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CONCEPT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
Unit Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Meaning, Nature, Need of Teacher Education
1.3 Scope and objectives ( Pre-Service and In - Service Teacher Education)
1.4 Futuristic Views of Teacher Education (Preparation o f Teacher for
Special Schools, Inclusive Classrooms and Global Context)
1.4.1 Futuristic Views of Teacher Education (Preparation of Teacher
for Special Schools, Inclusive Classrooms)
1.4.2 Futuristic Views of Teacher Education (Preparation of Teacher
for G lobal Context)
1.5 Let us sum up
1.6 Unit End Exercise
1.7 References
1.0 OBJECTIVES:
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
Explain the meaning of teacher education.
Discuss the nature of teacher education.
Enumerate the objectives of teacher educa tion.
Describe the scope of teacher education.
Explain and analyse futuristic Views of Teacher Education
1.1 INTRODUCTION:
An educational institution performs a significant function of providing
learning experiences to lead their students from the darkn ess of ignorance
to the light of knowledge. The key personnel in the institutions who play
an important role to bring about this transformation are teachers. As stated
by NCTE (1998) in Quality Concerns in Secondary Teacher Education,
“The teacher is the m ost important element in any educational program. It
is the teacher who is mainly responsible for implementation of the
educational process at any stage.” This shows that it is imperative to invest
in the preparation of teachers, so that the future of a na tion is secure. The
importance of competent teachers to the nation ‘s school system can in no
way be overemphasized. The National Curriculum Framework 2005 munotes.in
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Teacher Education
2 places demands and expectations on the teacher, which need to be
addressed by both initial and conti nuing teacher education.
1.2 MEANING, NATURE, NEED OF TEACHER
EDUCATION
Meaning and Definitions
Education is a man making process and it implies practicing and ensuring
information of the human stuff at various levels of socialization. This
process of tran sformation gets stimulated with the help and support of a
teacher for whom the Indian coinage 'Guru' provides the best of meanings
and importance of the job. How to produce and ensure the constant supply
and delivery of component 'Guru Force' is the main b urden of the
institution, called ‘Teacher Education’.
‘Teacher Education’ occupies a central position in the total programme of
education. This programme is responsible for equipping the teachers with
competence and abilities so that they may guide the des tiny of the society
and nation through proper handling of future citizens. Teacher education
implies to provide that knowledge, skills and ability to the teacher that is
relevant to the life of a teacher as a teacher. It is a process tries to re -shape
the attitudes, remodel the habits and reconstitutes the personality of a
teacher.
The term 'Teacher Education’ has been defined in C.V. Good's Dictionary
of Education (1973), as "All formal and informal activities and
experiences that help to qualify a person to assume the responsibilities as a
member of the educational profession or to discharge his responsibilities
more effectively"
The Educational Commission (1964 -66) said, "A sound programme of
professional education of teachers is essential for the qualita tive
improvement of education. Investment in teacher education can yield very
rich dividends because the financial resources required are small when
measured against the resulting improvement in the education of millions"
According to Prof. B.K Passi (1997 ), "Teacher education means
programmes of education, research or training of persons for equipping
them to teach at primary, secondary, and senior secondary stages in
schools and includes non -formal education, part time education, adult
education, and corr espondence education".
Thus, though the term 'teacher education’ is defined in several ways in
professional literature, the definition and meaning given in the National
Council for Teacher Education Act (NCTE 1993) is worth mentioning.
According to the Ac t, “Teacher education means programmes of
education, research or training of persons for equipping them to teach at
pre-primary, primary, secondary and senior secondary stages in schools,
and includes non -formal education, part -time education, adult educat ion
and correspondence education through distance mode". munotes.in
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Concept of Teacher Education
3 This definition covers as many as seven inter -related areas of education
and teacher education. It also refers to three approaches of teacher
preparation, such as professional programmes of education , training and
research leading to the preparation of teachers of pre -school, formal
schooling, non -formal schooling, and open education and so on.
For successful teaching, a teacher is required to acquire adequate
knowledge, skills, interests and attitude towards the teaching profession. It
can be done through well -planned and effective pre service and in -service
training programmes. These training programmes may be designated as
'Teacher Education.’ Teachers are the largest professional group engaged
in human development activities. Training of practitioners is considered
one of the most important characteristics of a profession. Therefore, in
order to benefit the teachers to their roles, a sound professional training is
needed. Induction training and cont inuous education thereafter equips the
teachers with adequate knowledge and skills to perform their professional
functions. Hence, the training of teachers assumes special importance.
Professional training of a teacher or teacher education implies his mast ery
in knowledge of the subject, in pedagogy and techniques, love and
dedication for the world of learning and to develop the ability to carry the
whole world along with it and march ahead to the future.
Training of teacher is an important component of Tea cher Education.
Teacher Education covers all the activities in the accomplishment of the
teaching profession. Teacher Education denotes a real and holistic
perception of teacher for that task they are required to perform and
continuously upgrade their prof essional skills. Pre -service training
programmes, induction programmes are the major activities involved in it.
Teacher Education includes the total educative experiences, which
contribute to the preparation of a person for the teaching profession. It als o
includes every aspect of the student -teachers personality. The three basic
features of teacher education are -
1. Teacher education is continuous process. Its pre -service and in -service
components are complementary to each other.
2. Teacher education is based on the thesis "Teachers are made, not born"
in contrary to "Teachers are born, not made." Teaching is considered an
art as well as science and the teachers have to acquire some skills that
are "tricks of the trade".
3. The teacher is required to acqu ire adequate knowledge, skills, interests
and attitudes towards the teaching profession.
In this way teacher education, is an important area of concern in our
educational system. It does not mean only training the teachers how to
teach. It means something more than mere education of the teachers and
training for the trainers. It goes to mean to improve teacher's interest and
attitudes, modifies his behaviour and habits, and reconstitutes his
personality.
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4 Nature of Teacher Education:
1) Teacher education is a continuous process and its pre -service and in -
service components are complimentary to each other. According to the
International Encyclopaedia of Teaching and Teacher education
(1987), “Teacher education can be considered in three phases: Pre -
service, I nduction and In -service. The three phases are considered as
parts of a continuous process.”
2) Teacher education is based on the theory that “Teachers are made, not
born” in contrary to the assumption, “Teachers are born, not made.”
Since teaching is conside red an art and a science, the teacher has to
acquire not only knowledge, but also skills that are called “tricks of the
trade”.
3) Teacher education is broad and comprehensive. Besides preservice and
in-service programmes for teachers, it is meant to be inv olved in
various community programmes and extension activities, viz adult
education and non -formal education programmes, literacy and
development activities of the society.
4) It is ever -evolving and dynamic. In order to prepare teachers who are
competent t o face the challenges of the dynamic society, Teacher
education has to keep abreast of recent developments and trends.
5) The crux of the entire process of teacher education lies in its
curriculum, design, structure, organization and transaction modes, as
well as the extent of its appropriateness.
6) As in other professional education programmes the teacher education
curriculum has a knowledge base which is sensitive to the needs of
field applications and comprises meaningful, conceptual blending of
theoretica l understanding available in several cognate disciplines.
However the knowledge base in teacher education does not comprise
only an admixture of concepts and principles from other disciplines,
but a distinct ‘gestalt‘ emerging from the ‘conceptual blending ‘,
making it sufficiently specified.
7) Teacher education has become differentiated into stage -specific
programmes. This suggests that the knowledge base is adequately
specialized and diversified across stages, which should be utilized for
developing effect ive processes of preparing entrant teachers for the
functions which a teacher is expected to perform at each stage.
8) It is a system that involves an interdependence of its Inputs, Processes
and Outputs.
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Concept of Teacher Education
5 Need of Teacher Education
The need and importanc e of teachers and their training is increasing day -
by-day. Teachers play a vital role in the improvement of the quality of
education. They are regarded as the builders who determine the destiny of
a nation. Teachers can make or mar the society. Hence, no s ociety can
afford to neglect the education and training of teachers because of the fact
that the quality and standard of education primarily depends on the quality
of teachers. Prof Humayun Kabir rightly stated, "Without good teachers,
even the best of sys tem is bound to fail. With good teachers, even the
defects of a system can be largely overcome"
Various Commissions and Committees appointed by the Central and State
Governments in recent decades have emphasized the need for quality
teacher education, suit ed to the needs of the educational system.
Recognizing the importance of teacher education, The Kothari
Commission (1964 -66) stressed as, "In a world based on science and
technology, it is education that determines the level of prosperity, welfare
and secu rity of the people and that a sound programme of professional
education of teachers is essential for the qualitative improvement of
education"
The need and importance of teacher education are as follows:
1. Knowledge of the Child: Teacher Education helps the teacher to
understand the nature of the child i.e. his abilities, aptitudes, emotions,
instincts, sentiments and developmental level etc. It helps the teacher
to understand the problems of the pupils and to assist them in making
better adjustments.
2. Knowledge of Teaching and Learning: Teacher Education assists the
teacher to understand the principles, techniques and processes of
teaching and learning. It helps them in using various teaching devices,
audio -visual aids and instructional materials.
3. Helps in organizing Co -curricular activities: Teacher Education helps
the teacher in organizing, supervising and participating in co -curricular
activities of the school.
4. Organizing Guidance: Teacher Education helps the teacher in
organizing guidance an d counselling programme in the school.
5. Knowledge of methods of Evaluation: Teacher Education helps the
teacher in assessing and evaluating the attainments of students by
various methods.
6. Building of favourable Attitude: Teacher Education helps in building
favourable attitudes towards teaching profession. At the time of
training, many doubts of the teacher trainees are removed. It helps in
creation of love and respect for the teaching profession.
7. Improving standards of Education: A teacher trai ned or educated in the
real sense can help in raising the quality or standards of education. munotes.in
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Teacher Education
6 8. Creation of social Insight: Teacher Education is needed to teach the
teachers to lead a community life. Training is necessary to create a
social insight in the m.
9. Familiarity with the latest in Education: Teacher Education familiarizes
the future teachers with all that is latest in education. It gives
information regarding the recent research and experiments in the fields
of education.
10. Pre -requisite for b etter planned Education: Teacher Education may be
regarded as one of the pre -requisites for the promotion and
continuation to more purposeful and better -planned education.
Need and importance of Teacher Education in teaching profession is
evident as a teac her has to perform multiple activities like teaching,
evaluating, communicating, guiding and counselling the students,
organizing co -curricular activities, participate in community programmes,
diagnose and remedy student's problems, etc. together with acti vities
which are intrinsic to teaching and learning. This needs excellence in
academic and professional preparation of teachers.
Check your progress ;
1. Define Teacher Education and state its meaning.
2. Illustrate with example the need and importance of Teacher Education
1.3 SCOPE AND OBJECTIVES ( PRE -SERVICE AND IN
- SERVICE TEACHER EDUCATION)
Pre-Service Teacher Education
Pre-service teacher education is the education and training provided to
student teachers before they have undertaken any teaching. Teacher
education program in India serve the varying needs of the diploma /degree
level of teacher education and prepare teachers from m Pre -primary level
to Institution/University level. In context to Indian contemporary
education system different areas like, sub ject related pedagogical theory
and practical components, community work, practice teaching, internship,
etc are being covered under teacher education programs. Teacher
education in India prepares teachers at all levels of education, namely Pre -
primary, Pr imary, Elementary, Secondary, Higher Secondary and the
Tertiary.
Objectives of Pre -Service Teacher Education Programmes
Pre-service teacher education programmes at all levels should seek to
equip the prospective
teachers with
I. Knowledge and understandi ng of:
The Indian socio -cultural context and the role of education in national
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7 The process of human development and learning in all its dimension
and itsimplications to education.
II. Professional competencies and skills related to:
Effective communication.
Effective curriculum transaction, utilizing learning resources of
various kind andemploying interactive teaching learning strategies to
promote all -round growth oflearners.
Comprehensive and continuous evaluation of learner’s progress
throu gh appropriatetools and techniques.
Effective management of learning within and outside the classroom to
maximizelearner’s growth.
Catering to the learning needs of special groups of children like: the
gifted, the slowlearners as well the disabled learners .
Organizing co -curricular activities of different kinds to promote all -
round growth ofchildren.
Offering guidance to students in their personal, academic and
occupational problems.
Research and experimentation in Education.
III. Social Commitment through participation in:
Developmental activities in the community, extension activities and
communityservice.
Complementary and parallel educational service systems like non -
formal education,adult education, work education.
IV. Positive attitude towards:
Learn ers, learning school, professional growth and manual work.
V. Social, cultural and moral values oriented towards unity and
integration of our people through the concepts of:
Democracy, secularism, scientific temper, egalitarianism, cultural
heritage,conse rvation of the environment, civil responsibility.
VI. Aesthetic interests and appreciation towards:
Literary, cultural and artistic pursuits. All these objectives of
pre-service teacher education interpret and unfold the enigma that modern
education aims at the holistic growth and development of a person. Every
teacher should have deep knowledge and understanding of children and
have the capacity of practically applying the knowledge into practice.
These cannot be acquired by rule of the thumb and very oft en an untrained
teacher has to learn the job by an arduous and long practice/ experience.
Thus, to create good teachers the whole teacher education system should
be built on sound foundation of the practical and practice oriented
theoretical knowledge. The emphasis should be on special techniques,
devices and literary education that produce informed, cultural and
disciplined minds; and to make teacher education comprehensive in
nature, wide and varied in scope. The practice teaching has to be more
effective and adequate to ensure success in the profession. Thus, the Pre -munotes.in
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8 Service Teacher Education Programmes should be able to keep the entire
personality of the prospective teacher in mind.
Scope of Pre -Service Teacher Education
Pre-service teacher education is very important aspect of the entire system
of teacher education. According to the NPE (1986), "The teacher
education is a continuous process and its pre -service. and in -service
components are inseparable"
In view of the major policy changes to any place i n the field of
education, it is time to review and restructure curriculum for teacher
education. There is need to have a fresh look into the pre -service
teacher education programme and it should have linkage with
emerging trends in in -service education of teacher.
All teacher education institution should meet the norms and standards
developed by NCTE for quality control.
With the introduction of MLL based teaching learning process in the
school it has become imperative to reorient teachers’ education
curriculum, particularly at the elementary level for formulation of
teacher education.
Pre- service teacher education should only be trough face to face
institutional course.
In Service Teacher Training
In-service teacher education and training means the form of lifelong
education of professional workers in education, which, in addition to study
courses forobtaining education and for their improvement. It also provides
professional workers the opportunity for refresher, dissemination and
deepening of knowledge and pairs them with the developments in the
profession or serve to obtain a basic license (the so -called pedagogical and
andragogical education). The basic objective of in -service teacher
education and training is the professional development of professio nal
workers in education, thereby increasing the quality and effectiveness of
the entire educational system (Devjak, and Polak, 2007).
Objectives of In -Service Teacher Education Following are the aims
and objectives of in -service teacher education.
(i) To provide incentive to the teachers to function more efficiently.
(ii) To help the teachers to know their problems and to solve them by
pooling their resources and wisdom.
(iii) To help the teachers to use more effective methods of teaching.
(iv) To help the teachers to be acquainted with the modern techniques of
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9 (v) To broaden the mental outlook of the teacher towards the profession as
well as other aspects of life.
(vi) To upgrade the teacher’s knowledge and understanding of the
conte nts.
(vii) To increase the professional efficiency of the teachers.
(viii) To develop positive attitudes, so far as to make the teacher able to
help in progress of the nation.
(ix) To eliminate deficiencies in teachers’ professional preparation
(x) To p romote the continuous improvements of teachers
Scope of In -Service Teachers Training
a) Maintenance of familiarity with new knowledge and subject matter -
One of the features of a profession is that its members regularly update
themselves of the relevant knowl edge.
b) Increased skill providing.
c) Improved attitudes and skill - Educational literature frequently re -
emphasizes the idea that curriculum improvement is primarily a
consequence of the improvement of people. An important skill needed
by all educators is th at of cooperative group work. Mastering the
principles of cooperative group work is not easy. Any newly formed
group would do well to give attention to these principles.
d) Greater skill in utilizing community resources and working with adults
- An important task of modern education is the development of
intelligent civic loyalties and understanding.
Scope Maintenance of familiarity Increased skill providing
Improved attitudes and skill Greater skill
in utilizing
Development and
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10 e) Development and refinement of common values and goals - One of
the major purposes of in -service education is the development of
common value and goal s in the staff of an institution, a group of
administrations or supervisors in any other professional group
thatmust work cooperatively over a period of time
Check Your Progress:
1. Explain the need for Teacher Education.
2. Describe the scope of Teacher Educati on.
3. Enumerate the objectives of Teacher Education.
1.4.1 Futuristic Views of Teacher Education (Preparation of Teacher
for Special Schools, Inclusive Classrooms)
The National Curriculum Framework for Teacher Education developed by
the NCTE envisaged provision o f Special Education for the disabled as an
integral component of ordinary pre -service teacher education programme.
On these grounds, we can plan and propose an integrated pre -service
teacher education programme at initial stage besides those which are in
existence as ordinary and special teacher education programmes.
The objective of the integrated pre -service teacher education programme
should be to educate and train the teachers for common as well as for
disabled group of learners, to cater the common spe cific need.
The planned program may incorporate compulsory papers on special
needs of disabled learners and their socio -cultural background, causes and
limitation due to various sorts of disabilities with specialization in any one
of them. Details of vario us specific training techniques for better
communication among disabled learners such as through Braille system
for visually disabled learners or symbolic system of communication for
the hearing impaired etc. are to be incorporated too.
This theoretical a nd technical curriculum be in addition to the other
compulsory or core courses prescribed for ordinary teacher education
program at graduation level, in lieu of optional course/ paper of now -a-
days.
As far as the practice of teaching part is concerned for such program the
prospective teachers may be required to undergo through practice -in
teaching activities in different special schools for disabled also, besides
practising in the ordinary schools for a specific time period not less than
fifteen days. Thei r performance should be assessed separately to provide
them with grades in practical teaching.
The sessional and practical part of such program may include activities
concerned with special skills like preparation of Braille text, three
dimensional maps a nd models, learning kits for mentally retarded
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Concept of Teacher Education
11 hearing aids etc., besides other activities of ordinary program. 'The
duration of the course may beextended up to two years, if needed.
IMPL ICATIONS
After having the degree of Bachelor of Education (Integrated) the
prospective teachers will be in a position to work in special as well in
integrated classes and schools.
The special schools be in function to provide the disabled learners with
training in various basic and compulsory skills like that of communication
and signalling, self -help and personal care, basic academic skills of
reading, writing and arithmetic etc., at pre -primary primary level without
any specific limitation of time perio d.
Beyond thin level the functions of such specialschools for disabled
learners like visually disabled, hearing impaired, mentally retarded etc.,
should be to serve those who could not be integrated at any level due to
their higher degree of disability an d inability to learn basic skills along
withothers.
To meet the targets of National Policy on Education, Program of Action
(1986) concerned with universalization of elementary education for such
ever neglected group of disabled learners, integrated school s are needed
indeed in large number to extendequal educational and mainstreaming
opportunity to all such learners, Thus, to improve the effectiveness of the
system of education, in general and teacher education, in particular,
provision of such integrated teacher educationprogram is the call of the
day. Special teacher education programme amount to the specialization in
a specific field of disability may be needed for thoseprospectiveteachers
who want to serve in special schools and to those disabled learne rs who
could not be mainstreamed in general schools. Thus, such programmes
may be designed at higher or post -graduation (M.Ed.) level of teacher
education programme, ultimately to reduce the need of special teacher
education programmes at graduation level like B.Ed. (special).
Considering the ever growing number of disabled learners and call for
their integration or mainstreaming for their all -round social and
psychological development, integrated teachers education programme for
preparation of prospective all-rounder teacher has become inevitable at
gradation level to save time, human and economic resources as well as to
get the disabled learners rid of various psycho - social complexes which
are developed frequent in number among those who used to stay at a
special school without provision of any such sort of mainstreaming
practice, for a longer or full duration of learning period.
1.4.2 Futuristic Views of Teacher Education in Global Context:
Globalization is changing what and how we teach. To thoroughly
understand what globalization is, authors Hill (2009), and McShane and munotes.in
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12 Von Glinow (2008) have defined globalization as the economic, social and
cultural connection with more integrated and interdependent world
economies, and with people in other parts of the world. Simply put -we
now live in one huge global marketplace where goods, services, and
people are constantly moving across different boundaries (Zeszotarski,
2001). This movement of human capital places a greater demand for
institutions of higher educ ation to train their students for employment in
the global marketplace.
Why Teach with a Global Perspective?
As the world becomes "flat" with goods and services, and people move
from one country to another, educators must teach global tolerance with an
understanding that the new workforce may work for a foreign company in
America or abroad (Friedman, 2005). Therefore, educators must equip
students with knowledge about global economics that will have a direct
impact on students' future job choices (Dowling & Welch, 2005).
Globalization is not limited to business related courses, but is relevant to
all courses that are taught in higher education (White and Toms, 2009).
For example, the first human face transplant occurred in France. The
fastest train in the world belongs to China, and the tallest building in the
world over looks the landscape of Dubai. Therefore, classroom instructors
for all disciplines must shift their teaching philosophy from a domestic
one to a global one.
The Global Teacher
Generally speaking, college students are introduced to global issues from
their instructors. Teachers who travel abroad have different experiences
and can bring those experiences into the classroom. They can provide
first-hand knowledge about the people, the food, t he architecture, the
language, the landscape, and the culture of a foreign country. These
experiences, good and bad, can support or contradict what the author is
saying in a textbook.
By displaying authentic artifacts from their travels, global teachers c an
make the global experience become real for students who have not
travelled abroad. Authentic artifacts such as foreign currency, pottery,
jewellery, clothes, and artwork can validate the importance of global
experiences, and make an indelible impression on a student. This may
inspire the student to learn more about the world he or she lives in, and
can arouse the curiosity of the learner through touch and sight.
The global teacher plays a key role in educating students for the Twenty -
First Century. As the world economies continue to change, the paradigm
of teaching has to change to meet these demands. Therefore, the global
teacher has to draw from all possible best practices that will give his or her
students the necessary knowledge, skills, and abiliti es to compete and
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13
Gaining Global Experience through Teacher Exchange Programs
If a teacher has not studied or travelled abroad as a student or for pleasure,
there are various opportunities to do so. Many institutions partici pate in
faculty exchange programs where faculty members can gain the global
experience needed. The grants can be provided to faculty members to do
research projects abroad, and it will provide valuable global experience to
the faculty member who participat es in them. By participating in these
programs, the faculty:
Gains knowledge of different cultures, values and norms,
Brings a global value -added perspective to the classroom and to the
college community at large,
Learns a different way of teaching the respective disciplines,
Supports campus wide globalization, and
Supports the concept of global citizenship.
Global education involves
(1) the study of problems and issues which cut across national boundaries
and the interconnectedness of cultural, envi ronmental, economic,
political, and technological systems and
(2) the cultivation of cross -cultural understanding, which includes
development of the skill of “perspective -taking,” that is, being able to
see life from someone else's point of view.
Global perspectives are important at every grade level, in every curricular
subject area, and for all children and adults. (Tye&Tye, 1992) The
literature generally suggests that the best way to infuse global perspectives
into teacher education programs is by mode lling pedagogy through the use
of not just readings and lectures, but role plays, case studies, and
collaborative investigation of useful resources among colleagues.
Merryfield (1997) sets out methods for pedagogy for global perspectives
that include explo ration of self -knowledge, cross -cultural experiences and
skills, perspective consciousness, values analysis, and authentic learning.
Given the wide range and capacities for educating large numbers of new
teachers in many countries, infusing global perspect ives into otherwise
technically oriented training programs is often poorly managed.
Check Your Progress:
1. Explain the changing context of Teacher Education in the Indian
scenario.
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14 1.5 LET US SUM UP:
No nation develops beyond the quality of its educat ion system, which is
highly dependent on the quality of its teachers. Teachers should be given
the most appropriate tools during and after their training, including content
knowledge and skills as well as teaching methodology to be able to do
their work pr ofessionally. The globalisation concept, if taken into account,
would require that teachers and teaching should be recognised like all
other professions and should require stringent training and acquisition of
knowledge and skills and professional registra tion under a global council
of unified teacher registration body to allow for easy mobility of teachers
across national boundaries.
1.6 UNIT END EXERCISES:
1. What is teacher education? Explain it‘s nature and scope.
2. Explain the changing scenario of teacher education in global context
and its impact on India.
3. How Futuristic Views of Teacher Education in context with Special
Schools, Inclusive Classrooms benefits the country?
1.7 REFERENCES:
file:///C:/Users/tanaj/OneDrive/Documents/global%20context.pdf
B.N. Panda -A.D. Tewari Teacher Education 978 -81-313-0497 -6
Lokman Ali Teacher Education 978 -81-313-1365 -7
https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1016/S1479 -
3679(04) 06010 -4/full/html
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15 2
MANAGING PRACTICUM IN TEACHER
EDUCATION
Unit Structure:
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Integration of Theory of Practice
2.2 Organisation and Observation of Practice Teaching
2.3 Supervision during Practice Teaching
2.4 Assessment of Practice Teaching
2.5 Principles of Internship and its Organisation
2.6 Feedback to Student Teachers - Concept
2.7 Types of Feedback to Student Teachers
2.8 Let us Sum up
2.9 Unit End Exercise
2.10 References
2.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, the student will be able to:
Explain t he need for integration of theory of practice in teacher
education
Describe the NCTE guidelines for the organisation of teaching practice
by teacher education institutions
Identify the broad aspects to focus upon while observing and
supervising lessons
Describe the role and duties of institute supervisor
Discuss the use various methods used for the assessment of teaching
practice
Explain guiding principles of internship for teacher education as
provided by NCTE in 2014
Differentiate among various type s of feedback given to student
teachers. munotes.in
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16 2.1 INTEGRATION OF THEORY OF PRACTICE
The preparation of student teachers is a crucial aspect of their journey for
being professional teachers. A teacher's job demands specialized
knowledge, skill, and behavior.In t eaching field, professionalism refers to
competence, performance, and behavior on the part of teachers.
Essentially, professional competence involves preparing teachers for
classroom activities, learning how to adjust to different circumstances,
communicat ing effectively, and analyzing their students' behavior.A
competent teacher is expected to perform better in terms of overall child
development by strengthening communication skills, empowering
pedagogy, and demonstrating organizational leadership. Profess ional
competence is measured by the effectiveness of the teacher.Simply put,
it’s not adequate for student teachers to only observe and read about
teaching theories if they don’t also practice it.
Interdependence of theory and practicum in teacher educatio n:
Theory plays significant role in defining the nature and scope of teacher
education. It is, therefore, necessary to recognize the significance of
theory in teacher education, andalso determine the impact that theory has
inteacher education. Theory unco vers the whole realm of methods,
techniques of teaching practices that are the results of psychological and
philosophical constructs. At the same time, it allowsstudent teachers to
critically reflect on their teaching practice in theclassroom. It does this
through basic methods of enquiry that are focused on uncovering and
analyzing beliefs, assumptions and values implicit in psychological and
philosophical theories. In light of a sincere concern for best practice, it is
accordingly essential for prospectiv e teachers to acquire the fundamental
to theoretical sagacity, in order to connect with those cultural,
psychological and social concerns whichimpact their classroom practice
profusely. But only knowledge of theory may not be sufficient. Student
teachers m ust know how to appraise and distinguish that is useful for the
development of their students.
The practicum involving teaching practice is the most important aspect of
this preparation process of prospective teachers. As it puts the real -world
experiences that students acquire from actual classroom teaching before
they are qualified teachers. It ensures the integration of practice and
theory. It provides student teacher an opportunity to test the theoretical
knowledge they have established by learning a c oncept. As professional
skills include application of the techniques, strategies and approaches in to
real classroom situation. Hence in India, all teacher education institutions
are instructed through policy to include teaching practice as part of the
Diploma in Elementary Education and Bachelor of Education courses.
While experience can be a great teacher, it cannot replace what can be
taught best in a classroom, and vice versa. Both are interdependent and
searching proper balance among fragmented parts o f teacher education is
only possible through integration of theory and practice. munotes.in
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17
Need for integration of theory of practice:
The optimal form of teacher education can only be reached through the
congruence of theoretical knowledge and practical expertise.
Dewey (1904/1974), in his essay "The Relation of Theory to Practice in
Education" articulated that content knowledge should not be separated
from the practical challenges that instructors face. He further argued,
teachers' practical expertise and real -world experiences serves as a
significant resource for improving educational theory.
Although the significance of integrating theory and practice has been
universally accepted, there has been widespread gap between theory and
practice in teacher education, th ere is still more to learn about how well
the practicum facilitates integration of these two dimensions of teacher
preparation.
As Darling -Hammond (2006) observes: “One of the perennial dilemmas
of teachereducation is how to integrate theoretically based k nowledge that
has traditionallybeen taught in university classrooms with the experience -
based knowledge that hastraditionally been located in the practice of
teachers and the realities of classrooms and schools.”
Let’s focus on two main objectives of teach er education i.e.
To promote in prospective teachers a proper understanding of the basic
principles of child growth, development and process by which pupils
learn.
To develop communication and psychomotor skills and abilities
conductive to human relation s for interacting with children in order to
promote learning in them both inside and outside the classroom.
To achieve those objectives, it is imperative that student teachers in
professional courses be able to put into practice what they havelearnt in
the classroom.Philosophy, psychology and sociology of education, as well
as essential theories, maxims and constructs on how to teach and assess
various subjects constitutes the major part of theoretical portion of
Teacher Education courses. This comprehensi ve theory introduces the
teacher to psychological, social, philosophical, and technological aspects
of education as well as educational concepts. It is carried out with the aim
of instilling fundamental understanding of the profession among future
teachers . As well as, it is catalyst in developing certain critical abilities
and skills required for various teaching -learning tasks. Through
practicum -based theory, teacher trainees are introduced to principles
underlying teaching, such as the aims of education , the curriculum, the
nature and characteristics of child development, methods of teaching and
learning, and the resources which teachers can draw for the purpose of
teaching. munotes.in
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18 Practice teaching and other practicum related activities provide them
with the p latform to use their knowledge of theories of education, child
psychology, teaching methods and techniques, problems and remedies
of education, etc.
Teaching becomes grounded by relating theory to practice effectively.
In addition to applying their profe ssional knowledge in a variety of
settings,they get chance to reflect on how to improve preparation from
their experiences in real setting and through observation of students in
their classrooms.
Positive roll modelling can occur when a teacher trainee us es his/her
own life experiences and thus stimulates a desire for further learning.
Prospective teachers can realize how learning happens in its inherent
social and cultural contexts, and teachingand be able to put these
understandings into practice in co mplicated classrooms environment.
It is only possible when the teacher education will lay emphasis on
engaging increasingly more directly with schools through practicum. The
“WHAT” of teacher education needs to be integrated with “HOW” by
skillful organiz ation of experiences that translate theory into practice. The
practice teaching and internship are the instruments that provides a scope
for translating theory “what” into practice “how”. These components will
be discussed further:
Check your progress:
1. Describe the interdependence of theory and practicum in teacher
education.
2.2 ORGANISATION AND OBSERVATION OF
PRACTICE TEACHING
Field experience occupies a place of importance in all professional
courses. As a part of pre -service teacher training, the field experience
usually known as practice teaching provides an opportunity for the
student -teachers to tryout the methods and techniques of teaching which
they will have learnt during the course earlier. Practice teaching has been
accepted as the most importan t and crucial activity in teacher training.
The Merriam Webster Dictionary defines practice teaching as “teaching
by a student under the supervision of an experienced teacher.” munotes.in
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19
Berstein (2000) defined that teaching practice is the art and science of
organizing knowledge and demonstrating relevant skills.
Essentially, practice
teaching is a cyclic
process of planning,
actual teaching and
assessing learning,
wherein the student
teacher explores the
fundamentals of
teaching in real
classroom situation.
Under the guidance
of a mentor, a
student teacher
progresses through
the entire teaching
process. During to
practice teaching,
the pre -service teacher puts all that he or she has learned in theory courses,
techniques or methods of teaching, as well as pedagogic al content
knowledge acquired in related courses to the actual practice. It is
commonly referred to as anarrangement for student teachers to put all of
their knowledge about theories of learning, child and adolescent
psychology,guidance and counselling, cl assroom management,
educational administration, planning and supervision. Different
cooperating schools are arranged by their respective institution for the
purpose of practice teaching sessions.
Organisation of Practice Teaching:
For pre -service teacher training, the National Council of Teacher
Education (NCTE), a statutory bodyof the Central Government, is
responsible for planned and coordinated development of teacher education
in the country.The NCTE lays down norms and standards forvarious
teacher educ ation courses, minimum qualifications for teacher educators,
courseand content and duration and minimum qualification for entry of
student -teachers for thevarious courses.NCTE has provided following
guidelines to teacher education institution for organizat ionof internship
including practice teaching in 2014.
As per NCTE guidelines, the teaching practice begins in the first year of
enrollment for the student teachers of Bachelor of Education, During the
first schedule for practice teaching, the student teach ers are sent to schools
for a time to observe an experienced in -service teacher in the actual
process of teachingand managing other curricular activities. This concept
is known as Shadow teaching. It provides an important insight to the
student teachers ab out the life of a school teacher and how they deal with munotes.in
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20 unexpected and unanticipated events that occur during a lesson or outside
the classroom.
In the next phase, thestudent teachers are given a theoretical and practical
orientation on crucial components, such as:
Different skills of teaching such asskills of developing concept map,
skills of introduction, skills of questioning, skills of explanation, skills
of blackboard writing, skills of classroom management
Guidance for writing instructional objectives for their pedagogy
Demonstration lessons and observation of the same.
Detailed workshops for lesson plan construction
Class management strategies
After developing theoretical and practical understanding on skills of
teaching, thestudent teachers are sent for practice teaching institutes.
During these schedules of practice teaching, the student teachers begin the
actual teaching under the mentorship of an experienced mentor teacher
from their respective institute.During this process of practice teaching,
student teachers entering the profession are supported to realize that
teaching is not just about applying learnt theories. It also requires practical
problem -solving expertise that leads to effective teaching.
The organisation of practice teaching/internsh ip schedule generally
attempts:
(i) To familiarizethe student -teachers with school organization and its
culture.
(ii) To enable the student -teachers to plan the lesson effectively with
proper understanding of the child psychology and organize the
subject m atter
(iii) To encourage the student -teachers to tryout the methods and
techniques of teaching
(iv) To updatethe student -teachers about equipment, materials and
facilities available in the institution.
(v) To assist and guide the student -teachers in the co nduct of various
recreational and social activities.
(vi) To acquaint the student -teachers with general and duties and
responsibilities of a school teacher.
(vii) To reflect upon the effectiveness of their teaching in relation to pre -
planned objectives.
munotes.in
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Managing Practicum in Teacher Education
21 The observational part of practice teaching is as follows:
Lesson observation strategy has been utilized as crucial aspect at two
levels.
1. Lesson observations by student teachers:
The first step toward being a competent teacher is to learn the strategie s
that underpin effective teaching. As a result, each student teacher must
observe a few lessons in each subject of specialization,prior to beginning
supervised practice teaching. This observation of lessons could be of many
forms i.e. and delivered by th eirpeer and teachers or by trained and
experienced school teachers. The purpose of these kind of lesson
observation is to gain a better understanding of the learning process and
not the assessment of the lessons that are observed. The approach should
be th at of a student who is curious about what happens in the classroom
and how it happens, rather than that of a supervisor. The observer's job is
to keep an eye on what's going on in the classroom.In order to make
observation effective, it is important to kno w very clearly what to observe,
how to observe and how to record the observations.
2. Lesson Observation of Student teachers by their supervisor:
Lesson observation of student teachers by their supervisoris the most
common form of assessment. Thetype of obser vation method implemented
by the supervisor depends on what the student teacher is aiming at by
employing the particular strategy or method. As for example, the focus of
supervisor may be mostly on value inculcation during observation of
value -added lesson s and not on final evaluation of content. For a lesson
based on gaming, he would certainly like focus on the process rather than
on product. Valid and relevant tools are essential when assessing the
effectiveness of any lesson through classroom observation s. It's also
crucial to have well -trained and calibrated observers/ supervisors who can
use the tools in a consistent manner. If utilized intelligently, observations
can give useful information about a student teacher’s performance and
growth.
Aspects to f ocus upon for observation and assessment of lessons:
Whether it is an observation done by a student teacher to learn or an
observation done by supervisor to assess the student teacher following
criteria are to be kept in mind while observing a lesson. The student
teacher’s performance is rated for theses aspects by the Institute supervisor
for assessing him/her for the practice lesson. RamakantaMohalik,
professor of Education at RIE Bhuvneshwar, in “Handbook on Internship
in Teaching” discusses following a spects. These aspects generally fall
under broad headings, namely: munotes.in
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22
(a) Preparation:
This is the first stage of a lesson. The following things should be noted
during observation:
1. How is the aim of the lesson stated?
2. How is it delivered to the pupils?
3. What is the method for determining whether or not prior knowledge is
relevant?
(b) Development of the Lesson:
This is the central and the most important part of the lesson:
1. How are the major objectives of the lesson in terms of terms, facts,
conce pts, content, skills, and interests?
2. What are the main teaching points? How effective is the sequencing of
learning experiences? Is the order in which the teaching concepts are
presented logical? Is each point's progression psychological?
3. What are t he various learning outcomes that have been achieved?
4. Are the methods and activities effective for realizing the objectives?
Are there better procedures which will be more suitable to the
situations?
5. Is the teacher's explanation appropriate, clear, and effective? Has he/
she used appropriate linking words?
6. Are the questions ----
(a) meaningful and purposeful?
(b) Is it simple, clear, and well -written?
(c) Is it present it to the entire class?
(d) Is it effective at achieving high levels of stude nt participation?
munotes.in
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23 7. Are the responses to the questions ----
(a) Accepted wherever correct?
(b) Corrected when wrong?
(c) Explanation provided where necessary?
(d) Improved and reinforced in an appropriate and effective manner?
8. What teaching aids are used? Is there any demonstration using teaching
aids?Is it well -organized, well -explained, and useful?Are the teaching
aids ready -made or improvised?
9. How is the lesson correlated with other lessons, subjects, activities and
life situations wherever po ssible?
(c) Review:
1. How is recapitulation of the significant points covered in the lesson
done?
2. How is the black board summary built up for the benefit of the
students?
3. Is the student's attention maintained till the conclusion, and if so, how?
Are they enthusiastic and attentive till end?
(d) Assignment and Evaluation
1. How is evaluation of pupil achievement done? (Oral questions, written
test, assignments, -observation and other methods.)
2. What kind of remedial work is done?
3. Has the tea cher given application -based assignment? How purposeful,
clear, appropriate and useful are they?
(e) Social climates in the class Room:
1. What is the nature of the relationships in the classroom, both between
the teacher and the students, and among the students?
2. Does the teacher allow the students considerable freedom? Is he capable
of maintaining discipline and order?
3. Do students have enough opportunities to ask questions, express
themselves, and take initiative?
4. Are they encouraged to observe, perform, and learn as much as possible
on their own? Is there enough engagement and participation among the
students?Is there an atmosphere of co -operative learning?
munotes.in
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Teacher Education
24 (f) General aspect:
1. How are the difficulties of the students noticed? How are they dealt
with?
2. Has he used his presence of mind while dealing with unexpected
responses?
3. How was the overall personality of the teacher - friendly/ affectionate/
systematic/ conscious/strict? How has it affected student’s behavior?
Thus, observation of lessons demands a 360 -degree view of what is
happening in the classroom, in teacher’s mind and seen through students’
behavior.
Check your progress:
1. What is practice teaching? Define practice teaching.
2. Enumerate the broad aspects to focus upon while obser ving lessons
2.3 SUPERVISION DURING PRACTICE TEACHING
The importance of supervision in practice teaching cannot be understated.
Teaching is an art and a teacher's ideas and action must be in harmony.
Hence, supervision needs to ensure that teaching is impr oved through
supervisory approaches and that the supervisor is able to make sure that
integration between teaching practice and educational theories on which
the lessons are based are in sync too.
Meaning:
'Supervision' is comprised of two words:'super', w hich means superior or
extra, and 'vision,' which means sight or perspective. The term'supervision'
literally means 'to watch over' or 'to inspect the work of others’.As a
result,'supervision' refers to the act of inspecting or supervising the work
of othe rs to determine whether they are functioning efficiently or not.
R.P. Bhatnagar and I.B. Verma define Supervision in education as, “a
creative and dynamic process giving friendly guidance and direction to
teachers and pupils for improving themselves and th e teaching -learning
situation for the accomplishment of the desired goals of education.”
For practice teaching,the term "supervision" refers to the act of stimulating
and directing the development of a student teacher.Supervision involves
direction, guidan ce and regulation of student teachers with a view to see
whether they are working according to plan and are keeping time schedule
for their practice lessons. It includes guiding, observing, and assessing
student teachers' practice lessons.
To make supervis ion effective, it is crucial to know exactly what to
observe and how to document the observations.Right type of supervision
makes effective and efficient teachers. Let’s discuss the key aspects
involved in the procedure of supervision. munotes.in
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Managing Practicum in Teacher Education
25 The Procedure of Sup ervision should focus on following key aspects:
The procedure of supervision needs to be well defined and sudden
variations needs to be avoided. Generally, daily one period is allotted
for seeking clarification and understanding comments and suggestions.
It is desirable that supervision should be done in such a way that the
objectivesof Student -Teaching may be achieved. The supervisor can
create a congenial environment where points of common interest are
raised, discussed and explained.
Supervision in the beginning phase can be more regular because the
student teacher needs help and guidance. Whenever new techniques
are applied, supervision needs to be more detailed and wholly
guidance oriented. Supervision of every lesson is not necessarily. Only
a few as pects should be taken up for improvement at a time,
particularly in the beginning.
It is also suggested that supervision has to become diagnostic in
nature. A long list of weaknesses discourages and retards the total
progress of student teacher, rather f ocus can be on alternate technique
or remediation.Supervision should be done for supervision’s sake only.
Supervision should be scientific and constructive in nature. Instead of
commenting on weak points, constructive remarks keeping focus on
scope of imp rovement is desirable.
Use of prescribed proforma and checklists are very essential for
systematic supervision. It also ensures uniformity in supervision when
teacher educators visits institutes on rotational basis. These proforma
and checklists should be available to student teachers as well so they
can perform as per required standards.
Role and duties of Institute Supervisor:
The main responsibility of supervision falls on teacher educators. Though
the arrangements of supervision of student teachers dif fers from institutes
to institutes, generally the teacher educators are assigned to each practice
teaching institution to supervise. In the absence of the staff of training
college, practice teaching lessons can be supervised by the headmaster or
vice prin cipals of the practice teaching schools. Some institutes insist that
supervisor of practice teaching should rotate from one school to other
either on weekly or bi -weekly basis.
He is the representative of the teacher education institute and acts as a
conn ection between the institute and the school.In addition to supporting
thestudentteachers in their practice teaching and other activities, he/she is
responsible for resolving any issues that arise, whether it is a human
relationship between the student teac hers and the school community or
some health and security issue faced by trainee teacher that requires munotes.in
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Teacher Education
26 immediate attention.The Institute supervisor must exercise extreme
caution, patience, and wisdom in handling delicate situations.
The institute superviso r who visits the practice teaching / internship center
and remains there for aspecific period has numerous duties to perform. we
can enumerate some of the most important ones below:
1. Reporting to the practice teaching/internship center on the scheduled
date and commencing the work punctually and remaining there till the
scheduled last date of his stay at the center.
2. Visiting the teaching/internship schools as per schedule and finding
out the challenges of the student teachers, How the things are going
on, their progress etc. both from the student teacher and school
teachers and their heads.
3. Conducting pre -lesson and post -lesson discussions for every observed
lesson.
4. Keeping the student teacher informed about his/her strength and
weakness as for particul ar lessons and providing him/her with helpful
suggestions for improved classroom performance
5. Holding a meeting with school teachers and student teachers to discuss
issues with practice teaching/internship at the center.
6. Assessing the lessons timely and a ccurately by enlisting the
observations and rating in the profile/diary and other recordsfor
submission to the Institute.
7. Suggesting organization and conduct of useful activities at the school,
looking to the available resources in the school.
8. Maintaini ng the Institute supervisor's logbook/ diary, which should
include all details about the lessons observed and be submitted to the
Institute.
9. Attending to any problem that may arise (e.g., health of student
teacher, personal security, discipline issues, pr oblems with the school
community, etc.) and keeping all parties (e.g., the college, school
authorities, guardians/parents of student teachers) involved and
informed of the actions taken at the Institute supervisor's level.
Thus, a supervisor's job is to ob serve and document the significant
approaches, methods, experiences, and activities, as well as
accomplishments, that student teachers use. It is critical to understand
what to observe, how to analyses, and how to record the observations
systematically for supervision to be effective.While it is impossible to
prescribe how diverse situations should be handled, it is sufficient to munotes.in
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Managing Practicum in Teacher Education
27 realize that the Institute supervisor's resourcefulness, human traits, and
understanding of the issue necessitate effective and i mmediate action.
Check your progress:
1. What is supervision? Which are the key aspects involved in the
procedure of supervision?
2.4 ASSESSMENT OF PRACTICE TEACHING
The true worth of teacher educational programme is found in the
achievement of its desired an d feasible goals and objectives.Practice
teaching is essentially a purposeful activity and the fulfillment of its
purpose can only be realized through proper assessment.
Meaning:
The word ‘assess’ comes from the Latin verb ‘assidere’ meaning ‘to sit
with’. Essentially, assessment is the systematic collection, analysis, and
use of information about educational activities with the purpose of
determining their effectiveness.
According to Harlen, Gipps, Broadfoot, Nuttal (1992), “Assessment in
education is the process of gathering, interpreting, recording, and using
information about pupils’ responses to an educational task.”
Huba and Freed (2000) has given the most comprehensive definition of
Assessment. According to them, “Assessment is the process of gatherin g
and discussing information from multiple and diverse sources in order to
develop a deep understanding of what students know, understand, and can
do with their knowledge as a result of their educational experiences; the
process culminates when assessment results are used to improve
subsequent learning.”
Need for Assessment tool:
Assessing classroom practice teaching is one of the most important aspects
of internship and practicum programme. Theassessment of these aspect is
often subjective. Hence, it is cr ucial to assesspractice teaching as far
objectively as possible. The responsibility of assessing student teaching
rests with institute supervisor. It is important to have a proper scheme and
tool of assessment of practice teaching. The effectiveness of pra ctice
teaching assessment is determined by the assessment tool employed for
the purpose. Simple rating scale including space for comments on the
particular strengths and weaknesses of the teacher can be asked to be rated
by institute supervisor, peers, sub ject expert or school head. This tool
should …….
(a) assist the supervisor in assessing the strengths and weaknesses of
student teaching in terms of various teaching skills and competencies,
(b) provide specific and concrete guidelines to the supervisor r egarding the
student teacher's teaching abilities, and munotes.in
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28 (c) objectively assess the student teacher'sperformance and quality as a
teacher.
Because of its intricacy, teaching is one of the most difficult tasks. This
necessitates the development of an assessm ent tool that provides an
objective assessment of the student teacher being assessed. Another issue
that must not be disregarded is the proper application of such an
assessment tool.
Aspects to consider for the assessment of a lesson:
The responsibility of assessing student teaching rests with institute
supervisor.The major aspects that are generally considered by supervisor
in assessing a lesson are -
a) Preparation
b) Development of lesson
c) Review
d) Assignment and evaluation
e) Social climate in the classroom
f) General aspect
The components under these aspects and criteria to be used for assessment
of the components are given while discussing the subtopic - Criteria to
focus upon for Observation and Assessment of lessons under
Observation of practice teaching. The crite ria remain same as the
assessment based on the observation of the practice lesson. Here
observation is the technique used for assessment.
Teaching Practice Assessment Methods for
Pre-Service Teachers
Assessment methods for Practice Teaching Lessons:
Thea ssessment needs to be done during the practice lesson. Nowadays,
apart from traditional way of lesson observation by teacher educator,
various other assessment methods are used to assess the pre -service
teachers during teaching practice. Various type of as sessment methods that
can be used to evaluate pre -service teacher during teaching practice are
discussed below:
a) Observation by teacher educator
b) Peer review
c) Assessment by school representative of the practice teaching institute
d) Feedback by Stude nts
e) Self -reflection on teaching
f) E-portfolios:
munotes.in
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29 a) Observation by teacher educator:
Observation and rating by institute supervisor i.e. teacher educator is
always employed as the major approach for assessing pre -service
teachers.This assessment metho d comprises of two main elements, which
are scoring criteria and scoring procedures. Teacher education institutes
generally brief the staff members and external supervisors (if any) about
the nuances and expectations involved in scoring procedure. Readymad e
proforma containing all essential scoring criteria are given to each
supervisor. It is a professional development procedure that includes a
series of lesson observations in order to provide feedback on classroom
interaction and help pre -service teachers in teaching more effectively.
b) Peer reviews:
Peer reviews from classmates can be a useful approach to acquire different
viewpoints on teaching and learning.Rather, peer teachers can better help
to assess the student teacher, as they are sailing in the s ame boat. Peer
assessment improves the self -esteem of pre -service teachers. Peer
assessment was regarded appropriate for monitoring pre -service teachers'
performance during teaching practice in order to improve the quality of
the learning process, promote critical capacities in students. But here, the
peers who are raters should keep in mind that they are rating one another
for one another’s development.
c) Assessment by school representative of the practice teaching
institute:
This assessment strategy ma y be employed where school principal and
subject heads are willing be part of the assessment process. The subject
experts can provide a distinct assessment with their vast and varied back
ground of particular subject. Besides, other general qualities like
leadership, initiative, sincerity, punctuality are can be observed and
assessed by school representative.
d) Feedback by Student:
Getting feedback from school students on their experiences as students in
class is an excellent approach for assessing studen t teacher’s teaching.
Google forms, webQs, questionnaires, and open -ended feedback forms are
all good ways to get input from students. In order tosecure objective
ratings, students should be given opportunity to rate practicing teacher
anonymously and with complete freedom.
e) Self -reflection on teaching:
It is critical for a student teacher to reflect on his/her own teaching in a
focused manner. Self -assessment can also help the pre -service teachers to
be reflective teachers. Analyzing lesson plans and fee dback on his/her
teaching on a regular basis is a simple but effective strategy for keeping
track of one’s growth. This will help him/her in strengthening his skills
and/or eliminating mistakes previously done. munotes.in
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30
f) E-portfolios:
Portfolios have transformed f rom paper -based to electronic -based storage
resources as technology has progressed. This type of portfolio is more
accessible from any location, making it a viable alternative to a paper -
based portfolio. E -portfolios, on the other hand, differ from traditi onal
portfolios in various ways. Digital photos, audio, video, and animations,
rather than static paper -based artefacts, are samples of materials that can
be collected for creating E - portfolios. They can serve as instruments for
learner reflection and gro wth, assessment and even employment in future.
Thus, Assessment of practice teaching/internship is the process of
gathering and discussing information from multiple and diverse sources
like supervisor’s rating, peer observation, observation by school
repre sentative and students’ feedback. Effective assessment is reliant on
the supervisor's understanding of the student teacher's strengths and
weaknesses. While knowing the student teacher's strong points instils
confidence in the student teacher, recognising weaknesses in the student
teacher's teaching allows the supervisor to give solutions for correcting the
upcoming lessons. Through systematic assessment, it is possible to
identify the strengths and faults in student teaching. Consequently,
assessment resul ts are used to improve subsequent learning, and the
assessment process culminates
Check your progress:
1. Justify the need of using proper assessment tool for the assessment of
practice teaching lessons.
2.5 PRINCIPLES OF INTERNSHIPAND ITS
ORGANISATION
In te acher education like any other professional course, the student's
theoretical knowledgeis required to be tested in a real -world context. This
chance is provided by field experience or practice teaching, which adds to
the course's value.Internship is even m ore broad based than practice
teaching.The internship is carried out with a view to develop basic insight
into the student teachers about profession and some key skills required for
various teaching -learning tasks.
Meaning:
The term "internship" originate s from the medical profession.In context to
Indian teacher education system different areas like, subject related
pedagogical practical components, community work, practice teaching,
etc. are being covered under internship heading of teacher education
programs.
National Commission on Teachers –I (1983 -85) in National Commission
on Teachers –I (for school teachers), suggested that the practice teaching
should be replaced by the word„ “Internship”. munotes.in
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31 Internship in teaching is an opportunity where the student tea cher
identifies himself with the school to which he/she is assigned. While
practice teaching is an important component of the programme, the
student -teacher participates in every activity of the school in the total
school life. Internship is the period dur ing which the student teacher or
internee, apart from observing lessons and completing the practice lessons
completes following tasks. Intern…..
stays in the school for a certain extended period, mingles with the
school community,
gets the firsthand knowl edge of the school situation and the related
problems,
participates in the programs of the school,
involves in multi -level teaching through theme -based lessons and co -
teaching lessons with school teachers and peers
develops year plan, unit plan, unit tes t and analysis of results
studies various school records
organizes new and productive programs for the benefit of the school,
develops the right skills, attitudes, interests and appreciations by
being a part of school family
makes best use of the expertis e and resources in the school to blossom
himself as a good teacher who could be an asset to any school
providing him vocation in future.
Internship is a valuable experience.During the internship, internee learns
some universally accepted teaching princip les and ethics, as well as how
to live a basic and disciplined life. It is during this time that he/she should
adjust to the reality of the situation, make the best use of whatever
resources are available, modify himself/herself and his/her requirements to
whatever is available in school environment, and continue to perform his
duties happily. An intern is similar to an apprentice who works under the
supervision of highly motivated and experienced teachers of the school
and institute supervisor. Internship is a crucial step between his education
and his professional career or job. This change has aided him in becoming
a successful future teacher to a large extent. Internship experience is a
component that has a significant impact on how he shapes himself as a
teacher.
Principles of Internship:
In May 2014, NCTE constituted a committee for reviewing the existing
regulatory functions of NCTE regarding grant of recognition and related
functions under the Chairpersonship of Prof. Poonam Batra. In July 2014
follo wing views / Comments / Observations on the Report of Committee
constituted by NCTE in 2014 has provided following guidelines for
teacher education in the country. The specific comments of the Poonam
Batra Committee about Internship have been mentioned bel ow. These
guidelines are used by universities across nation as guiding principles for
Internship.
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32 Minimum duration of internship is required to be 16 weeks for a two -
year programme
An initial phase of one week for observing a regular classroom with a
regular teacher and would also include peer observations, teacher
observations and faculty observations of practice teaching lessons.
The Internship shall be conducted in two phases The first year would
include 4 weeks of orientation, of which:
o one week is to be dedicated to classroom observations,
o one week for community experiences and
o two weeks for unit planning & teaching in opted teaching subject.
The Internship shall be conducted in two phases Teaching during the
second year of school internship wou ld be spread over 12 weeks
spread over secondary and/or senior secondary level.
In the second year, interns will be expected to: be in school for 4
continuous days of a week. 2 days in a week shall be dedicated to
planning, developing materials, reflecti ve journal writing, and
interacting with faculty at the institute.
One faculty to support a maximum of 7 students in a school for
feedback, support, guidance and assessment
Programme Implementation Enter into an MoU with at least ten
schools indicating their willingness to allow the internship as well as
other school -based activities of the programme.
Besides, the NCFTE (National Curriculum Framework for Teacher
Education.) 2009 recommends that the current model of teacher education
at all levels of sc hool education to be transformed in such a way that they
merge education with professional development along with a demanding
internship with schools. According to NCFTE, 2009, School internship
should include:
1. Visits to innovative centers of pedagogy and learning, wherever
feasible;
2. Classroom -based research projects;
3. School internship of four days a week for a minimum period of six -ten
weeks,including an initial phase of observing a regular classroom.
4. creating and maintaining resources in the internship sc hools.
5. Developing unit plans and maintaining reflective journals.
The practice of teaching during school internship would include not more
than four -unit plans per subject. Planning of the units would include a
critical engagement with content from multipl e sources, including the
school textbook, organization and presentation of subject matter,
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33 a) Assess knowledge base understanding of students.
b) Further the progress of knowledge construction and meaning -making
in the cla ssroom.
c) Assess students’ learning to improve pedagogic practice and further
enhance learning.
While functioning as a regular teacher for a sustained period of aminimum
of 12 -20 weeks, the intern would get an opportunity to learn to setrealistic
goals in t erms of learning, curricular content and pedagogic practice.The
school would benefit from such an alliance in terms of witnessing
possibilities of unconventional pedagogies. In this process of internship,
teachertrainees develop new materials for teaching -learning which can
becomevaluable resource for the regular teachers of the school.
Organisation of Internship:
The guidelines for organisation of internship are framed keeping in mind
that internship ought to provide excellent opportunity for the prospec tive
teacher to learn to teach, acquire all the necessary understandings, skills,
attitudes and appreciations in a real school situation.During his internship,
internee can learn the art of communication, problem -solving skills, the
sensitivity to manage e ven the most delicate situations, and the ability to
plan and create educational and beneficial programs for the benefit of
school students.
Here the general guidelines are provided by NCTE for organisation of
Internship in various teacher education cours es in India. Each university or
autonomous body plan the curriculum and guidelines for organisation of
internship as per the guideline issued by NCTE.
Master of Education Programme leading to Master of education
(M. Ed) degree.
Field attachment /internshi p/field engagements arefacilitated with
organizations and institutions working in education. Thesewould aim
at engaging students with field -based situation and work inelementary
and other level of educationand to provide opportunity forreflection
and writi ng on the same.
Bachelor of Education Programme leading to Bachelor of
Education (B. Ed) degree.
School internship is a part of broad curricular area ofengagement with
the field and designed to lead to development of a broadrepertoire of
perspectives, p rofessional capacities, teacher sensibilities andskills.
Students are to be engaged actively for 16 weeks in the final year
ofcourse. They have to engage at two levels such as upper primary
(VI-VIII) andsecondary (IX -X) or senior secondary with at least 16
weeks in secondary/senior secondary classes. Hence internship in
school is for aminimum of 20 weeks for a two -year programme (4
weeks in the first year and16 weeks in second year.This should also
include, beside practice teaching aninitial phase of one we ek for
observing a regular classroom with a regularteacher and would also munotes.in
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34 include peer observations, teacher observations andfaculty
observations of practice lessons.
Elementary teacher education programs leading to Diploma in
ElementaryEducation (D.EI.E D).
A minimum of 20 weeks of internship in school during two -
yearcourse, of which 4 weeks would be dedicated to classroom
observation etc. during thefirst year. Second year school internship
will be for minimum period of 16 weeks inthe elementary classes
including primary and upper primary.It includes activities like
maintenance ofrecords and registers, preparation of lesson and unit
plans using different artifacts and technology,classroom management,
activities related to school, community or parent interf ace and
reflections onself - development and professionalization of teaching
practice.
Diploma in early childhood education programme leading to
Diploma inPre -school Education (DPSE):
It envisaged as a three -stage process that includesobservation of
presc hool classes in different setting, planned practiceteaching in
school classes for part of day and full -time internship or immersion
inpreschool programs across range of provision public private,
NGO.It is desirable that it has attached preschool of its own .
Theinstitution shall make arrangement with at least 10
preschool/preprimaryschools indicating their willingness to allow
internship as well as other school -based activities of the
programme.The preschools shall form basic contactpoint for all
practicum a ctivities and related work during the course of
theprogramme. The districtblock office of the state education
department mayallot schools to different TTIs.
For all the various teacher education courses in India, internship is
organized under the supervisi on of the qualified and experienced teachers
of respective teacher education institution. There is a broad agreement
between teacher education institutionand the participating school/college
for providing the quality and scope of varied experiences during
internship. This emphasizes the importance of student teachers
participating in a diverse range of school programs during this period. In a
nutshell, an internship is a period during which a student -teacher connects
himself with the institution.
Check your progress:
1. What is the term “internship” mean in teacher education? Will you
organize How will you organize internship for Bachelor of Education
Programme?
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Managing Practicum in Teacher Education
35 2.6 FEEDBACK TO STUDENT TEACHERS - CONCEPT
One of the most successful educational tools is feedb ack, which has a
direct impact on learning process.Feedback is an important part of the
continuous learning and assessment process. Providing frequent and
regular feedback is an important part of improving student
learning.Feedback is a process of telling the students whether or not they
are on the correct path or not.
Feedback is more often considered of as “information given to a student
with the purpose of influencing them to change their behavior that result in
learning".It comprises the sharing of info rmation regarding many aspects
of understanding and performance amongteacher educators, peers, and the
student teacher himself.
Hattie (1999) claims that, “Feedback has a significant impact on learning;
it has been described as "the most powerful single mo derator that
enhances achievement".
Feedback is information about the performance that can be used to
improve that performance. Feedback aids in bridging the gap between
actual and desired performance. To gain a better understanding of the
nature of feedba ck and to bridge the gap between actual and desired
performance, feedback given by supervisor needs to answer three essential
questions:
How is the current performance of student teacher?
Howthe current performance relates to the desired learning goals?
Which activities need to be undertaken by him/her to make better
progress?
In a nutshell, feedback gives insight into current knowledge and skill
development to both the teacher educator and the student teacher. The
teacher educator can make decisions abou t the next steps in the lesson
plan/ presentation by assessing their progress and degree of achievement.
It enables the student teachers to reflect on their learning techniques in
order to substantiate or modify them in order to improve their
performance.
Characteristics of feedback given byteacher educator to student
teachers:
Feedbackgiven by a teacher educator to student teachers will…….
focus on the effectiveness of the student teacher’s work product and
processes involved
be directly linked to the lea rning objectives and grading criteria
acknowledge whatever the student has done well and identifies what
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36 challenge the student teachers to further develop their knowledge and
skills
Put more emphasis on the quality of the work
Be specific and explicit about feedback using examples where possible
Not use judgmental language.
Encourage them to ask questions about feedback and avoid use of
praise, reward or punishment
be spoken, a gesture or formalized in writing.
Hence,Feedback can be directive, in which case students are told where
they went wrong, or it can be facilitative, in which case students are given
suggestions on how to improve. Elaborative feedback includes detailed
suggestions for improvement.
Check y our progress:
1. What is feedback? Which characteristics of feedback should be kept in
mind while giving feedback to a student teacher?
2.7 TYPES OF FEEDBACK TO STUDENT TEACHERS
Feedback can be given for a variety of reasons and in a variety of formats.
Feedback can be given as a single thing – for example, informal feedback
at the end of a class observation for excellent poetry recitation by student
teacher – or as a wide variety of things – for example, detailed formal
feedback for all the aspects of the l esson in the student teacher’s diary.
Formal or Informal, formative or summative, self or peer feedback, each
has a role to play in encouraging and optimizing student teacher’s
performance.There are many wide varieties of feedback, and we come
across many of them in our daily lives. They are:
1. Informal feedback:
Informal feedback can happen at any time since it occurs spontaneously in
the moment or during an action. In order to effectively motivate, help or
advise student teachers in classroom management and lesson presentation,
informal feedback necessitates the development of rapport with them. This
can happen in a physical classroom, in school corridors, through a
message etc.
2. Formal feedback:
Formal feedback is brought into the process in a structur ed and organized
manner. Formal feedback is usually related with assessment tasks.It
includes things like marking criteria, skills on standard proforma. Mostly,
all practice teaching lessons are assessed on predefined criteria which
needs to be rated on ra ting scales along with the comments wherever munotes.in
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Managing Practicum in Teacher Education
37 required. It is recorded for both the student teacher and the teacher
education institution as evidence.
3. Formative feedback:
The purpose of formative assessment is to track progress of student
teachers and pr ovide continuing feedback that educators and student
teachers can utilize to improve their teaching and learning. As a result,
formative feedback should be provided early in the course, before
summative evaluations. As for example, during microteaching ses sions
educators use this type of feedback. So, student teachers get benefit from
formative feedback and replan to develop that skill by avoiding the same
mistakes. Here, the feedback is required before the next cycle of teaching,
that encourages them and t hey feel capable of progressing.
4. Summative feedback:
Summative assessment is used to assess student teacher’s learning or
performance at the end of a unit of instruction or at the end of a phase of
internship by comparing it to a standard or benchmark. As a result,
summative evaluation includes extensive comments on specific areas of
their work, a clear explanation of how the credits were calculated using
the criteria provided It may also include extra constructive suggestions for
how the performance can improve.
5. Peer feedback:
Peer feedback from classmates can be a good way to have a variety of
perspectives on the lesson presentation. Peer teachers, on the other hand,
can better assist in assessing the student teacher because they are on the
similar p lane. Along with the Teachereducator , other student teachers can
learn to give great feedback, which is highly valued by peers. Regular
opportunities for students to give and receive peer evaluation increases
their learning experiences and develops their professional skill set.
6. Self -feedback:
A student teacher's ability to reflect on his/ her own teaching in a focused
manner is crucial. Teacher educators can use feedback to not only provide
direction to students, but also to teach them self -assessment. Self-
feedbackcan also assist pre -service teachers in becoming reflective
educators. Regularly analyzing lesson plans and classroom performance
for writing feedback on one's teaching is a simple but effective technique
for tracking one's progress. This will aid him in refining his talents and/or
identifying and correcting earlier errors.
7. Constructive feedback:
Whether its formal or informal, formative or summative, feedback should
focus on progress, upgradation. Constructive feedback refers to building
up matter rather than breaking it down. It is about providing assistance and
increased understanding of what is expected and not about pinpointing
mistakes and weaknesses. Constructive feedback exhibits respect for the munotes.in
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38 receiver by demonstrating mindfulness o f acceptable boundaries or
physical/ psychological/cognitive limit of the student teacher. Each one is
unique and is blessed with different set of skills. Constructive feedback
identifies that set of skill and chisel them for his/her betterment and
improve ment.It strictly avoids using judgmental language and provides
specific feedback using accurate and credible information. Hence, it
appears that constructive and relevant feedback can lead to successful
teaching and learning, as well as self -improvement. R elevant, timely,
accurate, useful, discreet, respectful, suited to specific needs, and
encouraging feedback are all desirable characteristics.
Thus, feedback can also come from a wide range of sources. It is not
necessary to provide formal feedback always. In fact, each type of
feedback has its own worth attached to it. The role of teacher educator
therefore is really crucial in deciding what type of feedback will be
effective in given situation.
2.8 LET US SUM UP
It is important that students in professio nal field like teacher education not
only learn theory and understand why theories are important, but also
learn to apply the theoretical frameworks in practice. This need is all the
more explicit in 21st century classrooms where diverse learners are to be
catered.Practice - teaching, which is at the heart of the internship
experience, allows the student -teacher to apply all oftheoretical knowledge
about teaching and learning, as well as his/her understanding of students'
psychology, in an actual classroom e nvironment. The student teachers
learn how and when to use, adjust, and improvise teaching strategies
relevant to the classroom context as they learn the art of teaching.
To prepare a qualified teacher, internship including teaching practice must
be rigor ouslyorganized, supervised and assessed keeping in mind the
guidelines and directions of governing bodies of teacher education. The
assessment approaches that have been implemented should aid in the
growth of pre -service teachers while they are in the clas sroom. What has
been assessed needs to be reported through proper and accurate
feedback.Feedback has a significant impact on improving learning,
especially in the areas offield experiences like practice teaching and
internship activities. Effective feedbac k is critical if we want our students
to comprehend a task completely and build abilities that they can apply to
other activities in the future.
2.9 UNIT END QUESTIONS
1. Explain the need for integration of theory of practice in teacher
education
2. Discuss in brief the per NCTE guidelines for the organisation of
teaching practice by teacher education institutions.
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39 3. Differentiate between lesson observations by student teachers and
lesson observation of student teachers by their supervisor.
4. Explain the role and duties of institute supervisor as the liaison officer
between the between the teacher education institute and the school.
5. Discuss various methods used for the assessment of teaching practice
by teacher education institutions in India.
6. Discuss guiding pr inciples of internship for teacher education as
provided by NCTE in 2014.
7. Which are the various types of feedback? Which method of providing
feedback will you find most effective? Give reasons.
2.10 REFERENCES
Allen J. and Wright S. (2014), Teachers and Teaching Theory and
Practice 20(2)” Integrating theory and practice in the pre -service
teacher education practicum”. Retrieved from
DOI:10.1080/13540602.2013.848568
Cohen Luise et.al (2010) A Guide to Teaching Practice. Routledge 2
Park Square, Milton Park , Abingdon, Oxon.Retrieved from
http://103.5.132.213:8080/jspui/bitstream/123456789/618/1/A%20Gui
de%20to%20Teaching%20Practice.pdf
Darling -Hammond, L. (2006): Constructing 21st -century teacher
education. Journal of Teacher Education, Vol 57, No. X, pp. 1 -15.
Retrieved from
https://www.res earchgate.net/publication/241423878_Constructing_21
stCentury_Teacher_Education
Darling -Hammond, L., & Snyder, J. (2000). Authentic assessment of
teaching in context. Teaching and Teacher Education, 16(5 –6), 523 –
545.
http://doi.org/10.1016/S0742 -051X(00)00015 -9
Dewey, J. (1904/1974). The relation of theory to practice in education.
In R. Archambault (Ed.), John Dewey on Education: Selected Writings
(pp.315 -338). Chicago, IL: University of Chica go Press.
MohalikRamakanta, (RIE Bhuvneshwar) Handbook on Internship in
Teaching. Retrieved from
https://www.slideshare.net/deepali2009/handbook -on-internship -in-
teaching
Shebib, B. (2003). Choices: Counseling skills for social workers and
other professionals. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. munotes.in
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Teacher Education
40 Wrenn Jan & Wrenn Bruce (2009), “Enhancing Learning by
Integrating Theory and Practice” International Journal of Teaching
and Learn ing in Higher Education , Volume 21, Number 2, 258 -265
Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ899313.pdf
https://ncte.go v.in/website/PDF/NCFTE_2009.pdf
https://granite.pressbooks.pub/teachingdiverselearners/chapter/feedbac
k-2/
https://www.education.vic.gov.au/school/teachers/teachingresources/pr
actice/Pages/insight -feedback.aspx
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41 3
AGENCIES OF TEACHER EDUCATION
Unit Structure :
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Agencies of Teacher Education at State Level
3.2.1 State Institute of Education (SIE) and Role of SIET
3.2.2 State Council of Educational Research and Training
(SCERT)
3.2.3 State Board of Teacher Education – (SBTE)
3.2.4 University Departments of Education – (UDE)
3.2.5 SSA
3.3 Agencies of Teacher Education at National Level
3.3.1 University Grant Commission (UGC)
3.3.2 National University of Educational Planning and
Administration (NUEPA)
3.3.3 National Council of Teacher Education (NCTE)
3.3.4 National Council of Educational Research and Training
(NCERT)
3.3.5 RMSA
3.4 Agencies of Teacher Education at International Level
3.4.1 United Nations Educational Scientific, Cultural
Organisation (UNESCO)
3.5 Let us Sum up
3.0 OBJECTIVES :
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
State various agencies of Teacher Education Programme at State,
National and International Level
Explain the role of functions of various ag encies of Teacher Education
Programme at State, National and International Level. munotes.in
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42 3.1 INTRODUCTION :
Due to explosion of knowledge, there is a spread of education not only in
India, but all over the world. Due to this change, social needs are changed
accordingly. A teacher is expected to face the new changes by undergoing
through training for new trends in education. Such training needs are
satisfied by different agencies at different levels.
In this unit we will discuss the role of different agenci es and their
functions towards teacher education at state, national and international
level.
3.2 AGENCIES OF TEACHER EDUCATION AT
STATE LEVEL :
To enhance quality of education and quality of educational institutions, to
update educational methodology and t o offer publicity to educational
innovations by conducting various types of educational research every
state establishes some institutes, council and associations. In this unit, we
will discuss the role and functions of the following state agencies :
State Institute of Education (SIE)
State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT)
State Board of Teacher Education (SBTE)
3.2.1 State Institute of Education (SIE) :
Training, preparation of teaching aids and evaluation needs continuity to
achieve q uality education. Considering this aspect, Maharashtra state has
established “State Institute of Education” (SIE). Initially, SIE looked after
primary education only. Later on, its scope is widened to pre -primary,
secondary and higher secondary educatio n. In 1984, it secured
constitutional status like NCERT and is renamed as “Maharashtra State
Council of Education Research and Training (MSCERT).”
The Functions of SIE are as under:
Organization of pre -service and in -service training of Teacher
Education with special emphasis on content training
• Training of Key Resource Persons
• Training of Resource Persons
Organization of workshops/orientation programmes in collaborations
with national level agencies and state Education Department
Preparation of In structional Material/ Guide books for teachers in
various subjects Modules, Glossaries, List of Equipments and
material for laboratories of Secondary and Higher Secondary Schools munotes.in
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Agencies of Teacher Education
43 Organization of meetings, conferences, Quiz programmes, Seminars,
Lectures, D emonstrations and other programmes like Science
Exhibition at District and Divisional Level
Publication of Educational Journal, reports, Studies etc from time to
time in the field of educational research and training.
Organization of short training progr ammes/Courses in modern
Management techniques for Education Officers and Administrators
Conduct of Action Research in the Field of:
• Survey
• Strengthening of labs
• Academic Guidance
• Academic Inspection
The other functions of SIE are to implement ce ntrally sponsored
Schemes like PMOST, OBB, SOPT SS, Improvement of Science
Education, Computer Education, and Conduct of RIMC Examination.
Besides this the staff of SIE gets training from NCERT New Delhi,
NUEPA New Delhi, RIE Ajmer, IMPA, J&K, MHRD, BOSE a nd
other allied Agencies for improvement of trends and techniques of
Education Process
Role of State Institute of Educational Technology (SIET) in India
State Institute of educational technology has been set up in six states such
as Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Orissa and Uttar Pradesh
in order to implement the INSAT for education project effectively. These
institutes are functioning under the administrative control of the SCERT in
some states and in the Directorate of Education in other sta tes.
The Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD) renders financial
assistance of SIETs. The State Council of Education Research and
Training (SCERTs) are mainly expected to implement the educational
technology projects utilizing all kinds of modem me dia, methods and
materials.
Now -a-days, more emphasis is given to the production of ETV
programmes for the children in the age group 5 -8 and 9 -11 years and
teachers of primary schools. Recently, it has taken up specific programmes
for providing audio and v ideo materials for supporting educational
movements of Total Literacy Campaigns (TLC) and Universalization of
Primary Education.
Under the “INSAT for EDUCATION” project, launched in 1982, State
Institute of Educational Technology (SIETs) are being set up i n the states
of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Orissa and Uttar Pradesh
and a Central Institute of Educational Technology (CIET) has been
established in the NCERT, with 100% central assistance, to generate
educational software for children. F or the proper implementation and the munotes.in
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44 developments of the potential of modem communication technology in the
country, the Government has decided to make these SIETs autonomous in
order to make them more professional.
SIETs in U.P., Maharashtra, Orissa and A ndhra Pradesh have already been
conferred autonomous status. However, the working of the SIETs and
their output is still sub -optimal. There is a need to improve the quality of
the programmes. The New Education Policy 1986, states that in order to
live the education with the requirements of the 21st Century, there is
urgently need for introduction of appropriate and feasible technologies in
the educational system. Because the modem media can provide useful
support to education related to the curriculum as we ll as its enrichment.
The policy says:
“Modern communication technologies have the potential to bypass several
stages and sequences in the process of development encountered in earlier
decades. Both the constraints of time and distance at once become
manag eable. In order to avoid structural dualism, modern educational
technology must reach out to the most distant areas and the most deprived
sections of beneficiaries simultaneously with the areas of comparative
affluence and ready availability. Educational T echnology will be
employed in the spread of useful information, the training and retraining
of teachers, to improve quality, sharpen awareness of art and culture,
inculcate abiding values, etc., both in the formal and non -formal sectors.
Maximum use will b e made of the available infrastructure. In villages
without electricity, batteries or solar packs will be used to run the
programme. The generation of relevant and culturally compatible
educational programmes will form an important component of educational
technology and all available resources in the country will be utilized for
this purpose. ”
3.2.2 State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT):
State council is the apex institute of the state. In Maharashtra, it was
established in 1964 – 65 as a state institute of Education (SIE). It was
upgrade and renamed as Maharashtra State Council of Education Research
and Training in 1984. For quality improvement of school education it
(MSCERT) carries the responsibility of teacher education, researc h and
evaluation.
Objectives :
It’s objectives are :
To enhance quality of education by conducting various types of
educational research.
To improve teacher education
To enhance quality of educational institutions
To upgrade educational methodology
To offe r publicity to educational innovations. munotes.in
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Agencies of Teacher Education
45 Structure :
Main office of MSCERT is at Pune. It is an academic wing of education.
It is headed by Director of education. It’s various departments are looked
after by second class gazzeted officer. It has an advi sory Board presided
by Education Minister of the State.
Role and Functions :
The Role and functions are primarily concerned with ensuring quality in
respect of :
Planning
Management
Research
Evaluation and
Training
Its functions are as under:
To improve s chool - education, continuing education, non -formal
education and special education.
To impart in service - training to the inspectors of preprimary to
higher secondary education.
To impart in service - training to the teachers from pre -primary to
higher secondary schools.
To make available extension - services to teacher - education -
institutions and co -ordinate the same.
To prepare teaching aids for educational institutions.
To motivate teachers to undertake /investigative research regarding
content cum methodology.
MSCERT functions through following departments -
Teacher - education department.
Extension services department.
Research department
Evaluation department
curriculum development department
Population Education department.
Publicity Department.
3.2.3 State Board of Teacher Education (SBTE) :
Kothari Commission for the first time in 1966 recommended for
establishing SBTE, whose main function was to develop teacher
education in the state to be administered by the state board. State munotes.in
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Teacher Education
46 boards were est ablished in M.P in 1967, and Maharashtra, Jammu and
Kashmir and Tamil Nadu in 1973. Ministry of education forced states
to have SBTE suggestions NCERT such boards almost all states
established.
Functions :
Determine the standards of TE Institutions.
Modif ying and improving the curriculum, text books and the system of
TE of the state.
Developing the criterion for the recognition of the TE institutions.
Organizing the guidance facility of TE institutions.
Developing the criteria for admission in TE and evalu ating the teacher
efficiency of pupil teachers.
Preparing the plan for the qualitative and quantitative development of
teacher education .
Providing guidance to the Universities and State institutes for
improving and modifying curriculum, textbooks and exa mination
system of teacher -education.
Determining the educational and physical conditions of the teacher
education institutions for affiliations.
Developing the sense of cooperation among university departments
and other training institutions
Providing fi nancial assistance – different facilities for TE at different
levels.
Provide suggestions for the development of state teacher -educators.
3.2.4 University Departments of Education (UDE) :
Education is now considered an independent field of study; UGC prov ides
the grants to the University Department of education. Higher level training
is essential for teachers for their development. Department of Education
(DOE) provide training for educational administrators and curriculum
specialists to improve evaluation procedures as well examination system.
University DOE organize the M.Ed, B.Ed, and M.Phil classes as well as
research work for Ph.D and D.Litt degree in education. In 1917, first
education department was started at Calcutta University. At present there
are departments of education in all the Indian Universities for M.Ed and
Ph.D Degrees.
Functions :
Develop the post graduate studies and research work.
Organize training for school teachers.
Provide solid programmes for teacher education and developing
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47 Starting and organize some programmes for post graduate teachers
which are not organized at other centers.
Developing language laboratory, preparing instructional material and
use new innovations and practices in TE.
Encouraging the interdiscip linary courses and interdisciplinary
research studies so that the requirements of other departments can be
fulfilled.
Organize extension lectures and programmes to encourage the teachers
and research workers to contribute in the discipline of education.
Providing awareness of new methodology and technology to upgrade
the standard of TE.
Developing the effective procedure of evaluation of theory and
practical in education.
A very strong academic and administrative machinery at the state level
should further aim at economy and integration of divergent elements,
avoid duplication of efforts, consider and examine the needs of different
types of institutions, give a proper turn to arising ideologies and
tendencies and eliminate corruption and exploitation.
There should be a University of teacher education in every state on its
own. It should be unitary as well as affiliating for all the teachers’,
colleges at graduate and post graduate levels within the state.
3.2.5 SARV SHIKSHA ABHIYAN (SSA)
Sarva Shiksha Abh iyan (SSA) is Government of India's flagship
programme for achievement of Universalization of Elementary Education
(UEE) in a time bound manner, as mandated by 86th amendment to the
Constitution of India making free and compulsory Education to the
Children of 6-14 years age group, a Fundamental Right. Ministry of
Human Resource Development (MHRD), Government of India (GoI)
anchors the SSA Programme. The SSA has been operational since 2000 -
2001. With passage of the Right to Education (RTE) Act, 20091 changes
are incorporated into SSA approach, strategy and also norms. SSA is
being implemented by the Central and State Governments funding and
cover the entire country. Currently, through SSA around 192 million
children of 1.1 million habitations are served. Peop le participation is the
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48 encouraged by the scheme at each stage of implementation of the
programme.
WHAT IS SARVA SHIKSHA ABHIYAN?
A programme with a clear time -frame for universal eleme ntary
education.
A response to the demand for quality basic education all over the
country.
An opportunity for promoting social justice through basic education.
An effort at effectively involving the Panchayati Raj institutions, the
School Management Commi ttees, the Village Education Committees,
the Parents’ Teachers’ Associations, the Mother Teacher Associations,
the Tribal Autonomous Councils in the management of elementary
schools.
Am expression of political will not universal elementary education at
the highest level.
A partnership between the Central, State and the local government.
An opportunity for States to develop their own vision of elementary
education.
AIMS OF SARVA SHIKSHA ABHIYAN
The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan is to provide useful and relevant ele mentary
education for all children in the 6 to 14 age group by 2000. There is also
another goal to bridge social and gender gaps, with the active participation
of the community in the management of schools.
Useful and relevant education signifies a quest for an education system
that is not alienating and that draws on community solidarity. Its aims is
to allow children to learn about and master their natural environment in a
manner that allows the fullest harnessing of their human potential both
spiritua lly and materially. This quest must also be a process of value
based learning that allows children an opportunity to work for each others’
well being rather than to per it mere selfish pursuits.
OBJECTIVES OF SARVA SHIKSHA ABHIYAN
1. All children in school, Education Guarantee Centre, Alternate
School, “ -to-School camp by 2003;
2. All children complete five years of primary schooling by 2007.
3. All children complete eight years of elementary schooling by 2010.
4. Focus on elementary edu cation of satisfactory quality with emphasis
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49 5. Bridge all gender and social category gaps at primary stage by 2007
and at elementary education level by 2010.
6. Universal retention by 2010.
Major Central interventions and Thei r Integration with SSA
There have been several innovative schemes in the sector of elementary
education following the national policy on Education in 1986 such as
Operation blackboard, Teacher Education, Non Formal Education, Mahila
Samakhya, National Prog ramme for Nutritional Support for primary
Education, State Specific Education projects in Bihar, Rajasthan, up and
Andhra Pradesh and DPEP in 219 districts of 15 States. It proposed to
integrate these in the fold of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan in the following
manner : -
i) Operation Blackboard aimed to improve physical infrastructure
of education whereby school space was expanded and more teachers
proved. However, Operation blackboard could not cover the entire
spectrum of schools. The SSA will qualitatively improve and expand the
existing structure. No fresh teacher recruitment will take place under
OBB once SSA programme is operational zed. Support for teachers’
salaries under OBB will, however, continue where teachers have already
been appointed under that scheme. Efforts to access funds for classrooms
from rural/urban employment schemes will continue to be made, even
though ear marking is no more applicable to these funds.
ii) Strengthening of Teacher Education :
The revised scheme of Teacher Education pro vides for a Memorandum of
Understanding with the states in order to ensure that they receive priority
attention of state governments, especially with regard to filling up of
vacancies through a rigorous selection criteria. The scheme will be a part
of the SSA framework till the end of the IX Plan, after which it will
merge in the SSA programme. This will supplement the DIETs, which
provide guidance at district level.
iii) National Programme of Nutritional Support for Primary
Education :
Evaluation of the National Programme of Nutritional Support for Primary
Education indicate that the supply goods grains leads to improvement in
student attendance while raising their nutritional standard. It is proposed
to continue the scheme with suitable modifications, i n consultation with
States.
iv) Mahila Samakhya :
Evaluation studies on the Mahila Samakhya approach indicates the
progress made in empowerment of women. This in turn generates demand
for elementary education of girls. There is a need to further strength en
these linkages with basic education of girls by giving women’s groups a
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50 Mahila Samakhya will retain its district identity at the State and the district
level, it will provide suppor t for the planning and implementation of SSA
in districts implementing Mahila Samakhya.
v) Education Guarantee Scheme and Alternative and Innovative
Education :
Studies on the Non -Formal Education scheme have pointed out the lack of
flexibility which imped es effective implementation across different
States. Efforts to provide for a diversity of interventions have been made
in the revised scheme that has been approved recently such as setting up of
Education Guarantee Schools, Alternative Schooling faciliti es, Balika
Shikshan Shivir, ` to School’ camps, etc. The revised NFE scheme called
EGS and AIE will be a component of the SSA and be absorbed in it by the
end of the IX Plan. SSA programme will provide planning and
management support to operationalize the EGS and AIE scheme .
vi) District Primary Education Programme (DPEP):
DPEP districts indicate that decentralized planning and implementation
facilitates community involvement on the process of enrolment. DPEP
has met with variety of degree of success in d ifferent States. Some have
availed of DPEP benefits and have improved their elementary education
sector. A large umber of teacher vacancies have been filled up in many
DPEP states. Setting up of Block and Cluster Resource Centres has
facilitated academic interaction among teachers. Development of new
textbooks with the participation of teaches and experts have been
encouraging in most DPEP states. All DPEP districts would also be part of
the SSA framework. Efforts to prepare comprehensive District
Eleme ntary Education Plans will be made in DPEP districts. The focus will
be on vertical expansion into Upper Primary Education and on
consolidation of the primary schooling efforts.
vii) Lock Jumbish Project :
Under the LJP, evaluation studies indicate the po sitive impact of the micro
planning and school mapping in which the community is involved. There
are specific interventions for girl’s education through Balika Shiksha
Shivirs and Sahaj Shiksha Kendras. While there has been improvement in
enrolment and re tention, the actual learning achievements have been
modest. LJP will be implemented in 13 districts of Rajasthan and holistic
District Plans will be prepared for these districts also. LJP will be a part
of the SSA framework.
PROVISION UNDER SARVA SHIKSHA ABHIYAN
All the interventions listed above can be undertaken in the Sarva Shiksha
Abhiyan. The following provisions have been made for girls’ education :
i. Interventions for Early Childhood Care and Education
ii. School/EGs like alternative facility to be set up within one kilometer
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51 iii. Up-gradation of EGS to regular schools
iv. Special mainstreaming camps for out -of-school girls under the
Alternative and Innovative Education component.
v. Mahila Samakhya like interventions from th e innovation fund.
vi. Provision of process -based community participation with a focus on
the participation of women
vii. Provision of context specific innovative intervention for girls’
education - upto Rs.15 lakh per intervention and up to Rs.50 lakh in a
district in a particular year.
viii. Training programme for community leaders to develop capacities for
school management
ix. Setting up of Block and Cluster Resource Centres for effective
academic supervision.
x. Free textbooks to all girls up to Clas s - VIII.
xi. Mid-day-meal programme to continue as at present.
xii. Incentives like uniforms and scholarships to be funded from State Plan
only.
xiii. Adequate Teaching Learning Equipment for all Primary and Upper
Primary schools.
xiv. At least 50% of the teachers to be appointed have to be women
xv. Provision for
* school and teacher grants for all teachers.
* 20-day in -service training each year for all teachers.
* all disabled children
* community -based monitoring, partnership with research and resource
institutions, and periodic feed on interventions
Check your progress :
1) Explain the functions of State agencies of teacher education .
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52 3.3 NATIONAL LEVEL AGENCIES OF TEACHER
EDUCATION PROGRAMME :
3.3.1 University Grants Commission (UGC) :
Established on 28th December, 1953, at New Delhi. UGC was given
autonomy by govt. of India in 1956.
Functions :
It provides financial assistance to universities and colleges to meet
their requirement.
It extends the financial aid for the development of Unive rsities and
maintenance .
It provides a guide -line to Center and State Govt. for giving grant to a
University.
It provides the grants for five years to establish as new University in
the state.
It provides the grants for five years to start new department o r any
academic programme in the University but now state concurrence is
essential.
It encourages higher level research work and teaching activities by
providing financial assistance.
It provides the grants for higher education and new programmes in the
Universities and colleges.
It provides the fellowship for teachers and project work for University
and college teachers.
Teacher Education Committees :
To upgrade the standard of education Teacher -education committees
were formed consisting of seven members for two years duration.
It provides awareness of new innovations and research in teacher -
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53 The national fellowship and teacher fellowship are granted for
encouraging research and teaching work.
UGC provides travel grants to the university lecturer s for attending
international conferences and seminars.
Visiting professors are appointed from among the University
professors for inter change programmes and delivering lectures.
Residential facilities for university and college teachers are also
provided .
Research associates are appointed for post doctor work.
Research :
UGC is giving substantial grants to University teachers for conducting
their own researches. In 1953 -54, Ministry of Education initiated a
scheme providing grants to teachers, colleges a nd departments of
education in the Universities in order to enable them to carry out
research on educational problems selected by them and approved by
the central ministry.
The main purpose of the scheme is to provide facilities for research
which, in man y instances, has been held up owing to dearth of funds. It
is to be carried on by the staff of the training colleges assisted by some
research fellows assigned to them and some financial facilities.
Equipment is provided to facilitate the completion of the projects.
Centre for Advanced Studies (CASE) :
For the improvement of standards of teaching and research in
India.UGC has set up CASE in different branches of knowledge. It
selected the faculty of Education and Psychology, Baroda as the CASE
in Education which functions on an all India basis and aims at raising
standards of teaching and research in education. It has built up its
programme in collaboration with research workers from outside
3.3.2 National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration :
(NUEPA/ NIEPA) :
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54 Functions :
As the highest organization of educational planning and Administration -
has the following functions to perform :
Providing training of educational planning and administration to
develop the abilities and competencies in the educational
administration as the in -service program.
Providing training facilities in educational planning and administration
at state level and regional level to develop efficiency at their level.
Integrating educational studies and researches under the area of
educational planning and administration and make co ordinations in
these activities.
Encouraging the teachers to solve the problems of educational
planning and administration by organizing seminars and workshops.
Arranging extension programs for n ew developments and innovations
in the area of planning and administration.
Establishing contact with other countries to understand the
developments and innovations of the developed countries.
Providing guidance at National and State levels in the area of planning
and administration.
Multi –dimensional activities - under extension programs – journal on
educational planning and administration and other books are
published.
Review of educational planning and administration of other countries -
used to develop o ur educational system and solve educational
problems.
Orientation programs for educational administrators - provide
awareness of new developments in this area.
Educational research reports are published. The publication unit
established the coordination be tween theory and practice.
Seminars and workshops are organized and their discussions and
results are published.
Training Institutions for special fields for school and colleges - these
provide elementary in special fields like - computers, educational
techn ology and fine arts.
Language Institutions :
Kendriya Hindi Sanasthan.
Central Institute of English, Hyderabad,
Central Institute of Indian Languages, Mysore.
Language training is given.
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55 3.3.3 National Council of Teacher Education (NCTE) :
Kothari com mission Report (1964 -66) criticized Teacher Education
Programme being conventional, rigid and away from reality. Therefore it
expressed the need of establishing National council of Teacher Education
in order to improve the standard of Teacher Education. In September
1972, Central Advisory Board in Education accepted the said proposal
which was supported by fifth National plan. Thereafter by law, Indian
Education Ministry established NCTE on 21st May 1973. NCTE has got
independent constitutional status since 1993.
Objectives :
To work especially towards planned and coordinated development of
teacher -education.
To improve the standard and functioning of teacher -educators.
Functions :
According to the Act 1993, NCTE performs the following functions :
Undertake survey and studies relating to various aspects of teacher -
education and publish the results.
Making recommendations to the center and State government
Universities, the U.G.C and other institutions in the preparation of
plans and programmme’s in the field of teacher education.
Coordinating and monitoring teacher education and its development in
the country.
Preparing a guideline with regard to minimum qualifications for the
candidates to be employed as teacher - educators at different levels.
Developing no rms for any specified category of courses or training in
teacher -education, including minimum eligibility criterion for
admission.
Preparing a guideline and specified requirements for starting new
courses and programmes under teacher education.
Developing a guideline for general teacher -education programme. munotes.in
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56 To advise central government on matters like teacher - education (in
building pre -service / in -service training), evaluation of the curricula
for teacher -- education and periodical review with respect t o revision
of curricula.
To advise state governments on any matter of their concern.
To review the progress of plan of teacher - education, submitted by
central / state governments.
To advise the government on ensuring adequate standards in teacher -
educa tion.
To give approval to teacher - education institutions.
To lay down norms for maintaining standards of teachers - education.
Promoting innovations and research studies and organize them
periodically or annually.
Supervising the teacher education pr ogrammes and providing financial
assistance.
Enforcing accountability of teacher development programmes in the
country.
Preparing a programme for in -service teacher education for orienting
teachers for latest development.
NCTE functions through the followi ng standing committees :
Pre – Primary, primary teachers’ education committee.
Secondary college - teacher education committee.
Special education - teacher education committee.
In-service - teacher - education committee.
Activities of NCTE are with respect to :
Research - Extension services.
Development programmes.
Training.
Evaluations.
3.3.4 NCERT - National Council of Educational Research and
Training :
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57 Introduction :
Due to knowledge explosion, there is a spread of education not only in
India, but all over the world. Due to this change, social needs have
changed accordingly. A teacher is expected to face the new changes by
undergoing through training for new trends in education. Such training
- needs are satisfied by following National level agencie s of Teacher
Education programme NCERTandNCTE.
National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) :
Establishment :
Ministry of Education of Indian Government established NCERT in 1961.
NCERT is an autonomous - organization, working as an academ ic wing of
the Ministry of Education. It assists the said ministry in the formulation
and implementation of its policies and programmes in the field of
Education. It is expected to encourage student teachers and teacher
educators to conduct educational res earch. In order to fulfill these main
objectives, it has established National Institute of Education (NIE) at
Delhi and 4 regional colleges of education at Ajmer, Bhopal,
Bhubaneswar and Mysore. It also works in collaboration with the
departments in the st ates, the universities and institutes, following
objectives of school education. It also maintains close -contact with similar
national and international institutions throughout the world. It
communicates results of its researches to a common man by publish ing
books and journals.
Objectives :
To launch, organize and strengthen research works in various aspects
of education.
To arrange for pre -service and in -service training at the higher level.
To publish necessary textbooks, journals and other literature f or
achieving the objectives.
To organize extension centers in training institutes with the
cooperation of state governments and extend facilities pertaining to
new methods and technologies among them.
To establish a National Institute of Education and mana ge for the
development of research and higher training for educational
administrators and teachers.
To provide guidance and counselling services on a large scale.
a) Major function of NCERT are as under/ Role of NCERT :
To monitor the administration of NIE /Regional colleges of Education.
To undertake aid, promote and co -ordinate research in all branches of
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58 To organize pre -service and in -service education programmes for
teachers
To prepare and publish study materia l for students and related
teacher’s handbooks.
To search talented students for the award of scholarship in science,
Technology and social sciences.
To undertake functions assigned by the Ministry of education (Now
HRD) for improving school –education
It is quite interesting to know how following constituent institutes works.
National Institute of Education (NIE)
In order to fulfill the objectives of NCERT, NIE Functions through 9
departments, 7 units and 2 cells as Under :
Departments of NIE :
Academic Dep ts.
Production Department.
Dept of Maths Education
Dept. of textbooks
Dept of Teacher education
Dept of Teaching Aids
Dept of Educational Psychology Publication Department.
Dept of Educational Psychology Workshop Department
Dept of Text - book s.
Units of NIE Cells of NIE
National Talent Search unit Primary Curriculum
Survey and Data processing Unit Journals cell
Policy, planning and Evaluation Unit
Library and Documentation Unit
Vocationalisation of Education Unit
Examinatio n Reform unit
Examination Research unit
b) Central institute of Educational Technology (CIET) :
Functions of CIET are as under –
To encourage the use of Educational technology in the spread of
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59 To organize training programmes in connection with s chool -
broadcasting and Educational Television.
To develop learning aids based on Educational technology.
C) Regional Institutes of Education (RIE) :
NCERT established Institutes of Education as model institutes in
different regions of the country.
Besides Teacher Education programme (4 years integrated B.Ed
Course), these college conduct programme with respect to in -service -
training, extension services and Research.
They run 4 years B.Ed. course with a view that Education is a
professional subject like engineering, medicine and B.Ed. student
should be trained in the content and methodology simultaneously.
This course offers B.Sc. B.Ed. (Science) and BA, B.Ed (languages)
degree.
These colleges conduct one -year B.Ed. course especially in science,
agricul ture, commerce and languages.
They also run M.Ed course.
These. Colleges are situated at Ajmer, Bhopal, Bhubaneswar and
Mysore as centers of excellence for the four regions of India.
The role of NCERT in Indian Education :
NCERT organizes / conducts vari ous programmes with respect to
Research, Development, Training, Extension -services, publishing
study - material, and evaluation.
It aims at qualitative improvement of school - education.
It aims at qualitative improvement of school - education rather than
quantitative expansion.
It wants to make our education relevant to national objectives and
social needs.
Besides researches conducted at NIE, NCERT offers financial aid to
research projects of the teachers.
It also organizes summer Institutes to school t eachers and teacher -
educators for attaining their professional growth. Through these
measures NCERT wants to achieve qualitative improvement in
Education.
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60 3.3.5 Rashtriy Madhyamic Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA)
The Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA) is a flagship scheme
of Government of India, to enhance access to secondary education and
improve its quality.
Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA) aims to increase the
enrolment rate by providing a secondary school within reasonable distance
of every home. It also aims to improve the quality of seconda ry education
by making all secondary schools conform to prescribed norms, removing
gender, socio -economic and disability barriers, and providing universal
access to secondary level education.
The implementation of the scheme to generate human capital and p rovide
sufficient conditions for accelerating growth and development and equity
as also quality of life for everyone in India. The scheme involves
multidimensional research, technical consulting, implementation and
funding support.
This scheme was launched in March, 2009 with the objective to enhance
access to secondary education and to improve its quality. The
implementation of the scheme started from 2009 -10. It is envisaged to
achieve an enrolment rate of 75% from 52.26% in 2005 -06 at secondary
stage of implementation of the scheme by providing a secondary school
within a reasonable distance of any habitation. The other objectives
include improving quality of education imparted at secondary level
through making all secondary schools conform to prescribed norms,
removing gender, socio -economic and disability barriers, providing
universal access to secondary level education by 2017, i.e., by the end of
12th Five Year Plan and achieving universal retention by 2020.
OBJECTIVES
The scheme envisages achieving a gross enrolment ratio of 75% from
52.26% in 2005 -06 for classes IX -X within 5 years of its
implementation, by providing a secondary school within reasonable
distance of any habitation.
Improve the quality of education imparted at secondary level by
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61 Remove gender, socio -economic and disability barriers.
Provide universal access to secondary level education
Enhance and universalize retention by 2020
Important physical facilities provided under the sche me are:
(i) Additional class rooms, (ii) Laboratories, (iii) Libraries, (iv) Art and
crafts room, (v) Toilet blocks, (vi) Drinking water provisions and (vii)
Residential Hostels for Teachers in remote areas.
Important quality interventions provided under t he scheme are:
(i) appointment of additional teachers to reduce PTR to 30:1, (ii) focus on
Science, Math and English education, (iii) In -service training of teachers,
(iv) science laboratories, (v) ICT enabled education, (vi) curriculum
reforms; and (vii) teaching learning reforms.
Important equity interventions provided in the scheme are:
(i) special focus in micro planning (ii) preference to Ashram schools for
upgradation (iii) preference to areas with concentration of SC/ST/Minority
for opening of school s (iv) special enrolment drive for the weaker section
(v) more female teachers in schools; and (vi) separate toilet blocks for
girls.
Implementation mechanism of the Scheme
The scheme is being implemented by the State government societies
established for i mplementation of the scheme. The central share is
released to the implementing agency directly. The applicable State share is
also released to the implementing agency by the respective State
Governments.
Revision of certain norms of the Scheme
The Governme nt of India has approved the following revised norms of
RMSA, with effect from 01.04.2013 :
To permit State/UT Governments to use State Schedule of Rates(SSOR)
or CPWD Rate, (whichever is lower) for construction of civil works
permissible under the RMSA.
To increase the Management, Monitoring Evaluation and Research
(MMER) from 2.2 percent to 4 percent of the total outlay under the
programme, with 0.5 percent of the 4 percent earmarked for national
level and the rest of the 3.5 percent as part of the State allocation. In
cases of States where even with this enhanced allocation of 3.5 percent
MMER would not be adequate and would hamper the activities under the
head, within the 3.5 percent of the overall State MMER component;
variations across State/UTs can be approved by the PAB, subject to a
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62 To subsume the other Centrally Sponsored Schemes of Secondary
Education – Information and Communication Technology (ICT)@
School, Girls’ Hostel, Inclusive Ed ucation for Disabled at Secondary
Stage(IEDSS) and Vocational Education(VE) in their existing form
under the Umbrella of RMSA.
To extend the benefits of RMSA to aided Secondary Schools (excluding
infrastructure support/core areas, i.e. Teacher’s salary a nd Staff salary)
for quality interventions as per RMSA umbrella schemes components for
aided schools.
To continue existing fund sharing pattern of 72:25 for the remaining of
the 12th Plan the period for non -NER States and 90:10 for NER States
(including Sikkim).
To authorize the RMSA Project Approval Board (PAB) of the Ministry of
Education to consider for approval Integrated Plan of the umbrella
scheme of RMSA, including the four subsumed Centrally Sponsored
Schemes of Secondary Education.
To authoriz e the release of funds to the RMSA State Implementation
Society directly for all components of the RMSA umbrella scheme.
Check your progress :
1) Discuss the functions of National agencies of teacher education.
3.4 AGENCIES AT THE INTERNATIONAL LEVEL :
3.4.1 UNESCO :
At no time in human history was the welfare of nations so closely linked
to the quality and outreach of their higher education systems and
institutions. (World Conference on Higher Education Partners, June 2003).
As the only United Nations agency with a mandate in higher education,
UNESCO facilitates the development of evidence -based policies in
response to new trends and developments in this field emphasizing its role
in achieving the Millennium Development Goals and particularly poverty
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63 The Organization fosters innovation to meet education and workforce
needs and examines ways of increasing higher education opportunities for
young people from vulnerable and disadvantaged groups.
It deals with cross -border higher education and quality assurance, with a
special focus on mobility and recognition of qualifications, and provides
tools to protect students and other stakeholders from low -quality provision
of higher education. UNESCO promotes policy dialogue and contributes
to enhanci ng quality education, strengthening research capacities in higher
education institutions, and knowledge sharing across borders.
Teacher education :
Global leadership on teachers,
Their status,
Their professional training,
Their management and administra tion and key policy issues.
The UNESCO/ILO Recommendations concerning the Status of
Teachers and provide the framework for the same.
The Teacher Training Initiative for Sub -Saharan Africa (TTISSA) is a
core initiative addressing key issues in the African context.
What UNESCO is doing for Teacher Training - (ROLE AND
FUNCTIONS) :
UNESCO promotes the development of a professionally -trained corps of
teachers who provided the human contact, understanding and judgment
necessary to prepare our children for the wo rld of tomorrow.
UNESCO and Teachers :
Good teachers are the cornerstone of quality education. On a daily basis,
teachers contribute to sustainable development by building its human
foundation – nurturing each child’s capacity and desire to learn. Without
teachers, Education for All (EFA) by 2015 would be an unobtainable
dream.
Teachers : Creating hope for tomorrow :
Teachers are at the very heart of UNESCO’s work. Each day, over 60
million teachers care for 1 billion children, cultivating their souls and
minds. Any process that attempts to improve the quality of education
promote peace and harmony and eliminate discrimination requires
teachers. Teachers work with children who will be the leaders of
tomorrow.
But for teachers to be effective, they must be w ell-trained, motivated,
have a decent work environment, good pay and an attractive career
path. UNESCO enables the world’s teachers by building on the
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64 teachers set in the 1966 and 199 7 recommendation concerning the
status of teachers and education personnel.
There is currently a severe shortage of teachers worldwide. UNESCO
helps adjust national policies to reverse teacher flight, teacher drop -out
and assists countries with the profess ionalization of “volunteer”
teachers recruited by hard -pressed governments to fill crisis -level
gaps.
UNESCO and Teacher Education :
Emphasizing the essential role teacher training and education policy
play in national development goals.
Producing and diss eminating policy guidelines on open and distance
learning, e -learning, and use of ICTs in teacher education.
Advocacy to improve the training and status of teachers worldwide.
Integrating international standards regarding HIV/AIDS and life skills
into nati onal teacher education policies.
Promoting exchange of good national practices and lessons learnt
within groups of countries with common teacher -related agendas
through networking and exchange.
UNESCO promotes the development of a professionally -trained co rps
of teachers who provided the human contact, understanding and
judgment necessary to prepare our children for the world of tomorrow.
UNESCO’s Teacher Training Initiative in Sub -Saharan Africa :
UNESCO’s Teacher Training Initiative is a new 10 -year proj ect to
dramatically improve teacher training capacities in 46 sub -Saharan
countries.
The programme is designed to assist countries to synchronize their
policies, teacher education, and labour practices with national
development priorities for Education for All and the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) through a series of four -year cycles.
Teacher training for the achievement of Education for All :
The acute shortage of qualified teachers has been identified as one of
the biggest challenges to EFA. If EFA is to be achieved by 2015, then
between 15 and 30 million more teachers are needed worldwide. In
sub-Saharan Africa, 4 million additional teachers will be needed by
2015 to meet the goal of Universal Primary Education alone.
Additional teachers will be ne eded for non -formal education and
literacy training, as well as in -service training of teachers.
UNESCO recognizes that teacher education is integrally related to
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65 learning outcomes, and a positive school environment. At the end of
four years, each country participating in the Teacher Training Initiative
is expected to integrate a comprehensive teacher education plan into
the national education plan, improve the quality of training in teach er
education, address the issues of severe teacher shortage and the status
of teachers, and implement an internationally prescribed standard and
national policy regarding HIV prevention education.
UNESCO’s teacher training activities :
Dynamic national i nformation mapping completed in Angola, Zambia,
and Niger and in progress in Burundi
Providing of a full -time country -designated expert in seventeen
countries for the first phase of the Initiative
Establishing and maintaining comprehensive and integrated national
databases concerning the state of teacher education
Assisting countries in analysing their teacher shortages and in
implementing policies and strategies to increase the number of
qualified teachers and professionalize currently under qualified
teachers
Encouraging consultations between governments and teachers in
planning and implementing fully EFA reforms
Sharing and distributing good teacher policies and practices
Coordinating relevant research to guide EFA policies and
disseminating good teacher policies and practices
UNESCO’s Teacher Training initiative is aimed at redirecting policies,
improving institutional capacity, improving teacher quality, and
stemming the teacher shortage in order to achieve Education for All by
2015.
The UNESCO Chair f or Teacher Education is an addition to the
UNITWIN / UNESCO Chairs Programme that is already well
established in the region. The Chair has been established in East
Chin a Normal University, Shanghai, PR China. The purpose of the
Chair is to promote an integrated system of research, training,
information and documentation in the field of teacher education and
training, and educational research. It will serve as a means of
facilitating collaboration between high -level, internationally
recognized researchers and teaching staff of the East China University
and other institutions in China, and South East Asia region.
Check your progress :
1) Discuss the role and functions of UNESCO as an International agency
of teacher education programme. munotes.in
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66 3.5 LET US SUM UP :
In this unit, we have discussed various agencies like SIE, SCERT,
NCERT, NCTE, UGC and UNESCO and their functions towards teacher
education at state, national and interna tional level. But it is the role of
yours to work out these planning’s into reality.
Unit End Exercises :
1. Explain the functions of MSCERT with relation to development of
teacher education.
2. Name various agencies at national level. explain the role o f NCTE
towards teacher education.
3. Write Short Notes on :
a) UGC
b) UNESCO
Suggested Readings :
1. Khan M.S. (1983) Teacher Education in India and abroad, New Delhi,
Ashish Publishing House.
2. Shankar V. (1984) Education of Indian Teachers, New Delhi Sterli ng
Publishers.
3. Patil V. (1996) ‘Teacher’s Handbook’ Pune, MSCERT.
4. Kadam – Chavan (2006) Primary Education : Problems and measures
Latur, Sanskar Prakashan.
5. http://www.dsek.nic.in/training/sie.html
6. https://www.education.gov.in/en/rmsa
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67 4
INNOVATIONS IN TEACHER
EDUCATION
Unit structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Models of Teaching - Concept and Importance
4.3 Models of Teacher Education
4.3.1 Behaviourist Approach
4.3.2 Competency based approach
4.3.3 Inquiry based approach
4.4 Reflective teaching –Concept and Importance
4.4.1 Strategies to promote reflective teaching
4.5 Innovation
4.5.1 Types of innovative practices
4.5.1.1 Activity -based learning
4.5.1.2 Experiential Learning:
4.5.1.3 Cooperative learning
4.5.1.4 Collaborat ive learning
4. 6 Let Us Sum Up
4.7 Unit End Exercise
4. 8 References
4.0 OBJECTIVES
After learning this unit you will be able ,
To create awareness about the concept of different models of teacher
education
To enable the students to understand the importance of different
models of teacher education munotes.in
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68 To create awareness about the concept and importance of reflective
teaching
To create awareness about the concept and importance of innovative
practices in teacher education
To create awareness about dif ferent types of innovative practices in
teacher education.
4.1 INTRODUCTION :
A teacher educator needs to be aware of different models of teaching to
make the teaching learning process more effective. There needs to be
different strategies which are to be followed by a teacher for making an
interactive class. Such strategies include different methodology,
techniques, approaches and innovations. The teacher educator needs to be
a reflective practitioner. The time is changing and change is inevitable. In
the 21st century the students needs modern methods and techniques. For
this a teacher needs to be updated and adopt to the need and demand of her
students. Hence different models of teaching and approaches are discussed
here.
4.2 MODELS OF TEACHING
Concept :
Models of teaching are really models of learning. As we help students
acquire information, ideas, skills, values, ways of thinking and means of
expressing themselves, we are also teaching them to learn. In fact, the
mostimportant outcome of instruction m ay be students' in creased
capabilities t o learn more effectively in the future, both because of the
knowledge and skill they have acquired and because they have mastered
the learning processes. How teaching is conducted has a large impact on
student's abil ities to educate themselves. Successful teachers are not
simply charismatic, persuasive or expert presenters. Rather, they present
powerful cognitive and social tasks to their students and teach the students
how to make productive use of them. Thus a major goal in teaching is to
create effective learners who draw information, ideas and wisdom from
their teachers and use learning the resources optim ally.
Importance of models of teaching :In a very real sense, increasing
aptitude to learn is a Contemporary o ne of the fundamental purposes of
models of teaching. Stu dents are likely to change as their repertoire of
learning strategies increases and they will be able to accomplish more and
more types of learning more effectively. Models of teaching thus serve as
tools which influence the capabilities and strength of our leaners. They are
evaluated not only by how well they achieve the specific objectives to
which they are directed but also by how they increase the ability to learn.
Let us now try to understand ea ch of the models.
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69 4.3 MODELS OF TEACHER EDUCATION
There are different types of models of teacher education. Some of these
models ae presented below. Each model has its own feature and
importance. Teachers need to be aware of such models and use it as per
the need and context to which it is to be used.
4.3.1 BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH :
According to behaviourism ,learning is a mechanical process of
associating the stimulus with response, which produces a new behaviour,
Such behaviours is strengthened by reinforc ement. Behaviourists view the
learner as a passive person, who responds to the stimuli. The behaviourist
school sees the mind as a “black box”, in the sense that a response to a
stimulus can be observed quantitatively ,totally ignoring the effect of
though t processes occurring in the mind. The school therefore looks at
overt behaviours that can be observed and measured as indicators of
learning. An obvious characteristic of the behaviourist model is its
emphasis on teachers’ and students’ observable develop ment and changes.
In an educational environment these are seen as representing effects and
outcome of teaching and the sign of learning and understanding among the
pupils. First of all, behaviour is composed of reactions and movements that
an organism give s and does in a certain situation. The term, behaviour is
mostly used for actions that can be observed from outside. The model is,
as th e name suggests, direct. It approaches academic content,
systematically. Its design is sha ped to generate and sustain mo tivation
through pacing and reinforcement. Through success and positive feedback
it tries to enhance one's self estee m. As a model, it is highly structured.
'The role of th e teacher, according to this model is to provide the
knowledge of results, help stud ents pace th emselves and reinforce
desirable behavio urs. Behaviourist learning approach mostly focuses on
how behaviours are acquired. Behaviourist approach claims that learning
can develop by means of establishing a connection between stimulus and
behavio ur, and that any behaviour can be changed through reinforcement.
Behavio urists address learning as a mechanic process and give particular
importance to objectivity. According to behaviourists, people are not good
or bad from birth. Experiences and environm ent constitute a human’s
personality. According to them, human brain can be compared to a black
box. Neither can we know what is going on in this black box nor do we
need to know it. What is important is not what is happening in this black
box, but what is important is what goes in this black box (input) and what
comes out of it (output). Outputs are objective, observable and
measurable. Inputs and outputs can be adjusted, arranged and controlled.
What is important is not the senses of a pers on, but the ref lection of them.
The pioneers of behaviourist approach are I. Pavlov, J.B. Watson, E.L.
Thorndike, E.R. Guthrie and B.F. Skinner.
Basic Concepts of Behavio urist Approach : While behaviourist approach
claims that the research subject of psychology should be observable
behaviours, this approach also claims that all behaviours have learning as
its base and that learning is conditioning. According to behaviourist munotes.in
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70 approach, there are conditionings at the base of human behaviours.
Behaviourist approach came out ag ainst concepts that express mental
processes such as mind and conscious.
The basic concepts of behaviourist approach are:
Conditioning : Behaviourist approach claims that learning takes place
through conditioning. Conditioning occurs in a way that an orga nism
matches a certain stimulus around with a certain reaction. When a reaction
is associated with a stimulus apart from a stimulus that naturally moves
itself, it is said to be conditioned. Conditioning can be divided into two
such as classical and operan t. Classical conditioning states that a neutral
stimulus is matched with an unconditioned reaction while operant
conditioning states that the possibility of an organism to display a certain
behaviour again through reinforcement. Behaviourist approach prefe rs
using a more general term, organism instead of human or individual. The
term, organism included both people and animals. Reaction Behaviourist
psychologists are also called S -R theorists. In this relationship, reaction is
a behaviour displayed by the or ganism to a stimulus. Stimulus is
composed of changes in the internal and external states that move the
organism. For a great part of behaviourist approach, this change of state is
mostly external. They may not deal with internal changes of state.
High -level Conditioning : Conditioning is associating a stimulus with a
reaction. High -level conditioning occurs when an organism is provided to
give reaction to a new stimulus as a result of associating a different
stimulus with the related stimulus .
Reinforcement and Punishment Reinforcement is the process of
increasing the possibility of an organism to display behaviour to a certain
stimulus once more. The stimulus used in this process is called reinforce.
Rein forcers help a motivation of the organism to be sati sfied at least to
some extent. The responses to an organism’s behaviour may be three
kinds: (a) reinforcement, (b) punishment and (c) not reinforcing. While
reinforcement increases the possibility of behaviour to be displayed once
more, punishment is used to increase the possibility of not displaying a
certain behaviour. On the other hand, not reinforcing means not giving any
response and it generally decreases the possibility of behaviour to be
repeated.
In general, behaviourists are against punishment. Because punishment
does not give any clue to the organism about which behaviour it should
display as well as causing some negative feelings. Or, in more familiar
words, punishment teaches what should not be done rather than teaching
what should be done. Su ch a case is not included in definitions of learning
and education. Because education tries to teach a student what she/he
should do rather than what she/he shouldn’t do. If we come to think from
the point of organism, reinforcement guides organism about w hat it should
do while punishment does not include a guide about what to do. Moreover,
the studies have shown that reinforcement is more efficient than
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71 daily language, is divided into two a s positive and negative. While
positive reinforcement means adding a nice stimulus to the situation in
which the organism lives, negative reinforcement means eliminating a bad
stimulus from the situation. From the point of student, giving chocolate to
a student who displays a good behaviour is positive reinforcement.
Allowing a prisoner who displays the expected behaviours in jail to go
home for the weekend is negative reinforcement, because the prisoner is
allowed to avoid prison or to get rid of the limit ations on his/her freedom
(for a certain time). Punishment is also accepted to be in two types. In the
first type of punishment, an unpleasant stimulus is added to the situation in
which an organism lives while in the second type of punishment, a
pleasant stimulus is eliminated from the environment. It is the first type of
punishment if a student who doesn’t do his/her homework suffers from
physical violence while it is the second type of punishment if his/her toys
are grabbed. Extinction “Repetitions that are not reinforced tend to fade
away.” Conditioning should be reinforced at least from time to time in
order to continue after it is established. When behaviour is not reinforced,
it tends to disappear after a time.
Generalization Generalization is calle d an organism’s displaying the
same conditioned reaction to a stimulus similar to the one to which the
organism naturally responses. Discrimination It expresses organism’s
ability to differentiate two separate stimuli. The process of discrimination
should be processed especially when stimuli are given the same reactions.
Otherwise, the organism will tend to give the same reactions to both of the
stimuli even if they are different.
Reinforcement ratio Another concept of behaviourism is reinforcement
ratio. Skinner defined different applications of rewarding an organism
depending on time and behaviour. Carrying out reinforcement with
variable and steady intervals and ratio is called application of
reinforcement ratio.
Spontaneous return A forgotten behaviour starts to be displayed again
after a certain time. Behaviour fades away when it is not reinforced, but it
has also been observed that after a certain time, a learnt behaviour starts to
be displayed again. This is called spontaneous return.
Behavioural ap proaches to learning :
Common behavioural approaches to learning are as follows.
1) The learner takes on a predominantly passive and reactive role.
2) Instruction is structured and systematic.
3) Concrete and defined instructional goals, objectives and strategies
aimed at learners in general and not on the individual learner.
4) Learning can be measured.
5) It assumes that a well planned instructional intervention can result in a
desired learning outcome.
6) Focus on simplification ( start with easy and progress to more
difficult)
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72 Implications of behaviouristic model of teaching.
1) Learners should be told the explicit outcomes of the learning, so that
they can set expectations and can judge for themselves whether or not
they have achieved t he outcome of the day’s lesson.
2) Learners must be tested to determine whether or not they have
achieved the learning outcome. Testing and assessment should be
integrated into the learning sequence to check the learner’s
achievement level and to provide app ropriate feedback.
3) The learning materials must be sequenced appropriately to promote
learning. The sequencing could take the form of simple to comple x,
known to unknown and knowledge to application.
4) learners must be provided with feedback so that they ca n monitor how
they are doing and take corrective action if required.
5) The technique of reinforcement and punishment have been employed
by the teachers in the classroom to promote desirable behaviour and
discourage unwanted behaviour of the learners.
Teachi ng can be assessed and understood by what the teacher does in the
classroom and what visible effects the teacher’s work has on the pupil’s
learning, understanding ,intellectual growth or skills. If teaching is an art,
then from behaviourist perspective it is closely related with performance
and result. Good teaching has a positive influence on the pupils. For
teaching and teacher education it is said that if a very good teacher is
found then this teacher can be used as a model and it can be found out
what i s the secret of this teachers’ teaching ability.
4.3.2 Competency Based Approach
Competency or the outcome based approach to teacher education
developed in the 60’s and 70’s.this approach has a mechanistic view of the
child and of what should be taught to the child. For the proponents of this
approach knowledge comprises of discrete competencies that can be
taught and assessed separately.
According to Houston and Howsam (1972), a competency based teacher
education program specifies the competencies to be demons trated by the
student's performance of the competency, and holds the student
accountable for meeting that criteria. Those competencies are the attitudes,
understandings, skills, and behaviors that facilitate intellectual, social,
emotional, and physical gr owth in children. Three kinds of criteria are
used in assessing the student's competency: (I) knowledge criteria for the
student's cognitive understandings; (2) performance criteria for his
teaching behaviors; and (3) product criteria, which assess his tea ching
effectiveness by examining the achievements of his pupils. Competency -
based programs emphasize the use of performance and product criteria,
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73 Competency based teacher education model accord ing to leading theories
refers toa type of training that focuses on a teacher’s acquisition of
specific competencies. Teachers essentially need two kinds of
competencies.
1) Competencies in knowledge and skills, which include the professional
knowledge base r egarding learning disabilities and
2) Competencies in human relationship abilities, such as cooperation
,which require teachers to be helpful, deferential ,empathic and open.
Houston and Clark (2000)identified and categorized Competency base
teacher educatio n into five categories.
1) Cognitive competencies. Which relate to knowledge and
intellectual skills and abilities that are expected of the learners.
2) Performance competencies, wherein the learner demonstrates that
he or she can do something.
3) Consequ ence competencies, to bring change in others.
4) Affective competencies, which are the expected attitude and values
that are more difficult to assess.
5) Exploratory competencies, which include activities that provide
opportunities for teachers to learn mo re about teaching.
There are several essential characteristics that a competency - based
teacher education program advocates. One of these characteristics is
emphasis on field work. The trend in teacher education is to place
increasing emphasis on the use of performance and product criteria and
less reliance on the traditional knowledge, or course completion, criterion
(Cooper, 1972). Competency -based programs tend to be reality oriented;
the students spend a great deal of time in the schools interacting wi th
children, and many of their competencies are evaluated in that setting.
Another desirable characteristic of a teacher education program is
personalized instruction. This means active involvement of the student in
the learning process. Th e flexibility of the competency based program
allows students a choice of goals and objectives within the framework of
specified college of education goals. This increases their chances of
becoming independent self -directed, and continuing learners. This model
enables tea chers to translate the principles and processes of personalized
instruction to the education of their students .
In a competency -based program achievement is held constant in a sense,
and time varies . The program specifies the criteria levels at which
competencies are achieved, and the student moves through the program at
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74 At the heart of the competency -based teacher education program ^ is the
instructional module. An instructional module can be de fined as a set of
learning activities intended to facilitate the learner's acquisition and
demonstration of a particular competency or particular competencies .
Competency -based programs tend to be more field -oriented than
traditional programs; consequently , students spend a great deal of time in
the public schools interacting with children and many of their
competencies are evaluated in that setting. In competency -based programs
clearly stated objectives are used to specify the competencies to be
acquired b y the student.
i) Inquiry is trying to seek information. Inquiry -oriented teacher
education model : is an approach to instruction that begins with a
question. Students construct their own knowledge as they engage in
a variety of experiences that provide them an opportunity to
investigate solutions. Inquiry in education can be transformative. It
can be used
As a process for constructing curriculum in the classroom.
As a process of questioning and knowledge building.
As a means through which research is accompl ished.
As means to discover through construction, narration, discovery and
revelation.
As a means to generate or enhance practical knowledge and
As a way of knowing what is happening in the community sice
purpose of inquiry is both social and will have pol icy implications.
To make student teachers critical thinkers an creative problem
solvers.
4.3.3 Inquiry -oriented Teacher Education Model
It starts by posing questions, problems or scenarios —rather than simply
presenting established facts or portraying a s mooth path to knowledge.
The process is often assisted by a facilitator . Inquirers will identify and
research issues and questions to develop their knowledge or solutions.
Inquiry -based learning is closely related to problem -based learning , and
is generally used in small scale investigations and projects, as well
as research . Inquiry -based instruction allows students to develop and
practice critical thinking skills. Inquiry -based instruction is “a teaching
method that combines the curiosity of students and the scientific method
to enhance the development of critical thinking skills.” Inquiry -based
learning promotes engagement, curiosity, and experimentation. Rather
than being ‘instructed to,’ students are empowered to explore subjects by
asking questions and finding or creating solutions. It’s more a philosophy
and general approach to education than a strict set of rules and guidelines.
Characteristics of Inquiry based teacher education Model:
Specific learning processes that students engage in during inquiry -learning
include : munotes.in
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75 Creating questions of their own
Obtaining supporting evidence to answer the question(s)
Explaining the evidence collected
Connecting the explanation to the knowledge obtained from the
investigative process
Creating an argument and justification for the explanation
Inquiry learning involves developing questions, making observations,
doing research to find out what information is already recorded,
developing methods for experiments, developing instruments for data
collection, collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data, outlining possible
explanations and creating predictions for future study
How Can Inquiry -Based Teaching Be Implemented?
Teachers play a vital role in ad apting the inquiry process to the knowledge
and ability level of their students. When using inquiry -based lessons,
teachers are responsible for
1. Starting the inquiry process;
2. Promoting student dialog;
3. Transitioning between small groups and class room discussions;
4. Intervening to clear misconceptions or develop students’ understanding
of content material; 5. Modeling scientific procedures and attitudes; and,
6. Utilizing student experiences to create new content knowledge.
Based on the objectiv es of the lesson and the abilities of the students,
teachers must decide how much guidance they will provide. Regardless of
the amount of assistance that teachers provide, the fundamental goal of
inquiry is student engagement during the learning process. W hen
incorporating inquiry -based methods into the classroom, educators should
ensure that each of the six stages of the inquiry cycle, is complete.
Six Stages of the Inquiry Cycle
1. Inquisition —stating a “what if ” or “I wonder” question to be
investigate d
2. Acquisition —brainstorming possible procedures
3. Supposition —identifying an “I think” statement to test
4. Implementation —designing and carrying out a plan
5. Summation —collecting evidence and drawing conclusions .
6. Exhibition —sharing and communi cation results
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76 Importance of Inquiry oriented teacher education model:
This kind of instruction is student -led and requires meaningful
participation and promotes student engagement.
Students perform better on standardized tests
A more positive school com munity and learning environment
A school culture that promotes academic achievement and deters
boredom
Engaged students are more emotionally, behaviourally, and
intellectually invested in their own learning.
In a more traditional lecture lesson, teachers have f ewer chances to
watch students work. This means they have fewer opportunities to
correct inaccuracies or misconceptions and fewer chances to guide
skill development and learning.
For example, a math teacher can see how students work through
problem -solving during inquiry lessons. Teachers in math may
demonstrate how to solve problems, but by watching students come up
with solutions, they’re able to get a better understanding of the steps it
took to get there.
It allows the instructor to correct and guide. B ut it also lets them see
how each student views a problem and its solution in a unique way.
Teachers are then able to gain a deeper understanding of how their
students think and learn.
The role teachers play in inquiry -oriented model encompasses several
factors:
Teachers begin the inquiry process by introducing topics and
encouraging questioning.
They promote and guide focused dialogue and discussion among
students attempting to answer their questions.
The teacher leads students between small -group and whol e-
classroom discussions. They determine the transition.
Teachers pay attention to discussions and clarify
misconceptions. They add information to further develop
students’ understanding of the material.
Teachers model inquiry behaviours for students.
They bring student experiences into the discussion to make
learning more relevant.
The amount of guidance and leading a teacher provides may vary.
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77 and concepts. Additionally, by knowing how their students respond
teachers can create truly engaging learning experiences.
4.4 REFLECTIVE TEACHING : CONCEPT AND
MEANING
“We do not learn from experience…we learn from reflecting on
experience.” - John Dewey
Reflective practice is ‘learning thro ugh and from experience towards
gaining new insights of self and practice’ (Finlay, 2008).
Reflective practice is generally seen as a process in which individuals go
back over their experiences, critically envision their past actions and the
situations (Al Mahmud, 2013). In the educational field, reflective practice
refers to “making informed and logical decisions on educational matters,
then assessing the consequences of those decisions” (Taggart & Wilson,
1998, p.2). It is a thought and an evaluation of p revious experiences in
order to take further actions. Thus, it is understood that with the help of
reflective practice, people look back on experiences, people, and
situations, evaluate all these and gain from them in educational sense
(Çimer, Odabaşı -Çimer&Vekli, 2013). Jasper (2003) also suggests that
basically, reflective practice is learning by thinking about the things that
people experience and looking at those from a different perspective, which
helps them to take further steps. In this regard, reflective practice
necessitates critical thinking, developing self -awareness, using individual
knowledge, and resolving problems (Chant, Heffner &Bennett, 2004).
Moreover, it promotes the harmony of new experiences with the existing
beliefs (Kumari, 2014).
“A reflective teacher:
• examines, frames, and attempts to solve the dilemmas of classroom
practice;
• is aware of and questions the assumptions and values he or she brings
to teaching;
• is attentive to the institutional and cultural contexts in which he or she
teaches;
• takes part in curriculum development and involved in school change
efforts; and
• takes responsibility for his or her own professional development”
Reflective teaching is a more systematic process of collecting, recording
and analysing a teacher’s thoughts and observations, as well as those of
their students, and then go ing on to making changes. It’s not a once and
done approach to CPD, but a cyclical process that needs to occur regularly
if it is to have an impact. Although critical reflection plays an important
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78 and we can easily forget to take a step back, look at our practice from a
different perspective and identify areas of improvement to better support
our pupils’ learning experience. Reflective teaching can make all the
difference when you co nsider that many teachers have good days;
however, many more teachers feel overwhelmed and do not know how to
cope at the end of a very stressful and gruelling day. In this case, reflective
teaching is an imperative tool for teachers. Reflective teaching
involves examining one's underlying beliefs about teaching and
learning and one's alignment with actual classroom practice before ,
during and after a course is taught. When teaching reflectively, instructors
think critically about their teaching and look fo r evidence of effective
teaching. Reflective teaching is a process whereby teachers reflect on
their teaching practices in order to examine the overall effectiveness
of their instructive approaches. Improvement or change in teaching
methods may be required , depending on the outcome of this analytical
process, which is based on critical reflection .
Definition :
Reflective teaching is a process where teachers think over their teaching
practices, analyzing how something was taught and how the practice
might b e improved or changed for better learning outcomes. Some points
of consideration in the reflection process might be what is currently being
done, why it's being done and how well students are learning.
The reflective teaching process can be an excellent w ay for new and
seasoned teachers to improve their teaching methods and overall mental
health. So you may be asking yourself, how do I integrate this method of
reflective teaching and self -assessment into my already very busy
schedule? The next few sections will provide you with some practical
ideas and suggestions, along with ways you can use a reflective teaching
journal to document your self -reflective work.
4.4.1 Strategies for Promoting Reflective Teaching Practices
Being reflective requires a process, and in order to become an effective
reflective practitioner, there are various tools to be employed. Three of
these reflective tools are namely reflective diaries, reflective video
analysis, and reflective peer collaborations/sessions in order to help to
gain insights into the role of these reflective tools in teaching and how
these tools can promote teachers’ growth.
Reflective Diaries : A reflective diary or journal is defined as “typically a
notebook, booklet of blank pages, or any other source for studen ts to
record thoughts, reactions to learning experiences, and even innermost
fears about a learning activity” (Hiemstra, 2001, p.19). According to
Gallego (2014: 97), a reflective diary is “a potential avenue for raising
awareness and enhancing the practic e of experienced teachers as well as
advancing the professional development of novice teachers”. Reflective
diaries or journals are accepted as one of the invaluable tools that foster
reflective practice in the teaching field. Diary provides a valuable mea ns
of presenting a record of personal, important learning and teaching munotes.in
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79 experiences that have occurred, offering teachers an opportunity to
indicate their self -development. Keeping a diary assists in systematically
writing down particular events and feeling s about their experiences, and
returning to these recorded experiences when it is wanted. Hence,
reflective journals can be considered as a way to re -think over the
memories, prevent them from being forgotten, and make the events
concrete In addition to th e impact of diary writing on remembering and
writing down past experiences, diaries also help individuals to discuss
their concerns and problems, share their opinions, and engage in
reflective thinking. Diaries aid teachers to question and monitor what th ey
do in their teaching practices. In this way, teachers consciously examine
and analyze their teaching practices. As a consequence of this questioning
and analysis, a reflective diary allows for creating awareness and fostering
the professional practices of teachers Writing a diary promotes teachers’
self-awareness, helps them to gain consciousness about some issues
related to teaching, and enhances their reasoning abilities. Reflective
journaling enables teachers to strengthen their practices, raise aware ness
of and gain understanding about their own beliefs and knowledge about
language teaching.
Accordingly, teachers’ awareness of their teaching beliefs and knowledge
allows them to realize their strengths and weaknesses, and therefore,
advance their teac hing practices and broaden their perspectives What is
more, writing a regular diary can assist teachers to develop a more
profound understanding of their teaching styles, investigate their actions
and values, and more confidently look back on their teachin g experiences.
This reflective tool as beneficial for helping teachers in demanding
situations and gaining insights into the difficulties confronted in teaching
contexts. Critically reflecting upon classroom processes through a diary
allows for gaining aut onomy and improving decision -making skills. She
also underlines the impact of keeping a diary on becoming more sensitive
to students’ needs. In addition to the many advantages of diary writing,
Diary writing is viewed as an effective method that promotes m eaningful
reflection and increases critical thought on previous teaching experiences.
In short, a diary creates a vital opportunity for teachers to critically look
back on important incidents and details in the classroom, have a deeper
understanding of the ir skills and practices, and guide them in evaluating
their actions and in engaging in critical reflection.
Reflective Video Analysis As well as reflective diaries, video analysis of
actual teaching also emerges as another profitable tool that helps for
engaging in reflective practice for the sake of enhancing teaching
practices. Videos, as a part of reflective teaching, are regarded to be ‘an
innovative, effective and objectivity -driven tool” Reflective video analysis
can be defined as a way for teachers to record their own teaching, then
watch and reflect on their teaching performances for the purpose of
increasing the quality of their teaching. Increasing literature highlights the
use of videos as a powerful way of improving teachers’ ability, becoming
more conscious of their own teaching, and encouraging reflective
teaching. The use of videos helps teachers to make a critical analysis of
their teaching in detail and reflect on that and enhances teachers’ munotes.in
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80 awareness about teaching and learning .As well as increasing awareness
and reflection among teachers, the use of videos in teaching provides
teachers with other benefits in terms of being more reflective and effective
teachers. For example, videos offer an opportunity to understand the link
between theor y and practice, and make an analysis of the teaching and
learning processes by allowing to “replay, freeze, or view actions frame by
frame”.
In this way, teachers realize certain aspects of their teaching and compare
what they remember about their perform ance after the class and what they
objectively see in the videos. That is, videos are considered as a “mirror”
to one’s own teaching since they reveal what really happens in the
classroom as an authentic, real -world. Further, video -captured episodes of
teaching allow teachers to “keep a record of and investigate their actual
performance in detail”, and “help teachers to track their own progress”. In
this way, teachers have a great chance of analyzing, reviewing, and
reflecting upon their individual, unique teaching practices. With the help
of this analysis and evaluation through videos, teachers can identify their
problematic areas, strengths, and weaknesses in their teaching
performances .Video self -analysis may offer a window into teachers’
actual thinking , which aids researchers to understand the relationship
between their beliefs and actions. Video use is an advantageous medium
for teachers to develop a more critically reflective approach, ascertain
their own teaching behaviors in the classroom, and take actions for
improving their professional actions..Video use is one of the effective
ways of fostering reflective thinking, bringing about promising changes,
creating awareness about one’s individual teaching performances, and thus
expanding teacher profess ional development.
Reflective Peer Collaboration Similar to reflective diaries and video
recordings, reflective peer collaboration or session is a core way of
engaging in critical reflection. During reflective peer sessions, teachers
work and discuss toge ther, produce ideas, interact with one another on
their teaching practices, and learn from each other. In this process,
communication is an integral part of this reflection. The process that
includes actively evaluating oneself ensures a supportive communi cation
for professional improvement In this regard, sharing with peers plays a
powerful role in exchanging ideas and facilitating reflective thinking .
Reflective peer collaboration is also assumed to have a number of benefits
for teacher development. For example, it helps to explore ideas about
teaching and learning, enables reflection upon past experiences, enhances
teacher quality, and accordingly improves the teaching and learning
process. Through peer sessions, teachers have a chance to become more
conscious of their beliefs and assumptions and investigate the causes of
these assumptions. In addition, it promotes both self -evaluation and
collaboration for empowering teaching and facilitating learning.
collaborative reflection promotes student achievemen t by promoting the
quality of teachers’ practices as well. collaboration with colleagues can
open the way for continuous development and gaining more self -
confidence. Besides, working together with other colleagues ‘triggers the
sharing of experiences abou t cases and fosters the building of mutual munotes.in
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81 understanding of common problems’ Therefore, it allows for critically
reflecting on classroom problems, trying out new ideas and solutions,
creating new ways of instruction, providing fresh viewpoints, reviewing
each other’s actions, and stimulating teacher growth Similar to reflective
diaries and reflective video analysis, teacher collaboration can be also
challenging.. It is not only working together but also a process of
increasing cooperation with the help of c areful planning and practice for
the sake of being more reflective practitioners.
7 Reflection activities for teachers:
The ratio of interaction - How much are children responding to the
teacher, versus how much they are talking to them? Is there a dialogu e
of learning in their classroom or is the talking mainly one -sided?
Growth vs. fixed mindset - The way a teacher responds to their
students can inspire either a fixed or growth mindset. Praising students
for being 'smart' or 'bright' encourages fixed mind sets whilst
recognising when they have persistently worked hard promotes growth
mindsets.
Consistent corrections - Is the teacher correcting the students
consistently? Teachers should avoid inconsistency; such as stopping a
side conversation one day but i gnoring it the next, as this will cause
confusion with students and the feeling that the teacher is being unfair.
Opportunities to respond - Is the teacher giving the students enough
opportunities to respond to what they are learning? Responses can include
asking students to answer questions, promoting the use of resources such
as whiteboards or asking students to discuss what they have learnt with
their neighbour.
Type and level of questions - Do the questions the teacher is asking
match the method of lear ning that they want to foster in their
classroom? The type of questions they ask their students can include
open or closed, their opinion on certain topics, or right or wrong. Is the
level of questions they're asking appropriate for the students' level of
learning?
Instructional vs. non -instructional time - The more students are
engaged in learning activities, the more they will learn. Teachers
should try to keep track of how much time they give to learning
activities compared to how much is spent on other transitional
things such as handing out resources or collecting work at the end
of the lesson.
Teacher talk vs. student talk - Depending on the topic, teachers
must decide how much students should be talking about what
they're learning compared with how mu ch they should be talking to
them.
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82 4.5 INNOVATION
Concept :Innovation is usually understood as the introduction of
something new and useful, like introducing of new methods, techniques,
or practices or new or altered products and services .Schools or teac her
education institutions can carry out innovations or experimentation on any
aspect of their work related to teaching –learning ,training or management
of schools in order to improve efficiency of the institution to overcome
problem and difficulties, the y face in day to day functioning .The present
structure of teacher education is supported by a network of national
,provincial and district level resource institutions working together to
enhance the quality and effectiveness of teacher preparation program s at
the pre -service level and also through in –service programs for serving
teachers throughout the country .Teacher education is now becoming more
challenging to the emerging demands from the school system. Because
the changing educational needs of the student and advancement in
technology has wider the area of responsibilities of the teacher. Now
teacher has to perform various role likeencouraging, Supporting and
facilitating in teaching –learning situations which enables learners
(students) to discover their talents, to realize their physical and intellectual
potentialities to the fullest, to develop character and desirable social and
human values to function as responsible citizens.
Meaning and Concept of Innovative Practices in Teacher Education
Ther e is wide variation among countries with regard to what they believe
constitutes an innovation, reform or development in the teaching learning
process .For example, the use of colour chalk and basic audio –visual
materials may be regarded as being as educa tional innovation in some
developing regions, whereas in other more affluent countries innovations
may refer to the development and use of sophisticated technologies and
methods, practices etc. In our country also, this electronic technology has
dramatical ly penetrated in to every area of our society and every aspect of
our social and cultural lives. There has been a tremendous shift in the
ways and means of education services over the years.
Need and importance of innovative practices: Research and innovat ions
play an important role in improving the quality of teachers and the training
imparted to them for all levels of teaching. They demand to introduce new
ideas and practices in classroom transaction and other curricular and co -
curricular activities .The teachers effectiveness can be enhanced with good
leadership and appropriate teaching methodologies .The purpose of
teacher education is to prepare teachers who have professional
competencies to lead the nation forward through their manifold roles. The
biggest challenge any teacher faces is capturing the students attention,
and putting across ideas in such a way that it stays with them long after
they have left the classroom .For this to happen, classroom experience
should be redefined and innovative ideas that make teaching methods
more effective should be implemented .So here are innovative ideas that
will help teachers reinvent their teaching methods and make their classes
interesting (1) Creative teaching (2) Audio & Video Aids (3) “Real –munotes.in
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83 World” Learning (4) Brainstorm (5) Classes Outside the Classroom (6)
Role Play (7) Strong -board Teaching (8) Stimulating Classroom
Environment (9) Work Together As a Team
4.5.1 Types of Innovative practices in teacher education
4.5.1.1 Activity -based learning
Activitie s are meant to provide varied experiences to the pupil to facilitate
the acquisition of knowledge, experience, skills and attitudes.
Meaning :Anything which is carried out with a purpose in a social
environment involving physical and mental action is calle d as activity.
Activity -Based Learning is a type of teaching where children learn
at their own pace through various supervised activities . It is a more
interactive and engaging method of teaching children. It allows for
monitoring factors such as coordinat ion, speech, motor skills and
social skills amongst other important factors. The method of learning
by doing activities is known as activity -based learning. Rather
than merely asking children to understand and write notes,
activity -based learning allows stu dents to personally engage in
their own learning environment through meaningful
experiences like problem -solving and autonomous inquiry. This
helps to empower children with problem -solving, logical
thinking, and imagination skills by enabling them to disco ver,
practise, and think better through activity -based strategies. It is
based on effective student teacher interaction.
Importance of activity based le arning :Active learning encourages
students to inquire, explore, experiment, collaborate and experience
the joy of learning . In this technique the role of teachers shifts from
that of delivering knowledge to that of facilitating and motivating.
Activity Based Learning (ABL) - a child -centric and activity -based
pedagogy - provides an example of an approach t hat has been adopted
in primary schools in certain parts of India, taking root in Tamil Nadu
and subsequently spreading to other Indian states as well as to others
parts of the developing world. The main feature of this approach is that
learning is self -initiated, independent and at an individual pace. Unlike
a standard classroom setting, it allows for multi -age and multi -grade
learning to occur. Again, unlike a standard classroom setting, each
child progresses at their own pace along what is called a ‘lear ning
ladder’. The concept of a learning ladder is that each rung depicts
mastery of a given competency which a child must achieve before
progressing on to the next milestone. This pedagogical approach is
more conducive to supporting differentiated learning whilst allowing
the teacher to deal with mixed -ability classes. This pedagogy is more
amenable to situations where there is a dearth of teachers or where
their levels of education and training are low.
The concentration in activity -based learning is on a utonomous inquiry and
study. This teaching approach allows students to be critically inquisitive,
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84 work through their own or in organized teams. This self -directed learning
method, in particular, facilitates their knowledge accumulation both within
and outside of the educational system.
The child builds self - confidence and develops understanding through
work and play in groups.
Activities can be of the following types
1) Exploratory
2) Constructive -Experience getting
3) Expressional -presentation
4.5.1.2 Experiential Learning:
Experiential learning is a teaching – learning strategy where in learners
learn by doing practically by appreciating the realworld relevance of the
subject wh ich helps the students to retain the concepts for a longer period.
Such learning by nature, enables the development of a variety of
capabilities, such as planning, team work, coping with stressful situations,
responsibility and leadership (Davidovitch, N., Yavich, R., Keller, N.,
2014).
The term ‘experiential learning’ is being used with two connotations. On
the one hand, it is used to describe the learning where a student acquires
and applies knowledge, skills and feelings in an immediate and relevant
setting. It thus involves a ‘direct encounter with the phenomena being
studied rather than merely thinking about the encounter, or only
considering the possibility of doing something about it”
The second connotation of experiential learning is “education that occurs
as a direct participation in the events of life” (Houle, 1980). Unlike in the
first connotation, learning here is not sponsored by some formal
educational institution but is undertaken by people themselves. It is
learning that is achieved through r eflection upon everyday experience and
is the way that most of us do our learning.
Morris T. Keeton and Pamela J. Tate (1978) offered this definition of
experiential learning: “[L]earning in which the learner is directly in touch
with the realities being s tudied. It is contrasted with the learner who only
reads about, hears about, talks about, or writes about these realities but
never comes into contact with them as part of the learning process”
Boud, Cohen and Walker (1993) believed that experiential learn ing is
premised on a set of assumptions about learning from experience that may
be organised as: experience is the foundation of, and the stimulus for,
learning learners actively construct their own experience learning is a
holistic process learnin g is socially and culturally constructed learning
is influenced by the socio -emotional context in which it occurs. munotes.in
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85 Experiential learning theory is a dynamic view of learning based on a
learning cycle driven by the resolution of the dual dialectics of
action/reflection and experience/abstraction
Kolb’s Experiential Learning theory is one of the most popular and
most frequently cited educational theories.The Experiential Learning
theory involves studying in four phases connected with doing, sensing,
observi ng, reflecting, thinking and planning.According to Kolb, learning is
cyclical in nature. The four -component cyclical mode of learning is known
as the ‘Kolb Learning Cycle’.
For successful learning, the learner should involve actively in all the four
modes , i.e. Concrete experience (CE), reflective observation (RO),
abstract conceptualization (AC) and active experimentation. The first
stage requires the learner to be open minded towards new experiences and
fully immerse themselves in gaining knowledge from the experience. The
second stage is reflective observation, which is indispensable to any
successful learning. As the stage suggests, the learner must reflect on the
experience and observe any meaningful knowledge from various
perspectives. This is followe d by the abstract conceptualization stage
where the knowledge gained from the two stages are integrated. In other
words, integrate their observations with their past experience and create
concepts. The last stage in the experiential cycle is the active
experimentation, in which the learner transforms the new knowledge
gained from observing and reflecting on the experience to theories that
could be applied in making decisions and problem solving.
Importance of experiential learning: Experiential learning pla ces the
attention on the learners. Experiential learning also encourages teaching
that diverges from the traditional approach to pragmatic learning. In the
traditional approach, the teacher is the central stream of information who
drills the learners in wh at they have to accomplish. This method of
teaching does not equip learners with the skills and competencies to cope
in an ever -changing world .Learners need to develop critical thinking and
life-long learning skills. Teachers must therefore rethink whethe r their
strategies are in line with teaching learners the necessary Life Sciences’
skills. It is important that teaching and learning styles are congruent so
that maximum learning can take place. Learners are able to integrate many
disciplines (performing arts, music, information and communication
technology, education, engineering, performing arts, among others) and
gain numerous skills while enjoying what they do. I’m not sitting you
down here to tell you anything, go out there and experience life, then
come in here and say what you experienced so we can place your unique
experience in an already partially understood, accepted and archived
framework so you are better able to appreciate it and pass it on to the next
generation. Successful experiential lear ners have the capacity and
willingness to reorder or alter their conception of any given topic. Because
they can reason for themselves they are successfully able to explain and
clearly articulate their position. They tend to undertake tasks
independently a nd manage themselves without the need for an instructor,
whether they operate alone or in a group. munotes.in
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86 1. Use of multiple senses can increase retention of what is learned
2. Multiple teaching/learning methods can be integrated to maximise
creativity and flexi bility
3. Client -centred learning becomes the focus
4. The process of discovery of knowledge and solutions builds
competence and confidence
5. Learning is more fun for both students and teachers
6. If clients are more actively engaged in learning, they have a greater
stake in the outcome of what they learn and are less likely to become
discipline problems
7. Students can learn life skills that will be used over and over.
Teaching incorporates technology in to teaching learning methods to
create a rich l earning experience for students and a rewarding teaching
experience for faculty. With the increase of the globalization, educators
are required to have the ability to adapt to technological changes and meet
the new needs to solve complex problems. To addre ss this challenge,
active methods of teaching and learning are required with a particular
emphasis on making the connection between theory and practical
application that helps the students to understand the content of the course.
With the use of these acti ve methods, students are required to evaluate
project scenarios with a diverse range of external and internal variables
that require both technical and non -technical skills during the solution
process. So, the use of active methods improves the understatin g of basic
concepts, encourages deep and creative learning, and develops teamwork
and communication skills, responsibility and leadership .
Six characteristics of experiential learning :
1. Learning is best conceived as a process, not in terms of outcomes.
Although punctuated by knowledge milestones, learning does not end
at an outcome, nor is it always evidenced in performance. Rather,
learning occurs through the course of connected experiences in which
knowledge is modified and re -formed. As Dewey suggest s,
“…education must be conceived as a continuing reconstruction of
experience: … the process and goal of education are one and the same
thing” (1897, p. 79). 5
2. All learning is re -learning. Learning is best facilitated by a process that
draws out the l earners’ beliefs and ideas about a topic so that they can
be examined, tested and integrated with new, more refined ideas.
Piaget called this proposition constructivism —individuals construct
their knowledge of the world based on their experience.
3. Learn ing requires the resolution of conflicts between dialectically
opposed modes of adaptation to the world. Conflict, differences, and
disagreement are what drive the learning process. These tensions are munotes.in
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87 resolved in iterations of movement back and forth betwe en opposing
modes of reflection and action and feeling and thinking.
4. Learning is a holistic process of adaptation. Learning is not just the
result of cognition but involves the integrated functioning of the total
person —thinking, feeling, perceiving an d behaving. It encompasses
other specialized models of adaptation from the scientific method to
problems solving, decision making and creativity.
5. Learning results from synergetic transactions between the person and
the environment. In Piaget’s terms, l earning occurs through
equilibration of the dialectic processes of assimilating new experiences
into existing concepts and accommodating existing concepts to new
experience. Following Lewin’s famous formula that behavior is a
function of the person and the environment, ELT holds that learning is
influenced by characteristics of the learner and the learning space.
6. Learning is the process of creating knowledge. In ELT, knowledge is
viewed as the transaction between two forms of knowledge: social
knowledge , which is co -constructed in a socio -historical context, and
personal knowledge, the subjective experience of the learner. This
conceptualization of knowledge stands in contrast to that of the
“transmission” model of education in which pre -existing, fixed ideas
are transmitted to the learner.
In experiential learning, the learner’s individual learning style and natural
preferences are taken into consideration and growth occurs from the
inside, as opposed to the transfer of skills and competencies into a le arner
from the outside. In such an inclusive environment, the learner can
develop in his own way as methods and strategies that are most
comfortable to the learner are organised to make the learning experience
enjoyable. Often there are unknown and unpredi ctable outcomes that have
the potential to sustain the activities.
4.5.1.3 Co -operative learning
It is a teaching method where students of mixed levels of ability are
arranged into groups and rewarded according to the group's success, rather
than the suc cess of an individual member. Cooperative learning structures
have been in and out of favour in American education since the early
1900s, when they were introduced by the American education reformer
John Dewey. Cooperative learning is described as small gr oups of students
organized for study.
Cooperative learning is sometimes thought of simply as 'group work,' but
groups of students working together might not be working collaboratively.
Cooperative learning is group learning activity organised. Learning is
dependent on the socially structured exchange of information between
learners in groups and in which each learner is held accountable for his or
her own learning and is motivated to increase the learning of others. -
Oslen and Kegan. munotes.in
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88 Cooperative learning is a successful teaching strategy in which small
teams, Each with students of different levels of ability ,use a variety of
learning activities to improve their understanding of the subject. Each
member of a team is responsible not only for learning what is taught
but also for helping teammates learn, thus creating an atmosphere of
successfully understand and complete it. One of the most important
characteristic of cooperative learning is that students plan their own
learning through open ended tasks rather t han following the teacher’s
assignments. It places learning responsibility on students and makes
learning more fun.
Importance of cooperative learning: Cooperative learning
1) Promotes student learning an academic achievement
2) Increase student retention
3) Enhan ce student satisfaction with their learning experience.
4) Helps students develop skills in oral communication
5) Increases in self esteem through the feelings of being respected and
cared for by others
6) Reduce loneliness
7) Increase in positive feelings towards oth ers.
8) Make views of the learner positive
9) Help to produce connectedness.
10) Students work effectively
11) Student work with each others in cooperative spirit
12) Help build relationships
13) Help student work with others with capabilities
14) Develop students’ social skills
15) Promote student self esteem
16) Help to promote positive race relations.
17) Gives opportunity to work productively together.
4.5.1.4 Collaborative learning
It occurs when students work together in small groups and everyone
participates in a learning task. There i s a range of collaborative
learning approaches, each involving different kinds of organisation
and tasks (Education Endowment Foundation, 2015). With a focus on
meaningful learning, the teacher uses strategies (such as cooperative
learning strategies and s trategic selection of groups) to establish an munotes.in
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89 atmosphere of cooperation and collaboration. Collaborative learning is
supported by designing meaningful tasks and inviting group responses
to questions. Collaborative learning relies on students actively
participating in negotiating roles, responsibilities and outcomes. Their
collaboration may involve projects undertaken by the whole class,
such as an environmental project in the school or a community survey.
This strategy is demonstrated when the teacher
• regularly sets group tasks and establishes ground rules about how
groups operate
• explicitly teaches students to work as a team by assigning different
roles within groups so that students take responsibility for particular
aspects of tasks
• differentia tes learning by assigning group content based on student
readiness
• designs tasks that require sharing expertise and ensuring each student’s
contribution is valued by other students
• promotes interactions by organising students in flexible groupings i n
which group membership varies and may be based, for example, on
friendship, mixed academic ability or common interests.
Innovative Practices and their Implications
There may be several advantages of using innovative practices in teacher e
ducation. A few ofthem are given below;
a) Student Motivation Levels Increases:
innovative practices are easy to manage the students and direct them
towards the task. Th ere is no chance of students distraction which
ultimately increases the motivation level of students. .
b) Removing Stressful tasks:
innovative practices are better in satisfying teachers experience and
make tedious tasks simple an easy to understand w hich makes students to
be busy and engaged, thus remove stressful task of teachers.
c) Self-Learning:
innovative practices provide self -learning opportunity to learners.
Learning may not be directed towards teachers objectives in classroom
teaching but ex tra coordination can be observed in the classroom.
d) Extension of students thinking:
Ideas and thinking of students may go beyond teachers capabilities and
experience which may bring and provide double confidence of levels of
teachers. munotes.in
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90 e) Active Learnin g Process: using innovative practic e in teacher
education students may go beyond the teacher’s own subject of expertise.
Learning becomes active and complex subject matter becomes easy.
f) Instruction to the right learner: Teachers feel easy to spend time with
students that need extra attention and practice to catch up with the subject.
g) Attention: Using innovative practices slow learners have also
concentration on the teaching -learning process without deviation and
distraction.
h) Changing Status and R oles of Teachers : Teacher Education is one of
the most accessible accounts of the choices facing educational systems
regarding teacher preparation. Innovative practices have a strong focus on
developing the teachers pedagogical knowledge and ability to ap ply that
knowledge in teaching learning process which brings confidence in
teachers and creativity in teaching profession. There is a challenge for
teacher educators to articulate for themselves the set of theories and
practices that will best enable them to have the most positive impact on
the teachers they educate in the context of really preparing teachers to
implement the curricula and assessment modes of the 21st century .
4.6 LET US SUM UP
We have discussed about the concept of models of teaching and the
different approaches of the models like the behaviourist approach, inquiry
model approach and competency based approach. Each of the models are
different and are useful for a teacher according to the context. Reflective
teaching and their importance t o the teacher and her students as also
discussed. Innovation is the need of the hour. The concept , importance and
types of innovative practices such as collaborative learning, co -operative
leaning and experiential learning was also discussed in this unit.
4.7 UNIT END EXERCISE
1) What is meant by behaviourist approach as a model of teacher
education?
2) Explain the concept and importance of reflective teaching.
3) How is collaborative learning technique useful for a teacher?
4) Explain any two types of innovative practices which can be used by a
teacher in her classro om.
5) Elaborate the different strategies to promote reflective thinking in the
classro om.
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91 4.8 REFERENCES
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https://blog.irisconnect.com/uk/blog/5 -benefits -of-encouraging -
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https://www.researchgate.net/publication/351938453_Different_ways_
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Dr Indu Garg, Teacher Education, its concept, knowledge base and
reflective practices, A.P.H. Publishing corporation, New Delhi,2014
Harry D hand, techniques of teaching ,2004,ashish publishing house.
S.K.Kochhar,Mmethods and techniques of teaching, Sterling
publishing house.
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92 5A
TEACHER EDUCATION AS A PROFESSION
Unit Structure :
5A.0 Objectives
5A.1 Introduction
5A.2 Concept of Profession
5A.3 Concept of Professionalism and Dimensions
5A.4 Developing Professionalism for Teacher Educators
5A.5 Developing Professional Ethics and Professional Code of Ethics
for Teacher Educators
5A.6 Let us sum up
5A.0 OBJECTIVES :
After reading this unit you will be able to :
Know about the concept of profession.
Relate and differentiate between profession an d professionalism.
Explain how to develop professionalism for teacher educators.
Explain how to develop professional ethics and code of ethics for
teacher educators.
Define teacher effectiveness.
State the components of teacher effectiveness.
Know performa nce appraisal.
Explain how performance appraisal helps in enhancing and evaluating
teacher effectiveness of teachers and teacher educators.
5A.1 INTRODUCTION :
Teaching is a profession -indeed a noble one, conceptually and ideally. It
is also different f rom other professions because of its multitude of
dimensions. Teachers are the largest professional group engaged in human
development activities. It is only in the case of teaching there is much
more that is required to be accomplished than in the case o f other
professions. Training of the practitioners is considered to be one of the
important characteristics of a profession. Therefore, in order to befit the
teachers to their roles, a sound professional training is needed. Induction
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93 adequate knowledge and skills to perform their professional functions.
Hence, the training of the teachers assumes special importance.
Professional training of a teacher implies his mastery in knowledge of the
subject, in pedagogy and teaching techniques.
Training of teachers is an important component of teacher education.
Teacher education covers in it’s ambity the whole gamut of activities
involved in the accomplishment of the teaching profession. Te acher
education denotes a real and holistic perception of teacher for that task
they are required to perform and to continuously upgrade their
professional skills. Therefore, in this unit we will discuss about profession,
professionalism and how to develop professionalism, professional ethics
and professional code of ethics for teacher educators. We also discuss
about teacher effectiveness, it’s components and how to enhance and
evaluate teacher effectiveness through performance appraisal.
5A.2 CONCEPT OF PROFESSION :
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
“A profession is a vocation founded upon specialized educational training,
the purpose of which is to supply disinterested counsel and service to
others, for a direct and definite compensation, wholly a part from
expectation of other business gain.”
History :
Classically, there were only three professions : Divinity, Medicine, and
Law. The main milestones which mark an occupation being identified as
a profession are :
1. It became a full -time occupatio n;
2. The first training school was established;
3. The first university school was established;
4. The first local association was established;
5. The first national association was established;
6. The codes of professional ethics were introduced;
7. State licensing laws were established.
Just as some professions rise in status and power through various stages,
so others may decline. This is characterized by the red cloaks of bishops
giving way to the black cloaks of lawyers and then to the white cloaks o f
doctors. With the church having receded in its role in western society, the
remaining classical professions (law and medicine) are both noted by
many as requiring not just study to enter, but extensive study and
accreditation above and beyond simply get ting a university degree.
Accordingly more recently -formalized disciplines, such as architecture,
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Although professions enjoy high status and publics prestige, all
professionals do not ear n the same high salaries. There are hidden
inequalities even within professions.
Examples of Professions :
Professionals include, for example : Lawyers, Engineers, Professors,
Military Officers and Non -Commissioned Officers, and Qualified
Teachers, Arch itects, Accountants, Notaries, Advocates, Actuaries,
Dentists, Midwives, Pharmacists, Medical Technologists, Nurses and
Physicians.
Formation of a Profession :
A profession arises when any trade or occupation transforms itself through
“the development of formal qualifications based upon education,
apprenticeship, and examinations, the emergence of regulatory bodies with
powers to admit and discipline members, and some degree of monopoly
rights.”
Regulation :
Professions are typically regulated by status , with the responsibilities of
enforcement delegated to respective professional bodies, whose function is
to define, promote, oversee, support and regulate the affairs of its
members. These bodies are responsible for the licensure of professionals,
and ma y additionally set examinations of competence and enforce
adherence to an ethical code of practice. However, they all require that
the individual hold at least a first professional degree before licensure.
There may be several such bodies for one profess ion in a single country.
Autonomy :
Professions tend to be autonomous, which means they have a high degree
of control of their own affairs : “Professionals are autonomous insofar as
they can make independent judgements about their work.” This usually
means “the freedom to exercise their professional judgement.”
Professional autonomy which is an essential characteristic of the concept
of professional ideology is based on three claims.
First, the work of professional entails such a high degree of skill a nd
knowledge that only the fellow professionals can make accurate
assessment of professional performance.
Second, professionals are characterized by a high degree of
selflessness and responsibility, that they can be trusted to work
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95 Third, in the rare instance in which individual professionals do not
perform with sufficient skill or conscientiousness, their colleagues
may be trusted to undertake the proper regulatory action.
However, it has other meanings. “Professional autonomy is often
described as a claim of professionals that has to serve primarily their own
interests… this professional autonomy can only be maintained if members
of the profession subject their activities and decisions to a critical
evaluation by other members of the pro fession.” The concept of
autonomy can therefore be seen to embrace not only judgement, but also
self-interest and a continuous process of critical evaluation of ethics and
procedures from within the profession itself.
Status and prestige :
Professions e njoy a high social status, regard and esteem conferred upon
them by society. This high esteem arises primarily from the higher social
function of their work, which is regarded as vital to society as a whole and
thus of having a special and valuable nature . All professions involve
technical, specialized and highly skilled work often referred to as
“professional expertise.” Training for this work involves obtaining
degrees and professional qualifications (see Licensure) without which
entry to the professio n is barred (occupational closure). Training also
requires regular updating of skills through continuing education.
Power :
All professions have power. This power is used to control its own
members, and also its area of expertise and interests . A profe ssion tends to
dominate, police and protect its area of expertise and the conduct of its
members, and exercises a dominating influence over its entire field which
means that professions can act monopolists, rebuffing competition from
ancillary trades and o ccupations, as well as subordinating and controll ing
lesser but related trades. A profession is characterized by the power and
high prestige it has in society as a whole. It is the power, prestige and
value that society confers upon a profession that more clearly defines it.
Characteristics of a Profession :
The list of characteristics that follows is extensive, but does not claim to
include every characteristic that has ever been attributed to professions,
nor do all of these features apply to every pro fession :
1. Skill based on theoretical knowledge : Professionals are assumed to
have extensive theoretical knowledge (e.g. medicine, law, scripture or
engineering) and to possess skills based on that knowledge that they
are able to apply in practice.
2. Professional association : Professions usually have professional
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96 status of their members and have carefully controlled entrance
requirements.
3. Extensive period of education : The most prestigious professions
usually require at least three years at university. Undertaking doctoral
research can add a further 4 -5 years to this period of education.
4. Testing of competence : Before being admitted to membership of a
professional body, the re is a requirement to pass prescribed
examinations that are based on mainly theoretical knowledge.
5. Institutional training : In addition to examinations, there is usually a
requirement for a long period of institutionalized training where
aspiring prof essionals acquire specified practical experience in some
sort of trainee role before being recognized as a full member of a
professional body. Continuous upgrading of skills through
professional development is also mandatory these days.
6. Licensed Pract itioners : Professions seek to establish a register or
membership so that only those individuals so licensed are recognized
as bona fide.
7. Work autonomy : Professionals tend to retain control over their work,
even when they are employed outside the prof ession in commercial or
public organizations. They have also gained control over their own
theoretical knowledge.
8. Code of Professional conduct of ethics : Professional bodies usually
have codes of conduct or ethics for their members and disciplinary
procedures for those who infringe the rules.
9. Self-regulation : Professional bodies tend to insist that they should be
self-regulating and independent from government, Professions tend to
be policed and regulated by senior, respected practitioners and th e
most highly qualified members of the profession.
10. Public service and altruism : The earning of fees for services
rendered can be defended because they are provided in the public
interest, e.g. the work of doctors contributes to public health.
11. Exclusion, monopoly and legal recognition : Professions tend to
exclude those who have not met their requirements and joined the
appropriate professional body. This is often termed professional
closure, and seeks to bar entry for the unqualified and to sanc tion or
expel incompetent members.
12. Control of remuneration and advertising : Where levels of
remuneration are determined by government, professional bodies are
active in negotiating (usually advantageous) remuneration packages
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97 in good intention but can be proven good when the partner, family or
mentor recommend something contrary to the general norms. This
was further buttressed in the world bank essay paper written by Idiaro
Abdulaze ez Paper Challenges and associated solutions for companies
working together in collective action to fight corruption. This has
caused for global audience and even the worldbank launched an
international competition in it people are used to Some profession s set
standard scale fees, but government advocacy of competition means
that these are no longer generally enforced.
13. High status and rewards : The most successful professions achieve
high status, public prestige and rewards for their members. Some of
the factors included in this list contribute to such success.
14. Individual clients : Many professions have individual fee -paying
clients. For example, in accountancy, “the profession” usually refers
to accountants who have individual and corporate cli ents, rather than
accountants who are employees of organizations.
15. Middle -class occupations : Traditionally, many professions have
been viewed as ‘respectable’ occupations for middle and upper classes.
16. Male -dominated : The highest status professio ns have tended to be
dominated although females are closing this gender gap Women are
now being admitted to the priesthood while its status has declined
relative to other professions. Similar arguments apply to race and
class : ethic groups and working -class people are no less
disadvantaged in most professions that they are in society generally.
17 Ritual : Church ritual and the Court procedure are obviously
ritualistic.
18 Legitimacy : Professions have clear legal authority over some
activities (e.g. ce rtifying the insane) but are also seen as adding
legitimacy to a wide range of related activities.
19 Inaccessible body of knowledge : In some professions, the body of
knowledge is relatively inaccessible to the uninitiated. Medicine and
law are typicall y not school subjects and have separate faculties and
even separate libraries at universities.
20 Indeterminacy of knowledge : Professional knowledge contains
elements that escape being mastered and communicated in the form of
rules and can only be acquir ed through experience.
21 Mobility : The skill knowledge and authority of professionals belongs
to the professionals as individuals, not the organizations for which
they work. Professionals are therefore relatively mobile in
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98 their talents with them. Standardization of professional training and
procedures enhances this mobility.
Teacher Education as a Profession :
Teachers play a vital role in the improvement of the quality of education.
In any assessment of the educational system, it is important to know
whether there are enough teachers, who are not only well qualified to each
different subjects, but are also able to cope with the changing curriculum
and growth in knowledge. It is importa nt to know about the facilities that
exist for upgrading their knowledge and improving their skills of teaching.
The professional development of teachers has received a great deal of
attention in all countries, including India, The volume of professional and
research literature on in -series education and professional development is
also considerable. In comparison, the attention that teacher education has
received is marginal. Even when research and policy initiatives are
directed towards teacher educati on, the focus is on curriculum reform,
programme structure, institutional development, instructional resources,
and the like. The content of teacher educators’ professional development
is rarely examined and critiqued. More specifically, the concept of a n
identifiable body of Knowledge a knowledge base for teacher education
does not seem to have been addressed so far in any meaningful way.
Eraut draws a useful distinction between prepositional knowledge and
personal knowledge. The former owes its origin to institutions of higher
education where it is developed, organized and codified. It acquires
academic status and legitimacy. It becomes public knowledge, available
for further research and testing. Personal knowledge is that which resides
within the w orking professional. It is obtained over many years from
observation, social interaction and experience, and gets reflected in the
person’s performance. In fact, it forms an important part of a persons’
competence. Eraut’s map of professional knowledge provides useful
guidance for those about to engage in the difficult task of determining the
knowledge base of a profession. Such a map is needed for teacher
education for several reasons :
i) To correct wrong notions about teacher education that are in
circulation.
ii) To illuminate the debate about theory -practice links and the role of
experimental learning.
iii) To highlight aspects of knowledge that have been somewhat neglected
in the teacher education programmes.
iv) To shed light on the growing debat e about competence based
approaches to professional standards and qualifications.
The term professionalism is used to describe the methods, manner, and
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99 culture derived from the role of its practitioners and the expectations the
society at large has with respect to the professional service.
If teacher education is to become a truly professional enterprise
fundamental changes are needed in the way teachers, colleges and
department s of education operate. The bureaucratic – administrative
model needs to be replaced by a professional – managerial model. The
following comparison of the two models is intended to help visualize the
needed change.
The Administrative – bureaucratic mode l :
Largely a legacy of the British rule in India, the administrative
bureaucratic hierarchical model has taken deep roots in our country and is
reflected, in varying, degrees, in almost all types of organizations, public
as well as private.
The Manageri al – Professional Model :
By contrast, this model derives its characteristics from two sources, the
body of knowledge called management developed in the context of
business and industry but by no means limited to them, as well as from the
values inherent in professionalism.
Table 1 : Comparison of Characteristics of the
Administrative -Bureaucratic Model and Managerial Model
The Administrative –
bureaucratic Model The Managerial -professional
Model
Input orientation Output orientation
Accountability for maintenance and
control Accountability for growth and
outcomes
Relationships based on authority
and jurisdiction Relationships based on expertise
and autonomy
Rigidity in rules and procedures Flexibility in rules and procedures
Reward system linked to seniority Reward system linked to
performance
The Image of Teacher Education :
It would be useful to review the basic assumptions and reality of teacher
education in order both to understand the image problem in its historical
perspective and to create an appropriate agenda to deal with it. Some of
the basic assumptions underlying university based teacher education
programmes are as follows :
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100 i) That there is a common body of knowledge theory and skills
associated with teaching that must be acquired b y every prospective
teacher;
ii) That universities are the repositories of this professional knowledge;
iii) That universities tend to be future oriented with respect to professional
needs and development;
iv) That colleges and departments of teacher educa tion enjoy congenial
relationship with academic departments and research activity in higher
education;
v) That teacher education programmes are best managed when associated
with professional research and development and service activities;
How does realit y (the prevailing situation in teacher education generally)
fit with these assumptions? Critics point out the following.
i) Preparation of public school teachers is viewed by many as a low level
academic enterprise, counter to the intellectual traditions of the
university;
ii) Teacher education departments have not developed adequate
programmes for knowledge synthesis. We do not have a coherent
theory for the utilization of academic disciplines in preparing teachers;
iii) Students in teacher education pr ogrammes are generally a theoretical
and practice -oriented, and show little confidence in or felt need for
research and theory;
iv) Research provides conflicting evidence regarding the influence of
university – based teacher education programmes in shaping the
professional perspective of students. It is described as liberal,
conservative, or non – existent;
An analysis of these assumptions and reality leads to two fundamental
problems for teacher education.
i) Unlike in the more mature professions, such as medicine and law,
there is little consensus among teacher educators as to whether a
prescribed body of professional knowledge is really necessary in order
to prepare a practitioner and if so, what the ingredients of this
knowledge are, or should be.
ii) Although teacher education institutions, public schools, and state
departments and agencies of education are the principal partners in
preparing and certifying teachers, there seem to be major differences
in their role concept, convictions, and values.
Healthy Practices in Teacher Education :
Theoretical aspect of professional management of teacher education is
clarified and glorified in all its dimensions. When it comes to practical
reality in teacher education institution it is a matter of divine glor y of the munotes.in
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101 time. There has been knowledge explosion in very discipline. A college /
university teacher has to continuously update his / her knowledge in his /
her chosen field of expertise, or run the risk of becoming totally outdated
in a very short perio d of time.
While the really motivated and industrious teachers use their own
resources to keep themselves abreast of new knowledge and to train
themselves in the latest processes, methodologies and techniques of
teaching, it is necessary to provide system atic and organized orientation
programmes for the large number of teachers at the college and university
level.
The Academic Staff Colleges developed by University Grants
Commission under the National Policy on Education (1986) has the main
philosophy to keep in mind that teacher is central to the system. While it
is universally accepted that the teacher is the pivot of the educational
system, our system does not provide adequate opportunities for their
professional development. It is, therefore, necessa ry to develop inbuilt
mechanisms to provide opportunities for teacher within the framework of
knowledge society. It is also accepted that a teacher must not be confined
only to transmitting information, she / he must also orient students to meet
the chall enges of life, to not merely becomes a trained professional, but
also a better citizen.
It was believed in the past that a college / university teacher learnt the ‘art’
of teaching on the job by emulating outstanding models such as his / her
own teachers or senior colleagues. The stock – in – trade of the college /
university teacher has always motivated the students. Today, it is no
longer possible to expert a newly appointed teacher to acquire the ‘art’ of
teaching by emulating his / her peers.
The co ncept of an orientation programme emphasizes teachers as agents of
socio -economic change and national development. As per the guideline
issued by UGC it is intended to inculcate in young lecturers the quality of
self reliance throw their awareness : inner and outer. In order to achieve
this objective, the curriculum for the orientation course includes the
following four components with minimum of 144 contact hours, that is six
hours daily for a four – week programme.
Component A : Awareness of linkages b etween society, environment,
development and education.
Component B : Philosophy of education, Indian education system
and pedagogy.
Component C : Resource awareness and knowledge generation.
Component D : Management and personality development.
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102 The a bove components are illustrative in nature depending upon the
requirements of lectures and their academic background, the Academic
Staff College is empowered to select the number of topics and
methodologies of teaching.
One of the major criticisms of tea cher education as a profession, or
perhaps as one claiming professional status, is the lack of an identifiable
body of knowledge that is established by a consensus as a prerequisite of
effective performance as a practicing teacher. While the criteria that
distinguish the profession from other occupations are subject to
continuous revision and refinement, the validity of at least some of these
has never been questioned. Foremost among these relates to the
knowledge base. As Eraut points out, “The power an d status of
professional workers depend to a significant extent on their claims to
unique forms of expertise which are not shared with other occupational
groups and which are valued by society.”
Check your progress :
1. Define profession
2. Give example o f some Profession
3. Explain any three characteristics of Profession.
4. Explain the managerial Professional model.
5A.3 CONCEPTS OF PROFESSIONALISM :
It is sometimes difficult to identify the true meaning of professionalism.
Many individuals use profes sionalism as a façade to cover their lack
ability to perform their job effectively. Others use it to for intimidation to
gain power. Still others use it as a way to impress the unknowing.
However, it seems that very few individuals use it for its origina l intent to
provide a foundation for effective communications and efficient
performance.
Different people have different opinions about the term “Professionalism”.
We will now discuss different views about it. This can cause considerable
confusion for s omeone trying to define professionalism in their own
career. But, you should always keep one point in your mind that the core
definition of Professionalism is always the same. A general, raw view is
“professionalism is a focused, accountable, confident, competent,
motivation toward a particular goal, with respect for hierarchy and
humanity, less the emotion.” What this means is that you leave out the
outbursts and emotional thralls that accompany stressful situations and
success. You maintain focus, wit h a sense of urgency, and accept
responsibility on a path towards a specific goal. In the process, you
maintain respect for your superiors, peers, and subordinates as well as
respect them as human beings.
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103 Dictionary meaning of professionalism is the expe rtness characteristics of
a professional or the pursuit of an activity as an occupation. We often talk
about the quality of what we do and measure the professionalism of our
work against others. Although we often use different terms, the overall
meaning i s the work of ‘x’ is more professional than ‘y’. Some views are
given below for getting more idea about it.
“Professionalism is the expertness characteristic of a Professional
person.”
“Professionalism is following the rules and regulations and have the
courage to change them.”
“Professionalism is balancing the personnel and professional life. It
means to be practical and professional in life. One who has skills,
knowledge and attitude and uses them is called a professional. The
attitude which a profes sional shows is called professionalism.
“Professionalism is all about attitude towards work i.e. the dedication,
sincerity with which you approach to your work, the work which
makes you earn money.”
To get clear idea about Professionalism you should agree on something
that just because one is professional, he or she automatically does not
exhibit professionalism. A very general, raw idea of Professionalism is a
bundle of the following concepts :
A focused approach
Pride in what one is doing
Confident
Competent
Motivation towards a particular goal
Accountability
Respect for people irrespective of rank, status and gender
Responsibility whole on the path to a particular goal
Commitment to word and deed and
Control of emotions well
From the above discussi ons you may got idea about Professionalism. It is
anything done with lot of common sense. It is something done with end
result in mind. It is something that is done with planning. It is something
where person shows forward thinking.
It means it is no t important that what types of work you are doing but
important that how you are doing it. To develop professionalism you
should follow the following criteria.
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104 Have pride in yourself and confidents in your abilities
Do your best and be your best
Achieve your full potential
Be on time no matter what
Dress for the job
You should follow the quotes “Professionalism is knowing how to do it,
when to do it and doing it.”
In short, professionalism are language, behaviour, act, dress and work. It
has to do wi th how to handle ourself in situations. It is the character, spirit
and competencies demonstrated by the standi ng practice of the profession.
The challenge of maintaining professionalism involves subscribing to the
ideal behaviours and values shared by co lleagues.
Dimensions of Professionalism
There are four main dimensions, or standards, of professionalism in the
field of teaching are;
1) Professional Knowledge
2) Competence
3) Commitment to the Ethical Standard
4) Personal Characteristics
1) Professional Knowledge
Professional knowledge is essential knowledge of best practices within the
field. For example, knowing that three -year-old children learn best
through manipulation of materials. A three -year-old will learn to count a
lot better with counting bears or sorting mats, than looking at a worksheet
about how to count. We need to be able to honestly share that knowledge,
sometimes with our colleagues, and very often with parents.
Another aspect of professional knowledge is understanding the way
children learn and grow , and applying that knowledge. That's part of what
separates us from the rest of the education field. Early childhood
professionals focus on teaching the way that children learn, and the way
that the brain acquires skills and information, versus trying to teach to the
actual skill. As teachers, as facilitators of the environment, we can apply
this knowledge to engage children in a way that will maximize learning.
Professional knowledge also includes staying in the know about issues that
affect young childre n and their families. This might include learning more
about legislation that relates to early childhood or young children. It might
mean staying up -to-date with school zonings, or changes in curriculum in
the public school realms. We have a responsibility to stay current on
issues that pertain to our children and families. Additionally, it is
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105 professionals and our work with young children and families. Are there
issues that involve how we can do our job better, or how we can be more
successful? Perhaps new research has emerged suggesting new
techniques that would benefit how we teach the children in our classroom.
2) Competence
The next dimension of professionalism is competence. Compet ence has
many facets. First, when we portray ourselves as competent in our skills
and our professional abilities, we exhibit a professional image. Parents
want to know that we are capable and competent in our position. When a
parent picks up their child, i f something happened to the child during the
day (e.g., they hit their head), it is frustrating when they are told "I don't
know what happened to your child. I wasn't in the room because I was on
break." Those kinds of phrases make us seem less competent i n our work.
A better answer would be to tell them, "I'm not sure, but let me find out
for you." That presents a more professional image to your parents.
There are a wide variety of things we can do to portray competence. One
of the things we can do is to g et to know the children in our classroom.
Remember their names, get to know their personalities, find out their
preferences. Parents are impressed when you know what their child likes
and doesn't like, as well as when you know a little bit about their
temp erament and personality.
Portraying competence also can include developing a philosophy of
education. It includes assessing the growth and development of children,
as well as your own growth and development as a professional. If you
want to put forth the competent image that you are well -prepared, that
requires a lot of planning, reflecting and thinking. Review your lesson
plan, and determine whether or not you are meeting your learning
goals. Are you challenging the children enough? Are you challenging
them too much? It is also essential that we report data, either to parents or
to other stakeholders, such as your director. It may be necessary to submit
information to your state legislators, or other people who are responsible
for funding your program.
As stated earlier, in order to maintain a competent and professional image,
we need to seek out professional development opportunities. Early
childhood professionals wear a lot of hats, so to speak. As such, we should
make an effort to go above and beyond what is required of us, to ensure
that we obtain enough professional development hours to remain
competent and current in all aspects of our field.
As a professional, possessing a strong understanding of what's
developmentally appropriate and why will allow us to best serve not only
the children, but also help to educate younger, newer teachers. Sometimes
people will express their dislike or dread in training new teachers,
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106 of turnover. So metimes just as soon as we train someone, they leave and
we have to start all over. However, we need to put aside that frustration
and realize that someone a long time ago took the time to train us. We
must make sure that we're growing and grooming that ne xt set of
professionals. Part of that process is understanding child development, and
being able to apply it and explain it to others.
We need to be able to observe and assess children's behavior for use in
planning and individualizing curriculum. The abil ity to assess children's
behavior is a skill that takes a lot of practice, and involves using the ABC
mentality. In other words, we need to recognize the antecedent, the
behavior, and the consequence for the behavior. How is the child
benefiting from this action? What kind of reward or consequence is
coming because of the behavior? How do we stop that cycle? If we're not
good observers, it becomes very difficult for us to truly evaluate why
children are acting a certain way. If we are not good at assessment , we will
have difficulty ascertaining how our learning goals are being met, or if our
lesson plans are effective. Are we challenging children enough, or too
much? Are we frustrating children because we're expecting them to do
things that they are not biol ogically ready to do yet? That's all part of
observing and assessing, so that we can implement an appropriate and
individualized curriculum, as well as a welcoming and safe classroom
environment.
Some key areas where we can exhibit competence:
Philosophy o f Education
Planning
Assessment
Reporting
Thinking and Reflecting
Teaching
Collaborating
Developing a philosophy of education. A philosophy of education is
a set of beliefs about how children develop and learn, and what and how
they should be taught. Devel oping your own personal philosophy of
education can be a little bit overwhelming, because you need to
evaluate the reasons why you believe what you believe. There is no right
or wrong answer, because it is your opinions and beliefs.
3) Commitment to the Ethi cal Standard
Commitment to the Ethical Standard is the third dimension of
professionalism. This is responsible behavior with children, families,
colleagues, and community members.
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107 It includes seven core values for ethical conduct:
1. Appreciate childhood as a unique and valuable stage of the human life
cycle. Early childhood does not exist so that we can hurry children
along and make them kindergartners faster. It is a valuable and unique
stage that needs to be valued and respected, and taken for what it is, in
all those opportunities for learning.
2. Base our work on knowledge of how children develop and learn. We
need to understand how the brain of a developing young child works.
3. Appreciate and support the bond between the child and family. We
don't try to rep lace that or alter that bond in any way.
4. Recognize that children are best understood and supported in the
context of family, culture, community, and society. Remember that
they don't develop in a vacuum.
5. Respect the dignity, worth, and uniqueness of each i ndividual. This
includes not only the children we teach, but also family members and
colleagues. We respect and support each other.
6. Respect diversity in children, families, and colleagues.
7. Recognizing that children and adults achieve their full potential i n the
context of relationships that are based on trust and respect. During this
presentation, we've talked a lot about relationships. It is critical to
remember that both adults and children thrive when they are in trusting
and respectful relationships.
4) Personal Characteristics
The fourth dimension of professionalism involves some personal
characteristics, which fall into four categories:
1. Personal Character
2. Emotional Qualities
3. Physical Health
4. Mental Health
Personal character. Having a love and true respect for children is
something that cannot be taught. That's something that you're born with.
Also, as alluded to earlier, having an understanding of children and their
families is important as well, in order to develop positive relationships. A
professional m ust exhibit ethical behavior. This means having high moral
and value standards, as well as being legally and ethically proper. The
professional must be guided by Code of Ethical Conduct to inform our
practice. We must possess civility and courteousness tow ard others. Do
people have trust in us? Do we have trust in others? Are we tolerant, are
we dedicated, are we motivated to do our absolute best in this field?
Emotional qualities. The professional should possess compassion,
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108 extremely sensitive, and some of us think that's a downfall. I happen to
think that's a positive trait. There's something to be said for a
sensitive, tender -hearted person. We must exude friendliness, kindness
and warm th, in order to be perceived as approachable. Are we patient and
helpful? Do we have enthusiasm and excitement for the job? Do we have
excitement for working with children? Are we excited to come to work
most days? If you wake up every morning and you drea d going to work
because of the children or because of the job itself, then this might not be
the best field for you. Do you have a genuine passion for seeing young
children learn new skills?
Physical health . Why is it important to be healthy and fit as an early
childhood professional? First of all, when you're healthy, you can do your
best and be your best. Children are naturally energetic. When we're
healthy, we can keep up with them. We can chase them. We can get down
on the floor and play with them, and participate in all of those active
situations that we might miss if we weren't physically healthy. Wellness
and healthy living are vital for energy and enthusiasm, and for that
stamina that teaching requires and demands. We've got to be able to keep
up wit h the interests, desires, and needs of the children. In addition, we're
role models for young children in every single way. We have to
demonstrate a concern for our own physical health. We have to make sure
that by our example, we are modeling a healthy li festyle. That doesn't
mean that every early childhood professional needs to be a supermodel or
a bodybuilder. It simply means that we need to be physically healthy and
that we can take care of ourselves, so that ultimately, we can take care of
the children .
Mental health. Just as our physical health is so important, our mental
health is as well. Good mental health is important because it enables us as
early childhood professionals to instill good mental health habits in
children. If we feel good about ourse lves, about the profession and the
work that we do, then we can make sure that children feel good about
themselves, about their childcare center, and about what they're learning.
We can make sure that children feel good about their families and the
members who comprise their family.
A good professional should possess the following key mental health
qualities :
Optimism: Positivity about the future, and about what's to come.
Thinking in terms of "can" and "able", instead of "can't" or
"unable".
Attentiveness : Awareness of what is going on around you and the
ability to stay focused on a task are good mental health habits.
Focusing on a person when they're communicating with you is also
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109 Self-Confidence : We want to teach children self -confidence at as
young of an age as possible. We want children to have confidence
in who they are as people. By time a child turns five, if they don't
feel good about who they are, that child will likely struggle with
self-confidence for the majority of t heir life. That's why those first
five years are so important, because it lays the foundation for that
child's future success, or future challenges. This also relates
back to that guidance and discipline portion. If you have children
that struggle and have challenging behaviors, every day is a
negative. If a child thinks every day, "What kind of trouble am I
going get into day?" or "How's the teacher going to be upset with
me today?" that can be damaging for that young child's self -esteem
and self -confidenc e. A child cannot grow and thrive in that kind of
negative environment. Think about how you would feel if every
single day you went in and your boss had a list of things that you
did wrong, but never commented on things you did right. We need
to constantly keep that in mind when we are working with young
children.
Self-Respect: Self-respect is treating yourself in a way that shows
that you value yourself. Not to the detriment of others, but being
able to say, "This is what's right for me, and this is what I 'm going
to do, because I respect myself as a person."
Good mental health helps us as early childhood professionals maintain a
positive outlook on life. Don't get me wrong -- there are going to be good
days and bad days. What I want you to do is, after a b ad day, get
up and say, "I am changing things for the better, for the future. I am doing
good work here. I have a positive outlook on life, and on the profession.
I'm in this for a reason." For most of us, we were called to do this work.
Good mental health plays a major role in that.
The four dimensions of professionalism (professional knowledge,
competence, commitment to the ethical standard and personal
characteristics) work in tandem to make up a qualified, competent, and
ethical workforce of early child hood professionals. Ultimately, if we wish
to change how society views our work, we can use these four dimensions
as a guide for ensuring that we hold ourselves to the highest of standards.
5A.4 DEVELOPING PROFESSIONALISM FOR
TEACHER EDUCATORS :
Teache r professionalism has relevant significance in education in that it
affects the role of the teacher and his or her pedagogy, which in return
affects the student’s ability to learn effectively. It can be defined as the
ability to reach students in a meanin gful way, developing innovative
approaches to mandated content while motivating, engaging, and inspiring
young adult minds to prepare for ever -advancing technology. However,
this definition does little to exemplify precisely how a professional teacher
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110 educators, professionalism remains one of the most influential attributes of
education today. Teacher professionalism contains three essential
characteristics, competence, performance an d conduct, which reflect the
educator’s goals, abilities, and standards, and directly impact the
effectiveness of teaching through the development of these qualities.
To begin, the characteristic of competence is fundamental in an educator’s
pursuit of ex cellence. A discussion on competence focuses on three
important ideas : preparation, knowledge of subject area, and defined
pedagogy. The first, preparation, prepares the professional for the
adversity of the classroom. From language and cultural barrie rs to socio -
economic differences, all educators face deterrents in the classroom that
must be broken down by individualized techniques. “Decision making by
well-trained professionals allows individual clients’ needs to be met more
precisely and… promotes continual refinement and improvement in
overall practice” (Darling – Hammond, 1988, p. 59). Thus, by bridging
these barriers, the educator will be better prepared for classroom
management and create an effective learning environment. Furthermore,
by doin g this, the professional teacher leads students by his or her
example: one who is prepared for difficulties will be able to overcome
them.
Along with preparation, a professional educator with a strong knowledge
of his / her subject area has the opportunit y to concern themselves with
preparing innovative techniques to teach material rather than spending
significant amounts of time studying the material. With the advantage of
knowing one’s curriculum material well, the educator has more confidence
in their teachings, having already placed significant though on the material
being taught. Thus, a professional is able to dwell on how to relate subject
matter to the students and their cultures in an original method.
The final portion of competence is discoveri ng and assuming a defined
pedagogy. A professional teacher who has a defined pedagogy has
already journeyed through several trials to discover which pedagogical
techniques are more effective. According to Lunenburg and Ornstein
(2000), “Hiring teachers b y subject and skill presumes that curricular
priorities have been established, which means that decisions have been
made about how much time will be devoted to each segment of the
curriculum.” Although this may take years to fine -tune, a professional is
willing to self -evaluate his or her pedagogy as s/he develops it, revise their
edification when deemed necessary, and apply one’s ideas to a practical
situation. Furthermore, by acquiring a defined pedagogy, a professional
creates more autonomy for him or herself, allowing for a partial release
from the constraints constructed by the administration, school board, or
parents.
Although competence is essential to teach professionalism, it is only
useful if the educator is able to perform. Performance is the ability to
effectively teach the concepts of a curriculum. However, this is
performance defined at its most fundamental level. “As individuals, munotes.in
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111 professionals have the right to perform their work as they see fit, based on
knowledge acquired through specia lized training” (Newman, 1998,p. 121).
Such a quote demonstrates the essentiality of performance, which derives
from both premeditated and improvisational techniques. A professional
teacher educates so that students learn concepts and apply them to their
lives. Although this undermines the school’s emphasis on state test
results, a quality educator prepares for the tests through this unique style
of applying to his / her students’ lives. Thus, the application of these
concepts must be inside the bounds of students’ lives. Furthermore, an
educator that has a high standard of performance is reliable and dedicated.
This type of educator becomes an active teacher rather than a passive
teacher, showing the students a genuine interest in their progress as a
student.
The final characteristic of teacher professionalism, conduct, is equally as
significant as the first two. The manner in which an educator carries
himself or herself is a reflection on one’s classroom, school, comm unity,
and educational system. Conduct is a representation of how well one takes
care of himself or herself, from aesthetics to language and behavior.
However, these are minor qualities of conduct. Conduct also includes
one’s ability to initiative and maintain quality communication with all the
parties involved in education : students, fellow teachers, school board,
administration, and parents. It is through energetic communication by a
professional that initiates understanding, whether it be a student grasping
their potential or the pr ofessional voicing their displeasure on a newly
implemented regulation. A professional teacher desires to locate effective
communicative skills to achieve preferred educational goals.
In conclusion, a completed definition of teacher professionalism far
exceeds the simple notion that a teacher be prepared in a certain manner.
A professional is trained to handle all situations, as most episodes in the
classroom require quick thinking. Also, teacher professionalism extends
beyond one’s ability to understan d content; the educator must discover if
the students are being reached in an effective way. With the role of
“teacher” becoming more autonomous, an educator must be competent in
their studies, perform well under the eye of the administration and parents,
while maintaining good conduct to facilitate quality communication.
Check your progress :
1. What is Professionalism?
2. How can you develop Professionalism as a teacher educator?
5A.5 DEVELOPING PROFESSIONAL ETHICS AND
PROFESSIONAL CODE OF ETHICS FOR
TEACHER EDUCATORS :
Every profession is expected to evolve a set of ethical principles to guide
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112 principle provides the base to differentiate between desirable and
undesirable conduct of b ehaviour.
Ethics are trends in away which has been established and maintained over
the years. It is time tested and socially accepted. It deals with moral
principles usually accepted voluntarily by an individual or a group. The
code of professional eth ic may be defined as a set of self imposed
professional ideals and principles necessary for the attainment of self
satisfaction and professional excellence. Professional ethics refers to the
principles, guidelines or norms of morality which a teacher has to follow
in teaching profession while dealing with students, parents, community
and higher authorities.
Every profession has different work culture and work climate and
accordingly the professional ethics are decided. Professional ethics are
decided by the society and it is also the contribution of great exponents of
the same profession. It is mainly to provide a guideline and also to judge
any professional individual. The definition and parameter of professional
ethics varies from society to society an d from time to time, it is dynamic
in nature. With change in social set up, pattern and dimension of the
society the ethics also change. In fact at the same time professional ethics
will differ from place to place and hence there is no distinct line to
distinguish ethic. What govern any ethic are social benefit, moral
correctness, truth, value and progress of mankind.
Need of Professional Ethics :
For self correction : Man and his thinking keep changing. It is human to
tend towards comfortability, sel fishness, laziness and money. It is
difficult to follow and abide by truth, hard work, simple living, honesty
etc. As a result individual turns towards the easier ways of life without
thinking what effect will it have on him, his family, profession and
society. Man slowly turns selfish and unethical without realizing. In
present time we all are affected by such factors and feelings to some
extent. Professional ethics correct us if we are doing any wrong or
intending.
For self satisfaction : Self satis faction is more related to our inner self,
our feelings and thought process. When we follow the ethical code of
society and profession we are regarded as hard working, honest, dutiful,
righteous etc. All this makes us more respectable and more prominent
than others. Whenever anyone is acknowledged for a right job, he starts
governing respect and liking, all this gives self satisfaction. Professional
ethics enable a person to judge himself and decide and not accept what
others decide for him.
To guide the conduct and behaviour : The behaviour of students is
moulded by the teacher and the teacher’s behaviour by professional ethics.
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113 psychology of teaching. By following professional ethics, t he teacher’s
conduct and behaviour becomes respectable and socially acceptable.
To shape the personality : Teacher keeps developing his personality by
adding to his knowledge and by refining his actions. The professional
ethics in teaching profession emp hasize the teacher to follow pre -
established norms in his thought and in actions, even in one’s dressing up,
speaking, etiquettes etc. By following similar ethics, the personality of an
individual is reshaped and he becomes a teacher in real sense.
To se t up Ideals for Students : Students come to school not just to study
the subjects and books but also to learn to behave and polish their
personality. Everyday students come in contact with different teachers
and are influenced by them. If a teacher is be having in a very positive and
appropriate manner, the students follow him and want to become like him.
Hence by behaving in ethical manner teacher becomes ideal for students.
Improvement of Human Relation : Professional ethics guide to keep in
mind the s ocial betterment, respect for others, sense of brotherhood,
tolerance, co -operation etc. Individual guided by professional ethics helps
others to the maximum, by doing so there develops positive feeling.
Positive feelings improve human relations.
When h uman relations improve the school becomes the best place for
teacher, students and parents to work and co -ordinate. All this ultimately
gives better result and improves over all standards.
Development of Society : School is the outcome of social necesses ity, the
society makes the school then the school makes the society. It is a cycle
which grows bigger and bigger with time. If the professional ethics are
forgotten the individual as well as the society starts moving in wrong
direction. By following Pro fessional ethics teacher takes the society in
right direction and make it a better place to live in.
The Professional Excellence : Every profession has a unique work
culture and work climate. The work culture is strengthened when the
professionals of the profession act and interact in professionally ethical
manner i.e. so they do not cross each others way or contradict bluntly
instead cooperate and motivate. All this develops a smooth co -ordination
and effective functioning thereby bringing professional excellence.
To improve the Professional Environment : Professional environment
includes the people, infrastructure, working conditions and working hours.
Professional ethics ensure that due place and respect is given to the
seniors, to the higher authori ties, responsibility and working hours. When
we follow such ethical codes of a profession the environment remains
calm, congenial and relaxed for effective working.
To follow norms and principles of the profession : Norms and
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114 framed in advance for effective functioning. These rules change with time
and situation. Professional ethics binds us to our job and helps us to
differentiate between professional development and self interest. It also
prepares us for extra responsibility which we have to shoulder from time
to time. Professional ethics are self -binding for better professional output.
Professional Obligations :
Obligation is a responsibility which an individual imposes on hims elf. It
is ethical and in the line of duty. A professional when follows rules and
regulation and correctly interprets it for the progress of humanity. It
creates a sense of brotherhood which makes others respect that individual
and his profession. All this is done selflessly without any pressure.
Teacher has obligation towards :
I. Obligation towards Students :
Students and teachers are integral part of educational process. Teacher
teaches whereas student learns. Unless there is dedica tion on the part of
teacher and sincerity on the part of students the whole educational process
ca not be effective. It is expected that teacher of today will go beyond
limit for the betterment of child.
1. Sincerity in Teaching : It is obligatory on the part of the teacher to
teach effectively and to the fullest in the best possible way in required
time with the help of available resources. Teacher also ensures that
the students are gaining as desired.
2. Motivating the Students : Teacher should motiva te the student not
only to study subject but also for life. Without motivation,
achievement decreases drastically. Motivation succeeds in difficult
times and hence, the teacher should encourage students in all the
possible ways.
3. Providing Emotional S tability : Students are highly emotional by
nature and very often situation comes where a normal student may also
get emotionally unstable. In such situations teacher has to comfort the
students in the best possible manner.
Professional
Obligations
Towards Higher Authorities
Profession Patents Students Society munotes.in
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115 For example : After closely mi ssing or losing inter school / state level
football competition etc.
4. Psychological Handling of Students Impulses : In day -today
activities students may display very strange habits or actions. The
teacher should make an attempt to understand the motive s and feelings
behind particular action and deal with it psychologically so that the
action of the student gets positive direction.
5. Conscious Workers : There are various works which a teacher has to
perform besides teaching. These works appear sudden ly in day to day
affairs which is important for the school as well as the student where
as, no such work is mentioned in the duty book of profession. When
the teacher does all the required work for the improvement and
development of school and students he fulfills his obligation towards
the students and school.
6. Help the Students in taking decisions : Teachers educate and inspire
students for better life, development and progress. All this is very
much related to what students think and decide in day to day routine.
The decisions which students take should have logical base and aim in
view. Teacher guides the student in taking such decisions.
For Example : Opting for right subject after Xth keeping in view the
aim, aptitude and attitude of the students.
7. Development of Leadership Qualities : Every student when prepared
for life has to act as a leader in different situation. Teachers provide
such opportunity to the students by making them participate in stage
activities, morning assembly etc. Teacher a lso demonstrates leadership
qualities by exhibiting it himself.
II. Obligation Towards Parents :
Parents send their children to school with a hope that their children will do
better, learn every required language and ability along with the subjects. It
is the teacher who helps the child in achieving the desired goals of society
as well as of parents. Hence, it becomes obligatory on the part of the
teacher to remain in touch with the parents for the well being and
educational growth of the child. Some of the obligations towards parents
are as follows:
1. Providing Regular Information about Child’s Performance :
Parents usually do not come to know how their ward behaves and
performs in the class in routine manner. Teacher should inform the
parents about th e general behavior and performance in relation to,
attention towards studies, paying respect to senior’s teacher’s etc. The
teacher should discuss all this during parent -teacher’s meet so that if
any problem is corrected it is corrected in the very beginni ng.
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116 2. Guiding Parents in Deciding the Child’s Future : Patents usually
have knowledge of only a few fields / profession which they have
acquired personally or from friends of relatives. Parents tend to decide
the option for their children on the basis o f their limited personal
experience and knowledge. The reality is that professional arena is
expanding every day. Hence, a teacher should guide parents about the
professional / educational options available for better future of child
keeping in mind the ca liber of student and current trend prevailing
among the students of present generation.
3. Informing about the Attitude and Aptitude of Child : In present
time parent are not able to judge the attitude and aptitude of their child
owing to busy schedule of lack of awareness. Whereas, the teacher
observes the children every day, individually, as well as in group
where child reveals all his aptitude and attitude, which is of great
importance in understanding the personality of child. Teacher should
share all his findings with parents so that parents are able to
understand their children in a better manner.
4. Help Parents in Providing Conducive Home Environment : At
some point of time students face some of the other problem which has
its origin at home or wh ich can be solved at home only. Students find
it difficult to share their problems with parents due to various reasons.
In such situations when a teacher learns of such problems he / she
should call the parents and share the situations and suggest them
various ways to improve the home environment.
5. Counselling of Parents : Parents generally treat their children as they
were treated during their childhood or as per their own assumptions.
They impose their mind set on their wards without considering the
change of time and situation because of which children start turning
away from parents.
When a teacher does counselling of parents he discusses all such
matters keeping in mind the changing situation and mind bent of
present generation, so that parents, t eachers and students are able to
make education more meaningful.
6. Giving Proper Direction to Hobbies and Interest : Parents find
hobbies and interests as wastage of time. Teacher gathers such
information of hobbies and interests of individual student an d shares it
with parents. Teacher convinces the parents on the pursual of different
hobbies and interest as it is of great importance and benefit for all
round development of Childs personality. Teacher suggests parents to
give better dimension to such out let of feelings so that students
become more creative and talented.
7. Establishment of good relationship between School and Parents :
It is obligatory on the part of the teacher to keep informing parents
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117 of school, new activities introduced in the school etc. All this makes
the parents feel closer to the school and a better relationship is built.
III. Obligation Towards Society :
School is the outcome of the need of the society. It aim s at helping the
younger generation in improving. The school is also said to be the society
in miniature. It is the teacher who as a craftsman craves the future of
society and nation.
Following are the obligations of teacher towards the community:
1. Providing good citizens : When a child is sent to school he becomes a
student who is taught various subjects and also the ways of life.
During his stay in school he learns how to become a useful member of
society by attending to his duties in an honest mann er. The teacher has
to install all the desired qualities by means of education which makes
the students a good citizen.
2. Making a student responsible towards rights and duties : While
living in a society one has to interact regularly with the members o f
the community. All the interactions should be based on ethical norms
which are guided by the legal rights and duties. All such rights and
duties ensure that no one interferes in the personal sphere or liberty of
other individual and performs ones own dut y in the best possible
manner. The correct training of practicing rights and duties have to be
conducted by the teacher for smooth functioning of the society.
3. To follow social norms : Every society is governed by social norms
which have been developing since the society originated. These social
norms are established for the smooth and effective functioning of the
society. Young children initially do not agree to established norms of
society and want to change the setting or establish new norms.
When ever the young generation is confused or influenced by such
feeling the teacher guides them by making the existing norms very
clear in all the ways. It develops respect for the social norms and
students become socially adjusted individuals.
4. Setting up of Ethical Standards : Ethical standard are the standard
which guides an individual and the society towards betterment.
Children of today are the citizens of tomorrow unless they are ethically
erect; we cannot assume the society of tomorrow to be upright .
Teacher can install ethical qualities in the students by means of moral
lecture, personal demonstration and other related activities.
5. Development of Religious tolerance : India is multi religious country
with more than seven religions binding and di viding the people.
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118 basics of all the religions they will not understand it. This delicate task
of unifying the community has to be done by the teacher because
people of all the religion t rust teachers. Teacher makes the students
understand the similarity of different religions by taking the students to
worship places of different religions and also by celebrating holly
festivals of all the religions in an appropriate manner.
6. Integrati on of National Feeling : A nation cannot progress unless its
people are integrated. In a country like India where language and
culture dominate the society along with other differences. All these
differences needs to be carefully understood and tolerated or else the
nation would disintegrate.
School is a society in miniature where teacher can develop the feeling
of National Integration by giving importance to all the region,
languages and religion by celebrating various national festivals and
National I ntegration Day in particular.
7. Balancing the community relationship : No individual or a group of
people can live in isolation. Despite being in majority or at a socially,
economically advantaged position.
When a teacher makes the students realize th e importance and
contribution of every independent individual or a community and its
relationship with others a balance is created between all the members
of the society and students understand its importance and try to
balance the existing relationship.
8. Living in Harmony with nature : Every individual belongs to a
community and every community depends on natural environment as a
biological being. Hence, protecting the nature and safe guarding it is
the duty of every individual. Students are taught ab out the advantages
and the role of nature in leading a healthy life by the teachers by
means of education (Environmental education) and activities like
growing trees, reducing pollution, spreading awareness etc.
IV. Obligation towards the Profession :
Teacher profession is considered as one of the noblest professions. It is
expected from a teacher to act, behave and display excellent behaviour in
the society so that the society gets new dimensions and meaning in life.
Since society considers teaching a very noble profession therefore
obligation on the part of the teacher also increases to a great extent.
1. Safe-guarding and Enhancing the Professional Mechanism :
Teacher being the professional of the noblest profession has to display
a very noble behavi our in and outside the school. His manners and
appearance should always reflect simplicity and wisdom. While
interacting with students and individuals he should display his concern
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119
2. Respec ting the Profession : It is obligatory on the part of a teacher to
respect the profession even if he is in it by chance and not by choice.
By showing his respect for the profession he makes others respect the
teaching profession which ultimately makes all the teachers
respectable. The teacher should always share the positive and bright
side of the profession because discussing negatives will only result in
rejection and at the same time one should not forget that every
profession has negative as well as p ositive.
3. To be open to professional growth : The teacher should always make
an effort towards the professional growth by attending in service
training, seminars, workshops etc. organized by concerned educational
board for educational enhancement. Teac her can strengthen his
growth by reading new books, magazines, journals etc.
4. Contributing towards the growth of Profession : With growing
experience and knowledge the teacher realizes certain facts concerning
the students, education and educational pro cess. He should contribute
his thoughts in the form of article and research paper in various
journals which will benefit all the teachers, educators and policy
maker’s through out the country. There by resulting in growth of the
profession.
5. Maintaini ng congenial atmosphere at work place : It is the duty of
every professional to maintain congenial atmosphere at work place so
that the profession is liked by each and everyone involved in it. It can
be done by being friend, guide and philosopher to stude nts, respectable
and co -operative to colleagues, obedient and courteous to seniors and
also by performing all the duties expected and delegated from time to
time.
6. Inspiring people to join the profession : Whenever a teacher comes
across an individual w ho is capable and interested in joining the
teaching profession. He should be guided to the fullest and inspired,
so that good people with required attitude and aptitude join the
profession. It is an indirect service rendered to an individual and the
profession.
7. Active Participation : Every teacher should become active member of
professional organization, consisting it as professional obligation. At
the same time he / she should participate actively and contribute to the
maximum in every professional meeting and activity organized for the
formulation of policies and programmes. The teacher should also be
keen to strengthen the unity and solidarity of the professional
organization.
8. Maintaining Secrecy : Every profession deals with various kinds of
restricted information, it may be concerning policy matters, student’s
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120 checking of answer sheets etc. All such information should be
guarded with maximum care. It should be guarded with max imum
care. It should not be discussed with any unauthorized person except
concerned authorities and neither be disclosed before appropriate time.
While maintaining one’s own secrecy teacher should not interfere in
others affairs.
V. Obligation towards the Higher Authorities :
“Higher Authorities” is the section or the group of people who have been
entrusted with the task of formulating and managing the rules, regulations
and policies for the development of the institution.
In a way if they are legisla ture than the teachers are the executives who
enforce or execute the programmes formulated by the higher Authorities.
For effective functioning and development of any institutions, it is
important that a teacher coordinates his actions with the Higher
Authorities as per the changing need and situation.
1. Abiding by the rules and regulation : The teacher should abide by
the rules and regulations of an institution framed by the higher
authorities from time to time so that there is uniformity, even growth
and development throughout and discipline among the staff, then only
teachers will be able to enforce discipline among the students.
Without discipline progress is not possible.
2. Acting as a link between higher authorities and students : From
time to ti me higher authorities formulate educational as well as non -
educational policies for all round development of students as well as
institutions. These policies cannot bear fruits until effectively
communicated and administered. The professional obligation of a
teacher is to understand these policies in true spirit and effectively
propagate it for achieving the desired result, for this the teacher has to
act as an effective link between higher authorities and students.
3. Providing strategic information : Higher authorities are not in the
direct contact with the students and the actual happenings. Hence they
depend greatly on the teachers to know about the exact situation and
information so that they are able to effectively plan policies. Teacher
should su ggest and present a true picture, whenever asked.
4. To effectively implement the policies and programmes : Drawing
or framing a programme or policy is a theoretical aspect. The success
of any policy depends completely on the co -ordination of the policy
makers, managers, evaluators and teacher as executor. The teacher has
a great role in it and has to act as a helping hand in effective
implementation of various programmes and policies to the above
mentioned authorities.
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Profession
121 5. Being respectful (courteous) to h igher authorities : It is often
observed that the teachers and the other staff members do not show
due respect to higher authorities when alone because they implement
changes which disturbs the existing equilibrium. Staff members often
discuss newly imple mented policies or programmes and criticize the
higher authorities and sometime even share it with students. The
teacher should remember that higher authorities bring in changes for
betterment because it is their duty. In any cases due respect should be
maintained in and out of the institution.
Apart from the above mentioned obligations there are innumerable
obligations which a teacher has to take care of. These obligations change
their face with time, situation and people.
A teacher can become a profe ssional in real sense if he fulfills all the
obligations and remembers that a Profession is above the professional and
in no case he should allow his human instincts and feelings to come in the
way of his profession. So all over we can say that a teacher has greater
duties and responsibilities to perform for the betterment of the society.
Professional ethics and mannerism should go hand in hand so that the
teacher is able to move ahead as a real professional in changing time.
Check your progress :
1. Write short notes on
a) Professional ethics
b) Professional obligations
5A.6 LET US SUM UP :
In this unit we have studied that :
Teaching is a profession. Teacher’s training is an important component of
teacher education. Profession is a vocation fo unded upon specialized
educational training. Some examples of professionals are – lawyers,
Engineers, Professors, Military officers and qualified teachers. Some of
the important characteristics of professions are :
Skill based on theoretical knowledge
Professional association
Work autonomy
Code of professional conduct or ethics
High status and rewards and
Mobility
Professionalism is the expertness characteristics of a professional person.
It has to do with how to handle ourselves in situations. A pro fessional
teacher desires to locate effective communicative skills to achieve
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122
Like every profession, in teacher education also teacher educators should
develop professional ethics and code of ethics to correct himself and get
self satisfaction by developing his conduct, behavior and personality.
Teachers and teacher educators develop professional ethics by imposing
responsibility on himself by showing obligation towards students, parents,
society, higher authority and professi on.
Unit End Exercises :
1. What is Professional Obligation? Why it is necessary?
2. What is Professionalism? How can one develop it?
3. Differentiate between Profession, Professionalism and Professional
Ethics.
References :
www.google.com
University News
https://www.continued.com/early -childhood -education/articles/i -m-
teacher -not-babysitter -22776
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123 5B
TEACHER EFFECTIVENESS
Unit Structure :
5B.0 Objectives
5B.1 Introduction
5B.2 Meaning and components of Teacher Effectiveness
5B.3 Enhancing and evaluating Teacher Effectiveness through
Performance Appraisal of Teacher Educators
5B.4 Performance Ap praisal 360 degree feedback Teacher - Self,
Students, Principal , Colleagues, stakeholders.
5B.5 Let us Sum up
5B.0 OBJECTIVES :
After reading this unit you will able to :
Define teacher effectiveness.
State components of teacher effectiveness.
Know perfo rmance appraisal.
Explain how performance appraisal helps in enhancing and evaluating
teacher effectiveness of teachers and teacher educators.
5B.1 INTRODUCTION :
This section explores those factors that make a teacher effective. Recent
research reveals t hat must variation in overall school effectiveness is due
to class -room level factors rather than school level factors. For these
reasons if is important to try to identify what makes an effective teacher.
5B.2 MEANING AND COMPONENTS OF TEACHER
EFFECTIVEN ESS :
Teacher effectiveness is the result of effective teaching. Aspects of
effective teaching include :
Having a positive attitude
The development of a pleasant social / psychological climate in the
classroom
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124 Lesson clarity
Effective time management
Strong lesson structuring
The use of a variety of teaching methods
Using and incorporating pupil ideas
Using appropriate and varied questioning.
However, effective teaching methods are context specific. What is needed
for a teacher to be effective can vary depending upon factors such as :
The type of activity in the lesson
The subject matter
The pupil backgrounds (such as age, ability, sex, socio -economic
status and ethnicity)
The pupils’ personal characteris tics (such as personality, learning
style, motivation and self -esteem)
The culture / organization of the department, school.
From the above discussion we can conclude teacher effectiveness as
follows.
Teacher effectiveness is the impact that class -room fac tors, such as
teaching methods, teacher expectations, class -room organizations and use
of class -room resources, have on Student’s performance.
“Teacher effectiveness is the power to realize socially valued objectives
agreed for teacher’s, especially, but n ot exclusively, the work concerned
with enabling students to learn.
“Teacher effectiveness is the attribute of a teacher who has the capability
or potential of having a positive impact on student learning, behaviour and
attitudes.”
5B.3 ENHANCING AND EVALU ATING TEACHER
EFFECTIVENESS THROUGH PERFORMANCE
APPRAISAL FOR TEACHERS AND TEACHER
EDUCATORS :
Teachers become public figures when something goes wrong with
education systems or when they are needed to implement reforms. They
acquire public status also wh en they negotiate salaries and working
conditions or take a stand in relation to some issue. Most of the times,
teachers work in their classrooms and schools ignorant of the discussions
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125 being framed to assess their conceptual knowledge as well as their
practicality in producing expected results.
Today, a drastic change in education system leads to change in
performance of teachers. In present times, teachers build up an invaluable
armor y of long -term strategies and quick fixes that every novice would
give a right arm for. Present teachers are busier than ever. Thus, the
problem before us is to regulate the quality of teaching through setting of
standards and at the same time, evaluate teacher’s performance. We all
are working tooth and nail for setting the standards, but we need less
attention towards the appraisal or evaluation of teacher’s performance.
Meaning of Performance Appraisal (P.A) :
P.A. is personnel evaluation method seeki ng the measurement of
employee work effectiveness using objective criteria. P.A. systems hope to
achieve higher productivity outcomes by delineating how employees meet
job specifications. A major challenge for performance appraisal systems
is to define pe rformance standards while maintaining objectivity.
P.A. is one of the important components in the rational and systematic
process of human resource management.
“Appraisal may be defined as a structured formal interaction between a
subordinate and superviso r” that usually takes the form of a periodic
interview.” (Annual or Semi Annual)
Uses :
1) To identify the better performing employees who should get the
majority of available merit pay increases, bonuses and promotions.
2) To manage performance.
3) To kn ow how P.A. contributes to performance.
4) To review past behaviour and provide opportunity to reflect on past
performance.
From employee view point :
1) Tell me what you want me to do?
2) Tell me how well I have done it?
3) Help me improve my performance
4) Reward me for doing well.
Organizational view point :
1) To establish and uphold the principles of accountability.
Meaning of Teacher’s Performance Appraisal :
Teacher’s Performance Appraisal or Evaluation means a systematic
evaluation of the teacher wi th respect to his/her performance on job and
also, her potent development. Infact, performance appraisal is formal,
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126 her behaviour and judging how he / she is presently performing the job. It
also includes forecasting how he / she can perform the job more
effectively in future.
Criteria for Teacher’s Performance Appraisal :
1) The evaluation of teacher should be linked to the mission of the
school.
2) The evaluation of teacher should be linked to the standards set up by
teacher for herself.
3) The evaluation of teacher should be viewed as a continuing process.
There should be alternative formative techniques used as forms of
evaluation and when one gets completed, implement a new one.
4) The new evaluation system of teacher also emphasizes upon
summative evaluation, i.e. judgements of teachers made through
collaboration of students’ outcomes, opinions of peers, administrators,
parents.
Mission of the School :
‘Mission’ is a goal, an a im, a purpose or an objective. Every school has its
own mission. Infact, mission depends upon the vision of the school. The
effective teacher is expected to shoulder the school in order to accomplish
the mission of the school. The teacher can be evalua ted through the
efforts he / she has made in accomplishing the mission. For example The
mission of ‘Seventh – Day Adventist Higher Secondary School’ in
Maninagar at Ahmadabad is ‘Committed to empower each student to
achieve all round development through A cademic Excellence, Physical
Fitness, Mental and Spiritual Health and Social Consciousness.’
Hence teacher can be evaluated not only on the basis of in -class learning
experiences that he / she provides, but also on the basis of out -class and
off-campus lea rning experiences. So, her personality should not be like a
veneer that can be applied to a person by herself, nor something he / she
can turn on and off like an electric current, Rather, her personality needs
to have its roots in physical health, emotion s, intelligence, knowledge,
ideals, spiritualism and sociability.
Standards set up :
The saying ‘Teachers are born, not made’ is wrong. The basic qualities of
mind and personality that predispose an individual to success in teaching
are influenced great ly by the home and community in which he is reared;
also, such qualities can be cultivated. The knowledge of desirable and
undesirable qualities help the teacher to set her goals for becoming an
effective professional person. The teacher can be evaluated through the
standards that he / she has set – up for himself / herself.
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127 In order to know what standards a teacher has set up for himself / herself,
a form known as ‘Pre teaching Form’ can be filled by teachers.
Pre-Teaching Form Sample :
1. What are the goals for your subject?
2. What are the goals for particular lessons?
3. What do you want students to learn?
4. How far do such goals accomplish the mission of the school?
5. How far do such goals support district’s curriculum and standards set -
up by the s tate?
6. How far do such goals relate to broader curriculum goals?
7. How do you plan teaching work to accomplish those goals?
8. What instructional materials will you use?
9. What teaching -aids will you use?
10. How will you correlate theoretical knowledg e to practical aspect of
your subject?
The responses in ‘Pre Teaching Form’ can help to evaluate the teacher’s
performance in terms of her willingness to do hard efforts, in preparing
interesting hand -out materials, preparing learning packages, organizing
resource, managing time and making learning process meaningful to
students.
Formative Evaluation :
Teacher continuously steers the boat of education. He / she constantly
strives to help the students to recognize their vital problems, to face their
problem s with confidence, skill and creative imagination. He / she guides
the students day and night to recognize their desire and also nourish it in
order to develop more adequate understanding.
With a view of evaluate teacher’s constant efforts, formative eval uation of
teachers should be done. Formative evaluation can be done through
various techniques by bifurcating teacher’s responsibilities into four main
domains :
Domain 1 : Planning and Preparation
a) Demonstrate knowledge of content and pedagogy : This refers to
what planning has the teacher done to demonstrate her knowledge of a
particular subject by interrelating it with teaching skills.
b) Select instructional goals : This refers what goals has the teacher set
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128 c) Manage Resources : This refers to how far has the teacher planned
her teaching -learning activities in limited available resources.
d) Design Coherent Instructions : This refers to what has the teacher
planned in coordinating curriculum wi th extra activities.
This domain can be evaluated through –
Sample Unit Plan made by teacher
Sample Lesson Plan made by teacher
Teaching Artifacts planned by teacher
Domain 2 : The Classroom Environment :
a) Create an environment of respect and rapport : This refers to how
far the teacher has been successful in creating environment of respect
and rapport. This can be evaluated on the basis of Table 2.
Table 2 : Creating Environment on Respect and Rapport
Sr.
No. Teacher’s Behaviour Student’s Reaction
1 Teacher interaction with some
students is negative, demeaning,
sarcastic or inappropriate. Students exhibit disrespect for
teacher.
2 Teacher – student interactions
are generally appropriate but
may reflect occasional
inconsistencies, favoritism or
disrega rd for students cultures. Students exhibit only minimal
respect for teacher.
3 Teacher student interaction is
friendly and demonstrates
general warmth, caring and
respect Students exhibit respect for
teacher.
4 Teacher demonstrates genuine
caring and res pect for
individuality of every student. Students make such teachers
their role models.
b) Establish a culture for learning : The culture for learning can be
established by
Becoming an effective tutor
Getting pupils to talk to you
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129 Coping with emotional pupils
Providing personal and pastoral care
c) Manage classroom procedures : The teacher can be evaluated on the
basis of how far he / she has been successful in managing classroom
procedures
Preparing herself well for the lesson
Preparing children for the lesson
Providing practical activities
Keeping children on task
Involving children
Displaying work
Preparing for consolidator activities like worksheets, experiments
etc.
d) Manage Students Behaviour : The tea cher can be evaluated on basis
of how far he / she could manage student behaviour. This includes :
Dealing with upset children by being gentle but firm giving them,
more time and space and becoming their friends.
Dealing with bad behaviour through knowled ge of psychology.
Making Children feel secure and comfortable by being consistent,
fair, judicious and not being too rigid.
Helping children to build self esteem by praising them, managing
stressful situations and supporting their proper decisions.
e) Orga nize Physical Space : The teacher’s evaluation can also be done
on the basis of how far he / she has provided satisfactory seating
arrangement in available classroom, cares for hygien and sanitation
and providing sufficient lighting facilities ‘playground facilities etc.’
This domain can evaluated through –
Direct observation of teacher in classroom by an expert principal
or supervisor
Teacher – student relationship table
Student surveys
Samples of student work
Teaching artifacts
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130 Domain 3 : The Classroom Instruction
a) Communicate clearly and accurately : The effective teacher is
expected to have good command over the spoken language of school,
speak in raised voice, with clarity in speech, proper speech -patterns
and neither too fast nor too slow.
This is necessary part of classroom instruction. One of the factor to
evaluate the teachers performance can be her clear and accurate speech
and communication skills.
b) Use various techniques : The effective teacher should make use of
various techniques like questioning, discussion, demonstration, etc. to
stimulate students and bring variety in teaching.
Use of suitable techniques will make the lesson easy and interesting
for students. The teachers performance can be evaluated on basis of
her selection and i mplementation of a particular technique in particular
lesson.
c) Engage students in learning : The effective teacher develops broad
outlines, formulates objectives to be attained, selects materials and
teaching aids suitable to age and level of student, us es appropriate
teaching methods, does demonstration, experimentation illustrations,
projects, fieldworks to give practical view of the subjects, develops
and maintains pupil’s interest in learning process, develops suitable
study -habits in pupils, develops sense of appreciation for subject
among pupils, evaluates pupil’s progress using various evaluation
techniques.
Thus the effective teacher constantly strives to engage students in
learning. The teachers performance can be evaluated by assessing
how far he / she has been successful in engaging students in learning.
d) Provide feedback to students : The effective teacher needs to be a
minute observer and evaluator herself. He / she is expected to do
formal and informal observation of her students and give them
appropriate feedback and also judge their potentials.
This domain can be evaluated through –
Direct observation of teacher’s class by an expert, supervisor or
principal
Teaching artifact
Samples of students’ work
Assignment provided by teacher
Domai n 4 : Professional Responsibilities :
It is sometimes said that degrees do make a teacher, but it is
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131 to being a teacher than just teaching. Every teacher will be faced with an
array of additional duties. The effective teacher needs to fulfill these
duties also. Hence the teacher can be evaluated on the basis of
professional responsibilities.
a) Competence in the subject : The effective teacher, at whatever level,
should be thoroug hly competent in the subject he / she teaches. He /
she should acquire from advanced study a much wider and deeper
knowledge of the subject matter that is directly needed in the class.
One cannot teach what one does not know, nor can one teach with
enthu siasm unless one know, so much about his field of learning that
he is confident and enthusiastic about his specific subject. Facts, ideas
and inspiration flow from a mind that is full.
The teacher can be evaluated on the basis of her subject competency.
b) Attending clinics, workshops, seminars, conferences : Such
professional gatherings are held on special topic of discussion. The
procedures are informal and the groups are small enough that problems
of individual teacher can be sorted. The teachers wh o attend these
sessions have greater opportunities to learn, better ways of helping
their students.
The Teacher can be evaluated on the basis of her visits to such
sessions.
c) Conducting experimentation and research : Teachers may initiate
their own expe riments, or participate in large projects which aim at
discovering new and different techniques for effective teaching.
This can also be one of the factors to evaluate teacher’s
performance.
d) Keeping Intellectually alert : Teacher should have daily asso ciation
with magazines and books – professional and recreational, and in
addition, should hold discussions with friends and colleagues to
enliven his intellectual interest and deepen his thinking.
This becomes one of the factors to evaluate teacher’s perf ormance.
e) Working with Outside Agencies : Teacher is expected to show
professional while working with outside agencies. The teacher should
maintain individual student records up to date, keep a case diary of
relevant incidents or occurrences, keep accur ate notes about any
communication carried on with outside agencies and be prepared to
express her opinions on the basis of records maintained.
The teacher’s performance can be evaluated on the basis of what
proportion of professionalism does he / she show in relation to
working with outside agencies.
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132 f) Summative Evaluation : One of the evaluation technique to correct
ineffective behaviour of the teachers is to do subjective evaluation i.e.
evaluation by all live elements surrounding teacher. This evalua tion
needs to be doe at the end of the semester or academic year. Simple
evaluation scale including space for comments on the particular
strengths and weaknesses of the teacher can be asked to be rated by :
a) Students
b) Peers or Colleagues
c) Administra tors
a) Rating by Students : In order to secure objective ratings, a teacher
should give her students the opportunity to rate her anonymously
and with complete impunity. Any feeling on the part of the student
that there may be an attempt to discover his identity as a rater will,
of course, influence his rating and thus defeat the entire purpose of
the procedure. In order to prevent the handwriting from revealing
the individual students the comments should be typed. Single,
isolated comments may reflect a student’s weakness, rather than
the teachers; but when the same comment turns up a number of
times, it is likely to be a good indication of teacher’s behaviour.
Many research studies have indicated that student’s opinions for
their teacher’s behaviour i n the classroom are competent. Even
children in the lower grades seem to ‘know what they are talking
about’ when they comment on teachers.
Again the teacher should have full opportunity to study the
comments made for her. Also, it is very important that he / she not
be offended by unfavorable ratings and comments or sensitive
about learning that her teaching is not totally effective. On the
contrary he / she should regard it as an opportunity to improve his /
her professional skills.
b) Rating by Peers : Working in a school or college can be really
miserable if the people around you are not supportive and helpful.
It is very essential that colleagues around you are helpful and
supportive. Infact fellow teachers can better help to evaluate the
teacher. But here, the fellow teachers who are raters should keep
in mind that they are rating one another for one another’s
development. Hence, too much friendship or animosity should not
become the hurdle. Again, all the peers should avoid to join
together to rate one another high. Further, the rating scale should
not create conflicts among them.
c) Rating by administrators : One of the important jobs of the
teachers is to comply with the rules made by administrators, try to
tackle them by working on his / her own terms and at the same
time by not offending them, acting as a bridge between
administrators and students and making sure that protocols as
defined are respected cordially. Also, the teacher should exhibit
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133 and peons. They being the helping hands of the organization, the
teacher should not take undue advantage of his / her status.
Besides, novel ideas, leadership qualities, punctuality are
additional qualities that administrators expect from a teacher.
Hence a teacher can also be evaluated through administrators.
Problems of Rating :
Teacher’s Performance Appraisals are subject to a wide variety of
inaccuracies and, biases which can be termed as ‘rating errors occurs in
the rater’s obse rvation, judgement and can seriously affect assessment
results.
The most common occurring rating errors are :
a) Leniency or severity : Leniency or severity on the part of any rater
makes the assessment subjective. Subjective assessment defeats the
very p urpose of performance appraisal.
b) Central Tendency : This occurs when teachers are incorrectly rated
by the raters near the average or middle of the scale. Here the attitude
of the rater is to play safe.
c) Halo Error : A halo error takes place when one aspect of an
individual’s performance influences the evaluation of entire
performance of the individual. For a teacher, a halo error occurs when
a teacher who stays late at school to guide students might be rated high
on content and method of teaching. Similarly, an attractive or popular
teacher might be given a high overall rating.
d) Rater Effect : This includes favoritism, stereotyping and hostility.
Excessively high or low scores are given only to certain individuals
based on rater’s attitude toward s the ratee, not on actual outcomes.
e) Perceptual Set : This occurs when the rater’s assessment is influenced
by previously held beliefs. E.g. If the administrator has a belief that
teachers hailing from one particular region are intelligent and
hardwork ing his subsequent rating of the teacher hailing from that
region tends to be favourably high.
f) Performance Attributes Order : Two or more attributes on the
rating -scale follow or closely follow each other and both describe or
rotate to a similar quality . The rater rates the first dimension
accurately and then rates the second dimension similar to the first
because of the proximity. If the attributes had been arranged in a
significantly different order, the ratings might have been different.
g) Spill ov er Effect : This refers to allowing past performance appraisal
ratings to unjustifiably influence current ratings. This may happen in
case of ratings done by Administrators or Peers.
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134 If the above mentioned problems are overcomed while rating, summative
evaluation can give a clear picture of teacher’s present performance and
also can judge her potential development.
Teacher’s Performance Appraisals are never welcomed. They can seem a
bit daunting, but if teachers prepare for it. (Trainees of B.Ed. colleg es can
be for this, too) they aim at improving the performance. Now when
affective teaching has become prominent and that the role of individual is
undermined, there is necessity of teachers to reach not only intelligently
but affectionately and also, lea rn to work in attribution to system.
Hence it is a high time that as performance appraisals are made
compulsory in various other professions like Management, Business,
Medicine, Pharmacy. It should also be made compulsory in the field of
education also.
Check your progress :
1) What is performance appraisal? What are it’s uses?
2) What is Teacher’s Performance Appraisal? Explain it’s criteria.
5B.4 PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL 360 DEGREE
FEEDBACK TEACHER - SELF, STUDENTS,
PRINCIPAL, COLLEAGUES, STAKEHOLDERS
360 Degree Feedback Tools in Education Benefit Teachers, Schools and
Students.
Education presents an ironic challenge when it comes to performance
evaluation. Administrators occupied by the significant demands involved
in developing students' knowledge and sk ills sometimes fail to carve out
enough time to develop the knowledge and skill sets of educators
themselves.
When educators don't receive the specific, constructive feedback they need
to guide their behaviour and performance, problems can go unnoticed.
This challenge has driven learning institutions to look for new methods of
performance assessment.
What is a 360 degree performance evaluation?
There are many differences between 360 degree feedback v/s traditional
employee assessments .
360 degree feedback is a performance evaluation survey that collects
confidential, anonymous, and candid feedback from various individuals
involved in the employee's day -to-day work, including managers,
coworkers, subordinates, peers, and customers.
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135 Managers and leaders use 360 degree feedback assessment tools to get a
thorough understanding of employee performance from various
perspectives, identifying st rengths and areas of weakness that can be
improved.
360 performance evaluation system for education!
School boards, universities and educational institutions have implemented
360 degree assessments to varying levels of success. Some teachers and
professo rs reject the idea based on the premise that the evaluations shift
the power structure, putting their livelihood in the hands of their students.
In contrast, others accept the assessment as a valuable tool for personal
development and helping create educat ional environments that are
conducive to learning.
For 360 degree feedback for education institutions to see positive
results, two important requirements need to be in place:
1. 360 degree assessments are developmental not evaluative
The first requirement involves perception. Performance assessments can
make people feel like their jobs are on the line. In an environment where
grades can hold a high level of significance, the idea of grading a teacher
can feel hostile.
When introducing a 360 degree feedback assessment in education, it is
essential to be conscious of perceptions and reiterate that the 360 degree
performance evaluation is not punitive or evaluative; it is designed to
provide an opportunity for personal development, support and mutual
growth.
The value in a 360 degree assessment tool for education comes from its
inherent lack of bias, offering a thorough, wholesome evaluation of
teacher performance from various perspecti ves. Assessment results
provide contextual insights and can open constructive conversations about
strengths and possible areas of improvement that can directly impact
student learning.
2. 360 degree evaluation surveys in education must adjust for
fluctuati ons
The second requirement involves data. Raw data doesn't tell the full story
in an educational setting, and it is crucial to account for naturally
occurring fluctuations.
Predictable factors that are out of a teacher's control, such as time of year,
class size, and average classroom achievement level, can have an impact
on a teacher's assessment. These factors can be taken into account, and
360 degree assessment results can be adjusted to negate these fluctuations.
Another aspect to consider when it come s to data is customization. A
student in first grade will not be able to express themselves the way an
eighth -grader can. Information can and should be collected from both
sources, but the survey does need to be adjusted for the audience. munotes.in
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136 Benefits
Identi fy classroom management skills or gaps that have a direct effect
on the learning environment.
Identify gaps in communication skills that can be improved to boost
student engagement and learning.
Allow students to voice concerns and get the help they need i n their
classroom.
Develop interpersonal skills so that teacher interactions with students
are positive and productive.
Education leaders can gain insight on their management skills,
improve on weaknesses, and become more effective leaders for
teachers, schools and students.
Schools, colleges and universities can implement personal development
plans to help their teachers and professors work on the skills needed to
engage and educate students effectively.
Teachers can use their 360 evaluation as a benchmark for progress and
personal development, referencing their ratings as a point of comparison
for future 360 assessments.
360 degree evaluation tools in education encourage a more open, honest
and supportive environment for teachers to discuss issues with colleagues
openly, and gain valuable input from coworkers.
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142 5B.5 LET US SUM UP :
Teachers in the contemporary society need to be through professionals
fully equipped with both, high academic standards, Pedagogical and
practical skills and ethical and moral values. However, it is unfortunate
that teaching is still in a transitiona l stage and is experiencing serious
occupational identify crisis. The debate on whether teaching can be called
a profession dominates the educational scene even at the fag end of
twentieth century. Teachers, often themselves are uncertain as to the
natur e of their occupation and to which category they belong non -
professional, semi -professional or professional. There is a feeling among
teaching community that they have been accorded a second class status
while being given first class responsibilities.
Teacher educators as a world wide group also seem to lack clarity on the
professional identify of teaching and the preservice or in -service levels.
Such confusions may be damaging for the teachers and their occupations.
It may also create an obstacle in de lineating the professionalism expected
from them for the emerging society. Therefore, it is high time teaching is
accorded the status which other professions like medicine, law etc. enjoy.
Professionalism for a global society demands teachers to be innova tive in
their attitude, flexible in their approach and inquisitive and reflective in
their mind always refreshing themselves with the day today increase of
knowledge in their subject area Professionalism, therefore, implies
professional preparation of teac hers and their professional development
through the mechanism of continuous in -service training programmes.
The National Policy on Education (NPE 1986) has rightly remarked that
“teacher education is a continuous process and its pre -service and in -
servi ce components are inseparable. NPE also suggested complete
overhauling of the system of teacher education and establishment of DIET
and SCERT to bring qualitative improvement in both pre -service and in -
service education of teachers. However, it is still a di stance drawn because
of inadequate trained personnel and lack of proper infrastructural facilities.
Teacher effectiveness depends on the Professional accountability of the
teachers. An individual teacher’s performance is monitored by a principal
or educat ional authorities of varying levels of hierarchy. Teachers in the
global world are considered as moral agents of change and not merely
technicians imparting knowledge. The first accountability is the
willingness to accept the responsibility, second, the access and right of
community to know what is going on in school and third the teachers
become the judge of students improvement in teaching.
Teacher effectiveness can be enhanced and evaluated through performance
appraisal for teachers and teacher educators. Therefore, performance
appraisal in the field of education is the need of the hour.
In sum, the dream of a learning society can become reality only when the
dream te achers are well equipped with moral, professional intellectual,
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143 efficient teaching. We can also conclude with the quote: “To be a good
teacher, you have to have heart for the kids, integrity to push for
excellence and a lot of creativity. And it takes stamina like you would not
believe.”
Unit End Exercises :
1) What is Profession?
2) Differentiate between Profession and Professionalism.
3) What is Professional Ethics? Why it is nec essary?
4) Explain the meaning and components of teacher effectiveness?
5) What is P.A.? What are it’s uses?
6) What is P.A.? How can you enhance and evaluate P.A. for teachers
and teacher educators development?
7) Prepare a Performance appraisal for sch ool principal.
P.A. – Performance Appraisal
References :
Prasad, Himadri and Prasad Dharmedra, (2005) Towards
Professionalism in Education, University News, 43(18) May 02 -08.
www.google.com
https://www.grapevineevaluations.com/360 -degree -feedback -tools -in-
education
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144 5C
RESEARCH IN TEAC HER EDUCA TION
Unit Structure :
5C.0 Objectives
5C.1 Introduction
5C.2 Nature & Purpose of Research in Teacher Education
5C.3 Scope of Research in Teacher Education
5C.4 Areas of Research in Teacher Education
5C.4.1 Problems of Research in teacher education
5C. 5 Trends in Research in Teacher Education
5C. 6 Importance of Networking and Collaboration in
Education Teacher
5C. 7 Implications of Research for Teacher Education
5C. 8 Let Us Sum Up
5C.0 OBJECT IVES :
After reading this unit, you will:
Become aware of Purpose of Research in Teacher Education.
Become aware of Scop e of Research in Teacher Education.
Become aware of Problems of Research in Teacher Education.
Become aware of Trends in Research in Teache r Education.
Become aware of Importance of Networking in Teacher
Education.
5C.1 INTRODUCTION :
Educational research is that which develops new knowledge, which is
then applied to the improvement of educational practice. Same is true for
Teacher Education. The contributions of research to educational
knowledge are easy to demonstrate through reviews of related literature.
However, it is difficult to determine whether the
accumulation of research findings has made an impact on the
practice of education. Even when research knowledge attracts the
attention of policy makers in education, they generally consider it just
one source of information to use it in shaping a particular policy, or use it
to justify a unpopular decision, or cut funds, or may dismiss the research
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145
In spite of this research in education in general and teacher education in
particular continues to grow and make its contributions to the body of
knowledge.
5C.2 NA TURE & PURPOSE OF RESEAR CH IN
TEA CHER EDUCAT ION :
Essentially there are two broad purposes of research in Teacher
Education.
To understand the educational pheno menon and
To transform it.
Understanding the Educational Pheno menon implies that it should fit
into a theoretical framework. This helps to conceptualize, explain, control
and predict the dynamics of a given phenomena. For example, to explain
the phenomena of teaching means arriving at a conceptual framework of
relationships with regard to teaching, explaining the nature and extent of
relationships among the variables and controlling the effect of certain
variables related to teaching on certain other variables. Prediction would
then give a comprehensive understanding of the phenomena.
Conceptualizing means arriving at interrelated set of variables.
Conceptualizing may not involve verification since many paradigms
are hypothetical in nature. A well-articulated framework applicable to
many contexts based on systematic perspective is the presage-process-
product paradigm of teacher education. Prestage variables would include
the personality variables, process variables would imply curriculum
transaction i.e. mode of teaching students and product variable would be a
performance of studen ts on a test. Explaining relationships among
variables in teache r education is important. There is a relationship among
variables is one thing but explaining why they have a relationship is
another. Thus it is essential to know the forces that influence the
relationships and at the same time understand the underlying
unobservable processes acting on theses relationships. Controlling
variables in a network of relationships among variables operating in
teacher education is essential. It is highly difficult to study the dynamics
of a variable in isolation. For example
Performance of a teache r trainee in practice teaching may depe nd on
several factors such as mental make-up, personality, language
fluency, comm unication skills, training received, experience, motivation,
the grade level of students taught, subject matter and classroom
conditions. The researcher wishes to study how the new method of
training the teacher affects the performance of teacher trainees in practice
teaching he/she probably has to control many of the variables listed
abov e. Other wise the researcher will not be able to reach a precise
conclusion abou t the effectiveness of the training. Thus the influence of
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146 least statistically. Prediction i.e. the researcher should be able to foresee
the nature of changes that would occur in dependent variables based on
his/her knowledge of the relationships of this variable with another
variable which is independent in its influence on the given variable.
Transforming the Educational Pheno menon means incorporating change s
in the phenomena as it exists because of some dissatisfaction with it. In
order to improve it. This is true of teacher education too. When there is
dissatisfaction with the existing practices in teacher education
change s may be required in the structure as well as the processes of
teacher education. Research provides necessary ground for any changes
to take place because changes based on research are sound and effective.
Check your progress :
1. What are the main purposes of research in Teacher Education?
2. How will research in the area of Teacher Education help in
understand the educational phenomena?
3. How will research in the area of Teacher Education help in
transforming the educa tional phenomena?
5C.3 SCOPE OF RESEARCH IN TEA CHER
EDUCAT ION:
The system of Teacher Education has several sub-systems. There is
constant interaction among them. As such the components of the
system, the inputs, processes and the outputs lend themselves to
research.
Inputs include the goals of Teacher Education, characteristics of the
teacher educ ators, characteristics of the students teache rs, and
infrastructural facilities.
Processes include the classroom interactions among teacher educators,
student teachers and pupils. Interactions consist simulated learning
experiences in order to provide learning of various skills such as
teaching and evaluation.
Outputs are the immediate outcomes as well as delayed outcomes.
Immediate outcomes include the gaining of theoretical knowledge,
acquisition of the required skills and attitudes. Delayed outcomes are the
retention of the theoretical knowledge, skills, attitude and developing
teacher effectiveness.
Research Methodologies adopted are mainly descriptive surveys,
experimental studies, developmental studies, as well as relational studies.
Action research is also conducted by teacher educators to improve
classroom practices. Descriptive surveys are used to procure data in
teacher educ ation or describe the characteristics of teacher education.
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147 intervention strategies or training programmes. Relational studies try to
study relationships between the input and process, process and output, or
input, process and output. Developmental studies put forth the historical
developments in teacher education in order to explain the status of
teacher education at a particular time or changes over a period in one or
more sub systems of teacher education. This gives a systemic view of
the temporal dimensions of teacher education.
5C.4 AREAS OF RESEARCH IN TEA CHER
EDUCAT ION :
There is a w ide spectrum of variables related to teacher education. For
example, selection procedu res, development of battery of tests for
selection and then try to predict success based on the selection criteria.
Research areas would include personality of student teachers, teacher
educators, different types of training such as pre service and in
service training, or the different levels of teacher educ ation i.e. teacher
education for elementary level or secondary level. Most of the researches
are isolated and there seems no connection between them As such, super
imposing of a classificatory system helps to identify cluster of variables.
A cluster of variables thus identified may be called an ‘area’ of research.
During the seventies researches in teache r education were classified in
five areas such as selection criteria, abilities and qualities of a
teacher, pre and in service training of teachers, work load, job
expectations and difficulties expressed by teacher, procedures and
practices of teacher educa tion in India and personality variables of
teachers. In the later years researches were classified under context, input
process and output variables. During the eighties context, presage,
process, produc t were the categories.
The context variables include student-teacher characteristics, institutional
characteristics related studies and on classroom context. Student-teacher
characteristics means student-teachers formative experiences, academic
qualifications, abilities, personality factors, intelligence, etc. Institutional
characteristics include climate of teacher education institutions,
administrative set up, classroom climate, curriculum framework.
The presage variables include teacher-educator characteristics i.e.
formative experiences of teache r educators, their education and training,
motivation, abilities, personality factors, intelligence, and teaching and
training skills.
The process variables such as classroom interactions, classroom
transactions and mediating processes that lead to learning. Such variables
are attending, practicing, task persistence, active learning time and
student teacher engagement with learning task.
Teacher behaviour in the classroom and supervisory beha viour of teachers
relating to student teaching too are some of the research variables.
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148 The produc t studies on outcome of teacher education include two types of
variables. One, those describing imme diate outcome of teacher education
i.e. student-teacher outcomes such as their achievement, attitudes and
skills, and two long term outcomes describing level of professional
skills and teaching success or teaching effectiveness.
Check your progress :
1) Explain the context, presage, process and product variable that
need to be researched in Teacher Education.
5C.4.1 Problems of Research in Teacher Educa tion:
There has not been much headway in research since the researchers face
a number of problems. More research is needed in the area of teacher
education and there needs to be qualitative improvement too. Problems
of research are both intrinsic and extrinsic to the researcher.
Following are some of the glaring problems of research in teacher
education.
Lack of Qualified Personnel :
Researchers lack the minimum abilities, skills, A cquiring these is a
deliberate process. It is important that besides acquiring the
qualifications researchers gain knowledge of the theory of teacher
educa tion, skills of scientific inquiry, ability to analyze and interpret data
and make rational judgments.
Lack of Motivation :
This happens when researcher has no qualification and no inclination
to do research. The system fails to encourage them and utilize their
abilities. There are no proper incentives to do research.
Lack of Resources and Facilities :
Many a times there is lack of several adjunct conditions influencing
undertaking of research. For example unavailability of expert advice for
proper planning, or statistical procedures for analyzing the data, or proper
reporting of findings. Lack of material facilities such as h ardware,
stationary can also cause hindrances.
Problems of Finance :
There is less research done due to lack of finance. Fund agencies such as
UGC, NCERT and ICSSR at times fail to provide funds.
Arbitrariness :
Arbitrariness in research means lack of mean ingful relation among
studies. Any research should be based on previous research for its
assumptions, hypotheses and theoretical background. Only then will
there be hierarchical growth in the discipline. Therefore it is important
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149 understanding of the phenomenon after a certain number of studies. This
avoids duplication in research and enha nces the possibility that all
aspects and variables involved are attended to properly. Prediction
beco mes difficult and it becomes difficult to establish as to the direction
in which research in teacher education is going. Instead of paradigmatic
set of hypotheses getting tested, individual hypotheses are tested. As
a result the growth of knowledge is slow or zero. Thus it is important
to have long term plans for research.
Lack of Consensus :
There are as many views and priorities in education as there are
researchers involved in it. Concurrence of views in a point of time
will help researchers to work w ithin common theoretical purpose.
Lack of Coverage :
Lack of attention to some of the areas of teacher education or differential
attention form researchers to some areas of research comes in the
way of covering a large number of areas needing attention. At some
period of time certain areas come into prominence. As a result
many researches get done in the area, while
other areas get receded. For example there are many studies on test
construction or on teacher behaviour, or only on micro-teaching.
What is required is thematic research for balanced and uniform progress.
Check your progress :
1) What are the problems of conducting research in Teacher
Education?
5C.5 TRE NDS IN RESEARCH IN TEA CHER
EDUCAT ION :
Quantitative Leap :
The first study reported in Teacher Education was by Banerji in 1956.
After the first study was reported the First Survey reported
45 studies on Teacher Education upto 1973. The Second Survey
during the next five years i.e. up to 1978 reported 65 studies. During the
period 1978 to 1983, 116 studies were reported. The growth of researches
in Teacher Education indicates that the researchers were getting attracted
towards this area. Some of the reasons cited for this attraction were
easy accessibility of sample for the studies, availability of ready-
made tools and expertise.
Systematization of Instruction :
Instruction dominated by ‘lecture’ method, which is usually a one way
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150 Research on instruction show a shift of emphasis from lecture
method to structured methods such as programmed learning, instructional
model-based teaching or s tructured lectures. The purpose of
research was to make instruction at Teacher Education level a systematic
activity. The main intention was to make instruction reproducible.
Further, the purpose was to develop instructional strategies for Teacher
Education.
Larger Coverage of Objectives :
Attempts to cover a larger number of objectives was seen. These
included classroom interaction analysis for objective evaluation of
lessons to achieve the objective of understanding dynamics of classroom
teaching. Micro-teaching studies aimed at developing skills of teaching.
Programm ed learning for imparting theoretical knowledge. Discussion
as an alternative method for developing social interaction skills and higher
order cognitive skills, and simulation for deve lopment of application and
decision making skills and abilities were also areas of research. The
trend which emerges indicates that objectives of teacher education were
researched.
Alternative Model :
Earlier researches on the Harbartian model as a method of teaching,
Flanders interaction model, micro-teaching were seen as the
behaviouristic models. However, recent researches indicated a different
trend wherein other b ehaviouristic models such as Concept Attainment,
Inquiry Training, Advanced Organizer Models. This was indeed a
welcome change.
During the current period researches on the context, presage, process and
product variables highlighting the importance of areas of teaching and
learning styles of teachers and students, cognitive styles, student and
teacher characteristics, management of education and technology of
education and techno logy in education are gaining importance and
attention of researchers.
Check your progress :
1) According to you what are some of the areas of research which
need immediate attention of researchers?
5C.6 IMPO RTAN CE OF NETWORKING AND
COLLAB ORAT ION IN TEA CHER EDUCAT ION:
One of the reviews made on the status of Teacher Education at the time
of the formulation of the NPE (1986) and its POA was concerning
isolation of institutions of Teacher Education. It was observed that
institutions of Teacher Education are isolated fr om each other and
from schools. There is limited communication between institution at
one level and another. Institutions of Teacher Education were found to be
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151 efficiency and smooth functioning appropriate networking of Teacher
Education institutions as well as state and national level agencies is
therefore needed. Following are some of the advantages of networking.
Advantages of Networking : Resource Utilization :
Resource material and facilities at district, regional and state levels can
be mobilized for optimum utilization. This will avoid duplication and
wastage. Several agencies provide men and material need by schools.
Development of Teachers :
Networking will facilitate developme nt of required teacher capabilities
for qualitative improvement of the teaching learning process. This
developed and available expertise can be then utilized to meet needs of
teachers working in remote areas.
Improvement of Quality :
Networking will lead to rationalization of programmes of pre- service and
in-service courses and thereby help develop a system of quality teacher
education which in turn will affect school education.
Feedback for Improvement :
Efficient and effective monitoring and evaluation of teacher education
programmes can be done through networking.
Structure of Networking :
Horizontal linkages among institutions of Teacher Education is essential
to enab le the institutions to assist one another by sharing educational
resources Institutions need linkage to rationalize the
pre-service training programmes and the in service programmes of a
continuous nature to develop a national system of Teacher
Education. DIETS at the district level will have academic linkages with
District Boards of Education, have direct linkage with secondary
schools and have on its complex elementary schools.
Vertical linkages are needed to remove isolation with state level agencies
such as State Departments of Education, SCERTs, State Institutes of
Education, State Institutes of Science Education, State Educational
Technology Units.
Linkages are to be established between regional agencies such as
Regional Institute of English, Regional Technical Teacher Training
Institute, Regional Collages of Education and other support institutes.
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152 5C.7 IMPLICATIONS OF RESEARCH IN TEAC HER
EDUCAT ION :
Teaching, like other professions, h as a developing knowledge base that
serves to guide practitioners. K nowledge generated by research is an
important component of this knowledge. Teacher education and staff
development programme might be considered to be a central avenue of
knowledge dissemination on one hand, and of practicing it’s use in varied
contexts on the other hand. The curriculum of teacher education and
the text books they use, determine what aspects of research knowledge
will be brought to the attention of becoming teachers. The practicum
and teacher induction programme s might serve student teachers and
novices in learning how to use this knowledge base. Research
findings constitute a regular feature of teacher educa tion courses in the
foundation disciplines, like psychology, and in method courses, but the
translation of the findings into class-room action is usually left to the
student teachers w ho find this an extremely difficult or even
impossible task.
Teacher education is an important field for research since the quality of
teacher education has been regularly questioned. At the same time as
teacher quality is increasing being identified as crucial to educational
outcomes and pupil gains. Consequently teacher education researcher
need to work together in order to
Share emerging research findings.
Develop innovative research methodologies within teacher
education.
Disseminate innovative pedagog ical methods within teacher
education.
Find new publishing outlets within an overcrowded academic
field.
Support colleagues in institutions with under developed research
profiles.
Develop important emerging themes to give teacher education
research a distinctive positive.
Networking should be established with central level agencies working in
the area of Teache r Education. They are Teacher Education unit in
the MHRD, N ational Council for Teacher Education (NCTE),
National C ouncil Educa tional Research and Training (NCERT),
University Grants Commission (UGC). There are other supporting
institutions like National Institute of Educational Planning and
Administration (NIEPA) now known as N ational University of
Educational Planning and Administration (NU EPA), Central Hindi
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153 of Indian Languages (CIIL), D irectorate of Adult Education (DAE),
National Institute for Handicapped (NIH).
Check your progress :
1) Why is networking between Teacher Education institutes at
different levels important?
5C.8 LET US SUM UP :
This unit covers the nature & purpose of research in Teacher Education,
which is to understand the educational phenomenon and transform it.
The scope of research in Teacher Education encompasses the
whole system of i.e. the inputs, processes, the context, presage, and
process variables in Teacher Education.
Problems of research in Teacher Education are many. They are lack of
qualified personnel, lack of motivation, arbitrariness, lack of resources
and facilities, problems of finance, lack of coverage, and lack of
consensus among researchers. Trends in research in Teacher Education
indicate a quantitative leap in the number of researches conducted,
systematization of instruction, larger coverage of objectives and
alternative methods and models available. Finally importance of
networking between teache r education institutions, and district,
regional, state and central agencies has been highlighted. Special
importance has been given to it’s implications in the field of teacher
education.
Unit End Exercises :
1. Discuss the trends in research on Teacher Education in India.
Based on the findings of this research, what suggestions will you
make to transform the structure and process of Teacher
Education?
2. Discuss the tends in research in teaching and teachers. How can the
findings of research in this area be used for overhauling the system of
Teacher Education?
3. “Research on Teacher Education should chan ge the quality of teacher
and teaching”. How far is this achieved through current research on
teachers?
4. Describe the research trends in Teacher Education in India with
reference to the v ariable studied and research designs and
methodologies used. What improveme nts can you sugge st to
make research on Teacher Education more rigorous and meaningful?
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154 Suggested Readings :
1. Borg, W.R. and Gall, M.D. (1983) Educational Research: An
Introduction New York, Longman Inc.
2. Biddle, B.J., Good, T., Goodson, L.I.F. (Eds.) International Handbook
of Teachers and Teaching Vols. I & II, D ordrechet, Kluwer, Academic.
3. Dunkin M.J. (Ed.) (1985) The International Encyclopedia of
Teaching and Teacher Education, Oxford, Pergamon.
4. Gupta, A.K. (1984) Teacher Education: Current and Future
Prospects New Delhi, Sterling.
5. Kerawalla. G.J. (Ed.) (1990) Redesigning Teacher Education: A
Systems Approach Department of Education, University of Bombay.
6. NCTE (1998) Curriculum Framework for Teacher Education
NCT E, New Delhi.
7. NCTE (1998) Policy Perspectives in Teacher Education, NCTE, New
Delhi.
8. Sharma S. Teacher Education in India.
9. Singh, L.C. (1990) Teacher Educa tion in India: A Resource
Book, NCERT, New Delhi.
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155 6
ISSUES IN TEACHER EDUCATION
Unit Structure:
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Concept of Quality
6.3 Quality Control Indicators in Teacher Education
6.4 Quality Management of Teacher Education
6.5 Some Suggestive Measures to improve the Quality of Teacher
Education
6.6 Globalization
6.6.1 Concept of Globalization
6.2.2 Globalization and teacher education
6.6.3 Global education:
6.6.4 In Globalization challenges for teacher education
6.7 Privatization
6.7.1 Concept of privatization
6.7.2 Education and Privatization
6.7.3 Factors which are responsible for Privatization
6.7.4 Advantages of Privatization
6.8 Autonomy in teacher education
6.8.1 Concept of Autonomy
6.8.2 Need for autonomy
6.8.3 Challenges before autonomous institut ions
6.9 Special Education - Introduction
6.9.1 Roots of Special Education
6.9.2 Government schemes for special Education
6.9.3 Recent Initiatives
6.9.4 Challenges in Special Education munotes.in
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156 6.9.5 Recommendations on Education
6.9.6 Challenges in Inclusiv e Education
6.9.7 The Advisory Board on English Education recommends
6.10 Let Us Sum Up
6.11 Unit End Exercise
6.12 References
6.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
Explain the concept of quality
Discuss quality control indica tors in teacher education
Analyses the quality management in teacher education
Describe the suggestive measures to improve the quality of teacher
education
Define privatization, globalization and autonomy
Explain the need for autonomy and challenges be fore autonomous
institutions.
Explain the concept of privatization, globalization and autonomy with
reference to teacher education
Define special education.
Explain the roots of special education.
Discuss the various government schemes and recent initi atives by the
government
Enumerate challenges in special education.
States the recommendations for integrated education.
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Teacher education is a global profession that needs to be understood
properly. It is essential to grasp a global per spective of the profession as it
is today, to make assumptions about it in the near future and to utilize the
best thinking and instructional models available in the present times.
Professionally powerful teaching is very important and increasing in our
contemporary society as a result of the stream of dynamic initiatives of
human development and evolution. Due to these developments and
evolution, standards of learning would be higher in the 21st century than it
has been in the 20th century. As a result, teachers would need to acquire
additional knowledge and skills, both general and specific, to be able to
survive and be successful in the 21st century school environment. munotes.in
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157 Teacher education has to become more sensitive to the emerging demands
from the sc hool system. For this, it has to prepare teachers for a dual role
of;
Encouraging, supportive and humane facilitator in teaching learning
situations who enables learners to discover their talents, to realize
their physical and intellectual potentialitie s to the fullest, to develop
character and desirable social and human values to function as
responsible citizens; and,
An active member of the group who makes a conscious effort to
contribute towards the process of renewal of school curriculum to
maint ain its relevance to the changing society.
Societal needs and personal needs of learners, keeping in view the
experiences gained in the past and the concerns and imperatives that
have emerged in the light of changing national development goals and
educa tional priorities.
Unfortunately, the programmes of teacher education are alleged to be
static and stagnant. The existing teacher education model is inherited
mostly from British system of education and is suffering
a lot due to its inability to keep pa ce with time adopting necessary
modification in its conceptual based theory and practices (Yadav et al.,
2011). N.P.E. (1986) and the subsequent program of actions have realized
that the program of teacher education in various stages requires a
thorough reconstruction in its input, process and output in order to make
the system quality oriented.
At the time of independence India declared itself a socialist democratic
state. Public sector undertakings were initiated and developed to provide
for all and usher India towards development. But the nineteen eighties
witnessed disillusion with socialist economics which led to
dissatisfaction with the public sectors. Education too was considered as a
public good and the government set up institutions just as ot her public
enterprises, which provided education to the masses. With passage of time
these institutions became inefficient.
As a reaction to the inefficient working of the state -owned enterprises, the
wave of privatization has spread all over the world, i ncluding India. The
idea of privatization was seen as a panacea to all the problems. India too
could not remain unaffected and the wave of privatization has influenced
the education sector.
6.2 CONCEPT OF QUALITY
The dictionary meaning of quality is -” The degree of excellence”.
According to Bennis (1993) ―” Quality often is not measured at all, but is
appreciated intuitively. One‘s response to quality is a feeling, a perception munotes.in
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158 that is connected intimately with our experience of meaning, beauty and
values in our lives.”
According to Jan D. Timmer ―” quality is a state of mind…the relentless
pursuit of excellence, of never being satisfied with what you do, how you
do it and how quickly you do it. There is always room for improvement.
Everything can a lways be done better. Quality should be a part of our
soul”.
Quality is contextual. It is very difficult to give a comprehensive definition
of quality. It is the totality of features and characteristics of the product,
process or service that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied
needs. In the educational context, quality is seen as a complex issue as
education is concerned with human beings. When we describe human
beings as a product, the description cannot encapsulate all the
characteristi cs of teachers or learners in the same way, as one would
describe the quality of commodities. Hence, the definition of quality varies
depending upon the individual, institution and educational situation,
social and national context.
To ensure quality in education (as well as in teacher education
particularly), is a massive challenge since it deals with the most sensitive
creation of earth i.e., the human resources (Rogers, 1995). Quality has
become a defining element of education in the 21st century in the context
of new social realities. The information communication revolution, the
knowledge economy and globalization are
greatly influencing the “next society”. How to provide quality education to
large numbers at affordable costs is the primary concer n of developing
countries. Quality makes education as socially relevant as it is personally
indispensable to the individuals. In this context, quality and excellence
should be the vision of every higher education institution including teacher
education. Acquisition of quality and excellence is the great challenge
faced by all higher education institutions.
6.3 QUALITY CONTROL INDICATORS IN TEACHER
EDUCATION
In the field of teacher education, in order to assess the quality of teacher
education institutio ns, certain quality control indicators are to be
considered. NAAC (2005) has identified following seven indicators to
assess and control the quality in teacher education: -
A. Curricular Aspects: which include goal orientation, curriculum
development, p rograms options, academic flexibility and feedback
mechanism.
B. Teaching, Learning and Evaluation:
Which includes the admission process, catering to diverse needs, teaching -
learning process, teacher quality, evaluation of teaching, evaluation of
learnin g, and examination reforms. munotes.in
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159 C. Research, Development and Extension:
Which includes promotion of research, research output, publications
output, consultancy extension activities, participation in extension and
linkages.
D. Infrastructure and Learning Res ources:
which includes physical facilities, maintenance of infrastructure, library as
a learning resource, computers as learning resources and other facilities.
E. Student Support and Progression:
Which includes students’ profile, students’ progression , student support
and student activities.
F. O rganization and Management:
Which includes goal orientation and decision making, organization
structure, powers and functions of functionaries, perspective planning,
human power planning and recruitment, pe rformance appraisal, staff
development program, resources mobilization and financial management.
G. Healthy Practices:
Which includes total quality management, innovations, value - based
education, social responsibilities and citizenship roles, overall
development and institutional ambience and initiatives.
6.4 QUALITY MANAGEMENT OF TEACHER
EDUCATION
Though the concept of quality management has been introduced mostly to
improve the quality of industrial products, its relevance in the field of
academic institutions has also been realized by educators. Particularly in
the field of teacher education, its effective implementation might ensure a
better possibility of increased involvement of various stakeholders, more
teamwork, the process of redesign, com petitive benchmarking, constant
measurement of the outcomes, long range vision, team based problem
solving, and closer relationship with community (Kaun, 1996).
In any educational institution there are three aspects to be managed -
academic, administrative and financial. Besides these there are the human
and physical resources to be managed to their optimum level. In other
words, management of input -process - product is of utmost concern in the
system of teacher education. If every component is of good qua lity, then
the final product will be perceived as fulfilling the needs of the
consumers.
Applied to the field of Teacher Education, quality refers to the totality of
features and characteristics of the student teacher acquired as a result of
the teacher education program. If the expectations of the schools,
students, parents and the society are met, this indicates that the right type munotes.in
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160 of teachers have been prepared by the teacher education institutions.And
if the teachers continue to improve themselves, then there is value addition
in education. Such teachers will continue to meet the needs of the society.
There is fitness of educational outcome and experience for use. There will
be defect avoidance in the education process of teachers in a quality
teacher education institution.
Quality management adopts a number of management principles that can
be used by upper management to guide their organizations towards
improved performance.
The principles are: Customer focus, Leadership, Involvement of peopl e,
Process approach, System approach to management, Continual
improvement, Factual approach to decision making, mutually beneficial
supplier relationships. Various essential criteria and steps to be taken for
an effective quality management program in teacher education are as
follows -
A. Commitment of Management and Governing Body:
Management should be accountable and committed to their service, have
adequate concern of various quality aspects and norms in the field of
teacher education and not only profit -making approach.
B. Identification of Quality areas :
Areas to which quality improvement is required are necessary to identify.
Teacher education institutions may consult various indicators identified
by apex bodies like NAAC in this regard.
C. Appointment of Quality Assurance Cells :
Teacher education institutions should have their own internal quality
assurance cell to monitor various functions of the institution and suggest
the necessary improvements.
D. Establishment of Various Steering Comm ittees: Various
Committees may be formed and the tasks may be distributed among them
in view of the priority of quality areas.
E. Design of Process and Objectives :
Objectives of each steering committee need to be formulated and
operationalized in terms o f achievable outcomes. Depending upon this,
the process of functioning of each committee may be decided.
F. SWOT Analysis :
It is one of the most essential functions of various steering committees to
identify strength -weakness opportunity -threat in the r elated fields and to
prepare the necessary plan of action in this regard.
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161 G. Awarding Quality Aspects :
Assurance of quality is a team work. Therefore, all concerned persons
should be well informed about the quality criterion and various efforts
planned and acted upon by the management to raise the quality standard
of the institution.
6.5 SOME SUGGESTIVE MEASURES TO IMPROVE
THE QUALITY OF TEACHER EDUCATION
With liberalization and globalization of economic activities, the demand
for teacher education a t comparable and internationally acceptable
standards has increased. This demands the teacher education institutions
to be innovative, creative and entrepreneurial in their approach to skill
development among the students.
Teacher education institutions have to shoulder the responsibility of
inculcating the desirable value system among the student teachers
commensurate with social, cultural, economic and environmental realities
at the local, national and universal level.
Our teachers should be trained to the technological innovations that are
readily available. Effective use of information and communication
technologies in teacher education institutions can improve the quality of
teacher education.
Instead, Quality assessment by NAAC and NCTE, we sho uld consider
those indicators, which are applicable to a variety of situations sensitive
to the specific needs and functions of teacher education.
Hence, there should be flexibility in approaches and methodology for
assessment of teacher education insti tutions. There should be a
continuous in -service program organized both through face -to-face and
distance mode in order to allow the teachers to cope with the latest
development.
Each teacher should do action research for qualitative improvement of
class room teaching. They should also be involved in developing teaching
and learning (print and non -print) instructional materials, psychological
tools, etc. this will help the teachers in updating their knowledge and skills
continuously as well as improving their self -esteem. There should be
continuous monitoring of teacher education institutions by NCTE and the
affiliating University in order to maintain the standard of the teacher
education program and its quality enhancement.
6.6 GLOBALIZATION
6.6.1 Concept of Globalization
The term "globalization" means integration of societies and economics
through cross country flows of ideas, information, technologies, good
services, finance, capital and people. Cross border integration can have munotes.in
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162 several dimensi ons – social, cultural, economical and political.
Globalization has made economic life more competitive and demanding,
making human expertise development more significant. Only an educated
workforce equipped with modern skills can compete and benefit fr om
exploiting the opportunities created by globalization.
Globalization is an economic phenomenon that brings the producers and
consumers of different continents and regions into functional relationships
through the free exchange of goods, services an d capital. For converging
the world three factors are mainly responsible. The first factor, which has
brought radical changes for globalization, is the dismantling of the
Eastern Bloc and the emergence of new regional economic blocs like the
SAARC, the EU and ASEAN. The second factor is the dominance of an
ideology of market -led regulation, initially applied to financial and
economic exchanges, and now applied to a variety of other sectors of
human activities including health and education. The third fa ctor, the
introduction of technological and scientific innovations in the field of
communication has removed all the boundaries which earlier blocked the
process of coming closer to the nations of the world.
Globalization has entered discussion in var ious fields and branches. What
follows is a critical review of contrasting perspectives on globalization as
it relates to education. In each section, after these general considerations,
concerns are narrowed down to the effects of globalization on educa tion
in relation to the teaching profession. Teachers' identity will be explored
in terms of the role of teachers in a given society and the way specific
societies conceive of this identity and adopt criteria to judge teachers
effectiveness and success. Given the ascendancy of the global economic
model, this discourse includes other agencies that are exerting their
influence on teacher identities. Teacher education and its evolving nature
cannot be isolated from teacher identity. The globalization way is
conceived of, and the role one assigns to teachers in relation to it, will
definitely bear an influence on the manner in which teacher education is
structured.
6.6.2 Globalization and teacher education
If we are to select and prepare a new genera tion of teachers equipped with
the knowledge and skills. Teacher education refers to the policies and
procedures designed to equip prospective teachers with the knowledge,
skills, behaviors and attitudes. They are required to perform their tasks
effecti vely in the classroom, school and wider community. It is a
programme that is related to the development of teacher competence and
proficiency that would enable and empower the teacher to meet the
requirements of the profession and face the challenges the rein. It is well
known that the quality and extent of learner achievement are determined
primarily by teacher competence, motivation and sensitivity. Beyond the
quality of its education system, no nation develops which is highly
dependent on the quality of its teachers. Teachers should be given the
most appropriate tools during and after their training, including content
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163 6.6.3 Global Education
The purpose of globalization and global education is to develop a 'global
perspective' and sensit ize the youth for understanding the multicultural
world and maintaining peace and harmony in the world. People in general
and the youth in particular have to be aware of the global happenings and
issues and the interdependence of people.
Global perspec tive means sharing and cooperation with others allowing
them to use whatever resources are available to attain individual as well
as common goals. Further, empathy towards others, i.e. understanding
and sharing feelings, communication ability in order to exchange and
express thoughts, feelings and information and resolving conflicts by
finding satisfactory ways of dealing with disagreement between people,
groups, societies or nations.
6.6.4 In Globalization challenges for teacher education
Research in teacher education: Enhanced scope of Teacher education
requires researchers and studies to visualize scope of teacher education in
the context of globalization. Research must respond to the area of policy
issues, curriculum issues, evaluation system s, classroom practices,
training strategies, value inculcation, technology mediated education,
school community relationship, quality in education, inclusive education,
interactive education, practice teaching school etc.
a. Curriculum based on competency : The curriculum based on
competency represents an approach to instructions, which emphasize the
application of the knowledge in a manner, which may be measured.
Curriculum based on competency guides focus on a components listing of
most important object ives to be mastered and competencies which every
student should be able to demonstrate when instruction is completed.
Competency based lesson, which changes the students in activities
designed to apply learning with an increased emphasis on higher order
thinking skills. Students are evaluated not only on knowledge, but also
primarily on their ability to perform tasks associated with knowledge
acquired.
b. Professionalism and Adaptability : The standard of education will
improve if all the teachers ha ve a global perspective, well prepared and
provided with ongoing professional development and appropriate support.
Teachers need to be adapted to the social, economical and cultural
diversities of the students in order to compete in the international sph ere.
c. Quality of education : Today we are now more interested in the quality
of teacher education. High quality teacher education is one more
challenge which caters to the following conditions without any bias such
as staff pattern as prescribed by NCTE, Infrastructure catering to the
needs of teaching learning situations, effective technique assessment and
effective learning outcome assessment. munotes.in
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164 d. The need for skills alongside knowledge : The phenomenon of
globalization has helped to widen the gap b etween those who are
globalized and those who are globalized of the process at the local,
regional, national and international levels. Teaching to live together is
synonymous with developing an understanding and appreciation of
interdependence in the sp irit of respect for the value of pluralism, mutual
understanding and peace.
e. Use of Integrated Technology : A growing challenge in education is
establishing and implementing strategies to develop the skills and
knowledge necessary for the teacher to e ssentially use technology as an
instruction tool. The extent to which a teacher is prepared to infuse
technology into curriculum and instruction is a major contextual factor.
6.7 PRIVATIZATION
6.7.1 Concept of Privatization
The term Privatization refe rs to many different educational programmes
and policies. Privatization is the transfer of activities, assets and
responsibilities from Government and Public institutions and
organizations to private individuals and agencies. (Levin, 2001).
Privatization involves a change in the ownership of an enterprise from the
public or government, to the private sector or individual private
companies (Aggarwal, 2007).
Privatization is the hottest currently being debated in the education sector,
it is fast becoming a widespread trend when considering education
reform, as it eases the pressure on government to meet immersing demand
and relieves them of exclusive costs in developing countries, the issues at
hands are provision and accountability there, privatizatio n can be
advantageous to parents who are given more freedom and choice when
deciding on schools for their children are educated.
6.7.2 Education and Privatization
Applied to the education sector, privatization can be seen as part of the
wider reform o f the public sector. Education is both a private and social
investment. It is therefore the responsibility of both the individual
including the student, his family and even his employers and the society
which includes the community and the state. The are as of shift in the
education sector are decision and responsibility of money, administration
and a relevant curriculum of high quality. Privatization is management by
the private sector with total absence of government intervention. Such
institutions ge nerate their own funds through higher fees, user charges and
full use of resources. They survive on the philosophy that they do not
have to pay for those who can pay.
Privatization of higher education has emerged in several forms and types
in the recent decade in India. munotes.in
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165 1. Privatization within government higher education institutions takes
place in the form of introducing self - financing courses within
government institutions.
2. Converting government aided private institutions into private self -
finan cing institutions.
3. Allowing to expand self -financing private institutions with recognition
and also without recognition, which may be termed as commercial
private higher education institutions.
6.7.3 Factors which are responsible for Privatization
a. Need for competitive efficiency: A more competitive economic
environment, operation of public sector enterprises is considered
inefficient is the main justification for privatization. It is believed that
private ownership and control are more efficien t in terms of resource
allocation and work.
b. Growth in population: India has a population of nearly one hundred
and twenty five crores. In order to provide to a large number of people
more private institutions are needed. To fulfill the demand for hig her
education of young people in the country, privatization of higher
education is needed.
c. Financial problem: Higher education in India is in financial stress. The
government of center and state can no longer bear the financial burden of
public enter prises. Current spending on education in India is not more
than 3.5% of GDP. The center itself concedes that the minimum should
be
6%. Very little is being spent on higher education. This compares
unfavourably with the international level, especially wh en compared with
countries such as South Africa, which invests eight per cent of GNP on
education. Therefore there is a need to evolve policy through which
private resources are mobilized.
d. For quality education: Private institutions do not require lo ng
procedures for procurement of human as well as material resources. In
order to purchase and maintain good qualitative infrastructure and
equipment like buildings, furniture, different types of laboratories and
qualified and competent academic staff, who can be paid as per the
demand, there is a need for privatization for quality education.
e. For skilled manpower: There is very little initiative from the public
sector due to limited freedom. Private institutions are free to initiate
modern and adv anced courses in order to fulfill the demand for subjects
which facilitate economic development of the nation. The demands of the
market and the times can be fulfilled. For this privatization is needed.
f. Desire for more autonomy: Privatization of hig her education will
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166 government. This will remove political interference in areas of
management, finance and administration.
g. Need for Technological developments: Information revo lution has
been brought about and strengthened due to technological developments
such as microchips, genetics, communications, robots, lasers, growth of
satellite TV and computer technologies. Due to limited resources the
public sector cannot meet the d emands of the industry and other sectors of
economy. Thus the private sector should undertake to train manpower in
technology and respond to market demands.
6.7.4 Advantages of Privatization
Tailor made services and provision of a wide choice of cours es and
subjects to students.
Competition
Quality of education and training.
Availability and better maintenance of resources transparency in all
procedures.
Utility of human and physical resources in the proper way.
Innovativeness in teaching a nd evaluation.
Decentralization of educational institutions.
6.8 AUTONOMY IN TEACHER EDUCATION
Higher education system in India is one of the largest in the world and is
continuing to progress. Many universities are burdened with an
unmanageable num ber of affiliated colleges, because of which many of
the reputed universities and colleges have lost their eminent positions.
Only some universities and colleges manage to maintain their status and
dignity in an environment of complex social and economi c pressures and
worldwide changes in approaches to the educational process.
6.8.1 Concept of Autonomy
An attitude of the mind which can be equated with critical intelligence,
independent mindedness, a determination and to think things out for one
self is called autonomy. One's own
independent judgments freely choosing among alternatives and governing
one's own action and attitudes in the light of one's own thinking consists
of autonomy.
Etymologically, there are two features of autonomy viz. the na ture of self -
i.e. 'autos' and the kind of norm and rule – 'nomos'. Putting together
autonomy would thus mean adopting for oneself "self -norms" "self -
governance" and "responsibility". Autonomy thus introduces the idea of
'self-direction' as well as recog nition of norms. Autonomy therefore,
essentially means the relative independence of an individual in guiding
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167 Autonomy or 'freedom' is accompanied by 'accountability'. Autonomy
means acc ountability to stakeholders and society. Therefore, it is
important to strike a balance between stakeholders' needs, societal
demands and institutional autonomy.
6.8.2 Need for Autonomy
In India some universities are too large and have many affiliating colleges.
Managing its own post graduate courses, teaching and research is getting
difficult by the day. Managing the colleges, conducting a number of
exams, recruitment of employees, declaring results and certification has
become unwieldy. The college s, on the other hand, feel restricted in
developing themselves due to lack of freedom. They feel that too many
controls only hinder their development. It is also observed that the same
regulations govern all colleges irrespective of their performance or non-
performance, management or mismanagement, regularities or
irregularities. The colleges which are doing well face the same appraisal.
Academic freedom of teachers is also affected. The curriculum, its
transaction as well as evaluation without consi deration of the needs and
aspirations of the students residing in different parts of the city decided by
the university bodies. The teachers in an institution are too occupied
completing what is mandated by the university and are not motivated to
give be yond the minimum requirements.
6.8.3 Challenges before autonomous institutions
Running an autonomous institution is problematic and challenging.
Survival depends on achievement. This is the same as a free market
economy, where there is greater produ ctivity than in a controlled
economy.
Institution’s achievement measure on the basis of student’s placement
and employability •Autonomous institutions have their own policy.
It has to match declared objectives and performance.
Autonomous Institution s have to ensure coordination of teachers for
qualitative change.
6.9 SPECIAL EDUCATION - INTRODUCTION
The question of how Québec’s education system deals with students with
handicaps, with social maladjustments and with learning disabilities has
been a preoccupation since the 1980s, when educators, parents and
student associations began to focus on issues of human rights and
discrimination. Some English -language schools were already quite open
to the inclusion and integration of students with specia l needs into regular
classrooms. Since then, the principle of integration has become widely
accepted, and there has been a steady growth in the implementation of
various forms of desegregated classrooms, in some instances for all
classroom activities, i n others for only putting this principle into practice, munotes.in
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168 however, it is becoming more complicated for school boards. The number
of students identified as having special needs has risen significantly,
while the resources for providing appropriate services have not kept pace.
As a result, teachers feel that they are being left on their own to manage
classrooms with relatively high percentages of students who have a
variety of different special needs.
Even though classroom mainstreaming —having all but the most severely
disabled students in the same classroom —has been part of the culture of
English -language schooling in Québec for about two decades, many
educators in the English -language school boards are now questioning the
effectiveness of across -the-board integration. Some now view the
“imposition” of inclusion as compounding the problems that teachers
already face arising from the curriculum reform —an extensive operation
in itself —for which school commissions and teachers feel unprepared and
under -resourced.
6.9.1 Roots of Special Education
United Nations Convention on Rights of Persons with Disabilities
(UNCRPD, 2008)
UNCRPD is the first human rights instrument to protect the rights of
people with disabilities. It is an International Law. Ind ia was one among
the first 81 countries that signed the convention on the first day. The key
guiding principles of the Convention are non discrimination, full
participation and inclusion, equality of opportunity and accessibility. The
Convention has 50 A rticles. Article 24 deals with Education. The
Convention mandates an
inclusive education system at all levels and lifelong learning. To achieve
this, the Convention stresses upon non -discrimination of persons with
disabilities on the basis of disability; access to quality inclusive
education; provision of required support within the general education
systems as per the need of the individual and effective individualized
support.
The Convention gives importance to creation of environments which
maximiz e academic and social development. It further calls upon the
State Parties to take appropriate measures to employ teachers, including
teachers with disabilities, who are qualified in sign language and/or
Braille, and to train professionals and staff who work at all levels of
education. Such training shall incorporate disability awareness and the
use of appropriate augmentative and alternative modes, means and
formats of communication, educational techniques and materials to
support persons with disabi lities. The Convention was followed by the
enactment of Right to Children to Free and Compulsory Education.
Right to Children to Free and Compulsory Education
The right to education is a universal entitlement to education. The RTE
Act provides for the Right of children to free and compulsory education munotes.in
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169 till completion of elementary education in a neighborhood school. It
clarifies that ‘compulsory education’ means the obligation of the
appropriate government to provide free elementary education and ensu re
compulsory admission, attendance and completion of elementary
education to every child in the six to fourteen age group. ‘Free’ means
that no child shall be liable to pay any kind of fee or charges or expenses
which may prevent him or her from pursui ng and completing elementary
education. It makes provisions for a non -admitted child to be admitted to
an age -appropriate class.
Section 3 of the Act states that “provided that a child suffering from
disability shall have the right to pursue free and compulsory elementary
education.” The RTE Amendment in 2012 stated that “a child with
‘severe disabilities' and a child with ‘multiple disabilities’ referred to in
National Trust shall also have the right to opt for home based education.”
Some of the e nabling provisions for CWDs under are as follows :
• Provision of free & compulsory education
• Access to neighborhood school
• Barrier free access
• No discrimination till the completion of elementary education cycle
• Admission without any kind of fees or charge
• Free textbooks
• Special training for age -appropriate enrolment
• No capitation fees
• No affidavits at the time of admission
• No screening procedures
• Age-appropriate admission.
Section 29 of the Act clearly mentions that, ” the curriculum and the
evaluation procedure for elementary education shall be laid down by an
academic authority to be specified by the appropriate Government. The
RTE Act lays emphasis on building up child’s knowledge, potentiality
and talent; develo pment of physical and mental abilities to the fullest
extent; learning through activities, discovery and exploration in a child
friendly and child - centered manner; making the child fear of fear, trauma
and anxiety and helping the child to express views freely; and
comprehensive and continuous evaluation of child’s understanding.
Further Section 30 of the Act mentions that,“ No child shall be required to
pass any Board examination till the completion of elementary education.
Every child completing elem entary education shall be awarded a
certificate.” munotes.in
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170 6.9.2 Government schemes for special Education
Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016 – India is a signatory to the
UNCRPD. Once a country ratifies a Convention, it is legally obliged to
bring i ts laws and policies in alignment with the Convention. It is in line
with this principle that the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016
has been developed as per the guiding principles of the UNCRPD. The
Act lays thrust on full participation and equality of the persons with
disabilities and provides for their education, employment, creation of
barrier free environment, social security, etc. 21 disabilities have been
included in the Act. Every child with benchmark disability between the
age grou p of 6 and 18 years shall have the right to free education.
Government funded educational institutions as well as the government
recognized institutions will have to provide inclusive education to the
children with disabilities (CWDs).
Other provisions included in the Act include:
Survey of school going children in every five years for identifying
children with disabilities; • Employing qualified teachers;
Training professionals and staff to support inclusive education at all
levels of school educati on;
Establishing adequate number of resource centers;
Promoting the use of appropriate augmentative and alternative modes
including means and formats of communication;
Providing books, other learning materials and appropriate assistive
devices and s cholarships to students with benchmark disabilities;
Making suitable modifications in the curriculum and examination
system and
Promoting research to improve learning.
The above Acts have led to implementation of various schemes and
programmes in IE. The programmes currently being implemented
are explained below.
Schemes and Programs on CWDs in India
The very first seeds of integrated education in India were sown by
international agencies like Royal Commonwealth Society for the Blind
and Cristophae l Blinden Mission, which began experimenting with the
integration of visually impaired children and other children in regular
schools. At the same time, the Ministry of Education launched in 1952 a
comprehensive scheme of awarding scholarships to childr en with
disabilities in regular schools. The Government of India started giving
scholarships for elementary and higher education to the visually impaired,
hearing impaired and locomotor impaired children in 1955. Gradually the
number of scholars rose to 10,000. munotes.in
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171 In 1974 the scheme was transferred to the States and today most of the
States are awarding scholarships to those CWD who are pursuing
elementary education in regular schools without support services. Though
no support was provided to those CWD who were going to regular
schools, the launching of the scholarship scheme could be regarded as a
rudimentary beginning of the integrated education initiative by the
Government of India.
The success of an international experiment in placing CWD in reg ular
schools began to be noticed in the early 1970s. As a result, the Planning
Commission agreed to include in the plan a programme for including
CWD in regular schools. The Government’s appreciation of integrated
education came in 1974, when it launche d the Scheme of Integrated
Education of Disabled Children (IEDC).
Since then many programmes have been launched by the Government of
India for the education of the CWDs. Some of the programmes are the:
• UNICEF funded Project Integrated Education for the Disabled (1987),
• District primary Education Programme (1994) and
• Janshala (1998).
6.9.3 Recent Initiatives
Samagraha Shiksha Abhiyan
An initiative of the Government of India to Universalise Secondary
Education Sarva the Integrated Scheme o n School Education aims to look
at education of all children including children with Special Needs
(CwSN) in a continuum from pre nursery to class XII. The scheme will
cover all children with special needs with one or more disabilities as
mentioned in th e schedule of disabilities of the Right of the Persons with
Disabilities (RPwD) Act, 2016 studying in Government, Government -
aided and local body schools. The scheme stresses on working in
convergence with all the line Departments/ Ministries and intend s to
provide relevant holistic support for effective and appropriate services.
The objectives of the scheme are :
Identification of children with disabilities at the school level and
assessment of her/his educational needs.
Provision of aids and appl iances, assistive devices, to the children with
special needs as per requirement.
Removal of architectural barriers in schools so that students with
disabilities have access to classrooms, laboratories, libraries and
toilets in the school.
Supplying a ppropriate teaching learning materials, medical facilities,
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172 therapeutic services to children with special needs as per his/her
requirement in convergence with line departments.
General s chool teachers will be sensitized and trained to teach and
involve children with special needs in the general classroom. For
existing special educators, capacity building programs will be
undertaken.
CWDs will have access to support services through sp ecial educators,
establishment of resource rooms, vocational education, therapeutic
services and counseling.
Girls with disabilities will receive special focus and efforts would be
made under the scheme to help them gain access to schools, as also to
provide motivation and guidance for developing their potential.
Other important interventions of the Scheme include:
• Hiring of special educators
• Training of teachers and stakeholders
• Curricular access and reform in examination system
• Building synergy with special schools
• Research and Development
• Increasing awareness through parent empowerment programs, peer
sensitization, etc
Undoubtedly India has come a long way from the time it signed the UN
Convention in 2007. It has enacted two maj or Acts namely the Right to
Education Act and the Right to Persons with Disabilities Act. Both these
Acts have highlighted the issues of rights and inclusion of persons with
disabilities. In a simple way it states that let the persons and children with
disability enjoy the same rights of the non -disabled people. It does not
mention any segregated provisions. It emphasizes on making an inclusive
environment with reasonable accommodation so that persons and children
with disabilities can also participate effectively. India has a major
responsibility to take affirmative actions toward the inclusion of the rights
of people with disabilities in all laws, policies, services and practices. The
major challenge shall be to implement these Acts effectively and to
develop an inclusive society where children and persons with disabilities
can equally participate like and with their non disabled peers.
6.9.4 Challenges in Special Education
Attitudes
Societal norms often are the biggest barrier to inclusion. Tea chers and
educational administrators still resist the accommodation of students with
disabilities and learning issues. Prejudices against those with differences
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173 challenges of inclus ive education might be blamed on the students’
challenges instead of the shortcomings of the educational system.
Poor Infrastructure
Children with disabilities are expected to attend schools that are
inaccessible to them. In rural areas, dilapidated an d poorly -cared -for
buildings can restrict accessibility. Some of these facilities are not safe or
healthy for any students. Many schools don’t have the facilities to
properly accommodate students with special needs, and local
governments lack either the funds or the resolve to provide financial help.
Environmental barriers can include doors, passageways, stairs and ramps,
and recreational areas. These can create a barrier for some students to
simply enter the school building or classroom.
Rigid Curri culum
Schools follow a prescribed mandated rigid curriculum that does not allow
flexibility or the use of different teaching methods can be an enormous
barrier to inclusion. Study plans that don’t recognize different styles of
learning hinder the school experience for all students, even those not
traditionally recognized as having physical or mental challenges.
Lack of Trained Teachers
Teachers who are not trained or who are unwilling or unenthusiastic about
working with differently -abled students a re a major drawback to
successful inclusion. Training often falls short of real effectiveness, and
instructors already straining under large workloads may resent the added
duties of coming up with different approaches for the same lessons.
Moreover, pre Service training of teachers still does not train teachers on
inclusive teaching. Hence, they come to teach in the classrooms without
exposure or experience in handling inclusive classrooms, which poses to
be one of the biggest barriers.
Exclusion from Assessments
Nation - wide assessment surveys exclude children with disabilities. The
national assessment survey conducted by National Council of Educational
Research and Training that captures learning levels of children till the
elementary level does no t include the learning levels of CWDs. Similarly,
the Annual Status of educational research also excludes the learning levels
of CWDs. This is a serious issue as either the system doesn’t consider it
important to capture the learning processes of children with specific
disabilities or the system lacks the competency to develop tools in a
format that can also capture the learning levels of CWDs.
Lack of political will
Many policy makers don’t understand or believe in inclusive education.
This leads to poo r implementation of policies and programs on inclusion.
This further excludes children with disabilities from accessing the munotes.in
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174 mainstream educational system. Hence, they are denied equal
opportunities for education and learning like their non disabled peers .
Support Services
For implementing inclusion in all educational institutions, at all levels, a
strong continuum of support services are needed. These include therapy
support, adequate manpower, teaching learning material, equipment, ICT
support, ass istive devices / technology, etc. But existing support services
are scarce and inadequate.
Insufficient and improper pre service teacher education
The pre - service teacher education programs run in the country are failing
to sensitize and equip prospe ctive teachers in inclusive education
practices, modifications are needed to make these teacher education
programs more effective. Currently, teacher education programs
producing special teachers are controlled by Rehabilitation Council of
India but wher eas those producing General Teachers are controlled by
National Council for Teacher Education. These two bodies need to
collaborate and devise measures for producing skilled teachers capable of
implementing inclusive education.
Since education of CWDs requires a multisectoral approach, inter-
Ministerial convergence and collaboration with civil societies needs
strengthening. This would also help to enhance delivery of direct services
and resource support to CWDs.
Fund Flow
The SSA norm is Rs. 3500/ - per child per annum..The key challenge here
is that budgets are fragmented and do not allocate resources efficiently. It
is also seen that rigid regulations prevent resources from being attributed
effectively where they are needed. Hence, it is importa nt that effective
planning and budgeting for inclusive education is ensured and the use of
funds is decentralized to the maximum extent possible so that children
can access services directly. In the year 2014 -15, the fund flow
arrangement has undergone change. Funds are released by the Ministry to
the respective State Governments and subsequently the State Government
transfers the grant to SSA Societies. In some States there has been delay
in release of grants to the SSA Societies as the system was no t aligned for
this arrangement. The system has gradually been streamlined, but the
delay in release of funds still continues.
Inadequate Funding
There has to be adequate allocation of resources if full inclusion is to be
achieved. Good quality inclusi on entails providing need based appropriate
support in the form of a continuum of services and supports to the child.
IE forms a very small proportion of the entire SSA budget. Moreover, the
percentage allocation to IE has shown a constant decline.
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175 6.9.5 Recommendations on Education
1) “Special Education” which currently comes under the purview of the
MSJE must be transferred to the MHRD.
2) The disability component should be well integrated into the curriculum
of the bachelor’s/master’s degree/dip loma/certificate courses in
education so that all teachers become aware and are given the
capacity to teach children with disabilities.
3) Compulsory training should be imparted to all existing teachers in the
area of inclusive education.
4) Concert ed work should be undertaken by the MHRD for providing
flexible curricula and modifying such curricula to suit children with
different abilities right from the primary level till the vocational
level.
5) Trained ancillary staff and personal assistants should be provided to
assist children with disabilities in schools whenever they require the
same. Children with disabilities should be consulted on any
measures taken by the school authorities regarding them.
6) The Government must penalize those pri vate and public educational
institutions which do not provide accessible infrastructure and
educational services to disabled students.
7) There should be specific programs for promoting education for girls
with disabilities.
8) All colleges and univ ersities must have a Disability Cell to provide
the needed support to students with disabilities. They should clearly
state the accessible services offered on their websites/college
prospectus.
9) MHRD should ensure that all their digital content is accessible as per
standards.
10) Ensure comprehensive training on inclusive education, both theory
and practice, are integrated into pre - and in -service teacher education.
In the new integrated teacher preparatory program, make inclusive
education a manda tory paper and fully integrated in the foundational
courses.
11) Set clear requirements for qualifications and training of master
trainers with regard to inclusive education.
12) Strengthen the capacity Cluster Resource Coordinators and Block
Resour ce Coordinators to monitor and provide supportive
supervision with regard to inclusive education, with a focus on
children with disabilities, including monitoring of individual
education plans and collaboration between general and special
education teac hers. munotes.in
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176 13) Ensure the development and adequate provision of accessible
textbooks, teaching and learning materials and assistive devices for
children with disabilities under available schemes [e.g., Samagra
Shiksha and Assistance to Disabled Persons for Purchase/Fitting of
Aids and Appliances (ADIP)].
14) Ensure learning assessment is universal, including assessment of
learning levels of children with disabilities. Build the capacity of
National/State Councils of Educational Research and Training in this
regard and allocate adequate resources to adapt assessment tools and
methodology.
15) Ensure the conduct of a survey of school -aged children to identify
children with disabilities and get a better understanding of their
needs and how these are bei ng met, as per the RPWD Act. (The
RPWD Act refers to ‘school going’ children with respect to this
survey, but it is recommended that this be expanded to cover ‘school -
aged’ children, given the large proportion of children with
disabilities who are out -of-school.)
16) Raise awareness of education functionaries and build the capacity of
civil works personnel on making school infrastructure accessible to
children with disabilities.
6.9.6 Challenges in Inclusive Education
Whatever the circumstances, th ere is widespread consensus among the
guests consulted by the Advisory Board that the application of the policy
of inclusion in the English language sector is not working as effectively as
it should, even though some boards are allocating a very substant ial
proportion of their budgets to it.
The Advisory Board was repeatedly told that the human and material
resources required to create the kind of classroom that could integrate and
include students with many different difficulties and disabilities are either
not available to the school boards or not allocated within the school
boards in the manner that the Advisory Board’s guests would like to see.
1) Issues perceived by teachers
The first and most important stumbling block is that many teachers fe el
unprepared for dealing with the range and number of students with
behavioral problems, learning disabilities and difficulties and physical
handicaps who are now included in their classrooms.
The second hindrance, in many cases, is the lack of adequa te support for
teachers and students involved with inclusion, often as a result of
insufficient resources being made available to the boards. Most of
today’s new teachers do not come to the classroom with an intimate
knowledge and understanding of diso rders such as aphasia, autism, Down
or Asperger syndrome, or other disabilities. If, in addition to students with
these conditions, the teacher has a certain number of students with munotes.in
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177 difficulties such as dyslexia, and with increasingly disruptive behavio r,
the job of teaching becomes highly unpredictable and potentially
unsatisfying.
The Advisory Board was repeatedly told that the human and material
resources required to create the kind of classroom that could integrate and
include students with many different difficulties and disabilities are either
not available to the school boards or not allocated within the school
boards in the manner that the Advisory Board’s guests would like to
integrate.
2) Early intervention
Today, concerns about the acqu isition of basic literacy skills transcend the
elementary grades. Whereas secondary school teachers were once
uninterested in inclusion and in students with special needs, these teachers
are now developing a greater awareness as it becomes evident that there is
no guarantee that all students will be functionally literate by the time they
reach high school.
Early intervention prevents the accumulation of failures by students who,
by the very fact they cannot read, become “at risk”. In the absence of
systematic dedicated funding, teachers try to do their own screening; they
need help in this regard.
In addition to early intervention, the ongoing identification of students
beyond kindergarten has proved to be less than satisfactory, in the opinion
of the Advisory Board’s guests. The limited availability of psychologists,
psychometricians, etc. results in students having to wait months, if not
years, to have their disabilities or difficulties evaluated and diagnosed.
Many simply remain undiagnosed, exacerbating their risk of failure in
schools.
3) The budgetary rules and the “at risk” students
Ministerial financial rules for special needs education have changed
pursuant to the Special Needs Policy and Action Plan. At present, on the
one hand, the re is a per -student grant to fund support services for students
with physical handicaps and identifiable disabilities based on certain
disability codes; on the other hand a lump sum based on a percentage of
the student population covers a new category r eferred to as “at risk” This
dichotomy represents a new recognition of learning and behavioral
difficulties as being distinct from traditionally recognized handicaps, and
is a relatively recent ministerial initiative, compatible with the overall
orienta tion of special needs education policy, which stipulates that there
are different ways of achieving success for different students.
The “at risk” notion was introduced into ministerial policies as a
preventative measure. Realizing that a certain proport ion of a school’s
population is likely to have some special needs —the Advisory Board was
told 80% of the students who have trouble at school have some form of
learning or behavioral problem —a budgetary category to deal with “at-munotes.in
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178 risk” students allows for services and intervention to be provided at the
earliest possible moment, even before a detailed evaluation of the
student’s difficulty has taken place. Rather than requiring coding —often a
time- consuming clinical procedure —as a prerequisite for servi ces, an
Individual Education Plan (IEP) can be developed as a means of helping
students to surmount their difficulties before they get too pronounced.
Many of the issues that the “at risk” concept intends to deal with are
related to the learning environ ment of the school in question, the relations
between staff and students, school regulations and classroom management
techniques.
The financial challenges are omnipresent, and it is sometimes difficult to
persuade some principles that giving extra reso urces to students who are
different is part of their school’s mission. Some administrators still have
the sense that these students should be elsewhere, and are reluctant to
channel scarce resources in their direction.
4) Issues in teacher training: init ial and continuing
Everyone whom the Advisory Board consulted agreed that the greatest
share of the burden of integration falls upon classroom teachers, who
receive insufficient support to be able to carry out what they have been
trained to do: to teach . Since those teachers with the most experience are
often the ones who received the least initial training in special education,
there is an ironic challenge, since in today’s classroom, all teachers must
be equipped to work with a classroom of students with mixed abilities.
University faculties and departments of education are already paying
attention to training their students on issues of special needs students and,
as inclusion becomes more widespread, it is evident that all teachers will
become te achers of special needs students.
As an example, the Advisory Board was told that at Bishop’s University,
education students have special needs content both in their courses and in
their practicum (practice teaching in the classroom). Courses, for both
elementary and secondary certification include managing
“behavioral disorders” , “psychology of reading and reading disabilities”
,“individual differences (which includes the writing of IEPs) and
educational psychology. In the practicum, students are f requently placed
in classrooms that are inclusive and many are placed with a resource
teacher. McGill’s Faculty of Education is currently offering a Certificate
in Inclusive Education through its Continuing Education program, aimed
at teachers, assistan ts and aides, professionals and administrators in the
school system but also open to parents and community members involved
in schools.
There is considerable debate on whether issues related to students with
special needs should be taught in specific, dedicated courses or integrated
throughout the curriculum. It is widely agreed that all teachers need to
understand the psychology of children with difficulties. It therefore
follows that a certain amount of child psychology should be woven into munotes.in
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179 every area of pedagogy and subject matter. University professors must
also be knowledgeable about this necessary teaching skill, even though
many, perhaps even most of them, have had little such classroom
experience themselves involving students with special ne eds.
Student teachers are often in shock when they come back from their first
experiences as practice teachers in the classroom. They have learned
about the curriculum but not necessarily about developing relationships
with different kinds of students. Learning to manage large and diverse
groups is a first step towards being able to accomplish the complicated
task of teaching.
6.9.7 The Advisory Board on English Education recommends
An inclusive school is one that does not exclude anyone, except in c ases of
disability causing severe dysfunction. Inclusion, as practiced at this time
in the English school system, does not necessarily mean that all students
are included in regular classrooms all of the time. However, this may be
the case in small rura l schools, mainly because there might not be
sufficient resources or students in sparsely populated regions to provide
specialized expertise outside the regular classroom. Students with certain
pedagogical or behavioral special needs can often benefit f rom
concentrated attention paid to their specific difficulties for some part of
the school day.
Successful inclusion, whatever form it takes, must be based on solid
intellectual principles aimed at promoting the human rights of all
students, on the poli tical will to implement the policy in all its aspects,
and on a process of implementation integrating three fundamental
factors:
i) Prepared teachers
ii) Adequate funding
iii) Appropriate professional support
Without these elements solidly in place, inclusion will continue to be
controversial, if not problematic.
Concerning initial teacher training
Universities have begun to pay more attention to the issues involved in
preparing teachers for the growing number of special needs students in
their cl assrooms. Recent education graduates should therefore be familiar
with the range of difficulties and disabilities they will be meeting. But
knowing what to expect does not give teachers the tools they require to
teach even the easiest cases of disabilit ies and difficulties in their
classrooms.
Teachers must learn to manage a multifaceted classroom. And they have
to master the concept of differentiated learning: teaching the same subject
matter in different ways that will reach students with widely var ying munotes.in
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180 degrees of learning abilities. This approach to teaching, on the universal
design principle, operates on the premise that both the planning and
delivery of instruction, as well as the evaluation of learning, can include
attributes that respond to t he diversity in learners without compromising
academic standards. These aspects of teacher training should be
introduced early in a student teacher’s education.
Concerning teachers’ professional development
Teachers faced with the new curriculum as wel l as inclusion would benefit
from such prescribed approaches to the new regime and the networking
that would result from the exchange of ideas with peers. The focus of in -
service programs must target and be appropriate to the needs of the
majority of te achers if inclusion is to become the norm rather than a
special education add -on.
Concerning the implementation of inclusion
Based on the observation that enacted regulations get implemented while a
mere policy may be ignored, norms should be enacted t o regulate
inclusion. The budgetary rules concerning inclusion should be made clear
and take into account the particularities of implementing inclusion, rather
than simply handing out lump sums to all boards.
Concerning early intervention
Government m akes early intervention at the kindergarten level a
requirement of special education policy and regulation and that its costs
be funded directly through annual budgetary allocation.
Concerning funding of inclusion
What does inclusion cost? Do the school boards that are seriously and
systematically implementing a policy of inclusion incur more expenses
than are provided for under general budget rules? Are they at a financial
disadvantage in comparison to those boards that take a less rigorous
approach to integration?
If inclusion/integration is to be the standard policy of the Québec school
system, funding will have to be commensurate with the effort invested. If
boards are spending more than the government is making available to
them, and if it app ears that any board that implements the policy
rigorously finds itself at a financial disadvantage, inclusion is unlikely to
be wholeheartedly embraced across the province.
As the costs incurred by these special education functions may vary from
board to board, there should be some generally accepted yardstick of
objective assessment of the services offered. Are the differences between
boards solely or only partially a matter of funding?
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181 Concerning support services
If support services and all dec isions affecting them are centralized at the
school board head office, they will not necessarily result in classroom
teachers having the support required to ensure quality education for all
students.
Concerning the evaluation of student learning and of the IEPs -
That school boards be required to regularly evaluate the learning of special
needs students based on the criteria elaborated in the Individual Education
Plans of these students, in order to ensure accountability and provide
feedback to the p arents, the student and the school principal, while
allowing the Ministered to monitor the application of the Special
Education Policy.
6.10 LET US SUM UP
In this unit, we have learned that due to the expansion of the higher
education system, the quali ty declines. Teacher education system is not
the exception. In the name of development of teacher education for access
to maximum, self financing teacher education institutions are
mushrooming nowadays. Quantitative expansion has been accompanied
by quali tative deterioration. The implication of quality management in this
way may help an institution to achieve quality in various fields by
ensuring customer satisfaction, accountability, credibility, and thus to
maintain a certain standard of excellence. We have discussed
Privatization, its concept, need and advantages. Globalization, its concept,
features and how to professionalize the teacher and teacher education for
the global world. We have also discussed autonomy, its concept, need and
challenges befo re autonomous institutions. Its uses and misuses in the
field of teacher education is to be analyzed and care should be taken for
effective development in teacher education.
6.11 UNIT END EXERCISE
1. Explain the need for quality in teacher education.
2. Describe the concept of quality.
3.. Explain the concept of privatization.
4. Explain privatization in education.
5. Define special education.
6. Role of government in special education.
7. Explain the challenges in special education.
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182 6.12 REFERENCES
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