonal communication,
business communication and mass communication.
Interpersonal Communication : Communication between two or more
persons at the personal level is considered as interpersonal
communication. Ex. a group of friend s, family members having a talk at a
dinner table etc.
Business Communication : A communication process in which business
is the core of the message. Trade agreements, reports, memos, meetings,
notices, interviews, sales letters, order letters, emails etc. are some
examples of business communication.
Mass Communication : A communi cation process in which a large
number of people are addressed to. TV, Radio, Newspapers, and digital
platforms are examples of mass media. According to The Oxford
dictionary, ―Mass Communication is the imparting or exchanging of
information on a large scale to a wide range of people.‖ Mass
communication has a larger and undifferentiated audience. Low unit costs
to the customers and rapid distribution and delivery are the other featur es
of Mass Communication. Before the introduction of mass communication,
people used to physically communicate with each other, which was time -
consuming and had minimal reach. Usually the sender of the message in
mass communication is a professional commun icator who communicates
with mass in order to impart knowledge, inform, educate or entertain.
Mass communication caters to a large number of heterogeneous audiences.
According to Dennis McQuail, ―Mass communication comprises the
institutions and techniques by which press, radio, television, film and to
disseminate symbolic contents to a large, heterogeneous and widely
dispersed audience.‖
1.5 OBJECTIVES OF MASS COMMUNICATION Some of the objectives of mass communication are as under :
1. To inform
2. To educate munotes.in

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4 3. To entertain
4. To impart knowledge
5. To persuade the target audience
6. To be a link between the government and the audience
1.6 THEORIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION Mass media has a tremendous effect on the audience. In order to study this
effect, understanding the theor ies of mass communication is crucial. Mass
communication theory began with humans transmitting messages to
multiple receivers from a single source.
The prominent theories of Mass Communication are:
1. Authoritarian Theory
2. Free Press Theory
3. Social Responsibility Theory
4. Development Media Theory
5. Alternative Media Theory
We will now look at the prominent theories in detail :
1) Authoritarian Theory :
This theory came into existence in the 16th and 17th Century. This theory
suggests that all forms of communication are under the direct control of
the government or influential bureaucrats. If it is not under direct control ,
the media and press are expected to respect the authority. They must
consider themselves subordinates to the authority and should not
communicate anything that is offensive to them. Journalists do not have
much room to voice their opinions and thoughts. Before their reports are
published , they have to be submitted to the respective authority for
censorship. Censorship is th e s uppression of speech, public
communication, or other information. In an authoritarian setup, the
authority or the government considers censorship to protect and prevent
people from national threats. Any media under this setup has to strictly
follow the gui delines of the authority. Any violation can lead to the
revoking of the license the media holds.
2) Free Press Theory :
Free Press theory is on the theories of Normative theories. Normative
theory is a justified explanation of how public disclosure should b e carried
out to find solutions to the problems. It tries to explain how public
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5 Communication Theory Free Press theory is also known as Libertatrian Theory. It suggests that a
person is free to publish his/her ideas and thoughts and no one should
restrict it. This theory came into existence in the 16th Century a nd was
advocated by John Milton , an English poet.
Under this setup, there is no censorship. Any one can speak for or against
the authority, It is based on the fundamental right o f freedom of
expression.
3) Social Responsibility Theory :
This theory is between the two extremes, i.e Authoritarian Theory and
Free Press Theory. Under this theory, the media is free to express its
opinions. They are free from government censorship. Howev er, when
dispersing the news they have to also keep in mind the impact it will have
on the society as well.
According to Sibert, Peterson and Schramm -
―Freedom of expression under the social responsibility theory is not an
absolute right, as under pure lib ertarian theory. One‘s right to free
expression must be balanced against the private rights of others and
against vital society interest.‖
4) Alternative Media Theory :
These are media sources which are different from the mainstream media
or mass media. The se media sources are called subversive, grassroots,
progessive, anarchist, radical, under -ground, independent, dissident etc.
The word ‗alternate‘ literally defines the theory. Alternative media have
an objective of bringing change towards a more equitable social, cultural
and economic whole in which the individual is not reduced to an object.
Alternative media highlights non -commercial projects. It tries to reach out
to the marginalized section who are excluded from mainstream media.
5) Development Media T heory :
This theory was proposed by Dennis Mcquail. This theory states that in
developing nations, the media must support the government when it is
trying to develop the nation. It should be supportive than critical of the
government as any bad news may ham per the economic growth of the
nation. It is expected that the media promotes the policies of the
government which are towards the development of the nation, promotion
of socio economic and political lives of the people
1.7 MODELS OF MASS COMMUNICATION Mass communication models help in understanding the concepts better.
Generally, the models of mass communication are classified into three
broad categories: linear, interactive and transactional. A one way model of
communication is called a linear model of co mmunication. A
communication in which sender and receiver alternate the positions is
called interactive communication. Transactional model of communication munotes.in

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6 suggests that the participants simultaneously communicate as sender and
receiver.
Following are the common models of mass communication:
 Aristotle‘s Model of Communication
 Shannon – Weaver Model of Communication
 Berlo‘s SMCR Model of Communication
 Lasswell‘s Model of Communication
 Wilber Schramm‘s Model of Communication
 The Gatekeeper Model of Communicat ion
Aristotle’s Model of Communication:
This model was developed by Aristotle around 300 B.C. This model
mainly focuses on the way the speaker speaks and influences the audience.
This is a one way communication from the speaker to the receiver
(audience). This model is used even today by politicians, army chiefs, and
managers of organizations to organize their speech. It is a tool used in
public speaking
In this model, Aristotle mentions that the speech of the speaker should
have three parts. These are conn ected to each other and the speaker must
consider these in order to deliver an influential speech.
1) Ethos: This is essentially the credibility of the speaker. It is the
reason why the audience should listen to you. Without credibility, the
words of the speaker may not be able to persuade the audience.
Credibility is the quality of being trusted and to be believed in.
For example: A politician can be credible if he/she has a past record of
working diligently for people. A person, when sick, goes to a doc tor
because doctors have a qualification to prove that they have the required
knowledge. Similarly, a person having vast experience in financial
planning enjoys credibility because of the diverse clientele he has served
over the years.
This is the first pa rt in Aristotle‘s model. A speaker, in his speech, should
clearly call out his achievements and make people believe in him. He/ She
should gain the confidence of the audience by demonstrating his
achievements, qualification, experience etc.
2) Pathos: This is establishing an emotional connection with the
audience by using various techniques like voice modulation, pauses,
anger, sadness etc.
For example: On a battlefield, the chief, with extreme passion, would talk
about how great martyrdom and patriotism i s. He would do so to
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7 Communication Theory 3) Logos: The above two i.e. Ethos and Pathos are incomplete without
Logos. Logos means the logic behind what the speaker is saying. An
audience will be influenced by the credibility and emo tional
connection with the speaker but in order to firm their confidence, the
speaker must state the logic behind his words. For Example: If a
manager is bringing about an organization wide change, his
communication should clearly call out the logic behind this activity.
Whether it will reduce costs or reduce workload of employees, the
logic has to be clearly articulated. Otherwise the audience may be left
thinking about the end result of the change.
The model can be explained through a diagram.
a) Speake r is the main piece in the model
b) A speaker delivers his/her speech considering Ethos, Pathos and
Logos
c) The occasion could be a battlefield, political rally, corporate setup.
d) Lastly the speech has an effect on the audience.
Shannon – Weaver Mo del of Communication :
This model was first developed by Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver in
1948. This is a widely accepted model due to its simplicity. The model
identifies:
1) Sender (Information source) : This is the origin of the message. It
could be a person, object or any other information source. The sender
chooses what message to send, whom to send, which medium/media
to use. The message could be oral, written, body language etc.
2) Encoder: This source converts the message from the sender into
signals that can be transmitted to the sender. It could be a device such
as telephone or a person such as a translator.
3) Channel: Also known as the medium through which the message is
relayed. If it is an email, then the medium is the internet. If it is a
mobile device, then the medium is RF waves. If it is face to face
communication, then it is sound waves.
4) Noise: Noise is anything that creeps in the medium and creates a
disturbance in the communication. Noise can be external or internal.
 Internal is when the sender mentions the wrong spelling of a
particular word or mispronounces a particular word. Similarly, when
the receiver decodes the message, he/she might interpret the meaning
of the sentence incorrectly.
 External is when the noise is out of the control of the receiver /
sender. Example could be Honking of vehicles, blaring noise from
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8 5) Decoder : Decoder is the opposite of Encoder. A source which
converts the signals from the transmitter to receiver in a way that the
sender can u nderstand.
6) Receiver (End Destination): This penultimate piece in the
communication process wherein the receiver receives the message.
7) Feedback: This is the last bit in the communication process where the
receiver affirms that the message relayed t o him/her is understood.
Berlo’s SMCR Model of Communication :
Berlo‘s SMCR model talks about 4 components in the communication
process namely Sender, Message, Channel, Receiver. These 4 components
are influenced by various factors.
Sender: The Sender is t he point where the message originates. It is the
start of the communication process. According to the model, the sender is
affected by the below
a) Communication Skills: These are skills which one uses while
receiving and imparting communication. It inclu des reading, writing,
speaking, listening etc.
b) Attitude: This means the attitude of the speaker towards the
audience.
c) Knowledge: The speaker‘s familiarity with the topic.
d) Social System: Values, beliefs, religion, mindset of society also
influen ce the sender.
e) Culture : The culture also influences the message of the Sender
Message:
a) Content: The body of the message can be understood as Content. It
has a beginning and an end.
b) Elements: These elements include body language, gestures, and facial
expressions to convey the message effectively.
c) Treatment: It refers to the way the message is conveyed, passed on
or delivered.
d) Structure: It means st ructure of the message. Example : The
beginning, main matter and conclusion
e) Code: It is the form in which the message is sent. Example text, video
etc.
Channel:
It is the medium through which the message flows from the Sender to the
Receiver. munotes.in

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9 Communication Theory It is essentially the five sense organs.
Receiver:
The Receiver is the person to whom the message is intended to be
conveyed to. He/She decodes the message. The same factors which
influence the Sender also influence the receiver.
f) Communication Skills: These are skills which one uses while
receiving and imparting communication. It includes reading, writing,
speaking, listening etc.
g) Attitude: This means the attitude of the speaker towards the
audience.
h) Knowledge: The speaker‘s familiarity with the topic.
i) Social System : Values, beliefs, religion, mindset of society also
influence the rece iver
j) Culture : The culture also influences the message of the receiver.
Lasswell’s Model of Communication :
Lasswell was an American politician. He proposed an appropriate way to
relate to a message or any communication is to answer five questions
1) Who: Who refers to the originator of the message. The point where
the communication emanates.
2) Says what: To understand/analyze the message of the Sender.
3) In which channel: This essentially means the medium through which
the Sender has transmitted the message. For Example: TV
commercials, radio, email etc.
4) To Whom: The receiver of the message. It could be an individual or a
group of people.
5) With what effect : to understand the effect on the receiver .
Example of Lasswell Model of Communicati on:
Who: Radio Presenter
Says What : Announcement of Two day National Mourning
In which channe l: Radio (Audio )
To whom : General Public
With what effect : To inform about the death of a famous personality and
to observe two day national mourning.
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10 The Gatekee per Model of Communication :
The Gatekeeper Model was developed by Kurt Lewin, a German born
American psychologist known for his work in the field of theory of
behavior. In this model, the ―Gate‖ here acts as a filter. A filter which
passed through only sel ected information to the audience. The controller
of this filter or ―Gate‖ is known as the ―Gatekeeper‖ .
The Gatekeeper is the one who gets the communication from various
sources. Based on his personal beliefs, opinions he/she filters the
information and l ets through only relevant information. It could be
discarding all that information which may be controversial, any
information which may create unrest in the society, harm the sentiments of
a particular section of the society.
For Example: A news editor of a TV news channel gets information/news
inputs from various sources and on a variety of topics. For instance, he
may get inputs on weather forecast, news on sports, politics etc. The editor
may choose to discard a few inputs as they would be of less impor tance or
may instill a political unrest etc.
Wilber Schramm’s Model of Communication :
This straightforward communication model was developed by Wilber
Schramm in 1954. This model emphasizes on the three basic elements: the
sender, t he message, and the dest ination . The model explains in detail
about encoding and decoding. According to this model, the receiver and
the sender share the common fields of experience without communication
is not possible. If the sender and receiver share the common field of
experi ence the communication becomes simple and easy. According to
Wilber Schramm the communication can be considered successful only
when the receiver understands the inte nded message of the sender. The
connotative and denotative meaning of the words learnt by the
communicator with the experience. The complexity of the message is
comprehended easily due to this learning. The superficial as well as deep
meaning can be understood by the communicator.
1.8 SUMMARY Communication is a two way process. It is the greate st distinguishing
criteria between humans and animals. Communication process has
evolved through the history of mankind. There are various types of
communication. The commun ication scholars have developed
communication theories and models. These theories a nd models help us
understand the communication system better. In the age of globalization, it
is important to communicate effectively. It will be possible with the better
understanding of the communication process through the study of theories
and models.
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11 Communication Theory 1.9 QUESTIONS 1. Explain the meaning and origin of the word communication.
2. What are the characteristics of communication?
3. Discuss the types of communication.
4. What is the importance of mass communication?
5. Discuss the objectives of mass c ommunication in detail.
6. Discuss the theories of mass communication in detail.
7. How is Authoritarian theory different from Free Press theory?
8. Elucidate Shannon – Weaver Model of Communication.
9. What is the significance of the Gatekeeper Mod el of
communication?
1.10 REFERENCES 1. Compiled by Allison, David. 2006, Media Studies Key Concepts.
2. Kumar, Keval J. 2018, Jaico Publication
3. https://www.utwente.nl/en/bms/communication -theories/
4. https://www.communicationtheory.org/authoritari an-
theory/#:~:text=Authoritarian%20theory%20describe%20that%20all,
communication%20(information%20or%20news).
5. https://www.communicationtheory.org/normative -theory -four-
theories -of-the-press
6. https://www.businesstopia.net/mass -communication/social -
respo nsibility -theory
7. https://www.communicationtheory.org/social -responsibility -theory/
8. https://newsmoor.com/four -theories -of-the-press -authoritarian -
libertarian -social -responsibility -theory/
9. http://bizzybrain2013.blogspot.com/2012/12/normative -theorie s-of-
press.html
10. https://www.communicationtheory.org/aristotle%E2%80%99s -
communication -model/ munotes.in

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12 11. https://helpfulprofessor.com/shannon -weaver -
model/#:~:text=The%20Shannon%20and%20Weaver%20Model,nois
e%2C%20decoder%2C%20and%20receiver.
12. https://www.man agementstudyguide.com/berlo -model -of-
communication.htm
13. https://www.communicationtheory.org/berlos -smcr -model -of-
communication/




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13 Communication Theory 2
COMMUNICATION - MEANING, SIGNS,
CODES AND SIGNIFICATION
Unit Structure
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Introduction to com munication
2.3 Signs and Symbols
2.4 Communication Codes
2.5 Encoding, Decoding
2.6 Types of Communication Codes
2.7 Theory of Signification
2.8 Importance of Communication
2.9 Summary
2.10 Questions
2.11 References
2.1 OBJECTIVES 1. Understan d the meaning of signs and symbols
2. Understand the importance of signs and symbols in communication
3. Understand the communication codes
4. Know the theory of signification and its importance in communication
2.2 INTRODUCTION The word communication means transfer of a message by a sender to a
receiver in an understandable manner. Without the next person
understanding the intended message of the sender, the communication is
incomplete. It is half cooked broth which can be hard to digest. Human
beings communicate in order to share their thoughts, ideas, opinions, joy,
sorrow, disappointment etc. It is said that birds fly, fish swim and humans
talk. Human beings are able to communicate better than any other living
beings in the world. It is the gift whic h differentiates humans from other
animals. Animals can only communicate immediate issues such as food,
danger, threat etc. On the other hand, along with the basic issues, humans
can communicate on several topics such as war, philosophy, science,
mathemati cs, poetry, etc.
The word communication is defined in various ways. The Oxford
dictionary defines communication as ―the activity or process of expressing
ideas and feelings or of giving people information‖. The Cambridge
dictionary defines communication a s ―to share information with others by munotes.in

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14 speaking, writing, moving yo ur body, or using other signals.‖ We can see
clearly here that communication is an act involving at least two people
who communicate with each other in order to share the information. The
word communication is derived from the Latin noun ‗communis‘ or the
verb ‗communicare‘ which means ‗to make common‘. The ideas or the
messages are made common between the sender and the receiver in the
process of communication. Communication has been used e xtensively in
all human endeavors and fields, for example, in Philosophy, Mathematics,
History, Arts, Science, business world etc. It is useful in all these fields.
The rapid growth of advanced technology in the form of various
inventions like the printing press, telegraph, radio, tv, internet has
influenced the way we communicate with each other. Communication was
very limited in the old days. Now we are in an age which is termed as
‗communication age‘. Communication is useful to an individual, to the
family, to the society and to the government. The governments need to
communicate with the public with regards to its policies, plans etc. The
birth of Mass Communication has eased the process of communication in
all the sectors like education, agriculture, he alth, commerce, industry etc.
How we started communicating is a very complex question to answer.
Obviously, we did not start communicating just after a meeting of a bunch
of people at a table. We did not start to talk about any word deliberately.
Human la nguages have taken thousands of years to evolve in the present
form. According to Brian Handwerk the evolutionary shift in the structure
of the throat has enabled humans to speak. It can be said that humans
might have developed language of gestures before they used words. They
might have started communicating using shrill cries, grunts, hooting,
giggling etc.
Communication is not merely a flow of information. Communication is a
complex process which involves sending, receiving and interpreting the
message s. There is plenty of information that flows from various sources.
In the age of big data, the information explosion is a common thing.
However, that merely comes in effective communication. In order to
consider that information as communication, it should be passed in such a
manner that the receiver understands the message completely. If the
receiver is unable to comprehend what is passed on to him, that can be
termed as incomplete communication or miscommunication or no
communication at all.
With the adv ent of technology the face of communication has changed a
lot. The journey has been from personal communication to mass
communication and from mass communication to modern interactive
communication. With the help of new media, we are able to do interactive
communication with the help of video, videotex, teletext, tele -shopping,
telephones, mobile phones, electronic mail etc.
2.3 SIGNS AND SYMBOLS Signs, symbols, gestures, tone, etc. are extensively used to communicate.
The study of signs is called Semiotic s. Sign is something that is used to munotes.in

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15 Communication Theory communicate. The meaning of these signs could be connotative or
denotative. The semiotics explores the study of signs and symbols as a
part of communication. The theory of semiotics was brought forth by the
Swiss lingui st Ferdinand de Saussure. Saussure considered language as a
sign system. Another scholar, Charles Sanders Peirce, defined a sign as
―something which stands to somebody for something.‖ He categorized
signs into three categories: 1. Icon, 2. Index and 3. Sym bol. Pierce
emphasized that a sign can never have a definite meaning. No sign can
convey its ieda adequately and yet it has to be used under necessity since
no more adequate sign is available.
Signs are the foundations of all communication. It is the sma llest unit of
meaning. A sign denotes something other than itself. The meaning is the
link between an object or idea and a sign. There is a relationship between
a sign, an object or idea and a meaning. Signs are used to inform, warn,
advise, prohibit etc. Often we talk of warning signs, signs of love,
friendship etc. When we see a horn crossed on a school road, we know
that it is a silent zone. When a word ‗table‘ is spoken, the listener
understands its meaning as he connects the word ‗table‘ with the objec t
‗table‘. ‗A picture‘ of the table instead of the word ‗table‘ can also be used
as a sign to convey the desired meaning to the recipient of the message.
Physical actions can also be used as signs to express something. A smoke
in the forest is a sign of fi re in the forest.
A symbol is something that stands for something else in a particular
culture. Symbols have a specific meaning. They are used to send
information from one person to another person.
Symbols usually give connotative meaning. They are used to evoke
specific emotions among the recipient of the message. With the help of
symbols, people can share interpretations of the physical world. Symbol
can represent an action, an even, a person, a season, an emotion, etc.
Symbols can be used for both rec eptive and expressive communication.
Objects, parts of objects, pictures, print, actions, gestures, signs, and
speech can all be symbols. Colors, flags, signs have been used to
symbolize the meaning since ages such as white flag to show surrender,
rose to express love etc. In literature, symbols are employed by the poets
to visualize and to emote certain feelings, emotions, thoughts, actions etc.
Communication is generally symbolic. What we want to say to mean
something is always symbolic as the words we u se are nothing but the
symbols which stand to mean something else than themselves. The
relation between the ‗words‘ and the meaning of the words is arbitrary
except Onomatopoeic words like hiss, bow -wow, crack, splash etc. The
symbolic meaning is also conv entional. Symbols can be both verbal and
non-verbal.
The non -verbal communication is an important tool that supports verbal
communication. Various facial expressions, gestures, postures convey a
particular meaning. These are culturally and traditionally c odified in a
certain way which is understood by the interpretive community. The munotes.in

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16 gestures act as the symbols. However, gestures may mean differently in
different cultures. Something generally accepted in one culture may be
considered as taboo in another cul ture.
2.4 COMMUNICATIVE CODES Generally coding means to use a particular system for identifying things.
Musical notation, mathematical symbols, punctuation marks etc. are some
examples of code systems. Words are the main tool of communication.
The words a re nothing but codes which are used to communicate to send
or receive a message. In everyday life, we may use code for a number of
things. An army personnel may use a system of language that can be
deciphered only by the people who are aware about the syst em. A couple
might use a different system in which they can communicate secretly. In
communication theory the tem ‗code‘ is used in a sim ilar way. ‗Code‘ is a
system in which one thing stands for another thing. A system which
defines the meaning of a messa ge. To distinguish between codes in the
general sense and codes that have a first -order role in the creation of
understanding between people, we will call the latter as communicative
codes. A code is a set of correspondence rules used by a group or person.
In order to understand this better, we may take an example of a traffic
signal. At the traffic signal various colors are used as codes to convey a
message to the people traveling on the road. If a green light is shown,
people understand that it is OK to continue, if it is a red light, people know
that they have to stop. This is a code system that is understood by the
people. Codes are very important in understanding Semiotics. These codes
are used by the senders and the receivers of the message in order t o
communicate a message effectively.
There are two terms associated with it: encoding and decoding.
2.5 ENCODING , DECODING Encoding:
In a communication cycle encoding means putting a message into a code.
The information, the ideas, opinions, etc. are pu t into a code which is
common between the sender and the receiver of the message. In the words
of Stanly Fish, it is an ‗interpretive community‘. If a person is of a
different language, he or she may not understand the message. For
example, if you go to a village where everyone speaks in Telugu and
nobody knows Hindi and you start speaking in Hindi, the people of the
village will not be able to understand you at all. Therefore, putting the
message in the right code and the context is important.
Decoding :
The encoded message is understood only by the people who are part of the
particular language system. The comprehension of a message is done by
the process of decoding. In this process a message received is converted munotes.in

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17 Communication Theory into thoughts by interpreting the meanin g of the message. The process of
decoding involves interpretation and analysis of a message. Effective
decoding is an essential criteria of successful communication. Any
misinterpretation of a message may lead to miscommunication. It will lead
to confusion and misunderstanding. The meaning of the message depends
upon the receiver‘s perception, understanding of the context and his
knowledge of the code system. The words given meaning in context.
Communication scholars have categorized the communication code s into
two categories: verbal codes and nonverbal codes. Some communication
codes are as under:
Language : This is the most important communication code of mankind
which differentiates them from the other living beings. Language has both
written and spoken forms. Language has been a very essential tool in the
progress of mankind.
2.6 TYPES OF COMMUNICATION CODES Aesthetic Codes: All the arts employ aesthetic codes to express. Various
art forms like singing, dancing, sculpture, architecture, acting are the g reat
examples of human excellence. They communicate thoughts, emotions,
desires etc. Aesthetic codes are further divided into audio, visual and
written codes. Songs, narratives, idioms etc. are the examples of audio
codes. Photography, theater, painting, a rchitecture, acting etc. are the
examples of visual codes. Novels, drama, poetry, etc. are examples of
written aesthetic codes. The Indian Rasa theory encampasses detailed
study on the communicative value of aesthetic codes. The signifier in
aesthetic code s can stand for more than one signified. Hence they are
called polysemic. The meaning is connotative in aesthetic codes.
Logical Codes: These are the communicative codes that are used by
science. Mathematics, Morse code, Braille etc. are examples of logic al
codes. These codes convey a specific meaning to the recipient of the
message. Logical codes give one particular meaning as the signifier stands
for one signified. The meaning is denotative as the codes are monosemic.
Vocalic Code : It is not only words but how the words are said matters in
communication. Pitch, accent, stress, tone, etc. are considered as
paralanguage. These elements of paralanguage support the language in
communication. When someone says the same sentence with different
tones, it means differently. For example, ―Did you have tea?‖ can be said
in different tones to mean differently. The rate of the pitch or stress can
also change the intention behind the message. Commas, semi -colons,
periods, ellipses, question marks, exclamation marks ar e all indicators of
vocalic behavior.
2.7 THE THEORY OF SIGNIFICATION According to Merriam -Webster dictionary signification means ―the act or
process of signifying by signs or other symbolic means.‖ The linguist munotes.in

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18 Ferdinand de Saussure in his book The Cours e in General Linguistics
(1916) introduces the concept of sign. He says that sign has two elements:
signifier and signified. Signifier stands for something else, for example the
written or spoken word ‗table‘ stands for the object ‗table‘. The signified
is the idea or object that the communicator wants to evoke. Saussure says
that there is no inherent link between signifier and signified. It is an
arbitrary relation. There is no natural link between the word ‗table‘ used to
communicate the object ‗table‘. C harles Sanders Peirce, the American
linguist developed these ideas further dividing the signs into three
categories as icon, index and symbol. An icon is anything that has physical
resemblance to the idea or the object that is being communicated. The
pictu re or photograph of the table has the inherent link with the object
‗table‘. An index is a sign which has a direct relation with the idea or the
object. Smoke coming from fire is an example of an index. A symbol does
not have any inherent relation between the signifier and signified. The link
that is understood by the communicator is conventionally applied. These
links are socially and culturally constructed. The symbols could be
expressed in the form of words, pictures, colours, gestures, etc.
―Saussure m akes a crucial distinction between linguistic value and
signification. While he concedes that value is one element in signification,
he insists that the two terms are not identical…A word may have a certain
signification or meaning but this will not be the same as its value since the
latter is determined by ―the concurrence of everything that exists outside
it.‖‖ (M A R Habib, A History of Literary Criticism).
2.8 IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION ―Be silent or say something better than silence‖ — Pythagoras
The value of communication is immense as it is used by all living beings.
Even birds, insects and animals communicate. The dogs bark to
communicate and the wolves howl to come together. The birds chirp.
However, human communication is more advanced and sophist icated. If
communication is stopped the entire life comes to a halt. Communication
is the basic need. Especially the social animals are required to
communicate with each other. Communication is required to live together,
to share the information, to share joy and sorrow, to defend, to attack, to
hunt and to love.
―A human being‘s need for communication is as strong and as basic as the
need to eat, sleep and love. It is both an individual and social need.‖
(Kumar, Keval J. Mass Communication in India)
We a ll need communication as a physical, biological and social need. We
can communicate using all the five senses: touch, taste, hear, see and
smell. If we want to punish a person, we use excommunication as a
punishment. Isolation is the worst kind of punishme nt given to a person.
Even animals use this kind of practice. If the isolate an animal from the
pack, it means death to that animal. Lack of communication may lead to
emotional trauma and other psychological problems. munotes.in

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19 Communication Theory As stated earlier, communication is us eful in all the sectors like
agriculture, education, health, commerce, industry, security etc. The
government uses mass communication methods to communicate with its
citizens. It communicates its policies regarding these all sectors. The
media becomes the connecting link between the public and the
government. The arrival of digital platforms has changed the way we
communicate tremendously. The runners, horses, carts were used in the
old days to communicate which would consume a lot of time. Now the
communic ation has become brisk. Within a fraction of second, one can
reach out to the recipients of the message. The government uses digital
platforms effectively to connect with the public in a short period of time. It
is useful in the times of adversities. The s peed of communication saves
several lives as the message sent on time becomes crucial.
2.9 SUMMARY Communication is as old as mankind. In order to effectively communicate,
humans have developed the language system that conveys the meaning of
the intended message. Communication codes. With the help signs, humans
communicate with each other. The scholars of communication theory have
tried to understand the phenomena of communication. There are several
codes of communication that have been developed. The fath er of modern
linguistics Ferdinand de Saussure and other scholars have studied the
importance of signification in communication.
2.10 QUESTIONS 1. Meaning of the message depends upon the context. Substantiate.
2. Explain the importance of the study of signs an d symbols in
communication?
3. What is communication? Why is it necessary to communicate
effectively?
4. What is encoding and decoding?
5. Explain the importance of encoding and decoding in the
communication process.
6. Explain the theory of signification in detail.
7. Discuss the various types of communication codes.
8. Explain the communication revolution.
9. Has the evolution of communication helped in the development of
mankind? Substantiate your answer.
2.11 REFERENCES 1. Compiled by Allison, David. 2006, Media Studies Ke y Concepts. munotes.in

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20 2. Kumar, Keval J. 2018, Jaico Publication
3. McQuail, Denis. 1969, Towards a Sociology of Mass
Communication, London,. Collier -Macmillan
4. Baran, Stanley J. Dennis K Davis. 2012, Mass Communication
Theory. Sixth Ed., Wadsworth
5. McQuail, Denis. 2009, M ass Communication Theory, Sage
Publication
6. West, Richard. Lynn H Turner. 2018, Introducing Communication
Theory Analysis and Application. McGraw Hill publication
7. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science -nature/human -ancestors -
may-have -evolved -physical -ability -speak -more -25-million -years -ago-
180973759/#:~:text=A%20long%2Dpopular%20theory%20of,moder
n%20humans%2C%20to%20begin%20speaking .
8. https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/faq -how-did-language -
begin



*****
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21 Communication Theory 3
SEMIOTIC METHODS AND
APPLICATIONS, STRUCTURALIST
THEORY AND APPLICATIONS
Unit Structure
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Introduction
3.3 Semiotic Methods
3.4 Semiotic Applications
3.5 Structuralist Theory
3.6 Structuralist Applicati ons
3.7 Summary
3.8 Questions
3.9 References
3.1 OBJECTIVES 1. To understand the importance of effective communication
2. To know the tools employed for effective and impactful
communication
3. To understand semiotics to know the sign system better
4. To understa nd the contribution of Ferdinand de Saussure in Semiotics
and Structuralism
5. To know the impact of structuralism on creation of meaning
3.2 INTRODUCTION Understanding or the interpretation of the message received is the most
important aspect in communicatio n. Humans have created the language.
However, they are not in control of it while using it many times due to the
ambiguous nature of the language. The words have connotative and
denotative meanings. It is the connotative meaning that makes the
messages amb iguous. In our daily life, we communicate with each other
all the time. Our several actions and thoughts depend upon how effectively
we communicate with each other. This age is called the ‗communication
age‘ due to its growing importance in human life. Bus inesses thrive on
effective communication. Governments need effective communication
methods to deliver their message. Health sector relies on effective
communication. A teacher will be only effective if he or she is a good
communicator. Communication is an essential, pervasive, and
consequential behavior in our society. munotes.in

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22 In order to communicate effectively one must understand the nuances of
communication thoroughly. The learner should know how the
communication process works, how the communication elements i nteract
with each other, how the communication theory works. ―Communication
is a social process in which individuals employ symbols to establish and
interpret meaning in their environment.‖ (West & Tu rner, Introducing
Communication Theory). Communication e mploys tools like signs and
symbols in order to convey a message. The study of signs and how they
are used in a language system for effective communication is essential. Let
us dive deeper into the study of Semiotics and Structuralism.
3.3 SEMIOTICS Semio tics is the study of signs that are used to convey a message by a
communicator. Semiotics studies how signs work in communication. It is
a way of looking at the world and understanding how profoundly the
landscapes and cultures in which we subconsciously l ive affect us all.The
study of signs in communication is also termed as semiology. The word
semiotics derives from the Greek ―semision‖ which means ―sign‖. The
definition of semiotics is ―the study of signs or an epistemology about the
existence or the act uality of sign in social life‖ Initially, it were the Greeks
who while studying medicine and philosophy who brought this notion that
signs and symbols convey the message in the process of communication.
They studied signs (symptoms) of the illness to find out the cause of
disease. Aristotle‘s works were instrumental in developing the theory of
semiotics. Later, St Augustine classified signs into three categories:
natural, conventional and sacred. John Lock in his ―Essay Concerning
Human Understanding" expla ined the interrelation between signification
and human knowledge.
The Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure developed the modern
Semiotics theory. Sign represents something other than itself. Signs used
for communication are of various types. Apart from ex plicit
communication systems like language, Morse Code, Traffic signals, there
are several systems that consist of signs to convey a message. Symbol is a
type of sign which stands for something else and conveys connotative
meanings. Symbols have a conventi onal meaning. Symbols are used in the
form of words, people, marks, locations, or abstract ideas to represent
something beyond the literal meaning. Symbols are not just used in
literature but also in various other fields like business, mathematics,
technol ogy, sports, design, etc.Symbols are used at the traffic signals to
control the traffic, in a factory to instruct the workers handling the
machinery, and symbols can also be used to represent for safety and
security instructions. Body postures, gestures, s ocial rituals, dressing
sense, etc. convey a meaning to the member of a particular community
who practices the same set of social norms and conventions. Semiotics
studies the conventional, cultural practices that assign a definite meaning
to the signs.
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23 Communication Theory As studied in the previous chapter, after Ferdinand de Saussure, Charles
Sanders Pierce (father of American semiotics) divided signs into three
types: Icons, indexes and symbols. An icon conveys meaning directly with
its inherent similarities. For example a photo of a dog conveys the
meaning of a four legged barking animal. Index has a natural relation with
its signified, for example smoke as a sign indicating fire. The third
element symbol is a sign proper. The relation between the signifier and
signified he re is conventional. It is not natural. The signs can be visual,
aural or sonic. We unconsciously interpret the meaning of the words,
gestures, postures, images etc as the meaning is conventionally imbibed in
the language system which we learn since our bir th. The ability of the
interpretation of these meanings depend upon our understanding of the
conventions and the culture of the society in which we live. In order to
comprehend these signs we should be able to understand the context,
culture, convention cl early. The same gesture might mean something
different in different contexts. A sign of a man showing thumbs up means
all is OK in one context. If the same man uses the same gesture at a
roadside and signals it to the vehicles passing by, it means he is as king for
a lift.
―Saussure proposes that semiology be ―recognized as an independent
science with its own object like all the other sciences.‖ Language needs to
be studied ―in itself,‖ rather than, as in the past, in its connection with
other things. The t ask of linguistics is to discover what makes Language a
―special system,‖ but to do this, the linguist must learn what language has
in common with other semiological systems‖ (M A R Habib, A History of
Literary Criticism) The study of semiotics is highly influenced by
Saussure‘s theoretical framework. Many semioticians are also
structuralists. The semioticians ―deal with any set of social phenomena or
productions as "texts"; that is, as constituted by self -sufficient, self -
ordering, hierarchical structures of differentially determined signs, codes,
and rules of combination and transformation which make the texts
"meaningful" to members of a particular society who are competent in that
signifying system.‖ (M H Abrams, A Glossary of Literary Criticism).
Claud e Levi -Strauss applied semiotics to cultural anthropology. Lacan has
applied semiotics to Freudian psychoanalysis. Roland Barthes has also
employed Saussur‘s theory of semiotics in his semiotic analysis of
advertisements. Roland Barthes‘ Elements of Semiol ogy is a classic book
on structuralism. In this book he writes that there is no extensive system of
signs outside of language. Barthes suggests that the ―elements‖ of
semiology are contained in four sets of terms: (1) language and speech; (2)
signifier and signified; (3) syntagm and system; and (4) denotation and
connotation. A word may have both denotative and connotative meaning.
Denotative meaning is a specific and direct meaning. It has a referential
meaning. Connotative meaning is a suggestive meaning. The word gets the
quality of ambiguity due to its connotative nature. The highly complex
thoughts, ideas, emotions of human beings can be expressed
connotatively. Therefore, in literature connotative meaning has the higher
value. On the other hand, the l anguage of law, business, and science has
to be denotative. There is no scope of ambiguity in it. ―Talking of munotes.in

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24 Saussure‘s connection between language (as a structure) and speech (as a
series of individual acts), Barthes agrees with many other theorists in
defining language as ―a collective contract which one must accept in its
entiret y if one wishes to communicate‖ (M A R Habib, History of Literary
Criticism)
New criticism - a widely practiced theory was challenged in the form of
structuralism and deconstr uction theory. Before that the language was
analyzed from historical and philological perspectives. It was a diachronic
approach to study the language. However, Saussure brings a synchronic
approach to the study of language.
3.4 SEMIOTICS APPLICATIONS Semiotics not only studies linguistic sign systems but also non -linguistic
sign systems. the Italian semiotician and novelist Umberto Eco proposed
that every cultural phenomenon may be studied as communication. The
theory of semiotics is applied in many field s. French semiotician Roland
Barthes applied semiotics theory to marketing in the 1950s. He stressed on
the importance of using semiotics in the study of media and its effect on
the audience in his book ―Mythologies‖ in 1957. He examined the
relationship b etween the audience and media in it. Several scholars
applied the theory of semiotics to various fields later on. Holman used the
theory of semiotics in the field of marketing in 1976 in his dissertation
―Clothing as Communication: an empirical investigati on‖ in which he
studied consumer behavior and culture. Verbal and non -verbal signs are
used in advertising and marketing to convey the message to the audience.
The brands code the message which is decoded by the consumers. In the
process of decoding the co nsumer filters the message through myths,
beliefs, values, symbols etc. In order to understand this semiotics one has
to analyze verbal signs, visual signs, and symbolic messages.
Let us understand this with an example.
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25 Communication Theory (Source: https://cxl.com/blog/semiotics -marketing/
https://advsoc2013.wordpress.com/2013/03/04/semiotic -analysis -heinz -
ketchup -advertisement/)
The semiotic analysis of the ad is as followed:

Source: https://cxl.com/blog/semiotics -marketing/
The theory of semiotics is used in several other fields like comics,
cognitive study, anthropology, culture, literature, film, music,
photography, theater, translation etc.
3.5 STRUCTURALIST THEORY Origin and Development of Structuralism :
Semiotics evol ves further into structuralist theory. Ferdinand de Saussure's
work is the basis of this structuralist theory. He is also considered as the
founder of modern linguistics. Structuralism has emerged as a major
school of thought since World War II. Structural ism in linguistics and
literary studies found its major starting point in the work of the Swiss
linguist, Ferdinand de Saussure, at the turn of the twentieth century. The
book Course in General Linguistics (1916) which is a collection of
Saussure‘s lecture s compiled by his students is a seminal work related to
structuralism. The term ―structuralism‖ was coined in the ongoing work in
linguistics, Semiotics, and literary analysis of Roman Jakobson. ―In its
early form, as manifested by Lévi -Strauss and other w riters in the 1950s
and 1960s, structuralism cuts across the traditional disciplinary areas of
the humanities and social sciences by undertaking to provide an objective
account of all social and cultural practices, in a range that includes
mythical narrati ves, literary texts, advertisements, fashions in clothes, and
patterns of social decorum.‖ (M H Abrams, Glossary of Literary Terms)
In order to understand the term structuralism better, let us take one
example. A window, if taken out of a building or a ho use, will not have a
sense as a window. It only makes sense as a window when it's the part of
the entire structure called a building. Window, doors etc. become
meaningful only within the specific context of the building. The presence
of a window makes sens e when it is put in the context of the entire
structure; when it is put in relation with the wall. There are two aspects in munotes.in

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26 this example. In a structure the constituent parts are always subordinate to
the whole. The second aspect is the constituent parts a re meaningful when
they are put in relation to other constituent parts of the same structure. The
constituent parts themselves can not make sense outside the structure in
the same way as they do when put in the structure. The relationship of the
constituen t parts within a structure that gives them their meaning is
arbitrary. It is not logical, rational or natural. The rules of the structure are
arbitrary and there is no inherent meaning in it.
Saussure says that language operates as a structure. Language i s
constituted of independently meaningful words that are put together for
communication. Language is a system of signifying. In the previous
chapter, we have already studied Saussure‘s theory of sign, signifier and
signified. Sign has the two components: t he sound component of sign is
signifier and the concept component of sign is signified. Signifier is a
word image and the signified is a mental concept. Saussure further goes on
saying that there is no inherent or natural relationship between the
signifier and signified. The relation is arbitrary as we can see that
signifiers are different in different languages for the same signified. For
example, ‗chair‘ is called ‗Khursi‘ in Hindi and ‗Khurchi‘ in Marathi.
According to Saussure, the signifier is not deri ved from the signified,
otherwise there should have been some inherent relationship between the
two. Saussure claims that a signifier is able to signify something when it is
put in relation with other signifiers in a language system. Out of the
context, it may not give the meaning on its own. Language functions like a
structure as seen in the example of a building. The constituent parts of
language derive the meaning with reference to their relationship with each
other in the language system. The meaning of the constituent parts of the
language system depends on its negatively being related to each other
within the language. Each word is in an oppositional relationship. In
structuralism, language is conceived as a self -contained, self -regulating
semiotic sys tem whose elements are defined by their relationship to other
elements within the system. The language has its unique rules and
regulations.
Unlike Stylistics, a linguistic approach to literature that tries to explain the
way in which language is used in a particular literary work, structuralist
approach to literature takes linguistics as a model to explain literature.
Structuralism is not concerned with the meaning of a particular work but it
asks a fundamental question as to how meaning is possible at al l. It is
concerned about the conditions of meaning, the systems that make
meaning possible.
Both structuralism and semiotics have developed as the study in linguistics
expanded. Ferdinand de Saussure developed some crucial ideas of
structuralism and semio tics.
Ferdinand de Saussure expounds that the meaning of the words is arbitrary
in nature. There is no inherent, natural or logical relationship between the
meaning of the word and the spoken or written ‗word‘ that is used to
represent that meaning. There is no perfect and fixed meaning of a text. munotes.in

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27 Communication Theory The meaning of the words are attached to them conventionally and
culturally. If the words are used in isolation or out of context, they may
not give a definite meaning. The meaning changes according to the
contex t. A single word may mean differently in different contexts.
Let us examine the following sentence:
He gifted his date a date box on the date night. In this sentence the word
date is used to mean differently. The same word in one sentence can give
differ ent meanings.
Saussure writes, ―In language there are only differences without positive
terms. Whether we take the signifier or signified, language has neither
ideas nor sounds that existed before the linguistic system, but only
conceptual and phonic diff erences that have issued from the system‖.
Ferdinand de Saussure further talks about langue and parole in synchronic
structural analysis. Language system exists as a structure of
communication between several individuals. He says that the individual
utterances of a person can only be a part of the entire structure but can
never be the structure itself. Using the example of a chess game, Saussure
explains how langue means a system of internalized, shared rules
governing a national language‘s vocabulary, gra mmar, and sound system
and parole means actual oral and written communication by a member or
members of a particular speech community. Parole is a concrete language
performance at a given point of time. Langue is shared by all the people
using a language s ystem. It is the shared quality of langue that makes the
parole understandable.
Saussure also talks about the connection between thought and language.
The thoughts are given proper shape and character with the use of
language. Before the appearance of lan guage the ideas are just hip bricks
scattered. The role of language is to ―serve as a link between thought and
sound‖. Saussure attacked the conventional theory of meaning. The theory
of structuralism was prominent in France. It was brought to America
during the 1960s. The leading scholars of the theory were Roman
Jakobson, Jonathan Culler, Michael Riffaterre, Claudio Guillen, Gerald
Prince, C. S. Peirce, Charles Morris, and Noam Chomsky.
Saussure‘s contribution to linguistics and structuralism can be summ ed up
in the following way :
1. The concept of sign, signifier and signified
2. The arbitrary relationship between signifier and signified except
onomatopoeic words
3. The identity of all elements of language determined by differences
4. The concept of langue and parol e
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28 Roland Barthes carried on the legacy of Ferdinand de Saussure and further
developed the theory of structuralism. In fact, this development is seen as
the transition of structuralism into post -structuralism. Roland Barthes
brings the idea of the text as a site of free play or pleasure by bringing the
concept of ―death of the author‖. Roland Barthes was influenced
bySaussure, Sartre, and Marxist writers such as Brecht. His influential
works are Writing Degree Zero (1953), Mythologies (1957) and The
Pleasur e of the Text (1973). His most famous essay ―The Death of the
Author‖ appeared in 1968. Barthes‘ most fundamental suggestion is that
myth is not an object, a concept, or an idea but a language, a type of
speech. It is a mode of signification and is defined by the way in which it
utters its message. Deriving his theory from Saussure‘s semiology Barthes
says that semiology consists of three terms: signifier, signified and sign.
He says that sign is the combination of signifier and signified.
Contrary to Saus sure‘s concept of arbitrariness between signifier and
signified, Barthes claims a connection between both of them. Barthes
claims that there is a necessary connection between the signifier and
signified which is a result of collective contract and training . ―The
connection, the act of signification, is a process, the result of a collective
contract and, over a period of time, the connection becomes naturalized‖
(M A R Habib, History of Literary Criticism)
In his essay ―The Death of Author‖ Roland Barthes qu otes a sentence
from Balzac‘s novella Sarrasine: ―This was woman herself, with her
sudden fears, her irrational whims, her instinctive worries.‖ He starts his
discussion with a barrage of questions and questions the authorship of the
words. Are these words of the character or the author himself? Does the
author draw this line from the universal wisdom or his own notions?
Barthes claims that we can never have answers to these questions. He
writes, ―writing is the destruction of every voice, of every point of origin.‖
Who is the author? The author is the product of society. All the wisdom he
gains from the society, its conventions, its practices. According to Barthes,
the idea of authorship is modern. Authorship did not exist in the ancient
days. The works wer e attributed to the collective wisdom of the society. In
fact, people used to believe that the author is merely a mortal mediator
between the divine and humanity. The author can not give a single
meaning to the text. This argument seems to be the stem of r eader
response theory developed later. The text can not have a single meaning.
The text is a tissue of quotations drawn from the innumerable centres of
Culture. One cannot give a final meaning (signified) to the text. It is alive
and continuously evolving at the cost of the death of the author. Therefore,
literature does not give a definite and ultimate meaning to the text.
―Structuralism is in explicit opposition to mimetic criticism (the view that
literature is primarily an imitation of reality), to exp ressive criticism (the
view that literature primarily expresses the feelings or temperament or
creative imagination of its author), and to any form of the view that
literature is a mode of communication between author and readers.‖ (M H
Abrams, A Glossary of Literary Criticism) . munotes.in

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29 Communication Theory ―The focus of structuralist criticism, accordingly, is on the impersonal
process of reading which, by bringing into play the requisite conventions,
codes, and expectations, makes literary sense of the sequence of words,
phrases, an d sentences that constitute a text.‖ (M H Abrams, A Glossary
of Literary Criticism)
3.6 APPLICATION OF STRUCTURALISM The theory of structuralism has been applied in various fields like
anthropology, literature, film, music, painting, sociology, psycholog y,
architecture etc. In the field of anthropology, structuralism is employed to
study various human rituals, religious rites, food preparation methods,
celebrations, games, entertainment activities etc. These all activities have
definite structures which c ommunicate meaning. Levi -strauss studied
binary oppositions like man -woman, chair -table, white -black, hot -cold,
good -bad etc. Lévi -Strauss employed this study in his conceptualization of
the universal structures of the mind. Structuralism is applied in lit erary
criticism to study a text arguing that there is a definite structure in every
text. In Mass communication, structuralism is applied to understand the
deep structures that frame understanding and perceptions of reality of the
society. Structuralism pu ts communication at the center of society.
Structuralism is concerned with the identification of systems that generate
meaning. Structuralists do not give much importance to aesthetic value but
concentrate more on the rules and conventions that determine t he
meaning. Structuralism is also employed in film criticism to analyze films
as constructed mediums, created through an underlying set of codes and
conventions that shape their meanings. For example, Rick Altman studies
the film Top Hat (1935) through the lenses of structuralism and
emphasizes on understanding the Hollywood convention to interpret the
film. He stresses that the film's meanings are organized around binary
oppositions. The structuralists study the binary oppositions like hero -
villain, hero -heroine, good -bad, culture -nature, individual -society to
analyze and interpret the meaning the film conveys.
3.7 SUMMARY Both semiotics and structuralism are the theories that study the sign
system in communication. Verbal and non -verbal signs are employed by
communicators to convey a message. The study of semiotics and
structuralism helps us understand the meaning of communication which is
the most important part in the communication process.
3.8 QUESTIONS 1. Discuss the importance of semiotics in the interp retation study.
2. Discuss the importance of the contribution of Ferdinand de Saussure
in linguistics, semiotics and structuralism.
3. Do you agree with the notion of ―death of author‖ by Roland Barthes.
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30 4. How is the theory of semiotics applied to culture?
5. How is the theory of semiotics applied in film studies?
6. Explain the application of structuralist theory in visual
communication.
3.9 REFERENCES 1. Abrams, M. H. 2007, A Glossary of Literary Terms (8th Edition) New
Delhi: Akash Press
2. Habib , M. A. R. 2005, A History of Literary Criticism: From Plato to
the Present. London: Blackwell
3. Lodge, David (Ed.) 1972, Twentieth Century Literary Criticism.
London: Longman
4. Compiled by Allison, David. 2006, Media Studies Key Concepts.
5. Kumar, Keval J. 201 8, Jaico Publication
6. McQuail, Denis. 1969, Towards a Sociology of Mass
Communication, London,. Collier -Macmillan
7. Baran, Stanley J. Dennis K Davis. 2012, Mass Communication
Theory. Sixth Ed., Wadsworth
8. McQuail, Denis. 2009, Mass Communication Theory, Sage
Publication
9. West, Richard. Lynn H Turner. 2018, Introducing Communication
Theory Analysis and Application. McGraw Hill publication
10. https://signsalad.com/our -thoughts/what -is-semiotics/
11. https://cxl.com/blog/semiotics -marketing/
12. http://web.pdx.edu/~singlem/coursesite/begsem.html
13. http://communication.iresearchnet.com/visual -
communication/structuralism -in-visua l-
communication/#:~:text=Structuralism%2C%20of%20the%20kind%2
0influenced,of%20systems%20that%20generate%20meaning .


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31 Communication Theory 4
EMPIRICAL METHODS, IDEOLOGY AND
MEANINGS
Unit Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 What is an empirical study?
4.1.1 Definition
4.1.2 Meaning
4.2 Steps of empirical analysis cycle
4.3 Types and Methods
4.4 Need for an empirical approach
4.5 Merits and demerits of an empirical approach
4.6 To sum up
4.7 Questions
4.8 References
4.0 OBJECTIVES After reading this unit you will be ab le to understand:
 Application of the empirical approach
 Different empirical methods
 Process of the empirical analysis cycle
 Merits and demerits of the empirical approach
4.1 WHAT IS AN EMPIRICAL STUDY? 4.1.1 Definition :
The word empiric comes from the Lat in empīricus , which comes from the
Greek empeirikós, which means "based on observation and
experience." The Greek word ( -peiros) is derived from peîra, which
means "attempt, try, or test.
In an empirical study, the results are drawn from real empirical evide nce.
This form of evidence is frequently referred to as "verifiable" evidence.
Quantitative or qualitative methodologies are used to acquire this
evidence.
If a researcher wanted to know if listening to joyful music boosts prosocial
behavior, an example of empirical analysis might be. An experiment could
be conducted in which one group of audience members is exposed to munotes.in

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32 cheerful music while the other is not. The findings are then analyzed to see
if cheerful music influences practical behavior.
4.1.2 Meaning :
Empirical approaches have their origins in the expression "I will not
believe it unless I experience it for myself." Empirical analysis is a method
of evaluating and interpreting data that is based on evidence. Rather than
theories and ideas, the empirica l approach relies on actual information,
statistics, and outcomes.
Empirical analysis is a key component of the scientific method, and it is
the most common way for researching subjects and determining a likely
answer through quantitative observations of e mpirical evidence. Empirical
analysis, on the other hand, never provides a definitive answer, only a
most likely one based on probability.
Empiricism is the belief that knowledge is gained largely via experience
and the five senses. Contrary to rationalism , empiricism believes that
knowledge is mostly achieved through concept exploration, deduction,
intuition, and revelation.
Empirical research frequently starts with a query like: Does chatting on
the phone while driving degrade driving ability? A research hypothesis
can be proposed based on this initial question: Driving while talking on a
cell phone is dangerous. That hypothesis can then be tested using either
primary data collected by the researcher for that specific study or existing
secondary data gathe red by others. For example, empirical data could be
acquired by primary research, such as connecting police records or
interviewing with a police department official, or secondary research, such
as reviewing previously produced studies. It can be determine d whether
the hypothesis is supported or not based on the acquired facts, and then
move toward a conclusion.
4.2 STEPS OF EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS CYCLE Every study of a scholar goes through phases and processes that they
follow to ensure a proper assessment. A .D. de Groot created the present
five-stage empirical analysis cycle in 1969, explaining that each step is
equally crucial while conducting a study. Researchers can construct
hypotheses and provide responses using this analysis structure, which can
aid in understanding global changes. This also helps researchers to follow
a set of guidelines when performing studies, providing more realistic
results. The five steps of the empirical analysis cycle are as follows:
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33 Communication Theory

Source: Wikipedia
Step 1:
Observation : During the observation stage, research ers use their five
senses to obtain as much empirical data as possible. For example,
researchers may notice that the hue of a certain bloom varies based on its
location. The research hypothesis is created using the information acquired
at this step.
Step 2 :
Induction : Inductive reasoning is used to construct probable research
findings based on their observations in the preceding step. They use
commonly held assumptions or information to explain their initial
observations. For instance, a researcher could wo nder in the case of a
flower that "Does the soil acidity cause the flower to change color?". A
different researcher then conducts an experiment, picking a group of
flowers, altering the soil acidity, and monitoring any color changes to
support or refute th eir findings.
Step 3:
Deduction : Using their deductive reasoning skills, researchers construct
hypotheses to test in the deduction stage. To obtain unbiased results,
researchers must rely on logic and rationale. Referring to the above
example researchers c an conclude that soil acidity affects the color of
flowers if the flowers change color as the soil acidity changes.
Step 4:
Testing : Researchers utilize qualitative and quantitative tools to test their
hypotheses at this stage. Statistical tools aid in the interpretation of data
collected during testing. Testing results may validate the researcher's
ideas, but they do not prove their validity. Testing may sometimes uncover
fresh information that contradicts the initial deductions, forcing
researchers to sta rt over with a new hypothesis. With reference to the
above -stated example, if researchers uncover those variations in acidity
produce color changes in flowers, they will have data to back up their
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34 Step 5:
Evaluation : Researchers discuss their findings, problems encountered,
supporting arguments, and conclusions at this last stage. This step also
includes explanations of the researcher's constraints encountered during
the analysis. At this step, the rese archers frequently provide advice for
people who want to continue their research in the future.
4.3 TYPES AND METHODS In communication studies, empirical approaches are used in an attempt to
produce objective and consistent results. This approach is positi vistic in
that it considers the social world to be governed by laws or law -like
principles that make it predictable. The use of quantitative measurements
(e.g., content analyses, surveys) and primary data gathering and analysis
were initially equated with empirical approaches. Secondary analyses and
qualitative research are now regarded as empirical as well. To the degree
that researchers disclose adequate information to allow replication of their
findings, qualitative research could be classified as empiri cal (e.g.,
sampling strategy, data collection, and analysis). This classification,
however, is likely to be questioned.
Empirical studies can be performed and analyzed by using qualitative and
quantitative methods :
1. Qualitative Methods: Non-numerical data i s collected using
qualitative methodologies. It is used to elicit meanings, ideas, or root
causes from its subjects. These are unstructured or semi -structured
methods. The sample size for this type of study is typically small, and
it is a conversational wa y of providing additional insight or in -depth
information about the issue. Focus groups, experiments, interviews,
and other types of approaches are among the most popular. In many
circumstances, researchers have to analyze the behavior of a target
audience , so descriptive results are required. The outcomes of
qualitative research are descriptive rather than predictive. It allows the
researcher to construct or support theories in preparation for a future
quantitative study. In this case, qualitative research methods are
employed to arrive at a result that supports the theory or hypothesis
under consideration.
a. Case Study: The case study method is used to gather additional
knowledge by carefully examining existing cases. It's frequently
employed in corporate re search or to obtain empirical evidence for an
investigation. It's a technique for investigating a topic in its real -world
setting using existing cases. The researcher must do a thorough
examination to ensure that the parameters and variables in the present
case are identical to those in the case under investigation. Conclusions
can be reached about the topic being examined based on the data from
the case study. For instance, a report describing a company's solution
to a client. The difficulties they encount ered throughout start and
execution, as well as the case's findings and solutions. Most munotes.in

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35 Communication Theory businesses employ case studies like this since it provides empirical
proof for them to advertise in order to gain more business.
b. Observational Method: The observational method is a method of
observing and collecting data from a target. It takes time and is very
personal because it is a qualitative procedure. The observational
approach, which is also used to obtain empirical evidence, might be
considered a subset of ethno graphic research. This is typically a
qualitative type of study, but it can also be quantitative in some
situations, depending on the topic. For instance, setting up a study to
watch a certain animal in the Amazon rainforests. Such studies
normally take a long time since the subject must be observed for a
specific amount of time in order to investigate patterns of behavior.
Another common example nowadays is observing people shopping in
a mall to determine customer purchasing habits.
c. Face -to-Face Interview: One of the most often utilized qualitative
methods is this one. The rationale for this is that if the appropriate
questions are asked, it allows a researcher to obtain precise and useful
data. It's a conversational strategy for gathering in -depth informat ion
based on where the conversation leads. For instance, a one -on-one
interview with the finance minister to obtain information on the
country's financial policies and their effects on the general populace.
d. When a researcher wishes to uncover answers to wh y, what, and how
questions, focus groups are used. This strategy is usually used with a
small group, and it is not necessary to interact with the group in
person. If the group is being addressed in person, a moderator is
usually required to gather helpful information. Product firms
utilize this to collect information on their brands and products. For
instance, a mobile phone company might want to get comments on the
dimensions of one of its upcoming models. These studies aid the
organization in meeting clie nt demand and positioning its model
appropriately in the market.
e. Content Analysis: In comparison to the other methods, text analysis
is relatively fresh. This strategy is used to examine a person's social
life by looking at the imagery or words he or she u ses. In today's
society, where social media is such an important part of everyone's
life, such a strategy allows the researcher to follow a pattern that is
relevant to his research. For instance, many organizations request
detailed feedback from customers, including how satisfied they are
with their customer service personnel. This information allows the
researcher to make informed judgments on how to improve their
support team.
2. Quantitative Methods: Quantitative methods rely on numerical data
to acquire kn owledge. It's used to measure things like opinions,
behaviors, and other well -defined factors. These are pre -determined
and are presented in a more organized manner. Surveys, longitudinal
studies, polls, and other methodologies are widely applied. This munotes.in

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36 method helps in analyzing the collected empirical data. A researcher
might use these to see if his theory is supported or not.
a. Survey Method: In order to obtain a big amount of data, survey
method usually involves a large audience. This is a quantitative
method that uses a set of closed questions that are relatively simple to
answer. High responses are achieved due to the simplicity of such an
approach. In today's world, it is one of the most often used approaches
for all types of study. Previously, only face -to-face surveys with a
recorder were conducted. However, new mediums such as emails and
social media have emerged as a result of technological advancements
and convenience. For instance, depletion of energy resources is an
increasing worry, necessitating increased knowledge of renewable
energy sources. To figure out why a study of the general public's
views on green energy and the elements that impact their decision to
switch to renewable energy can be done. A poll like this can assist
institutions or gove rning bodies in promoting proper awareness and
incentive programs to encourage the usage of greener energy.
b. Experimental Method: An experiment is set up and a hypothesis is
tested in an experimental method by manipulating one of the
variables. This is also used to determine the cause -and-effect
relationship. It is put to the test to examine what happens to the
independent variable when the dependent variable is deleted or
changed. Proposing a hypothesis, testing it, assessing the results, and
reporting them to see if they support the theory or not is usually the
process for such a method. For example, a product company is
attempting to determine what is preventing them from capturing the
market. As a result, the company alters each of its processes,
includin g manufacturing, marketing, sales, and operations. They
learned from the experiment that sales training has a direct impact on
market coverage for their product. The product will have better
coverage if the person is well trained.
c. Correlation Method: The p urpose of the correlational method is to
discover a link between two sets of variables. To forecast the
consequences of such a strategy, regression is commonly used.
Correlation can be positive, negative, or neutral.
Individuals with a better education, fo r example, will be offered higher -
paying positions. This means that a greater education leads to a higher -
paying employment, whereas a lower education leads to a lower -paying
one.
d. Longitudinal Method: After frequently examining a subject over a
period of t ime, a longitudinal method is used to understand the
qualities or behavior of the person under observation. The information
gathered by this method can be qualitative or quantitative.
Consider the following scenario: A study to determine the health
advanta ges of exercise. The target is required to exercise every day for a munotes.in

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37 Communication Theory set period of time, with the outcomes demonstrating increased endurance,
stamina, and muscular growth. This proves that exercise is beneficial to a
person's body.
e. Cross -sectional Method: It is an observational method in which a
group of people is monitored at a specific time. In this type, a group
of people is chosen in such a way that all of the variables except the
one being studied are identical. Because it is not seen over a long
length of time, this type does not allow the researcher to establish a
cause -and-effect relationship. It is primarily used in the healthcare or
retail industries.
For instance, a medical investigation into the frequency of malnutrition
disorders in children in a specific population. This will entail examining a
variety of factors such as age, race, geography, income, and social
backgrounds. If a large proportion of children from low -income families
show signs of malnutrition, the researcher can look into it furth er. A
longitudinal method is usually conducted after a cross -
sectional investigation to determine the specific reason.
f. Casual -comparative Method: This method is based on the
comparison. Causal -Comparative Research: This method is based on
the comparison. I t is mostly used to determine the cause -and-effect
relationship between two or more variables.
For instance, a researcher compared the productivity of employees at a
company that provided breaks during the workday versus those in a
company that did not pro vide breaks at all.
4.4 NEED FOR AN EMPIRICAL APPROACH In today's society, empirical research is crucial since most individuals
believe in only what they can see, hear, or experience. It's used to test
multiple hypotheses and expand human knowledge, and it 's used to make
progress in different sectors.
Pharmaceutical corporations, for example, employ empirical research to
test a certain drug on controlled or random populations in order to
determine its effect and cause. This demonstrates the validity of some
hypotheses they had given for a specific medicine. Such study is critical
because it can occasionally lead to the discovery of a cure for an illness
that has been around for a long time. Such research is beneficial not only
in science, but also in many ot her domains such as history, social sciences,
and business.
Empirical research has become vital as well as a norm in many professions
in order to support their hypothesis and gather more knowledge as the
globe has progressed. The methods listed above are h ighly effective for
conducting such research, but when the nature of new investigation issues
becomes more distinctive or changes, new ways will emerge.
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38 4.5 MERITS AND DEMERITS OF AN EMPIRICAL APPROACH 4.5.1 Merits:
The empirical approach is one of the m ost extensively employed methods
for a reason. There are a few benefits that come with it. A couple of them
are listed below.
1. Through numerous trials and observations, it is utilized to verify
traditional research.
2. This research methodology improves the cr edibility and authenticity
of the research being undertaken.
3. It helps a researcher to comprehend the potential for dynamic changes
and adjust his technique accordingly.
4. The researcher can control various factors because the level of control
in such a study is high.
5. It plays an important role in boosting internal validity.
4.5.2 Demerits:
1. Empirical research has a few drawbacks, despite the fact that it makes
research more competent and authentic. A couple of them are listed
below.
2. Patience is required for su ch study because it can take a long period.
The researcher must collect data from a variety of sources, and the
parameters involved are numerous, resulting in a lengthy
investigation.
3. Most of the time, a researcher will need to do research in several
distinct locations or conditions, which might be costly.
4. Permissions are required since there are a few restrictions that must be
followed when doing experiments. Obtaining appropriate rights to
carry out various ways of this research can be problematic at time s.
5. Data collection can be a challenge at times, as it must be gathered
from a number of sources using various ways.
4.6 TO SUM UP The empirical approach is a form of research approach that relies on
verifiable evidence to come up with conclusions. In other words, evidence
collected from observation or scientific data gathering methods is the sole
basis for this form of research. Depending on the data sample, such as
quantifiable or non -numerical data, empirical research can be conducted
utilizing qualitativ e or quantitative observation methods. Unlike
theoretical research, which is based on preconceived beliefs about the munotes.in

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39 Communication Theory research variables, empirical research uses a scientific approach to
determine the experimental probability of the variables under study.
Every study of a scholar goes through phases and processes that they
follow to ensure a proper assessment. A.D. de Groot created the present
five-stage empirical analysis cycle in 1969, explaining that each step is
equally crucial while conducting a study. Researchers can construct
hypotheses and provide responses using this analysis structure, which can
aid in understanding global changes. This also helps researchers to follow
a set of guidelines when performing studies, providing more realistic
results. Th e five steps of the empirical analysis cycle are as follows: 1.
Observation - During the observation stage, researchers use their five
senses to obtain as much empirical data as possible. 2. Induction -
Inductive reasoning is used to construct probable res earch findings based
on their observations in the preceding step. They use commonly held
assumptions or information to explain their initial observations. 3.
Deduction - Using their deductive reasoning skills, researchers construct
hypotheses to test in th e deduction stage. To obtain unbiased results,
researchers must rely on logic and rationale. 4. Testing - Researchers
utilize qualitative and quantitative tools to test their hypotheses at this
stage. Statistical tools aid in the interpretation of data col lected during
testing. Testing results may validate the researcher's ideas, but they do not
prove their validity. Testing may sometimes uncover fresh information
that contradicts the initial deductions, forcing researchers to start over with
a new hypothes is. 5. Evaluation - Researchers discuss their findings,
problems encountered, supporting arguments, and conclusions at this last
stage. This step also includes explanations of the researcher's constraints
encountered during the analysis. At this step, the researchers frequently
provide advice for people who want to continue their research in the
future.
In communication studies, empirical approaches are used in an attempt to
produce objective and consistent results. This approach is positivistic in
that it considers the social world to be governed by laws or law -like
principles that make it predictable. The use of quantitative measurements
(e.g., content analyses, surveys) and primary data gathering and analysis
were initially equated with empirical approach es. Secondary analyses and
qualitative research are now regarded as empirical as well. To the degree
that researchers disclose adequate information to allow replication of their
findings, qualitative research could be classified as empirical (e.g.,
samplin g strategy, data collection, and analysis).
In today's society, empirical research is crucial since most individuals
believe in only what they can see, hear, or experience. It's used to test
multiple hypotheses and expand human knowledge, and it's used to make
progress in different sectors. Pharmaceutical corporations, for example,
employ empirical research to test a certain drug on controlled or random
populations in order to determine its effect and cause. This demonstrates
the validity of some hypotheses they had given for a specific medicine.
Such study is critical because it can occasionally lead to the discovery of a
cure for an illness that has been around for a long time. Such research is munotes.in

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40 beneficial not only in science, but also in many other domains such as
history, social sciences, and business.
Empirical research is used to verify the results of prior experiments and
empirical observations. This research methodology improves the validity
and accuracy of the study. Understanding dynamic changes re quire an
empirical approach. Empirical analysis is used to help researchers
understand dynamic changes in the area, thanks to the extensive process of
literature review. It also allows them to devise appropriate strategies. By
allowing researchers to contr ol various factors under examination, the
empirical approach allows them to demonstrate a level of
control. Empirical research methodology boosts Internal validity. An
empirical approach with a high level of control in the research process
provides for a high level of internal validity.
4.7 QUESTIONS 1. What is an Empirical study? Need for an empirical approach in
communication theory.
2. What is the Empirical Analysis Cycle? Explain the five steps of the
empirical analysis cycle with examples.
3. Explain the quali tative method of analysis. Also, explain various
methods through which qualitative research can be conducted.
4. Write short notes on:
a. Merits of the empirical approach
b. Demerits of the empirical approach
c. Need for an empirical method
d. Empirical Analysis Cycle
 4.8 REFERENCES  (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.ls1.ifkw.uni -
muenchen.de/personen/wiss_ma/dan_viorela/empirical_and_non_emp
irical.pdf
 (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.voxco.com/blog/empirical -
research/
 (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.indeed.com/career -advice/career -
development/empirical -analysis
 Definition of empirical. (n.d.). Retrieved from Merriam -Webster:
https://www.merriam -
webster.com/dictionary/empirical#:~:text=Empirical%20Has%20Roo
ts%20in%20Latin%20and%20Greek, -munotes.in

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41 Communication Theory When%20empirical%20first&text=Th e%20name%20empiric%20deri
ves%20from,attempt%2C%20trial%2C%20test.%22
 What is Empirical Research Study? [Examples & Method]. (n.d.).
Retrieved from formplus: https://www.formpl.us/blog/empirical -
research



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42 5
COMMUNICATION THEORY: THEORY
OF MEDIA A ND SOCIETY, NEW MEDIA
THEORY
Unit Structure
5.0 Objective
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Theory of Media and Society
5.2.1 The role of Mass media in society.
5.2.2 What are the theories of Media and Society.
5.2.3 How does Media influence Culture.
5.3 New media: What is new media? Meaning and influence on society
5.4 Conclusion
5.5 Questions
5.6 References
5.0 OBJECTIVE After reading this unit you will be able to understand:
 What are the theories of media and society?
 How does media influence soc iety and culture?
 What is new media and what are new media theories.
5.1 INTRODUCTION There are various cultures that we follow or believe in which makes what
we call a society. There are norms, ethics beliefs, doings that we all do
individually which when combined creates a society.
Mass communication influences both society and culture. Different
societies have different media systems, and the way they are set up by law
influences how the society works. Different forms of communication,
including message s in the mass media, give shape and structure to society.
Today media has become a part of everyone‘s life and plays a major role
today, now media become food to strengthen or weaken society.
The media has a primary purpose to provide information about cu rrent
news, gossips, Fashion, and the latest gadgets in the marketplace of the
people. The role of the media must be one way trading and marketing of
products, and prejudices. It gives geographical knowledge about how
people divided. The media claimed to b e governed by righteousness and
equity for the common man to the rich man. Society is influenced by munotes.in

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43 Communication Theory media in so many ways. It is the media for the masses that helps them to
get information about a lot of things and form opinions and make a
judgment regardi ng various issues. It is the media, which keeps people
updated and informed about what is happening around them and the world
that everyone draws something from it.
Media is considered as ―mirror‖ of the modern society, infect, it is the
media which shape s our lives. It takes discipline not to let social media
steal your time. Media has had a bad effect on a generation, mainly
because youth is strongly influenced by media teenagers and children are
intended to follow their people, who are recognized and fo llow what they
do to get noticed. Sometimes they focus bad part of a media, and influence
to do it.
Media has become a drug to this generation because social media is
changing the way we communicate and the way we are perceived, both
positively and negativ ely. Every time you post a photo or update your
status, you are contributing to your own digital footprint and personal
brand. In today‘s world, the media‘s the most powerful entity on earth.
They have the power to make the innocent guilty and to make the guilty
innocent, and that‘s power. Because they control the minds of the masses.
So, it‘s in the hands of the people to take control of their minds. And
decide what is correct. For this social media is the ultimate equalizer. It
gives a voice and platform to anyone willing to engage.
5.2 THEORY OF MEDIA AND SOCIETY 5.2.1 The role of Mass media in society :
There are different forms of communication. At the broadest
level, communication is an exchange of meaning between people using
symbols. The most common symbols we use are verbal and written words,
but there are also many forms of nonverbal communication such as
American Sign Language. What sign language, verbal communication and
writt en communication have in common is the use of abstract symbols to
convey meaning.
Whether you say ―thank you‖ in face -to-face communication, send
someone a card with the words ―thank you‖ written on it, or use nonverbal
cues to express thanks, the meaning is the same.
Interpersonal communication generally refers to the exchange of meaning
between two or more people on a personal, often one -on-one, level.
Interpersonal communication can be verbal or nonverbal. Most often, it
happens in face -to-face settings . It differs from mass communication,
which involves sharing meaning through symbolic messages to a wide
audience from one source to many receivers. Sometimes, particularly in
computer -mediated communication, messages conveyed using computers,
it can be di fficult to tell the difference between interpersonal
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44 messages intended only for other individuals that might quickly reach
large numbers of people. Social media platforms are often structure d in
ways that allow interpersonal messages to ―go viral‖ and become mass
messages whether the original sender intended to address a mass audience
or not.
It is not the type of message that determines interpersonal or mass
communication. It is the way the message is distributed and the
relationships between sender and receiver(s). This text will continue to
grapple with the overlap of interpersonal communication and mass
communication structures on networked communication platforms, but
first, another form of communication commonly studied in academic
settings should be introduced.
Organizational communication is the symbolic exchange of messages
carrying specific meaning for members be longing to formal organizations.
In practical terms, it is the internal communication that helps governments,
businesses, schools and hospitals to run.
People working together in organizations get usually things done by
communicating directly with one anot her or in small
groups. Organizations cannot function without communication.
Organizational communication effectiveness can influence the success or
failure of businesses and other social institutions. Thus, communication
does not merely happen within orga nizations; it is an essential part of the
way they are structured. Organizational communication is a separate field
of study, introduced well in this YouTube video .
Successful communication, wheth er intended for personal use, for use
within an organization, or for a wide audience, can help people to
understand each other and to get things done.
If good organizational communication is necessary for groups to function
with a formal purpose, mass comm unication is essential for societies to
function. Societies are made up of formal organizations of various sizes.
Usually, the larger the group, the more complex its communication
structures.
Communication structure refers to a combination of information and
communication technologies (ICTs), guidelines for using those
technologies, and professional workers dedicated to managing information
and messages. In the mass communication field , communication structures
are more than computers and transmission networks. The guidelines for
using networks to create and distribute messages for mass consumption
are a matter of corporate policy as well as law.
It has been noted that a society is made up of small groups, larger
communities, and vast institutions. A more complete definition of the term
comes from the field of sociology. A society is a very large group of
people org anized into institutions held together over time through
formalized relationships. Nations, for example, are made up of formal
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45 Communication Theory institutions, educational institutions and others all come together to form a
society.
By comparison, culture : The knowledge, beliefs, and practices of groups
large and small - is not necessarily formalized. Culture is necessary for
enjoying and making sense of the human experience, but there are few
formalized rules governing culture.
Mass communication influences both society and culture. Different
societies have different media systems, and the way they are set up by law
influences how the society works. Different forms of communication,
including messages in the mass media, give shape and structure to society.
Additionally, mass media outlets can spread cultural knowledge and
artistic works around the globe. People exercise cultural prefer ences when
it comes to consuming media, but mass media corporations often decide
which stories to tell and which to promote, particularly when it comes to
forms of mass media that are costly to produce such as major motion
pictures, major video game releas es and global news products.
More than any other, the field of mass communication transmits culture.
At the same time, it helps institutional society try to understand itself and
whether its structures are working.
5.2.2 What are the theories of Media and Society :
There are various theories that corelated media and society, these theories
show the relation between how a society reacts and adopts to the changes
that media brings in it. Media is the trend setter in the society now and
alters the behaviour of many people especially the teenagers. These
theories consist of theories like
(a) Hypodermic needle theory,
(b) Agenda setting theory,
(c) Uses and gratification theory,
(d) Spiral of silence,
(e) Cultivation theory.
(a) Hypodermic Needle Theory :
We need to understand that media is one of the most influential entities in
the modern society, in our everyday life anything that we do is influenced
by media. The movie that we watch, the news that is shown, all the
applications that we use all effect our lives in a way or other and that is
what media does. People today have the tendency to blindly do things that
media show or present, even though there are reasons backing the reaction
and behaviour of people to do this, but they are just not justified in the
most appropriate way. There was a time when a huge amount of audience
used to listen to radios, even if not needed just because it was fed in the
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46 people is what is explained by Harold Lasswell in his book ―Propaganda
Technique‖ in the world war. In 1938, Lazarsfeld and Herta Herzog
testified the hypodermic needle theory in a radio broadcast ―The War of
the Worlds‖ (a famous comic program) by insert a news bulletin which
made a wi despread reaction and panic among the American Mass
audience. Through this investigation he found the media messages may
affect or may not affect audience. The Hypodermic needle theory states
that the media has the power to inject highly influential messag e to passive
audience and since the audience have no other source of information or
confirmation or even to compare to what media is providing they are left
with no choice but to act on the information provided by the media. This
theory is also known by an other name as ―Magic bullet theory‖,
―Transmission Belt theory‖ and ―Hypodermic Syringe model‖
There are various other communication theories, however the hypodermic
needle theory is not a result of empirical research instead it was found on
the assumption that humans are controlled by their biological nature and
will react instinctively to a stimuli in a certain or similar way. Empirical
research has since disproved the theory which resulted in replacement of
this theory with a more sophisticated theory li ke the ―Agenda setting
theory‖.
(b) Agenda Setting Theory :
The agenda setting theory introduced by Maxwell McCombs and Donal
Shaw is a sophisticated version of the hypodermic needle theory. One
thing that we are sure about the modern time is that the infl uence of media
affects the presentation of the report and issues made in the news that
affects the minds of the people. In a simple version any news that is shown
as important by the media is automatically perceived as an important news
by the audience, th e priorities of which news comes first and which next
are all set by the media and not according to how people think and how
much influence will it have among the audience. This is what th e agenda
setting theory states, that media as an institution will se t an event for the
audience to see and talk about and then the people will only talk about that
sometimes these topics do not even affect our lives in any way, yet they be
the hot topic of discussion. Eg: media talking about when will salman
khan get marri ed, which is not relevant for the audience (except his fans)
yet the whole society will talk about this because media sets an agenda for
the audience to talk about and that is what is done.
With the new media this has become even more common and calling th em
as trends, the media will set and start a trend (an agenda) and people will
talk about it and follow the trends to, even though trend in media and
agenda setting theory are two topics to discuss but are related closely.


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47 Communication Theory There are different levels of Agenda setting:
Level one:
Is where the researchers study the media user and objectives that it creates
on the audience and study how the audience react to the information given
by the media.
Level two:
Is where the media focuses on how people should thin k about the nature of
the issue that is shown to them and thus study the reaction the media can
sensationalize a news or report or plan it to go viral.
(c) Uses a nd Gratification Theory :
The uses and gratification theory states that how the consumers use t he
media to satisfy their specific needs or desires. A typical uses and
gratification study the motive of media consumption and the consequences
associated with the use of that media. The use of media also creates a
social standing in the society as people with different use towards media
sometimes have similar interest and use with some one else in the society,
to understand this with an example assume you like to go for a morning
walk and use your media to listen song on an application or on a radio,
there will be people who like to walk quietly or talk as they do their
morning run, but there will be people who also like to listen to songs while
running so you both have a similar use for media at that time which might
create a social standing for you both.
Uses and gratifications theories of media are often applied to
contemporary media issues. The analysis of the relationship between
media and violence that you read about in preceding sections exemplifies
this. Researchers employed the uses and gratificati ons theory in this case
to reveal a nuanced set of circumstances surrounding violent media
consumption, as individuals with aggressive tendencies were drawn to
violent media
Researchers have identified several common motives for media
consumption. These in clude relaxation, social interaction, entertainment,
arousal, escape, and a host of interpersonal and social needs. By
examining the motives behind the consumption of a particular form of
media, researchers can better understand both the reasons for that
medium‘s popularity and the roles that the medium fills in society. A
study of the motives behind a given user‘s interaction with Facebook, for
example, could explain the role Facebook takes in society and the reasons
for its appeal.
(d) Spiral o f Silence :
The theory of spiral of silence is an all -encompassing theory of public
opinion that connects disparate processes of social psychology
interpersonal communication, and mass media. In easy term the theory
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48 their views / opinions are opposite to the majority on any specific subject.
This theory was originally proposed by German political scientist
Elisabeth Noelle – Neumann in 1947.
The theorist enlightened two main reasons for the perso n to remain silent:
i. Fear of isolation: In the case when the group or the people realize
that the individual has a different opinion from them.
ii. Fear of reprisal: This is in the sense that voicing the individual‘s
opinion might lead to some more ser ious consequences or complete
isolation form the group.
The spiral effect is experienced insomuch as this activates a downward
spiral where fears continually build within the minority opinion holder,
hence the minority opinion is never voiced. Since it‘s a ppearing on this
blog you could assume that the theory posits that the mass media has a
effect on this process, if you‘re assuming that… you‘re right on. The
media plays an important role in this process, especially in dictating or
perceptually dictating t he majority opinion .

(e) Cultivat ion Theory :
Cultivation theory is different from agenda setting theory and spiral of
silence theory in two aspects, first is that it is mainly based on one specific
medium that is ―television‖ and second is that it does not directly impacts
our thinking ab out specific issue or the attributes of that, but on the very
way and every aspect of how we view the world.
The theory is based on a few assumptions on about television and how we
view it.
i. The nature of television several characteristics contribute to the power
of television. First, television is pervasive, almost all Americans
households owned a television, and most had more than one set.
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49 Communication Theory skills. But perhaps the most important point cultivation theories make
about television is that it is coherent, presenting the same basic
messages about society across programming and across time.
ii. The Nature of Viewing. Cultivation theorists have also developed
ideas about how we view televisio n. Specifically, they argued that the
viewers watch bye the clock. That is, most of the people do not
choose to watch shows or even a particular genre of shows. Rather,
there are certain times of the day when they watch, and whatever is on
at that time wil l be watch.
This cultivation has great effects on society and people. Given the unique
nature of television and the centrality of television viewing in our lives,
Gerbner and his colleagues then propose that television will serve to
cultivate our views of the world. The notion of cultivation describes a
long-term and cumulative impact of television on our views of reality.
Cultivation theorists believe that television can create and maintain very
basic sets of beliefs about the world and that these influenc es are
cumulative and long -lived ones.
5.2.3 How does media influence culture :
Media influences the culture in various ways, some positive and some
negative, but before we go into the details of how media is affecting or
influencing culture lets understand what culture is? Culture is an
intangible aspect of our social life which consists of values, belief,
communication, system of language and practice that people share. It also
consists of the material object that are common to the group or society.
Where media comes into the place is when these cultures change, over
years there have been a lot of traditions and commonalities between
people in a constructive society, but media has been the one to change or
as we can call update in modern term the culture.
The mass media has got a great influence on the cultural patterns of the
society depending on the way respond to the influence. The role of men
and women in the society has been greatly defined by the media and in the
process affecting both intercultural an d international communication.
Many people across the world have been trying to understand the meaning
of culture and its influence on how human beings behave. The media has
been instrumental in trying to explain to the people the meaning of culture
and in the end enabling them to have a cultural identity.
The mass media presents information about a particular aspect or region of
a culture to the whole world and is therefore very important for the
information to be proper, the people who watch and adopt the new culture
(giving the people a cultural identity) it becomes very crucial that all the
aspects are explained clearly by the media, as if the media is showcasing
the cultural aspects clearly it can easily influence the people and thus the
culture. Throug h socialization, different societies can share languages,
traditions, customs, roles and values. The media has become a significant
social force in recent years especially for the young people. Whereas the
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50 information, the majority of young people see it as a perfect platform for
socialization.
The mass media had a great contribution in creation of many societies
across the world and therefore becoming very important agents of
socialization, we have moved into a time where media is influencing every
small aspect of our life, like online shopping has become a culture in
youth which was not even a concept for a very long time and now is a
culture believed and followed by a huge population across the globe. The
mass media agents such as the television, internet, films and radio have
been very instrumental in promoting socialization by providing a perfect
platform exchanging ideas and opinions in various issues that affect life.
Networks have also been able to affect different cultures across the world.
5.3 NEW MEDIA: WHAT IS NEW MEDIA? MEANING AND INFLUENCE ON SOCIETY Media has undergone a huge transition over the decade especially during
the Covid pandemic, we shifted from traditional media to new media in a
jiffy and has adopted the reality without hesitation. Traditional media such
as television and radio provided content in a one -directional manner,
disseminating content created by a company or corporation to be
consumed by passive viewers. Wher eas new media also called ―the social
media‖ has introduced a whole new method of communication where it
allowed the passive viewers to communicate with the content provider,
give immediate feedback and get a response quickly, the media is filled
with exam ples for this each photo you share on your Instagram is
communication, every comment you make on YouTube is communication
(as you provide your feedback to the creator) and not only commenting the
emoji reply on facebook is the prime example of how easy new media has
made communication amongst the modern era.
New media are digital, and often have the characteristics of being
manipulatable, networkable, dense, compressible, and interactive (Flew &
Smith, 2011). The emergence of new, digital technologies ―sig nals a
potentially radical shift of who is in control of information, experience and
resources‖ (Shapiro, 1999). In this setting of dramatic change and rapid
advancement, this chapter will consider social media and health behaviour
theory.
The media ecolog y theory here can help us to understand as to why people
continue to interact online despite of loss of control over their private and
personal boundaries. Society quickly become use to change and reliant on
digital media and its features (as noted by McLu han in 1964). Technology
has progressed overtime and directly or indirectly forced people to adapt it
majority of the work today is dependent on technology and not just work -
related aspects let it be a small task we are dependent on technology and
media. I f you need a cab, you have uber, if you need food, you have
Zomato, for clothing you have countless number of applications, and then
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51 Communication Theory of technology has made us dependent on it and in s ome cases wastage of
time rather than using it for smart quick working. The theories for the new
media are just an extension of the old media and Traditional
communication theories have been applied to many new technologies,
such as video games and interne t use (Papacharissi & Rubin, 2000). One
study found that while newspapers were the predominant written news
source pre -internet, people now seek out news on the internet for the same
reasons that they did before – the need for orientation (Dimmick, Chen, &
Li, 2004). Another study evaluating early cell phone use utilized UGT for
understanding how consumers utilized mobile phones and landlines
differently. Although these early mobile phones were contextually
different than landlines, many of the same intenti ons of use were found
between the two (Leung & Wei, 2000)
5.4 CONCLUSION In modern society, mass media often drive our perceptions. It is important
to recognize that different cultures have different moral values and to
acknowledge that some practices shou ld be universally abhorred and
stopped, even if they are partially or wholly accepted in other cultures .
Media has been an important part of our life for decades now, ever since
globalization and evolution of technology people have been very
dependent on i t. Media is mainly supposed to serve three purposes for the
society namely: to inform, educate and entertain and media has been doing
the job amazingly, for anything and everything we look into the media
system. Television and radio (as traditional medium of media) started the
one-way communication but with time as we evolved the media got
advanced too. Theorists who introduced various media theories studies the
behaviour of people to how their behaviour got altered when media
informed about any issue. In c onclusion we understood that as media plays
an important role in deciding what is to be given to the audience, how the
audience should think about the issue and even for how long the audience
should talk about it, but there has been a change in this scenar io since
―citizen journalism‖ has taken a rise and that happened due to new media.
Our new media consists of all modern platforms like Instagram, youtube,
facebook, reddit etc where the media is still informing, educating and
entertaining the audience but with more percent of transparency and a
huge amount of growth in response rate from the audience which also
resulted in understanding how much consumption of media has increased
since everything got so handy (via smartphones).
In a nutshell, media has alwa ys been a major factor in shaping the
throughs of the society but now society has also understood to how much
to use the media and how much to believe the information provided by
media, as with new media spread of fake news has also increased which
puts th e audience in a tough spot to decide to believe it or not. So next
time you get any information try and rectify the credibility of the issue.
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52 5.5 QUESTIONS 1. Write in brief the importance of media in shaping the society?
2. Has the introduction of new media changed the perception of people
towards the information that is presented. Explain in brief.
3. Explain in detail
(a) Uses and gratification theory
(b) Cultivation theory
(c) Spiral of silence theory
4. How does media sets a direction for the a udience as to what they need
to think and discuss about? (Explain using a theory of media and
society)
5. What is new media? Discuss how new media plays an important role
in influencing the culture.
5.6 REFERENCES 1. Mc Quail‘s Communication theory – Medi a and society
https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/McQuail_s_Mass_Communic
ation_Theory /CvcvLsDxhvEC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=inauthor:%22De
nis+McQuail%22&printsec=frontcover
2. Society and media – How media influences society.
https://www.ssim.ac.in/blog/role -of-media -in-society/
3. Media society culture and you
https://press.rebus.community/mscy/chapter/chapter -1/
4. Role of media in society
https://press.rebus.community/mscy/chapter/chapter -1/




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53 Communication Theory 6
MEDIA STRUCTURE AND
PERFORMANCE: PRINCIPLES AND
ACCOUNTABILITY, MEDIA ECONOMICS
AND GOVERNANCE, GLOBAL MASS
COMMUNICATION
Unit structure
6.0 Objective
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Media Structure hierarchy and working
6.2.1 Structure and ownership in media
6.2.2 Media economics and governance
6.2.3 Mass communication
6.3 New media and increased global communication
6.3.1 Advantages of media for global expansion
6.4 Conclusion
6.5 Questions
6.6 References
6.0 OBJECTIVE After reading this unit you will be able to understand :
 What do you mean by media structure?
 Concepts of media principles, accountability, economics, and global
mass communication.
 Why new media is imp ortant for global communication
6.1 INTRODUCTION On the one hand, we are interested in influences of media systems and
media organizations on the media‘s performance. The production of media
content is not coincidental but depends on characteristics of the media
system, ownership structures or the organizational design of media
corporations, among other factors.
On the other hand, we focus on how media policy and regu lation shape
media structures. Media systems do not emerge naturally but are
politically cr eated. Various actors are involved in such policy -making
processes and are trying to realize their interests and values. To analyse
the regulation and governance of legacy media and new intermediaries we
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54 Every profe ssional organization adopts the principal of division of labour
for optimum output. A print media organization structure specifies its
division of work activities and shows how different activities are linked. It
also indicates the distribution of work act ivities according to specialization
and refers to the hierarchy, authority, structure, and relationship in the
media organization. The performance of any organization can be defined
by the way it is structured, who is taking the major decision? Who is
determined to detect errors? Who has the authority to discard and take
decisions during an emergency? All of these factors make a whole lot of
difference especially when it comes to a media organization as the work of
the media is to be quick, specific and inf ormative any wrong decision or
print or post made on any social media platform can cause a great harm to
then organization, thus making it an important aspect to have a defined
organizational structure.
6.2 MEDIA STRUCTURE HIERARCHY AND WORKING 6.2.1 Stru cture and ownership :
The Media Industry is one that is vast and big and growing more and more
every day. It is not simple to state the structure in fact, since there is so
many parts of the industry it is in fact split into so many sections from
FILM to TE LEVISION to GAMES and RADIO. Not to mention that there
is PRINT and INTERNET based media as well as advertising. There are
many various sectors and companies spanning various aspects of the
industry it‘s very hard to cut this chapter down to simple parts o f the
industry.
Media companies are today one of the most accredited and busy
companies in the industry. A media company may specialize themselves
working in one field or may get itself involved in various field. Media
organizations are widely structured i n various fields which includes:
(i) Production:
Well this is also quite the most vital aspect of the Media Company since
without the production department, the ads created by the copywriter and
art director would be nothing more than words and pictures on paper.
(ii) Creatives:
This department majorly incorporates the following job positions which
are also arranged in a manner of highest job position at the top and then
proceeding further :
 Creative Director : These professionals are required to develop the
conceptual designs to meet up the requirements of the client in order
to advance the company‘s brand. These are required to figure out the
best ways for visually presenting a company‘s identity.
 Art Director : Art directors are expected to design materials for
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55 Communication Theory  Copywriter : The major job duties include persuading customers to
purchase a new product or demonstrating why a business needs a
specific service.
 Production Artists : These are fresher hired at entry leve l.
(iii) Accounts:
Usually for all the accounts purposes professionals are hired by the media
companies who deal with all the finances and even legal customers
matters if monetary terms are involved.
To understand the ownership of a media organization let us understand the
hierarchy of a media organization. The hierarchy of Media Company is
quite critical since it is such a wide field. Well to make it simple the
hierarchy of Media Company has been categorized into these three core
levels :
a. Senior Level :
Thes e are the ones who are the highest job title attainable in the hierarchy
of a media organization as they are also loaded with a lot of
responsibilities and decision making on which the future of the
organization depends. Following are a few profiles that g et hold of middle
level in the hierarchy of a media organization:
- Director of the organization
- Chief media officer
- Creative director
- Media company manager
- General media manager
- Chief media executive
- Media branch manager
- Art director
- Section editor
- Producer
- Assistant media manager
- Multimedia designer
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56 b. Middle level :
This level features all the job profiles at middle executive levels.
Following are few profiles that get hold of middle level in the hierarchy of
Media Compa ny
- Media Administrator
- Copywriter
- Production artist
- Corporate Communications Specialist
- Reporter
- Program Coordinator
- Public Affairs Specialist
- Media Information Specialist
- Concept Development Manager
- Publicist
c. Lower Level :
The professionals at this level of hierarchy of Media Company
incorporates both fresher as well as experienced one. Following are few
profiles that get hold of middle level in the hierarchy of Media Company
- Media Technical Supervisor
- Media Informat ion Officer
- Photographer Head
- Media Information Assistant
- Web development expert
- Social Media Specialist
- Assistant Photographer
- Technical Writer
- Relationship Manager munotes.in

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57 Communication Theory - Sound Mixer
- Stagehand
- Media Analyst
- Senior Media Associate s
- Media Mentor
- Media Associate
- Trainee
Hierarchy is important in an organization as it maintains a sense of class
work ethic in the organization and especially in a media organization the
hierarchy is very important to maintain as the positions ar e not just
achieve by reference but by experience. An experienced individual can
understand the urgency or authenticity of any new / report that the
organization must publish. In definitive terms the term hierarchy in an
organization means the pecking orde r in the chain of command. Here
every position along with all the pertaining rules and regulations from top
to bottom is defined. There is no confusion about the person to whom an
employee is going to report and this is applicable for every job profile and
position within the company.
6.2.2 Media economics and governance :
Media have grown up in response to social and cultural needs of
individuals and societies. Media institution activities such as economic
and political are dependent on changing technologie s.
Mass media have an important play in public life, essentially within public
domain; they must operate according to dictates of market economies.
Media is at the centre of three forces Economics, politics and of course
technology. Most media systems are a chance of the historical growth and
development of technology. Some media products can be regarded as
belonging to specific genres. Google, AOL and BBC are portals or
gateways that have the function of selection and control.
The key to differentiate econ omic and governance is the dual character of
media, both are commercial enterprises, key elements in the political,
cultural, and social life of the society. They cannot be closely regulated;
mass media can only be regulated in marginal or indirect ways by
governments. Forms of governance varied include (internal, external,
formal, and informal) means. The internal and the informal are the most
important. Forms of governance are rooted in history and political cultures
of each national society.
The first vi ctim of advertising on Internet was the newspaper.
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58 products, and continuous media services. Advertising can operate (TV,
radio, newspaper, magazine) the higher independence on adverti sing as a
source of revenue, the less independent the content from interests of
advertisers. Advertising is assessed according to number and type of
consumers.
Most of the times homogeneous audiences are often more cost - effective
for advertisers than hete rogeneous, this is one reason for viability of the
free newspaper. Competition of different media for the same advertising
income can encourage diversity. According to the copy cost, well is when
the first original product will be more expensive cost produ ction, but if we
make a lot of copies will be cheaper than the first copy. Example: Film
movies. In this chapter also they talk about Ownership, Altschull´s second
law of journalism states that contents of media reflect interest of those
who finance them. Owners sometimes pay for privilege of influencing
content.
There are three categories of ownership, the commercial companies,
private or profit bodies and public sectors. The commercial media to make
profit to survive often involves taking decisions. (Cutt ing costs, closing,
hiding staff). Power becomes bad in the ownership when concentrated or
used selectively to limit or deny access. Ownership influence and decide
on content.
Even though concerns like these have been a taunting topic in our society
but th e fact remains constant that governance and ownership / power in the
society influences what content is passed into the society. There are
certain media agencies who remain pro government and hence will not
print / post anything negative about the governme nt and this helps the
agencies / organizations to improve their economy. Corruption acts as a
tax on productive activities in an economy, leading to the flow of
resources to unproductive ones. An independent media that monitors those
in power and delivers accurate information to citizens has been shown to
be an effective check on corruption across multiple studies
Media can also indirectly reduce corruption. A 2000 study found that in
countries with weak civic monitoring capabilities (including a strong,
independent media) high levels of education might not have the
expectedly positive impact on corruption (i.e. better educated bureaucrats
should provide better public services). Without being monitored,
politicians may use their education to become more effi ciently corrupt.
The study ―examine(s) the impact of higher education on corruption…,
while controlling progressively for other variables that have been
identified to influence corruption (e.g. press freedom).‖ The results
support the study‘s hypothesis th at ―in countries with low levels of civic
monitoring of those in power, education may actually increase corruption.
6.2.3 Mass communication :
Mass communication in simple terms defined is a means of interacting
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59 Communication Theory time, we as a society has developed and studies human nature in terms of
reacting to certain things. How communication made certain things ritual
in our life (as coined by James cary) that just because our friends or
neighbours read newspaper and we have to discuss with them the report
and incidents we read them too, or lets say to be up to date we read the
newspaper. When there is a match, we all sit together and watch it which
we figured that is a common interest amongst a lot of us, which we
understood through communication. Media rituals include the activities of
media organizations and their staff but also those aspects of the content of
the media that portray a sense of the importance of being in the media or
that recruit au dience members to these ideas.
The state of global mass communication today can be identified through a
discussion of key concepts at play. Those concepts are: (i) globalization,
(ii) media concentration or conglomeration, (iii) electronic colonialism,
and consumerism. Many of these terms, such as globalization, struggle to
have one widely accepted meaning.
Globalization can be defined as a form of imperialism in which
consumption and consumer values are extended, imposed upon the
oppressed to fully assure identification with metropolitan values and to
create the world in its own economic cultural image (Christmas, 2008).
Many of these terms, such as globalization, struggle to have one widely
accepted meaning. The challenges facing a standard in defining man y of
the international mass communications terms is often no more than a
matter of point of view. Globalization defined then is strongly tied to the
movement of resources (raw goods, information, technology, capital,
culture etc. across borders. We‘ll disc uss later the implications of
globalization in the state of international mass communications today.
Media concentration or conglomeration can be identified as the hyper -
concentration of corporate holdings, including media properties (print,
broadcast and digital) under giant corporate parents. In other words, the
movement of media owned by many, to media owned by few and driven
by corporate interests.
Electronic colonialism is a concept that can trace its roots to theory and
―focuses on how global media ( particularly digital and electronic)
influence how people look, think and act‖ (McPhail, 2010) Additionally, it
also implies a power of a dominant ideology over a nother.
These four terms, all share a common stakeholder, economics. Indeed, the
flow of information is key to political, social, and cultural power that
eventually delivers a wealth of economic power to a dominant ideology.
Global mass communication today :
The early 2000s saw companies dominated by western ideology gobble up
enormous media and communication capacity, a notion that decade‘s prior
had global organizations alarmed. During the decades of the Cold War, the
flow of information arose as a key top ic in global affairs. As Western,
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60 countries at risk of falling to Soviet control the impact of international
mass communication power and information took center stage. The state
of intern ational mass communications then, is in many ways the same as
then if only accelerated more today by technological advances. Those who
own information and its flow maintain economic, political and cultural
control and this is facilitated through conglomera tion, globalization,
electronic colonialism and consumerism. Media corporations have always
possessed the power to affect politics. That is not new in history. But the
five dominant corporations: Time Warner, Disney, News Corporation,
Viacom, and Bertelsma nn, have the power that media in the past history
did not, power created by new technology and the near uniformity of their
political goals (Bagdikian, 2004)
6.3 NEW MEDIA AND INCREASED GLOBAL COMMUNICATION 6.3.1 Advantages of media for global communicatio n:
Globalization has as much to do with the corporate structure of a media
company as with the products that a media company produces, vertical
integration in multinational media companies becomes a necessary aspect
of studying globalized media. Many large media companies practice
vertical integration: Newspaper chains take care of their own reporting,
printing, and distribution of television companies control their own
production and broadcasting; and even small film studios often have
parent companies tha t handle international distribution. Media rely on the
speedy ability to react to current events and trends a vertically integrated
company can do all of this in a globalized rather than a localized
marketplace; different branches of the company are readil y able to handle
different markets. Further, production values for single -country
distribution are basically the same as those for multiple countries, so
vertical integration allows, for example, a single film studio to make
higher -budget movies than it ma y otherwise be able to produce without a
distribution company that has as a global reach.
Globalization as a world economic trend generally refers to the lowering
of economic trade borders, but it has much to do with culture as well. Just
as transfer of in dustry and technology often encourages outside influence
through the influx of foreign money into the economy, the transfer of
culture opens these same markets.
The media industry is, in many ways, perfect for globalization, or the
spread of global trade w ithout regard for traditional political borders. As
discussed earlier, the low marginal costs of media mean that reaching a
wider market creates much larger profit margins for media companies.
Because information is not a physical good, shipping costs are generally
inconsequential. Finally, the global reach of media allows it to be relevant
in many different countries. However, some have argued that media is a
partial cause of globalization, rather than just another globalized industry.
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61 Communication Theory likely to have an influence on the recipient‘s culture. Increasingly,
technology has also been propelling globalization. Technology allows for
quick communication, fast and coordinated transport, and e fficient mass
marketing, all of which have allowed globalization especially globalized
media to take hold.
Mass media play an important to enhance globalization, facilities cultural
exchanges and varied flows of information and image between countries
through international news broadcasts, television, programming, new
technologies, film, and music. Most communication media have become
increasingly global going beyond the nation -state scope. During 1990‘s,
the mainstream media then were relatively only natio nal or local in
perspective. Globalization may result to cultural imperialism both within
and between countries. The media in developing countries would import
foreign news items, cultural and television genre formats and such values
of capitalist consumer ism and individualism. Unfortunately, the scenario
led to a relationship of subordinations of the developing states in relation
to the First World countries. The letter had an established relationship with
the historical roots in European colonialism, whic h culminated in a core
periphery relationship.
Mass media is an important aspect for globalization but there are certain
areas due to which the globalization has worked well, if not for
technological advancement there wouldn‘t have been so mane sting
opera tions and due to availability of resources took birth modern citizen
journalism. How in the above section we studied that governance
influences media content but due to citizen journalism a lot of powerful
people have limit the use of their power due to th e fear of being caught
and being on social media by a local citizen journalist, if globalization has
its pros, it has its con as well.
6.4 CONCLUSION Media plays a vital role in our society it is the source of majority of our
information and reports or rather what is happening around us we get to
know through media. Like ever organization the media needs to have a
certain organizational structure which defines the principals and working
of the agency. This organization structure in corporate terms is sai d to be
the hierarchy of the organization which defines the role of the employee in
the organization from top (most important) to lower level of working staff.
The topmost management is the one which makes majority of the
decisions and define the principal s on which the organization will reply
and work on they are the one dependent to make the company stand in
difficult times. The economy of any organization depends on their
productivity, but for any media organization the situation is very different
they m ust understand that what governance is ruling the society if they
must sustain in the society, they have to let the powerful people stir the
wheel of the ship. In a few movies where it is shown that when a journalist
tries to speak the truth they are kille d in an accident, even though this
statement is very bollywoodish but this is the fact, sometimes in order to
sustain and survive in the society you have to look over a few aspects as munotes.in

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62 sometimes your hands are tied by the power (organization)and sometimes
by pity, but globalization has brought a drastic change in our society and
in media as with globalization and technological advancement a lot has
become possible, now the news and reporting has become instant it takes
only a minute or so to make the content live and viral. Technology allows
for quick communication, transport, and mass marketing, greatly
contributing to a globalized marketplace. Media economies of scale
achieve much larger profit margins by using digital technology to sell
information instant ly over a global market. Foreign markets offer excellent
profit potential as they contribute to media companies‘ economies of
scale. The addition of new audiences and consumer markets that may help
a company build a global following in the long run (period ).
6.5 QUESTIONS 1. What do you mean by media structure and why is it important of have
a hierarchy in any organization? Discuss one level of hierarchy in
detail.
2. How is media economics and governance related? Give a brief
explanation.
3. Explain in det ail:
(a) Mass media culture
(b) Media and globalization
(c) Conglomeration
4. Comment on the relation between media and global communication.
5. Discuss any two theories of mass communication.
6.6 REFERENCES  Media structure https://giiselle36.wordpress. com/2013/05/03/media -
structure -and-performance -principles -and-accountability/
 Media organization and policy
https://www.unifr.ch/dcm/en/research/media -structures.html
 Structure and ownership Structure and Ownership In the Media
Industries. | twood95 (wordp ress.com)
 Media economics and governance Media Economic and Governance
Chapter 9 | giiselle36 (wordpress.com)
 Media and globalization Globalization of Media
(saylordotorg.github.io)

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63 Communication Theory 7
THE MEDIA ORGANIZATION: PRESSURE
AND DEMANDS, THE PRODUCTION O F
MEDIA CULTURE
Unit stru cture
7.0 Objective
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Media organization , our society and content
7.2.1 Change in the media consumption
7.2.2 Media influencing the society
7.2.3 User generated content
7.3 Media relati on with organization an d others
7.3.1 Media us age in organizational relations
7.3.2 Media Conceptions
7.3.3 Media relation with pres sure groups and interest groups
7.3.4 Media relation with owner and client
7.3.5 Media relation with audience
7.4 Conclusion
7.5 Questions
7.6 References
7.0 OBJECTIVE After reading this unit you will be able to understand :
 How do media -organizational routines and procedures for selecting
and processing content influence what is produced?
 How is content influenced by media workers‘ socialization a nd
attitudes.
 What degree of freedom does a media organization possess in relation
to the wider society.
7.1 INTRODUCTION The wide society that we all are a part of has grown fundamentally and the
requirement of everyone has brought the media to an extent where there is
so much diversity in the content that is provided by the media. Even
through one factor of media content is that we as an audience consume
what is been given to us by the media but sometimes the case is a little
opposite as well, where -in th e media is forced to provide the content that
audience needs. The latest example of this is the new show on Alt Balaji
known as ―lock -up‖ hosted by known actress Kangana Ranaut. People in munotes.in

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64 the society have interest towards such content especially after show s like
big boss that these platforms are now forced to create such shows or else it
will be really hard for them to survive in the society. In general, the theory
has been formulated based on research into media organizations, while
fragmentary, has been c onsistent. It supports the view that content is
systematically more influenced by organizational routines, practices, and
goals than by personal or ideological factors. The bias that has been
observed in media content is more likely to be caused by work ro utines
than by hidden ideology.
Any theoretical account of media organizations and occupation must take
note of a number of different relationships within and across the
boundaries of the organizations. These relationships are often active
negotiations an d exchanges and sometimes conflicts, latent, or actual. The
content that media creates is sometimes influenced by what the society
needs but usually it‘s the other way around, the society is influenced by
the content that media creates as studied in the ag enda setting theory.
Here we understand the methodology about media organizations,
especially about the types of influences or relationships, as well as
conflicts that impact media production. This includes outside influences
such as the public and media m arket, as well as the influence of media
owners, advertisers, and media audiences. These researchers will primarily
look at it from the communicator's own perspective. In addition, we also
understand the internal relationship in media organization and on c onflicts,
pressure and problem faced by media organizations.
The main pressure for a media organization arises from the dilemma about
the potential conflict around whether the media organization is concerned
about profit or art and social use, as the focu s or motive of the
organization will define the kind of content the organization is bound to
create which will influence the society. If the motive is profit, the content
will me more controlled by the business section of the society and if its is
art and social use, the readers will receive the truth in the purest form.
7.2 MEDIA ORGANIZATION, OUR SOCIETY AND CONTENT 7.2.1 Change in the media consumption :
Our society or as popularly known as the modern world we are constantly
confronted by the media as liv ing in the modern world it has become an
important aspect of it. They are so firmly established in our daily life, that
we cannot even imagine our existence without them. This increase in the
media consumption initially started when social application like Facebook
got launched it allowed people to connect with their friends and eventually
update status, let people know where you are what you do and eventually
welcome the advertisers into the digital world.
This is a bitter fact of our society (this involve s the whole wide world) that
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65 Communication Theory corporates of the world, they advertisers and not the viewers. Our
consumption of any type of specific content has led to a time and place
where every brand unde rstands what you are looking for, our media
consumption has made us very predictable. It happens often that you
simply look for the new iPhone price on google and next moment you see,
amazon will show a exciting offer on the same iPhone that you were
looki ng for, is it a coincident? Not really. With the relentless treadmill of
disruption, the potential of media and entertainment companies to
understand their customer‘s digital consumption behaviour today is greater
than at any time in history. Among the dig ital devices, mobile devices
have taken over as the preferred medium of consuming content online.
The smartphone market has seen unprecedented growth.
Now let us understand how the switch of consumption has taken place, if
you look back into the times when people used to watch television, or
listen to radio the content was emotional and family driven, if they had to
show any kind of sensational scene – two flowers would come on the
screen and audience would simply understand, the shows focus was TRP
based o n what story line they can have, how much the audience can relate
to the type of content that is been given and to what extent will the people
adopt and accept the content, these were the thoughts, but with
westernization of everything the consumption of c ontent also changed.
Audience started to consume more controversial content, where there is
fight, argument, drama and controversies. Hence the media organizations
also developed the taste for change in content production. There is a
reason why shows like big boss are more popular than shows like KBC.
Now with new media (i.e. Mobile phones) and introduction of OTT (over
the top) platforms the content consumption has evolved more, sensational
content is no more actually censored, now you call it modernizatio n or
evolution of change in mentality and content requirement, but this is
happening.
Consumers are shifting their preferences towards digital media
consumption as compared to traditional forms of media such as TV, print
press, and radio. People are spend ing more time on digital forms of media
rather than traditional mediums. This increase is mainly coming by
cannibalizing traditional advertising mediums.
The increasing popularity of digital media has provided for a paradigm
shift in global advertising spe nds. Marketers who are seeking to
monetize content and capture growth are following the changing trend and
increasingly allocating their budget to digital mediums.
The new generation popularly known as the Gen Z generation has proven
to be consuming medi a content more than it has ever been consumed
having an invigoratingly different attitude, Gen Z has a tremendous effect
on the overall perception and digital media consumption. They prove to be
more entrepreneurial; growing up with search engines they lik e to discover
content for themselves. They also like to be involved in the process
contribute to the solution and be more absorbed in experiences. Though a munotes.in

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66 wide range of digital consumption, the Gen Z capture insights from an
array of sources. Translating these resources into viable products, services
and business models will go a long way in defining the leaders of today
and the leaders of tomorrow.
1.2.2 Media influencing the society :
The media and its influential effect on the masses have increased
expon entially in the past five decades. Initially, the news and media
channels were limited to the telegraph. The technological inventions then
found many channels to spread the news to the masses such as the radio,
newspapers, magazines, television, websites, and now mobile applications
as well.
The mass media have become an inseparable part of society and the lives
of citizens and that‘s why it is necessary to understand the mass media
influence on people. From economy to entertainment and from politics to
beauty, everything is now influenced by mass media. The effect of mass
media on the actions, manner, and contemplations of individuals and
audiences is called mass media influence. This influence can be negativ e
or positive.
The negative effects of mass media on society can lead people towards
poverty, crime, nudity, violence, bad mental and physical health disorders
and others as such severe outcomes. For example, mob hitting innocents
by getting carried away from the rumors spread on the internet has been
common. These unauthorized news headlines are the biggest example of
the negative impact of mass media on society. Furthermore, the cases of
children killing innocents by acquiring weapons are considered as one of
the major negative effects of mass media on the children as they usually
get carried away by provoking news stories, action movies, and games.
It does not ind icate that media only has negative effect or impact there are
also situations where positivity is the result of mass media influence. For
example, the people helping each other in the situations of natural
disasters encourage humanity and empathy in child ren and adults, so more
volunteers come forward to help the needy ones. Also, the quiz -based
games, educational news broadcast and similar programs emph asize the
positive effects of mass media which increase literacy in the audiences.
Also, one of the positive impacts of mass media on society is their right to
information. Today‘s generation is much more educated and aware of their
rights and that helps t hem gain various personal and professional benefits.
People usually come across different pieces of information via direct or
indirect sources, but in any case, the mass media influence is clearly
visible in society. From educated to illiterate people are part of this wave
and that‘s why the responsibilities of the media people and controlling
authorities increase. They must be more careful about the timing and
approach of conveying news. The positive or negative effects of mass
media can be crucial in some cases. This is one of the major reasons
citizens face situations of news broadcast and internet service ban during munotes.in

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67 Communication Theory some sensitive situations in the city or state. Being a responsible citizen,
make sure you cross verify any news coming across you before sp reading
that to others as it can create a serious impact on society. If you can think
of this in an example what‘s app forwards are the best one, instead of
simply forwarding one news or message take some time to understand if it
is fake or real and influe nce others to do so.
The media influence is not only in terms of sharing and consumptions
factor there are other things especially accepting one true self, because of
media influence a lot of trans people have had the chance and opportunity
to open about t heir interests and be themselves.
The media has exposed individuals of all ages to different aspects of the
world that previous generation had no exposure to. This vast revelation
has educated the youth and has changed the approach towards various
content in a huge aspect which makes them more aware and resourceful
about the world today. Media delivers message across the globe in a
matter of minutes, providing us with information about the most current
events around the world.
Even though we consider that t he modern media influences the society
more but, media has been influencing the society since decades, as in how
bell bottoms were worn by film starts becomes a fashion for all the young
men in the society. On a whole the media has created many advantage f or
our society and has created a whole new generation and way if life, yet on
the other hand it has equally corrupted the mind set of young ones and not
to forget media‘s role in making children forget their culture and traditions
and totally adopting to t he western culture.
1.2.3 User generated content :
As the term is the meaning is also simple that user generated content is
one which is generated by the audience or the customers of any brand or
product that is posted by the consumers on their social medi a pages which
helps in the marketing of the company. User -generated content (also
known as UGC or consumer -generated content) is original, brand -specific
content created by customers and published on social media or other
channels. UGC comes in many forms, including images, videos, reviews,
a testimonial, or even a podcast.
There are various factor which derive user generated content like
Customers who will make an unboxing video of any product and then
share it on their social media pages tagging the compa ny which
automatically gives them a promotional activity. Second is Brand loyalists
these are the people who are so passionate about worshiping at the alter
brand, this audience segment is ripe to reach out and ask specific UGC
content.
Nowadays, brands mu st fight to be seen online, and competition is fierce
for audience attention. As a result, buyers are more selective about the
brands they interact with and purchase from, especially the notoriously
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68 authentic content. 60% of marketers agree that authenticity and quality are
equally important elements of successful content. And there‘s no other
content type that‘s more authentic than UGC from your customers.
Don‘t be tempted to fake your user -generated posts or campaign.
Audiences will qu ickly sniff out the false sentiment, which could seriously
damage your brand reputation. Instead, always ensure that your UGC
comes from one of three cohorts: your customers, brand loyalists or
employees.
1.3 MEDIA AND ORGANIZATIONAL RELATION 1.3.1 Media u sage in organizational relations :
First let us understand what is meant and described by the word media in a
mainstream organizational structure and the easiest way to figure this is to
understand how the term media is used in the same through this analysi s,
we demonstrate what the word ‗media‘ in organizational studies currently
reveals, makes visible, emphasizes, renders intelligible, and discloses.
Looking at papers published in leading organizational journals, we found
three broad usages of the term ‗me dia‘ within existing organizational
research.
In a typical organization the media (in the current time) mainly helps in
creation of brand image and propaganda in the society, companies do
mergers and collaboration and simply announce the news on their ―med ia
handle‖ and the society is simply aware about it (eg: how Elon musk took
it to twitter to challenge putin) although it is not directly related to the
organization but here the person posting represents multiple organizations
hence it becomes the respons ibility of the organization as well. The first
use of the term ‗media‘ understands media as mass media. Research
drawing on this conception of media investigates, for example, how mass
media outlets cover specific events that are of concern to organization s,
such as mergers and acquisitions initial public offering.
The second use of the term ‗media‘ understands media as specific
communication channels that have effects that can be researched. Media
researched include ‗direct‘ communication, such as face -to-face or
meetings however, more often, researchers are interested in ‗mediated‘
communication, making use of technologies such as telephone, fax,
voicemail, video telephony, video, electronic data interchange, and email.
More recently, researchers are inter ested in exploring the fit between
media and task, arguing that media are most effective when they match the
ambiguity level of tasks.
The third use of the term ‗media‘ describes computer -mediated
communication (CMC). Some studies look at the group level, studying
communication practices in virtual teams communication patterns in
virtual groups or social interaction and exchange patterns in online
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69 Communication Theory such as the development of trust in virtual teams or help -seeking
behaviour.
1.3.2 Media conceptions :
In the early 20th century media circulation started to draw attention in
fields such as economic history or culture and society. Drawing on these
early approaches in media theory, a new generation of scholars expanded
the perspective on automation and bureaucracy, electronic media,
television, ‗technical media‘ and media networks, computer technology,
cybernetics, utility and industrial film, consulting and management
algorithms digital infrastruct ure, and the like. To date, there is a wide
range of heterogeneous theories and approaches for describing media and
mediation phenomena. They cover media from the perspective of culture,
technology, and process, using analytical and historical approaches.
The media for better understanding was divided into three branches which
were Culture and power, Technology and infrastructure and process and
change. The first branch of media theories focuses on a critical
examination of the relationships between media, culture, and power.
Media are understood and situated as cultural phenomena within society.
From this perspective, media are at the same time formed by society while
also in general structuring social relations and in particular, power
relations. The secon d branch of media theories that we aim to depict here
encompasses approaches that perceive and describe media as technologies
structuring society at a basic level. They emphasize that society depends
on technology for the transmission and storage of commun ication and
culture. Technology determines how and what kind of knowledge can be
communicated and generated, as technology provides the infrastructure
and the formats for storing, transmitting, and processing information. At
the same time, media technology is not perceived as a rational tool -like
configuration but as a part of and influenced by cultural settings. Theories
falling into the third branch question the possibility of differentiating
between media and content and introduce a historical lens into the
research of contemporary media from this perspective, the development of
media is always a play -off between social necessity and suppression,
which relates already existing and novel technological and cultural
concepts. Historical patterns of change an d development in
communication present ‗a field (the social sphere) in which two elements
(science and technology) intersect. This branch acknowledges that the
technological development of media is always encapsulated in a discourse
that defines them as ‗n ew media‘ but that at the same time, such ‗new
media‘ are structured by already existing and well -established
technologies, hierarchies, and aesthetic principles. Subsequently, research
looks at the evolution and development of technological aspects, while
considering the emergence of aesthetic concepts. This enables the analysis
of the ‗rapid development of new digital media‘ while reflecting on the
discourse that defines shifting media configurations.
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70 1.3.3 Media relation with pressure groups and interes t groups :
The relationship between the media and society is an informal but
organized one. Pressure groups seek direct influence on what the media
does, especially trying to limit what is aired by the media, such as
religious issues, work or politics, mora lity, and others. In some countries,
people can legally pressure the media to give positive attention to ethnic
groups, women, gays and lesbians, children, the poor, the disabled, the
homeless, and the mentally ill. The media is careful to deal with any
pressures and objections, and succumbs to the rules, sometimes this
success is also due to the influence of outside agencies. This happens
when commercial media becomes a threat to other media, or when the
media preaches bad things that are feared can cause various problems.
Success also depends on the level of support between the public and the
defence group. It is impossible to divide the impropriety of a media's
pressure from a general tendency and try to please its audience (and
advertisers), as it is pos sible to avoid hurting minorities and encouraging
anti-social activists. The media is wary of acts of revenge and is inclined
to avoid uncertain controversies within the scope of the public domain.
1.3.4 Media relation with owner and client :
The main issu e in this relationship is to expand media organizations that
can demand to exercise autonomy in the relationship, the first aimed at the
owner himself, and the second to other economic agents in their
environment, especially operational fund providers (inv estors, advertisers,
sponsors). There is usually some autonomy review on the communicator.
Influence of the Owner :
Media owners are free to use their media for propaganda, but the risk is to
lose readers and credibility of the newspaper itself. The general impact of
media ownership monopolies is proving difficult to mitigate, although
there is little doubt that media ownership monopolies are limited by
freedom of expression and consumer choice.
Advertiser Influence :
The structure of most mass media industri es in capitalist countries reflects
the interests of advertisers and is not an accident where media demand is
often in unison with other consumer divisions. Media design, lay outs,
planning, and scheduling often reflect interest. The most easily
demonstrat ed is where advertisers can directly influence their publication
decisions significantly according to their individual interests, beyond what
is complete in the system.
1.3.5 Media relation with audience :
Audiences are the most important part of the client and influence any
media organization. Research shows that a udiences have a slow protrusion
for many communicator s. After all, management always
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71 Communication Theory Enemies to The Audience :
The most dominant criterion applied by media organi zations
is rating . Most media organizations with some justification do not
recognize ratings as a highly reliable measuring tool for measuring quality
from within. It is possible that hostility to audiences is something that is
exaggerated by the media its elf, because there is evidence that some media
communities have positive behavior for their audiences even on an
abstract level. Tension between the professionalism of the media and th e
demands of the audience. Ratings are the dominant criterion for
organi zational media. But ratings are not the most important for media
professionals.
Alienation and Uncertainty :
Most communicators in established media do not concentrate themselves
on audience response, and they can make decisions about media content in
a mat ure manner from any response. Behavior in the audience is directed
and differentiated based on the rules.
Audience Image :
Audience participation in filmmaking based on the image of the audience
is already understood by the makers. Shoemaker and Reese concl uded that
journalists write for the primary benefit of themselves, their editors, and
for other journalists. It should be remembered that communicating with a
wide audience has problems getting cross messages. The audience is
simply the audience, which obs erves and appreciates, but does not interact
with the sender of the message and the viewer. Feedback
from ratings can't tell you how to fix a television program even after it's
been created.
1.4 CONCLUSION The reality about the media in the history has alw ays been a weak
institution in comparison to institutions like law and health, but over the
period and decade this approach has changed. Outside of performance
skills, it is difficult to determine the core of media achievement. This can
be seen from the ab ility to attract attention and arouse public interest, the
ability to read public tastes, and the ability to present programs that can be
understood and enjoyed by the public. In other words, "know the media
business" or "have a nose for news". None of the se factors can be
compared to other professions. The main difference that makes it
incomparable to traditional levels of professionalism, perhaps because the
media values freedom, creativity and critical approach. It is very difficult
to identify the arche types of the communication profession of the times.
The main dilemma is likely to be freedom versus the rules of the
institution, which ideologically values originality and freedom, but
organizationally has binding control. This is when we talk about media
and our society how times have altered the situation that even media has to
understand the requirement of the people and give content related to it, but munotes.in

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72 if we talk about organizational relation and media one thing we need to
understand is that there is hu ge potential for organizational research to
engage more deeply with media and by looking at organizational media
over longer timeframes investigate not only successful but also failed
media. Developing three ideal -typical branches, we seek to help
understa nd the intrinsic logic that drives and shapes organizational media.
While this approach is useful for introducing a wide range of media
theories and locating them in relation to each other, it limited our ability to
engage deeply with individual theories; thus, future research should
investigate more thoroughly the insights offered by individual media
theories for organizational research in the context of specific empirical
settings. This in turn may offer a means where insights from
organizational research can help in informing media theories that engage
with organizations, markets, and economies.
1.5 QUESTIONS 1. What is user generated content? How is society influenced by it?
Explain in brief
2. With globalization how has the consumption of media chang ed? What
factors play and important role in change of media consumption?
3. Explain in detail:
(a) Media relation with audience
(b) Content generation with new media.
(c) Media relation amongst owner and client
4. Explain the three branches of media conceptions.
5. Media usage in organization. Explain with old and new media
examples.
1.6 REFERENCES  Introduction : Media pressure and demand Chapter 11 from The
Media Organization: Pressures and Demands – Daniel Maniaux
(wordpress.com)
 Media consumption Media consumption behavior across generations
| Deloitte Insights
 Media influencing our society
How Mass Media Influence Our Society (nimcj.org)
 User Generate d Content What is User -Generated Content? And Why
is it Important? (hootsuite.com)
 Media relations Setiowati's Blog: THE MEDIA ORGANIZATION:
PRESSURES AND DEMANDS (setiowati -hoetomo.blogspot.com)

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73 Communication Theory 8
MEDIA CONTENT ISSUES, CONCEPTS
AND METHODS OF ANALYSIS, MEDIA
GENRES, AND TEXTS
Unit Structure
8.0 Objective
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Understanding the modern media
8.2.1 Media approach with content and its issues
8.2.2 Media Effect theories
8.2.3 Challenges of media
8.3 Media categories
8.3.1 Understanding media genres
8.4 Conclusion
8.5 Questions
8.6 Refe rences
8.0 OBJECTIVE After reading this unit you will be able to understand:
 What challenges does media face with content?
 Theories and media effect.
 Different genres of media.
 Why is it important to have specifications of genre in media?
8.1 INTRODUCTION For any media to be interactive, it needs to co -exist with some sort of
communication techniques, for which social media is not an exception. To
twirl communication into an interactive dialogue, the social media turns to
be one of the most successful appli cations of Satmass Media. As of now,
there is no single renowned definition of social media. However, of the
many definitions that exist, it can be said that social media is the set of
web-based broadcast technologies that enable the democratization of
content, giving people the ability to emerge from consumers of content to
publishers. With the ability to achieve massive scalability in real time, the
social media technologies allow people to connect with each other to
produce or re - produce value through o nline conversation and
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74 Over a period, social media changed into a behemoth that is changing the
way how people connect and converse with corporations, governments,
traditional media, and each other. The monopoly of the message held by
the tr aditional media lost its reins with the advent of social media due to
the domineering facts of social media over the traditional media. Over a
period, social media changed into a behemoth that is changing the way
how people connect and converse with corpor ations, governments,
traditional media, and each other. The monopoly of the message held by
the traditional media lost its reins with the advent of social media due to
the domineering facts of social media over the traditional media. More
importantly the t ransition of usage of media was witnessed recently by the
entire world during the time of pandemic. Indians specially shifted to
online platforms as if there is nothing else left.
As the time passed, today, social media has rapidly turned to be the way of
how people communicate with each other. Over the past one decade, it has
transformed the way people and organizations communicate. This has
become a reality with the ubiquitous spreading of broadband internet in
every nook and corner of the societies. The multimedia compatibility of
the social media like easy uploading of audio -video content, text and
images, another dimension of immediate global access has been added to
the social media, thereby causing a great threat to the prevailing traditional
and conv entional media. Social media paved a way for every individual to
become a publisher of his ideas and views. The social media not only
brought advantages, but also equal number of threats along with its
inception.
The modern media has consumed us so much th at it has sadly become our
reality and if we have to be content specific you would realize that there
are or can still be areas which are not explored, in terms of written content
there are still limitation but for visual content there are none, if not any
channel an OTT platform will give content to an extent where we couldn‘t
even image 5 years ago.
8.2 UNDERSTANDING THE MODERN MEDIA 8.2.1 Media approach with content and it issues :
Social media content is content which is created by individuals or
compani es for social networks such as Facebook, Instagram, or Twitter.
These platforms are of particular interest to companies because they allow
a much more direct interaction with users than classic marketing
measures. However, in order to realize their full ef fect, any content
initiatives employed must also be carefully oriented towards the target
group and not simply become just another advertising measure. Social
media and its content also increasingly serve as a source of information
and have even replaced t raditional media such as television or newspapers.
Thus, social media content can play an important role in a company‘s
overall content marketing strategy. Content on social media channels can
have a considerable reach, and because of its close proximity to the user
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75 Communication Theory circumstances, positive comments on social media can even boost Google
rankings. However, social media content also follows its own rules, and
therefore requires its own dedicated strategy.
Content on media does not necessarily plays a role in advertising but also
it helps in spreading information to the audience or to the society as a
whole. In theories of communicatio n under ―Communication as
information transmission‖ we understood that communication is about
reaching of information from point A to point B The key works associated
with this perspective came from engineering, and the technological
problems that drove th e theorizing concerned the modernizing of the
telephone system and the development of high -speed computers that could
process a great deal of information in a short span of time.
The high degree of interaction is a special feature of social media – users
can give direct feedback or comment on specific content by clicking on a
―Like‖ button, or something similar. In addition, by sharing content, users
can directly contribute to the spreading of content right across social
media. In order to be successful on social media and thus profit from user
‗word of mouth‘ promotion, content must be both high -quality and also
carefully directed towards the chosen target group.
Except understanding the modern media as a tool of communication if we
investigate the issues that are faced as a society and as for the media
agencies, we will have a detailed knowledge of the reality. As an
organization the content that is created by media needs to adapted into the
society that is the main challenge for the organization, there ha ve been a
lot of cases where in the content (in any form video or written) have had
backlash when released the prime example of it has been the Gillette
advertisement where they raised the issue or boys being boys, the AXE
deo advertisement and even news a gencies mis -spelling names of known
personalities, even though they can fall under the name of petty mistakes
but the time where anything can become a ―trending‖ topic today has no
space for petty mistakes.
Speaking in terms of issues from the end of the s ociety the first and major
most issue is of gatekeeping, there is no specific gatekeeping when it
comes to content being released platforms like Instagram, Facebook have
a very poor gatekeeping process, people in the society post obscene
content the only w ay of that content being highlighted is if it is reported by
the majority otherwise it will be visible until violated under any specific
guideline. Freedom to express has been another issue, it does not mean
that the right that we as a society have been wr ong, but people need to
understand that these things affect others. Like posting abusive comment
on someone‘s images or video is a form of communication it is wrong, but
just because there is no gatekeeping and other people liking and reacting
to those com ment it gives praise to the commenters to continue that.
There can be solutions to that, but the matter is about who is willing to
take actions on it? As a society it is our responsibility to not encourage
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76 have. With the introduction of citizen journalism, we have taken a lot of
responsibility into our hands to bring out the truth, to stand for the right, to
speak for the weak but no one is talking or looking into the matters where
you need to. The other issue with content is that with evolution of media
and cheap internet the quality of content has decreased on a greater rate,
trends once created by one are just followed by others which does not add
anything to the society but just di stract the youth from the reality. The
features of social media platforms are useful if used in a proper manner.
8.2.2 Media Effect theories :
Early media studies focused on the use of mass media in propaganda and
persuasion. However, journalists and resear chers soon looked to
behavioural sciences to help figure out the effect of mass media and
communications on society. Scholars have developed many different
approaches and theories to figure this out. You can refer to these theories
as you research and cons ider the media‘s effect on culture.
Marshall McLuhan’s influence on media :
During the early 1960s, English professor Marshall McLuhan wrote two
books that had an enormous effect on the history of media studies.
Published in 1962 and 1964, respectively, the Gutenberg
Galaxy and Understanding Media both traced the history of media
technology and illustrated the ways these innovations had changed both
individual behaviour and the wider culture. Understanding
Media introduced a phrase that McLuhan has become kn own for: ―The
medium is the message.‖ This notion represented a novel take on attitudes
toward media -that the media themselves are instrumental in shaping
human and cultural experience.
His bold statements about media gained McLuhan a great deal of attenti on
as both his supporters and critics responded to his utopian views about the
ways media could transform 20th -century life. McLuhan spoke of a
media -inspired ―global village‖ at a time when Cold War paranoia was at
its peak and the Vietnam War was a hotly debated subject. Although
1960s -era utopians received these statements positively, social realists
found them cause for scorn. Despite —or perhaps because of —these
controversies, McLuhan became a pop culture icon, mentioned frequently
in the television ske tch-comedy program Laugh -In and appearing as
himself in Woody Allen‘s film Annie Hall.
The Internet and its accompanying cultural revolution have made
McLuhan‘s bold utopian visions seem like prophecies. Indeed, his work
has received a great deal of attent ion in recent years. Analysis of
McLuhan‘s work has, interestingly, not changed very much since his
works were published. His supporters point to the hopes and achievements
of digital technology and the utopian state that such innovations promise.
The curr ent critique of McLuhan, however, is a bit more revealing of the
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77 Communication Theory now than they were during the 1960s, and many of these scholars criticize
McLuhan‘s lack of methodology and theoretical fr amework.
His work brought the idea of media effects into the public arena and
created a new way for the public to consider the influence of media on
culture (Stille, 2000).
Symbolic Interactionism :
Another commonly used media theory, symbolic interactioni sm, states that
the self is derived from and develops through human interaction. This
means the way you act toward someone, or something is based on the
meaning you have for a person or thing. To effectively communicate,
people use symbols with shared cult ural meanings. Symbols can be
constructed from just about anything, including material goods, education,
or even the way people talk. Consequentially, these symbols are
instrumental in the development of the self.
This theory helps media researchers better understand the field because of
the important role the media plays in creating and propagating shared
symbols. Because of the media‘s power, it can construct symbols on its
own. By using symbolic interactionist theory, researchers can look at the
ways med ia affects a society‘s shared symbols and, in turn, the influence
of those symbols on the individual (Jansson -Boyd, 2010).
One of the ways the media creates and uses cultural symbols to affect an
individual‘s sense of self is advertising. Advertisers work to give certain
products a shared cultural meaning to make them desirable. For example,
when you see someone driving a BMW, what do you think about that
person? You may assume the person is successful or powerful because of
the car he or she is driving. Ow nership of luxury automobiles signifies
membership in a certain socioeconomic class. Equally, technology
company Apple has used advertising and public relations to attempt to
become a symbol of innovation and nonconformity. Use of an Apple
product, therefo re, may have a symbolic meaning and may send a
particular message about the product‘s owner.
Media also propagate other non -commercial symbols. National and state
flags, religious images, and celebrities gain shared symbolic meanings
through their represen tation in the media.
Media Logic :
The media logic theory states that common media formats and styles serve
as a means of perceiving the world. Today, the deep rooting of media in
the cultural consciousness means that media consumers need engage for
only a few moments with a particular television program to understand
that it is a news show, a comedy, or a reality show. The pervasiveness of
these formats means that our culture uses the style and content of these
shows as ways to interpret reality. For exampl e, think about a TV news
program that frequently shows heated debates between opposing sides on
public policy issues. This style of debate has become a template for munotes.in

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78 handling disagreement to those who consistently watch this type of
program.
Media logic aff ects institutions as well as individuals. The modern
televangelist has evolved from the adoption of television -style promotion
by religious figures, while the utilization of television in political
campaigns has led candidates to consider their physical im age as an
important part of a campaign (Altheide & Snow, 1991).
8.2.3 Challenges of media :
The public‘s expectations of the media industry have shifted greatly with
the influx of technology. This growth in technology has provided more
access to both live a nd on -demand coverage. Audiences are now
consuming media and news, not just on their TV, but on all devices and
platforms. They‘re also consuming media in a variety of formats. The
media is tasked with creating various forms of content. Media content
needs to be strategically built to be consumed differently based on the
device the viewer is watching it on. Content which works well in one
format, such as long -form for television or Netflix, doesn‘t necessarily
work well on mobile or social where users expec t more snackable content.
Becoming mobile and social friendly is now a necessity to stay
competitive and keep viewership strong.
Media providers and news outlets must act quickly and present easy user
experiences in order to beat out the competition. When it comes to news,
viewers want up -to-date coverage and will leave one media outlet for
another if reports are coming in faster. When it comes to entertainment,
they want easy -to-use interfaces compiled with a plethora of content to
choose from on -demand. N etflix is leading the game due to its ease of use
combined with its library of unique content.
With the influx of fake media and fake news available and making
headlines, media outlets must also look to establish credibility with
viewers. Misreporting the facts or misrepresenting what was said can be
the end to a reporter‘s career and hurt the network‘s credibility overall.
With politics more divisive than ever, networks need to be especially
cautious and do everything possible to gain the public‘s trust an d keep it.
Every individual‘s social news feed looks different. All the content
displayed, and stories and videos shown are personalized to them based on
their interests and the past articles and videos they have consumed.
Artificial intelligence is being used to create more personalized media
experiences. All networks, social and online, are tracking what everyone
consumes and suggesting the next article or video to consume because of
this consumer‘s behaviour. They are using algorithms developed
specifica lly to do this and predict what an individual will do next, as well
as how to keep them engaged with their content.

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79 Communication Theory Key challenges faced by media:
Privacy: The primary challenge posed by the social media is the privacy.
Many people restrain themselves fr om taking part in a dialogue with a fear
of losing their privacy.
Commercial advertising on social media: Advertising on social media
should follow the formalities of censor; and porn content in
advertisements should be avoided on the websites, intended fo r the very
purpose of social networking. If such restrictions are not imposed, strictly,
it may ruin the minds of youth, thereby indirectly increasing the crime
rate. This is one of the vital challenges posed by the social media in the
contemporary web wor ld.
Terms of agreements: Most of the social media sites allow the audience
to create an account, after accepting terms of agreement, which are often
vague. The terms of agreement can be interpreted in multiple ways. They
pose a threat, indirectly. Most of the social networking websites get an
agreement accepted by the users that their information can be used by the
owners of the social media. It indirectly causes invasion of privacy. Such a
challenge is one of the crucial confront posed by the social media .
Security Concerns: Social media sites pose an equal threat to the security
of personal information and other concerned data. Hacking of the websites
is the most common feature; with hacking there is an imminent threat to
the audience of social media. Th is turns to be another key challenge posed
by the social media.
Deception: The identity of the individual who joins the social networking
sites may either original or fake. The veracity of his/her identity is not
known to the fellow user. In the recent pa st, many cases of deception
around the world have been registered. Social media turns to be an easy
way of deceiving people using the technology.
8.3 MEDIA CATEGORIES 8.3.1 Understanding media genres :
Media genres appear within a medium in film, televisio n precisely can be
defined such as the "horror" film or the television "situation comedy".
Each genre has a set of distinguishing features. These features associated
with a genre's style and content may be, for example, a particular setting,
character type s, technical codes (lighting or music).
Genre does not really rely on what is in media text but the way it is put
together. A media text is said to belong to a certain genre, in that it adopts
the codes and conventions of other texts in that genre and beha ves and
looks in almost the same sort of way and the general lay out of the whole
persona is like others labelled in that category, for example, a program on
premier league football can be compared to that of the match magazine as
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80 There six genres of writing: descriptive, expository, persuasive, narrative,
technical and poetic. Compare and Contrast: you examine similarities and
differences between two people, places, ideas, or things. The Function of
Genre is to be able to organize writings based on their form, content, and
style. For example, this allows readers to discern whether the events being
written about in a piece are factual or imaginative.
The style of a movie / film follows a certain convention in the wa y that
they are constructed in a magazine there is usually some sort of contents
page at the start before any of the articles or in a romantic comedy there is
usually a wedding or some sort of happy event at the end of the film.
The audiences have a certai n set of expectations as to what a genre text
will contain in terms of the characters use the costumes and the actors who
are in the film this makes sure that the viewer knows what sort of film that
they are watching and gives them a clear picture as to wh at they expect
from that certain film.
Distinguishing characteristics of different types of media product for
example, if there was a scene that contained some sort of blood and gore
then this would be categized as horror or thriller or if there is a room with
two people sitting at a desk and a there is text rolling across the screen
then this would be a news report of some sort.
There are various genres in type of media:
 Newspapers can be printed or online publications. India has many
national newspapers, and these may have a particular political bias or
social perspective. Religion -specific newspapers, entertain and inform
their readers about religious, social and political issues from that
particular relig ion's perspective. So deciding the kind of specification
a news paper needs becomes its genre. Eg: DNA‘s after hours
(although DNA is shut) but their afterhours was all about Bollywood
gossip.
 Magazines are usually printed or online publications covering a
variety of topics to suit personal choice and interests. Religion -
specific magazines cover news from a particular religion's point of
view.
 Digital TV is found in all homes worldwide. TV programmes are
mostly secular, although some digital channels. Well digital source
usually covers all genre so it‘s a multiplatform, but it is upto the user
to choose the specification.
 Radio stations, local and national, target different audiences. Most are
secular, although some may contain aspects of religion. Some
chan nels focus specifically on religious news, debate, teaching and
music, such as Red FM.
 The internet can be used for entertainment, research, education, and
information. Religion -specific websites. They can be intended for munotes.in

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81 Communication Theory their own faith community or aim a t informing the wider world.
Charities such as Christian Aid and Muslim Aid advertise the work
they do and invite donations online.
 Films cover different stories, topics, themes, and genres. They are
often first released at the cinema and then become avail able for
personal viewing at home.
Irrespective of any sort or type of media one wants to have focused
attention towards, it is important to understand the genre seems reliable
and interested, it provides a sense of clarity and belongingness to an
induvial to understand the best genre for themselves, let it be an
organization or one individual in a big society.
Genre is important for audiences because it allows them to know what
kind of film they are going to see and what they can expect when going to
see a film. Also, certain audiences prefer certain genres. The genre allows
the audience to choose what type of films they like to watch.
8.4 CONCLUSION In this chapter we understood the reality and approach of media and its
content today plays a vital role in influencing the society. As studied in the
earlier chapters how media sets agenda for us to think and talk about but,
with modern media the times have changed where media content has also
become consumer driven. Audience looks for controversies and spicy
stories and that is what media is giving now days. Content in traditional
media was the most important part of media organization as it was what
was given to the audience to consume but it is seen that in the last two
decades, we have seen a great increase in the digital consumption where
traditional media completely turned into new media including
computerized, digital and networked information and communication.
From one end, the respondents are of the opinion that they cannot even
imagine a world without new media; and from the other end, there are
many challenges posed by the new media. At this juncture, the only option
left with is, the addressing of these challenges posed by the new media in
a desired way, so that the maximum can be obtained out of the social
media. Both service providers and the concerned competitive authorities at
appropriate level should investigate this matter, so as to provide a better
new media environment to the audience along with this media has its own
limitations and issues wh ich will vary with time and technology but we as
a society have to understand and find a way to overcome them and keep
on building a new better society in terms of media consumption. The
media was mainly supposed to provide access to important news
informa tion and analysis about the world, as well as top entertainment
content, quickly and effortlessly for viewers, presenting media
professionals with an array of challenges but technology has shown us a
new phase, let‘s see how far and to what extent we can g o on with this.
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82 8.5 QUESTIONS 1. Why is content important in media? What are the issues f aced by a
media organization in regarding the same?
2. Explain in detail McLuhan‘s influence in media.
3. Explain in detail
(a) Symbolic Interactionism
(b) Media Logic
(c) Genres in media
4. Explain in detail the key challenges faced by media.
5. The transition of media from traditi onal to modern has affected the
lifestyle of billions but, as an evolving society is modern media a
blessing? Comment.
1.6 References
1. Media content https://caluniv.ac.in/global -mdia -
journal/COMMENTARY -JUNE -2014/C_1.pdf
2. Social media content Social Media Content: What you should know |
Content Marketing Glossary (textbroker.com)
3. Mc Luhan‘s influence on media 2.2 Media Effects Theories –
Understanding Media and Culture (umn.edu)
4. Key challenges faced by media https://caluniv.ac.in/global -mdia -
journal/COMMENTARY -JUNE -2014/C_1.pdf
5. Genres in media
https://createmedianow.wordpress.com/2013/04/18/genres -in-media -
text/
6. Media effect theories
https://open.lib.umn.edu/mediaandculture/chapter/2 -2-media -effects -
theories/#:~:text=%202.2%20Media%20Effects%20Theories%20%2
01%20Agenda -
Setting,hold%20a%20minority%20opinion%20silence%20themselves
...%20More%20


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83 Communication Theory 9
AUDIENCE THEORY AND RESEARCH
TRADITIONS, AUDIENCE FORMATION
AND EXPERIENCE
Unit Structure
9.0 Objective
9.1 Introduction
9.3 Concept Of Audience
9.4 The Audience's Origin
9.5 What Is A Mass Audience?
9.6 Market As Audience
9.7 Key Audience Theories
9.8 Types Of Audience
9.9 Social Group Or Public
9.10 Medium Audience
9.11 Expectancy — Value Model Of Media Gratification
9.12 Integrated Model Of Audience Choice
9.13 Media And Audience
9.14 Fragmentation Of The Audience
9.15 Question
9.16 Refer ences
9.0 OBJECTIVE  discuss the concept of audience in mass media;
 analyse the way in which the audience becomes a market;
 examine key audience theories and their characteristics;
 describe interactive audience; and
 explain and apply audience theories in your own work.
9.1 INTRODUCTION The audience, as you may know, is the final user of media. The audience's
feedback is critical throughout the communication process. The
communication process is deemed to be effective "if and only if" the
receiver responds.
The imagined, intended audience of a communicator is referred to as an
ideal audience. The communicator or speaker imagines a target audience
when writing a rhetorical text, a group of people who will be addressed,
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84 The audience can be a single individual or a group of people of various
sizes and types. The audience theories are based on the behaviour of the
audience or how they are impacted. We'll look at several parts of the
audience and theories in this unit, as well as the interaction between
audience, communicators, channels, and content. The focus is on the
audience and how it interacts with the message or material. The impact of
media regulations and content on the audience is one of the major t opics
covered in this unit.
9.3 CONCEPT OF AUDIENCE As you may know, an audience is a group of individuals who attend a
performance of art, literature (readers), theatre (watchers), music
(listeners), or video games (players) in any medium. An audience for the
media can range from one person reading a newspaper or magazine to
billions of people watching world events on television.
Historically, audience meant several things; it may have been individuals
reading newspapers, books, or magazines. Following the arrival of the
films, a number of people gathered in the cinemas to view them. However,
the development of radio, and then television, altered the concept of
audience. The individuals or groups formed a split audience of groups or
an individual audience. A group of people could listen to the radio from
anywhere in the world. The evolution of technology at the audience is
divided by the online video games. However, there is another side to it:
television programmes that are watched by people all over the wo rld bring
them all together.
9.4 THE AUDIENCE'S ORIGIN The audience's origins can be traced back to a group of people sitting
together behind an imaginary line watching any kind of performer. The
first audience appeared during theatres, which began as a ri tual with tribal
dances and festivals that required a community gathering. It was a
participatory type of theatre in which peasants would join the actors. Many
of these types of people still exist throughout Asia and India.
The first audience was reported in Greece (4th and 5th centuries BC),
where villagers celebrated harvest by invoking Gods. Seats were reserved
according to one's social rank in this type of audience; the wealthy were
given front row, elaborate seats, while peasants and other lower -class
people were sat in the back. The Romans developed the concept of
'Spectator' to include a vibrant audience. Theatre arose in Asia as a result
of agricultural festivals.
The definitions of audience, which are a group of listeners or spectators,
help to clar ify the situation. It could have started at a music concert when
listeners were forced to listen to music while also watching others sing.
The audience is a group of fervent admirers; in the theatre, the crowd
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85 Communication Theory It has been seen over the years that audiences might be pleasant, apathetic,
misinformed, or hostile. The communicator must have various approaches
for each of these audiences. If they are friendly, you must support their
ideas; if they are apathetic, you must persuade them that it matters to
them; if they are misinformed, you must educate them before offering a
course of action; if they are hostile, you must respect them and their point
of view.
9.5 WHAT IS A MASS AUDIENCE? Before defining Mass Audience, one must first define the t erm "mass."
According to Blumer's Mass Communication Theory, mass is
heterogeneous, huge, and anonymous, as previously stated. Different
classes of individuals are referred to as heterogeneity of mass; they can be
of different ages, genders, incomes, relig ions, and vocations or locations.
A representation of the masses can be found in either India or the United
States; it is a big number of people who are likely nameless, anonymous,
and unknown.
We can deduct from the theory, Mass audience, that when people watch a
movie or read a magazine at home, they become part of a 'Mass audience';
everyone who encounters a media text becomes part of that text's mass
audience. This is similar to a FIFA World Cup crowd at a match, where
everyone is watching the same game , but the audience in the media is
divided by space and time.
The people are distinguishable all over since the bulk is quite huge in size
and physical terms, and they are anonymous to each other. They are
completely unaware of each other. The masses are d isorganised because
the people are anonymous. The multitudes, unlike at a public assembly, do
not have a shared purpose to fulfil.
There are four different approaches to comprehending mass
audiences:
Media Reach: It refers to the reach of all media, includ ing
newspaper/magazine readers, radio listeners, TV viewers, and, in the case
of new media, netizens.
Media Access: Mass media may be available, but access is determined by
one's ability or inclination to use it. Newspapers may be available, yet they
may n ot be read by the general public;
Media Exposure: Many people of the general public may be unaware of
new media technology or other forms of mainstream media. Furthermore,
no one is exposed to the entirety of any medium's material. However, not
all users o f media content are exposed in the same way.
Media Effects: Another consideration for media audiences is if they have
changed their knowledge, attitudes, or behaviours as a result of their
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86 9.6 MARKET AS AUDIENCE Journalism served as a social institution and the Fourth Estate of
Democracy throughout the early days of modern media, particularly print
media. The expansion and technological advancement of the mass media
altered the entire dynamic; now, media is a multibillion -dollar indus try
with a primary goal of profit. The media's commercialization has turned
the audience into a market. The media content is a commodity that is
delivered to the consumer/audience with all of the necessary ingredients.
With profit as the primary goal, prod ucer competition has risen. According
to market theory, an audience is a group of potential customers with a
recognised socioeconomic profile who are targeted by a medium or
message.
Audience is important in two ways as a consumer concept: for content and
for advertising. The most important source of money for the media is
advertising. Advertisements direct profits; as a result, the more
advertisements in newspapers, commercials on television, and radio
jingles, the higher the profits. The goal of competiti on-driven media is to
increase ad revenue. Since a result, advertising often determine the content
of the media, as the lure of income influences the media's policy. The
audience takes on the role of a market in this hellish nexus.
Audiences exist only as a fictitious entity, an abstraction created from the
institution's perspective and for the institution's benefit. Audience is
defined not just by demographics like gender, age, and socioeconomic
class, but also by psychographics like hobbies, habits, and i nterests.
Genre, Narrative, Representation, Audience, and Media Language all play
a role in the main concept of audience theory in this context.
9.7 KEY AUDIENCE THEORIES Hypodermic Needle Theory :
The Effects Theory, also known as the Hypodermic Needle Th eory, is
defined as media content that reaches the audience immediately, similar to
a needle pricking the body and causing an impact. This is comparable to
the 'Stimulus - Response' hypothesis in psychology.
The audience is influenced by the intake of medi a texts. Audiences are
powerless to resist the effect since they are passive. The text's message has
the most power. Like a result, the media acts as a narcotic, and the public
becomes addicted, doped, or even fooled.
Indeed, the Frankfurt School hypothesi sed in the 1920s and 1930s that the
media manipulated audiences to promote capitalists and the government.
Another key study that supported the Hypodermic Needle Model in 1963
was Albert Bandura's Bobo Doll, which claimed that children who see
violence on television become violent.
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87 Communication Theory Gratification Set as Audience :
The audience as a satisfaction set differs from the Hypodermic Needle
Model in that this audience chooses what to do with the media rather than
the media influencing the audience directly. The audi ence turns to the
media to satisfy a want. They look to the media to interpret the message
(what they want). This is a subjective and picky audience.
This is an audience that seeks knowledge in order to keep itself informed
(on the type of information requ ired); to identify themselves (personal
identity); to escape tension, boredom, and relieve (escapism); and to relate
to characters in television shows.
Gratification can also develop to a dependency on the media. The more an
individual or audience uses med ia to meet their needs, the more
autonomous they become, and the media's influence over them grows.
Reception Theory :
According to the Effects model, media causes inactivity, makes us 'couch
potatoes,' students do not study and thus do not get jobs; media also causes
violence because viewers are influenced by violent programming; media
also causes 'copycat behaviour,' and advertisements in media cause
mindless and unwanted shopping, among other things. According to Stuart
Hall (1973), the audience responds to content in three ways:
a) Preferred/Dominant readings: In this situation, the producer gives
the same type of text that the audience needs based on their socio -
cultural background, and the audience has little to challenge.
b) Negotiate readings: In thi s situation, the audience may not agree
with the context completely, but they try to adjust to what is written/
seen in order to get the most out of what they read/ saw.
c) Opposition/Resistant Readings : The audience objects to the context
read/viewed sin ce the content may be socio -culturally incompatible
with the values held by the viewers.
9.8 TYPES OF AUDIENCE The many types of audiences can be identified based on their
demographics and mental makeup.
1) Elite Audience: Elite audiences are made up of p eople who make
decisions and establish trends in society. They are well -off financially
and have a good education. They have a high social standing.
Although they are few in number, they have a significant impact.
They could also be the proprietors or cont rollers of media companies.
Early adopters of communication technologies are members of the
elite audiences. In general, they do not consume a lot of media.
2) General Audiences: These are vast, diversified groups that represent
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88 fall under this category. They are mostly targeted by media content.
The success or failure of a content or medium is determined by their
participation.
3) Special Interest Audiences: These audiences are made up of people
who share similar interests. They are a small group of people. Special
content is created for these audiences by the mass media. Tribals,
housewives, college students, and other particular interest audiences
are examples of programmes. Journals l ike Mainstream, Economic
and Political Weekly, and Media Asia, on the other hand, have a small
but well -known readership.
9.9 SOCIAL GROUP OR PUBLIC A family can be the basis of a social community. A larger social group
emerges from a family gathering at a function or an event such as an
engagement. As a result, social gatherings occur at significant events such
as weddings, parties, and even an exclusive group of people assembling
for a charity function. Furthermore, all of these organisations share a same
goal.
In a small group, everyone knows everyone else. They are conscious of
their common membership, share similar beliefs, and have a definite
connection structure. They work together to achieve a common goal. The
larger the group, the more difficult it is to interact.
The target audience of social groups is generally simple to handle.
Because one can comprehend and study a social group, as well as their
requirements and desires. Producers can create such shows and treat their
viewers as a single, homogen eous group.
The general public is dispersed. They can range in size from little to
enormous. The term "public" is usually associated with a cause, goal, or
activity. The public may be diverse, and members may not know one
another. When it comes to dissemin ating information about their policies
and intentions, political parties treat members of social groups as public.
Because of their diversity, publics as target audiences are challenging to
persuade and motivate.
9.10 MEDIUM AUDIENCE The audience of mass m edia is diverse, and each medium has its own
audience. Media -based mass communication reaches a large audience.
Newspapers are used to communicate information to readers.
Electronically, the broadcast media informs the public. Radio is a medium
for listene rs; television is an audio -visual medium; and film is an audio -
visual medium as well. Reading, listening, and watching are all part of
New Communication Technology.
Because of digital technology, mainstream media audiences that were
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89 Communication Theory today fragmented. As a result of the fragmentation, each medium's
viewership has shrunk. The broadcast media are responsible for a large
portion of the media audience. Sitcoms and soap operas are popular
among this demographic.
The 'Niche Audience,' which chooses customised programmes or reads
solely personalised content, is the other media audience. This is, in fact, a
small number of people. Different classifications and categories of medial
medium audience s exist. This classification might be based on vocations,
social classes, and other factors.
Structure of Audience Theories :
It is primarily concerned with what should be done rather than with what
actually occurs. It is dissimilar to positive science. Whi le positive science
is concerned with facts and their causes, ethics is concerned with morals.
It assesses the standards or rules by which we can determine if human
activity is correct or incorrect. Additionally, logic and aesthetics are
considered normati ve sciences.
The effect created on the audience is the core framework of audience
theories. The SMCR model is the foundational framework for
comprehending audience theories. All factors in the communication
process have an effect on the listener, whether d irect or indirect. Berlo's
Communication Model demonstrates how each part of the communication
process is interconnected and influences each other as well as the listener.
Structural Model of Media Use :
Jay Blumer and McQuail investigated the motivations f or watching
various political programmes on television during the 1964 election in the
United Kingdom in 1969. McQuail's Structural Model entails categorising
the audience's or viewers' needs to watch the programme. In other words,
McQuail's Structural Mod el of Media Usage proposes that audience media
consumption has a 'Structure,' which may be classified into several 'needs.'
Denis McQuail, Jay Blumer, and Joseph Brown proposed four categories
for the uses of various sorts of media in 1972: diversion, pers onal
relationship, personal identity, and monitoring. People's use of media and
the enjoyment they seek from it are intrinsically linked to the world in
which they live, according to Blumer, McQuail, and other theorists. They
noted in 1974 that people's'so cial situations' can be 'engaged in the
development of media related wants' in five ways:
 Tensions and disputes in social systems might lead to media
consumption to care about the same.
 Social situations can raise awareness of issues that require attention ,
which can be achieved through the media.
 Real-life options to meet some needs may be limited due to social
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90  Specific values are frequently elicited in social contexts, and
subsequently affirmation ca n be aided by media.
 Social settings necessitate acquaintance with the media, which the
media may provide;
The relatively continuous array of channels; the choice of information that
is available in a given place and time is referred to as media structure.
9.11 EXPECTANCY - VALUE MODEL OF MEDIA GRATIFICATION Gratification and Uses - The study of Audience Theory requires an
approach :
Uses and Gratification Theory are inextricably tied to Expectancy —
Value Theory. In 1970, Martin Fishbein proposed this theor y. Behavior is
a result of one's 'expectancies' and the 'value' of the thing toward which
one is working, according to this idea. When more than one behaviour is
conceivable, such an approach predicts that the behaviour chosen will
have the highest combina tion of predicted success value.
The audience's social influence, in particular, has an impact on attitude
and attitude change. The audience's social impact is responsible for media
satisfaction. Audiences seek for specific media content as a result of the
attitudes they have evolved as a result of social influence. This notion has
also been refined as a tool in a variety of industries, including advertising
and education. For example, the societal impact on a certain brand of
clothing may cause viewers to seek out advertising for that brand on
television and build a desire to purchase the product.
Individuals respond to knowledge about an object (invariably gained via
the media) or behaviour by establishing a belief about it, according to
Fishbein (EVT/ Mod e). If a belief already exists (for example, organic
foods are good for your health), additional facts may change it
(characteristics of organic foods). Individuals then assign a value to each
attribute 'on which' a belief is founded (organic food help in making you
healthy). Finally, based on the circulation of beliefs and values, an
expectation is established or modified (to buy the newly brought out
organic food advertised).
9.12 INTEGRATED MODEL OF AUDIENCE CHOICE This model was influenced by Webster an d Wakshlag, according to
Dennis McQuail(2000:391) (1983). This approach combines audience and
media factors to provide both audience and media perspectives. The two
sides are explained by the following factors:

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91 Communication Theory The Influence of the Audience :
1) Socioeco nomic background, particularly social class, education,
religion, culture, political climate, and family, as well as residence
location, impact media choosing.
2) Personal characteristics such as age, gender, family status, education,
career, income, and lifestyle influence media consumption.
3) Personal media content preferences are influenced by genres, forms,
and individual material.
4) Media habits in leisure time and other time available are important.
5) A component where engaged audiences can be anticipated to arrange
their own media usage that you like is awareness in picking the
volume and type of information.
Audience Factor :
1) Audience attention is influenced by the media system (members,
range, and type of media available) and the distincti ve characteristics
of various media channels — national, local, language, and formats.
2) Media structure refers to the basic pattern of whether the media gives
the public the information they want.
3) Content availability, which has an impact on the for mats and genres
available to a potential audience.
4) Advertising and image development by the media for their own
objectives are referred to as media publicity or promotional
programmes.
5) Time and attendance — specialised tactics of time, schedule, an d
content design in accordance with the competition strategy to get the
audience influence media selection and use. To combat the
competition, most regional language TV networks, for example, run
the same formats and programmes at the same time.
These cons iderations point to an integrated strategy in which the audience
and media are mutually reliant.
9.13 MEDIA AND AUDIENCE The media and the audience are both important aspects of the
communication process. The media for the audience, who are the
receivers, are the content suppliers. A media audience can be as little as
one person (a single person watching TV or reading a newspaper) or as
huge as billions or an infinite number of people watching events or
programmes all over the world at any given moment. The audience is
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92 there were no audience. It's crucial for the media since they're the ones
who keep them competitive, successful, and in business.
The audiences are active, yet they can be p rimary or secondary, as well as
single or large groups. They can be enormous or little, and, thanks to
technological advancements, they can be interactive.
9.14 FRAGMENTATION OF THE AUDIENCE The number of media channels available has expanded thrice as a result of
advances in media technology. Due to the great range of media platforms,
audience fragmentation refers to the division of audiences into multiple
groups (small or large).
The technique of splitting people into homogeneous groupings based on
stated criteria such as demographics, communication behaviour, media
use, and so on is known as audience fragmentation. For example, the age
group of youth and senior citizens may be fragmented. The audience can
be divided into groups based on their media consu mption habits, such as
TV watchers, Internet users, and FM listeners. In the case of newspaper
readers, there is the possibility of additional segmentation into those who
read hardcopy and those who read e -papers online.
Media convergence is at the root of audience fragmentation. In all media,
the same content is available. If you read a news report in the newspaper,
it is also available in e -paper and appears in a brief form on social media
sites even before the next morning's issue. Advertisers face chall enges as a
result of audience fragmentation because they must cater to audiences of
many types and regions at the same time.
Because a huge number of people are reading/viewing the same content at
the same time or at various times, digital technology has i ncreased
audience uncertainty. In the world of technology, audience fragmentation
is crucial. Narrowcasting, the polar opposite of broadcasting, uses
specialised Cable TV to reach smaller audiences, whereas 'Zone casting' in
technology delivers different c ommercials to specific neighbourhoods, and
location -based mobile advertising uses technology to follow you around
and sell things 24 hours a day, seven days a week.
Interactive Audience :
Ethics is not a practical science; it merely directs us toward a spec ific
objective. Its path is distinct from that of practical science, which is a
means to an end or set of values. For instance, medical science is a
technique of eradicating disease's causes. Thus, ethics seeks to determine
what the ultimate purpose of lif e is and how it might be accomplished.
As you may know, interactive media refers to products and services
delivered via digital computer -based systems that respond to user
activities by displaying material such as text, moving images, animation,
video, aud io, and video games in response to the user's actions. Large -
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93 Communication Theory entertainment, education, and information. Interactive media develops
visuals and animations for a variety of media channels as w ell as
electronic devices like mobile phone apps, web -based computer games,
and interactive television.
The primary distinguishing feature of an interactive audience is that they
respond to digital input. An audience reading or viewing traditional media,
such as print or broadcast, has no way of navigating. With the
commercialization of the Internet in the 1990s, one -way communication
was supplanted by interactive audiences. The following are some
examples of participatory audiences:
• Application Software : Software created for a knowledge
management platform; for example, if you want to know "How to
keep pests away," this application will assist you.
• Apps : the most popular form of interactive medial audience, such as
Zomato and Swiggy — interact and org anise.
• Games : Interactive games and activities are great for both groups and
individuals (s). Family Tree, Little Thief, and more interactive games
are available on the digital platform.
• Interactive Video : Video and television includes interactive fe atures
such as video/TV streaming, which allows you to live stream and
engage with programmes.
• Social Media: The social media or SNS internet communities that
allow media to be navigated, shared, and generated, such as YouTube,
account for the majority of interactive audience.
• Advertising : Interactive components in digital, outdoor, and in -store
advertising, such as a digital poster that interacts to people passing by.
All of the following are popular kinds of interactive media that have a
large numbe r of interactive audiences throughout the world.
Audience Research :
Audience research is used to gather, analyse, and interpret information on
a certain audience segment's attitudes, knowledge, interest, behaviour, and
preferences in relation to a specific subject or event. It's usually done to
figure out who the media's target audience is. Advertisers want to know
what the audience's wants are, how they react to a product, how they may
improve the product by understanding the audience's demands, and how to
encourage and persuade them.
The audience is divided into several demographic groups, including
income, gender, profession, marital status, and religion. Surveys using
questionnaires, market research online forums, interviews, and focus
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94 Audience research is beneficial since it can reveal the audience's likes and
dislikes as well as critical information regarding the channel's content. It'll
help you define your target audience by allowing you to develop an
audience profile. However, research takes time and money, and it can be
costly if questions are skewed. As a result, if replies are ambiguous or
incomplete, the results may be inaccurate.
Surveys are done to determine the readership of newspapers and
magazines , radio listenership, and television and cinema viewership.
Ratings (TV Rating Points — TRP) are based on TV viewership research.
In the case of the Internet and Social Media, research has gained traction,
and the necessity, as well as the results, have be en developed to
comprehend the rise in popularity of the New Media. The use of digital
media, particularly smart phones, has grown increasingly common in
audience research approaches.
9.15 QUESTION 1. Explain the concept of Audience and define Mass Audience .
2. Briefly explain : Social Groups, Public and Gratification set.
3. Briefly explain the structural Model of Media Use by Dennis
McQuail.
4. Discuss ‗Expectancy Value of Media‘.
5. Explain in detail Audience fragmentation and Audience Research.
9.16 REFERENCES  Harindranath, Ramaswamy (2009). Audience -Citizens: The Media,
Public Knowledge, and Interpretive Practice. New Delhi. Sage
Publications.
 Banaji, Shakuntala (2011). South Asian Media Cultures: Audiences,
Representations, Contexts. New Delhi; Anthem Press.
 Mytto n, Graham et a1 (2016). Media Audience Research: A Guide for
Professionals. New Delhi; SAGE Publications.
 Nightingale, Virginia (2011a. The Handbook of Media Audiences.
New Jersey; John Wiley & Sons.
 Ruddock, Andy (2001). Understanding Audiences: Theory an d
Method. New Delhi; Sage Publications.
 Sullivan, John L(2012). Media Audiences. Effects, Users, Institutions,
and Power.
 New Delhi; Sage Publications.

*****
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95 Communication Theory 10
PROCESS AND MODELS OF MEDIA
EFFECTS, SOCIO -CULTURAL EFFECTS
Unit Structure
10.0 Objective
10.1 Introduction
10.3 Questions
10.4 References
10.0 OBJECTIVE  To understand the premise of media effect
 To study the natural history of media effect research and theory and
its phases
The Premise of Media Effect :
As previously said, the entire fi eld of mass communication research is
predicated on the assumption that the media have major impacts, yet there
is little consensus on the nature and scope of these anticipated effects. This
ambiguity is even the more unexpected given how many, albeit mode st,
examples of impact can be seen in everyday life. We dress for the weather,
buy something because of an advertisement, go to a movie that was
mentioned in the newspaper, and react in a variety of ways to media news,
films, radio music, and so on. The im pact of good or negative economic
news on company and consumer confidence is undeniable.
There have been numerous incidents of unfavourable media coverage of
food contamination or adulteration, which has resulted in major changes in
food consumption behav iour, sometimes with significant economic
consequences. Media portrayals appear to be copied or spurred acts of
violence or suicide. Many policies and regulations are aimed at preventing
the media from harming people, and some people even want the media to
do good.
Our heads are stuffed with media -generated data and impressions. We live
in a world flooded with media noises and visuals, where politics,
government, and business all work under the assumption that we are aware
of global events. Few of us can re call a personal experience in which the
media helped us learn important information or form an opinion. Much
money and effort is also spent on guiding the media to produce such
results, particularly through advertising and public relations, and it's
diffic ult to suppose that this would happen unless there's a strong belief
that it works, more or less as planned. The media, for one, appear to be
confident in their ability to produce desired results. munotes.in

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96 Nonetheless, there is a lot of scepticism. The contradictio n can be
explained in part by the distinction between the general and the specific.
We can be certain that certain effects are occurring all of the time without
being able to see or forecast the aggregate outcome, or knowing how
much of it can be attribute d to the media after the fact. There can be a
plethora of impacts with no discernible structure or direction.
The media are rarely the only essential or sufficient source of an effect,
and determining their proportional involvement is difficult. There are
numerous strong theoretical explanations for this ambiguity, and even
common sense and "practical knowledge" falter when it comes to concerns
of media effect in the contentious areas of morals, opinion, and deviant
behaviour that have gotten the greatest public attention. There can be no
question that the media is a primary or sufficient cause in many of these
cases, and it is impossible to account for all possible psychological, social,
and cultural aspects. Furthermore, speaking of 'the media' as if they were a
single entity rather than the bearers of a vast array of messages, pictures,
and ideas makes no sense. The majority of this content does not originate
with the media, but rather 'comes from society' and is ‗sent back' to society
via the media.
The majority of effect study has been launched by people outside of the
media, such as social critics, politicians, and interest groups. The
fundamental notion has been that the media is a 'problem' for society as a
whole. Although harmful components of media effects continue to shape
public debate on the media, especially newer forms such as the Internet,
this is no longer totally true. The chasm between those who proclaim or
fear the media's dominance and those who question it will never be
bridged.
The beli ef system of ‗media power' has far too many vested interests, and
critics' evidentiary standards are far too high to be easily satisfied. Even
still, this divergence of opinions can be beneficial. It serves as a warning
to be wary of taking the assertions of 'persuaders' or critics at face value,
to avoid conflating specific messages with the medium as a whole, and to
differentiate carefully between different forms of effect and different
contexts. Most importantly, we must recognise that the effects are
influenced at least as much by the receiver as they are by the transmitter.
The Natural History of Media Effect Research and Theory: Four
Phases :
As previously said, the entire field of mass communication research is
predicated on the assumption that the med ia have major impacts, yet there
is little consensus on the nature and scope of these anticipated effects. This
ambiguity is even the more unexpected given how many, albeit modest,
examples of impact can be seen in everyday life. We dress for the weather,
buy something because of an advertisement, go to a movie that was
mentioned in the newspaper, and react in a variety of ways to media news,
films, radio music, and so on. The impact of good or negative economic
news on company and consumer confidence is un deniable. munotes.in

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97 Communication Theory There have been numerous incidents of unfavourable media coverage of
food contamination or adulteration, which has resulted in major changes in
food consumption behaviour, sometimes with significant economic
consequences. Media portrayals appear to be copied or spurred acts of
violence or suicide. Many policies and regulations are aimed at preventing
the media from harming people, and some people even want the media to
do good.
Our heads are stuffed with media -generated data and impressions. We l ive
in a world flooded with media noises and visuals, where politics,
government, and business all work under the assumption that we are aware
of global events. Few of us can recall a personal experience in which the
media helped us learn important informa tion or form an opinion.
Much money and effort is also spent on guiding the media to produce such
results, particularly through advertising and public relations, and it's
difficult to suppose that this would happen unless there's a strong belief
that it w orks, more or less as planned. The media, for one, appear to be
confident in their ability to produce desired results.
Nonetheless, there is a lot of scepticism. The contradiction can be
explained in part by the distinction between the general and the spec ific.
We can be certain that certain effects are occurring all of the time without
being able to see or forecast the aggregate outcome, or knowing how
much of it can be attributed to the media after the fact. There can be a
plethora of impacts with no disc ernible structure or direction. The media
are rarely the only essential or sufficient source of an effect, and
determining their proportional involvement is difficult.
There are numerous strong theoretical explanations for this ambiguity, and
even common sense and "practical knowledge" falter when it comes to
concerns of media effect in the contentious areas of morals, opinion, and
deviant behaviour that have gotten the greatest public attention. There can
be no question that the media is a primary or suff icient cause in many of
these cases, and it is impossible to account for all possible psychological,
social, and cultural aspects.
Furthermore, speaking of 'the media' as if they were a single entity rather
than the bearers of a vast array of messages, pi ctures, and ideas makes no
sense. The majority of this content does not originate with the media, but
rather 'comes from society' and is'sent back' to society via the media.
The majority of effect study has been launched by people outside of the
media, suc h as social critics, politicians, and interest groups. The
fundamental notion has been that the media is a 'problem' for society as a
whole. Although harmful components of media effects continue to shape
public debate on the media, especially newer forms s uch as the Internet,
this is no longer totally true. The chasm between those who proclaim or
fear the media's dominance and those who question it will never be
bridged. munotes.in

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98 The belief system of 'media power' has far too many vested interests, and
critics' evi dentiary standards are far too high to be easily satisfied. Even
still, this divergence of opinions can be beneficial. It serves as a warning
to be wary of taking the assertions of 'persuaders' or critics at face value,
to avoid conflating specific message s with the medium as a whole, and to
differentiate carefully between different forms of effect and different
contexts. Most importantly, we must recognise that the effects are
influenced at least as much by the receiver as they are by the transmitter.
 direct effects;
 conditional effects (varying according to social and psychological
factors);
 cumulative effects (gradual and long term);
 cognitive -transactional (with particular reference to schemata and
framing).
In fact, these models correspond quite closely to the four phases described
above :
Nature of effects Media content variables Audience variables Direct Immediate, uniform, observable short term emphasis on change Salience, arousal, realism Not relevant Conditional Individualized, Reinforcement as well as change Cognitive, affective, and behavioural long or short term Not relevant Social categories Social relationships Individual differences Cumulative Based on cumulative exposure Cognitive or affect Rarely behavioural Enduring effects Consonant across channels Repetition Not relevant Cognitive-transactional Immediate and short term , Based on one-shot exposure Cognitive and affective; behavioural effects possible Salience of visual cues Schema makeup Mood Goals munotes.in

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99 Communication Theory Media power can vary with the ti mes:
Before we move on from the historical part of media impacts research, it's
worth considering Carey's (1988) suggestion that fluctuations in belief in
the power of mass communications may have a historical explanation. 'It
can be claimed that the funda mental reason for the movement in the
argument about the consequences from a powerful to a limited to a more
powerful model is that the social reality was changing during this period,'
he adds.
In a time of global turmoil around the two world wars, powerf ul
consequences were indeed signalled, but the calmer 1950s and 1960s
appeared more stable, until peace was again disrupted by social unrest.
When society's stability is threatened by crime, war, economic depression,
or any form of'moral panic,' the mass m edia appear to bear some of the
blame.
We can only hypothesise about the causes of such temporal correlations,
but we can't rule out the idea that media are more influential in specific
ways at times of crisis or increased awareness. This might be true of the
aftermath of the fall of communism in Europe, as well as foreign conflicts
like the Gulf and Balkan wars of the 1990s, as well as the Afghanistan and
Iraq wars that followed 9/11. This is possible for a variety of reasons.
People frequently learn about major historical events solely through the
media, and they may link the message with the medium. People are more
likely to rely on the media as a source of information and advice during
times of transition and uncertainty (Ball -Rokeach and DeFleur, 1976;
Ball-Rokeach, 1985; 1998).
The media has also been demonstrated to have a greater influence on
issues that are not directly related to personal experience. In times of stress
and uncertainty, government, business, and other elites and interests
frequently strive to influence and control public opinion through the
media.
Rosengren and Windahl (1989) indicate that differences in evidence about
the influence of television itself may reflect the fact that television was
truly different in content and as a soci al experience in the 1980s compared
to the 1950s when the first research was conducted.
It also varies depending on the society. If this is accurate, it has
ramifications for today's television viewing experience, which has altered
in many ways. The key, if obvious, point is that media influence, whether
potential or actual, varies with time and between locations.
Types of Communicative Power :
Not only in regard to the media, but also in general, the concept of power
has proven difficult to define. Two dif ferent paths have been taken when it
has been defined. One follows a behavioural and causal line of reasoning
consistent with stimulus -response thinking, in which power is equated
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100 The alternative model is sociological, and it is based on Max Weber's
definition of power as the "chance of a man or group of men to actualize
their will in a community activity even in the face of resistance from other
participants" (1964: 152).
A relation ship is assumed to exist between the partners to action in this
understanding of power, and coercion is possible to attain some goal. In
addition, there are winners and losers (a zero -sum situation).
While both models are pertinent to the subject of media effects, the second
has greater explanatory power, even when effects are unintended, because
most effects require the target of influence's cooperation or compliance.
When it comes to mass communication, however, there may not be visible
partners in action , and true coercion is unlikely. Because it is based on
non-material criteria (trust, reason, respect, affec tion, and so on),
communicative or symbolic power differs from other types of power.
The point to emphasise here is that symbolic power can be app lied in a
variety of ways. The following are the primary types:
 as a source of information
 by acting as a catalyst;
 by focusing attention in different ways;
 by use of persuasion;
 by framing 'reality' and defining circumstances
While each of these avenues h as some indication of media effect, they do
not have equal potential, at least not for an independent communication
effect. More effects from media occur as a result of defining situations and
framing reality, providing information, or the differential dir ection of
attention (including the amplification of certain images and ideas) than
from persuasion or stimulation to action, for a variety of reasons
(including the lack of resistance and low threshold for an effect). Aid
compatible with the 'negotiated in fluence' phase mentioned above
essentially indicates these points.
Levels and Kinds of Effects :
Media 'effects' are simply the results of what the media does, whether
intentionally or unintentionally. The term 'media power,' on the other
hand, refers to th e media's overall ability to produce consequences,
particularly those that are intended. 'Media efficacy' is a statement about
the effectiveness of media in achieving a specific purpose, and it always
involves some sort of communication goal. Although it i s difficult to
maintain a consistent usage, such differences are necessary for precision.
The distinction between 'levels' of occurrence, particularly the levels of
individual, group or organisation, social institution, national society, and
culture, is e ven more important for research and theory. Mass munotes.in

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101 Communication Theory communication can affect any or all of them, and effects at one level
(especially a 'higher' level) frequently indicate effects at other levels. The
majority of media influence research has been conducted at the individual
level, but with the goal of drawing conclusions about collective or higher
levels.
The multitude and complexity of the phenomena involved in effect
research is perhaps the most perplexing part. Effects on cognition
(knowledge and opinion), affective (attitude and feelings), and behavioural
effects are usually divided into three categories. Early study interpreted
this tripartite distinction as following a logical order from the first to the
third, with an assumed rise in relevance (behaviour counting more than
knowledge).
In fact, maintaining the separation between the three conceptions, as well
as accepting the unique logic of that particular order of occurrence, is
becoming increasingly difficult (see p. 472). Neither is behaviour (such as
voting or purchasing) always more important than other types of effect.
Differentiating between the different sorts of media effects can be done in
a number of ways. Klapper (1960) distinguished between conversion,
minor change, and reinforcement, which a re defined as a change of
opinion or belief based on the communicator's intention, a change in the
form or intensity of cognition, belief, or behaviour, and confirmation of an
existing belief, opinion, or behaviour pattern by the receiver.
This three -fold distinction should be broadened to accommodate various
possibilities, particularly at levels higher than the individual. Different
notions of media processes are involved in the two effect categories that
imply the absence of any effect. Reinforcement is likely to occur in the
instance of an individual as a result of the receiver's selective and
sustained attention to content that is consistent with his or her existing
beliefs.
MAIN KINDS OF MEDIA -INDUCED CHANGE The media has the ability to:
 Bring about th e desired transformation
 Unintentionally change the situation
 Make a tiny alteration (form or intensity)
 Change should be made easier (intended or not)
 Consolidate what already exists (no change)
 Preventing change is essential.
Any of these changes can occ ur at the individual, societal, institutional, or
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102 'Preventing change,' on the other hand, refers to the intentional distribution
of one -sided or ideologically moulded content in order to keep a
conforming audience from changing. Frequently , this simply refers to the
repetition of agreed -upon viewpoints and the absence of any pushback.
Because of its long -term repercussions, the media's 'no change' effect,
which we have so much evidence of, demands extremely attentive
attention. It's a rathe r misleading phrase, because anything that changes
the probability of future opinion or belief distribution is a social process
intervention, and hence an effect.
Other forms of effects have been seen, according to Lang and Lang
(1981), including 'reciproc al,' 'boomerang,' and 'third -party' effects. The
first refers to the implications of becoming the subject of media attention
for a person or even an institution. The mere fact of being televised, for
example, might drastically alter a planned event. The co ntact between the
media and the subjects of reporting is common.
For example, Gitlin (1980) demonstrated how the 1960s student
movement in the United States was impacted by its own publicity. In
campaigning, the 'boomerang' effect, which causes change in the opposite
direction than anticipated, is a well -known phenomenon (or risk). The
belief that other people are likely to be affected but not oneself is known
as the 'third -party' effect. The term 'sleeper effect' has also been applied to
effects that do n ot manifest themselves for a long time.
McLeod et al. (1991) distinguish between effects that are diffuse or
general (such as the alleged effects of television as a medium) and effects
that are content specific in their discussion of effects dimensions. In the
latter situation, an innate structure or inclination (such as a political
prejudice) is identified as a potential catalyst for transformation.
PROCESSES OF MEDIA EFFECT: A TYPOLOGY To give an overview of recent advances in theory and research, we'll s tart
by connecting two of the previously mentioned distinctions: planned and
unintended effects, as well as short - and long -term effects. Golding (1981)
proposed this approach to help discern between different concepts of news
and their impacts.
In the ca se of news, he argues that intended short -term effects are 'bias,'
while unwanted short -term effects are 'unwitting bias,' intended long -term
consequences are 'policy' (of the media involved), and unintended long -
term impacts of news are 'ideology.' A simi lar style of thinking can help us
map out the key types of media effect processes that have been studied in
the research literature in terms of these two coordinates.
Short -term and planned :
Propaganda. Jowett and O'Donnell (1999) define propaganda as "the
purposeful and systematic endeavour to mould perceptions, alter munotes.in

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103 Communication Theory cognitions, and guide behaviour to obtain a reaction that furthers the
propagandist's desired intent." Long -term propaganda is also possible.
Individual responses are possible : Individuals ch ange or resist change as
a result of being exposed to messages intended to alter their attitude,
knowledge, or behaviour.
Campaign in the media : A circumstance in which a variety of media are
employed in a coordinated fashion to achieve a persuasive or
informational goal with a specific audience.
Learning about the news : The short -term cognitive impact of news
exposure as measured by audience recall, recognition, and comprehension
tests.
Framing : The adoption by the audience of the same interpretative
frame works and'spin' used to contextualise news stories and event
accounts is referred to as a media effect. Priming (where the media
emphasises the criteria for evaluating public events or persons) is a related
practise.
Agenda -setting : The process through whi ch the relative importance given
to items or issues in news coverage effects the public's knowledge of
issues and their attribution of importance.
Short -term and unplanned :
An individual's response : Individual exposure to a media stimulus has
unintended or unexpected repercussions. This has primarily been observed
in the form of imitation and learning, particularly in the context of violent
or deviant behaviour (including suicide). 'Triggering' is another term that
has been used. Strong emotional responses, sexual arousal, and fear or
anxiety reactions are all examples of similar effects.
Reaction as a group : Many persons in a common location or context are
exposed to some of the same effects at the same time, leading to
unregulated and non -institutional col laborative action. The most powerful
reactions are fear, anxiety, and rage, which can lead to panic or civil
unrest.
Effects of policy : The unforeseen consequences of news coverage of a
crisis, abuse, or danger on government policy and action. The so -calle d
CNN effect on foreign policy is a prime example.
Long -term and planned :
Diffusion of development : The deliberate use of communication for long -
term development, campaigns, and other forms of influence, particularly
within the community or society's inter personal network and authority
structure.
News dissemination : The rate at which a given population becomes
aware of certain (news) occurrences over time, with special attention to munotes.in

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104 the level of pene tration (the fraction of the population who knows) and the
means by which information is obtained (personal versus media sources).
Innovation diffusion : is a term used to describe the spread of new ideas.
The process of a specific population adopting technological
breakthroughs, frequently as a result of advertis ement or broad public
awareness. It can have both an unintended and an intended consequence.
Knowledge is distributed : The impact of news and information in the
media on the spread of knowledge among social groups. The primary
focus is on closing or growin g 'knowledge gaps.' The 'digital divide' is a
related phenomenon.
Long -term and unplanned :
Control of the social environment : Systematic tendencies that promote
adherence to an established order or pattern of behaviour are referred to
here. This might be v iewed as a planned or unintended extension of
socialisation, depending on one's social philosophy.
Socialization : The media's unofficial contribution to the learning and
adoption of social roles and situations' standards, values, and expectations
of behavi our.
The outcome of the event : Referring to the role of the media in the
course and resolution of big 'critical' events in collaboration with
institutional forces (see Lang and Lang, 1981). Revolutions, massive
domestic political upheavals, and war and pe ace issues are all possible
examples. Elections and other less significant events could also play a role
(Chaffee, 1975).
The formation of meaning and the definition of reality : Effects on
public perceptions and interpretation frames. This type of influenc e
necessitates the receivers' more or less active participation in the process
of creating their own meaning.
Changes in the institutions : Existing institutions' adaptation to media
changes, particularly those influencing their own communication functions
(cf. the concept of 'reciprocal effects').
Displacement The numerous implications of devoting time to media use
at the expense of other (often free -time) activities, such as social
participation.
Changes in culture and society : Shifts in the overall patter n of values,
behaviours, and symbolic forms that characterise a society's sector (such
as youth), a whole society, or a collection of societies. Effects such as the
prospective strengthening or weakening of cultural identity are another
example.
Integratio n into society : Integration (or its lack thereof) can be noticed at
various levels, most notably at the local community and national levels,
which correlate to media distribution areas. Short -term effects can also munotes.in

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105 Communication Theory occur, such as in the aftermath of a large -scale public disaster or
emergency.
MEDIATING CONDITIONS OF EFFECT The identification of circumstances that mediate effects was part of the
stimulus -response model's revision. The primary types of variables,
according to McGuire (1973), are source, conten t, channel, receivers, and
destination. There is reason to suppose that communications coming from
an authoritative and reliable source, as well as those coming from sources
that are attractive or similar to the receiver, will be more effective. In
terms o f content, repetition, consistency, and a lack of options are all
linked to effectiveness (a monopoly situation). It's also more likely when
the topic matter is clear and specific (Trenaman, 1967).
In general, the desired effect will be stronger on topics that are far away
from, or less essential to, the receiver (lower degree of ego involvement or
prior commitment). Style (such as personalising), forms of appeal (such as
emotional versus intellectual), and argument sequence and balance have
all been found to play a role, but the results are too varied to make any
broad predictions. Because content and receiver factors determine learning
outcomes, channel (medium) factors have been studied extensively, with
conflicting results. Distinguishing between fundame ntal channel
differences and differences between media in which channels are
embedded is also difficult (such as press versus television).
In general, research has failed to clearly demonstrate the relative worth of
different modes (audio, visual, and so o n) in any consistent way, while
tests of memory or comprehension suggest that written or spoken verbal
messages take precedence over graphical visuals (for example, Katz et al.,
1977).
A variety of obvious receiver characteristics can be significant to ef fect, as
we've seen, but motivation, interest, and prior knowledge level should
perhaps be given extra attention. The degree of motivation or involvement
has frequently been highlighted as being particularly important in the
influence process and in defini ng the order in which various types of effect
occur (Krugman, 1965).
The usual 'effect hierarchy,' as found, for example, in the work of Hovland
et al. (1949), is a process that leads from cognitive learning (the most
common effect) to emotive reaction (li ke or hate, opinion, attitude) to
'conative' effect, according to Ray (1973). (behaviour or action). Ray
contends, with some evidence, that this paradigm is only natural in high -
involvement situations (high interest and attention).
When there is little en gagement (as is common in many television viewing
contexts, particularly advertising), the sequence may flow from cognition
to behaviour directly, with affective adjustment occurring later to bring
attitude into line with behaviour (reduction of dissonance : Festinger,
1957). munotes.in

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106 This concept calls into question the logic and design of many persuasive
communication programmes that presume attitude is a clear correlate and
predictor of behaviour. There's also some scepticism about campaign
ratings based solely on metrics of attitude change. There's also the issue of
consistency between the three aspects. High participation, according to
Chaffee and Roser (1986), is also believed to be an essential prerequisite
for effect consistency, and therefore for a steady and persistent influence.
Their favoured media effect model incorporates a repeated pattern of low
participation, dissonance perception, and learning, with cumulative
outcomes. In this view, superficial and easily forgotten knowledge can
develop into a well -thought -out set of ideas and into action, particularly
when exposed to it repeatedly (as in a systematic campaign).
Individual receivers will choose which stimulus to attention to or ignore in
any natural (non -laboratory) media setting, will interpret its meaning
differently, and will react or not react behaviorally, depending on their
choice (Bauer, 1964). This casts doubt on the validity of the conditioning
paradigm, because the factors controlling selectivity are inevitably linked
to the nature of the st imulus, either favouring or discouraging the
occurrence of an effect.
As a result, our attention should be moved away from the simple reality of
perceiving a stimulus and toward the mediating variables outlined above,
particularly in their entirety and mu tual interplay. This approach to the
effect problem is more or less what Klapper (1960: 5) advised and
described as a "phenomenistic" approach, in which "media are influences
acting among other influences in a complete environment," as articulated
by Klapp er (1960: 5).
SOCIAL -CULTURAL EFFECTS A Model of Behavioural Effect :
The theoretical advances outlined in Chapter 17 help to move beyond the
simple conditioning model and account for some of the complications seen
in research. It is self -evident that in si tuations involving unforeseen
consequences, some people will be more likely than others to react or
respond to stimuli, putting them "at risk." Comstock et al. (1978)
established an expansion of the basic stimulus -response model for the
example of televisi on viewing to help organise the results of research in
this subject, particularly relative to violence. It is based on the premise that
media exposure is no different in essence from any other experience, act,
or observation that may have learning or behav ioural effects.
The model's depiction of the process, takes the shape of a series of events
that occur after the initial act of 'exposure' to a type of behaviour on
television ( "'Actor on television'). This is the first and most important
'input' for lear ning or copying the desired behaviour. Other important
inputs include the level of excitement and arousal ('TV arousal') and the
extent to which alternative behaviours ("TV alternatives') are depicted: the munotes.in

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107 Communication Theory higher the arousal and the fewer the behaviours (o r the more repetition),
the more likely it is that learning will occur.
Two additional conditions (inputs) concern the portrayal of consequences
('TV perceived consequences') and the degree of reality ('TV perceived
reality'): the more positive consequenc es appear to outnumber negative
ones, and the more realistic the television behaviour appears to be, the
more likely learning ('T TV act') occurs. When the prerequisites for effect
are not met (P = 0), the individual is sent back to the beginning of the
process; when there is a chance of effect (P > 0), the question of action
becomes relevant.
All of the above factors influence the likelihood of learning the action (the
effect), but any subsequent behaviour is contingent on the ability to put the
action int o practise. Apart from opportunity, the most important condition
is 'arousal,' because learning is impossible without arousal (which also
refers to interest and attention). While research has yet to corroborate this
model, it is an improvement over the sim ple conditioning model and
beneficial for directing attention to essential parts of any given situation.
THE MEDIA, CRIME, AND VIOLENCE The potential for media to encourage, if not cause, crime, violence, and
aggressive, antisocial, and even criminal behav iour has gotten a lot of
attention. The primary source of concern is the consistent showing of the
high level of portrayal of crime and violence in popular media of all types
(see Smith et al., 2002; and Chapter 14). A secondary explanation is the
popular belief, whether right or not, that the aforementioned social ills
grew in lockstep with the rise of mass media in the twentieth century.
Each new popular medium has sparked a new round of concern about its
potential consequences. The Internet and popular music have recently
been connected to random acts of violence committed by young people in
particular. Apart from the 'problem' brought by new media that is beyond
the control of society and parents, there has been a general shift in media
that has fostere d a new perspective on an old issue. There has been a
proliferation of television channels, a fall in regulation, and a lowering of
permissible thresh olds, making it more likely than ever before that
youngster will be exposed to far more broadcast violenc e (and also 'adult
content').
Thousands of research studies have been conducted in the idea that screen
violence (in particular) is a source of actual violence and aggression,
although there is no consensus on the degree of causal influence from the
media. Nonetheless, according to Lowery and DeFleur (1995), a research
programme conducted for the US Surgeon General at the end of the 1960s
yielded three primary conclusions:
 Violence is prevalent in television programming.
 Children are being exposed to more a nd more violent content. munotes.in

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108  Overall, the evidence supports the concept that watching violent
entertainment makes people more likely to act aggressively.
 More than thirty years later, these conclusions appear to be correct.
Theory :
The primary components of vi olent effect ideas have stayed quite stable.
Wartella et al. (1998: 58 -9) present three key theoretical frameworks for
explaining how people learn and imitate media violence. One is Albert
Bandura's 'social learning theory,' according to which youngsters l earn
from media models which behaviours will be rewarded and which will be
punished.
Second, there are 'priming' effects (Berkowitz, 1984): when people see
violence, it activates or 'primes' other related thoughts and evaluations,
increasing the likelihoo d of using violence in interpersonal contexts.
Third, according to Huesmann's (1986) script theory, social behaviour is
governed by'scripts' that specify how to react to occurrences. As a result of
aggressive writing, violence on television is encoded in s uch a way that it
leads to violence.
Aside from learning and modelling effects, it is widely believed that
exposure to violent depictions causes a general 'desensitisation' that
decreases inhibitions against and enhances tolerance for violent behaviour.
There are many variables influencing a person's disposition, and several
relating to the depiction of violence, as with all such theories.
The main contextual factors (in content) influencing audience reactions
have already been identified. Aside from perso nal disposition and content,
the viewing scenario is also essential, particularly whether you are alone
or with parents or classmates. Figure 18.1 depicts a behavioural effect
model that applies to several of the effects discussed.
Content :
The above -menti oned principal findings of the Surgeon General's study
have frequently been confirmed (see, for example, Bryant and Zillman,
2002; Comstock, 1988; Oliver, 2003). There has continued to be a lot of
violence depicted on television, and it attracts a lot of y oung people.
According to Wilson and Smith (2002), the 1998 US National Television
and Violence Study indicated that children's programming had more
violence than other types of programming (Smith et al., 2002).
It's difficult to say whether average expos ure has increased or decreased
over time, but the ability to see screen violence, as well as the means of
viewing, has gradually spread to most parts of the world. Groebel (1998),
writing for Unesco, commented on the universality of media violence and
the pervasive attraction with aggressive media hero figures, particularly
among males, in a global assessment of television violence including 5000
children in 23 countries. He discovered, for example, that 88 percent of munotes.in

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109 Communication Theory the world's children were familiar with Arnold Schwarzenegger's
Terminator (1998:182).
Proof of the influence :
The third finding, regarding behavioural consequences, is significantly
less universal and has always been contentious due to industry and
regulatory ramifications. It's difficult to b e clear about this, and any broad
authority pronouncement takes on a political tone (Ball -Rokeach, 2001).
'There is almost no doubt that people who are heavy watchers of this
[television] violence display higher acceptance of violent attitudes and
more agg ressive behaviour,' according to the American Psychological
Association (1993). (cited in Wartella et al., 1998). Even so, this falls
short of a precise assertion of causation and ignores the possibility of
additional factors such as the environment.
Children from high -aggression situations (crime and conflict) and those in
a 'problematic emotional state' were far more prone than others to observe
and be attracted to aggressive violence, according to Groebel (1998).
In a survey of European academic academi cs on media and violence,
Linne (1998) inquired about the causal relationship between media
violence and societal violence. There was a 'obvious causal link' for 22%
of respondents, a 'vague causal link for some children' for 33%, and a 'no
causal link' fo r 4%. The rest of the group thought the problem was too
complex to be solved with such a basic solution. In general, Linne
discovered that studies has evolved away from the question of causation
and toward an understanding of the undeniable appeal of viole nce.
According to Groebel's research (see above), "children's violent behaviour
patterns and views are a mirror of what they encounter in their real
environment: frustration; hostility; challenging conditions" (1998: 195).
'Media violence... is primarily p resented in a rewarding context... [and]
serves multiple demands,' he continues (1998:198). It "compensates" for
personal disappointments and shortcomings in problematic areas.' It
provides 'thrills for kids in a less dangerous atmosphere.'
It provides a frame of reference for "attractive role models" for boys...
Aggression's "reward qualities" are reinforced more systematically than
non-aggressive ways of dealing with life.' These findings are not new, and
they reaffirm what has been learned from much ear lier research. We know
that watching television violence has negative consequences, however
they are usually mediated by other factors that may or may not be the'real'
or fundamental reason.
It has been suggested that media portrayals of violence and hosti lity may
have some positive impacts by permitting a virtual and harmless release of
emotion and aggression (see Perse, 2001: 220 -1). This process has been
given the name 'catharsis,' which comes from Aristotle's theory of play
(Feshbach, 1955). Although it is obvious that the majority of
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110 harming others, there is little scientific support for a theory that suggests
there is a benefit to being exposed to violence.
Fear -inducing techni ques :
Fear arousal and emotional disturbance are two other common effects of
violent and "horror" content (Cantor, 2002). Adults and children alike seek
out fright -inducing content for thrills and amusement, yet some people
have unanticipated and bad resul ts. Fear instilled by the media can be
powerful and last for a long time. It's not always easy to tell which stuff is
going to be upsetting. We must discriminate between categories of
material (e.g. physical or psychological threat), degree of realism, mot ive
for 'exposure,' and receiver factors like age personality and emotional
stability when estimating the likely degree of and harm from frightening
content. Girls appear to be more vulnerable to media -induced dread than
boys (Cantor, 2002).
The context o f exposure might also affect the outcome. According to
Valkenburg et al. (2000), 31 percent of youngsters surveyed in Holland
said they were scared by television, but almost usually by films or adult
shows.
Crime and the media :
Despite the fact that the me dia is frequently cited as a possible cause of
real crime (apart from hostility and violence), study has found no such
link. The reasons for classifying the media as suspects are mostly
speculative. Theoretical reasons include the likelihood that the media
glamorises crime, demonstrates the benefits of crime, and teaches tactics.
Nonetheless, the media's overarching message has always been that crime
does not pay and that criminals are unattractive individuals. While there
are questions concerning the effec ts of media portrayals of crime, both
true and false, on behaviour, there is no doubt that they influence public
perceptions of crime (Lowry et al., 2003) and the risks of becoming a
victim.
Some incidents of seemingly motiveless killings, where a linkage of the
perpetrators with particular media may be proved, such as the 1999
Columbine School shooting and a similar event in Erfurt, Germany in
2002, have highlighted the possible link between media portrayal and
actual violence. In the United States, a numb er of legal actions have been
filed alleging media stimulation as a cause of violence, but none have been
successful.
According to Dee (1987), culpability was assumed to be based primarily
on the issue of negligence, which is determined by whether the med ia took
undue risks. Because such incidents of alleged effect are extremely rare,
it's difficult to construct a case against the media without causing
widespread suppression and censorship.
In the case of the consequences of sexually explicit content, a si milar
concern occurs. According to Perse's evaluation of data, pornographic munotes.in

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111 Communication Theory material encourages women to accept violence against them and
desensitises those who are exposed to it: "exposure to pornography
appears to be related with detrimental repercussion s" (2001: 229). Despite
this, the matter remains unresolved. Einseidel (1988) examined the
conclusions of three public commissions (in the United Kingdom, Canada,
and the United States) and came to the conclusion that social scientific
evidence had failed to resolve the matter. Political and ideological
concerns must be factored into evidence interpretation.
A potential discrepancy exists between legal thinking, which often uses a
direct model of consequences, and content and media theory, which has
questi oned this paradigm (see Calvert, 1997; Wackwitz, 2002).
Violence perpetrated at the instigation of the media against certain
minorities, outgroups, or hate figures is a category of media effect not
covered by the preceding debate. Despite the fact that it is illegal for the
media to publicly advocate violence, they can knowingly denigrate
identifiable individuals or groups in such a way that there is a real risk of
violence through individual or collective action.
Violence has been aimed at groups such as child sex offenders, other
sexual deviants, ethnic minorities of various kinds, conscientious
objectors, alleged terrorists, gipsies, migrants, and others, with a plausible
link to (effectively) hate campaigns in some media. Other factors must be
present, but there is no question the media played a role in some of the
numerous cases documented. There's also the issue of media instigation to
civil or national wars. There is grounds to suspect that the media played a
role in inciting ethnic violence in Yugosl avia in the early 1990s when the
wars broke out.
CHILDREN AND YOUNG PEOPLE IN THE MEDIA Aside from the topic of violence and criminality, the general and research
literature on the influence of media on children abounds with expectations
and anxieties (mai nly the latter). From the beginning to the present, a great
deal of research has been done on children's usage of and reactions to
media (particularly television) (e.g. Schramm et al., 1961; Himmelweit et
al., 1958; Noble, 1975; Brown, 1976; Buckingham, 20 02; Livingstone,
2002; Carlsson and von Felitzen, 1998). The following expectations from
media are among the concepts expressed and tested about negative effects:
 social isolation is becoming more prevalent;
 reduction in assignment time and attentiveness;
 Passivity has risen;
 (displacement) less time for leisure and exercise
 less reading time (due to television);
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112  understanding and experience of sexual activity at a young age;
 Obesity and improper eating
 Anorexia is caused by the fostering of concern about one's own looks.
 predisposition to depression
The following are some of the positive benefits attributed to media:
 establishing a foundation for social engagement;
 learning about the world in general;
 prosocial attitudes and behaviours are learned;
 educational outcomes;
 aid in the formation of an identity;
 expanding one's imagination
According to social learning theory (see p. 493), several of the following
theories are reasonable, and a few have been examined (see Perse, 2001).
There can be no general conclusion, and none of these can be considered
fully proven or completely ruled out. The many other elements that
contribute to each one of these 'effects,' according to study experience,
should be considered. Despite this, psychologists appear to agree that
children are better off on the whole if they are not exposed to a lot of
television. Adult perceptions of the risks of television, however, differ
according to social class, gender, and other characteristics, as shown by
Seiter (2000).
COLLECTIVE REACTION EFFECTS Although other elements are present, collective response to mass media
may be handled with using the logic of the stimulus -response paradigm.
The new elements are mostly concerned with how reactions are
transmitte d to others, which is generally done at a high rate and with
significant amplification of overall impacts. At work, there is frequently a
self-generating and self -fulfilling process.
In such situations, the term of 'contagion' has been used, particularly
where masses congregate physically, but also where individuals are
dispersed and reached by mass media and personal interactions. In
response to alarming, insufficient, or inaccurate information, one key type
of effect is widespread panic. The much -cited ( but now debunked) panic
reaction to Orson Welles' radio broadcast of The War of the Worlds in
1938, when fake news bulletins announced a Martian invasion, is an
example of this (Canrril et al., 1940). It was also demonstrated by the
media's alleged role in provoking civil unrest in various US cities in the
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113 Communication Theory The communal response to the terrorist bombing in Madrid in 2004, which
occurred just before a general election, was seen to be aided by personal
relationships and affected by scepticism of o fficial explanations of the
tragedy as reported in the media. In all of these examples, the role of the
media is a little hazy.
The increased risk of unanticipated terrorist attacks has raised the
importance of such impacts, even if natural disasters such as earthquakes
and industrial emergencies such as power outages and nuclear accidents
provide plenty of possible stimuli. There's no denying that the conditions
for a panic reaction to news do exist in some situations. We're talking
about a unique type of rumour Shibutani, 1966), one that entails a pressing
need for information and a limited supply.
The media contributes the element of reaching a large number of
individuals at the same time with the same piece of news (which may or
may not be subject to in dependent verification), which can either cause or
ease worry. Anxiety, worry, and uncertainty are some factors that might
trigger a panic response. Beyond that, incompleteness or inaccuracy of
information appear to be triggering elements of panic, leading to an eager
hunt for information, usually through personal channels, thus giving the
initial message more currency (Rosengren, 1976).
Many acts of terrorism are planned, threatened, or carried out for political
reasons by persons aiming to utilise the med ia for their own ends, however
inadvertently. As a result, the two have a complicated interaction.
Terrorists want to get attention for their cause by instilling fear and
anxiety in the general people. It's also possible that blackmail is involved.
Violenc e, according to Schmid and de Graaf (1982), is both a way of
gaining access to media platforms and a message in and of itself.
The media is torn between two powerful pressures: the first is to apply
conventional news values to dramatic events, and the sec ond is to avoid
being a weapon of mass destruction and a stumbling block to counter -
terrorism efforts. Despite extensive studies (Alali and Eke, 1991; Paletz
and Schmid, 1991), there is no conclusive assessment of the prevalent
assumption that the media ac tively promotes terrorism's growth. The
media can have a wide range of effects (Picard, 1991).
Despite the degree of shock and anguish, and the complete lack of
readiness for such occurrences, studies of the reaction to the 9/11 terror
attacks in New York reveal that there was no widespread public panic
(Greenberg et al., 2002). We can assume that extensive media coverage,
far beyond the local site, aided in the de -escalation of the situation. The
1995 great Hanshin (Kobe) earthquake offered several lessons regarding
the importance of media in disasters and the consequences of media
failure (Takahiro, 2004).
The sequence of aircraft hijacking events in 1971 -2, which exhibited clear
symptoms of being modelled on news stories, is another example of
possible co ntagion effects. Holden (1986) revealed comparable
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114 publicity. Other empirical evidence has been found to support the
hypothesis that news stories can 'spark' abnormal behaviour in indiv iduals.
Suicides, motor vehicle deaths, and commercial and non -commercial
plane fatalities all increased after press coverage of suicides or murder -
suicides, according to Phillips (1980).
He was also able to statistically link the depiction of suicide in television
fiction with the real -life occurrence of suicide (Phillips, 1982), however
his findings have been questioned due to methodological issues (Hessler
and Stipp, 1985). At the very least, there appears to be some evidence to
support an imitation or 'contagion' impact. Since the publication of
Goethe's novel, The Sorrows of Young Wertfter in 1774, there have been
numerous cases of suicides triggered by fiction and news. Jamieson et al.
(2003) analyse the findings and make recommendations for how repor ting
should be handled to reduce dangers to vulnerable people.
CIVIL DISORDER Non-institutionalized and violent collective behaviour has been intensively
examined due to the possible threat to the established order, and the media
has been implicated in the quest for explanations of such behaviour. It has
been proposed that the media may, among other things, cause a riot,
promote a culture of rioting, teach people how to riot, and transmit a riot
from one location to another.
Although it appears to be agree d that personal contact has a larger role
than media in every riot situation, the evidence for or against these ideas is
thin and fragmented. Even yet, there is some evidence that the media can
help by merely announcing the incidence and location of a riot (Singer,
1970), by publicising situations that cause riot behaviour, or by
announcing the potential possibility of rioting in advance. In general, it
appears that the media have the ability to define the nature of events, and
even if they are ultimately " on the side" of established order, they can
unintentionally exacerbate polarisation in specific circumstances.
While the media has not been proven to be a primary or principal cause of
rioting (see, for example, Kerner et al., 1968; Tumber, 1982), they can
impact the timing and shape of rioting. On the basis of very bad evidence,
Spilerman (1976) offers some support to this and other possibilities.
Despite extensive research, he was unable to come up with a good
structural explanation for many US urban riot s (that is, explanations in
terms of community conditions).
He came to the conclusion that television and its network news structure
were mostly to blame, particularly for instilling a sense of "black
solidarity that would transcend the bounds of communit y." In present
time, rather than as an unintended byproduct of mass media, mobilisation
to collective action appears to be more likely to be accomplished via cell
phone or the Internet. The Madrid case and the organised protest actions
directed against wor ld economic summits, which began in Seattle in 1998,
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115 Communication Theory When discussing panic and rioting together, it's worth mentioning that the
most popular response to the hazards previously mentioned, the control or
silence of news (Paletz and Dunn, 1969), could cause local fear due to a
lack of explanation for observable neighbourhood disruptions.
INNOVATION AND DEVELOPMENT DIFFUSION The majority of the data stems from several attempts in developing nations
since WWII to use ma ss media to promote technical advancement, health,
and education, frequently using models developed in rural America (Katz
et al., 1963). Early media and development theory (for example, Lerner,
1958) depicted the media's influence as 'modernizing' simply by
disseminating western ideas and appetites. The traditional perspective of
the media influence has been as a mass educator working in collaboration
with officials, specialists, and local leaders to achieve specific change
goals.
Everett Rogers (1962; Rog ers and Shoemaker, 1973) was a key figure in
this school, with his four -stage model of information diffusion:
information, persuasion, decision or adoption, and confirmation. This
sequence is similar to McGuire's (1973) persuasive phases (see p. 47).
Howev er, the media's function in the adoption process is limited to the
first stage (knowledge and awareness), after which personal relationships,
organised expertise and counsel, and practical experience take over.
Early diffusionists emphasised organisation and planning, linearity of
impact, hierarchy (of status and skill), social structure (and hence personal
experience), reinforcement, and feedback. Rogers (1976) predicted the
'passing' of this 'dominant paradigm,' pointing to its flaws in these similar
traits, as well as its over -reliance on 'manipulation' from on high.
Rogers and Kincaid (1981) proposed an alternative 'convergence model' of
communication, emphasising the need of a continuous process of
interpretation and response, resulting in greater mutu al understanding
between sender and recipient (see also Rogers, 1986). In the 1970s, critical
thought associated attempts at external development with the maintenance
of reliance. Newer development theories assign mass media a more
limited role, with succe ss reliant on their ability to stay connected to the
society's core and its original culture.
The concept of participatory communication has been promoted and is
becoming more widely used (Huesca, 2003; Servaes, 1999). It's worth
mentioning that mass comm unication is an innovation in and of itself that
must be disseminated before it can participate in diffusion processes like
those found in modern or developed civilizations (DeFleur, 1970; Rogers,
1986). Other modernity requirements, such as individuation, trust in
bureaucracies and technology, and awareness of the basis of media
authority, legitimacy, and objectivity, may be required for media to be
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116 While donor countries continue to provide development aid for
communication projects and the impr ovement of mass media
infrastructure, there is now a considerably lower expectation of large -scale
development outcomes. There is a greater understanding of the limitations
of information -technology solutions, as well as the unequal distribution of
any ben efits that may result. As a precondition for success, there is also a
greater emphasis on the need to strengthen public communication for the
general public and communication freedom as a human right.
Mass media and development :
 The mass media play a role in development by:
 Technical know -how is disseminated.
 Individual change and movement are encouraged.
 Democracies are spreading (elections)
 Increasing customer demand
 Assisting in literacy, education, health, and population management,
among other things.
Knowledge Distribution in Society :
Here we look at one of the most commonly anticipated and significant
media effects: their ability to inform and keep a large -scale society
informed in a way that is consistent with the needs of a contemporary
economy and a participatory democratic process. While mass -mediated
information significantly increases the average and minimum levels of
'knowledge' in a society, as well as the speed with which information is
circulated, there is much debate about the persistence of inequalities and
the varying capacities of different media to achieve these results.
The emergence of the Internet, with its immense infor mative potential but
varied dispersion and actual use, has given the issue new energy and
urgency. It has resulted in the creation of a new word - the 'digital divide' -
to replace the earlier term 'knowledge gap' (Norris, 2002).
It has long been expected that because the press and broadcasting have
considerably increased the flow of public information, they will have
aided in the modification of knowledge gaps caused by educational and
social inequality (Gaziano, 1983). Political campaign research suggest that
such 'knowledge gap -closing' between social groupings can happen
quickly (for example, Blumler and McQuail, 19 68).
However, evidence of the opposite impact has been found, demonstrating
that an attentive minority gets far more knowledge than the rest,
expanding the gap between particular segments of the public.
The 'knowledge gap hypothesis,' according to Ticheno r et al. (1970), "does
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117 Communication Theory (or that the poorer in knowledge get poorer in an absolute sense). Instead,
the hypothesis is that knowledge growth is disproportionately greater
among those with higher socioeconomic position. ' There is undoubtedly a
class bias in attention to 'information -rich' sources, with high relationships
between social class, attention to these sources, and the ability to answer
information questions on political, social, a nd economic issues.
The knowledge gap hypothesis has two basic components: one is
concerned with the general distribution of aggregate information in society
between socioeconomic classes, and the other is concerned with specific
subjects or themes about w hich some people are more knowledgeable than
others. The first 'gap' is likely to be rooted in fundamental socioeconomic
imbalances that the media cannot change on its own. In terms of the
second, there are numerous ways to open and close gaps, and it is l ikely
that the media will close some while opening others. There are several
elements that influence the direction of the media effect. Donohue et al.
(1975) emphasised the importance of media in closing gaps on matters
that are of broad significance to sm all communities, particularly during
times of conflict, in order to increase attention and learning.
Motivation and perceived utility influence information seeking and
learning in general, and these factors are influenced more by social context
than by med ia. It has been argued, however, that different media may act
in different ways, and that print media, rather than television, are more
likely to expand disparities (Robinson, 1972), because these are the
preferred sources for the privileged classes.
The idea that television can have the opposite impact (benefiting the less
fortunate) is based on the fact that it reaches a larger part of a community
with similar news and information and is largely viewed as reliable.
However, a lot relies on the institutio nal forms that a community uses.
Television used to provide a popular and uniform source of shared
information on national and international concerns, thanks to public
broadcasting systems in Western Europe and, to a lesser extent, the
national network sys tem in the United States (owing to their de facto
oligopoly). This vast audience for information is dwindling as a result of
current trends toward channel multiplication, increased competition, and
audience fragmentation.
Television is becoming into a mor e distinct source of information, similar
to print media, but without the benefit of a captive mass audience. Even in
the days of mass viewing, Robinson and Levy's (1986) research on news
learning from television does not inspire much confidence in televis ion's
ability to close knowledge gaps. Gaziano (1997) reviewed 39 studies on
the knowledge gap hypothesis and concluded that the media's effect on
closing or narrowing gaps is unknown, but the gaps persist (see also
Visvanath and Finnegan, 1996).
The uneve n spread of new computer -based information technology
contributes to the widening of the gap between the information wealthy
and the information poor (Katz and Rice, 2002). As a result, according to munotes.in

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118 knowledge gap theory, the gaps will increase, as those wh o are already
well-informed, with superior information skills and resources, will move
even further ahead of others who are less well -informed.
It's debatable if the 'knowledge gap' notion is still valid. It assumes a
foundational body of knowledge that w e all require in order to function in
society. This premise becomes increasingly dubious in the face of
increased knowledge abundance and specialisation, yet it may still be
relevant for the democratic political process of electing governments.
Theory of S ocial Learning :
Bandura's (1986) social learning (or observational learning) hypothesis is
a widely referenced model of media effects, particularly in respect to
children and young people. The primary premise is that we can't learn
what we need to govern o ur own development and behaviour via direct
personal observation and experience. We must learn a great deal from
illegitimate sources, including the media. Attention, retention, production,
and motivation are the four essential phases of social learning, a ccording
to Bandura's model. Our focus is on media content that has the potential to
be relevant to our lives, personal needs, and interests. We may then
remember what we've learned and add it to our existing knowledge base.
The third stage, production, re fers to the actual application of lessons
learned in behaviour, which may be rewarded (reinforced) or punished,
resulting in increased or decreased motivation to follow a specific path.
The hypothesis can be applied to the socialising impacts of media as w ell
as the adoption of various action models. Clothing, look, style, eating and
drinking, styles of engagement, and personal consumption are only a few
examples. Long -term trends can also be supported. The idea only applies
to behaviour that is directly re presented in symbolic form, according to
Bandura (1986). The theory also assumes active participation on the side
of the learner, as well as the ability to self -reflect.
It's not the same as mimicry or imitation. The media is rarely the sole
source of soc ial learning, and its influence is influenced by other factors
such as parents, friends, and teachers. On social learning, there are
tremendous collective influences. Nonetheless, according to social
learning theory, media can have direct impacts on people , and their
influence does not have to be mediated through personal influence or
social networks (see Bandura, 2002: 140).
Socialization :
Although the nature of the case makes it difficult to verify, it is widely
thought that the media play a role in the e arly socialisation of children and
the long -term socialisation of people. This is partially due to the fact that it
is such a long -term process, and partly due to the fact that any media
effect interacts with other social background influences and differen t ways
of socialisation within families (Hedinsson, 1981). Rare longitudinal
studies of development have occasionally yielded prima facie evidence of
media -mediated socialisation (for example, Rosengren and Windahl, munotes.in

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119 Communication Theory 1989). Nonetheless, certain basic assump tions regarding the potential
socialisation impacts of media are frequently integrated into media control
policies, media decisions, and the norms and expectations that parents
apply or hold in respect to their children's media use. The media
socialisation thesis has two sides: on the one hand, the media can reinforce
and support other socialisation agencies; on the other hand, they are also
seen as a possible challenge to the values set by parents, educators, and
other social control agents.
The thesis' fu ndamental premise is that the media can teach norms and
values through symbolic reward and punishment for various types of
behaviour as depicted in the media. Another viewpoint is that it is a
learning process in which we all learn how to behave in specifi c settings
and the expectations that come with a particular role or social status. As a
result, the media is always presenting images of life and models of
behaviour ahead of actual experience.
Early studies of children's media use (e.g., Wolfe and Fiske, 1949;
Himmelweit et al., 1958; Noble, 1975; Brown, 1976) indicated a
propensity for children to seek out life lessons and connect them to their
own experiences. The systematic presentation of representations of social
life, which could profoundly impact ch ildren's expectations and
aspirations, has also been highlighted in content studies. The conformist
role of media is often emphasised in socialisation theory. According to this
perspective, the media is neither "prosocial" nor "antisocial," but rather
favours the most prevalent and established values. The general notion that
media have a socialising effect is evident in any formulation, although it is
only indirectly supported by actual evidence.
Consciousness Formation and Social Control :
The degree and pu rposefulness of the mass media as a social control agent
is the subject of a spectrum of theoretical viewpoints. A popular belief is
that the media act inadvertently to support the dominant ideals in a
community or nation, based on a combination of persona l and institutional
decision, operational constraints, external pressure, and anticipating what
a broad and diverse audience expects and desires. Because of a
combination of market factors (particularly large -firm ownership) and
subordination to national a nd state objectives, a stronger and more critical
form of this position sees the media as fundamentally conservative. These
alternative hypotheses tend to rely on similar evidence, with the majority
of it referring to systematic content patterns and very l ittle directly about
effects.
In the form of a 'propaganda model,' Herman and Chomsky (1988) created
a hybrid critical theory of systematic long -term influence. According to
this, news in capitalist countries must be filtered through a number of
'filters,' including financial integration of the media with the rest of the
economy, advertising, news management campaigns, society's dominant
worldview, and dependence on official sources of information. Other
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120 a lot of circumstantial evidence of the last -named filter at work, as have
Herman and Chomsky (1998).
Manufacturing Consent is the title of Herman and Chomsky's book, which
is based on Walter Lippmann's (1922: 158) statement that the
"manufacturing of consent is capable of vast refinements... and the
prospects for manipulation open to anyone who understands the process
are apparent enough." The weakness of the Herman and Chomsky
positions is that they take such little account of later stu dy and evidence.
Lippmann's ideas represent what was referred to above as the first phase
(that of 'all -powerful media') in the evolution of thought about the power
of the media (Klaehn, 2002).
The content of the most popular media appears to be broadly su pportive of
established social norms and practises (a form of socialisation and
'cultivation'). In the mass media, fundamental challenges to the national
state or its established institutions are hard to come by. The thesis that
mass media tend to support the status quo is thus founded on evidence of
what is present in media material as well as what is lacking. The former
comprises 'conformist' or patriotic behaviour being rewarded (in fiction),
established elites and points of view receiving a lot of atten tion and
privileged (often direct) access, and non -institutional or deviant behaviour
being treated negatively or unequally.
The mass media is frequently depicted as promoting national or communal
agreement and as tending to portray problems as solvable w ithin society's
and culture's established 'rules.' Evidence of a link between television
reliance and the acceptance of consensus or middle -of-the-road political
views is one of the findings of 'cultivation' research (Gerbner et al., 1984).
In a similar ve in, the media frequently characterises certain types of
behaviour and groups as both deviant and hazardous to society. Aside
from the obviously criminal, these include teen gangs, drug addicts,
"football hooligans," and some sexual deviants. The media has been
accused of exaggerating the true threat and significance of such groups
and their activities (Cohen and Young, 1973) and of inducing "moral
panics" (Cohen, 1972). Those who rely on government benefits may be
labelled "welfare scroungers" (Golding and Middleton, 1982; Sotirovic,
2001), and the same can be said of immigrants, refugees, or travellers
(Horsti, 2003), and even the impoverished (Clauson and Trice, 2001). The
process is known as 'blaming the victim,' and it is a common element of
collective o pinion formation to which the media can contribute
significantly. The effect is to offer scapegoats and objects of anger in
society, to divert attention away from actual issues with causes in society's
institutions, and to gather support for law enforcemen t forces.
Evidence of media omission is difficult to come by, however comparative
content assessments of news from different countries have added to the
evidence of systematic omission in the attention paid to specific subjects
and sections of the world (G olding and Elliott, 1979). The Glasgow Media munotes.in

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121 Communication Theory Group (1976; 1980; 1985) conducted detailed investigations of news
content and discovered several major patterns of omission.
We should keep in mind the equally plausible hypotheses of the limited
capacity for media effect when assessing the frequently eloquent and
compelling theoretical arguments for the ideological effects of the media.
The evidence of audience selectivity and 'differential decoding' is
particularly pertinent (Jensen, 1986; 1998; Liebes and Ri back, 1994). The
majority of ideas concerning ideological or hegemonic influences are
based on media and content observation rather than audience or 'effects.'
Even though they come from the same critical school, the lessons
of'reception' research provide a counterbalance.
It's nearly impossible to measure the extent to which the impacts predicted
by this corpus of theory and study actually occur. Nonetheless, the media
are mostly owned and controlled by (typically big) business interests or
(indirectly) by the government - and thus by the interests who wield the
most political and economic power (Dreier, 1982). There is a good lot of
prima facie evidence that such media ownership is valued (by its owners)
for reasons other than immediate financial gain, par ticularly for political
and social influence and status. The results aren't always positive or
supportive of the existing quo. T
he observation made by Gans (1979: 68) that "news is not so much
conservative or liberal as it is reformist" undoubtedly still holds true
today. The media are committed to serving as a carrier of messages (for
example, concerning scandals, crises, societal evils, and innovations) that
can also be an incentive to change, as defined by their own self -defined
job and ideology. Within the limitations of systems with some capacity for
generating change, they most likely provoke a lot of activity, agitation,
and worry, disrupting the existing order.
Cultivation :
Gerbner's (1973) cultivation theory is arguably the most well -documented
and researched of the long -term media effect ideas (see Signorielli and
Morgan, 1990). It claims that, among modern media, television has taken
such a significant role in daily life that it now dominates our'symbolic
environment,' replacing its (distorted) me ssage about reality for personal
experience and other ways of learning about the world. Television is also
described as the "culture arm of the established industrial order," "serving
mostly to maintain, sustain, and reinforce customary beliefs and
behavio urs rather than to alter, disrupt, or undermine them" (Gross, 1977:
180).
This assertion takes the cultivation effect extremely near to what the
Frankfurt School critical theorists proposed, as well as to later Marxist
theory. Signorielli and Morgan (1990 :15) claim that:
Cultivation analysis is the third component of a research paradigm known
as 'Cultural Indicators,' which looks into (1) institutional processes
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122 relationships between audience beliefs and behaviours and exposure to
television's message.
Putting the theory to the test :
Those who watch more television are expected to have their views of
reality deviate more from the recognised picture of the social world and
more toward the 'television' picture of the world. The study of violence
and crime has always been a prominent emphasis of the research, with
cultivation studies focusing on its media portrayal, real incidence, and
differential risks on the one hand, and public aware ness of and attitudes
toward crime on the other. Early findings from cultivation study (Gerbner
and Gross, 1976) demonstrated that the more people watched television,
the more likely they were to inflate the occurrence of crime in the real
world and the pe rsonal hazards they faced.
At least in the United States, this association appears to still exist (Romer
et al., 2003). Other political and social issues have been investigated, such
as the media's role in the formation of political consensus (Gerbner et al.,
1984).
Hawkins and Pingree (1983) discovered many scattered evidence of the
expected links in an exhaustive analysis of various studies of the television
construction of reality, but no definitive proof of the direction of the
relationship between tel evision viewing and thoughts about social reality.
They claim that television may teach about social reality, and that the
relationship between viewing and social reality may be reciprocal:
television viewing leads a social reality to be formed in a certa in way, but
this social reality construction may also guide viewing behaviour. Morgan
and Shanahan (1997) conclude in a recent comprehensive review of
culture literature that cultivation effects definitely exist, but they are minor
on average.
The televisi on experience is likely to be more differentiated and non -
cumulative than the theory allows for, and this may become more so as
output and supply expand (both in the USA and elsewhere). For example,
a research of the cul tivation effects of television on m arriage expectancies
(Segrin and Nabi, 2002) found that viewing of genre -specific 'romantic'
content, but not general TV viewing, was linked to unrealistic
expectations. In contrast to previous sources, Sotirovic (2001) discovered
negative images of welfar e beneficiaries among viewers of cable TV news
and entertainment programming.
In Germany, Rossler and Brosius (2001) discovered minimal cultivation
effects from specific talk show contents, but not from all television or the
genre in general. The premise of the long -term cumulative influence of
powerful'message systems' is further challenged by active audience theory
(see Chapter 15). Several scholars have questioned the causal relationship
proposed between statistics on television viewing and survey data on
values and opinions (Hirsch, 1980; 1981; Hughes, 1980). In the United munotes.in

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123 Communication Theory States, where (mainstream) television material is more commercial and
less diverse, the 'cultivation' effect appears to be more prevalent.
Despite the quantity of work that has been d one, evidence from other
nations is still mixed. Wober (1978) found little support for images of a
violent society in British data, and Doob and McDonald (1979) found the
same in Canadian data. However, according to Hedinsson (1981: 188),
evidence amounted to "if not a direct support, at least a non -refutation of
Gerbner's theory." Rosengren and Windahl (1989) provide a variety of
data about long -term changes in young people's television viewing habits
that might be used to support the cultivation hypothesi s.
One example is the world's 'mental maps,' which fluctuate dramatically
depending on how much television is watched. Apart from North America,
the world beyond Sweden consists of little for high -viewing adolescent
boys.
Given the numerous intervening va riables, it is nearly impossible to deal
successfully with the intricacy of claimed links between symbolic
structures, audience behaviour, and audience attitudes, no matter how
reasonable the theory is. It's also difficult to distinguish any 'cultivation'
process from normal socialisation.
Despite this, it appears that the line of inquiry represented by cultural
indicators and cultivation research is not exhausted, and that it can lend
itself to more specialised and detailed investigations on certain theme s
(Signorielli and Morgan, 1990)
LONG -TERM SOCIAL AND CULTURAL CHANGE AND THE MEDIA The theories of mass communication propose a number of major social
and cultural repercussions in one way or another. Any such effects,
however, are likely to be modest, lo ng-term, and difficult to quantify.
There are also a lot of different and even contradictory options. Mass
communication, for example, has been linked to personal isolation,
individuation, societal diversity, and even fragmentation. Putnam (2000)
attribute s the fall in 'social capital' in America, as well as a reduction in
civic and social activity, to television viewing. Moy et al. discovered some
evidence to support this viewpoint (1999).
Other theorists have credited (or criticised) the media for increas ing
homogeneity and social solidarity, sometimes to an unhealthy degree (see
p. 495). The media has been accused for lowering cultural standards (and
reducing material to the lowest common denominator), as well as
commended for more extensively disseminati ng traditional and
contemporary culture. Despite the plausibility of these and other concepts
regarding the impact of mass media on culture and society, there is little
solid proof of the claimed broad consequences.
The ability of the media to describe cir cumstances, establish frames of
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124 the process by which they contribute to social and cultural change. In the
lack of significant historical knowledge, they also serve as the 'collect ive
memory' of a specific national society.
The media are not the primary creators or sources of any of these, but they
do weave them into more or less constant and recurring narratives that
serve as secondary sources for people's perceptions about their own
society and their place within it. The media, which has an insatiable thirst
for both novelty and continuity, contributes to change by catching up on
every new fad, fear, or noteworthy information that might become part of
a larger story, whether in ne ws or fiction, and thus contributes to change.
The media essentially becomes the gatekeepers of change for the majority
of people, especially when they appear to agree on the same selection and
perspective of what is going on.
Much depends on the assessor' s perspective and early assumptions about
the problem at hand in determining these and other questions. It's also
important to remember that media and society are always in conversation.
Cultural and social change do not have a simple one -way causal
relati onship with the media, whether as technology or as cultural material.
The outcomes of these interactions are very changeable, unpredictable,
and different depending on the conditions.
Without a doubt, the media have diverted time and attention away from
other activities (displacement effects); they have become a channel for
reaching more people with more information than was available under
'pre-mass -media' conditions; and they have changed the way information
and ideas circulate. These findings have ramif ications for any social entity
seeking public attention and communicating with the general population.
Other institutions are under pressure to adapt or respond to the media in
some way, or to employ media channels themselves. They are likely to
adjust the ir own practises as a result of this.
The media's influence is more likely to be indirect. They work to alter
public expectations, resource availability, and, most importantly, the way
things are done in other social organisations. These have become
increa singly reliant on the media for their public communication, and
communication has adapted to what has been dubbed a "media logic" (see
p. 331), which has substantial implications for their behaviour. '
Today, all social institutions are media institutions, ' as Altheide and Snow
(1991: viii) put it. In Chapter 19, the case of the political institution is
examined, but similar conclusions can be drawn for cultural and social
institutions.
EFFECTS OF ENTERTAINMENT The most common type of media material is prob ably referred to as
'entertainment,' and it is the primary cause for media's popularity.
Zillmann and Bryant (1994) remind us that entertainment has many effects
beyond the widely studied unintended negative repercussions, and that munotes.in

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125 Communication Theory entertainment is also an effect in and of itself, intended by producers and
audiences.
Although the main idea appears to be diversion and being caught up in
some story or spectacle, entertainment has proven difficult to describe. It
can also be thought of in terms of more partic ular types of effect, such as
being amused; being emotionally stirred, resulting in feelings of grief,
happiness, rage, relief, excitement, fear, and so on; being diverted from
anxiety; and so on. Music, in particular, has been linked to a variety of
affec ts, including emotions and dispositions, as well as arousal (Knobloch
and Zillmann, 2002).
The appeal of drama, according to Zillmann (1980), is based on the
satisfaction and annoyance produced by the shifting fortunes of positively
or adversely portrayed people. Zillmann and Bryant (1994) raise more
concerns than they can answer about the appeal of suspense, particularly
the seeming attractiveness of news reports of terrible events, which seem
to enthral even when there is little cause to despise the princ ipal victims,
unlike in many fictions.
The study tradition of 'uses and gratifications' (provides some avenues for
unearthing the satisfactions (intended effects) sought by viewers, as well
as some pertinent findings, but there is still a lack of coherent
conceptualization in this neglected area of media effects. The term
'escapism' is insufficient to account for the effects of entertainment, and
the numerous theories of pleasure proposed (see Bryant and Miron, 2002)
do not lend themselves to precise formu lation and testing.
10.3 QUESTION S 1. Explain the premise of media effect.
2. Discuss the Natural History of Media Effect Research and Theory:
Four Phases
3. State the types of communicative powers.
4. Briefly explain the process of media effect: A Typ ology.
5. Discuss the Model of Behavioural Effect.
10.4 REFERENCES  Bryant, J. and Zillman, D. (eds) (2002) Perspectives on Media
Effects, 3rd edn. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
 Iyengar, S. and Reeves, R. (eds) (1997) Do the Media Govern?
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage .
 Lowery, S.A. and DeFleur, M.L. (eds) (1995) Milestones in Mass
Communication Research, 3rd edn. New York: Longman. munotes.in

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126  Perse, E.M. (2001) Media Effects and Society. Mahwah, NJ:
Erlbaum.
 These journal articles and book chapter can be accessed from the
compa nion website to this book: www.sagepub.co.uk/mcquail5
 Grabe, M.E., Lang, A. and Zhao, X. (2003) 'News content and form:
implications for memory and audience evaluation', Communication
Research, 30 (4): 387 -413.
 Lovas, P.E. (2003) 'The "War against terror". A PR challenge for the
Pentagon', Gazette, 65 (3): 211 -30.
 Yang, J. (2003) 'Framing the Nato airstrikes on Kosovo across
countries: comparison of Chinese and US newspaper coverage',
Gazette, 63 (3): 231 -49.
 McDonald, D.G. (2004) 'Twentieth century media e ffect research', in
J.D.H. Downing, D. McQuail, P. Schlesinger and E. Wartella (eds),
The Sage Handbook of Media Studies, pp. 183 -200. Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage.
 Carlsson, U. and von Felitzen, C. (1998) Children and Media
Violence. Goteborg: Unesco.
 Gitlin, T. (1980) The Whole World Is Watching: Mass Media in the
Making and Unmaking of the New Left. Berkeley, CA: University of
California Press.
 Oliver, M.B. (2003) 'Race and crime in the media', in A.N. Valdivia
(ed.), The Companion to Media Studies. Oxford: Blackwell.
 Perse, E.M. (2001) Media Effects and Society. Mahwah, NJ:
Erlbaum.
 Rosengren, K.E. and Windahl, S. (1989) Media Matter. Norwood, NJ:
Ablex.
 These journal articles and book chapter can be accessed from the
companion website to this book: www.s agepub.co.uk/mcquail5
 Isfati, Y. and Capella, J.N. (2003) 'Do people watch what they do not
trust? Exploring the association between news media, scepticism and
exposure', Communication Research, 30 (5): 504 -29.
 Robinson, P. (2001) 'Theorizing the influence of media on world
polities', European Journal of Communication, 16 (4): 523 -44.
 Valkenberg, P., Cantor, J. and Peeters, A.L. (2000) 'Fright reactions to
TV', Communication Research, 27 (1): 82 -94. munotes.in

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127 Communication Theory  Smith, S.L., Moyer -Guse, E. and Donnerstein, E. (2004) 'M edia
violence and sex: What are the concerns, issues and effects?', in
J.D.H. Downing, D. McQuail, P. Schlesinger and E. Wartella (eds),
The Sage Handbook of Media Studies, pp. 541 -68. Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage




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128 11
NEWS, PUBLIC OPINION AND
POLIT ICAL COMMUNICATION
Unit Structure
11.0 Objective
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Questions
11.3 References
11.0 OBJECTIVE  To Learning from news
 To study News diffusion
 To understand Framing effect and Agenda -setting
 Learn the Effects on public opinion and att itudes
 Study the spiral of silence: the formation of climates of opinion
 To understand Political communication effects in democracies
11.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter examines yet another set of potential media impacts, defined
principally by their relations hip to various types of informational media
material, particularly news and various forms of political communication.
The consequences in question concern public 'knowledge,' beliefs, and
attitudes, particularly those that are short - or medium -term in natu re. Some
of the impacts are deliberate (as in election campaigns and propaganda),
while others are not (as in general news), but the distinction is blurry.
Intentional communication can have unexpected repercussions, while
inadvertent communication can ha ve systematic and predictable effects
(for example, an unwitting bias can be found in otherwise objective news).
Furthermore, it has become routine to notice that deliberate
communicators (propagandists of various kinds) frequently try to hide
their advoca cy within the 'news,' or just aim to get attention and free
publicity.
In general, news and political communication are areas of mass
communication where traditional media face the most competition and
threat from new online media, particularly the Interne t. The Internet has
many more sources and types of news than any newspaper or television
station, and it allows the recipient to choose according to his or her own munotes.in

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129 Communication Theory preferences. It also offers the possibility of interacting with and
responding to news sourc es. There are also constraints and roadblocks to
the audience's utilisation of the new potential, and so effects are limited.
News does not usually have learning objectives, but rather provides a
service in which a variety of information is Learning from n ews
made available to members of an audience to choose from based on their
interests. The circumstances of mass media news consumption are often
considerably distinct from other informational settings, particularly in
terms of attention voluntariness, the frequent lack of specific motivation,
and the high level of inattention that follow broadcast news use non
particular. News content is frequently perishable and incidental.
Nonetheless, the overall goal is to inform, and news content is normally
evaluated based on a set of information value standards.
Furthermore, individuals do learn from the news and as a result become
more informed. The amount to which news has an impact is determined by
whether or not it reaches an audience that pays attention to the material,
comprehends it, and can recall or recognise part of it after the event has
occurred.
Comprehension and recall, like other types of effects, are influenced by
both message and sender characteristics as well as audience elements.
News communication s can be relevant, attention -getting, engaging, and
intelligible in varying degrees. News sources are likely to differ depending
on the level of trust and credibility they have with their audience. On the
audience side, overall motivation for following new s, prior acquaintance
with the issues, and general educational level are likely to be the most
important aspects. It's apparent that a lot of information is 'received'
without much thought and with little active 'processing.'
There isn't much study on lear ning from news that has been published
(although important contributions have been made, especially by Findahl
and Hoijer, 1981; 1985; Robinson and Levy, 1986; Woodall, 1986;
Gunter, 1987; 1999; Davis and Robinson, 1989; Robinson and Davis,
1990; Newhagen and Reeves, 1992). So far, the findings have tended to
corroborate the findings of decades of basic communication study
(Trenaman, 1967).
Thus, in addition to a favourable educational background, the interest,
relevance, and concreteness of news items enh ance comprehension, and
prior knowledge and the habit of discussing news subjects with others are
still important. Despite the fact that television is frequently cited by the
public as the primary source of news, Robinson and Levy (1986) found it
to be ove restimated as a source of public -policy knowledge.
They also discovered that a number of standard news production and
presentation strategies often worked against listeners' ability to
comprehend the news (see also Cohen, 2001). Graber (1990) reveals, on
the other hand, that images do assist recall of television news material.
The typical degree of learning, as assessed by comprehension or memory, munotes.in

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130 is very poor, and what is learned is fragmentary, according to (television)
news study. People in natural cond itions, according to Findahl (2001),
remember fewer than 5% of news. Even yet, the selection and structuring
of knowledge as given shapes what is learned.
SCHEMATA FOR NEWS AND NEWS PROCESSING Much news is presented inside meaning frameworks that derive fr om the
way news is gathered and processed, according to news content study. For
easier comprehension, news is 'framed' topically and thematically, and it's
logical to assume that audiences use some of the same frames in their
processing of incoming news. T his kind of thought was applied to news
processing by Graber (1984). The interpretative frames or schemata
mentioned previously are jointly built and broadly shared guides to
selection, relevance, and cognition.
A schema is a "cognitive framework comprise d of organised knowledge
about circumstances and individuals that has been abstracted from earlier
experiences," according to Graber. It's utilised to process new data and
retrieve previously stored data' (1984: 23). Schemata aid in the evaluation
of new d ata and the filling in of gaps when data is lacking or confusing.
They can also help you remember important information.
The most broad and long -lasting frames may have an international
currency (for example, 'the Cold War,' 'international terrorism,' or ' danger
to the global environment,' for example), but others may be more local and
localised. Graber discovered that the 'schemata in people's heads' were
extremely diverse, fragmented, and disorganised. Schemata were utilised
in a variety of ways in respon se to news material, with numerous different
techniques being seen.
News learning, according to this paradigm, is the integration of new
knowledge into pre -existing schemata. This helps to explain why having
past knowledge is linked to having more learnin g capacity. Although
information is frequently supplied in the form of pre -existing schemata
that are simply taken over by a receiver rather than being critically
analysed, an active activity by the receiver is presumed.
EXEMPLIFICATION The use of 'exempli fication,' or the quoting of specific concrete incidents
to illustrate more general themes and justify general conclusions, is a
common element of news that has been researched in terms of impacts.
One type of framing is this. However, in cases where the i nstance is not
representative, the method might lead to disinformation or bias. According
to Zillmann (2002), there are four conceivable outcomes.
When concrete examples are utilised instead of abstract arguments, when
examples are emotionally stimulating , when several instances of the same
kind are offered, and when the presentation is vivid, there will be a higher munotes.in

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131 Communication Theory influence on the perception of issues. In general, research has backed up
these claims (Zillmann and Brosius, 2000).
RECEPTION THAT DIFFERS Other study has confirmed the concept that actual news interpretations are
greatly influenced at the point of reception by the circumstances, outlook,
and prejudices of the individual audience member in a domestic and 'daily
life' scenario, in the tradition of 'reception analysis' (see Jensen, 1986;
1998). The 'meta -messages' those viewers bring to television news are
described by Gurevitch and Levy (1986: 132) as 'latent meanings that are
incorporated in audience decodings,' which help to relate individual s ense-
making to broader tales. They assume that viewers, like journalists, have
"tacit ideas" that help them frame their understanding of world events and
process information.
Jensen (2001), based on a comparison of news reception in several
countries, back ed up this claim. He discovered that the'super -themes'
employed by journalists to structure news narratives do not correspond to
the themes utilised by less educated and engaged news audience members.
The opinions that emerge frequently cut over genuine ne ws issues,
particularly foreign news. Jensen identified four categories via which
audiences make sense of news:
 Space : Audiences decide whether or whether distant events will have
an impact on them.
 Power : Audiences: are more inclined to perceive news as a ffecting
them as well as the powerful.
 Time : Audiences interpret events in terms of their own personal
history, both past and future.
 Identity : Audiences associate or detach themselves from news events,
places, and individuals.
The initial types of news re ception study (Alasuutari, 1999) were based on
Stuart Hall's (1974/1980) encoding/decoding paradigm, which proposed
that news may be interpreted in 'hegemonic,' 'negotiated,' or 'opposi tional'
ways depending on the receiver's outlook. Although there isn't much data
to back this up, a study of Palestinian and Jewish reactions to news of the
Intifada appears to back it up (Liebes and Riback, 1994). 'Extremists' on
both sides tended to
take the news in a 'hegemonic' or 'oppositional' manner, while moderates
on both sides used a 'negotiated' approach.
Factors Associated with News Learning :
 The audience's prior knowledge and interest
 The topic's perceived importance munotes.in

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132  a reliable and trustworthy news source or channel
 Illustrations in pictures
 The topic is concret e, and it has a 'hard news' feel to it.
 The news can be interpreted in a variety of ways.
 Repetition of information
NEWSWORTHINESS The attribution of believability by an audience is a condition of news to
accomplish learning effects, as indicated in Box 19 .1. In order for a news
source to be effective, it must have some level of trust, yet there is plenty
of evidence that people pay attention to media outlets they don't believe
(see Kifati and Capella, 2003). According to Gaziano and McGrath
(1987), perceiv ed fairness, lack of bias, and good faith were more
important than perceived correctness or trustworthiness of information. It
is the source's quality, not the information, that is important.
A view of a medium as having the public's best interests at hea rt was a
significant factor. After the 1960s, television quickly surpassed
newspapers as the most trusted source of news in the United States and the
United Kingdom. Although the belief that pictures are more trustworthy
than words plays a role, television 's mandated impartiality is also a factor
for public trust. In some nations, a clear distinction between a more
trustworthy public television and a less trustworthy private television
emerges (in Germany, Japan and the UK). Public knowledge of varied
level s of newspaper credibility, particularly between quality and 'tabloid'
versions, is also demonstrated by survey findings.
There are additional variances across the country. Within Europe, the
press in the United Kingdom is far less trustworthy than the pre ss in
practically every other Western European country (Eurobarometer, 1999).
Credibility perceptions appear to reflect true distinctions across sources
and are subject to change. There is still the issue of precisely what is being
measured.
With the adven t of the Internet as a news medium, the question of
credibility has resurfaced. Users face inherent difficulty in determining the
credibility of material on the Internet unless it originates from well -known
media outlets, but there is a widespread belief t hat the Internet can bring
answers to problems.
It's still too early to see a clear pattern of public opinion emerge, and
research findings have been uneven. In Germany (Schweiger, 2000) and
the United States (Kiousis, 2001; Johnson and Kaye, 2002; Flanag an and
Metzger, 2000; Metzger et al, 2003), research comparing the Internet with
television and newspapers as news sources revealed that the Internet lags
behind in perceived trust. Younger (student) users appear to have a higher
level of trust in internet sources than others (Bucy, 2003). Those who are munotes.in

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133 Communication Theory sceptical about politics in general prefer to get their information from non -
mainstream sources, such as the Internet, in line with the concept that
there is more diversity.
News Diffusion :
The adoption and absorption of news into people's 'knowledge' is
primarily a short - or medium -term phenomenon. The majority of early
news effect research was on 'diffusion,' or the spread of news as assessed
by the ability to recall specific events. In this case, four pri mary variables
have gotten a lot of attention. They are the extent to which people (in a
given population) are aware of a particular event; the relative importance
or perceived salience of the event; the volume of information about it that
is disseminated; and the extent to which knowledge of an event is gained
through news media or personal contact.
The various interactions between these four are numerous, but one form of
interaction is depicted by the J -curved relationship between those who are
aware of an occurrence and those who heard about the same event through
an interpersonal source (Greenberg, 1964).
The J -shape represents the following findings: when practically everyone
knows about an incident (such as John F. Kennedy's assassination in 1963,
Princess Diana's death in 1997, or the 9/11 attacks), a very high proportion
(over half) are likely to have heard about it from a personal contact
(associated conditions here being high event salience and rapid diffusion).
When a smaller proportion of the pub lic is aware of events, the percentage
of personal contact origination lowers while the percentage of media
source grows (associated conditions are lower salience and slower
diffusion rates).
However, there is a category of occurrences about which only a small
minority of the public is knowledgeable. These are minorities for whom
the event or topic is extremely important, and because personal contact
networks are activated in these situations, the proportion of knowledge
gained from personal contact rises again in comparison to media sources.
The pattern of news information dispersion can adopt a number of shapes
that depart from the 'standard' S -curve (a slow start, then an acceleration,
then a flattening as the upper limit is reached). One essential form of
variant is the J -curve, which has recently been described. Incomplete
diffusion, very rapid early acceleration, and overly slow acceleration are
three alternate patterns presented by Chaffee (1975). Different answers
should be sought in terms of 'conten t-specific' factors, source variables,
and receiver variables, which are frequently combined.
The bias of study towards a certain type of events, particularly 'hard news,'
which has a high degree of unexpectedness, is still holding back theory
regarding ne ws diffusion (Rosengren, 1973; 1987). More evidence
about'soft news' and normal or foreseeable events would be needed to
have a more complete view of news diffusion processes. We're also
constrained by the challenge of assessing event relevance without reg ard munotes.in

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134 to the quantity of coverage given by the media, and keeping in mind the
diverse interests of various segments of society.
The proliferation of channels and the relative fall of centralised mass news
outlets have complicated the dissemination of informa tion. Despite the
supposed collapse of social contacts in modern society, the fact that word
of mouth plays a major role in the dissemination of certain types of
dramatic news is regularly reconfirmed. In the instance of the New York
terrorist attack on Se ptember 11, 2001, interviews performed a day later
on people's immediate news source revealed that 50% of respondents
heard first from someone else, 33% from television, and 15% from radio.
It took two hours to attain full diffusion (Greenberg, 2002).
Fram ing Effects :
The concept of framing is appealing, because it presents a solid premise
that what an audience learns would be influenced by journalistic frames. It
will also pick up on the frames. However, it is unclear how framing will
function as an effect . 'The way the news is framed by journalists and how
the audience frames it may be same or different,' as Cappella and
Jamieson (1997: 98) put it.
The same authors suggested a model of framing effects, based on the
concept that particular inferences, idea s, judgments, and contrasts about
topics, policies, and politicians are activated by news frames. Their main
focus was to see if consistently portraying political news as'strategic'
(dealing with attempts to achieve campaign advantage) or 'conflict
oriente d' (as opposed to honestly reporting substance) would increase
public scepticism about politics. Their findings backs up the hypothesis of
growing cynicism as a result of a cumulative (spiralling) media effect.
Scheufele (1999) proposed a process model of framing effects, which
recognises them as the result of interactions among three types of actors:
interested sources and media organisations; journalists (media); and
viewers. We're dealing with two types of frames, as he points out: media
frames and indiv idual (receiver) frames. Both types of frames might be
independent (cause) or dependent (effect) (an effect).
According to the paradigm, these players are involved in four interrelated
framing processes. The first is the creation and usage of media frames by
journalists and others working in news organisations who are continuously
interacting with sources and applying 'news values' and 'news angles' to
event reports while working under pressure. Second, 'framed' news reports
(e.g., a cynical perspective of politicians) are broadcast to the audience.
Finally, audience members adopt specific frames, which has implications
for their attitudes, worldview (e.g. cynicism), and behaviour (e.g. non -
participation).
Entman (1993) provided the foundation for much fram ing research, but his
goal to construct a single general para digm of the framing process has
been criticised. According to D'Angelo (2002), the literature suggests that
there are at least three main framing paradigms. The first is a cognitivist munotes.in

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135 Communication Theory approach, which holds that the texts of journalistic articles become
embodied in the thoughts and words of individuals who have been
impacted. Second, there is a constructionist version of the process, in
which journalists provide 'interpretive packages' of the pers pectives of
news sponsors (i.e. sources). Finally, there is a critical perspective that
considers frames to be the result of news gathering procedures and elite
ideals. Framing is said to have a hegemonic influence in this way.
Despite the difficulties, th ere is enough evidence, particularly from
political communication research, to show that effects on audiences
aligned with news framing do occur. Iyengar (1991) found that the manner
news about social problems was presented influenced whether or not
people were more prone to blame the victim for their problems. The
framing of news during the 1991 Gulf War influenced people to support
military rather than diplomatic solutions, according to research (Iyengar
and Simon, 1997).
Entman (1991) found strong evide nce of public opinion forming in line
with the inbuilt news frames in the news coverage of the two air disasters
discussed in Chapter 14 (Box 14.3): the Soviets were strongly condemned
for the loss of the Korean plane, while the Americans were largely
absolved of responsibility for the Iranian loss. According to McLeod and
Detenber (1999), different framings of the same protests had different
effects on viewers. Jamieson and Waldman (2003) ascribe Al Gore's loss
in his challenge to George W. Bush over the d isputed US presidential
election outcome to the way the matter was framed.
Agenda –Setting :
McCombs and Shaw (1972; 1993) developed the term 'agenda -setting' to
characterise a phenomenon that had long been seen and studied in the
context of election campai gns. The core notion is that the news media
inform the public about the major concerns of the day, which is reflected
in popular perceptions of the major topics. 'The evidence strongly shows
that people think about what they are told, but at no level do th ey think
what they are told,' Trenaman and McQuail wrote (1961:178).
Data showing a correlation between the order of importance given to
'problems' in the media and the order of relevance ascribed to the same
topics by politicians and the public was colle cted during the time, and
considerably since. The process, according to Dearing and Rogers (1996),
is "an continual fight among issue protagonists for the attention of media
professionals, the public, and policy elites." It was referred to as the power
to 'structure issues' by Lazarsfeld et al. (1944). Politicians try to persuade
voters that the most significant problems are the ones with which they are
most familiar. This is an important aspect of advocacy and attempts to
sway public opinion. Agenda -settin g, as a hypothesis, appears to have
avoided the widespread conclusion that persuasive tactics have little or no
impact.
The agenda -setting hypothesis is based on this, but there isn't enough data
to prove a causal link between the numerous topic 'agendas.' We'll need to munotes.in

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136 know the content of party programmes, proof of opinion changes over
time in a specific segment of the public (ideally with panel data), and a
content analysis of media attention to various issues during the relevant
period. We also require s ome evidence of the public's use of relevant
media.
In support of the theory of agenda -setting, such data has rarely, if ever,
been provided at the same time. The closer one gets to investigating actual
situations and moving away from the generic idea tha t media guide
attention and form cognitions, the less confident it becomes that such an
effect exists.
Previous agenda -setting research, according to Davis and Robinson
(1986), ignored probable implications on people's perceptions of who is
important, wher e important things happen, and why things are important.
According to Rogers and Dearing (1987), we must distinguish between
three distinct agendas: media priorities, public priorities, and policy
priorities. These interact in intricate ways and can have a variety of
outcomes.
The same authors also point out that the media's credibility varies, that
personal experience and the media's portrayal of events may differ, and
that the public and the media may not have the same values concerning
news events. Furt hermore, 'real -world events' may intrude in unanticipated
ways, causing earlier objectives to be disrupted (Iyengar and Kinder,
1987). According to Reese (1991), a lot depends on the relative balance of
power between media and sources, which changes a lot from instance to
case.
Each of these remarks adds a fresh source of diversity to the mix. Despite
the challenges, agenda -setting has piqued the interest of mass
communication experts as a viable alternative to the quest for directional
media effects on ind ividual attitudes and behaviour modification.
According to Dearing and Rogers (1996: 15), agenda -setting is linked to a
number of other factors, including the bandwagon effect, the spiral of
silence, news diffusion, and media gatekeeping. The majority of e vidence
(e.g., Behr and Iyengar, 1985) is inconclusive, and appraisals (e.g., Kraus
and Davis, 1976; Becker, 1982; Reese, 1991; Rogers et al., 1993) tend to
treat agenda -setting as a feasible but unproven concept.
Doubts arise not only because of the sever e methodological requirements
for proving a causal link, but also because of theoretical uncertainties. The
idea assumes a chain of influence from governmental or other interest
groups' priorities to media priorities, in which news values and audience
interests play a significant role, and from there to public opinion.
There are probably other versions of this relationship, the most prominent
of which would reverse the flow and assert that underlying public
concerns will affect problem definition by both p olitical elites and the
media. A process like this is essential to both political theory and the logic
of free media. It's conceivable that the media contribute to the munotes.in

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137 Communication Theory convergence of the three 'agendas' stated above, but that's not the same as
deciding whi ch one to pursue.
Several generalisations concerning agenda -setting are offered by Dearing
and Rogers (1996). One is that diverse media outlets tend to agree on a
range of problems' relative importance. Second, media objectives don't
always correspond to " real-world" indications. It is the relative strength of
forces and people attempting to define and promote an issue that counts,
not its absolute importance. Finally, the 'importance of an issue in the
public agenda is largely determined by its place on th e media agenda'
(1996: 192).
Despite the importance of agenda -setting in political communication
research, the effect is likely to be classified as a 'peripheral' effect in terms
of the ELM model (see p. 517), because it derives from accidental cues of
significance provided by presentation (Perse, 2001:100). This does not
negate the importance of such influences, which help to shape public
perceptions of political and social reality. Different mass media tend to
have the same set of news priorities, which is a frequent condition for
agenda -setting. The availability of numerous new online news sources, as
well as the increased possibility for a 'news user' to seek news according to
a particular agenda, are putting a strain on this situation.
EFFECTS ON PUBLI C OPINION AND ATTITUDES The goal of mass communication research was to establish evidence of
major media influences on public opinion and attitudes. The distinction
made between the many types of effect, particularly knowledge,
behaviour, views, and attitu des, is significant and deserves some attention.
In terms of conceptualization and observation, the first two are the easiest.
Opinion and attitude are difficult to quantify since they cannot be
witnessed directly or defined exactly enough. Attitudes are u nderlying
dispositions or mental attitudes toward a certain object that are often
assessed by verbal answers to evaluative statements.
These responses are usually transformed into a scale that depicts an
individual's leaning direction and strength in rela tion to an object (for
instance a political party or leader or issue). Attitudes toward various
items are assumed to be linked, resulting in a framework of more or less
consistent attitudes in a person. Individuals' attitudes are largely valuations
and att ributions, while 'public attitudes' can be defined as an appraisal of
the dominating tendency in a group or aggregate.
An opinion is a declaration of preference for one side of a debate or
choice. It is both cognitive and evaluative in nature. It has a dis tinct and
provisional character, and a person can have a variety of viewpoints on
various topics without requiring any consistency. Opinions differ in terms
of how strongly they are held and how well they are founded on accurate
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138 Opinions are also individual, yet they can be grouped together to produce
something termed public opinion, which is commonly understood to refer
to the population's overall leanings or total of views. Public opinion, on
the other hand, has some independence from the pe ople who contribute to
it. This is demonstrated by the fact that people have a perception of public
opinion as the prevalent perspective and the view of others, whether
accurate or not. As seen below, this view can have consequences. Second,
when 'public o pinion' is reflected in media accounts, it gains some
independence. It becomes an objective "social truth" that political and
other players must take into account.
The following are the implications for media effects theories. Individuals'
perspectives are likely to be influenced significantly by the media, if
sometimes unintentionally, through offering information about situations
and options.
They provide another layer of possible impact by publishing opinion poll
results or expressing editorially what t he public's opinion is on a specific
topic. Even when they provide fresh and important evaluative information,
the media has a considerably lower likelihood of influencing attitudes than
opinions. Attitudes shift slowly and are difficult to change. They ar e
joined in a greater perspective on the world through each other.
The grounding of both attitude and opinion in membership of social
groups and the effect of the social context in which we move is a key
principle of organisation. Consistency or balance is the second principle.
When our diverse likes and dislikes, as well as our opinions, are
compatible, we feel more at ease.
The concept of 'cognitive consistency' encapsulates this. The hypothesis of
cognitive dissonance (the opposite condition) predicts t hat we will seek
out information or ideas that are consistent and avoid the discomfort of
opposing viewpoints (Festinger, 1957). This also implies that fresh
information has the potential to shake up existing attitudes and cause
realignment. This is one of the reasons why the long -term learning or
informational effects of mass media are more essential.
The chances of discovering proof of causal links between media, opinions,
and attitudes are substantially lower than in the past.
THE SPIRAL OF SILENCE : THE FORMATION OF OPINION CLIMATES The concept of the 'spiral of silence' comes from a larger body of public
opinion theory established and tested over many years by Noelle -
Neumann (1974; 1984; 1991). The relevant theory is concerned with the
interaction of fo ur elements: mass media, interpersonal communication
and social interactions, individual expressions of opinion, and individual
judgments of their own social environment's 'climate of opinion.' The
following are the theory's main assumptions (Noelle -Neuman n, 1991): munotes.in

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139 Communication Theory  Isolation is a threat to deviant people in society.
 Individuals are constantly afraid of being alone.
 Individuals strive to gauge the climate of opinion at all times because
they are afraid of isolation.
The findings of this study have an impact on their public behaviour,
particularly their desire or unwillingness to share their thoughts freely.
In a nutshell, the theory claims that many people are driven by what they
perceive to be dominant or diminishing opinions in their society in order
to avo id isolation on key public matters (such as political party support).
People tend to keep their opinions to themselves if they believe they are in
the minority, but they are more inclined to share them if they believe they
are in the majority. As a result, those who are regarded to be dominant
gain even more ground, while alternatives withdraw even farther. This is
what the spiralling effect is all about.
The important point in this case is that the mass media are the most easily
accessible source for analy sing the current climate, and that if a particular
viewpoint predominates in the media, it will tend to be amplified in future
stages of personal opinion creation and expression. The idea was
developed and tested to explain perplexing findings in German po litics,
where opinion poll results were contradictory with other evidence
regarding election expectations and failed to predict the outcome. The
rationale offered was that the media presented a distorted picture of public
opinion consensus. They were consi dered to be leaning left, contrary to
the (silent) majority's opinion.
Two Swedish studies described in Rosengren (1981a) confirmed the
influence of the Swedish press on popular opinion regarding the Middle
East and political opinion, which appeared to val idate Noelle -and
Neumann's other proponents of the "powerful mass media" and the spiral
of silence. The hypothesis was put to a different test when it came to
nuclear energy. Noelle -Neumann (1991) discovered evidence of rising
media interest in the subject , as well as a consistent rise in unfavourable
reporting. The public's support for nuclear power has dwindled
significantly over time, and the timing and sequence of changes revealed
an interaction spiralling effect, as predicted by the theory.
The spiral of silence hypothesis is a near relative of mass society theory,
and both share a negative outlook on the quality of social relations
(Taylor, 1982). Its legitimacy, according to Katz (1983), will be
determined by the extent to which alternative reference groups are still
active in social life. The more this is true, the less room the process
outlined has to function, because there will be support for minority or
deviant viewpoints. Moscovici (1991) also suggests that we should pay
less attention to silent majorities in public opinion development and more
attention to 'loud minorities,' who often play a larger role in opinion shift. munotes.in

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140 The spiral of silence idea is considerably more than a media effect theory;
it encompasses multiple dimensions that must be exp lored simultaneously.
It's not unexpected that it's still hypothetical, or that the evidence is
inconclusive and inconsistent from one scenario to the next. For example,
Glynn et al. (1997) concluded from a recent meta -analysis of survey
research that ther e is little evidence that one's desire to speak out is related
to one's feeling of support for one's own opinion. Even yet, there is
evidence to support a simplified form of the hypothesis that media
coverage does impact individual perceptions of public mo od on current
topics (e.g. Mutz and Soss, 1997; Gunther, 1998).
There is also growing support for the idea that 'fear of isolation' is a major
factor influencing people's willingness to speak out on contentious issues.
Moy et al. (2001) examined the case of a contentious and morally charged
Washington state proposal to prohibit positive discrimination in
employment and education, which was opposed by a large portion of the
public. Speaking out in support of a perceived minority position was
hampered by a f ear of solitude. However, rather than the general public,
the relevant 'environment' was discovered to be a micro -climate of
immediate relatives and friends.
Effects of Political Communication in Democracies :
In any government, there has always been a clos e relationship between
mass communication and the conduct of politics. In totalitarian or
authoritarian countries, ruling elites use media control to enforce
conformity and compliance, as well as to suppress opposition in various
ways. The media has a comp licated connection with power sources and
the political system in democracies. On the one hand, they frequently find
their raison d'être in the service of their audiences, to whom they supply
information and opinions based on interest and need judgments.
They must be independent of the state and powerful interests in order to
do this job. On the other hand, they give avenues for the state and
powerful interests to communicate with the public, as well as platforms for
political parties and other interest gr oups to express themselves. They also
encourage the dissemination of news and opinions among those who are
interested in politics.
This general view of the media's neutral and mediating role in politics
must be modified to account for a variety of situatio ns, particularly those
in which specific media choose to play a partisan role on behalf of a party
or interest, or are closely allied with a powerful economic interest or
ideological block.
There is a third alternative, in which the state wields significa nt effective
authority over nominally free media and exploits it. This appears to be the
case in Putin's Russia more and more, and other countries, such as Italy
under Berlusconi, have approached a similar situation. The issue is not
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141 Communication Theory In light of this, we may identify and quickly summarise the key kinds of
political communication that fall under the category of 'effects.' First, there
are periodic election campaigns in which competing candidates and parties
typically make ex tensive use of the media. Then there's the constant flow
of news, which conveys information about events that have a favourable
or negative impact on governments and other political actors. This opens
up a lot of possibilities for news management and publi c relations.
Third, independent of elections, there are various degrees of opportunity
for political advertising by the same actors. On behalf of various lobbies
and pressure organisations, specific attempts are sometimes undertaken to
sway public opinion on certain subjects using various ways.
The election campaign is the most researched communication type, with
research dating back to at least 1940, when Lazarsfeld et al. (1944)
conducted a thorough investigation into the presidential election of that
year. Thousands of democratic elections have been studied since then (see
Semetko, 2004), with considerable consistency in broad effects findings.
For starters, election campaigns are often brief and intense, with little net
change in voter intentions. Campa igners make extensive use of the media,
but voters are typically less interested. It's hard to uncover conclusive
evidence that the media has a significant impact on an election's outcome.
They have a minor impact on voting (or not voting). Basic politica l beliefs
are usually too firmly ingrained to change much, while an increasing
separation from rigid allegiances opens the door to more power. Opinions
on specific issues may be impacted by the media, and there is evidence of
the potential for learning abo ut issues and policy positions, particularly
among the relatively uneducated and uninterested. This reflects the
'agenda -setting' process mentioned above to some extent. When learning
effects lead to a shift in attitude or, more frequently, to biased perce ptions
of reality, they can be significant. Norris et al. (1999) conducted a unique
piece of experimental study in a British general election, finding that
exposure to party positions in news broadcasts could considerably impact
opinions toward the parties in the short term.
Election campaigns draw a wide range of motivated audience attention
(and a lot of inattention), and the impacts they have are more dependent on
voter dispositions and motives than on campaigners' goals. An extensive
general election ca mpaign, according to Blumler and McQuail (1968), had
greater effects when it reached parts of a more or less captive public that
were previously misinformed and had no clear allegiances. This is referred
to as a 'trap' effect by Schoenbach and Lauf (2002). Although different
media have varying impact potentials, data suggests that none are
fundamentally superior, and that the message, combined with the
audience's disposition, is still what matters (Norris and Sanders, 2003).
Aside from selective attention a nd fluctuating motivation, the relative lack
of decisive effects from campaigns can be linked to a number of variables.
The paucity of potential for change on old), and the routine nature of much munotes.in

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142 campaigning that gives nothing that is fresh of any substanc e are just a
few examples.
The amount and quality of attention given to the top contenders tends to
be relatively similar in many Western democracies where the media is not
co-opted by political parties (Norris et al, 1999; D'Alessio and Allen,
2000; Noin , 2001). Campaigns tend to sustain the status quo, but if one
side fails to campaign, we can expect big consequences, and sometimes a
single episode can dramatically alter the equilibrium. Electoral campaigns
are frequently oriented at maintaining the stat us quo rather than bringing
about change.
Campaigning parties and candidates typically select from a variety of
communication techniques based on their circumstances and resources, as
well as whether they are incumbent or not. They may try to link
themselv es to specific concerns for which they have a track record or a
claim. It helps to be able to frame topics and set news agendas in this
situation.
They could try to win on the basis of ideology or principle, but this is
more difficult and riskier. Rather of following rules, they can strive for an
appealing image by association, style, or personality. They can attack an
opponent on any weakness that arises, while negativity tends to
demotivate voters in general.
The use of general news in political communic ation represents a continual
process of news management and rivalry to define events and problems.
Professional news managers (spin doctors) are employed by all major
players to secure favourable access to normal everyday news and to give a
news story the highest possible gloss.
Although it is impossible to assess the impact of such influences, there is
excellent evidence in principle that the news creates a favourable
environment for influential messages, because it is usually characterised
by source inde pendence, reliability, and a lack of propagandist linkages. In
practise, most functional democracies provide more or less equal access to
news to the primary candidates for office, which is sufficient to prevent
the news from taking on a single dominant sh ape.
Political advertising, on the other hand, is reliant on resources, but its
potential is restricted by its propagandist nature. It may have unforeseen
side effects, and unambiguous evidence of the usefulness of political
advertising is difficult to com e across (Goldstein and Freedman, 2002),
however simple attrition and repetition may function as intended.
All campaigns with a political objec tive are the same. They run into the
types of challenges listed in Box 19.3. Advertising on television has a
history of taking on negative connotations, as evidenced by the concerns
listed above.
This campaign format has been promoted as a means of enlivening politics
and giving a decisive test of leader skill and persuasiveness since the munotes.in

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143 Communication Theory memorable Kennedy -Nixon te levision debate in 1960. It's been tried out in
a variety of ways (Kraus and Davis, 1976).
The fear of calamity attests to the power that such events have. However,
study findings (e.g., Coleman, 2000) have shown few significant electoral
implications (as was the case in the original debate), albeit they do lead to
changes in candidate perceptions and some policy learning. They appear
to have a reinforcing influence on voter preferences. In truth, incumbent
politicians have always avoided discussions, saw no clear benefit and
fearing uncontrollable consequences.
This brief overview of the effects of mass communication in election
campaigns may appear at odds with the reality of modern political
campaigning, in which communication strategies are meticulously planned
by a slew of advisers and professional publicists, and a slew of new ways
to spend large sums of money are discovered, particularly by those in
media advertising.
Even while the possibilities of decisively influencing the outcome of an
election b y communication are often limited, it is simple to lose an
election by not campaigning or communicating poorly. It is a vital
component of the institutional ritual and the plea for public support to
mount a sparkling, intelligent, and confident campaign, a nd failing to do
so would mean not being regarded seriously as a candidate.
11.2 QUESTION 1. Explain ‗Learning from news‘.
2. Discuss ‗News diffusion‘.
3. Explain in detail the Framing effect.
4. Briefly explain the spiral of silence: the formation of climates of
opinion
5. Describe - Political communication effects in democracies
11.3 REFERENCES  Gitlin, T. (1980) The Whole World Is Watching: Mass Media in the
Making and Unmaking of the New Left. Berkeley, CA: University of
California Press.
 Glynn, C.J., Herbst, S., O'K eefe, G.J. and Shapiro, R.Y. (1999) Public
Opinion. Boulder, CO:
 Westview.
 Graber, D., McQuail, D. and Norris, P. (1998) News of Politics:
Politics of News. Washington, DC: CQ munotes.in

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144  Jamieson, J.H. and Waldman, P. (2003) The Press Effect. New York:
Basic. Norris, P., Curtice, J., Sanders, D., Scammell, M. and Semetko,
H. (1999) On Message: Communicating the Campaign. London:
Sage.
 These journal articles and book chapter can be accessed from the
companion website to this book: www.sagepub.co.uk/mcquail5
 Brewer, P.R ., Graf, J. and Willnat, L. (2003) 'Priming or framing?
Media influence on attitudes towards foreign countries', Gazette, 65
(6): 493 -508.
 Scheufele, D.A. and Nisbet, M.C. (2002) 'Being a citizen online: new
opportunities and dead ends', Harvard Journal of Press/Politics, 7 (3):
55-75.
 Schweiger, W. (2000) 'Media credibility: experience or image?',
European Journal of Communication, 15 (1): 37 -60.
 Semetko, H.A. (2004) 'Media, public opinion and political action', in
J.D.H. Downing, D. McQuail, P. Schlesinge r and E. Wartella (eds),
The Sage Handbook of Media Studies, pp. 351 -74. Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage.




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145 Communication Theory 12
DE-WESTERNIZING MEDIA AND
COMMUNICATION THEORY
Unit Structure
12.0 Objectives
12.1 Indroduction
12.2 Questions
12.3 Referances
12.0 OBJECTIVE  To study De -Westernizing of Media
 To Understand why to De -Westernize Media
 To learn Communication Theory
 To study types of Communication Theories
12.1 INTRODUCTION The desire to de -Westernize and decolonize communication and media
studies stems from conc erns of a hegemonic elitist "Western" axiology
and epistemology of universal validity, which ignores indigenous and
localised philosophical traditions from non -Western contexts. Scholars
from the Global South continue to raise concerns about a pervasive
inherent Eurocentric bias that underpins many Anglo -American and
European research programmes and continues to do so. Scholars warn
against the pervasive effect of foreign -imposed ideas like modernity and
development, as well as universal assumptions about t he usage of specific
categories and ontologies to analyse and comprehend media around the
world.
De-Westernization necessitates a rethink of power relations in global
academic knowledge creation and transmission, since the West is regarded
more as a centre of power than as a fixed geographical entity. Curran and
Park, who challenged a Western academic community to review and re -
evaluate their theories, epistemologies, techniques, and empirical research
approaches, especially in research targeting the Global South, made the
most famous demand for de -Westernizing media studies in the early
2000s.
In a similar vein, the call for decolonization encourages people to look
into and examine colonial power imbalances, power dependencies, and munotes.in

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146 colonial legacies. It cri ticises the unquestioning adoption of former
colonial powers' research epistemologies and methodologies in solving
local problems, claiming that they fail to grasp the intricacies of non -
Western systems and people, and calls for "decolonial epistemic
disob edience." Scholars from the Global South have fought for decades
for international acknowledgement of their voices and intellectual
contributions to a global academic community, despite de -Westernization
efforts directed at a Western research community. Po stcolonialism,
subaltern studies, and critical -reflective sociology are all influences on
their work.
To overcome the global imbalance in media studies knowledge generation,
many measures have been launched. However, neither replacing theories
with indigen ous concepts nor relegating countries of the Global South to
case studies that deliver raw data will help them gain traction, as research
efforts must incorporate both local realities and broader contextualization,
or the call for research with a region ra ther than just about or from it.
Cooperative South -South endeavours are more successful, as evidenced by
the extensive scholar networks in Latin America, Africa, and Asia.
The process of de -Westernization and decolonization is still on.
Inequalities in res ource availability and allocation, conference attendance,
and publishing possibilities appear to be the most pressing. In this regard,
journalism and media studies curriculum still exhibit a strong Anglophone
bias as well as a lack of awareness of local ch allenges and expectations.
De-Westernizing approaches that are more contemplative can help to
bridge these differences. De -Westernization, on the other hand, cannot be
the final way to re -balancing academic information flow between
powerful and less powerf ul players because it is based on hazy
geographical categorizations.
WHY TO DE -WESTERNIZE AND DECOLONIZE MEDIA STUDIES The desire for de -Westernization of academic fields in the West at the turn
of the twenty -first century breathed new life into the social sciences and
humanities. Scholars' criticism of a largely Euro -American ethnocentrism
in academic knowledge production is referred to as de -Westernization.
The fundamental point is that the "professional centre of gravity in the
United States" (Kim, 2009, p. 419) and, to a lesser extent, European
academics have unequal intellectual supremacy. Critics urge an
epistemological shift toward a broader diversity of academic perspectives
because their ideas do not always reflect and apply to contemporary
debates and challenges in nations of the Global South. In the end, this
could lead to a broader global inclusion of fundamental theories,
techniques, and conceptions.
One of the most prominent examples of this trend is media and
communication studies. Despite thei r intrinsic openness to other
disciplines, media studies have been moulded and controlled by US -driven munotes.in

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147 Communication Theory concerns, ideas, and practises since the beginning. Critics argue that,
because of the location of knowledge, US -American techniques cannot
always handle difficulties in other regions of the world, where various
contexts and epistemologies exist (Rao, 2011).
These approaches that are not centred on the United States must be taken
seriously and studied in order to develop a larger knowledge framework.
As a result, "provincializing Europe" (Chakrabarty, 2000) becomes a call
for greater global acknowledgement of previously excluded voices, a
reduction in the dominance of Eurocentric ideas, and equality of varied
perspectives regardless of geography or geopolit ics.
The desire for decolonization is inextricably linked to de -Westernization.
In a restricted sense, this refers to the process by which former colonies
and protectorates gained political and economic independence during the
twentieth century. The offici al departure of colonisers and foreign
governing elites, on the other hand, does not always imply the abandoning
of their institutional and intellectual legacies. Former oppressors' models
have often formed political and economic structures and institution s, and
their beliefs continue to impact social and cultural realities. As a result,
"decolonizing the mind" from colonial thinking modes must be the first
step in a genuine decolonization process (Ngg wa Thiong'o, 1986). This
includes a re -examination and meditation on the epistemologies that have
been left behind (Mignolo, 2011).
Both discourses aim to challenge Western hegemony and supremacy in
defining the essential principles of media studies, primarily by addressing
Western academics who need to recons ider their own epistemologies and
assumptions. While calls for decolonization of global knowledge
production mechanisms date back to the 1950s and address both former
colonial subjects and rulers, explicit calls for de -Westernization efforts
appear to be m ore recent, and appear to be directed primarily at Western
academics who wish to de -Westernize their work.
THE FOUNDATIONS OF DE -WESTERNIZATION DISCOURSE While academics from the Global South have been raising the issue of
unequal global power structures a nd, as a result, dismissal of their media
and communication scholarship in Western academia for decades with
mixed results, similar calls from Western scholars to Western academics
have appeared isolated and recent. Theoretical supremacy has long been
assumed by Western hegemonic self -understanding. One of the earliest,
Golding (1977), emphasised how Western journalism principles fail to be
translated to the Global South in his early contribution.
It took a decade for Kincaid (1987) to publish a groundbrea king study on
Eastern and Western perspectives in communication theory, and another
decade for Downing (1996) to point out the rather exceptional nature of
the very similar UK and US leitmotifs and data shaping global
communication theory, implying univers ality. Curran and Park's (2000) munotes.in

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148 proposal for "De -Westernizing Media Studies" only gained traction in the
Western academic community in 2000, inspiring curiosity and a larger
knowledge that "takes account of the experience of countries beyond the
Anglo -Amer ican orbit" (Curran & Park, 2000, p. 11).
Some variables contribute to a better understanding of how massive
inequities in global knowledge creation and reception emerged in the past.
They are summarised below and serve as the foundation for arguments for
de-Westernization.
First, the knowledge distribution imbalance dates back to colonial times,
when countries in the Global South had little choice but to accept and
adapt Western epistemologies, models, and curricula in universities and
disciplines like soc iology, anthropology, and, later, psychology and
economics, without question. In postcolonial settings, hegemonic
involvement persisted long after independence.
Second, the West's long -standing global hegemony caused appeals for De
- Westernization from th e South to fall on deaf ears in many locations, as
US-American and European (white) experts felt little need to listen. This
was developed first through the colonial and subsequently bipolar Cold
War systems, and it has clearly prevailed since 1990 through Anglo
American techniques that avoided structural and class analyses. Under
these conditions, much Western academic research remained uncritical for
a long time, assuming universal significance for modernist concepts.
Media studies, in particular, is a re latively new discipline that was shaped
by US -American research aims and assumptions at first.
These delays occurred in the West despite substantial international efforts
to aid De - Westernizing media activities, such as the MacBride
Commission, which was established by UNESCO. In 1979, the MacBride
Commission advocated for the creation of a New World Information and
Communication Order (NWICO). Following talks on cultural imperialism
and the potential for Southern communicative counterflows,
communication researchers from Africa, Latin America, and the Indian
subcontinent criticised Eurocentric prejudice and expressed growing
concern about knowledge decolonization and indigenization.
It became evident that de -Westernization concepts were alive and well,
even if they didn't have the power (yet) to make a significant impact on
Western international communication scholarship. Scholars from the
South contributed significantly to "One World, Many Voices."
In discussions about the subaltern on the Indian subconti nent (Ludden,
2002), in Latin American debates and modifications of European theories,
and in the founding of cross -national Southern communication
associations, this increased reflection on epistemologies of knowledge and
global structures of academic res earch became visible.
However, networking efforts such as South –South conferences, enhanced
knowledge circulation, and increased awareness among Western
researchers were unable to eliminate inequities in terms of resources, munotes.in

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149 Communication Theory recognition, voice, and knowled ge generation. As seen by Thussu's (2009)
"Internationalizing Media Studies" or Wang's (2011) demand for "De -
Westernizing Communication Research," Curran and Park's endeavour of
de-Westernizing knowledge is still underway. In general, scholars from
the Glo bal South are still fighting for a reorganisation of global knowledge
creation in the field of media and communication studies.
Nonetheless, some positive things are occurring. First, the divide between
those who recognise the need to de -Westernize and tho se who do not
begins to close. While portions of the Global South perceive an academic
world outside of their own traditions as a credible approach to create their
own epistemologies, it took decades for a critical mass of Western
scholars to accept it.
This trend is increasingly reflected in major conference organisations and
publications in and about the Global South. Second, knowledge developed
in and with the Global South is becoming increasingly important, serving
as a dynamic early warning system for future global developments and
newly developing challenges where traditional (Western) paradigms fail to
deliver the essential inventive answers (Wasserman, 2018). As the
traditional understanding of the nation -state erodes in the twenty -first
century, sp ace opens up to propose a new perspective on the Global South.
DE-WESTERNIZING EPISTEMOLOGIES AND THEORIES The first step toward better understanding the grounds behind the urge to
de-Westernize media studies is to define "the West" —as well as "the rest."
Before moving on to criticism of these debates, the main target of De -
Westernization and decolonization discourses is given.
What Do You Mean When You Say "West"? :
While many systems of truth have appeared and vanished throughout
human history, no human pr oject has been as successful and long -lasting
in dominating the globe as the "Western Code" (Mignolo, 2011) —the rise
of "Western" civilization with the start of the Enlightenment period, and
its adoption as a political project.
When coupled to geo -analytic al borders, however, finding the "West" in
knowledge production becomes a tricky slope. Because the West is not a
homogeneous fixed knowledge territory, applying absolute and essential
categorizations is as ineffective as it is in the Global South (Waisbor d &
Mellado, 2014).
Western refers to the "old" industrialised countries of Europe, as well as
the "new" English -speaking states of North America, as well as Australia
and New Zealand.
It is defined epistemologically as adhering to positivism, rationality,
detachment, self -interest, and individualism, all of which are directly
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150 If we look at it historically, a number of European countries are credited
with being the origin of modern science, which shaped some o f the most
fundamental evaluative concepts for how to perceive, classify, and assess
knowledge. These countries laid the social and intellectual foundations for
modern educational systems and academic cultures, which continue to
affect the global academic landscape in teaching and research. The
"oligopoly of social science capacities," according to Gunaratne (2010, p.
474), is linked to discipline, language (English), and geography. The
United States and the United Kingdom are at the top, but France,
German y, Japan, the Netherlands, and Italy are in second place, according
to him. The existing "European universalism" is reinforced by this
oligopoly.
The Enlightenment marked a turning point in world history, and
Eurocentrism and subsequently Orientalism (Said , 1978) acquired traction
as methods for preserving dominance over knowledge from then on. The
Eurocentric narrative's justifications consisted of declaring the arrival of
(modern) Western civilization as "the arrival of human history" (Mignolo,
2011, p. x iv), with Europe appropriating the reference point of global
history as heirs of Hellenistic classical culture, while previous historical
epochs were obscured by the invention of a "dark Middle age" past. Early
American scholars' conception of the media an d its function in society was
dominated by this paradigm.
What is the best way to de -Westernize? :
Decolonization and de -Westernization are processes that are continuing.
De-Westernization has a lot of different connotations. Waisbord and
Mellado (2014) des cribe it as a "act of cultural defence, an anti -imperialist
approach to nurture academic sovereignty, and a demand for accepting an
analytical perspective that represents a de -centered, dynamic
contemporary world." "The West's supremacy (actual or perceive d) as a
conceptual 'force' and representational norm" (Bâ & Higbee, 2012, p. 3) is
challenged and repositioned by the notions.
The most common objections of de -Westernization and decolonization
centre on a prevailing elitist "Western" axiology and epistemo logy of
universal validity, which ignores indigenous and regional philosophical
traditions. They are under -researched or ignored as a research subject in
the global hierarchy of knowledge. Theories originating in the Global
South may be disregarded or eval uated severely.
Western and non -Western researchers can both contribute to efforts and
tactics to de -Westernize academic areas. Western researchers should
ideally strive for more cross -cultural inclusiveness and inclusion of
subaltern perspectives in their research and courses, reflecting and
countering potential parochialism and provincialism in their study.
Academics from non -Western countries may try to frame their work in
relation to Eurocentrism, foreign -imposed concepts, and ontology.
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151 Communication Theory comprehend local social processes (Ray, 2012) are not the only challenges
non-Western scholars face; access to a global academic discourse and
having a voice within it is another key difficulty.
In all parts o f the research process, including "the subject of study, the
body of evidence, theoretical and methodological views, research
enquiries, and academic professional cultures," a de -Westernization of
academia or global knowledge production in general is sugge sted
(Waisbord & Mellado, 2014, p. 363). Non -Western situations are given
special attention in order to reinforce conclusions and ensure that findings
and arguments are generalizable.
However, it is evident that study must transcend beyond testing
USAmeric an communication theories in non -Western settings or applying
"foreign" categories of specific ontological understandings insensitively.
Why is it possible to criticise de -Westernization? :
As previously stated, imposing geographical restrictions on the flo w of
ideas may cause knowledge to become muddled or create false
dichotomies. Ideas have always circulated in reality. Views are not
monolithic or unanimous even in Western societies, and outlooks are not
monolithic or unanimous in non -Western societies. W hile some people
desire to protect their culture from globalisation (or neoliberal
Westernization), others, particularly women and poor people, value ideals
of self -determination. This is reflected in feminist theoretical perspectives.
Similarly, theorists who demand solely indigenous or localised study (for
example, debates about Asian or African values and ethics) appear to
overlook the essentially composite nature of culture, communication,
politics, and society. According to opponents, they risk falling prey to a
new provincialism rather than focusing on what matters most to the Global
South: a criticism of contemporary power structures that impact
information production and flow.
The debate's unique character reveals that de -Westernization is essentiall y
a problem of Western academia, which has timidly attempted to self -
critically reflect on it. An inquiry into de -Westernization as a specific
phrase (or its translation into other main languages of the global North and
South) on Wikipedia, the free, multi lingual, and collaboratively created
online encyclopaedia, yields no results. This striking lack of de -
Westernization discourses in the Global South (e.g., decolonization)
implies not only that de -Westernization discourses are led under different
labels in the Global South, but also that it remains a topic that is quite side
lined on Western discursive agendas.
COMMUNICATION THEORY Consider a world where there is no communication. You have a wonderful
concept, but you lack the ability to communicate it. You have a deep
passion for something yet are unable to articulate it. Life would be dull munotes.in

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152 and lifeless, and the world would be uninhabitable. The power of
communication is undeniable.
The essence of existence is communication. It's a requirement. Human
beings require communication in order to express themselves. To express
his feelings, pass on knowledge to other humans, and share his thoughts
and feelings, an individual must communicate.
Is it true that only humans communicate?
Let's have a look at some examp les:
Ted came across a sad, almost dying puppy crying gently on the streets.
He wasted no time in getting the puppy to a neighbouring vet and giving
him the basic medical care, he needed. Have you ever wondered how Ted
learned that the puppy needs quick at tention? The puppy was unable to
communicate.
Communication is the answer to the previous question.
Ted learned about the puppy's illness solely through speech. The pup's
whimpering was actually an indication that the creature needed to be seen
by a doctor right away. Ted's deteriorating condition and need for medical
assistance were communicated to him through his cries.
Another I llustration:
When the leaves begin to turn brown, grow dry, and show indications of
withering, a gardener waters the plants. The tree is attempting to indicate
to the gardener that it is dying and needs to be watered quickly by turning
brown and drying its leaves.
What is Communication Theory, and how does it work? :
In the year 1980, S. F. Scudder proposed communication theory. It asserts
that all living beings on the globe communicate, however the manner in
which they communicate differs.
Plants convey their need for rapid attention and watering via obvious
changes in leaf colour, as well as the falling of leaves and blooms.
Animal s use sounds and a variety of behaviours to signal when they are
hungry, sick, or in need of medical assistance.
Unless and until her infant screams, a mother will never know that her
youngster is hungry. Crying is another way for a child to express that h e is
hungry and requires nourishment. When he is injured, he uses crying as a
means of communicating his discomfort and the need for immediate
medical attention.
Thus, according to the universal law of communication theory, all living
beings, whether plant s, animals, or humans, communicate through sound,
speech, visible changes, body movements, gestures, or in the best possible
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153 Communication Theory or any other information through sound, speech, visible changes, body
movements, gestures, or in the best possible way to make others aware of
their thoughts, feelings, problems, happiness, or any other information
through sound, speech, visible changes, body movements, gesture
If a child has poor grades in exa ms, parents will not speak to him for a
period of time, in an attempt to signal that the parents are dissatisfied with
the child's performance and that he must improve for future exams. If you
irritate a stray dog, he will almost certainly bark at you, whi ch is an
animal's way of communicating that he is angry and should not be irritated
any further.
Animals, like humans, communicate with one another through gestures
and bodily movements. Monkeys always carry their kids with them
everywhere they go, which i s another way for the mother to convey that
their young are safe and that she will look after them. During animal
mating season, gestures serve a crucial role in bringing them closer
together, similar to how a peacock dance to woo its spouse.
According to another model of communication, communication is merely
the process of transmitting information from the sender to the recipient,
who then decodes the information and acts on it. This communication
model is likewise supported by a large number of people.
Framework for Communication Theory :
Consider the following perspectives on communication and
communication theory:
Mechanistic : According to the mechanistic viewpoint, communication is
merely the conveyance of information from one side to another. The
sende r is the first party, while the receiver is the second.
Psychological : Communication, according to the psychological
perspective, is not only the flow of information from the sender to the
receiver, but rather the sender's ideas and feelings that he tries to transmit
with the receivers. It also comprises the receiver's reactions and sentiments
after decoding the information.
Communication is viewed as a result of interaction between the sender and
the receiver from a social perspective. It simply states tha t the content of
the speech has a direct impact on communication. The social view point is
based on "how one communicates."
Systemic : According to the systemic viewpoint, communication is
essentially a fresh and distinct message that is formed when diverse
persons perceive it in their own unique way, then reinterpret it and come
to their own conclusions.
Critical : According to the critical viewpoint, communication is merely a
means by which an individual exhibits his power and authority among
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154 To recapitulate, the communication theory posits that every living
creature, in order to exist, must communicate with others as well as among
itself. Survival necessitates communication.
COMMUNICATION MODELS What is the definition of a model? :
A model is a tool that is commonly used to describe any idea, notion, or
concept in a more straightforward manner using diagrams, visual
representations, and other means. Models go a great way toward making
any topic understandable and apparent. A model makes it simpl e to
comprehend a process and draw inferences from it. In other terms, a model
simplifies the learning process.
Aristotle Model of Communication :
Aristotle was the first to establish a communication model on his own
initiative.
Let's start with a straightf orward scenario.
In a political meeting, the potential leader makes a speech to the audience,
pleading with the crowd to vote for him. He tries his hardest to persuade
the audience in the greatest possible way so that he can win. What exactly
is he up to?
He's giving his speech in such a way that the audience will be persuaded
and vote only in his favour, or, in other words, respond in the same way
the speaker intended. The leader, speaker, or sender is the centre of
attention here, with the crowd acting as passive listeners.
The anecdote truly clarifies Aristotle's communication approach.
The speaker, according to this paradigm, is critical to communication. He
is the one in command of the entire communication system. The sender
initially creates content by carefully putting his thoughts into words with
the goal of influencing the listeners or recipients to respond in the way that
the sender desires. There's no point in assuming that the material in this
model has to be extremely outstanding in order for the audience or
recipients to be convinced. The speaker communicates in such a way that
the listeners are impacted and respond accordingly, according to the
model.
In this type of communication, the speaker must be very careful with his
choice of words and co ntent. He should first determine who his target
audience is before preparing his speech. Making eye contact with the
second party is necessary to make an impression on the audience. Let's
look through the first example once more. The politician must first grasp
the needs of his constituents, such as the need for a shopping mall, a better
transportation system, and the safety of girls, before crafting his speech. munotes.in

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155 Communication Theory To get the most votes, his speech should address all of the above topics
and focus on delivering answers to their difficulties.
His tone and pitch should be loud and clear enough for the audience to
hear and understand what he's saying. It is necessary to prevent
stammering and becoming uneasy in the middle of a talk. In order to get
the intended im pact, voice modulations are also crucial. Blank
expressions, puzzled eyes, and a consistent pitch throughout the speech
make it repetitive and detract from its impact. The speaker should be
aware of where to place extra emphasis and which words to emphasis e in
order to sway the audience.
One will undoubtedly purchase a mobile handset from a store where the
salesperson offers a compelling demonstration of the device. It is up to the
salesman to decide what to say and how to say it so that the listeners
respo nd in the way he desires, i.e., by purchasing the handset and
increasing his billing.
The Aristotle model of communication is the most widely acknowledged
and widely used model of communication, in which the sender conveys
information or a message to the r eceivers in order to influence and cause
them to respond and act in a specific way. The Aristotle model of
communication is the golden rule for excelling in public speaking,
seminars, and lectures, in which the sender makes his argument obvious
by designin g an impressive material, then passes the message on to the
second portion, who just respond accordingly. The sender is the active
participant, while the recipient is the passive participant.
Berlo’s Model of Communication :
While the Aristotle model of com munication places the speaker in the
centre and implies that the speaker is the one who drives the entire
communication, Berlo's model considers the emotional aspect of the
message. Berlo's communication model is based on the SMCR paradigm.
According to th e SMCR model,
S – Source
M - Message
R - Receiver
C - Channel
Let's take a closer look at each factor:
S stands for source :
The source, also known as the sender, is the person from whom the notion
comes. After carefully putting his thoughts into words, he is the one who
delivers the knowledge to the receiver.
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156 Communication skills, attitude, knowledge, social system, and culture are
used to accomplish this.
Communication Capabilities :
In order for a person's communication to be effective and have an impact
on the listeners, he or she must have outstanding communication skills.
The speaker must understand when to pause, when to repeat words, how to
utter a specific sentence, how to pronou nce a word, and so forth. It is not
acceptable for the speaker to go on and on. He should also double -check
his work with the recipients and listen to their concerns. When
communicating, one must be aware of his or her accent. A chat with a
terrible accent is uninteresting.
Attitude :
The saying goes that if you have the correct attitude, the world is at your
feet. If a person has the appropriate mindset, he will not be able to stop. A
guy may be an excellent speaker, but if he lacks the correct mindset, he
will never be a winner. To leave a lasting effect on the listeners, the sender
must have the correct mindset. Even if a person has an MBA from a
reputable institution, he would get lost in the crowd if he does not have the
correct mentality.
Knowledge :
The speaker's educational background or the number of degrees in his
portfolio have no bearing on his knowledge. The clarity of the information
that the speaker wishes to convey to the second person is known as
knowledge. One must be thorough in what he says and have a solid
understanding of the issue. Remember that questions might arise at any
time, and you must be prepared to respond. You must be completely
knowledgeable about the topic at hand. Before giving any speech, read as
much as you can and thoroughl y prepare the subject, paying attention to
even the slightest detail.
System of Social Relations :
Consider a politician making a speech proposing the construction of a
temple in a Muslim -dominated area. What would the audience's reaction
be if they heard t his? Obviously, they aren't interested. Was there a
problem with the leader's communication skills or did he have the wrong
attitude? The listeners' dissatisfaction stemmed from the speaker's
disregard for the social structure of the environment in which h e was
communicating. He had forgotten about the second party's opinions,
cultural values, and religious feelings. His speech would have been
tremendously stunning if it had been given in a Hindu -dominated society.
Culture :
The cultural background of the co mmunity or listeners with whom the
speaker is communicating or delivering his speech is referred to as culture. munotes.in

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157 Communication Theory M stands for Message :
A message is generated when a person puts his thoughts into words.
Encoding is another name for the procedure.
Any message also has the following components:
Content :
One cannot reveal his grey matter to others in order for them to understand
what he is thinking. It is necessary to put a thought into words and to
develop material. The subject of the talk, or the script, is ca lled content. It
is, to put it another way, the foundation of any communication.
"I'm pretty tired today," Ted says to Jenny, "so let's arrange for the movie
tomorrow evening."
The content of the communication is whatever Ted has communicated
with Jenny. I t is critical for the speaker to carefully select his or her words
and to pay close attention to the topic of the speech. To hit the listeners
right on the head and make an immediate effect, the content must be
sensible, accurate, crisp, and relevant to th e notion.
Element :
Speech alone, it has been noted, cannot make a difference in
communication. If you continue to speak incessantly, your audience will
eventually lose interest. To attract the attention of the audience and make
the speech spectacular, the speaker should use a variety of hand
movements, gestures, postures, facial expressions, and body movements.
The aspects of the communication include hand movements, gestures,
postures, facial expressions, body movements, and gestures.
Treatment :
The way on e treats his message and transmits it to the listeners is referred
to as treatment. The value of the message must be understood, as well as
how to manage it. If a boss wishes to fire one of his employees, he must be
firm and cannot communicate his message in a casual manner. The
treatment of the communication is the term for this. One must know how
to express his message in order for it to be conveyed in the most correct
manner possible.
Structure :
A message cannot be conveyed in a single sitting. It must b e well -
structured in order to convey the message in the most effective way
possible.
Code :
If you enter the erroneous code, the locks will not open. If you enter an
incorrect password, you will be unable to access your email account. In
the same way, the c ommunication code must be correct. Your body munotes.in

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158 language, expressions, and gestures are the communication's codes, and
they must be right or else the message will be twisted, and the recipient
will never be able to decipher the correct information.
The letter C stands for channel :
The conduit through which information moves from the sender to the
receiver is referred to as a channel.
What is the best way to figure out what the other person is saying? - By
means of hearing
How can one tell if the pasta he's ord ering is cooked with white sauce or
not? - By way of tasting.
How does one know if there is a detour or a no parking zone ahead? - By
observing.
How can a person tell if the food is fresh or stale? How do we determine a
perfume's fragrance? - By smelling i t.
How are you going to know if the milk is hot or not? - By putting your
hands together.
All five senses are avenues via which humans communicate with one
another.
R stands for receiver :
When the communication reaches the recipient, he tries to figure out what
the sender is trying to say and then responds appropriately. Decoding is
another term for this.
For a smooth flow of information and greater understanding of the
message, the receiver should be on the same platform as the speaker. To
grasp what the s peaker is attempting to say, he needs have good
communication skills. He must have the proper mindset in order to
comprehend the information in a positive light. His knowledge should be
comparable to that of the audience, and he must be knowledgeable about
the subject. He should also have a similar social and cultural background
as the speaker.
The communication model proposed by Berlo has significant flaws.
According to Berlo's model of communication, for easy conversion, the
speaker and the listener must be on the same page, which is not always the
case in practise.
Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication :
The Shannon and Weaver model is the most frequently used and
recognised communication model in the world.
To further grasp the model, let's look at th e following example. munotes.in

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159 Communication Theory Peter is a Vice President of Marketing for a well -known international
corporation. He is currently in charge of Mike, who is in charge of a small
crew. Mike was asked by Peter to write an in -depth study on marketing
methods that may be used to help the company accomplish its objectives.
By the end of the day, he also wanted a full analysis of the competitor's
activities. The company peon interrupted him to take the lunch order while
he was speaking. Finally, once Mike had all of the nec essary information,
he allocated responsibilities to his team members. He did his best to
express what Peter had in mind for his team's preparation. The team
completed the report and sent it to Peter at the end of the day, but there
were a few flaws that t hey corrected later.
Let's take a closer look at the example now.
What is Peter's name? :
Peter is the one who came up with the idea of generating a detailed report
in order to improve the organization's production. He is the one who had
the idea in the fir st place. Peter was the one who came up with the notion
of developing marketing strategy for the company. As a result, Peter is the
source of information.
The organisation would not have profited from Peter's concept if he had
kept it to himself without sh aring it with his colleagues. It is critical for an
individual to share his or her ideas and information with others in order to
get the most out of the information.
Do you believe Mike and his team would have learned about Peter's
proposal if he had kept it to himself?
Clearly, no. Peter had to translate his ideas into words and then speak the
facts out loud. Here, the mouth acts as a transmitter, assisting in the
transmission of information and messages from the brain to the mouth
once the notion has be en carefully expressed in words. The words or
Peter's voice are actually the signal being sent to Mike about what he is
expected to do. Peter spoke about some reports that he desired from his
team, and the words or Peter's voice is actually the signal bein g sent to
Mike about what he is required to do. Mike won't know what he's meant to
do if there's no signal or material. Go over the example once more.
The peon who came to take the lunch order stopped the talk. Similarly,
while travelling from the transmi tter to the destination, signals are
disrupted by numerous noises and disturbances. Horns on packed streets,
the rush and bustle of the market, babies wailing, and people screaming
are all examples of noises that are associated with the signal, or
informat ion. After ignoring what the peon said, Mike was able to acquire
all of the information from Peter and send it to his team, who were
responsible for preparing the report.
The Shannon and Weaver model essentially states that a communication
starts with the person who receives the thought or information. The sender
is also known as the Information Source or the Source of Information. The munotes.in

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160 information is then conveyed from the brain to the lips as a signal, which
is subsequently received by the recipient after being mixed up with a
variety of noises and other distractions. The message is subsequently
passed on to its final destination or other people's brains by the recipient.
Information Source (Thought / message)

Transmitter (Brain to mouth) [Along with noise and distractions -
external barriers]

Signal

Recipient (Receives the signal)

Final Destination (Finally gets the message)

Let's go through the example from before once again. The crew completed
the report, however there were a few inaccuracies that were corrected
afterwards. Shannon Weaver's model has a flaw in it. The message may
become corrupted as it travels to its final destination because various
people interpret communications differently. Mike's marketing strategy
might be branding, while the team 's marketing strategy might be easy
sales approaches to boost output. As a result, even a basic communication
might take on a new significance once it reaches its intended recipient.
Schramm’s Model of Communication :
After studying about the Shannon weaver model, learn about Schramm's
communication model, which is based on the Shannon weaver model.
In 1954, Wilber Schramm proposed the communication model.
Information is useless unless it is carefully written down and
communicated to others. Encoding is cruc ial since it starts the
communication process by transforming the thought into material. When
information reaches the recipient, it is up to him to figure out what the
speaker is trying to say. The message is useless unless and until the second
party is ab le to comprehend or decode the information that the sender
wishes to communicate.
As a result, encoding and decoding are two of the most crucial aspects of
good communication, without which information cannot move between
two people. The above notion is li kewise at the heart of Schramm's munotes.in

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161 Communication Theory paradigm. Coding and decoding are the two basic steps of efficient
communication, according to Schramm's concept.
He also stresses that communication isn't complete until the sender hears
reply from the recipient. Consider a situation where a person shares his
opinions with a friend and the friend does not answer. Is the information
exchanged complete? NO. Communication, according to Schramm, is a
two-way process between the first and second parties.
With the aid of an examp le, let us gain a better understanding.
"Will you join me for a movie?" Jennifer asks Sam.
Because Sam remained silent and did not answer, the communication
between Sam and Jennifer was incomplete. If Sam had been uninterested
in the film, he may have resp onded or informed Jennifer of his disinterest.
When the information reaches the recipient, according to Schramm's
model, it is his obligation to provide feedback and let him know if he has
received the message in the exact manner that the speaker intended. If he
is unclear about anything or has any doubts, he should consult the speaker.
As a result, when the speaker sends a message to the listener, the listener
decodes the message and, after understanding it, sends it back to the
speaker, completing the cir cle.
Communication, according to Schramm, is influenced by an individual's
knowledge, experience, and cultural background. Individuals of many
cultures, religions, and backgrounds interpret the message in various ways.
"Please bring something hot for me to drink as I am suffering from a sore
throat," Billy says to the servant.
Billy requested a cup of hot chocolate coffee and the server delivered him
a glass of cold water. As a result, the servant's interpretation differs. He
wasn't on the same ground as Bi lly and couldn't grasp what his master was
saying. It wasn't Billy's or the servant's fault; rather, it was the disparity in
their backgrounds that was to blame.
Consider another example.
"I'm always late for work," John says to Teddy, "so please get me a clock."
Teddy went to a nearby market and bought John a clock, and John was
never late for work after that. He could have misconstrued the message,
but how could he grasp his friend's wish if that was the case? A clock is
always a clock, regardless of whet her Teddy or anybody else needs to
carry it. A clock should never be confused with a wrist watch or anything
else for that matter. There are some messages that are universally
applicable. They are known as messages with a Denotative meaning,
which are near ly identical for all individuals, eliminating the possibility of
misinterpretation and misunderstanding.
Please refer back to John and Teddy's position from before and slightly
alter the situation. Teddy bought two clocks for John when he asked for munotes.in

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162 one sin ce he was worried about him and didn't want him to be late. In this
scenario, John only wanted one clock, but Teddy stepped in with his
emotional quotient and personal affection. Connotative meanings are those
whose meanings are influenced by emotional var iables. Body language,
gestures, facial emotions, and a variety of other things can all distort a
message.
To summarise, when a sender sends information to a receiver, the receiver
must interpret it in the desired form for the sender and provide feedback o r
respond properly, according to this model of communication. Any
communication in which the sender does not receive feedback is
incomplete and therefore unsuccessful.
12.3 QUESTION 1. Explain Why to De -Westernize and Decolonize Media Studies
2. Discuss the Foun dations of De -Westernization Discourse
3. What is Communication Theory, and how does it work? State the
framework of Communication Theory.
4. Explain in detail the types of Communication Models.
5. Write Short Notes on:
a. Aristotle Model of Communication
b. Discuss Shannon and Weaver Model
12.4 REFERENCES  Adhikary, N. M. (2014). Re -orientation, ferment and prospects of
communication theory in South Asia. China Media Research, 10(2),
24–28.
 Arjomand, S. A. (2008). Southern theory: An Illusion Raewyn
Connell , Southern Theory. The Global Dynamics of Knowledge in
Social Science. Cambridg e, UK: Polity Press, 2007. [Book review]
European Journal of Sociology/ Archives Européennes de Sociologie,
49(3), 546 –549.
 Bâ, S. M., & Higbee, W. (2012). Introduction: De -westernizing film
studies. In S. M. Bâ & W. Higbee (Eds.), De -westernizing film
studies (pp. 1 –15). New York, NY: Routledge.
 Banda, F. (2009). Kasoma‘s Afriethics: A reappraisal . International
Communication Gazette, 71(4), 227 –242.
 Bhambra, G. K. (2014). Postcolonial and decolonial dialogues .
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163 Communication Theory  Bosch, T. (2018). Rethinking media research in Africa. In B.
Mutsvairo (Ed.), The Palgrave handbook of media and
communication research in Africa (pp. 413 –426). Cham, Switzerland:
Palgrave Macmillan.
 Brown, K. (2013). Asian and African values: The problem of human
rights . Polity. Deepening Democracy through Access to Information.
 Chakrabarty, D. (2000). Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial thought
and historical difference. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
 Chakravartty, P., Kuo, R., Grubbs, V., & McIlwain, C. (2018).
#CommunicationSoWhite . Journal of Communication, 68(2), 254 –
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 Chang, T. -K., & Tai, Z. (2005). Mass communication research and
the invisible college revisited: The changing landscape and emerging
fronts in journalism -related stu dies . Journalism and Mass
Communication Quarterly, 82(3), 672 – 694.
 Combs, S. C. (2005). The Dao of rhetoric. Albany, NY: SUNY Press.


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164 13
THE INDIAN COMMUNICATION &
MEDIA UNIVERSE
Unit Structure
13.0 Objective
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Ancient India
13.3 Colonized India
13.4 Pre - Independence
13.5 Post - Independence
13.6 The 21st Century
13.7 Let‘s sum up
13.8 Questions
13.9 References
13.0 OBJECTIVE After reading this unit you will be able to understand:
 History of media
 Origin and grow th of journalism in India
 Evolution of the Press in India
 State of modern mass media
13.1 INTRODUCTION Indian Media consists of several different outlets of communication
channels: Newspapers, magazines, posters, television, radio, cinema and
Internet -based social media, websites/portals. India's media has been free
and autonomous for most of its history, even before Ashoka the Great
founded the Indian empire on the principles of justice, openness, morality,
and spirituality. Prime Minister Indira Gandhi es tablished a state of
emergency from 1975 to 1977, during which India's media faced the threat
of government retaliation.
Today's mass communication media appears to defy all logic, exposing its
message to all possible variations before finally obliterating it. The goal of
mass communication is always to disseminate any content in an unbiased
manner, and the internet is no exception, and it is unquestionably the most
effective media tool. munotes.in

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165 Communication Theory Over the past two decades, India‘s media sector has undergone substant ial
and dramatic change reflected in the increase of both channels and
audiences. According to latest figures, the country has over a hundred
news channels reaching 161 million TV households, 94,067 newspapers,
and more than 200 million Internet users. The se changes have triggered a
significant conversation about India's media's expansion and dynamism.
13.2 ANCIENT INDIA Written documentation and records date all the way back to the Indus
Valley civilizations in India. Carvings on copper plates and engravin gs on
various surfaces of wood, bone, ivory, and other materials are reported to
have been used to make the land gifts. During Emperor Ashoka's reign,
rock inscriptions and pillar inscriptions were also used to communicate.
Asoka is also said to have used overseers, secret agents, and spies to
collect information for him. A king's court or darbar, was traditionally
where he gathered news from his prime minister, counselors, and officials.
As a result, the roots of journalism may be traced all the way back t o
ancient civilisations and periods. Communication, which has existed for
generations, plays a critical role in governance. This manner of working
persisted even during the Sultanate period. The kings have always desired
to protect or expand their kingdoms . Spies played a significant part in both
cases.
News, executive orders, and decisions were announced in public via
announcements in front of crowds assembled to the beat of the drum. On
rocks and coins, monuments and temples, inscriptions and records were
kept. All of them were progenitors to what we now know as full -fledged
journalism.
One of the most significant aspects in delaying the development of
printing in India was the employment of calligraphists. The concept of
printing, on the other hand, did n ot reach India until after Guttenberg's
first press had printed the Bible. The Jesuits installed the first press in
Saint Paul's College, Old Goa, in 1556, at the request of the Christian
Missionaries, which resulted in the compilation of Conclusiones
Philosophicae.
As a result, the first stages of mass printing began, which subsequently
grew. By the 17th century, India had already begun large -scale printing in
a variety of languages, with a focus on religious texts.
13.3 COLONIZED INDIA It is also said tha t India's communication system was less developed than
that of many other Western countries. The British colonists of India began
concentrating their efforts on developing transportation systems primarily
for commercial and financial purposes. They were ai ming for India's raw
resources. Roadways, rivers, and railways were gradually built as a result
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166 telegraph in India for speedier communication. The East India Company
made extensive use of all available resources in order to expand their
commerce. As a result, all of these tools supported journalism as well.
Historically, the British were the pioneers of journalism. It is also believed
that the newspaper was allegedly brought by Britishers and pushed upon
us. The prevailing nationalist ideology did not include acquiring a foreign
language, 'English,' which was derisively referred to in India as Mlechhas'
language, or the language of morally degraded people. The East India
Company, on the oth er hand, was not on board. Because they were afraid
of criticism, they were wary of all journalists and media. Second, the
publication exposed many Britishers' private lives, which enraged them
and prompted them to bury the information. As Indians' awarene ss of the
need to fight for freedom grew, many freedom fighters turned to the press
to write about it, both in English as well as in the vernacular language.
13.4 PRE -INDEPENDENCE In 1776, William Bolts attempted to launch the first newspaper, but was
unab le to support himself and was forced to abandon the venture due to
inspection by the East India Company.
Another individual, James Augustus Hickey, launched a newspaper called
the Bengal Gazette or the Calcutta General Advertiser on January 29,
1780, which is now regarded as India's first English newspaper. Hickey is
known as the "Father of Indian Journalism." "Weekly political and
commercial papers open to all parties but influenced by none," he said of
the Bengal Gazette. Hickey's newspaper was a mix of t abloid and satire. It
didn't have the same extremely "serious news" tone as other British
newspapers at the time. Initially, he used the newspaper to take on
personal rivals by mocking them. The major purpose of the article was to
criticize the East India Company. Hickey, though, added other four -page
gazettes like a gossip column, a poet‘s corner, news related to European
scandals and most importantly the advertisements to make it more
appealing and readable.
In the same year, i.e.,1780, as a setback and f ierce competition, Peter Reed
and B. Messinck launched the Indian Gazette, a newspaper with improved
content and presentation. Hickey also got into trouble with Governor -
General Warren Hastings after writing a letter critical of the Governor
himself. In co mparison to Hickey's newspaper, India Gazette was a new,
high-quality publication. It benefited from Warren Hastings' sponsorship
in the form of all of his amenities.
The Calcutta Gazette, published under the direct sponsorship of the
Government, appeared four years later, followed by the Bengal Journal
and a monthly, the Oriental Magazine of Calcutta Amusements, the
following year. Calcutta had four weekly newspapers and one monthly
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167 Communication Theory Richard Johnson, the Government Printer, launched the Madras Courier,
the city's first newspaper, in 1785.
The Bombay Herald, Bombay's (now Mumbai's) first newspaper, was
established in 1789, and was followed by The Courier in 1790, which
included advertisements i n gujarati language A year later, in 1791, the
Bombay Gazette was published, but it was eventually merged with the
Bombay Herald for official notifications. However, the government
subsequently tightened down on press freedom, clearly shaken by
widespread criticism from the latter. The press was censored for more than
two decades following that, as successive Governor Generals in India
refused to grant freedom of press.
The Madras Courier had a successful run for over ten years, until R.
Williams published another newspaper, the Madras Gazette in 1795,
followed by the India Herald in 1796. However, the India Herald ran into
difficulties since it was not authorized, and its owner, Humphreys, was
deported to England. As a result, in 1795, censorship was enforc ed.
In 1816, with the help of Raja Rammohan Roy, Ganga Kishore
(Ganghadar) Bhattacharya published the first Bangla weekly, 'Bengal
Gazette,' the first newspaper under Indian administration. It supported
Raja Rammohan Roy's reforms.
The rights to publish ' The Guardian' were acquired by John Burton and
James Mackenzie in 1818. The prerequisite for publishing this report was
that moral issues would take precedence over other topics.
Another Britisher, James silk Buckingham, known as a man of principle
came to India in 1818 as the editor of the ―Calcutta Chronicle‖ . It was a
biweekly of 8 pages which contained political, commercial and literary
news and views. This created a new norm in Calcutta journalism, as the
correspondence columns were available to anyon e with a complaint.
Buckingham's paper was interested in discussing the acts and policies of
the Bengal government, postal service, the police, the military
establishment and government attitudes to various matters of public
interest.
Buckingham slammed th e government's refusal to eliminate the sati
programme. The Calcutta Journal was recognised as the best -produced
paper, as well as the best in terms of content and presentation. He was one
of the first Europeans to fight for a free press in India. Buckingh am
prioritized local news and reported local conditions above styles, the lives
of the people over the social scene, and criticism over invective.
Buckingham established the "Oriental Herald" in England.
In the meantime, the Baptist Missionaries started th eir printing venture by
publishing 'Dig -Darshan,' a vernacular Bengali language monthly that
published historical data, notices, and political news, and in 1819, they
published Samachar Darpan, a first Bengali weekly newspaper that
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168 criticized Vedanta philosophy. In 1820, a newspaper called 'Friend of
India' was released, which concentrated on issues related to India.
Raja Ram Mohan Roy launched Brahmanical Magazine - Brahmin Sevadhi
in re sponse to Samachar Darpan's attack on Vedanta philosophy. The
purpose of the pamphlet was to vindicate Hinduism against Christian
missionaries by attacking Christian missionaries for their misconception of
Hinduism. Through his books, Raja Ram Mohan Roy sp arked the Indian
public's desire for independence. The publishing of three newspapers is
given to Raja Rammohan Roy. Following the loosening of press rules, he
formed Sambaad Kaumudi in 1821. To fight the Serampore Missionaries,
he launched another Persian weekly called 'Mirat -ul-Akhbar.' Roy's
Persian poem Mirat -ul-Akhbar expressed his deep reflections on
fundamental truths and doctrines.
He used his publications as a reformer to raise awareness about social ills
such as "Sati" (a barbaric tradition in whi ch a deceased man's widow
immolates herself on her husband's pyre). Lord William Bentinck, a rather
liberal Governor General at the time, backed Indian reform efforts,
resulting in 33 English and 16 Indian language publications in India by
1830. The "Udant Martand '' (The Rising Sun) was the first Hindi
language newspaper, originally published as a weekly in 1826 by Pandit
Jugal Kishore Shukla, a lawyer by profession. Since the local language
press was particularly outspoken and vocal in its criticism of th e British
administration, the Vernacular Press Act was enacted in 1878 to regulate
the non -English, Indian language press. After the Vernacular Press Act,
the popular Amrit Bazar Patrika in Kolkata was translated into English.
In 1876, The Hindu was first published. Under the leadership of Allan
Hume, the Indian National Congress was created in 1885. Congress began
to urge for a stronger involvement in the administration, and the media
began to print remarks made by congress leaders. The Indian press
covere d the debates and discussions that took place in Indian councils.
The Hindu community backed the Congress' policies. The Statesman,
Amrit Bazar Patrika, The Banga Basi, and The Kesari all backed the
Congress. Indian newspapers began to take on a more polit ical tone over
time. These publications were crucial in the struggle for national
independence.
During World War I, Indians sided with the Allies. After the war, Indians
aspired for independence. Annie Besant created the Home Rule League,
which was later j oined by Tilak. For India, Besant desired "Dominion
Status." Annie Besant edited New India and used it to propagate her
thoughts.
Tilak afterwards established a Maharashtra home rule league. Tilak, also
known as Lokmanya and renowned as Maharashtra's lion, was an
extremist Congress leader. He published the books Kesari and Maratha,
which spread the message of the independence movement. He opposed
Bengal's partition. Tilak was expelled from the country for six years after munotes.in

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169 Communication Theory opposing the sedition ordinance in 1 908. Tilak was a brave journalist who
excelled in his field. Tilak's ability to turn local Ganesha and Shivaji
festivals into national festivals demonstrates his organizational skills and
shrewdness.
In 1915, Mahatma Gandhi returned to India. In Africa, he had battled
against white bigotry. In South Africa, he used the Indian Opinion, a
newspaper, to disseminate his ideals. In India, he published Young India
(in English) and Navjivan (in Hindi) (Gujarati). He permitted other
newspapers to freely reproduce t he content of his papers. Hatred and
disdain for the government. He instilled in the Indians a sense of
belonging. Gandhi advocated Hindu -Muslim harmony, Khadi and other
village industries, the use of spinning wheels, and the abolition of
untouchability in his essays.
Under the leadership of Motilal Nehru and C R Das, the Swaraj party was
founded in 1923. They founded the Hindustan Times in order to
disseminate their Swaraj ideology. The paper was created by a group of
educated Sikhs who intended to free th e Sikh shrines from the Mahants'
grasp. They later sold it to the leaders of the swaraj party.
Other notable periodicals included AJ (1920), a nationalist publication
founded by Shiv Prasad Gupta, the swarajya (1922), founded by T
Prakasam, advocating Gand hian philosophy, and the forward (1923),
founded by C R Das and widely circulated in Bengal. Shubhash Chandra
Bose later revised it to preach Democratic values.
Raja Ram Mohan Roy and others fought for social reforms and aided in
the awakening of the peopl e. Payam -e-Azadi began publishing in Hindi
and Urdu in 1857, calling on Indians to oppose the British. 'Firman,' by
Bahadur Shah Zafar, was published by Doorbeen and Sultan -ul-Akhar,
asking the people to force the British out of India. Neel Darpan, a play
written by a Hindi patriot, was released in 1861. (Indigo Revolt).
Dadabhai Naoroji was the founder of the 'Voice of India' and the 'Indian
Spectator,' which he started in Mumbai (then Bombay) in 1885 and
focused on events in London rather than local event s. As a result, social
reformers used the media as a potent tool to enact reforms and raise the
stakes in the fight against social problems.
As a result, India has a long and illustrious history of journalism. While
most Britishers launched the newspaper, the people of the country
eventually took over the pen —a weapon more powerful than the sword —
with enormous zeal. Under the support of stalwart leaders, publications
were a key contributor to the freedom struggle and a medium of
information education.
1.5 P OST -INDEPENDENCE It is said that during the post -independence era, when Pandit Jawaharlal
Nehru was Prime Minister, the freedom of the press was respected after a
long period of toil and turmoil under British repression. Jawaharlal Nehru, munotes.in

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170 as the country's first Prime Minister, never shied away from criticism. He
was a staunch supporter of press freedom.
However, there was one time when Nehru had to speak out against press
freedom because it was fueling sectarian rioting and dividing India. On
October 23, 19 51, he signed a new Act known as "The Press
Objectionable Matters Act." The only reason for this was to prevent
newspapers from using pictures and words to promote communal division.
Any comments, signs, or visible representations that were likely to incit e
or encourage anybody to use violence or sabotage to overturn or
undermine the government, or to disrupt the supply and distribution of
food or other critical commodities or services, were considered
objectionable.
The press played an adversarial role in pre-independence India. It took a
positive attitude toward the incoming administration. It evolved into a
means of communication between the government and the citizens
It is stated that during the Chinese aggression in 1961, when an
Emergency was declared , Nehru's stance on press censorship was mild
compared to the restrictions imposed during his daughter Indira Gandhi's
prime ministership. It is worth noting that under the leadership of late
Indira Gandhi, journalistic freedom was completely suppressed.
The Indian Defense and Internal Security Act was later brought into
law.This Act prohibited to print or publish any newspaper, book, or other
document that was harmful to India's defense and security; it allowed the
government to demand security from any ne wspaper or publisher, or to
forfeit security already given; it gave the government the power to
confiscate copies of any inflammatory printed matter and shut down
presses; and it gave state and local governments the power to impose
censorship.
In the early hours of June 26, 1975, India's then -President Fakhruddin Ali
Ahmed announced a state of emergency, citing "internal disturbances" as a
threat to national security. Indira Gandhi, the then -prime minister,
suspended civil freedoms, including the freedom of the press, and the
Constitution was revised and altered. During the emergency, the
Draconian dictatorship of the Indira Gandhi administration imprisoned
journalists, opposition leaders, and activists.
"The President has declared a state of emergency." "Th ere is no need to be
alarmed," Indira Gandhi proclaimed on All India Radio. While things
changed overnight and India was in the midst of a constitutional crisis
during the Emergency, press freedom took a turn for the worst.
As a result of the suspension of freedom of speech as a fundamental right,
printing presses were raided, and newspapers were taken out of circulation
for the next two days.
The Indira Gandhi government established various ground rules for
journalists all around the country, as well as "g uidelines" to follow. One of munotes.in

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171 Communication Theory the many rules was that if news was clearly damaging, publications should
help the Chief Press Adviser by censoring it themselves. If there are any
doubts, the nearest press adviser should be consulted. During the 21 -
month emer gency, the country's media was under attack, and the
international media was racing to get stories out about the situation in the
country, where constitutional rights had been suspended.
The government passed two laws: the first limited journalists' abilit y to
report on legislative processes, and the second imposed limits on reporting
that could "incite hatred, contempt, or disaffection toward the
government."
The Indian press was told not to believe the rumors. The Chief Press
Advisor, a position establish ed to censor the news, asked all of the
country's media to seek approval before publishing any news.
The majority of the mainstream media's periodicals and magazines were
subjected to the Emergency's fury. Major publishers like Himmat, Janata,
Frontier, S adhana, and Swarajya, among others, were slashed by censors'
scissors. Some were threatened with being kicked out of publications,
while others were sentenced to prison. The Indian Express and the
Statesman were among the first to express their displeasure in their print
editions.
The Indian Express and the Statesman, in a show of defiance, left their
editorial pages blank. This was quickly followed by similar moves by
other media. Journalists from The Times of London, The Washington
Post, and The Los Angel es Times were reportedly dismissed, according to
IE. After receiving threats, the correspondents of The Guardian and The
Economist flew back to the United Kingdom.
The voice of BBC, Mark Tully has been removed from the channel.
Almost 7,000 journalists and media people were arrested in May 1976,
according to the Home Ministry.
Kuldip Nayar, a journalist, was arrested by the police in Delhi for
protesting the emergency with other journalists. Across the country,
opposition leaders were fighting for the same cause. One of them was LK
Advani, the then -leader of the Bharatiya Janata Party, who spent months
in jail during the Emergency.
After the Emergency was lifted, Advani's comments echoed in every
Indian's ears. "You were asked only to bend, but you crawled," he added
to the reporters.
The newspaper industry was in shambles. When Indira Gandhi was ousted
from power and Morarji Desai was elected, journalistic freedom was
restored. On the advice of his Minister for Information and Broadcasting,
L.K. Advani, who was also a journalist by profession and had been
imprisoned during the emergency, repealed the Prevention of Publication
of the Objectionable Matter Act of 1976 with the required procedural
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172 Morarji Desai lost power in 1979, and Indira Gandhi took over. The press
was once again subjected to hostility, though not to the same degree as
during the emergency. Many state governments, on the other hand, have
ignored the press. Rajiv Gandhi rose to power as a wave of sympathy b y
the citizens after Indira Gandhi was assassinated in 1984.
Rajiv Gandhi, too, became suspicious of the press in the aftermath of the
press's negative coverage of his government in 1988. So, like his mother,
he introduced a 'Defamation bill' with the inte ntion of curtailing press
freedom, but he was unable to do so because the bill was not passed at the
outset. After a few years, Rajiv Gandhi, who was liberal, couldn't cope
with the negative press.
However, in succeeding years, the press appeared to be mo re free, despite
the long -term influence and economic pressures. Development journalism
and repertory journalists were popular.
1.6 THE 21ST CENTURY Newspapers continue to give information, entertainment, education, and a
generous dose of Yellow journali sm, among other things. Unlike in the
past, today's newspapers provide news with a variety of features for
students interested in fashion, style, environment, and other topics. The
publications are divided into pages that cover a wide range of issues such
as state, national, and international news, business, and sports. The
majority of these are now also available in online formats.
The Indian press today, on the cusp of the twenty -first century, compares
favorably with the best press in the world. In pract ically all languages,
Indian newspapers have been totally modernized in every aspect of their
operations, including news reporting, editing, design -layout, production,
distribution, advertising, sales management, and editorial content. The
quality is on pa r with the best in the globe. Saturday/Sunday magazines
and daily supplements in some newspapers, such as The Hindu and the
Eenadu (Telugu daily), cover a wide range of topics, from cosmetics to
quality management, religion to science.
From Kashmir to Kera la, from Kohima to Kutch, the Indian press today is
known for its amazing innovations. It is well -prepared to overcome the
challenge of the communication revolution, which is molding the world
out of shape every hour of every day. Though the Indian press' tone and
tenor have always mirrored the times' pressures and strains, it is extremely
individualistic, wholly independent, fully professional, and thoroughly
forward -looking.
At present there are over 35,000 newspapers, journals, and magazines
published in India, in 92 languages and dialects. While most dailies and
periodicals in all Indian languages use modern computer and technology,
there are still newspapers that are written by hand, typed on manual
typewriters, cyclostyled, and photocopied; others rely on hand
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173 Communication Theory printing, and use outdated rotaries. In every aspect of management, the
industry uses the most up -to-date practices.
Newspapers and magazines' business features, such as advertisi ng,
circulation, and sales management, are all organized efficiently and
effectively. Newspapers in all languages must look forward to a bright
future as literacy rates rise, wages rise, and there is a greater desire for
news. Newspaper owners are now enti ced by rising circulations and
soaring advertising earnings. In the last two decades, dailies in all
languages have established editions in regions where people previously
could not have imagined seeing copies of newspapers. In addition, some
newspapers ha ve launched sister publications in a variety of regional
languages. The Indian Express group, for example, publishes a Tamil,
Gujarati, Hindi, Telugu, Kannada, and Marathi newspaper in addition to
an English daily version distributed from 16 locations arou nd the country
It also owns a daily financial publication, a film weekly (in three
languages), and a monthly television programme. Similarly, the Ananda
Bazar Patrika group publishes a Bengali and an English -language
newspaper, as well as a financial dail y and a biweekly on film, sports,
economics, and business. More than a half -dozen towns publish Hindi
newspapers such as Jagran, Bhaskar, Nav Bharat, and others. The Indian
press has a bright future in the 21st century; it is destined to reach new and
greater heights in all facets of newspaper production.
The Press has been heavily monetised and corporatised in the twenty -first
century, with news being sacrificed on the altar of advertising to generate
the much -needed income to keep a newspaper afloat. Most businesses
have a newspaper, a news channel, and a website. Technology has
advanced at a breakneck pace.
While newspapers continue to give information and many remain faithful
to the roots of journalism, others are willing to put a spin on the news in
order to please their corporate owners and the political parties that sponsor
them. Many deserving people's plights are not presented to the forum for
fear of political retaliation from certain political groups.
Although newspapers publish news, the majority of it comes from news
sources such as news service portals and news agencies. On foot, there are
very few journalists. Many television newsrooms have turned into
battlegrounds, with reporters debating who said what to whom and why
rather than presenting to pics. A few objections are mentioned, but they are
overshadowed by other discussions. Many newspapers and news outlets
align themselves with the government and corporate entities that own
significant stakes in their enterprises. In exchange, many journalis ts have
turned to social networking sites to deliver news snippets that are not
doctored or subject to the whims of the government and other
corporations.

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174 1.7 LET’S SUM UP Journalism is the fourth pillar of democracy, and it has made a significant
contr ibution to the country's progress. It continues to do so because there
are so many untainted journalists in the country. However, the journalists'
independence must be safeguarded.
The press, for its part, should be encouraged to exercise moderation when
discussing sensitive themes that divide the country or security concerns.
However, it should be urged to concentrate on journalism that promotes
the development of all of its citizens, rather than the tabletop journalism
and page three material (with an emp hasis on parties and dressing) that
most news forums cater to.
It's also fascinating to see how traditional media is becoming increasingly
susceptible to blogs and do -it-yourself information. This development is
not attributable to a desire for more democr atic sources of information. On
the contrary, the pressure is increasing as the number of eyes (cameras and
other digital gadgets) viewing the same events that the mainstream media
is reporting to us increases: the chances of being exposed are too great,
and broadcast journalists are compelled to tell the truth (or at least a
plausible version of it).
1.8 QUESTIONS 1. How has Indian communication evolved from ancient India to the
twenty-first century?
2. What impact has technology had on the way news is conveyed to the
public?
3. Discuss in detail about the form of media available In India during pre
- independence.
4. Write a note on the contribution of Indian Leaders in the devel opment
of press in India.
1.9 REFERENCES 1. Chadha, K. (2017, May 8). The Indian news media industry:
Structural trends and journalistic implications. Global Media and
Communication, Vol 13(Issue 2), 139 -156. August 1, 2017
2. Michelle, S. (2019, Februar y 22). Journalism in Post -Independence
India. ROLE OF PRESS IN INDIA‘S FREEDOM STRUGGLE.

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175 Communication Theory 14
INDIAN COMMUNICATION & ITS
DESIGN
Unit Structure
14.0 Objective
14.1 Indian Communication Design
14.2 Sadharanikaran model of communication
14.2.1 Introduction to Sadharanikaran model of communication
14.2.2 Elements of Sadharanikaran model of communication
14.2.3 Outline of the Sadharanikaran model of communication
14.3 Rasa Theory
14.3.1 Definitive nouns to understand the p rocess of Rasas
14.3.2 An analysis of the Rasas
14.3.3 Rasa Theory & Communication
14.4 Let‘s sum up
14.5 Questions
14.6 References
14.0 OBJECTIVE After reading this unit you will be able to understand:
 Roots of Indian communication design in traditional Indian theories
 Classical way of Indian Communication
 Traditional Indian Theories of communication
 How aesthetic communication differs from everyday communication
14.1 INDIAN COMMUNICATION DESIGN Communication design is a system -based conc ept that creates an integral
relationship between the visuals and the person viewing them. It refers to
the approach taken by the communication designers to engage their viewer
and communicate the information and knowledge in the message
accurately and cle arly via media. Besides creating messages the process of
communication design also creates the channels to deliver the said
messages to its target audience. Communication design in simple terms is
a process through which the designs are created that will h ave maximum
impact upon the viewer.
From Johannes Gutenberg (1468), the founder of the first printing press, to
Steve Jobs (2011), the inventor of personal computers and smartphones, munotes.in

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176 communication has come a long way. The invention of the telephone may
be traced back to the beginning of modern communication studies.
Communication has come a long way since then, both in terms of use and
understanding. In the current scenario, Communication is now referred to
as the cyber age, information age, networking age, 3G, 4G age, and so on.
In India, the government supported the growth of communication as a
discipline to spread the message of family planning, social development,
and national integration. In India nowadays, communication is primarily
used in the domains of advertising and mass communication.
Indian communication studies are still based on ancient literature, fine
arts, customs and traditions, and freedom struggle discourses in terms of
theoretical understanding.
Indian communication theories are grounded in Indian religious literature,
Indian philosophy, and fine arts. It was originally employed by Bharata in
his commentary "Natyashastra" in the 10th century, which was the
primary source of information for the Indian idea of communication.
Indian communic ation ideas are also rooted in fine art traditions, in
addition to literature. It is made up of a persistent mood termed "bhava"
that is expressed through various dance forms. According to Bharata's
Natyashastra, the essence of communication was to achieve commonality
and oneness.
14.2 SADHARANIKARAN MODEL OF COMMUNICATION Sadharanikaran model of communication (SMC) was constructed and
developed by Dr. Nirmala Mani Adhikary. This model of communication
is often regarded among the Asian and Hindu philosophie s and
communication theories.
14.2.1 Introduction to Sadharanikaran model of communication :
The Sadharanikaran model of communication (SMC) is a Hindu viewpoint
of the communication process. Sadharanikaran is a Sanskrit word that
signifies "mutual understa nding," "commonness‖ or "oneness" among
individuals. It depicts how interacting parties engage in a system (i.e., the
sadharanikaran process) in order to achieve saharidayata. When senders
and receivers complete the sadharanikaran process, they acquire
saharidayata and become sahridayas. In other words, when interacting
parties, such as actors and audiences, engage in a communicative
relationship that leads to the accomplishment of saharidayata, they become
sahridayas, and it is at this stage that sadharani karan is attained.
Sadharanikaran's meaning is based on the main premise of sahridayata. It's
a state of common orientation, commonality, mutual understanding, or
oneness. The SMC sees communication as a means of communion in this
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177 Communication Theory Sadharanikaran is grounded in Bharata's Natyashastra. Bhattanayaka is
widely credited with inventing the notion of sadharanikaran. He is also
credited with coining the phrase to explain the concept of rasa in his
commentary on Natyashastra. Sadharanikaran's true purpose i s to achieve
commonness and oneness among the people. From a Bharatvarshiya /
Hindu perspective, it is also the first communication model in
diagrammatic form.
14.2.2 Elements of Sadharanikaran model of communication :
Sadharanikaran model comprises of the following elements:
1. Sahridayas (Preshaka, i.e. sender and Prapaka, i.e. receiver)
2. Bhava (Moods or emotions)
3. Abhivyanjana (Expression or encoding)
4. Sandesh (Message or information)
5. Sarani (Channel)
6. Rasaswadana (Firstly receiving, decoding and interpreting th e
message and finally achieving the rasa)
7. Doshas (Noises)
8. Sandarbha (Context)
9. Pratikriya (Process of feedback)
Sahridayas are referred to as people with an ability to send and receive
messages. They are the parties involved in communication and are capable
of recognizing each other as the process's sender and receiver. If
communication is perceived as a step -by-step process, the initiator is the
sahridaya -preshaka (sender), who has the bhavas (moods, emotions, or
thoughts) in mind. The bhavas are to be shar ed with the sahridaya -prapaka
(receiver). He or she must complete the rasaswadana process. The
activities that a source engages in, in order to translate bhavas into a form
that can be perceived by the senses are referred to as abhivyanjana. In
English, it might be regarded as an expression or encoding. Here,
simplicity is the most important factor. The speaker (source) simplifies
complicated concepts and ideas with visuals and terminologies appropriate
for the listener's understanding during the communicat ion process
(receiver of the message).
Bhavas are manifested as sandesha after the abhivyanjana process is
completed. Sandeha, in other words, is the result of the abhivyanjana
process. A sarani is required for the transmission of sandesha (channel or
medi um). Auditory, tactile, visual, olfactory, and taste channels are
examples of natural channels. Paintings, sculptures, letters, etc. are
examples of artifactuals. Rasaswadana is the act of receiving a message,
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178 Doshas are noises that disrupt the message and cause misunderstanding.
All noises, including semantic, mechanical, and environmental
disturbances, should be included in the model's interpretation.
Sandarbha is context, and any message's effecti veness is determined by
the communication environment. In different circumstances, the same
communication might have distinct interpretations.
The receiver's responses after receiving the message are referred to as
pratikriya. It is the feedback mechanism that allows the recipient to
participate actively in the communication process.
14.2.3 Outline of the Sadharanikaran model of communication :
1. The model's structure is non -linear. It incorporates the concept of a
two-way communication process that result s in the communicating
parties' mutual understanding. As a result, it is not constrained by the
restrictions of linear communication models.
2. The model demonstrates how successful communication is viable in
Hindu society, which is characterized by compl icated caste
hierarchies, languages, cultures, and religious traditions. Sahridayata
assists persons conversing in overcoming the unequal relationships
that exist in society, and the communication process itself is
facilitated.
3. In sadharanikaran, the c onnection between the communicating parties
is critical. The essence of the relationship is not the cause of the
relationship, but the relationship itself. The guru -shishya relationship,
for example, is always regarded as sacred within itself. And, unlike
most Western communication theories and models, this does not place
a high value on sender dominance. Rather, the model prioritizes both
communicating parties equally.
4. The model demonstrates that the fundamental functions in
communication are abhivyanja na (encoding) and rasaswadana
(decoding). They are, in other words, pivotal points in sadharanikaran
(communication).
5. It illustrates that the Hindu perspective on communication places a
greater emphasis on internal or intrapersonal communication. In th eir
optimum form, both the encoding and decoding operations consist of
a four -layer mechanism. Communication entails greater internal
experience than the sensory organs' objective logic.
The model shows how meaning can be imparted to a communication
even i f the sender is unknown to the receiver by providing sandarbha
(context). By considering contextual circumstances, it is possible to
determine the intended meaning of any message without learning the
speaker's real purpose. As a result of the context, a te xt's 'objective'
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179 Communication Theory 7. From a Hindu perspective, communication has a wide range of
applications. Communication, as envisioned in the model, is broad
enough to address all three elements of life: adhibhautika (physical or
mundane), a dhidaivika (mental), and adhyatmika (spiritual). In a
social or global setting, communication is a technique by which
humans reach sahridayata under ideal conditions. Communication is
the process of getting real knowledge as well as equivalent mutual
expe rience in a mental framework. But that's not the complete story;
there's also a spiritual aspect to it.
8. The model's purpose of communication is unquestionably to achieve
common ground or mutual understanding. However, the goal would
not be restricted to this. The model envisions communication capable
of achieving purushartha chatustayas (i.e., four main goals goals of
life: artha, kama, dharma, and moksha), just as Hinduism prioritises
achieving all four of them. As a result, the model is perfectly
compatible with Hindu worldview.
The model is based on two primary sources: Bharata's Natyashastra and
Bhartrihari's Vakyapadiya. The majority of the concepts used (such as
sadharanikaran, sahridayata, rasaswadana, sakshatkara, and others) are
formal terms based on Sanskrit poetics, aesthetics, and linguistics, as well
as other Hindu religious -philosophical knowledge systems. The SMC is
built on the foundations of these concepts.
The concept/theory of sadharanikaran must not be confused with the
sadharanikar an model of communication (SMC). The former, which is
associated with Bhattanayaka and is one of the most important theories in
Sanskrit poetics and other fields, has its origins in Bharata Muni's
Natyashastra. The SMC, on the other hand, is a communicatio n model that
was first developed and proposed in 2003 and draws on the traditional
concept/theory of sadharanikaran as well as other resources to illustrate
Hindu viewpoints on communication.
The model's meta -theoretical assumption is Vedantic. Internal or
intrapersonal activity is clearly emphasised in Hindu communication. It's
understandable that abhivyanjana and rasaswadana are the foundational
acts in communication, and communication in Hindu life entails more
experience than objective rationality of th e sensory organs. This
propensity makes it easier to put sahridayata and other notions into
practice. In Hindu society, communication leads to communion.
14.3 RASA THEORY Rasa is the key theme of Indian dramatics & poetics. Rasa is one that can
be tasted (aaswad). Rasa is defined in this way. There are six kinds of
Rasas – Katu (bitter), Tikhat (spicy), Kashaay (acrid), Madhur (sweet),
lavan (salty), Aamla (sour). Only with the sense of taste one can
experience these Rasas. The six -Rasa -food is a dish that is made up of all
of these Rasas. Drama and poetry both use the same concept of taste. As a
result, both drama and poetry are said to have the same 'tastefulness,' and munotes.in

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180 therefore Rasas. Shringaar (beauty), Hasya (laughter), Karuna (sadness),
Raudra (anger) , Veer (bravery), Bhayanak (dangerous), Bibhatsa
(obscene), and Adabhut (miraculous) are the eight primary Rasas. Rasas
have been proposed by a variety of drama theorists. Bharata's Natyashastra
is thought to be the earliest work to explore the structure o f the Rasa
process.
The most significant principle of Poetics is that Rasa is life. The Rasas are
liable for the poetry that emerges from words. Poetry devoid of Rasa is a
parody of poetry. The Rasas are responsible for poetry's charm. To be able
to experi ence Rasa, the object being tasted must be worthy of being tasted.
However, in the case of poetry and drama, this taste must be experienced
through the senses of hearing and sight. When these organs taste the
Rasas, they produce happy and sad sensations th at reach the mind, and if
the mind is working properly, emotions like happiness and sorrow are
awakened.
The more intense the sensations, the more intense the emotions, which are
mirrored in the human body parts. Exclamations develop unintentionally
when e motions reach a peak, and other organs of the body react to these
feelings at the same time. The poet's description of an incident or event
becomes a real experience for the person listening to the poetry.
14.3.1 Definitive nouns to understand the process of Rasas :
While explaining the process of Rasas some definitive nouns have been
given. These are as follows -
1. Sthayee Bhaava : These are the Bhaavas or Dharmas that exist
indefinitely. Sthayee Bhaavas are basic and self -existent Bhaavas that,
when trigg ered by the Rasas, expand to encompass the fullness of
one's mind and leave an impression later on.
2. Vibhaava : Vaasana is a term that is introduced here. Vaasana is
knowledge acquired from memory also known as Bhaavana which is
an impression left uncons ciously on the mind by past activities that
cause feelings of joy or misery, Vaasana is also a fancy or false idea,
ignorance, a wish, a desire, or an inclination. The Sthayee Bhaava can
be found in the human mind as Vaasana, or memory. The Vibhaava
make t he Sthayee Bhaava taste worthy and bring forth the Rasas. The
Vibhaava enhances the flavour of the Sthayee Bhaava and brings forth
the Rasas. The Vibhaava gives life to the Sthayee Bhaava and help
them flourish. As a result, Vibhaava are the catalysts that cause the
Sthayee Bhaava to transform into Rasa.
The Aalambana Vibhaava is the character that leads to the complete
expression of the Bhaavana or the Sthaayee Bhaava. This is the
characterization of the Aalambana Vibhaava. The process of revealing a
chara cter's personality is kn own as characterization. Direct
characterization informs the audience who the character is. Indirect
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181 Communication Theory employs speech, ideas, the character's effect on others , the character's
actions, and the character's appearance, which includes makeup and
costume. Uddipan Vibhaava is the stimuli. Uddipan Vibhaava refers to the
characters' acts as well as the location, time, and situations that stimulate
the Sthaayee Bhaava.
3. Anubhaava : By performing Anubhaava, one can physically
experience the Sthaayee Bhaava. In Anubhaava, the physical location
of the experience is quite evident. These can be found in both the
performer and the audience. As a result, Anubhaava affects bo th the
performer and the audience.
4. Vyabhichaari Bhaava : These are also known as Sanchaari Bhaava.
The Vyabhichaari or Sanchaari Bhaavas are the Bhaavas that make
the Sthaayee Bhava pass through the entire work - whether ist poetry
or drama. Sanchaar is to spread. Sanchaari are those who have the
ability to disperse.
A Rasa and a Vyabhichaari Bhaava do not have a direct relationship. They
appear in the presence of any Rasa and cause it to grow. They leave a
lingering aftertaste.
The Vibhaava, Anubhaava, and Vyabhichaari or Sanchaari Bhaava,
according to Bharata's Rasa rule in the Natya Shastra, are the three
elements that combine to make Rasa. This Rasa is formed in both the
performer and the audience, as we have seen.
14.3.2 An analysis of the Rasas :
1. Shringarasa : The sexual attraction among males and females is
known as rati. The Shringarasa is reliant on the two people who are
drawn to each other in this way. As a result, these people are known
as the Vibhaava of the Shringarasa. Rati's mood is stimu lated by the
stars, the moon, the arrival of spring, the discourse between such
individuals that reveals the nature of their desire, attractive attire,
sensual imagery, love songs, and so on. As a result, they are
Shringarasa's Uddipan Vibhaava. Touching, embracing, and other
actions occur when sexual desire is sparked. These are the Anubhaava
of this Rasa. The Vyabhichaari Bhaava of this Rasa involves
laughing, feeling shy, feeling as if one has lost all control of one's
senses, feeling sluggish, and so on .
2. Haasyarasa : The main emotion of this Rasa is laughter, hence the
Sthaayee Bhaava. This Rasa's Aalamban Vibhaava is the one who
makes people laugh. The Uddipan Vibhaava of the Rasa is that
person's deeds or statements. When you laugh, tears flow out o f your
eyes, your mouth is open, and so on, these are the Anubhava of the
Rasa's. The Rasa's Vyabhichaari Bhaava is the urge to sleep, feel
lethargic, fatigued, and so on.
3. Karunarasa : This Rasa is created by death (of a beloved), separation
(from a bel oved), devastation, disease, and so on. It's Sthaayee munotes.in

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182 Bhaava is an expression of grief or sorrow. The Aalanban Vibhaava is
the item or person that is shattered and leads to the Rasa. The Uddipan
Vibhaava is the rise in grief caused by news of damage, agony ,
distance, etc., or the suffering of a person. The Rasa's Anubhaava
includes crying, cursing fate, falling to the ground, beating oneself,
howling, and so on. The Rasa's Vyabhichaari Bhaava involves the
body becoming pale, feeble, abandoning all desires, losing awareness,
feeling anxious, or becoming insane.
4. Raudrarasa : This Rasa's Sthaayee Bhaava is Anger. The Rasa's
Aalanban Bhaava is the enemy. The Uddipan Bhaava are the enemy's
activities that elicit feelings of rage. The Uddipan Vibhaava of this
Rasa is hitting with a fist, tossing an enemy to the ground, beating,
burning, cutting, defacing, and so on. The Anubhaava are the bodily
manifestations of the Rasa, such as hair rising on the body, raising of
the eyebrows, biting of the lips, flinging weap ons, using sharp words,
and so on. Aggression, jealousy, and envy are examples of the Rasa's
Vyabhichaari Bhaava.
5. Veerarasa : This Rasa's Sthaayee Bhaava is Energy. The Aalanban
Bhaava is the enemy. The enemy's invasion, the enemy invading the
area, esp ionage, fomenting secessionist activity, an arms race, training
the army, and other activities all create energy, and thus are the
Uddipan Bhaava. The Anubhaava include intelligence, stability,
bringing together one's supporters, and so on. The Vyabhichaar i
Bhaava consists of pride, reasoning, delight, and constancy.
6. Bhayaanakarasa : This Rasa's Sthaayee Bhaava is Fear. The
Aalanban Bhaava of the Rasa is that from which one tries to escape,
and the Uddipan Bhaava are the activities that lead to one escap ing.
The Anubhaava is tongue -tied, shivering, seeking around for security,
and escaping in flight, whereas the Vyabhichaari Bhaava is
helplessness, anxiousness, and unable to move.
7. Beebhatsarasa (Beebhatsarasa) : Disgust is thought to be the
sensation t hat causes the Beebhatsa emotion or Rasa. That disgust is
known as Jugupsaa, and it is the Rasa's Sthayee Bhaava. The Rasa's
Aalaban Bhaava is blood, meat, and foul -smelling substances. The
Uddipan Vibhaava are foul odours, decomposing waste, and so on.
The Anubhaava are spitting, turning away or covering the face, and
closing the eyes, while the Vyabhichaari Bhaava are losing
consciousness, feeling nauseous, swimming of the head, and so on.
8. Adbhutarasa: This Rasa's Sthaayee Bhaava is a surprise or shoc k.
The Aalanban Bhaava is the cause of such surprise. The Uddipan
Bhaava is a description of what surprises you. The Anubhaava are
being halted in one's tracks, becoming perplexed in one's thinking,
and enlarging one's eyes. The Vyabhichaari Bhaava is the shivering of
speech and the hair standing on end on one's body.
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183 Communication Theory 14.3.3 Rasa Theory & Communication :
At least three significant points for the study of communication can be
found in the Rasa theory. First, Bharata and Abhinavagupta place a high
value on th e audience in their account. Art objects are only useful if they
have some type of interaction with a real -life audience. This concept is
similar to Aristotelian and current notions of audience -centered and effect -
driven communication. The auditor is said to have a key role in the
implementation of rasas. This entails being ready or open in a particular
way, as well as approaching the art item as an art object.
While this may lead one to believe that there is some sort of identification
going on behind the rasa, this is mitigated by the second argument made
by rasa theory concerning communication. In rasa theory, artistic
communication occurs only when the audience is detached and
uninterested in the drama's events. As a result, an audience member does
not c onnect with a character on stage in terms of his or her own ego
demands, but rather feels the general state of emotion created by watching
that character. The main identity in such an encounter lies in the mood that
both the character and the audience are experiencing. In communication,
Rasa theory tends to leverage the evocation of experience in an audience,
although in a non -identification -based manner.
The third intriguing issue raised by rasa theory in regards to
communication is that the detached commu nication that occurs in an
artistic environment cannot be experienced in regular conversation.
Classical rasa theory was explicit about this fascinating, unique and
individualized experience that leads only to momentary or transient
bhavas, not to a transc endental emotion experience (i.e., the rasa). To
extend the detachment and disinterestedness characteristics of dramatic
play experiences to the interested and attached activity of everyday life,
more theory would be required. As a result, from the perspec tive of rasa
theory, aesthetic communication differs from everyday communication.
14.4 Let’s Sum up The Indian communication theory is believed to be dominated by content
and emotions. They are more rooted in Hindu philosophical thought,
which is guided b y the law of Dharma. Dharma is an universal law that
governs human existence and individual relationships.
The Indian communication paradigm is characterized by its complexity
and plurality. It is comprehensive and intuitive, and it believes in a single
reality. Individualism and manipulation have no place in the austere and
spiritualistic Indian communication tradition.
In the Indian tradition of communication, the major focus is on an internal
search for meaning, a process that leads to self -awareness, th en freedom,
and finally truth. As a result, it is focused on interpretation or reception
and transcends language and meaning. Intra -personal communication has
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184 1.5 QUESTIONS 1. Write a brief note on Sadharanikaran Model of Communication
2. Explain in details the elements of Sadharanikaran Model of
Communication
3. Describe in detail about Rasa theory
4. Make a list of the eight Rasas and write a note about them.
5. Write a short note on Rasa theory & Communication
1.6 REFERENCES 1. Madan. (2015). Fundamentals of sadharanikaran model of
communication. Sadharanikaran.
2. Stephen W. Littlejohn & Karen A. Foss, T. O. (2009). Encyclopedia
of Communication Theory. Sage Publication.







*****
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185 Communication Theory 15
THE FUTURE OF MASS
COMMUNICATION
Unit Structure
15.0 Objective
15.1 Introduction
15.2 How Technology has changed Communication
15.2.1 From Print to Digital
15.2.2 Seeking Participation in the Era of ―Fake News‖
15.3 Future of Communication c oncepts with respect to Indian Media
15.3.1 Mobile Video Marketing
15.3.2 Data Analytics & Public Relations
15.3.3 Augmented Reality (AR) & Virtual Reality (VR)
15.4 Future of Digital Media Trends
15.4.1 The Rise of Soci al Movements
15.4.2 Social Media Scrutiny
15.4.3 The Power of Influencers
15.5 The Indian News Media Industry
15.5.1 Mobile as a public information broadcast network
15.5.2 Podcasting
15.6 Let‘s sum up
15.7 Questions
15.8 References
15.0 OBJECTIVE After reading this unit you will be able to understand:
 How technology has changed communication
 Future of communication with respect to Indian Media
 What is the future of digital media trends
 Changes in Indian news media in dustry
15.1 INTRODUCTION We live in a world where technological advancements outpace our ability
to adapt to them. We don't know what the future holds for technology, but
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186 The Internet's importance in communication will continue to grow. VoIP
(Voice over Internet Protocol) is already widely used in a variety of
communication products and services. Users can interact with networks of
individuals using sites like Facebook and Twitter. People now have a
platform to address the world thanks to the rise of the Internet. Only
celebrities and politicians could address such a large crowd at once in the
past. Anyone with access to the Internet may now do the same thing.
Augmented reality is one way we might see communication evolve in the
future. You see the world through a technology overlay in an augmented -
reality system. This may be in the form of a hand -held device, such as a
smartphone, that currently has various augmented -reality apps. A set of
augmented -reality glasses is another prospective application. In either
instance, you may look around you and see real -time digital data on what
you're looking at.
Language barriers are also vanishing. People from different countries and
cultures can converse without the use of an interpreter thanks to
technology that can translate languages in real time.
1.2 How Technology has changed Communication
Journalists have used the written text to communicate news about political
events and public interests, stories of war an d corruption, comics,
editorials, biographies, classifieds, and horoscopes since the invention of
the printing press. Newspapers grew over time into a medium that
informed, educated, and entertained people. The printing press of
Johannes Gutenberg in the 1 5th century laid the groundwork for hundreds
of years of printing technology, but the public's love affair with and thirst
for news in print has been gradually changing since the 19th century, and
as our ways of consuming news have evolved, so has the publ ic's
relationship with the media.
In the media, technology plays a significant role. Some individuals believe
that the diffusion of ideas is preceded by the development of technology.
While no one can say one way or the other regarding this, there is no
questioning that technology plays a significant influence in how
communications are transmitted and received.
Whether it's a personal conversation with friends, family, and coworkers
or a huge brand's messages to a consumer base, communication is more
divers ified than ever. The early 1990s saw the widespread adoption of the
internet, which brought with it new and exciting communication methods
such as digital media channels that allow users to share messages more
swiftly and across longer distances.
These tec hnological advancements opened the path for digital media to
have a significant impact on how businesses and brands interact with their
customers.
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187 Communication Theory 1.2.1 From Print to Digital
The format and design of newspapers changed dramatically as technology
improved during the twentieth century. The telegraph gave way to
computer networks for rapid information gathering, digital pagination
substituted the "hot type" method of printing news, and color ink and
graphics technology allowed more rich and bright material fo r printing.
The Internet, on the other hand, has radically revolutionized how news is
reported, viewed, and consumed, making it the most industry -changing
technological invention to date.
The Internet has been a fantastic technology for news gathering and
distribution, but it has had a significant impact on print media circulation,
with newsrooms cutting payrolls and Journalists declaring that "print is
dead." Readers are increasingly dissatisfied with print products or
preferring to receive their news from cheaper internet sources as
publishers try to boost falling ad sales, which make up the majority of
many publications' revenues.

1.2.2 Seeking Participation in the Era of “Fake News”
Traditional journalism seemed to be giving way to less -objective, more
public -interest -driven content at the beginning of the 21st century, with
decreasing circulation levels prompting a frenzied dash to "give 'em what
they want." While editors have typically served as gatekeepers, ensuring
that stories published are authenti c and unbiased, Web content creators
and bloggers frequently do not, and the outcomes can occasionally result
in increased viewership and engagement.
The media's credibility has eroded as extremely biased outlets have
developed, attracting enormous numbers of readers and ad income.
However, there is a sense that the tide is turning as consumers become
frustrated with "fake news" and demand objective, informed news
coverage from reputable outlets. Many of these publications, however,
have struggled to attrac t sufficient readers to pay for online and print
subscriptions, which are required to keep them afloat.
1.3 Future of Communication concepts with respect to Indian Media:
How Indians consume and distribute information is dominated by digital
media. As a re sult, major influences are emerging that will have an impact
on the field's future. When it comes to media, innovation is the new
normal, and that tendency is unlikely to change as we turn to future media
trends. Social media, digital marketing, and expand ed internet access via
numerous devices have all influenced media concepts.
As new tools develop, users express new expectations, and technology
quality and accessibility increase, the future of digital media will change.
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188 sophisticated data analytics will all have an impact on the future of digital
media.

1.3.1 Mobile Video Marketing:
The future of media is constantly changing, and advertisers' methods for
reaching out to consumers must change with it. With Over The Top (OTT)
platforms clearly leading the way in terms of online video streaming
consumption in India, MoMAGIC carried out a survey to better
understand end consumer preferences and choices when it comes to
consuming online vide o content in India's present exciting and disruptive
OTT (and DTH) segment.
Each year, more customers are opting for online video platforms such as
Disney + Hotstar, Amazon Prime, Netflix, Zee5, Sony Liv, and others
over traditional television and DTH, and many of them are doing so using
their mobile devices. This suggests that the future of media, especially
video, will demand a mobile -first approach. This goes beyond advertising
on top video streaming channels and requires a review of how businesses
prese nt themselves in the marketplace. Having mobile -friendly, searchable
video content is critical now that videos may be accessed across platforms.
1.3.2 Data Analytics and Public Relations
Big data has been embraced by public relations, and insights derived from
it have been used to strengthen PR efforts. Online advertising analytics
track more than just the success of a single ad campaign. They're also
capable of detecting changes in the campaign. The information gathered
can assist advertisers in fine -tunin g the ad's message, determining which
channels to employ, and determining who is listening.
PR experts are using data analysis to design more effective outreach
campaigns. With today's vast amounts of data, communication specialists
can predict news cycles and interest, figure out which publications cover
their business the most, and find prospective relationships with media
outlets, other organizations, and influencers. While some of the
measurements used in public relations may appear intangible, data is
helping to influence the future of media trends in Public relations through
its potential to create a sense of all the intangible noise.

1.3.3 Augmented Reality (AR) & Virtual Reality (VR)
VR recreates landscapes using specific software and technology, wh ereas
AR enhances physical visuals. These two industries, which grew up side
by side, have received renewed attention in recent years, and each is
rapidly expanding.
The global VR and AR industry is expected to rise to $1.3 trillion by 2030
(from $37 billi on in 2019), according to market research firm Research munotes.in