Academic-communication-and-writing-Englsih-Version-munotes

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1 MODULE I
1
UNDERSTANDING ACADEMIC
COMMUNICATION PROCESS
Unit Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Academic Communication - Introduction
1.1.1 Concept of Academic Communication
1.1.2 Elements
1.1.3 Significance
1.2 Models of Communication
1.2.1 Linear
1.2.2 Interactional
1.2.3 Transactional
1.3 Types of Communication
1.3.1Target related
1.3.2 Process related
1.4 Let us Sum up
1.5 Unit End Questions
1.6 References
1.0 OBJECTIVES After reading this unit, the student will be able to:
 Define academic comm unication
 Explain the concept of academic communication
 Describe the elements of academic communication
 State the significance of academic communication
 Differentiate among the various models of academic communication
 Discuss types of communication
1.1 ACA DEMIC COMMUNICATION - INTRODUCTION Nature and Purpose of communication :
Definitions and meaning of communication :
Several scholars have been studying communication for centuries. As
such great deal has been learnt about what it is and how it works (Bell an d
Smith, 2006). To communicate effectively, you need to consider: munotes.in

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2 Academic communication and writing
2 i) How communication takes place, and
ii) How people could communicate even better.
The word „communication‟ is derived from the Latin word
„communicare‟, which means „to make common‟ (B ell and Smith, 2006,
p. 14). The primary meaning of communication is not to recite, deliver,
speak, write or sermonize.
Academic communication, also called scholarly communication, refers to
the methods of communication that are highly structured and gen erally
only used in Communication is paramount of education. Whether it is
the teacher, student, admin, parent, communication is needed to make
sure that relationship of each are secured towards the aim of producing a
successful students. Communi cation is something that does not always
happen. Sometimes is a lack of time, a lack of resources, and a lack of
knowing how to get the Human civilization predates communication by
millennia. When there was no developed language, man communicated
with his fellow beings using sounds, signals, and gestures. The ability to
communicate at the primitive level gave an evolutionary advantage to
mankind. Humans who could interact were better able to cooperate, share
information, create better tools, and warn others of danger. Human society
would not have been what it is now without communication.
Communication is what has made mankind the most sophisticated,
sensible, and successful species on the planet.
Despite the fact that communication is essential for human su rvival, our
ability to communicate, as well as the various modalities in which we
communicate, is sometimes taken for granted. So, it is crucial to first
understand “what is communication?
Communication: Meaning :
The act of conveying information is known as communication. The word
communication stems from the Latin word 'communis,' which means
'common public,' and is formed from „communicatus‟ perfect passive
participle of 'communico' which means 'to share. 'Giving, receiving, or
exchanging ideas, facts, i nformation, signals, or messages through proper
media is communication. It empowers individuals and groups to persuade,
seek information, deliver information, educate, argue or express feelings.
Let us analyze the definitions provided by scholars on the su bject to better
grasp the term „communication‟.
According to G.G. Brown (2009), “Communication is the transfer of
information from one person to another, whether or not it elicits
confidence; but the information transferred must be understandable to the
receiver”.
Adams and Calanes (2006) states that “Communication refers to the
perception, interpretation and response of people to message produced by
other people.” Further, John Adair posits that “Communication is
essentially the ability of one person to m ake contact with another and munotes.in

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3 Understanding Academic Communication Process make himself or herself understood”. While Schramm (1993) expresses
“Communications is the mechanism through which human relations exist
and develop”.
Emphasizing the various processes of communication, Keith Davis defines
“Communication as the process of passing information and understanding
from one person to another.”He further explained, "It's essentially a bridge
of meaning between people," and that with this bridge, one can safely
cross the river of misunderstanding.
In th e same line, Louis Allen describes, “Communication is the sum of all
the things one person does when he wants to create understanding in the
mind of another. Communication as a bridge of meaning. It involves a
systematic and continuous process of telling, listening and understanding.”
In the words of Gerber (1957),“communication is social interaction
through messages”. While Koontz and O’Donnel , opines,
“Communication may be understood “as the exchange of information at
least between two persons to create a n understanding in the mind of the
other, whether or not it gives rise to conflict.”
In brief, communication can be defined as the process of generating
meaning through the transmission and reception of verbal and nonverbal
symbols and signs influenced by multiple contexts. It is a two -way process
that involves at least two person or parties i.e., the sender and the receiver.
It is clear from the aforementioned definitions, that communication is a
systematic and continuous process of expressing, listening, and
comprehending that involves the exchange of ideas, thoughts or
information among people. Communication always happens in some
context such as relational, cultural, academic, business or psychological. A
key part of communication is ensuring that a mess age is understood
correctly. When all the people who are interacting, are apparently on the
same level of understanding and comprehension, communication happens.
As a result, communication is determined by what is understood rather
than what is expressed, whether verbally or nonverbally.
In layman's terms, communication refers to the day -to-day conversations
and discussions that we all have. Though the term "communication" refers
to all human interactions, it is not synonymous with talking, chattering, or
blabbering in a senseless manner. Communication has different purposes
depending on how one can use communication. Academic communication
is much different from business communication or social communication.
In the following subunits, the concept of Academ ic communication,
elements and significance are discussed in depth.
1.1.1 Concept of Academic Communication :
Communication is paramount of education. Whether it is the teacher,
student, parent or administrative persons, communication is essential to
ensure that each relation is built on and is working for producing
successful students. Communication in the academic setting involves more munotes.in

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4 Academic communication and writing
4 than just informal conversation. As a student or a research scholar who
works on a project and develop his/her argument, communication
necessitates him/her to think more logically and coherently. It is expected
of a university student to present their conclusions and arguments in this
academic manner.
In the 1580s, the word "academic" was first used in the English language.
It has its root in the Latin term „academicus‟, which itself is derived from
the Ancient Greek Ἀκαδημία (Akadēmía), the name of an olive grove
dedicated to the goddess Athena that was situated in North Athens and
where the renowned Greek philosopher Plato ( who lived between 427 and
347 BC) constructed his school. The online Merriam -webster Dictionary
defines academic as “relating to, or associated with an academy or school
especially of higher learning.” Essentially, the scholarly pursuits of a
school, colle ge, or university, particularly one for higher education, are
referred to be as „Academic‟. These activities are related to knowledge,
creation and its development.
The meaning of the term „communication‟ has already been dealt with in
previous section. Le t us try to understand the concept of the term
Academic+Communication. The necessity of distinguishing between basic
interpersonal communication and cognitive academic language -based
communication was brought to the attention of the education community
as early as the 1980s by Jim Cummins. In the USA, his work has had an
especially large impact.
Cummins (1984) states that, “Conversational (social) language, also
known as basic interpersonal communication, consists of the language
skills that are needed in day-to-day social interaction”. While “Academic
language -based communication, on the other hand, refers to the linguistic
ability to manipulate and interpret language in the kinds of cognitively
demanding, contextually reduced texts that are associated wit h schooling”
(Cummins, 1984). The mastery of academic language -based
communication is reported to require five to seven years, depending on
their prior educational and literacy experiences.
American Library Association in the article Principles and Strateg ies for
the Reform of Scholarly Communication defines “Academic
communication as the system through which research and other scholarly
writings are created, evaluated for quality, disseminated to the scholarly
community, and preserved for future use”. This definition is limited to
only scholarly settings from research and publication purpose. According
to it, the process through which research and other academic works are
developed, assessed for quality, communicated with the scholarly
community, and prese rved for subsequent use are referred here as
academic communication.
Academic communication refers to highly structured communication
approaches that are typically only applied in pedagogical settings.
Academic communication is a type of communication that stresses one munotes.in

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5 Understanding Academic Communication Process particular subject area while concentrating on establishing or supporting a
theory or point of view.
In the simplest words, communication that is used for academic purpose is
known as academic communication. In essence, it is a method of acq uiring
and disseminating knowledge to an audience that will benefit from it.
Journal articles, papers, monographs, reviews, and chapters in edited
collections are among the works that academics most frequently produce
for publication. Some examples of acad emic communication activities for
students include essays, research papers, symposia, seminars, research
proposals, thesis papers, and dissertations. For any student in general and
especially of higher education like PG, M.Phil. or Ph.D. skills for
academi c communication both in oral and written form is highly required.
Academic communication differs from everyday communication in that it
is considerably better researched, biases are accounted for, all plausible
arguments are made, sources are thoroughly ac knowledged, etc.Its
objective is to provide the readers with evidence based accurate
information. Citations and references are included. It follows a specific
structure.
The aforementioned definitions and discussion reveal that the concept
of academic comm unication encompasses the following dimensions:
 Academic communication is a complicated, dynamic, and creative
process.
 Academic communication is a practice that is extensively
institutionalized and regulated.
 Academic communication is formed as a general welfare to promote
in inquiry and knowledge, which is one of its core qualities.
 Academic communication also includes ideas that are presented
effectively and formally in a scholastic manner.
 Unlike non -academic communication that concentrates on a gener al
subject rather than an academic subject, Academic communication
contains contents on specific discipline or field.
 Not only the words and structures used to represent ideas, but also the
techniques by which ideas are disseminated, are all essential for
academic communication.
 Academic communication can be both in written or oral form. For
example, writing research proposal and delivering its presentation.
 Article, research paper, academic essay, book review, symposia, text
book analysis, handbook, refe rencing, repertoire, etc. have a specific
place in academic communication.
 It is a focused communication that presents an idea or argument using
evidence, analysis and interpretation. munotes.in

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6  It is mostly formal. It includes proper planning in terms of
understand ing the subject with all attached connotations, selecting a
topic, doing proper research using primary and secondary sources,
taking up notes to build up an argument, and come up with clear
conclusions.
 It typically has a particular audience or reader who belongs to the
same field on which the academic communication is focused on.
 It plays a crucial role in the development of the student's personality
and future preparedness.
The best way to sum up the communication that academics and students
make is "comm unicating to exhibit what has been learnt." Academic
communication is used to exhibit what has been learnt and how that
learning has been used. They communicate to discuss and explore
different topics, make arguments, and convey it to specific audience. Th ey
must convince readers of a specific theory or provide research -based
information.
There is a great deal of responsibility involved in academic
communication. Since the wider populace cannot dedicate their working
day to research, they frequently need to rely on experts for such academic
communication. Such communication when it is in form of research
receives significant public funding, either directly via federally financed
research initiatives or indirectly from state funding of scholars at state
highe r education institutions. Furthermore, the great majority of academics
do, publish, and distribute their research with no prospect of receiving
immediate financial compensation.
1.1.2 Elements :
Elements of communication are the fundamental means of exchang e of
information through which the communication process is carried out. The
cycle of information exchange between the sender and receiver is initiated
and regulated by elements of communication. The elements of
communication are therefore crucial and inte rrelated parts of the
communication process. The basic elements that are integrated in
communication, whether it is interpersonal communication or business
communication or academic communication, are: Context, Sender,
Message, Channel, Encoding and Decodi ng, Receiver and Feedback. The
elements are discussed below with sufficient detail.
Context:
The key component of any communication process that regulates the flow
of information between senders and recipients is the communication
context. Context refers t o the environment of communication in which the
interaction happens or takes place. This setting may also be geographical,
physical, historical, psychological, academic, social, temporal, or cultural.
Everything that is said or communicated in a climate th at either makes the
message appropriate or inappropriate, effective or ineffective. munotes.in

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7 Understanding Academic Communication Process For example, a researcher may ensure optimum success by sharing
information with group of his classmates or colleagues rather than sharing
it with someone who is not from same academic or interest background.

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Sender:
The person who sends the message to the recipient is known as the sender.
The sender is sometimes referred to as the source or encoder of message.
By sending a message or piece of information, the sender starts the
communication process. A s a result, the sender plays a crucial role in the
communication process. Consequently, a sender is a speaker, writer, or
other someone who offers the data to express beliefs, concepts, and
messages.
In the context of Academic communication, the message th e sender
intends to convey must answer: Why is it significant to send the message?
What is its primary goal? Will it be understood completely? Then only the
usefulness and accuracy of the information being provided is established.
Here, the teacher, facult ies, research institute, researcher, studentetc. plays
the role of sender.
Code:
A systematic arrangement of symbols is employed in human
communication, much like in computers, to convey information to the
mind of receiver. Words, phrases, and sentences tr ansform into „symbols‟
that are employed to bring to mind up pictures, ideas, and thoughts in the
minds of others. Verbal codes consist of symbols and their grammatical
arrangement. A systematic arrangement of symbols is employed in human
communication, mu ch like in computers, to convey information to the
recipient's mind. Words, phrases, and sentences transform into symbols
that are employed to bring to mind up pictures, ideas, and thoughts in the
minds of others. Symbols and their grammatical arrangement make up
verbal codes. Every language is a code. All symbols other than words, munotes.in

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8 such as bodily movements, use of time and space, dress and other
adornments, and noises other than spoken language, are considered
nonverbal codes.
For example, the language rela ted basic elements of an academic
communication that are to be kept in mind while planning a
communication are:
(a) impersonal language : being more impersonal by avoiding pronouns
in place of "you can see use it can be seen"
(b) nominalization : nouns ins tead of verbs e.g. instead of "academic
scores needs to improve", use "improvement of academic scores is
needed"
(c) formal and precise language :unambiguous and precise language
with formal vocabulary. Avoid using the words "don't," "won't,"
"can't," and o ther colloquialisms
(d) cautious language : Avoid using absolute certainty statements and
instead use terms like "suggests," "indicates," and so on.
Encoding and Decoding:
If the communication uses codes, the process of communication may be
seen as one of the encoding and decoding processes. The act of converting
a concept or thought into code is known as encoding. Assigning meaning
to that concept or thought is the act of decoding.
Message:
The information, ideas, emotions, thoughts, attitudes, and points of view
that the sender intends to convey to the recipient are referred to as the
message. Any communication mechanism seems to depend heavily on the
message. Any type of communication, which includes exchanging ideas,
views, thoughts, and information, con veys the message. Both verbal and
nonverbal messages are used in communication. The words spoken during
the interaction are included in verbal messages. Nonverbal cues include
gestures, posture, eye contact, physical appearance, and facial expression.
In essence, senders must therefore make sure that the message is clear and
comprehendible. Spoken words, written words, facial expressions, eye
contact, audio message, videos, emails, and text messages are the most
typical forms of messages in communication.
For example, A message in form of document intended for academic
purposes must have a clear objective in order to be considered
academically sound. It should be developed from credible sources and
only include information that is relevant to the objective.
Channel:
A channel is a means or device used to convey a message. It is also
referred to as a communication medium since it is used to send and munotes.in

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9 Understanding Academic Communication Process receive messages. Different channels are used by communicators in
various contexts of communication. A research er can utilize journal
publication, newspapers, and internet to spread information. To converse
with someone who lives far away, people utilize computers and mobile
phones. To have virtual group meetings, many individuals use free online
meeting platforms google Meet or Microsoft Team. When a recipient's
spontaneous reaction is necessary, some people prefer face to face
communication or an email or a letter. Blogs, official websites and social
media platforms are channels of communication used widely in thi s era.
For example, Face -to-face communication like research proposal
presentation uses the sender's senses such as hearing, seeing, smelling,
touching, and tasting, are the channel of communication.
Receiver:
In contrast to the sender, a receiver is a pe rson to whom the
communication is addressed. The audience of the communication process
is the receiver, who decodes the message to understand its meaning.
Receivers can be a single person, a small group, or a large population. The
degree to which the decod er understands the message relies on numerous
aspects such as knowledge of the receiver, their attentiveness to the
message, experience, trust and relationship with the sender.
It is to be noted here, the teacher, faculties, research institute, researcher,
student etc. alternatively plays the role of receiver in Interactional and
Transactional communication.
Feedback:
Feedback is a crucial component of communication since it engages the
receiver or the audience as well as the sender or speaker at the same t ime.
It is the last stage of communication and verifies that the receiver has
understood the message in both text and spirit.
For example, as the research proposal is being presented, the audience is
responding either verbally or nonverbally. The speaker c hecks to see if
his/her audience members comprehend him well. Their feedback in the
form of clarification -seeking queries, nods of agreement, or expressions of
perplexity in their eyes directs for the future steps as researchers.
Apart from the above discu ssed elements, there are extraneous
components of communication that prevent recipients from understanding
the message. Communication experts always try to keep noise to a
minimum during interactions since it is an undesired component of the
process. Any i mpediment that prevents efficient communication is
referred to as noise or barriers in that context. In reality, noise is present in
all forms of communication, including face -to-face, group, mediated, and
so on.
As a result, it makes complete sense that knowing how communication
works and which are the elements involved would make the person more munotes.in

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10 mindful of what happens during communication. It also makes the person
aware of what may be done to make sure the message is understood well.
In academic setting , where expressing ideas and information needs to be
more efficient, the knowledge about the elements usually ensures that the
message in form of certain statements or opinions are not construed
incorrectly and is properly understood both in oral and writt en form.The
channels or mediums of communication are chosen with caution. The
context is included in the message as well as an attempt is made to
understand the target audience.
1.1.3 Significance :
Nowadays, academic communication is evolving rapidly, and more
teachers, researchers and university professors are increasingly creating
and maintaining personal webpages or academic blogs in addition to using
social media to facilitate teaching and learning and disseminate
knowledge. Academic communication is an important component of
learning and is required in higher education institutions, regardless of the
eventual career route the students choose. Academic communication is not
just confined to the auditoriums, lecture halls and classrooms of
institutions but is carried out through software and applications, like
Moodle, in the virtual environment. Both educators and students have
access to video lectures that are delivered as MOOCs. Coursera, Edx,
SWAYAM, and other well -known websites that provide MOOCs are
among the best. In this virtual era, the academic communication comprises
the concepts of knowledge sharing, open access to scientific information,
and presenting the lectures of renowned professors from other universities
or through TED talks. The followin g discussion touches on a few of the
points on the significance of academic communication.
 It is the basic necessity for education to happen. As stated by
Tsvetanska (2006) “Academic Communication is the main factor
allowing the effective conduction of the educational process and that
the communicative competences are part of the professional mastery
of the teacher”.
 Academic communication has the power to completely change
someone's personality as the person will communicate with clarity
and always substan tiate his/her ideas with facts and data. Those who
communicate well with interviewers about their abilities and
knowledge are more likely to gain employment after completing their
education. Thus, indirectly it helps in career advancement.
 Academic communi cation is significant for advancing academic
conversations and intellectual debate. In a higher education setting,
students and academicians utilize it frequently for scholarly
conversation with their peers and teachers.It is significant as it enables
individuals to synthesize intricate ideas and concepts and write
arguments, summaries, and hypotheses with clarity.
 In order to train students and professionals to develop cognitive,
psychomotor, and social skills, academic communication skills are munotes.in

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11 Understanding Academic Communication Process more cruci al than merely having specialized knowledge. These
abilities are essential for surviving and advancing in higher education
institutions. It has a significant impact on the lives of students and
working professionals majorly throughout their academic career .
 Academics that engage in conducting research require to bring
funding. Grants are the main source of funding used by academics to
support their research initiatives, which may also involve paying for
interns, assisting with experiments, maintaining equip ment, keeping
resources available, and organizing community outreach. Academic
communication in written form for grant submission remains the
communication that counts heavily.
 Researchers and students communicate their work to the public in
large part thr ough the publication of results. A researcher places the
highest value on communicating new finding. As performance is
ascertained by how much, how frequently, and how well the work has
been published, the ability to communicate academically becomes
crucia l in this situation.
 Apart from writing research proposals and papers, academics have to
communicate orally on a regular basis on a lot of occasions.
Conferences, presentations, seminar, symposia, teaching, group
presentations, workshops, panel discussions or webinars are the
occasions where educators and students are engaged in academic
speaking. Such programme provides favorable opportunities to them
for sharing the work, brainstorming on crucial areas, refocusing as
necessary. Clarity of thought and appr opriate tone and language for
the target audience are required when expressing ideas and thoughts
for such occasions. A well - crafted academic communication can
serve these purposes.
 Academic communication is essential for the spread of knowledge
and for a dvancement. It also facilitates academic listening,
understanding the point of view of teachers or fellow researchers and
asking them questions with confidence which will help them gain
more knowledge.
Thus, communication serves as the cornerstone of both academic and
professional success. Researchers and students feel empowered when
communication is used effectively. It enables individuals to express when
and how their academic needs aren't being addressed. When
communicating in any academic or professio nal setting, it enables
individuals to make decisions about structure and organisation, speaking
style, complexity, intelligibility, and audience.
Check your progress:
1. What is Academic Communication?
2. Discuss the significance of Academic communication . munotes.in

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12 1.2 MODELS OF COMMUNICATION Given the nature of communication which is rather complex, it can be
challenging to understand the way communication happens in various
context. Communication models make the process simpler by giving a
visual depiction of the numerous elements of a communication. Models
are helpful because they make it possible to describe communication,
apply communication concepts, and see particular elements and steps in
the communication process.
Models of communication are conceptual fra meworks or theoretical
explanations of how people communicate. Actually, it depicts the entire
process of information sharing between the sender and the receiver.The
elements of the communication process, such as context, sender, receiver,
encoding, decodi ng, channel, message, feedback, and noise (discussed in
1.1.2), are articulated by communication models. These elements of
communication sum up the whole exchange of information.The
communication model also clarifies the obstacles to communication,
commonl y referred to as communication barriers, that come in the way of
effective communication. Effective communication procedures are
impeded by communication barriers or noise.
Furthermore, the communication model tries to answer the crucial
questions regardin g communication process; for example,
 What is communication?
 Who is a part of this procedure?
 When does it take place?
 Where does it occur?
 Why does it happen?
 How is communication carried out?
The three models of communication are the Linear Models of
Communication, the Interactive Models of Communication, and the
Transactional Models of Communication. Each of the three models are
discussed in detail in following sections.
1.2.1 Linear Models of Communication :
Linear model of communication, also referre d as Transmission Model,is
the fundamental communication model. Linear communication is
generated by a single source with no response. In a communication
encounter, linear model focuses on the sender and the message. Despite
being an element of the model, the receiver is seen more as a target or an
endpoint than as a part of a continuous process. In this situation, it is
assumed that the recipient either gets and comprehends the message
effectively or fails to do so. A sermon, amarketing advertisement, and a
voicemail left on an answering machine are some examples. Hence, a one -munotes.in

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13 Understanding Academic Communication Process way communication without feedback characterizes the linear model of
communication. Without obtaining feedback, the sender communicates
with the recipient. This model places responsib ility on the sender to ensure
the message is effectively communicated since it is sender - and message -
focused.
This model has limitations since it prioritizes the sender's communication
style while giving little consideration to the recipient's response. It is also
limited in terms of message, because it just assesses whether or not the
message was delivered.

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Aristotle's Model of Communication from 300 BC, Lasswell's Model from
1948, Shannon - Weaver's Model of Communication from 1949, and
Berlo's SMCR Model from 1960 are examples of several academics who
have developed linear communication models.
I. Aristotle was the one who first suggested and discussed a distinct
model of communication in 300 BC. His model is now known as the
Aristotle Model of Communication. The Aristotelian Model of
Communication outlines that in order to determine the most effective
way to co mmunicate, we need consider the speaker, speech, occasion,
target audience, and effect of a communication encounter. The model
was developed to look at ways to communicate more effectively and
persuasively. Additionally, he listed three modes of persuasion that
will enhance communication: ethos i.e., credibility, pathos i.e ability
to relate or connect, and logos i.e., logical argument.
 Ethos is concerned with authority and degree of credibility of the
speaker or writer, particularly in connection to the s ubject at hand.
 Pathos refers to the audience and how they respond to the speaker's
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14  In particular, the facts, assertions, and other components that make up
the argument are referred to as the speaker's Logos.
The speaker is the central figure in communication, according to the
Aristotle Model of Communication. All communications are solely the
responsibility of speaker. In this model of communication, it is crucial that
the speaker makes thoughtful choice of words. He must assess his
audience bef ore preparing his speech. Even today, many people still
prepare seminars, lectures, and presentations using the basic Aristotelian
Model.
This model has been particularly criticized for considering only a
directional process of communication, from speaker to receiver. It
completely neglects the dynamic process of communication where both
sender and receiver are active. The importance of feedback in
communication is not taken into account by Aristotle's model.
II. Model of Communication by Lasswell provides a fundamental
framework for studying one -way communication by asking five basic
questions —who created the message (sender), what has been said
(message), through what channel (medium), to whom (audience), and
what is the effect on receiver (effect). Becau se it views learning as
proceeding in just one direction, it is best known as the original linear
model. The key components of the model based on five questions are
as follows:
 Control analysis: According to Lasswell, the sender is the primary
factor to co nsider when determining who controls a communication.
 Content analysis: Lasswell is recognized as one of the pioneers of
content analysis. When we examine a message's content, we
genuinely attend to what is being stated.
 Media analysis: The medium is the channel through which
information is sent from the sender to the recipient.
 Audience analysis: This process involves analysing the audience to
ascertain which messages are more effective for certain
demographics.
 Effect analysis : After the sender has deliv ered their message, an
effects analysis is conducted to discover whether the message has
influenced the receiver, public in general.
This model is helpful because it enables a very easy and practical way to
analyze a message by looking at five crucial comp onents by asking
questions. It outlines a five -step process for analyzing and evaluating any
communication. The model is particularly beneficial for studying
marketing and mass media.
It only looks at communication as linear process ignoring cyclic approac h.
This model ignores the possibility that receivers of communication may munotes.in

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15 Understanding Academic Communication Process likewise send messages back to the sender. Noise, which may result into
misinterpretation, is not taken into consideration.
III. The SMCR Model of Communication by David Berlo (1960) depicts
communication in its most basic form. The four components that
describe the communication process: Source, Message, Channel, and
Receiver are all abbreviated as SMCR. The distinctive feature of this
model is that it provides a thorough description of the essential
components, Source, Message, Channel, and Receiver, in each phase
that will influence how well the message is conveyed. The key
components of the model are as follows:
 The sender of the message is the source who composes and sends the
mess age to the receiver. The Sender's communication skills, attitude,
knowledge, social system and culture are among the elements for
Source.
 The information that is delivered from the sender to the receiver is
known as the message. Content, elements, treatme nt, structure and
code are all elements of the Message.
 The channel is the medium through message is sent. The senses of
hearing, seeing, touching, smelling, and other senses are elements of
the Channel.
 The receiver is the one who gets the coded communi cation and then
decodes it. The communication skills, attitude, knowledge, social
system and culture of the Receiver are among its elements.
According to Berlo's model, the source and the receiver must be on the
same level for communication to be effective . But in real life, that does
not happen very often. This communication model also emphasizes the
coding and decoding of the message. SMCR model of communication has
been criticized as is rather complicated. Even, feedback is neglected in this
model. Pract ically nothing is documented about the effects. Apart from
these, communication barriers are not acknowledged.
1.2.2 Interactional Models of Communication :
The Interactional Model of Communication is a relatively recent
development. The two -way process o f communication with feedback
characterizes the interactional model of communication. The Interactional
Model of communication describes communication as a process in which
participants alternate positions as sender and receiver in order to maintain
commun ication. Rather than having one sender, one message, and one
receiver, this model has two sender -receivers who exchange messages.
This model includes feedback, which transforms communication into a
more participatory, two -way process rather than depicting it as a linear,
one-way process. Feedback, however, does not occur simultaneously,
therefore it produces gradual and indirect feedback. If the recipients do not
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16 Human interaction with artifi cial intelligence (AI) robots, interactive
media like video games, interactive characters and other forms of artare
some recent examples of this communication.

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Communication.jpg
The interactional communication model implies mediated and internet -
based communication. Example of Interaction models are:
I. Osgood -Schramm‟s Model of Communication from 1954 examines
reciprocal communica tion and demonstrates the need for real -time
encoding, decoding, and interpretation of information during a
conversation. According to Schramm (1955), “In fact it is misleading
to think of the communication process as starting somewhere and
ending somewhe re. It is really endless. We are really switchboard
centers handling and re -routing the great endless current of
information.”
This model highlights four important ideas:
 The communication is circular rather than linear
 The communication is equal and recip rocal.
 After receiving a message, there is a lot of interpretation required
 Encoding, decoding, and message interpretation are the three phases
that every communication involves.
The cyclical feedback is effectively explained by this model. As two -way
comm unication keeps on going in its circular pattern, each person is both
receiver and a sender. Linear models, which ignore feedback and dialogue,
consider communication to be a one -way path. It affirms that
communication is a complex process by accounting fo r need of encoding,
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17 Understanding Academic Communication Process interpret the information we get, in contrast to other models that regard
information receivers as passive recipients.
This model fails to explain a situation where com munication entails a
single authoritative figure speaking while one or more listeners attempt to
decode what they heard. In contrast to Schramm's concept, communication
is far less equitable in these situations. As a result, this approach
frequently fails in circumstances where there are power imbalances.
II. While in 1957 Westley -Maclean‟s came up with Interactional Model
of Communication that demonstrates how our communication is
impacted by environmental, cultural, and personal influences. This
model hig hlights following important ideas:
 It asserts that the message sender is not where the communication
process begins. Instead, it begins with environmental factors that
impact the sender. The sender will be inspired to compose and share a
message by some e xternal stimuli.
 It may be used to explain both interpersonal and public
communication. It includes concept of „gatekeepers‟ - the editor of the
message and „opinion leaders‟ - one key person like political leader or
social media influencer for the mass com munication
 Additionally, it recognizes the need of feedback in communication.
The feedback from receiver can prompt the message sender to craft a
new message that has been improved in light of the received
feedback.
The merit of this model lies in acknowle dging the subjectivity or personal
bias, that plays significant role in the encoding and decoding of messages.
It emphasizes how social and cultural elements may affect how
communications are received. The model is versatile as both interpersonal
and publi c communication are covered here. It also acknowledges the role
of feedback in communication which was not present in earlier Linear
Models.
However, it has been criticized for giving greater weight to the message
sender than the feedback of the message. T he Osgood -Schramm model
presents a more impartial view of feedback mechanisms. In an era of new
media when anybody may produce writings that can be disseminated over
the internet to masses, the "gatekeeper" phase may be a little out of date.
The noise that influences the message during communication is not taken
into consideration by the model. The model also doesn't convey a lot about
the communication channel.
1.2.3 Transactional Models of Communication :
Interaction between two persons, which is the most prevalent mode, is
transactional communication. A question -and-answer session or a written
discussion are some examples. The transactional model is built using the
linear model as a foundation. A two -way communication process with munotes.in

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18 Academic communication and writing
18 immediate feedback charac terizes the TransactionalModel of
Communication. The transactional modes of communication require
simultaneous feedback, which is the key element of this model. Therefore,
if there is no feedback, the communication process will not turn
transactional. Dire ct and prompt feedback is provided in this mode of
communication. The receiver is compelled to respond immediately.
The Transaction Model of communication is fundamentally different from
the Linear and Interactional Models in terms of how it conceptualize s
communication, how sender and receiver roles are played, and how
context is incorporated. Feedback is received indirectly in Interactional
Model as opposite to direct feedback transactional models.
According to the Transaction Model of communication, com munication is
a process through which communicators create social realities in a variety
of social, relational, and cultural settings. Feedback received indirectly and
directly is a crucial difference between the interaction and Transactional
models. In co ntrast to, the Interaction Model, which suggests that
participants alternate positions as sender and receiver, the Transaction
Model suggests that the participant is simultaneously a sender and
receiver. Instead of labeling participants as senders and rece ivers, they are
referred to as communicators in this model.
Additionally, the Transactional Model incorporates a greater
understanding of context. According to the Interaction Model, the context
has both positive and negative effects on communication. Desp ite the fact
that these effects are significant, the Interactional model concentrates on
message transmission and reception. This model provides a broader
perspective and a deeper comprehension of the roles that intrapersonal,
interpersonal, and contextual factors play in communication.

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19 Understanding Academic Communication Process Transactional communication models include Eugene White‟s Model of
Communicati on from 1960, Dance‟s Helical Model of Communication
from 1967, and Barnlund‟s Transactional Model from 1970.
I. Frank Dance introduced the helix model of communication in 1967, it
was first known as "Dance's Helix Model of Communication."
According to D ance's Helical Model, communication is a circular
process that becomes increasingly complex as it actually happens.
This process may be seen as a helical spiral. The model asserts
following views on communication:
 Communication is cyclical.
 Time and exper ience have an impact on it. Every communication
experience, whether it be a conversation with a relative or a chance to
speak in front of an audience at public gathering, teaches us how to
communicate more successfully in the future.
 It is ongoing.
 It doe sn't perfectly repeat itself, as the information received will be
used in smarter or informed way by the individual.
 It is accumulative that becomes more complex and "knowledgeable"
with time.
Dance's model has several advantages. the model accounts for th e
dimension of time, which is rather neglected by other models. This model
is really comprehensive as it depicts a single instance of communication
between two individuals or the development of a single person's
communication abilities over time. The model considers how complexity
rises as a result of learning over the span of a communication cycle.
Further, there is a recognition that every event has an influence on our
future behaviour.
On the contrary, the approach presupposes continuity and does not tak e
into account the instances when communication breaks down or when we
are not improving our communication skills.n this model, the significance
of forgetting or erasing previous forms of communication is not well
understood. It may be assumed that communi cation development is, in
some sense, just linear. There is never a step back. Due to its abstract
character, the model is a little ambiguous in comparison to other models,
such as the Osgood -Schramm and Lasswell models.
II. Barnlund‟s Transactional Commun ication Model (1970) taken by
critics as the most systematic model of co mmunication, is a multi -
layered , feedback system. Sender and receiver alternate roles in this
ongoing process, and each play an equally significant role. Both sides
are continuously pr oviding input while the communication is being
passed. The message for one is also the feedback for the
other.Barnlund identifies three types of cues: behavioral, private, and
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20 importance of both private and public cues in influencing our
communications is highlighted by Barnlund's Transactional Model of
Communication. Public cues, or environmental signals, and private
cues, or a person's own ideas and his/her background, are both
important , according to Barnlund.
This model emphasizes the factors that affect what we believe and say by
putting a focus on cues. The interpersonal, immediate -feedback
communication is examined under the Barnlund Transactional Model of
Communication. The idea th at the recipient's response is the sender's
feedback is at the core of this model. However, the model has been
criticized as very complex.
In nutshell, communication models are genuine results of comprehensive
study by several scholars on many aspects of c ommunication. A
communication model provides a thorough knowledge of a system or
structure, allowing the researchers and students to comprehend related
systems or structures. One -way communication is studied using linear
models. Two-way communication is an alyzed in interactive models.
Transactional models focus on two -way communication where the
immediate and direct feedback is involved.
Check your progress:
1. Compare the three models of communication: transactional, linear,
and interactional.
2. Which are the four essential components of SMCR Model of
Communication by David Berlo? Explain in brief.
1.3 TYPES OF COMMUNICATION Communication is the process of transmitting data with a specific
audience through speech, signs, writing, or behaviour. In the
commu nication process, the sender encodes a message and then uses a
medium or channel to deliver it to the audience or receiver, who decodes
the message and then sends back the proper feedback or response using a
medium or channel after processing the informati on. Depending on the
message and the context in which it is being conveyed, people can
communicate with one another in a variety of different ways. All these
elements involved in the communication process determine various ways
of communicating. The types of communication represent the different
ways used to communicate messages. There are various types of
communication based on process involved, intended target, media used
orbased on the purpose and style. The following sections discusses Target
related ty pes of communication (1.3.1) and Process related types of
communication (1.3.2).
1.3.1 Target related :
A target or audience is the person or group of people to whom a piece of
information in the form of message is intended to reach. In other words, it munotes.in

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21 Understanding Academic Communication Process is important for a sender to know who will be receiving the message.
Thus, the target or the audience is the person or group of people the source
or sender is aiming for or trying to reach.Target based types of
communication are:
 Intrapersonal Communication (c ommunication within oneself),
 Interpersonal Communication (communication between two
individuals),
 Small Group Communication (communication that involves 3 or more
people who actively participate with each other),
 Public communication (communication that o ccurs in a large context
usually with one person (or a small group) speaking to a larger
audience).
1. Intrapersonal communication:
Understanding how to speak with oneself first is a prerequisite for all
forms of human communication. The silent conversatio ns, quite dialogues,
or internal discussion that we make with ourselves constitute intrapersonal
communication. Intrapersonal communication is any communication that
an individual has with oneself. For example, it can be a mental dialogue
where the one giv es commendation for achievement of some benchmark
or, an attempt to come out of some ethical dilemma through silent
conversation with self. It also covers diverse activities like monologues,
inner speech, solo writing etc. To -do lists, journals, assignment notebooks,
calendar reminders, and other items can also be included. Some key
features of Intrapersonal communication are:
 Intrapersonal communication is greatly influenced by the person's
inner sentiments or ideas.
 The individual is both the source of i nformation and the target. He/she
acts as both the sender and receiver of the message.
 Media used here can be the mind, diaries, to -do list, photo album,
audio/video recordings.
 The purpose of this communication is not exchange of information
but thought a nd analysis. It entails self -thinking, analysis, thoughts,
assessments, etc. associated with the inner state of mind.
 It can be difficult to identify feedback for intrapersonal
communication. The individual alone is responsible for how he/she
respond to hi s/her own feelings, thoughts, and ideas.
 Intrapersonal communication is centred on one's own self -concept. It
involves assessing one's own attitudes, values, and beliefs and using
those assessments.
 Visualizations or imaginative activities, or recalling so me memory
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22 Academic communication and writing
22 Intrapersonal communication is crucial as we interact with ourselves
through intrapersonal communication for everything may it be planning,
problem -solving, resolving internal conflicts, reaching clarit y and
evaluating and judging oneself and others. An individual needs
interpersonal abilities including listening, empathy, and leadership in order
to get along with others in day -to-day life situations. These abilities are
enhanced by stronger intrapersona l communication that amplify one‟s
understanding of his own self, emotions and thinking. Therefore,
developing intrapersonal communication skills will probably help the
individuals to comprehend and treat others well. Through intrapersonal
communication, t he individual can find options and alternatives for how to
proceed and assess the possibility of those various aspects by envisioning
and viewing a problem from a different perspective. Consequently, it
improves the decision -making as he/she is at better p osition to understand
the consequences of different decisions.
2. Interpersonal communication: (One –to-one):
Interpersonal communication, also known as dyadic communication, takes
place when two people who are physically present are engaging in or
exchangi ng information, ideas, attitudes, and sentiments about a personal,
societal, organisational, national, or international issue. It is a process of
face-to-face communication between two people in which messages may
be verbal or may not contain any words at all but instead include gestures,
particular postures, and facial expressions. Here we are referring to just
one-to one, based interpersonal communication. The interpersonal
communication wherein more than two people are involved is dealt in
„small group c ommunication‟.
Accordingly, Interpersonal communication is the verbal or nonverbal
exchange of information, ideas, and feelings between two individuals. The
efficacy of conveying messages to others functions as a measure of one's
interpersonal communicati on level. The key features of this
communication are:
 In interpersonal communication, the dialogue involves at least two
communicators. As their communication progresses, the two
individuals will alternate between the roles of message sender and
message re ceiver.
 The message is among the most crucial elements of interpersonal
communication. There are various methods to communicate a
message, including speech, body language, tone of voice, gestures,
and other signs.
 Interpersonal communication is context -specific. The context includes
time and place as well as elements like personal interests, gender,
culture, and the environment.
 Interpersonal communication is mostly face -to-face. Emails and
internet services are two of other popular forms of communication
channels, in addition to face -to-face interactions. munotes.in

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23 Understanding Academic Communication Process  Feedback from the receiver allows the sender to regulate, adapt or
repeat the message in order to improve communication.
 Noise is the gap between the message that is sent and received.
Jargon, communicatio n difficulties, inappropriate tone or body
language, distraction, and other factors are examples of noise.
Here, the intended target is mostly in face -to-face situation with the source
hence communication process is considered to be the simplest. But peopl e
misunderstand each other even in the simplest of interactions, so it‟s
necessary on the part of the sender to find the simplest possible manner to
deliver his/her point. The receiver could find it difficult to comprehend the
message if the sender strays from the subject and change his/her line of
thought frequently. In interpersonal communication, if the sender speaks
in a patronising manner or disregard for the receiver, it hinders smooth
communication.
Enhancing trust requires effective interpersonal co mmunication skills.
Interpersonal communication abilities are essential because they enable
people to discuss issues and consider the advantages and disadvantages of
potential solutions before choosing the best one. Examples of
interpersonal communication that is often employed include daily internal
meeting with research guide at PG department, project discussion with
partner or online conversations.
3. Small group communication :
Small group communication is a form of interpersonal communication that
unfol ds between more than two individuals. Small group communication
describes interactions between three or more people who are connected by
a common objective, shared identity, a group understanding, or some
mutual influence. Though the participants are more than one -to-one
interpersonal communication, the number of participants in the
communication is still small enough to allow all participants to interact
with all the other participants, at one point in the conversation. For
example, small group communicati on is necessary during brainstorming
sessions, or among the members of a study group. Some of the prominent
features are:
 In small group communication, the dialogue involves more than two
people.
 In this communication different members of the group may ta ke on
different roles.
 Small groups are interdependent, which means they have a same goal
and are connected by a common objective or shared identity.
 All members of the group are impacted if the activities of one or two
group members cause the group to str ay from or fail to accomplish its
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24 Academic communication and writing
24  It is goal -oriented. Small groups generally concentrate on some sort of
task completion or goal accomplishment, while interpersonal
connections largely focus on relationship development.
 Group communication is more i ntentional and formal than
interpersonal communication.
In a small group, the communication will proceed in one of the two modes
described below depending on the group's structure:
 Decentraliz ed: In a decentralised group, no one assumes leadership
or manag es communication; studies show that decentralised groups
perform better while working on more difficult and time -consuming
projects.
 Centralized : In a centralised organisation, there is a central authority
who serves as the group's coordinator and who guid es discussion.
According to studies, centralised groups are far more effective for
tasks that demand for quickness and efficiency.
Communication among small groups boosts overall performance and
effectiveness. It is crucial that everyone feels appreciated and free to
express their opinions.It promotes strong group rapport and camaraderie as
well as projects and supports a sense of trust and dependability.
Additionally, effective group communication promotes good trust between
colleagues or classmates. By f ostering a culture of trust and transparency,
group members who effectively communicate are far more motivated to
offer much better solutions.
However, unless the small group is discussing a specific topic, it may
become difficult for all the participants to fully comprehend what the
others are trying to convey. Apart from it, Task -oriented interactions, such
selecting who will complete each part of a project or assignment, is also
one of the communication difficulties that groups face. However, a lot of
difficulties are brought on by interpersonal disputes or
miscommunications inside the group. Element of interpersonal
communication also occurs in group communication since group members
also connect with and relate to each other on a personal level. These
relationships may sometimes hinder of group interaction.
4. Public communication :
In public communication, one individual is normally responsible for
conveying information to an audience. It is a sender -focused kind of
communication. Public communication is a crucial component of our
academic, professional, and civic life, much like group communication.
Public communication is the consistently deliberate, formal, and goal -
oriented type of communication when compared to interpersonal and
group communication. A good example would be the prime minister
speaking to the public about the several projects that are currently in
development. Other examples are principal‟s speech during general
assembly or election campaigns etc. munotes.in

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25 Understanding Academic Communication Process  Public communication consists of one in dividual or group of
individuals sharing information with another group of individuals. It
is specifically the sender -focused
 The receivers are a large group of individuals who are listening to the
speaker/s in public as they share information.
 The message sharing needs to be more formal and intentional as
compared to interpersonal or group communication.
 The means of distributing information to the general audience, such as
a Slide presentation or a video presentation.
 Though feedback is present in form of cheers or responses from the
target audience. This type of communication does not have much
scope of individualised feedback.
The key to effective public communication is being aware of the
heterogeneous audience. Before beginning speech or presentation, the
speaker should be aware of his audience because they may not be familiar
with his jargon. Even the speaker must consider the audience's level of
familiarity with the topic. Public communication involves not just
selecting what to say, but also how to e xpress it. Effective public
communication is characterised by verbal clarity, keeping a steady pace
that everyone can follow, and a powerful voice that is audible to everyone.
Public communication might, however, end up being a one -way process
and switch t o linear communication. Care must be given to allow time for
questions and comments from the audience by pausing after each segment
of the presentation or speech.
When a public communication is disseminated by print or electronic
media to a large audience, it becomes mass communication. Print media
such as newspapers journals, books and magazines continue to be an
important channel for mass communication. Electronic media like
television, websites, blogs, podcasts, e -journals, e -books, and social media
are mass communication channels that are used more frequently.Mass
communication differs from other kinds of communication due to the
technology needed to convey messages in large numbers to masses.
1.3.2 Process related :
Communication is always done with a p urpose i.e., with the objective of
evoking the desired response out of the recipient, to the communication
made. When it comes to the categorization, communication is classified on
different basis. Communication process especially in formal type flows in
upward, downward, horizontal/lateral or crosswise directions. None of
these types is inherently superior or inferior to the others, and one should
rely on them all for optimum results in diverse situation.
1. Downward communication:
Downward communication i s when information is sent downstream from
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26 Downwards communication occurs when information is sent from
leadership to those at lower levels of the organisation. Messages come
from higher -ups a nd are directed at subordinates. Depending on the
significance of the message and the level of the people involved in the
communication process, it may be written or oral form. An information
source, an audience, and a communication channel are all compone nts of
downward communication. This type of communication is mostly public.
It aids in directing and controlling the subordinate. At the same time,
through feedback, it promotes the efficiency of the upward
communication. It mostly entails conveying the pl ans and policies to
subordinates, and in particular, giving commands and directives to staff
members so they may initiate acting in accordance with them to complete
their assigned tasks. It mostly consists of orders and instructions and is
majorly used to communicate new information or direct or delegate tasks.
The most often used communication tools are reports, emails, letters,
manuals, guidelines or advisory etc. For example, a research guide pins
the document link containing guidelines for preparing res earch proposal
for research fellows working under him so they can access it anytime.
Here the communication progresses from top to down level.
However, the message is frequently distorted or diluted in downward
communication. Every time information is pass ed from one person to
another, some of its accuracy is lost. The fact that downward
communication usually takes a lot of time is another disadvantage. The
likelihood of a delay increases with the number of tiers. Mid -level
employees occasionally withhold c rucial information from the staff. The
employees feel so powerless, frustrated, and confused in such a
circumstance. It also tends to promote one -way communication.
2. Upward communication:
As the name implies, upward communication is the communication whe re
information or messages flows between or among the subordinates and
superiors of the organization. It processes through different links in the
scalar chain from subordinates to midrange and higher level. The message
travels upward from the subordinate l evel to the leadership level. This
communication proceeds up the hierarchical chain, from subordinates to
their superiors. It enables leadership to communicate with team members
and enables team members to express issues, ideas, opinions, etc. This
type of formal communication is really feedback to downward
communication. Upward communication is hardly one -to-one
interpersonal.
Here, requests, reports, suggestions, complaints, and queries are all forms
of communication that go from subordinates to leaders. For example,
progress report submission by Ph.D. student, which passes through guide
and submitted to university department. Grievances, problems or
difficulties of subordinates forwarded to superiors, at appropriate levels is
also an example of it. It al so entails clarifications sought by subordinates
from superiors as to the orders and instructions issued by the superiors. It munotes.in

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27 Understanding Academic Communication Process reinforces innovative suggestions and ideas from subordinates. It
establishes cooperation and harmony between management and
emplo yees.
The core issue with upward communication has a psychological basis.
Most powerful people still dislike having suggestions from subordinates.
Additionally, workers are reluctant to approach superiors and start an
upward conversation. Sometimes, subord inates may get overconfident and
bring their grievances to the attention of the highest authority. As a result,
the relationships between the employees and their direct superior
deteriorate. At the same time, there is also a possibility of purposeful
manip ulation of information for personal gain by subordinate.
3. Lateral or Horizontal Communication:
Horizontal or lateral communication takes place between staff members or
departments that are on an equal level in terms of position or rank.
Horizontal commun ication is the communication where information or
messages flows between or among the parallel or among individuals who
are assigned the same rank. It assists in preventing work duplication and
resolves issues across departments. It facilitates in preservi ng the social
and emotional support from peer group. It is required to coordinate the
actions of people performing the same type of work for personnel of
equivalent rank. This type of communication allows smooth functioning as
it encourages communication a nd coordination amongst different
departments. Though it cut across departmental barriers, it can be misused
for spreading rumours and wrong information.
This is just regular, everyday interaction between co -workers, which
enables them to plan projects, ad dress issues, assist one another, etc.
Alternatively, it is communication between entire departments that allows
them to coordinate. Verbal or written communication can occur between
individuals for lateral communication. This type of communication is
either one -to-one interpersonal or group communication.
4. Crosswise or Diagonal communication:
Crosswise communication occurs when information flows between
persons at different levels who have no direct reporting relationship.
Diagonal or crosswise communica tion happens when personnel from
various departments and levels speak to one another without regard to the
chain of command. For example, a student who wants to give best during
his/ her VIVAs, assignments and other seminar presentations takes help
from ev ery possible source and person from the department and can
approach some online tutoring as well.
It is used to speed information flow, to improve understanding to
coordination etc. for the better achievement of goal. Through informal
gatherings, formal co nferences, lunchtime gatherings, general
announcements, etc., this crosswise communication serves the crucial
function of coordination. Giving lower -level employees the chance to
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28 their loyalty. However, the superior can consider it to be an offence
because his subordinate has received undue attention and has been passed
over. Since he was also not contacted, the superior might not be able to
implement the idea. Internal anarchy and ho stility from others may result
from the absence of approved procedures.
Numerous types of communication are available all around the world, and
they are all necessary in some way. According to the requirements,
environment, usage, and tools taken into acco unt for communication, there
are also a number of variants and distinctions in the communication types.
In light of all of the above -mentioned types of communication, it isvital to
be aware of the numerous types and subtypes of communication in order
to im prove our ability to express ourselves clearly, as well as our ability to
understand others and be understood by them.
Check your progress:
1. Describe types of communication based on the process.
2. What is interpersonal communication?How is it different from
intrapersonal communication?
1.4 LET US SUM UP The American screenwriter Charlie Kaufman once remarked that
“Constantly talking isn‟t necessarily communicating.” Essentially,
effective communication entails more than just information exchange. It
also calls for effective information transmission, which means that the
information must be adequately communicated by the one providing it and
correctly interpreted by the one or group receiving it.In this Unit, we
discussed the concept of Academic Communicat ion, certain foundational
elements of communication in general and its significance
communication. It further discusses the details of three models andvarious
types of communication with relevant example.
1.5 UNIT END QUESTIONS 1. Explain the concept of A cademic communication.
2. “Communication is the mode of conveying messages to specific
audience.” Justify with reference to the elements of communication.
3. Discuss in detail the linear model of communication.
4. What is transactional communication model? Discuss Frank Dance‟s
the helix model of communication.
5. Explain Small -group Communication and public communication with
suitable example.
6. Describe upward, lateral, downward and crosswise communication
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29 Understanding Academic Communication Process 7. Differentiate these t wo types of communication: interpersonal and
intrapersonal communication.
1.6 REFERENCES  "Principles and Strategies for the Reform of Scholarly
Communication 1", American Library Association, September 1,
2006. Document ID: e34e8161 -fa32-5cd4 -19d7 -
8614fd62 e9c3retrieved from
http://www.ala.org/acrl/publications/whitepapers/principlesstrategies
 Haneda, Mari. (2014). From Academic Language to Academic
Communication: Building on English learners‟ resources. Linguistics
and Education. 10.1016/j.linged.2014.01.00 4. Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260296219_From_academic
_language_to_academic_communication_Building_on_English_learn
ers'_resources
 Mavrodieva, Ivanka &Simeonov, Todor &Nikolova, Anita. (2017).
Features of the Academic and Pedagog ical Communication in Virtual
Environment. US -China Foreign Language. 15. 10.17265/1539 -
8080/2017.09.008. Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/321967696_Features_of_the
_Academic_and_Pedagogical_Communication_in_Virtual_Environm
ent
 Wambui , Tabitha. (2015). Communication Skills, Students
Coursebook. Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303893422_Communication
_Skills_Students_Coursebook
 https://helpfulprofessor.com/communication -models/
 https://newsmoor.com/3 -types -of-comm unication -models -linear -
interactive -transactional/
 https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1 -2-the-
communication -process/
 https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic -skills/explore -our-
resources/developing -an-academic -writing -style/key -features -of-
academic -style
 https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/professionalcomms/chapter/3 -2-the-
communication -process -communication -in-the-real-world -an-
introduction -to-communication -studies/
https://pressbooks.library.ryerson.ca/communicationnursing/chapter/tr
ansaction -model -of-communication/
 https://pumble.com/learn/communication/comm unication -
types/ #Types_of_business_communication munotes.in

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30 Academic communication and writing
30  https://slcc.instructure.com/courses/398556/pages/communication -
concepts#:~:text=In%20the%20linear%20model%20of,model%20peo
ple%20BUILD%20shared%20meaning
 https://smallgroup.pressbooks.com/chapter/introduction/
 https://www.etymonline.com/word/academic
 https://www.montgomeryschoolsmd.org/curriculum/esol/cpd/module2
/docs/cummins.pdf
 https://www.tutorialspoint.com/effective_communication/effective_co
mmunication_models.htm
 https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/business -communication/4 -types -
of-direction -in-formal -communication/28014
*****
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31 2
ACADEMIC COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Unit Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Overview
2.2. Academic Listening -
a) Introduction
b) Define Listening
c) Cognitive Components of Listening
d) Affective Components of Listening
e) Behavioural Components of Listening
f) Listening skills and the competent listener
g) Cognitive Listening Competence
h) Stages of Listening
2.3 Academic Reading
a) Introduction
b) Academic reading -Meaning
c) Academic reading Steps
2.4 Ethics and Etiquettes in Academic Communication - Gener al and
Social Media
a) Ethics for Academic Communication
b) Academic Etiquettes -General
c) Academic Etiquettes -Social Media
2.5 Let Us Sum Up
2.6 Unit End Questions
2.7 References
2.0 OBJECTIVES After reading this unit, you will be able to:
 Expla in the meaning of academic listening.
 Discuss the components and steps of academic listening.
 Explain the meaning of academic reading.
 Describe the steps of academic reading.
 Discuss the ethics in academic communication.
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32 Academic communication and writing
32 2.1 OVERVIEW Like academic writing, academic communication that is delivered face to
face is distinctive in many respects. Perhaps the most obvious feature is
the use of words that are specific to academic communication and to the
subject b eing talked about. These words bring with them sentence
constructions that are often more conventionalized and elaborate than
those in less formal registers. The goal of using these precise forms is to
be maximally explicit about argumentation and logic, i ncluding forms of
logic specific to the discipline. Conventional ways of speaking also help
maintain consistency with what other scholars have said and written,
reducing unintentional slippages in meaning. In this unit we will learn
listening and reading s kills for academic communication and process for
the same. While using academic communication which ethics do we have
to follow and academic etiquette are necessary in general and social
media.
2.2 ACADEMIC LISTENING A) Introduction :
Listening represents a kind of “human behavior that almost everyone
thinks important.” Abilities to comprehend, understand, and reflect spoken
language are universally recognized to help foster professional success
and personal happiness alike. Listening is important to par enting,
marriage, salesperson performance , customer satisfaction , and healthcare
provision and the list could go on. Quality listening can enhance others’
ability to cope with and remember events and those who are able to
display quality listening on a con sistent basis (i.e. competent listeners) are
more liked, rated as more attractive , and garner more trust than those less
proficient. Good listening has additionally been linked to academic
motivation and achievement and a higher likelihood of upward mobil ity in
the workplace. Adding to the importance of listening, research finds that
natural decrements in the ability to process speech can negatively impact
individual and relational health and well -being.
Comprehension is but one goal of listeners who also aim to learn, connect,
relate, support others, find enjoyment, release tension, critically evaluate
evidence, and achieve numerous practical aims.
In addition to being essential, also incontrovertible is that listening skills
can be taught . Thus, it likely comes as no surprise that numerous
taxonomies have been developed to delineate the skills necessary for
listening competence. What most of these lists have in common is a focus
on not only the cognitive facets of listening (the primary focus of past
resea rch) but also its affective and behavioral components. Indeed,
listening is simultaneously a cognitive, affective, and behavioral
phenomenon, something that occurs internally but also something that is
judged as competent (or incompetent) based on overt be havioral responses
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33 Academic Communication Skills B) Define Listening:
In common parlance, listening and hearing are often used interchangeably.
For example, asking, did you hear me? o r, were you listening? Will not
change the recipient’s reaction for most intent s and purposes. Parents
wishing children were more obedient or teachers wishing students were
more attentive are equally likely to use either question without giving
much thought to differences among terms. Listening scholars are,
however, quick to separat e the capacity to hear from the ability to listen.
While hearing denotes a capacity to discriminate characteristics of one’s
environment through aural sense perception, listening is a relationally
oriented phenomenon; it “connect sand bridges”. To listen t hus involves
skill sets that go beyond the physiological requirements to perceive sound.
C) Cognitive Components of Listen in:
Listening has been defined in hundreds of ways, with most definitions
stressing how people come to understand and respond to oral ly delivered
speech, a focus that can be traced to early models of language
competency. Early models of language competency defined listening as a
higher -order cognitive process that involves “ taking in sounds” along with
an active choice of the individual to select and attend to particular sound,
for particular purposes. As a result, most models of listening set hearing as
the first step in a complex set of processes including attention, selection,
comprehension, understanding, and responding.
The HURIER m odel presents hearing as an innate, reactive, and passive
process, something that operates as a “mechanical or automatic outcome
of the operation of the auditory anatomical structure. Hearing does involve
a complex set of sensory and brain processes that allow humans to detect
and use sounds (Davis, 1970), and these are non -trivial to be sure.
Nevertheless, most models assume that hearing is not under conscious
control. Whether sleeping or awake, humans are constantly processing
sound; that is, vibra tions pass through our ears and are proce ssed in our
brains continuously , not all of these sounds, however, are attended to
consciously. Most sounds we hear are not “listened to” cognitively, that is,
in the language of the HURIER model, understood, rememb ered,
interpreted, evaluated, and responded to.
Over the past several decades, scholars have broadened our understanding
of listening by defining it not only as a set of complex cognitive processes,
but also a complex set of affective and behavioral proces ses. Affective
components of listening include how individuals think about listening and
their motivation and enjoyment of the activity. Individuals’ views about
listening and their barriers to attending to others can have profound effects
on comprehension and understanding as well as consequences for
personal, professional, and relational success. Listening behaviors are
actions such as eye contact and asking questions that serve to signal
attention and interest to others. The responses that listeners enac t while
engaged with another are the only signals that listening is taking (or has
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34 Academic communication and writing
34 processes that operate to enable individuals to attend, to comprehend,
interpret, evaluate, and mak e sense of spoken language. The notion that
listening is an information processing activity consisting of a stable set of
practices that can be trained and improved is the most popular way to
conceptualize the term and one that has framed all listening res earch at
least since the early 1940s. As such, I will begin my extended discussion
of our multidimensional definition of listening with its cognitive
components.

Individual listening filters

Figure 1.The HURIER listening model, reprinted by permission of
Judi Brownell, School of Hotel Administration, College of Business,
Cornell University
By separating listening into its constituent parts (e.g. hearing,
understanding, remembering), researchers claim ed an ability to develop
more valid tests that could be shown unique, but complementary to, tests
of other language abilities. Test development efforts defined listening
research during the 1970s and 1980s, and multidimensional tests of
comprehension proli ferated. The development of many of these tests was
largely a response to the perceived failings of those that had come before.
The most popular target of criticism was the Brown -Carlsen Listening
Test (Brown & Carlsen, 1955) which was designed as a compre hensive
test and claimed to measure recall of items, recognition of word meanings,
following instructions, lecture comprehension, and inference making.
Each multidimensional test developed during the 1970s and 80s held a
similar assumption to prior tests: there exists some identifiable set of skills
that can be taught in order for a person to become a good listener. Of
course, agreement about which skills to include was far from universal.
D) Affective Components of Listening :
In addition to outlining sever al cognitive processes involved in listening,
models (like the HURIER) also feature myriad listening filters. Common
among recommendations for how to be a “good listener” include
recognising biases and learning to work within one’s own and others’
attitude s and values. A focus on individual predispositions and their Understanding Interpreting Hearing Responding Evaluating Previous experiences Values Bias Etc. Organizational role Attitudes munotes.in

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35 Academic Communication Skills influence on how people interpret and process aural information was
implicit in the work of Nichols but was not formally included in cognitive
models of listening until Carl Weaver published Hum an Listening:
Process and Behavior. In his book, Weaver (1972) argued that a listener’s
“attitudes” should be incorporated as part of a “selective perception”
model of listening. For the first time, a listener’s willingness to or attitude
toward listening was identified as a separate compon ent of the listening
process . In other words, individual choice is a key element of listening we
choose to listen (or to avoid it).
Indeed, most holistic models of listening (including the HURIER)
consider some form of “s elective attention” a necessary first step to move
from hearing to listening. In their systems model of the listening process,
Imhof and Janusik (2006) introduced the notion of listening presage,
which includes various individual and contextual factors tha t contribute to
how people select among relevant listening goals. How and why
individuals come to the conclusions they do as they listen has additionally
been studied under the auspices of message interpretation (Edwards,
2011), relational framing (Dillard , Solomon, & Palmer, 1999), and other
research programs like constructivism (Burleson, 2011) and schema
theory (Edwards& McDonald, 1993).
E) Behavioural Components of Listening :
While placing an emphasis on a listener’s motivation and willingness to
listen in particular ways, Weaver’s book set aside the listening response as
a viable research trajectory. It was not until the mid -1980s and the push to
develop “speaking and listening competencies” in US high schools and
universities that listening scholars b egan to focus on the performative
aspects of listening (i.e. overt behaviours). Most scholars writing in the
1970s and early 1980s considered the response phase to begin a new
process, one that was more speaking -focused in nature (Ridge, 1993).
Models of l istening competency that stressed overt behaviours were,
however, natural outgrowths of previous research emphasising outcomes
of retention and recall. For instance, in Nichols’s study reviewed above,
the observations made by educators to classify students into upper and
lower categories were based solely on outward signs of attention and
engagement within the classroom setting (i.e. listening behaviours). Even
so, a behavioural view of listening was not mainstreamed until the
movement toward assessment and meas urement was tied to federal
funding initiatives in the USA.
Fundamental to the “listening as competent behavior” perspective is “the
view that an identifiable set of skills, attitudes, and abilities can be
formulated and taught to improve individual p erfor mance”. Indeed, the
phrase “listening behaviours” was used until the 1980s to describe internal
actions of listeners as they processed information, and the term “response”
was reserved for internal actions such as transferring information into
long-term me mory (Barker, 1971; Weaver, 1972). What the research
between the latter part of the 1980s and throughout the 1990s
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36 behavioural ones. Two claims are central in this shift: (1) th at ou r
behavioural choices are moderated by our relationships and (2) that
competency resides in the eye of the beholder. In other words, our
listening competency is judged by others, and this judgement varies with
the context. Judgements of listening comp etenc e, like judgements of
communication competence, are made on the basis of the appropriateness
and effectiveness of specific behaviours enacted in particular settings
(Cooper & Husband, 1993; Spitzberg & Cupach, 2002).
Along with a conceptual shift, th e beh avioural perspective inspired new
measurement techniques. Competency expanded beyond multiple -choice
assessments of comprehension to include multi -item scales that could be
completed by listeners, their interlocutors, and their peers, co -workers,
friends, and family members (Worthington & Bodie, 2017). Along with
traditional self -report measures used to assess affective components of
listening, researchers began utilizing a variety of other reporting
techniques including third party and critical incide nt te chniques.
Moreover, there was a growing acknowledgment that listening
competency was contextual, with researchers exploring listening
competency in the areas of business, education, and health. Researchers in
these areas have tied listening competency (mea sured in multiple ways) to
attentiveness, memory, and understanding, as well as employee
motivation, upward mobility in the workplace, and job and class
performance. At the same time, a focus on the skills needed to be judged
as a competent listener m eant that research was largely atheoretical in
nature (Wolvin , 1999). Indeed, no unified framework currently exists to
organise and evaluate competency skills, and some even take issue with
the need for theoretically oriented research more generally (Purd y, 20 11).
F) Listening Skills a nd The Competent Listener :
The difference between merely receiving an oral message and listening
actively is similar to the difference between scanning a textbook and
reading it for comprehension and retention. In oral commun ication settings
there must be involved listeners attempting to internalize and evaluate the
message in order for a speaker to achieve his communication objective.
(Barker, 1971)
The above quote comes from Barker’s Listening Behavior, one of the
earlies t listening textbooks. A major goal of Barker’s text was to outline
what people can do to become more active participants in (versus passive
recipients of) a communication exchange. Recommendations such as
Barker’s were common starting points when designin g mul tidimensional
tests of listening comprehension in the 1980s and 1990s as well as
attempts to develop standards for teaching listening in US schooling
contexts. Furthered by federal funding initiatives in the US, several large -
scale efforts were launch ed as well, including a series of meetings that
eventually resulted in the National Communication Association’s (NCA)
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37 Academic Communication Skills NCA’s definition of listening, “the process of receiving, constructin g
meaning from, and responding to spoken and or nonverbal messages”
providesevidencethatbythelate1990scompetenceinlisteningrequiredmaster
y of the ABCs of listening (that is, affective, behavioural, and cognitive
skills).
G) Cognitive Listening Competence :
As a reminder, cognitive facets of listening include internal processes such
as attention, comprehension , interpretation, and evaluation of message
content. As illustrated in the NCA list of listening skills, understanding
speech is generally thought to c onsist of two related but unique tasks.
NCA labels these literal comprehension and critical comprehension; in the
second -language literature they are often referred to as abilities to
understand a basic level of meaning and abilities to understand inferenc es
and deduce meaning from “ linguistic clue”. Literal comprehension begins
with the ability to recognise sounds and phrases. Those sounds into
phrases, sentences, and longer strings of utterances. This, of course,
requires various auditory processing capac ities. Indeed, people who h ave
some level of central auditory processing disorder (CAPD) can experience
difficulties acquiring language or understanding paralinguistic cues
(Geffner, 2007). Consequently, a basic level of auditory discrimination
skill is ne cessary to become a profici ent listener; but cognitive listening
competence requires more than physiological capabilities.
Burleson (2011) offered one model of competent listening from a
cognitive perspective. His model, suggests that cognitive listening
competency begins with heari ng (the capacity to discriminate
characteristics of one’s environment through aural sense perception) and
moves through four additional, successive stages. Comprehension or
understanding what the speaker has said involves syntact ic analysis. In
other words , once we have phrased the sound -waves into words and
sentences, we engage in a process of inference which drives our ability to
grasp exactly what the speaker is articulating. Typical measures of
comprehension include memory of facts after a lecture -based presentation,
and most utilise multiple choice questions scored as right or wrong
(Watson & Barker, 1984). So, comprehension is completed when the
listener knows what was said or expressed without necessarily knowing
what the sp eaker means.
To understand what a speaker means, the listener goes through the third
process, the process of interpretation. Edwards (2011) defined the
interpretation of messages in order to be a COMPETENT LISTENER, a
person must be able to follow the foll owing steps listen with lit eral
comprehension.


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38 H) Stages of Listening:
A. Recognise Main Ideas :
1. Distinguish ideas fundamental to the thesis from material that
supports those ideas
2. Identify transitional, organisational, and nonverbal cues that di rect the
listener to the ma in ideas
3. Identify the main ideas in structured and unstructured discourse.
B. Identify Supporting Details :
1. Identify supporting details in spoken messages
2. Distinguish between those ideas that support the main ideas and th ose
that do not
3. Determin e whether the number of supporting details adequately
develops each main idea.
C. Recognise Explicit Relationships Among Ideas :
1. Demonstrate an understanding of the types of organisational or logical
relationships
2. Identify t ransitions that suggest rel ationships
3. Determine whether the asserted relationship exists.
D. Recall Basic Ideas And Details :
1. Determine the goal for listening
2. State the basic cognitive and affective contents, after listening.
2.3 ACADEMIC READING A) Introduction :
Like academ ic writing, academic communication that is delivered face to
face is distinctive in many respects. Perhaps the most obvious feature is
the use of words that are specific to academic communication and to the
subject being talked a bout. These words bring wit h them sentence
constructions that are often more conventionalized and elaborate than
those in less formal registers. The goal of using these precise forms is to
be maximally explicit about argumentation and logic, including form s of
logic specific to the discipline. Conventional ways of speaking also help
maintain consistency with what other scholars have said and written,
reducing unintentional slippages in meaning. At the same time, speakers
can extend these theories with new t houghts and invite response s from
listeners, who are likely to follow the same conventions in their own talk.
Thus, it can be said that academic speech is not merely a channel for
transmission of completed work, but a medium for developing ideas. munotes.in

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39 Academic Communication Skills Genres of academic speech include le ctures and seminars, conference
papers, interviews and public appearances, and online videos, as well as
conversation, classroom teaching . The proto typical form is the lecture,
which is a monologue by an expert. Goffman describ ed it as “an
institutionalized extended holding of the floor in which one speaker
imparts his views on a subject, these thoughts comprising what can be
called his ‘text.’ The style is typically serious and slightly impersonal, the
controlling intent being to generate calml y considered understanding, not
mere entertainment, emotional impact, or immediate action” . The goal of
understanding differentiates the lecture from persuasive genres such as
political speeches and sales pitches.
However, there is nevert heless a persuasi ve element (“understand it this
way”), and persuasive speech techniques can be seen to have influenced
modern lecturing formats such as academic conference talks and the
franchised TED talks. For teaching, large group lecturers are often said to
be a misre ferred method as students now prefer a more participatory
classroom or online learning. However, it is still widely practiced in
schools and universities because of its efficiency and expository power.
Furthermore, conference talks are sti ll the most popul ar format for face-to-
face sharing of ideas among active researchers in language fields. For both
these reasons it is necessary for students to become proficient in academic
communication.
Learning a discipline involves developing familiar ity with the ways of
being, thinking, writing, and seeing the world of those experts in the
discipline. Reading academic texts published by those disciplinary experts
permits students to immerse in the culture of the discipline and facilitates
learning its conventions, dis course, skills, and knowledge But, this is only
possible if students take a deep approach to reading.
B) Meaning :
Academic reading is different than normal reading. In normal reading we
just read the content to get the idea and its lower order thinking, b ut
academic reading is to reading is the tacit acceptance of information
contained in the text. Students taking a surface approach to reading usually
consider this information as isolated and unlinked facts. This leads to
superficial reten tion of material for examinations and does not promote
understanding or long -term retention of knowledge and information. In
contrast, a deep approach to reading is an approach where the reader uses
higher -order cognitive skills such as the ability to anal yze, synthesize,
solve problems, and thinks meta -cognitively in order to negotiate
meanings with the author and to construct new meaning from the text. The
deep reader focuses on the author’s message, on the ideas she is trying to
convey, the line of argum ent, and the stru cture of the argument. The
reader makes connections to already known concepts and principles and
uses this understanding for problem solving in new contexts. Simply put,
surface readers focus on the sign, i.e., the text itself, while deep readers
focus on what is signified, i.e., the meaning of the text (Bowden &Marton,
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40 Academic communication and writing
40 c) Steps of Reading Academic Texts:
Reading is a process shaped partly by the text, partly by the reader's
background, and partly by the situation the reading occurs in (Hunt, 2004,
p. 137). Reading an academic text does not simply involve finding
information on the text itself. Rather, it is a process of working with the
text. When reading an academic text, the reader recreates the meaning of
the text, together with the author. In other words, readers negotiate the
meaning with the author by applying their prior knowledge to it (Maleki &
Heerman, 1992).
But this process is only possible if the reader uses a series of categories of
analysis, some of which are spe cific to each acade mic discipline. Thus,
working with a text and recreating its meaning entail both non-discipline -
specific and specific strategies. So, professors in each discipline need to
teach both the general analytical tools and the discipline - specific values
and strategies that facilitate disciplinary reading and learning (Bean, 1996,
p.133).
Steps:
Academic texts include the following steps: (i) reading purpose; (ii)
context; (iii) author’s thesis; (iv) deconstruction of assumptions; (v)
evaluatio n of author’s argum ents; and (vi) consequences of author’s
arguments.
(i) Reading purpose : Teacher also preview the readings in class, and
explain their relevance and purpose. Since some teachers do not
clearly explain the purpose of each r eading assignme nt to students,
encourage the students to ask these teachers why they need to read a
given text, what they need the text for, and what they are expected to
do with the text.
(ii) Context : Understanding the context helps students understand the
background, environment, and ci rcumstances in which the author
wrote the text. In order to analyse the context of any given text,
Teacher encourage their students to do some research about the
author. Teacher wants them to understand whether the author's
opinion usual ly reflects the main stream school of thought in the
discipline or whether the author writes from the margins of the
discipline. Teacher also asks the students to analyze the audience of
the text as well as when and where the text was written.
(iii) Author’s thesis : In order to truly appreciate the context, teacher ask
the students to read two or three articles written by the same author.
For example, when teacher ask the students to read some Space Law
articles written by Glen Reynolds, students read a few articles the
author w rote on gun control and violence (Reynolds, 2001 & 1995),
which are closer to the experiences and backgrounds of the students,
and which permit them to have a unique insight to the author’s ideas.
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41 Academic Communication Skills sophisticated, this familiarity with the author’s ideas becomes very
helpful in understanding the author’s Space Law texts.
Students also need to be taught how to identify the author’s thesis,
main claims, and arguments dealin g with the issues the y are interested
in. For this purpose, teacher encourage the students to try to
understand what the author intends to do. They need to consider
whether, for example, the author intends to challenge an existing
position, whether she wan ts to examine a varia ble that previous
researchers have missed, or to apply a theory or a concept in a new
way.
(iv) Deconstruction of assumptions : Students need to be taught to
identify the different positions used by the author, the arguments used
to hol d these positions as well as the counter -arguments. Bean
recommends an activity where students are asked to write what a
paragraph says and what it does. This exercise helps students to
identify the purpose and function of academic texts (Bean, 1996).
Unlike authors of textboo ks specifically designed for the college
classroom, authors of academic books and articles take for granted
many concepts, principles, and debates of the discipline as they
presuppose that their audience is familiar with them. So, it i s
important to help s tudents become aware of these assumptions and to
learn to deconstruct them. Thus, students need to examine the
concepts not analysed in the text. Students need to look up these
concepts in college textbooks, encyclopedias , or other reference
books. Simila rly, if the author refers to a debate in the discipline or is
responding to another article or book, they need to briefly read about
these debates or articles in other publications.
(v) Evaluation of author’s arguments : Perhaps the sing le most
important st ep of reading academic texts is for students to judge the
strength or validity of the author’s arguments. Teacher constantly
stresses the importance of not taking the author's argument at face
value. Teachers need to show our students t he importance of
evaluating the argument's effectiveness in making its claims, and
considering the evidence the author offers in support of her claim.
Students also need to ponder counter -arguments used, and the logical
reasoning used by the author.
Furthe rmore, they need to e valuate any inconsistencies of thought,
and the relevance of examples and evidence. While written in very
persuasive language, the article shows some contradictions as the
authors themselves end up recognizing that legal arguments do n ot
always follow logi cs. Besides, more serious works in Philosophy of
Law prove the contrary point (Murphy, 1967). Teacher asks the
students to identify the main claims of the text and to judge the
validity of these arguments. For this purpose, teacher rem ind the
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42 Academic communication and writing
42 (vi) Consequences of author’s arguments : Finally, it is important to help
students consider the non immediate consequences of the arguments
used by the author. Teacher helps them reflect about the implic ations
and application s of the author's thesis. Teacher asks the students to
make connections to other texts, to relate the arguments to other to
pics learned in class, and to relate the author's arguments to their own
experience. For example, we read an a rticle on terrorism in the
aviation industry where the author proposes a series of measures to
prevent terrorist acts. While these measures may undoubtedly deter
new terrorist attacks, a careful look at the author’s proposal leads to
the conclusion that ve ry few people will qual ify to fly. So, my
students usually argue that measures that will exclude the majority of
passengers from flying are not a very sensible way of controlling
terrorism. Each discipline has also its own specific categories of
analysis, which need to be taught alongside these general categories.
2.4 ETHICS AND ETIQUETTES IN ACADEMIC COMMUNICATION - GENERAL AND SOCIAL MEDIA a) Ethics In Academic Communication :
A Code of Professional Ethics for the Communication Scholar/Teacher
adopted by the NCA Legislative Council, Nove mber 1999
The National Communication Association believes that ethical behavior is
a hallmark of professionalism in communication. We believe that ethical
behavior is guided by values such as:
 Integrity
 Fairness
 professional an d social responsibility equal ity of opportunity
 confidentiality
 honesty and openness
 respect for self and others
 freedom and safety
The guidelines that follow offer means by which these values can be made
manifest in our teaching, research, publications, a nd professional
relationships with colleagues, students, and in the society as a whole.
This code and its guidelines are intended to remind those in the discipline
of accepted standard so for ethical conduct and they serve at least three
broad functions:
1. to highlight ethical responsibi lities and issues relevant to members of
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43 Academic Communication Skills 2. to stimulate personal reflection as well as public discussion of the
ethical implications of our disciplinary goals and practices ; and
3. to set forth the traits and moral characteristics which are appropriate
for communication professionals.
Teaching :
Our primary responsibilities as communication teachers rest in being
knowledgeable, communicating what we know in a fair and accurate
manner, acting as an ethical role models for students, and estab lishing
relationships with students that enhance learning and encourage students
to behave ethically.
Most important is the area of academic integrity. As teachers, we maintain
high standards of academic integ rity by:
 Teaching only those courses for which we have academic credentials,
that is, preparation in the subject matter area and knowledge of
current thinking and research related to the course material.
 Helping all students to develop their fullest academ ic potential;
encouraging them to become engage d in learning, to think critically
about readings and lectures, to reflect on what they learn and, when
appropriate, to disagree with what is presented; and to participate with
faculty and other students in research projects and activities.
 Acknowledging s cholarly debates where they exist and helping
students understand the nature of scholarly controversy, rather than
presenting controversial material as “truth.”
 Engaging in classroom practices only to the exte nt that one is
qualified to do so. For example, communication teachers should not
assign exercises requiring self -disclosure by students, unless they
have provided ways for students to avoid making significant
disclosures without penalty. Nor should commun ication teachers
attempt to lead exercises designed to reduce communication
apprehension without being trained to do so. In designing classroom
activity, the ethical communication teacher avoids putting students at
psychological or emotional risk.
Using wi th care exercises or assignments that may confl ict with the
closely -held values of students. Instructors must be open to allowing
alternative assignments when students object for personal reasons.
 Communication teachers display personal integrity in the cl assroom
by their own use of ethical behaviors a nd by refusing to encourage or
tolerate unethical behavior.
 As communication teachers, we strive to treat all students fairly and
we are always concerned with fairness. We model fairness in the
classroom and r equire that students value fairness by insistin g on
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44 Academic communication and writing
44 We encourage listening to others and presenting ideas accurately,
while acknowledging differences in points of view and personal
biase s. We provide, and encourage students to provid e, constructive
feedback to others in the class while acknowledging the value of
opposing arguments and evidence. We try to foster freedom of
expression and a safe classroom environment in which students
commu nicate candidly and thrive intellectually.
 We r espect and honour culturally -based differences in communication
and presentational styles in and outside the classroom. That respect
calls for encouraging students to communicate in multiple ways,
depending on what is most appropriate and effective for giv en
contexts and communication goals. We strive to treat all students
equally by not allowing personal pre - dispositions or biases to
influence how we teach and interact with students.
 We demonstrate respect fo r students by acts of confidentiality,
keeping grades and other personal information about students private.
In other matters we are honest and open. We present course objectives
and requirements fully and communicate clear criteria for grading and
evaluat ing student achievement. We present ourselves h onestly to
students and others, accurately describing our professional
credentials, qualifications, and knowledge.
 We endeavor to assess student learning using methods and
instruments that are free of bias and that provide an equal opportunity
for all stu dents to perform well. We assess students’ work based on
the quality of content, not the viewpoints presented.
 Finally, we accept our professional and social responsibilities as
communication educators by endea voring to improve public
understanding of com munication theory, research, and practice. When
the opportunity presents itself, we provide information and instruction
to students and others about ethical communication and how to think
and behave as ethical c ommunicators.
b) Academic Etiquette - General :
In the last decade, classroom etiquette has been harder to find than
bipartisan healthcare reform. It's not a problem confined to Carson -
Newman. Students in colleges all across the nation often cannot identify
basic breaches of classroom and academic etiq uette even when given
quizzes about it. Attitudes toward learning and the classroom have been
changing. Given these problems, teachers say enough is enough.
The time has come to explain some basic expectations i n our classes and
the reasons for those expec tations. Besides, if bell -bottom jeans and tie -
dye t -shirts can make comebacks from the days of yesteryear, so can that
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45 Academic Communication Skills Academic etiquette is similar to social etiquette (i.e., politeness), but it
goes beyond saying "than k you" and "please," and calling your instructor
"Doctor" rather than "Dude."
Class Attendance:
Attendance at all class meetings is required and a student is responsible for
all the work, including tests and wri tten assignments of all class meetings.
Each individual faculty member will establish the consequences for
absence and publish this in the course syllabus. If students must miss class
for any reason, they are obligated to account for their absences to thei r
instructors and arrange to obtain assignmen ts for work missed. Students
will be allowed to make up class work missed if the absence was caused
by documented illness, death of immediate family member, or
participation in college -sponsored activities. Othe rwise, the instructor has
no obligation to al low students to make up work.
Punctuality :
We imagine though, that your professor is giving you displeased looks
because he's wondering the same thing we're wondering: if you know the
commute is long and that pa rking is difficult, why not leave earlier? If you
are late once (maybe twice?) over the course of a term, sometimes that
can't be helped. The polite way to handle this faux pas is to slip in as
quietly and quickly as possible, taking the seat nearest to th e door, and
apologize after class is over. Su ch politeness, however, loses its impact if
it happens several times over the course of the semester. Then, the apology
takes on a different cast; it looks smarmy and insincere. Being late
regularly signals to t he professor that you don't treat the class a s seriously
as whatever it is that you were doing that made you late. It suggests that
whatever you were doing is worth regularly interrupting her class. You
don’t want to create that impression. Leave twenty mi nutes earlier and you
will arrive on time, an d your teachers will smile upon you.
Use of cellphone in the class :
Some people have never heard that carrying cell phones into classes (or
churches, or theaters) is a breach of good manners. Cell phones ringing in
class is another faux pas. Perhaps you fe el you need an exception to this
rule. (Say, your child is at home with a fever; you told the babysitter to
call if it goes above 101°.) If so, tell us. Ask if it would be acceptable to
leave the phone on. Beyon d such emergencies, few good reasons require
bringing a cell -phone to class. Calls from your last hot date, your
stockbroker, agent, or bookie don't count as emergencies. Even "vibrate"
can be distracting when that student on the third row suddenly leaps u p in
response to the unseen buzz. And that si lent "vibrate" mode isn't so silent
when the cell phone is resting against materials in a backpack or against
the side of a metal furniture bar. Finally, human beings make mistakes.
You might intend to set it to vibrate, or you might even intend to turn it off
before you enter the classroom. In spite of those intentions, students
sometimes forget. Then the phone rings. Then class is disrupted. Then
etiquette is broken. It's far better not to bring the devices at all. If you munotes.in

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46 Academic communication and writing
46 normally carry a cell phone for r oadside emergencies, lock it in the
dashboard of your car at the beginning of the school day. That way, you
will still have it for the emergency, but you won't violate rules of etiquette.
A Rose by Any Other Nam e:
Many instructors treasure those academic t itles. For whatever reason,
many female instructors have a particularly hard time getting students to
use the right titles in reference to them. One of the small perks of
academic occupations is the right to use and insist upon respectful use of
our academ ic designation, so we do.
In a democratic society, differences in rank are easy to overlook especially
for students fresh out of high school who are in the habit of referring to all
their instructors as "Mrs. so -and-so," or "Coach so -and-so." That doesn't
prepare students for distinguishing between "Dr. so -and-so" and
"Professor so -and-so." Taking the time to learn the distinctions in
academic rank, and using the right title is not only respectful, it suggests a
degree of intelligence on any particular stude nt's part since she is familiar
with such conventions.
The academic world has a variety of ranks beyond the B.A., the M.F.A.,
the M.A., and the Ph.D. Your teacher may hold the rank of instructor,
lecturer, ass istant professor, associate professor, profess or, or professor
emeritus in addition to the general title of "doctor." The correct title is
"doctor" if your teacher has a Ph.D., or "professor" if your teacher has any
academic rank above the level of "instru ctor." Teachers who hold an MFA
degree or who have the rank of lecturer or instructor are politely referred
to as "Mr." or "Mrs." or "Ms." as they indicate in class, though it is
permissible to refer to them generically by the courtesy title of
"professor, " especially if you are uncertain about a teac her's rank. It's
better to compliment a person by using the more formal term than it is to
insult someone accidentally. The same holds true for nicknames like "doc"
or "prof." It is ill mannered to assume a lev el of familiarity that might
make another uncom fortable, and it leads to a chummy attitude that is off -
putting for some instructors.
Some teachers like the informality of being on a first -name basis with their
students. That informality, however, is not th e default setting for your
discourse. Assume yo u should use the formal title until the instructor
specifically requests that you use his or her first name.
Class Preparation :
We'll be taking the moral high ground here, thank you very much. For us,
one of t he most difficult aspects of teaching is when s tudents clearly have
not prepared for the class. First, it has a profound impact on our courses.
Haven't you sat through classes where every remark or question the
professor makes is greeted with stony silence ? Does it make you
uncomfortable? Does it make the class boring? For you? For all the other
students? Now put yourself in the teacher's shoes, and imagine asking
questions to which no one responds. If you asked a teacher a question and munotes.in

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47 Academic Communication Skills wanted an answer, wo uldn't you find it rude if she just ignored you? If the
teacher merely looked embarrassed and said, "I didn't do the reading for
today, so I can't answer that"?
As teachers, we know that not all classes will be perfect ones. We know
that some days we are " on" and doing a great job with the lecture, and
some days we are "off" and the class is stumbling. We don't always blame
bad classes on students. Even when we do realize that lack of preparation
on your part has sunk a particular class, we're experienced e nough to put a
class's reactions in perspective. But if you assume that teachers don't care,
you misjudge our commitment to your education and to the material we
teach. We want you to learn, and failure to read assignments does not help
learning. So, when your friend argues that we will explain the impo rtant
bits of the texts anyway if she doesn't have time to read them, we have to
wonder if she understands what we all (both teachers and students) are
trying to do in a class. We wonder if she considers what effect her
decision will have on the class in t erms of discussion and ideas.
Meeting with the Professor :
Have you told her you can't make her office hours? Have you tried to set
up a time that's agreeable to both of you? You're right; most of us do more
work than our office hours indicate, but often o ur work involves research
in the library, photocopying materials, having discussions with colleagues,
attending meetings, and so on. We post office hours so you will be
guaranteed a time to find us when we ar en't wandering elsewhere on
campus on various er rands.
We might have to cancel office hours if we are called to a conference with
the department head, a faculty convocation, or for other legitimate reasons
(we usually post a notice on the door to indicate what's keeping us
elsewhere, where we are so you can find us, or when we will return). If
you come by during office hours, and we aren't in, leave a message saying
that you were there and that you will return at a certain time, or that you
will phone us, o r e-mail us, or see us in class. None of us make s a habit of
skipping our office hours. Even if we weren't motivated by the hope that
an actual student will come in to chat, we would be motivated by our
department chair's rebuke if we abandoned our office regularly!
That point being noted, remember that the college has two types of
teaching schedules: Monday/Wednesday/Friday and Tuesday/Thursday.
Teachers with long commutes are often only assigned to teach on one or
the other. We may be off campus on those days when we don't teach. It is
a bit unfair to blame us for not being in our offices on days when we don't
teach or have posted office hours. It would be like us blaming you for not
being at school when you are on vacation. If you really can't find us
outside of class, corner us in class and pin us dow n for a meeting time.
You know we'll be there.

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48 Academic communication and writing
48 Academic Advising :
There are two most basic complaints about the etiquette of academic
advising (1) students who do not show up for appointments and (2)
studen ts who are not prepared for advising sessions.
The first point would be self -explanatory. We are annoyed when students
make appointments and then don't show up. It is good manners to call and
let us know that you are not going to make it. That prevents us from sitting
around for a half -hour waiting for you. It also opens a scheduling slot
where we can fit in other students if we know you can't make the meeting.
If you are unable to cancel in advance, at least have the good grace to send
us a brief personal or written apology and pretend to be sheepish ab out the
offense. (The key word is an apology --not an excuse justifying the
cancellation.) We do care if you keep appointments. Don't you?
The second complaint is more serious. While we are happy to say that
most of you come in with well - planned schedules, knowing exactly what
you need to take to graduate, and simply wish to double -check it with us
and get our signatures, we are still surprised at the number of you who are
completely unprepared for meeting wit h an advisor. Too many students, in
our opinion, are unaware of the college requirements. We are always a bit
startled by this because you (or your parents, or some scholarship
committee) spent considerable funding for this education.
The college requires a good deal of clerking, i.e., filling out form s and
paperwork. Advising students has more than its share of this onerous
burden. It is the student's responsibility to make sure that the forms are
completed, to verify that transfer courses meet college re quirements, to
check off those Gen Ed requiremen ts, to choose a language to gain
competence in, and to see that all grades are listed correctly in the college
records. In other words, you must do a large chunk of academic planning
on your own. We are here to answer questions, to give advice, to offer
alternatives, to smooth the way, to open doors, to negotiate with the
administration, or to let you vent when events run away. But advisors are
not your clerks, your servants, or your guarantee that you will gr aduate. It
would be foolish to behave as if we w ere.
Academic Honesty :
Cheating and plagiarism equal stealing. You absolutely need to understand
that. What's wrong with stealing in an academic setting? To begin, let us
suggest that there is a kind of impli cit contract in a teacher/student
relationship. The instructor's side of the contract reads: "When you enrol
in this course, I promise to teach you the following things: [the teacher
inserts a list of facts, ideas, or skills appropriate to that particular class
here]." The student's side of the contract reads: "When I enrol in this
course, I promise to complete all of the required work, to read all the
assigned materials, to attend all the classes, to participate in class [and so
on]." Both sides assume tha t what information you get in the course will
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49 Academic Communication Skills else, and the student's work will be the student's own or it will be
identified as someone else's.
Cheating on a test or plagiarizing in an essay breaks this agreement. The
teacher has agreed to look at your work, to evaluate your ideas.
Certain questions and comments arise time and again when we discuss
plagiarism:
 "I understand I have to quote something an author said, but do I have
to insert citation for an idea?"
 "I found this on th e Internet. Do I have to quote it?"
 "I read a lot of books for this paper. I can't remember exactly where I
found this idea."
 "some makes quote everything and add a Works Cited page but some
aren't as concern ed about a Works Cited page if the homework is
written in response to a single essay without secondary sources."
Here's the quick response: keep track of your sources and give proper
citation for direct quotations, putting those direct quotations in quotat ion
marks or indented block format if the quotat ion is four or more lines long.
If you quote somebody who is quoting somebody else, add a note
explaining that the material is an indirect quotation. If you borrow
somebody else's ideas, summarize somebody el se's argument, or
paraphrase an idea by stating it differently than the author did, you don't
need quotation marks or block quotations, but you do have to include a
citation in parentheses clearly showing where the material came from, and
you do need a Wor ks Cited page. At all times, the reader should b e able to
see what ideas are yours and what ideas are someone else's. For the long
answer, read the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, 7th
edition, or review Writing at Carson -Newman. You know you h ave done
an adequate job of citing something if a stranger could pick up your paper,
read the citation and the Works Cited page, and go the library or website
and immediately find the exact quotation or citation, flipping to the exact
book or journal and t he exact page number. If a stranger couldn't do that,
you are missing information you need to provide.
c) Academic Etiquettes - social media :
Social media etiquette refers to the guidelines that companies and
individuals use to preserve their reputation onl ine. As social media
channels have evolved to be come one of the primary ways people
communicate in the modern world on a daily basis, typical social rules are
finding their way into digital environments. Just as social etiquette dictates
how people behave around others in the real world, social media et iquette
revolves around online guidelines to follow.

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50 The basics of social media etiquette :
 The demands of social media etiquette differ from one platform to the
next. For example, reposting someone’s conten t on Instagram requires
much more care than retw eeting someone on Twitter.
 On the flip side, there are some basic dos and don’ts that essentially
apply to all platforms:
 Don’t be overly promotional. Try not to message all your customers
asking them to buy your products and avoid sharing constant
adverti sements on your page. Make your social profiles a blend of
promotional and valuable content.
 Avoid over -automation. While scheduling your posts in advance and
automating analytics is helpful, don’t automate e verything. Some
things still need a human touch.
 Handle your hashtags carefully. Avoid using too many hashtags at
once. Even on Instagram, where you can use 30 hashtags in a single
caption, it’s important not to overdo it.
 Don’t bad -mouth your competition. Don’t be petty. Saying negative
things about yo ur competitors online will harm your reputation more
than it hurts theirs.
Why is social media etiquette important?
 Organizations can’t just delete messages that generate poor reactions
anymore. A single mist ake can create big problems.
 Social media etique tte is often baked into the rules of a social media
policy for modern brands. This policy usually shares a complete code
of conduct for anyone who interacts with a social channel:
 Protect against legal and se curity issues. If you exist in an industry
with stringent privacy and compliance laws, your system will keep
you on the right side of the regulations.
 Empower staff. When your employees know how to share content
safely online, they can represent and advoca te for your organization,
without harming your r eputation.
 Defend your brand. Social etiquette ensures that everyone who
interacts with your brand on social media will see a respectable,
professional business.
Social Me dia Guidelines When Posting As a n Ind ividual :
 U-M uses social media to supplement tr aditional press and marketing
efforts. Employees are encouraged to share university news and
events, which are a matter of public record, with their family and
friends. Linking straight to the information sou rce is an effective way munotes.in

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51 Academic Communication Skills to help promote the miss ion of the University and build community.
When you might be perceived online as an agent/expert of U -M, you
need to make sure it is clear to the audience that you are not
representing the position of U -M or U-M policy. While the guidelines
below apply onl y to those instances where there is the potential for
confusion about your role as a U -M agent/expert versus personal
opinion, they are good to keep in mind for all social media
interactions. When posting to a social media site you should:
 Be Authentic Be honest about your identity. In personal posts, you
may identify yourself as a U -M faculty or staff member. However,
please be clear that you are sharing your personal views and are not
speaking as a formal r epresentative of U -M. If you identify yourself
as a member of the U -M community, ensure your profile and related
content are consistent with how you wish to present yourself to
colleagues.
 Use a Disclaimer If you publish content to any website outside of U -
M and it has something to do with the work you do or subjects
associated with U -M, use a disclaimer such as this: “The postings on
this site are my own and do not represent U -M’s positions, strategies
or opinions.”
 Don’t Use the U -M Logo or Make Endorsem ents Do not use the U -M
block M, wordmark, athle tic logo or any other U -M marks or images
on your personal online sites. Do not use U -M’s name to promote or
endorse any product, cause or political party or candidate.
 Take the High Ground If you identify y our affiliation with U -M in
your comments, reade rs may associate you with the university, even
with the disclaimer that your views are your own. Remember that
you’re most likely to build a high -quality following if you discuss
ideas and situations civilly. Don’t pick fights online.
 Don’t Use Pseudonyms Never pretend to be someone else. Tracking
tools enable supposedly anonymous posts to be traced back to their
authors.
 Protect Your Identity While you should be honest about yourself,
don’t provide personal information that scam artists or identity thiev es
could use. Don’t list your home address or telephone number. It is a
good idea to create a separate e -mail address that is used only with
social media sites.
 Does it Pass the Publicity Test If the content of your message would
not be acceptable for fac e-toface conversation, over the telephone, or
in another medium, it will not be acceptable for a social networking
site. Ask yourself, would I want to see this published in the newspaper
or posted on a billbo ard tomorrow or ten years from now?
 Respect You r Audience Don’t use ethnic slurs, personal insults,
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52 Academic communication and writing
52 U-M’s community. You should also show proper consideration for
others’ privacy and for topics that may be considered sensitive such as
politics and religion.
 Monitor Comments Most people who maintain social media sites
welcome comments it builds credibility and community. However,
you may be able to set your site so that you can review and approve
comments before they appear. This allows you to respond in a timely
way to comments. It also allows you to delete spam comments and to
block any individuals who repeatedly post offensive or frivolous
comments.
2.6 LET US SUM UP Listening is most important human skill in all the professional an d
personal life. To be a competent listener require special quality and it can
be developed through efforts . According to the cognitive components
listening is a complex process. Affective model recommended h ow to be a
good listener, that include recognise b iases and learning to work within
one's own and others attitude and values. Behavioural components talk
about listener's motivation and willingness to listen in particular ways.
Then we learn about normal r eading and academic reading, how it is
shaped by text, readers and background . Academic ethics talks about the
ethics which have to take care in the classroom by teachers and students.
Academic etiquettes in general classroom which should be followed by
teacher and students. Social media etiquettes talks abo ut the guideline that
have to take care of various social media.
2.7 UNIT END QUESTIONS 1. Explain the ethics of academic communication?
2. Which are the various values guiding the academic communicatio n?
3. Discuss the general Etiquettes followed by teache rs and students in
academic communication?
4. Explain the basic social media academic communication etiquettes?
5. Why is social media etiquettes are important?
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53 Academic Communication Skills  Argyle,M.,&Cook,M.(1976).Gazeandmutualgaze.London:Cambridge.
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tion,Cognition,andPersonality,30,301 –339.doi:10.2190/IC.30.3.f.
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 Bain, K. (2004).What the best college teachers do. Cambridge, MA:
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 Biggs, J. (1999). What the student does: Teaching for enhanced
learning. Higher Education Research & Development, 1 8(1), 57 –75.
 Bowden, J., &Marton, F. (2000).The univers ity of learning. London:
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 Carlino, F. (1999). Evaluación educacional: Historia, problemas.
BuenosAires: Aique.
 Erickson, B. L., Peters, C. B., &Strommer, D. W. (2006).Teaching
first-yearcolle ge students. San Francisco, CA: Jossey -Bass. munotes.in

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54  Forsaith, D. (2001).Introducing assessment -based learning to a
commerce topic flinders. University, Research Papers
Series.Available online at:
 http://www.flinders.edu.au/socsci/index.cfm?6 C53293F -CB74 -C9FB -
9FBE - CB0AD332A237.
 Gibbs, G. (1999). Using assessment strategically to change the way
students learn. In S. Brown, & A. Glasner (Eds.),Assessment Matters
in HigherEducation, Soci ety for Research into Higher Education and
OpenUniversity Press. Buckingham, UK: Herteis, E.
 Herteis, E. M. (2007). Content conundrumsPAIDEIA: Teaching
andLearni ng at Mount Allison University, 3(1), 2 -7.
 Hunt, R. A. (2004). Reading and writing for real: W hy it matters for
learning.Atlantic Universities’ Teachin g Showcase, 55, 137 -146.
 Knapper,C,(1995)Understanding student learning:Implications for
instructional practice. In A. Wright & A ssociates
(Eds.)TeachingImprovement Practices. Bolton, MA: Anker
Publishing.
 Marshall, P. (1974). How much, how often? College and Research
Libraries,35(6), 453 -456.
 Marton, F., &Saljo, R. (1976). On Qualitative Differences in Learning
I andII –Outcome and Process. British Journal of Educational
Psychology, 46,4 -11.
 Millis, B.J. (2008).Using classroom assessment techniques (CATs) to
promote
 Murphy, J. (1967). Law logic.Ethics, 77(3), 193 -201.Novak, J.
&Gowin, B. (1984).Learning how to learn. Cambridge,
MA:Cambridge University Press.
 Reynolds, G. (1995). Violence in America: Effective solutions.
Journal of
 Medical Association of Ga , 84, 253.
 Reynolds, G. (2001). Guns, privacy and revolution.Tenn. L. Rev., 68,
235.
 Reynolds, G. (n/d).Key objections to the moon agreement, available
online
athttp://www.nsschapters.org/hub/pdf/Moo nTreatyObjections.pdf.
 Wendling, B. (2008).Why is there a lways time for their Facebook but
not my textbook? Paper presented at the Oklahoma Higher Education
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55 Academic Communication Skills  https://www.natcom.org/sites/default/files/pages/1999_Pu blic_Statem
ents_A_Code_of_Professional_Ethics_for_%20the_ Communication_
Scholar_Teacher_November.pdf
 https://web.cn.edu/kwheeler/documents/Academic%20Etiquette.pdf
 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/306034923_Interrogating_s
ocial_media_netiquette_and_ online_safety_among_university_studen
ts_from_assorted_dis ciplines
 https://sproutsocial.com/glossary/social -media -etiquette/
 https://hr.umich.edu/sites/default/files/voices -social -media -
guidelines.pdf
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56 3
AVENUES OF ACADEMIC
COMMUNICATION
Unit Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 An Overview
3.3 Internal communication - Classroom communication & within the
organization
3.4 External communication - Seminar, conferences and Workshop
3.5 Commun icating with Academic community - Publishers for
publication of articles and research paper
3.6 Let Us Sum Up
3.7 Unit End Questions
3.8 References
3.0 OBJECTIVES After going through this unit, you will be able to :
 Know the meaning and concept of interna l and external
communication
 Understand the different ways to communicate in the classroom and
within the organization.
 Understand the importance of External communication
 Explain the importance of communicating with academic community
3.1 INTRODUCTION Hum ans are the only species on this planet that have developed a written
system of communication, and somehow still fail to get our point across.
The most probable reason is that the thoughts are not put forward properly
as the language used may not mean what the writer trying to convey is not
properly understood by the reader.
An avenue of academic communication plays a crucial role in getting
across the right information to the academicians. There are innumerable
ways the academicians communicate to the res earchers, readers,
stakeholders and the society at large. They can be in different forms either
through written, verbal. Internal and external communications are some of
the ways academicians can convey their thoughts feelings and ideas to the
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57 Avenues of Academic Communication researches, making them aware of different avenues of research, updating
the existing information.
3.2 AN OVERVIEW Communication plays a pivotal role in our day to life. In the academic
front, communicat ion with others, colleagues, administrative staff,
researchers, publishers are very important. It is therefore important to
know the concept of internal and external communication, the importance
of communicating in the classroom and within the organisatio n. The need
for communicating with the academic community helps academicians to
scale the ladder of success as it creates awareness of the new trends in the
area of academic community.
3.3 INTERNAL COMMUNICATION - CLASSROOM COMMUNICATION & WITHIN THE ORGANI ZATION Internal communication is the transmission of information within an
organization. Internal communication is a lifeline of a business. It occurs
between an employer and an employee. It is communication among
employees. Internal communication is the s haring of the information,
knowledge, ideas, and beliefs between the members of the company.
Internal communication can be formal or informal. It depends upon the
persons to which we are communicating. We use informal or not so formal
language with our col leagues. The language used while communicating
the head of the company is formal.
Effective classroom communication and within the organ isation must
have the following:
 Open and clear reason for communication: widens the horizons
and scope of the content b eing discussed. For effective classroom
communication, the teacher must permit students to take an active
role in the classroom. Two way communications is paramount
wherein the students are involved, interactive. This helps in making
the teaching learning activity more interesting and there is clarity in
what is being communicated in the classroom.
Similarly within the organisation, taking the opinion of others in the
organisation, leads to clarity, expression of other views and decisions can
be based on t he good of the organisation
 Understa nding the need of the students: in order that the
communication is effective, the needs of the students have to be borne
in mind. If the teacher teaches in the class without coming down to
the level of the students then the students are unable to comprehend
what the teacher is trying to say and thus the teaching becomes
ineffective. For eg.for the lower standards, the teacher must use
various learning resources, in the form of storyboards, puppets, charts.
Voice modulatio n plays an important role in effective classroom
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58 Academic communication and writing
58 In an organisation, for effective communication, the needs of the
employers has to be kept in mind so that they can be heard out and their
problems be sorted out.
 Consistent and regular commu nication: is extremely important
both in the classroom as well as within the organisation. Consistent
and regular communication with the students and with the individuals
within the organisation helps the teachers and the principal to become
aware of the n eeds of the students and the employee and vice versa.
Lack of communication leads to misinterpretation, misunderstanding
and also hinders the growth of the organisation.
 Clear, jargon -free language: While communicating, it is very
important that the writer is very precise what is to be communicated
with the reader. Hence the language should be very clear and precise.
The language must be simple. There so not be any grammatical errors
and it should not be too lengthy. The language must be therefore brief,
to the point and clear. Jargon free language is the essence of effective
communication.
 Two -way communication: Communication is not possible if it is
one way. The process of communication is completed when the
sender sends the message via the medium to the receiver and the
receiver reads the message and reacts to the message via the medium.
The two way communication helps in clarifying the doubts if any and
the message conveyed to the reader is properly understood and acted
upon.
 Good use of vocabulary: Voca bulary plays an important role in
effective communication. At times, the reader uses synonyms and that
may not be relevant to that particular context. While using
vocabulary, the writer needs to be sure of the meaning of the work
being used with reference to the context. Good vocabulary is a must
for every writer so that it makes the reader read it interesting. All
writers must develop their vocabulary so that the process of
communication is not hinders. The message that is to put across is
properly conveye d to the students and the people within the
organisation.
Importance of Internal Communication:
Internal commun ication plays a vital role in a number of ways.
a. It increases productivity
b. Effective and responsive customer service
c. Easy attainment of g oal
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59 Avenues of Academic Communication f. Enable fast decision making
g. Helps in motivating the employees
 It increases productivity: One of the factors that internal
communication helps is that it enhances productiv ity. In order that the
institution grows it is necessary that the internal communication is
properly disseminated. If the teacher communicates to the students
say for e.g about the 10th standard examination time table, there is
definitely clarity in the mi nds of the students and they can plan before
hand how they are going to go about with the studies in advance. This
will increase the scores of their examination and as a result the
institution will be applauded and recognised.
 Effective and responsive cust omer service: Internal communication
needs to be effective and responsive. Customer service plays an
important role both in the organisation and in the classroom. Students
are the ones who will receive the communication in the classroom and
therefore it is important that the communication must be effective
 Easy attainment of goal: Internal communication helps in the
attainment of goals. If communicated properly then the goals of the
institution are enhanced, since the sender and the receiver are on the
same page. They both strive hard towards the achievement of the
goal.
 Reduce day -to-day conflict between team members: The day to
day conflicts between the members of the teams are automatically
reduced if they are communicated on a one to one basis. This help s in
clarifying the doubts instantly and thus the help of develop
cohesiveness among members of the team.
 Enable fast response: Internal communication helps to respond to
the situation, queries almost instantly since the students are in the
classroom and t he teacher can clarify the doubts of the students
immediately. The members of the organisation also can double check
with the authorities if there is any doubt or discrepancies and will be
able to respond as fast as possible.
 Enable fast decision making: Decision making is at a much quicker
space through internal communication. This is possible because the
doubts can be clarified instantly. Brainstorming can be put on the spot
and issues sorted out.
 Helps in motivating the employees: Free and open communica tion
among employees in the organisation and with the student teachers
fosters motivation among the students and it encourages them to work
better within the organisation. Students are also encouraged and
motivated to do better as they have clarity.
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60 Academic communication and writing
60 Comm on Internal Communication :

3.4 EXTERNAL COMMUNICATION - SEMINAR, CONFERENCES AND WORKSHOP External communication is the transmission of information between two
organizations. It also occurs between a business and another person in the
exterior to the comp any.These persons can be clients, dealers, customers,
government officials or authorities etc. A customer’s feedback is also
external communication. An organization invests a lot of time and money
to improve their image through external communication. Exte rnal
communication in the academic arena can be done through seminar,
conferences and workshop. This is very important to create awareness in
the teaching fraternity about the recent trends, development, researches
and innovation that are growing in the te aching fraternity.
Effective External Communication – Seminar, conferences and Workshop
One can easily find the importance of external communication. Some of
them are
 Clear ideas, thoughts, and statement or the reason for
communication: Seminar, conference s and Workshops are some of
the examples of external communication. Presentation done by
academicians, research scholars can get their thoughts clear to the
audience. The doubts can be clarified at these programmes.
 It must be two -way communication: Semina rs, conferences and
workshop need to have two way communications so that the sender
who is conveying the message to the audience can be understood and
the receiver through communication can find out the message was
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61 Avenues of Academic Communication  Clear, error -free, fo rmal, jargon -free, and easy language:
Communication whether it is external or internal must be clears. This
helps in getting the message with precision. This helps in error free
message. There will be precision in the message that is conveyed.
 Understandin g the need of the audience: is a part of effective
communication. It will help in writing the message. If the message to
be sent is to be effectively, it must be to the level of the audience.
Therefore, the age level of the students must be kept in mind.
 Proper choice of words for communication: Language plays a
crucial role in communication. There the language used in the process
of communication must be taking care of. For the meaning not to be
distorted, the choice of words must be appropriate.
Importanc e of External Communication :

 It presents a favourable image of an organization: External
communication is always favourable wherein individuals can present
their ideas, thought thoroughly. Content and expression can be sorted
out instantly. There are few er changes of lack of clarity of ideas.
 It provides information about products and services to customers:
External communication provides first hand information about the
products and services to customers. In academic communication ,
information about ne w researches, new methodology of teaching, new
trends of teaching, innovation is provided to the teaching fraternity.
 Advertise the organization: External communication helps in
advertisement of the organisation. Individuals can brand their
organisation an d can also bring laurels to the organisation.
 Promote an organization: It is necessary to promote the organisation
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62 Academic communication and writing
62 promoting the organisation and bringing it to greater heights and
achieving greater laurels.
 Reduces the risks of mistakes : External communication helps in
reducing the risk of mistakes since communication can be clarified
instantly and mistakes and misinterpretation can be sorted out at one
sitting.
Common External Communication : Some of the examples of external
communication are as follows

Representation of Internal and external communication
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63 Avenues of Academic Communication 3.5 COMMUNICATING WITH ACADEMIC COMMUNITY - PUBLISHER FOR PUBLICATION OF
ARTICLES AND RESEARCH PAPER Scholarly publishing invokes vario us positions and passions. For example,
authors may spend hours struggling with diverse article submission
systems, often converting document formatting between a multitude of
journal and conference styles, and sometimes spend months waiting for
peer revie w results. Scholarly publishing is an integral part of education
and research activities. The use of scholarly literature is essential for the
advancement of education and research. Traditional publishing models do
not favour the social purposes of knowle dge sharing by the academic and
research community. Authors contributethe articles free, and
publisherslock them behind paywalls (Logan, 2017). Copyright creates
monopolisation in the publishing industry and discourages the sharing
culture among the user c ommunity. Works resulting from public -funded
education and research should open up for free access tofulfil the social
objectives. The alternative publishing choices and practices opened up
possibilities for authors, academic and research institutions to control the
publishing processes and release public ations for free access (Nosek&
Bar-Anan, 2012). Open Access initiative gained popularity with the
spread of the Internet and the World Wide Web. Open Access literature is
“digital, online, free of charg e, and free of most copyright and licensing
restrictions” (Suber, 2008).
Scholarly and Research Communication is a peer -reviewed,
interdisciplinary, Open Access online journal that publishes original
contributions to the understanding of production, dissem ination, and usage
of knowledge. It emphasizes the dynamics of representation and changing
organizational elements, including technologically mediated workflows,
ownership, and legal structures.
Scholarly and research communication is the need of the hour. It enables
the research scholar to communicate their research to the community and
world at large. It helps in enabling other researchers to know what
researches have been done and paves way of what researches can be
further conducted. It thus give other researchers clue and guidelines for
new researchews.
3.6 LET US SUM UP Communication be it internal or external plays a very important role in
life be it in the classroom or within the organization. Communication can
be internal or external. Both types o f communication are crucial for the
effectiveness and growth of any institution.
In internal communication classroom communication and communication
within the organization plays an important role so that the progress of the
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64 Academic communication and writing
64 Exter nal communication in the form of seminar, conferences and
workshop creates an awareness of the work be done by the academic
community. Dissemination of their work through seminars, conferences
and workshops provides rich content to the teaching fraternity and to
research scholars. Communication on these platforms helps to get an idea
for further researches. It also helps to meet researchers from various states
and countries so that the communication can be enriched on academic
arena. Community with academic community helps the publisher to put all
researches under one umbrella and provides guideline to research scholars
3.7 UNIT END QUESTIONS 1) Explain the meaning of communication. Elucidate its type.
2) Elaborate the need for internal communication with in the classroom
and within the organisation.
3) Explain how one can communicate externally? .
4) Elucidate the need for communicating within the academic
community?
3.8 REF ERENCES  Adie, E. (2009), “Commenting on scientific articles (PLoS edition)”,
Nasc ent, available at:
http://blogs.nature.com/nascent/2009/02/commenting_on_scientific_a
rtic.html (accessed 21 September 2017
 Becher, T. and Trowler, P. (2001), Academic Tribes and Territories:
Intellectual Enquiry and the Culture of Disciplines, Open Univers ity
Press, Buckingham.
Webliography :
 https://www.lifeofaprofessor.com/post/academic -communication -
why-is-it-so-important -and-so-difficult
 https://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/213997
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scholarly_communication
 https://osc.cam. ac.uk/about -scholarly -communication/publishing -
options -research -scholarly -communication
 https://sciendo.com/news/how -academic -publishers -add-value -to-
scholarly-communications
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65 MODULE II
4
ACADEMIC WRITING AND WRITING
STYLE
Unit Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 An Overview
4.3 Academic Writing - Concept& Styles (Narrative, Descriptive and
Persuasive Writing)
4.4 Scholar papers - Theme -based paper, research papers and review
papers
4.5 Organising academic writing - Writing of Abstract, Keyword and
Executive
Summary
4.6 Let Us Sum Up
4.7 Unit End Questions
4.8 References
4.0 OBJECTIVES After going through this unit, you will be able to
 Know the meaning of academic wr iting and writing style
 Understand the concept and styles of academic writing.
 Understand the concept of writing scholar papers.
 Understand how to organize academic writing
4.1 INTRODUCTION A formal style of writing used for any educational endeavour is te rmed as
academic writing. Eg. Content written in journal articles, books on
academic topics, research papers and dissertation. Academic writing
should therefore be clear, concise, focused , structured and backed up with
evidence. The purpose is to aid to t he reader’s understanding. It has a
formal tone and style; however, it does not demand any long sentences
and complicated vocabulary. It follows the same writing process as other
types of text, but here it with specific conventions in terms of content,
structure and style
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66 4.2 AN OVERVIEW Academic writing aims to convey information in an impartial way.
Arguments is based on evidence and not the author’s preconception. All
claims should therefore be supported with evidence that is relevant and not
just asse rted. Academic writing is therefore formal and unbiased.
Biasedness must be avoided. It is imperative to represent the work of the
other researcher and one’s own result accurately and with fairness.
Language should in academic writing should be formal. The author has to
avoid informal and slang language.
Academic writing must be clear and precise to ensure that the reader is
able to comprehend what you mean. Therefore, the author has to be
specific and as far as possible avoid vague language. Jargon and sp ecialist
language is common and often necessary in academic writing.
Jargon should be used to make your writing more concise and accurate
and to avoid complication. The best way to familiarize oneself with the
jargon used in that field is to read papers wr itten by other researchers and
pay attention to the language in which they have written. A specialist term
should be used when the reader is familiar with the term or commonly
used by other researchers in that field.
Academic writing should be focused and well structured and not just a
collection of ideas about a topic. It should start with a relevant research
question or thesis statement and use it to develop a focused argument.
Attention should be paid to the structure at three levels, structure of the
whole text, paragraph and sentence structure. It should also be well
sourced to support its claims. It can use different sources in the form of
pictures, photographs, written sources of other academics, academic
writing etc.
It also must be correct and consi stent in the rules of grammar, punctuation
and citation.
4.3 ACADEMIC WRITING - CONCEPT & STYLES (NARRATIVE, DESCRIPTIVE AND PERSUASIVE Academic Writing Is…. Academic Writing Is Not….. Formal And Unbiased Personal Clear And Precise Long Winded Focused And Well Structured Emotive And Subjective Language Well Sourced Correct And Consistent
Concept of Academic Writing:
Academic writing is clear, concise, focussed, structured and backed up by
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67 Academic Writing and Writing Style tone and style, but it is not complex and does not require the use of long
sentences and complicated vocabulary.
Styles of Academic Writing:
The four main kinds of academic writing are descriptive, persuasive,
analytical, and critical. Ea ch of these types of writing has specific
language features and purposes.
 Descriptive style: It is one of the most common ones, and it requires
a person to describe an event, a specific phenomenon, or a theory. In
more creative pieces, it requires a person to describe something more
vividly, but such assignment types are rare in formal settings. Usually,
this writing style is easy to master: you just explain a specific issue
from scratch.
The kinds of instructions for a purely descriptive assignment includ e:
'identify', 'report', 'record', 'summarise' and 'define'.
 Persuasive style: This one is more complicated. It requires a person
to build an argument that would help to persuade the audience of their
idea. Let’s imagine that you’re an expert in the new to ys for animals,
and you have to persuade the owners that the new toys are more
useful for them. To do so, you would draft a persuasive text. Such
works usually require a lot of additional research to help you create
your own argumentation and show your log ical (and sometimes
ethical) appeals to the readers.
The kinds of instructions for a persuasive assignment include: 'argue',
'evaluate', 'discuss', and 'take a position'.
To help reach the point of view on the facts or ideas:
 read some other researchers' p oints of view on the topic. Who do you
feel is the most convincing?
 look for patterns in the data or references. Where is the evidence
strongest?
 list several different interpretations. What are the real -life
implications of each one? Which ones are likely to be most useful or
beneficial? Which ones have some problems?
 discuss the facts and ideas with someone else. Do you agree with their
point of view?
To develop argument:
 list the different reasons for your point of view
 think about the different types an d sources of evidence which you can
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68  consider different ways that your point of view is similar to, and
different from, the points of view of other researchers
 look for various ways to break your point of view into parts. F or
example, cost effectiveness, environmental sustainability, scope of
real-world application.
To present argument, make sure:
 the text develops a coherent argument where all the individual claims
work together to support your overall point of view
 reasoni ng for each claim is clear to the reader
 assumptions are valid
 have evidence for every claim you make
 use evidence that is convincing and directly relevant.
 Analytical style : It requires writers to write an essay that studies
different (often two) ideas an d examines whether they are logical and
reasonable. In analytical writing, the written text offers a statement on
the similarities and differences of the concepts. It can be used if a
person wants to compare two companies and explain how they
worked with d ifferent groups. It can also be used to show a more in -
depth analysis with more objectivity and search for facts, which
makes it more complicated than the descriptive style.
The kinds of instructions for an analytical assignment include: 'analyse',
'compa re', 'contrast', 'relate', and 'examine'.
To make writing more analytical:
 spend plenty of time planning. Brainstorm the facts and ideas, and try
different ways of grouping them, according to patterns, parts,
similarities and differences. One could use col our-coding, flow charts,
tree diagrams or tables.
 create a name for the relationships and categories found. For example,
advantages and disadvantages.
 Use critical writing in the literature review to show where there is a
gap or opportunity in the existing research
 the methods section will be mostly descriptive to summarise the
methods used to collect and analyse information
 the results section will be mostly descriptive and analytical as one
report on the data you collected
 the discussion section is more a nalytical, as one relate your findings
back to the research questions, and also persuasive, as you propose
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69 Academic Writing and Writing Style 4.4 SCHOLAR PAPERS - THEME -BASED PAPER, RESEARCH PAPERS AND REVIEW PAPERS A scholarly article generally consists of the background of a research
topic, its study design and methodology, the results of the study, and then
its conclusion. The scholarly articles or publications used to inform the
research are listed at the end of the article as its references or works cited.
Theme -based paper:
Theme is an element of literature and writing in which the moral of the
story is conveyed. Theme can be delivered to the reader as an overall
concept or as a direct statement as to what the author is trying to express.
A theme is generally not expressed by the author literally but rather, theme
is expressed in one of the following ways:
 Throughout the actions of the characters
 The dialogue
 Setting of the work
Research Paper:
A research paper is piece of academic writing based on its author’s
original research work on a particular topic and the analysis and
interpretation of research findings. In other words, a research paper is an
expanded essay that presents your own interpretation or evaluation or
argument. When you write an ess ay, you use everything that you
personally know and have thought about a subject. When you write a
research paper you build upon what you know about the subject and make
a deliberate attempt to find out what experts know. A research paper
involves surveyin g a field of knowledge in order to find the best possible
information in that field. And that survey can be orderly and focused, if
you know how to approach it. Don't worry --you won't get lost in a sea of
sources. To achieve supreme excellence in anything we do, we need more
than just the knowledge. Like a cricket player aiming for world cup, we
must have a positive attitude and believe that we have the ability to
achieve it. That will be the real start for writing A1 research paper.
Steps to write a Resear ch Paper :
If you are writing research paper for the first time, it may seem
frightening, but with good organization and focus of mind, you can make
the process easier on yourself. Writing a research paper broadly it involves
four main stages: choosing a t opic, researching your topic, making an
outline, and doing the actual writing. The paper won't write itself, but by
planning and preparing well, the writing practically falls into place.
Essentially a narrower research paper consists of Ten major sections. The
number of pages may vary depending upon the topic of research work but
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70 These are:
1. Abstract
2. Introduction
3. Review of Literature
4. Objectives
5. Methodology and database used
6. Research Anal ysis or Research Discussion
7. Results or Finding
8. Recommendations/suggestions
9. Conclusions
10. References/Citations
A research paper is based on original research. The kind of research may
vary depending on your field or the topic (experiments , survey, interview,
questionnaire, etc.), but authors need to collect and analyze raw data and
conduct an original study. The research paper will be based on the analysis
and interpretation of this data.
Review papers:
A review article or review paper is based on other published articles. It
does not report original research. Review articles generally summarize the
existing literature on a topic in an attempt to explain the current state of
understanding on the topic. Review articles can be of three kinds :
 A narrative review explains the existing knowledge on a topic based
on all the published research available on the topic.
 A systematic review searches for the answer to a particular question
in the existing scientific literature on a topic.
 A meta -analys is compares and combines the findings of previously
published studies, usually to assess the effectiveness of an
intervention or mode of treatment.
Review papers form valuable scientific literature as they summarize the
findings of existing literature. So, readers can form an idea about the
existing knowledge on a topic without having to read all the published
works in the field. Well -written review articles are popular, particularly in
the field of medicine and healthcare. Most reputed journals publish rev iew
articles. However, you should check the website of the journal you wish to
get published in to see if they accept such articles. If published in a good
peer-reviewed journal, review articles often have a high impact and
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71 Academic Writing and Writing Style If you are new to writing research papers, I would recommend taking this
course designed exclusively for early career researchers: An in -depth
academic publishing course for young researchers.
4.5 ORGANIZING ACADEMIC WRITING - WRITING OF ABSTRACT, KEYWORD AND E XECUTIVE
SUMMARY Writing an Abstract:
Abstracts in published papers – and in reports or other manuscripts for
your studies – have the following purpose: help potential readers decide
quickly which articles are relevant to their needs, and worth looking at in
more detail. Abstracts are now part of data bases which allow researchers
to search and scan scientific literature. Some readers might only be
interested in following up research done in their field without having to
read the details. Abstracts ‘compet e for attention in on -line databases’
(Glasman -Deal, 2010, p.197).
Purpose of abstracts: concise overview of
 Why you did the work;
 What you did and how you did it; and
 The main results and conclusions.
Overall structure :
Since abstracts are mostly parts of scientific papers or reports they follow
this model: Background 1-2 introductory sentences place the work in context. Problem/ Purpose Brief description of the problem of the investigation and on the objectives of the work. Method/materials Outline of the methodology and tools used, how the study was undertaken. Results / implications / applications 1-2 sentences stating the most important results and conclusions and/or recommendations and/or applications.
Process for writing an abstract :
 abstracts ar e best written last or at least after a substantive part of the
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72  start with key words for each section and then a first draft of your
abstract
 refine your first draft a few days later, consoli dating and reducing the
text until you feel you have described all essential elements using as
few words as possible
Key words :
Keywords are a tool to help indexers and search engines find relevant
papers. If database search engines can find your journal m anuscript,
readers will be able to find it too. This will increase the number of people
reading your manuscript, and likely lead to more citations.
However, to be effective, Keywords must be chosen carefully. They
should:
 Represent the content of your manu script
 Be specific to your field or sub -field
Examples:
Manuscript title: Direct observation of nonlinear optics in an isolated
carbon nanotube
Poor keywords: molecule, optics, lasers, energy lifetime
Better keywords: single -molecule interaction, Kerr effe ct, carbon
nanotubes, energy level structure
Manuscript title: Region -specific neuronal degeneration after okadaic
acid administration
Poor keywords: neuron, brain, OA (an abbreviation), regional -specific
neuronal degeneration, signalling.
Better keywords: neurodegenerative diseases; CA1 region, hippocampal;
okadaic acid; neurotoxins; MAP kinase signaling system; cell death
Manuscript title: Increases in levels of sediment transport at former
glacial -interglacial transitions
Poor keywords: climate change, e rosion, plant effects
Better keywords: quaternary climate change, soil erosion, bioturbation
Executive Summary: The executive summary is a brief version of the
report; it restates each section of the report in abbreviated form with
emphasis on findings, co nclusions, and recommendations. Executive
summaries are standalone documents. The reader must be fully informed.
An executive summary, sometimes known as a management summary, is a
short document or section of a document, usually produced for business
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73 Academic Writing and Writing Style reports, in such a way that readers can rapidly become acquainted with a
large body of material without having to read it all. It will usually contain
a brief statement of the problem or p roposal covered in the major
document(s), background information, concise analysis and main
conclusions.
An executive summary seeks to lead the reader to the significant points of
the report as the reader is a decision maker who will have the
responsibilit y of deciding on some issue(s) related to the report. The
executive summary must be written with this need in mind.
A typical executive summary will:
 be possibly 5 -10% or so of the length of the main report (this can be
10 pages for a report of 200 pages)
 be written in language appropriate for the target audience
 consist of short and concise paragraphs
 often have similar headings as the full report
 be written in the same order as the main report
 only include material present in the main report
 make recommen dations
 have a conclusion
 be able to be read separately from the main report
 exclude references
 mostly exclude tables/ figures (maybe 1 or 2 are ok)
Process for writing an executive summary :
 think about your audience (knowledge, interest)
 use the structure above as an outline or follow the structure of your
document
 identify key sentences in the report
 extract them
 edit them for readability
4.6 LET US SUM UP Academic writing must clear, concise, focussed, structured and backed up
with evidence. It helps the reader’s understanding. It has a formal tone and
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74 of the audience. Long sentences creates confusion in the minds of the
reader. Narrative, Descriptive and Persuasive writing plays a n important
role in academic writing. Scholarly papers be it theme based, research and
review papers must be encourage by the academicians so that their topics
and findings are further disseminated. Organisation of academic writing
and with precision will help to get across the communication to the reader.
4.7 UNIT AND EXERCISE Write in brief:
1) Explain the concept of academic writing.
2) Explain the different styles of academic writing:
3) Explain the different types of scholar papers. State their impor tance.
4) Explain how organisation of an academic writing.
4.8 REFERENCES  Kamraju, M, and Siva Prathaap. “HOW TO AVOID REJECTION OF
RESEARCH PAPER BYJOURNALS.” International Journal of
Research and Analytical Reviews (IJRAR, 2019
 Kamraju, M, and M. Kamra ju. “Changing Pattern of Urban Growth in
Hyderabad City: A Study.” Jai Maa SaraswatiGyanadayani 3, no. 3
(2018): 483 –503.
 Kamraju, M, and Vani M. “M.KAMRAJU Et Al., SOCIO -
ECONOMIC CONDITIONS OFFARMERS: A CASE STUDY OF
WARANGAL DISTRICT.” KY Publications 5, no. 4 (2017):158 –63.
 Kamraju, M, M. Kamraju, and Vani M. “Village Information System
Using GIS: A Case Studyof Chilkur Village, Moinabad Mandal
Telangana.” Jai Maa SaraswatiGyandayani 3, no. 1(2017): 21 –31.
 Kamraju, M. “IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON
AGRICUL TURAL PRODUCTIVITY: ACASE STUDY OF
NALGONDA DISTRICT TELANGANA.” International Journal of
Research inManagement & Social Science 5, no. 3 (2017): 70 –76.
 Kombo, Donald Kisilu, and Delno LA Tromp. "Proposal and thesis
writing: Anintroduction." Nairobi: Pauli nes Publications Africa 5
(2006): 814 -30.
 Kothari, Chakravanti Rajagopalachari. Research methodology:
Methods and techniques. NewAge International, 2004.
 Kumar, Ranjit. Research methodology: A step -by-step guide for
beginners. Sage PublicationsLimited, 201 9. munotes.in

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75 Academic Writing and Writing Style  Mugenda, Olive M., and Abel G. Mugenda. Research methods:
Quantitative and qualitativeapproaches. Acts press, 1999.
 https://ebooks.hslu.ch/academicwriting/chapter/4 -1-abstract -
executive -summary/
*****

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76 5
UNDERSTANDING THE PROCESS OF
ACADEMIC WRITING
Unit Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Writing a Theme Paper – Criteria & Format
5.2 Writing a Research Paper – Criteria & Format
5.3 Writing a Research Journal Article and book –Criteria & Format
5.4 Let Us Sum Up
5.5 Unit End Questions
5.6 References
5.0 OBJECTIVES Academic Writing is central focus for any student, researcher or faculty.
Academic writing serves as a tool of dissemination of acquired knowledge
or specific study.
In this unit, learners will be able to :
1. Understand different types of Academic Writing.
2. Understand the criteria and format to be followed in different types of
Academic Writing.
3. Make informed decisions while writing their academic work.
5.1 WRITING A THEME PAPER – CRITERIA & FORMAT Academic writing primarily serves four major purposes. These are to
inform, to explain, to narrate, and to persuade. Academic writing is a
means of producing, codifying, transmitting, evaluating, renovating,
teaching, and learning knowledge and id eology in academic disciplines.
Academic writing is clear, concise, focused, structured and backed up by
evidence. Its purpose is to aid the reader’s understanding. It has a formal
tone and style, but it is not complex and does not require the use of long
sentences and complicated vocabulary. Each subject discipline will have
certain writing conventions, vocabulary and types of discourse that you
will become familiar with over the course of your degree. However, there
are some general characteristics of aca demic writing that are relevant
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77 Understanding the Process of Academic Writing Academic writing is:
• Planned and focused: answers the question and demonstrates an
understanding of the subject.
• Structured: is coherent, written in a logical order, and brings together
related point s and material.
• Evidenced: demonstrates knowledge of the subject area, supports
opinions and arguments with evidence, and is referenced accurately.
• Formal in tone and style: uses appropriate language and tenses, and
is clear, concise and balanced.
Bein g able to write in an academic style is essential to disciplinary
learning and critical for academic success. Writing a Theme paper is one
of the types of Academic writing that is generally done by students.
A theme is a major and sometimes recurring idea, subject or topic that
appears in a written work. A dominant theme usually reveals what the
work is really about and can be helpful in forming insights and analysis. A
theme can consist of one word, two words or more. For example, your
teacher might a sk yo u to explore the straightforward ideas of “anger” or
“selfishness” or more complex themes of “Personality” or “Positive
Thinking.” Either way, careful reading of the work is vital so that you can
marshal examples of where the theme was apparent.
Theme s in research papers might require a little digging, but they are
there. Sometimes they are easier to spot when several research papers on
the same subject are compared or contrasted, for this is when such subtext
emerges. For example, three research paper s on the subject of avid TV
viewing by teenagers might contain different themes, such as simpler
ideas including “passivity” or "grades" or a more complex theme, such as
“effects on familial relationships.”
Theme paper revolves around a particular theme. T heme paper is often
referred to as Thematic Essay. Hence selecting a theme apt for your
writing is crucial. The following CRITERIA needs to be followed for
writing a Theme Paper
Define ‘Theme’ in a Theme Paper :
The initial step in writing this type of ac ademi c paper is to have a
question, "What is a thematic essay?" answered. According to the
definition, it's a piece of writing based on a particular question or theme.
When working on this paper, a student is supposed to reveal and develop
the central them e in a specific literature work using various literary
devices such as metaphor, personification, comparison, and other
techniques.
The thematic essay's primary purpose is to identify and disclose the main
subject discussed in work. A student needs to use evide nce, facts, and
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78 writer, you should relate various facts. Use credible sources; otherwise,
you may confuse your reader with wrong facts.
Choose a ‘Theme’ for Theme Paper :
The firs t step requires coming up with a good thematic essay topic. If you
have a theme assigned by your professor, consider yourself super lucky.
But for those students who don't have any topic to write about, our top
writers have prepared helpful tips and unique ideas to get you started.
Keep in mind these simple guidelines:
• Focus on social issues. Commonly, a thematic essay is associated with
social problems in different periods of human civilization.
• Refer to literature pieces. Use appropriate materials and references
suggested by the professor to come up with an unusual topic.
• Choose a compelling theme. Understand your potential audience and
define the most acceptable and strong idea which would engage an
ordinary reader.
• Find the angle. Consider the is sue's pros and cons, and find the
turning point, which will guide you in the right way.
Decide the Outline for Theme Paper
A thematic essay paper outline is supposed to lead a writer flawlessly
through the entire writing process and prevent from being stu ck. T he paper
should stick to the typical 5 -paragraph structure: an introductory
paragraph, 3 body paragraphs and a conclusion.
Don't think that writing an outline is just a waste of time. It is the
backbone of your paper. Having a detailed essay structure in front of you
allows creating a fabulous thematic work written in logical order.
The following FORMAT can be followed for writing Theme Paper :
1. Introduction :
To write a thematic essay introduction, you'll need to include four key
components:
• Intrigui ng be ginning
• Background information on topic
• Clear explanation of your primary subject
• Thesis statement
2. Body Paragraphs :
Body part should follow a coherent thematic essay outline. Remember to
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79 Understanding the Process of Academic Writing • Topic sentence presenting your argument
• Supporting evidence (literary devices)
• Examples that prove your argument
3. Conclusion :
A good thematic essay conclusion should be brief, logical and effective.
Typically, a concluding paragraph should resonate with the t hesis
statement and contain such information:
• Rephrased thesis statement
• Brief summary of main arguments
• Final thoughts for further exploration
Now that you know what key elements an excellent theme paper should
include let's dig deeper into the entire writing process.
How to Write a Good Thematic Essay :
1. As mentioned earlier, writing a thematic essay should start with
unveiling the central theme of a book or novel. Basically, the whole
process is all about interpreting this main subject with t he he lp of
relevant evidence.
2. Highlight the central theme. After you choose a literary work,
determine its central theme. Think about the main idea an author tried
to convey. This step requires reading between the lines and finding all
main points. Onc e you identify literary devices used to communicate
the main message, try to recognize the work's overall significance.
3. Craft a thesis statement. It is the most crucial part amongst all
components of the entire paper. A thesis statement is a brief claim
introducing your position on the central theme. This single sentence
has more significance than other sentences – remember that you will
need to prove a thesis with supporting evidence.
4. Write a captivating introduction. The opening paragraph of your
writing should explain the theme's significance and grab the reader's
attention. Highlight the main purpose of your research and offer some
information on the subject. Finally, include a previously written thesis
to give your audience an idea of what claim y ou wi ll be supporting.
5. Work on the body paragraphs. The text's main body contains at least
three paragraphs that develop research and start with the topic
sentence — argument. They present the evidence, some examples,
and proven facts. Each body paragra ph sh ould focus on at least one
literary device. Use only trustworthy informative sources to support
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80 6. Write a powerful conclusion. To conclude a thematic essay,
summarize the main points discusse d in the body paragraphs. Your
objective is to write a brief review of the work. As you write the
closing paragraph, make sure that all questions were answered.
Provide some food for thoughts and encourage the audience to do
further research on the chosen subje ct.
7. As soon as you finish writing a thematic essay, don't forget to
proofread it for grammar and stylistic mistakes.
Thematic Essay Format:
Once you have your thematic essay shovel -ready, make sure that the
proper essay format is followed. There a re th ree most common academic
formatting styles: APA, MLA, and Chicago. Ensure that you cite all
sources and compose a reference page according to specific formatting
requirements. Stick to a particular style from cover to cover.
5.2 WRITING A RESEARCH PAP ER – CRITERIA & FORMAT Few things strike more fear in academics than the accursed research paper,
a term synonymous with long hours and hard work.
This section concisely explains how to write an academic research paper
step by step right from areas like h ow to start a research paper, how to
write a research paper outline, how to use citations and evidence, and how
to write a conclusion for a research paper.
But first, it is essential to know what a research paper is and how it’s
different from other writi ng.
What is a research paper?
A research paper is a type of academic writing that provides an in -depth
analysis, evaluation, or interpretation of a single topic, based on empirical
evidence. Research papers are similar to analytical essays, except that
research papers emphasize the use of statistical data and preexisting
research, along with a strict code for citations.
Considering their gravity, research papers favor formal, even bland
language that strips the writing of any bias. Researchers state their
findi ngs plainly and with corresponding evidence so that other researchers
can consequently use the paper in their own research.
Keep in mind that writing a research paper is different from writing a
research proposal. Essentially, research proposals are to ac quire the
funding needed to get the data to write a research paper.
How long should a research paper be?
The length of a research paper depends on the topic or assignment.
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81 Understanding the Process of Academic Writing common to s ee sh ort papers around 2,000 words or long papers over
10,000 words.
CRITERIA to write a research paper :
Below is a step -by-step general criterion that may be followed for writing
a research paper, catered specifically for students / researchers.
1. Und ersta nd the assignment :
Every research paper has certain specifications to be followed. The
specifications are spelled out based on purpose of writing the research
paper. Hence it is essential to follow the guidelines thoroughly. Primarily
read the writing prom pt. Specifically, look for technical requirements such
as length, formatting requirements (single - vs. double -spacing,
indentations, etc.) and citation style. Also pay attention to the particulars,
such as whether or not you need to write an abstract or in clude a cover
page. Once these guidelines are followed, the next steps in how to write a
research paper follow the usual writing process, more or less. There are
some extra steps involved because research papers have extra rules, but
the gist of the w riting process is the same.
2. Choose your topic :
Unless and until specified, the student/researcher may choose their own
topic. While it may seem simple enough, choosing a topic is actually the
most important decision you’ll make in writing a research pa per, since it
determines everything that follows. The top priority in how to choose a
research paper topic is whether it will provide enough content and
substance for an entire research paper. Choose a topic with enough data
and complexity to enable a rich discussion.
3. Gather preliminary research :
As soon as the research topic is finalized, the sooner you start researching,
the better. To refine your topic and prepare your thesis statement, find out
what research is available for your topic as soon as p ossib le. Early
research can help dispel any misconceptions you have about the topic and
reveal the best paths and approaches to find more material.
Typically, you can find sources either online or in a library. If you’re
searching online, make sure you us e cre dible sources like science journals
or academic papers. Some search engines —allow you to browse only
accredited sources and academic databases.
Keep in mind the difference between primary and secondary sources as
you search. Primary sources are first hand accounts, like published articles
or autobiographies; secondary sources are more removed, like critical
reviews or secondhand biographies.
When gathering your research, it’s better to skim sources instead of
reading each potential source fully. If a sourc e seems useful, set it aside to
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82 you ultimately won’t use, and that time could be better spent finding a
worthwhile source.
Sometimes you’re required to submit a literature review, which explains
your sources and presents them to an authority for confirmation. Even if
no literature review is required, it’s still helpful to compile an early list of
potential sources.
4. Write a thesis statement :
Using what you found in your p relim inary research, write a thesis
statement that succinctly summarizes what your research paper will be
about. This is usually the first sentence in your paper, making it your
reader’s introduction to the topic.
A thesis statement is the best answer for how to start a research paper.
Aside from preparing your reader, the thesis statement also makes it easier
for other researchers to assess whether or not your paper is useful to them
for their own research. Likewise, you should read the thesis statements of
other research papers to decide how useful they are to you.
A good thesis statement mentions all the important parts of the discussion
without disclosing too many of the details. If you’re having trouble putting
it into words, try to phrase your topic as a question and then answer it.
For example, if your research paper topic is about separating students with
ADHD from other students, you’d first ask yourself, “Does separating
students with ADHD improve their learning?” The answer —based on
your prelimi nary research —is a good basis for your thesis statement.
5. Determine supporting evidence :
At this stage of how to write an academic research paper, it’s time to
knuckle down and do the actual research. Here’s when you go through all
the sources you colle cted earlier and find the specific information you’d
like to use in your paper.
Normally, you find your supporting evidence by reading each source and
taking notes. Isolate only the information that’s directly relevant to your
topic; don’t bog down your p aper with tangents or unnecessary context,
however interesting they may be. And always write down page numbers,
not only for you to find the information later, but also because you’ll need
them for your citations.
Aside from highlighting text and writing notes , another common tactic is
to use bibliography cards. These are simple index cards with a fact or
direct quotation on one side and the bibliographical information (source
citation, page numbers, subtopic category) on the other. While
bibliography card s are not necessary, some students find them useful for
staying organized, especially when it’s time to write an outline.
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83 Understanding the Process of Academic Writing 6. Write a research paper outline :
A lot of students want to know how to write a research paper outline.
More than informal essays, resea rch papers require a methodical and
systematic structure to make sure all issues are addressed, and that makes
outlines especially important.
First make a list of all the important categories and subtopics you need to
cover —an outline for your outlin e! Co nsider all the information you
gathered when compiling your supporting evidence and ask yourself what
the best way to separate and categorize everything is.
Once you have a list of what you want to talk about, consider the best
order to present the i nform ation. Which subtopics are related and should
go next to each other? Are there any subtopics that don’t make sense if
they’re presented out of sequence? If your information is fairly
straightforward, feel free to take a chronological approach and pres ent the
information in the order it happened.
Because research papers can get complicated, consider breaking your
outline into paragraphs. For starters, this helps you stay organized if you
have a lot of information to cover. Moreover, it gives you greate r con trol
over the flow and direction of the research paper. It’s always better to fix
structural problems in the outline phase than later after everything’s
already been written.
Don’t forget to include your supporting evidence in the outline as well.
Chances are you’ll have a lot you want to include, so putting it in your
outline helps prevent some things from falling through the cracks.
7. Write the first draft :
Once your outline is finished, it’s time to start actually writing your
research paper. Thi s is by far the longest and most involved step, but if
you’ve properly prepared your sources and written a thorough outline,
everything should run smoothly.
If you don’t know how to write an introduction for a research paper, the
beginning can be difficul t. Th at’s why writing your thesis statement
beforehand is crucial. Open with your thesis statement and then fill out the
rest of your introduction with the secondary information —save the details
for the body of your research paper, which comes next.
The b ody c ontains the bulk of your research paper. Unlike essays, research
papers usually divide the body into sections with separate headers to
facilitate browsing and scanning. Use the divisions in your outline as a
guide.
Follow along your outline and go pa ragra ph by paragraph. Because this is
just the first draft, don’t worry about getting each word perfect. Later
you’ll be able to revise and fine -tune your writing, but for now focus
simply on saying everything that needs to be said. In other words, it’s OK
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84 One of the most common problems with writing long works like research
papers is connecting paragraphs to each other. The longer your writing is,
the harder it is to tie everything together smoo thly. Use transition
sentences to improve the flow of your paper, especially for the first and
last sentences in a paragraph.
Even after the body is written, you still need to know how to write a
conclusion for a research paper. Just like an essay conclus ion, your
research paper conclusion should restate your thesis, reiterate your main
evidence, and summarize your findings in a way that’s easy to understand.
Don’t add any new information in your conclusion, but feel free to say
your own personal perspect ive o r interpretation if it helps the reader
understand the big picture.
8. Cite your sources correctly :
Citations are part of what sets research papers apart from more casual
nonfiction like personal essays. Citing your sources both validates your
data a nd al so links your research paper to the greater scientific
community. Because of their importance, citations must follow precise
formatting rules.
You need to check with the assignment/publishing house to see which
formatting style is required. Typically, academic research papers follow
one of two formatting styles for citing sources:
MLA (Modern Language Association)
APA (American Psychological Association)
In addition to MLA and APA styles, you occasionally see requirements for
CMOS (The Chicago Manual o f Sty le), AMA (American Medical
Association) and IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers).
Citations may seem confusing at first with all their rules and specific
information. However, once you get the hang of them, you’ll be able to
prope rly cite your sources without even thinking about it.
9. Edit and proofread :
Last but not least, you want to go through your research paper to correct
all the mistakes by proofreading. We recommend going over it twice: once
for structural issues such as a dding /deleting parts or rearranging
paragraphs and once for word choice, grammatical, and spelling mistakes.
Doing two different editing sessions helps you focus on one area at a time
instead of doing them both at once.
To help you catch everything, here’ s a q uick checklist to keep in mind
while you edit:
Structural edit:
 Is your thesis statement clear and concise? munotes.in

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85 Understanding the Process of Academic Writing  Is your paper well -organized, and does it flow from beginning to end
with logical transitions?
 Do your ideas follow a logical sequence in each parag raph?
 Have you used concrete details and facts and avoided generalizations?
 Do your arguments support and prove your thesis?
 Have you avoided repetition?
 Are your sources properly cited?
 Have you checked for accidental plagiarism?
 Word choice, grammar , and spelling edit:
 Is your language clear and specific?
 Do your sentences flow smoothly and clearly?
 Have you avoided filler words and phrases?
 Have you checked for proper grammar, spelling, and punctuation?
Some people find it useful to read their pap er ou t loud to catch problems
they might miss when reading in their head. Another solution is to have
someone else read your paper and point out areas for improvement and/or
technical mistakes.
Revising is a separate skill from writing, and being good at one d oesn’t
necessarily make you good at the other. If you want to improve your
revision skills, read our guide on self -editing, which includes a more
complete checklist and advanced tips on improving your revisions.
Technical issues like grammatical mist akes and misspelled words can be
handled effortlessly if you use a spellchecker with your word processor, or
even better, a digital writing assistant that also suggests improvements for
word choice and tone, like Grammarly (we explain more in the Tools and
resources section below).
Tools and resources :
If you want to know more about how to write a research paper, or if you
want some help with each step, take a look at the tools and resources
below.
Google Scholar :
This is Google’s own search engine, which is dedicated exclusively to
academic papers. It’s a great way to find new research and sources. Plus,
it’s free to use.
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86 Academic communication and writing
86 Google Charts :
This useful and free tool from Google lets you create simple charts and
graphs based on whatever data you input. Chart s and graphs are excellent
visual aids for expressing numeric data, a perfect complement if you need
to explain complicated evidential research.
Grammarly :
Grammarly goes way beyond grammar , helping you hone word choice,
checking your text for plagiarism , det ecting your tone, and more. For
foreign -language learners, it can make your English sound more fluent,
and even those who speak English as their primary language benefit from
Grammarly’s suggestions.
The following FORMAT may be followed for writing a Resea rch Paper
Research studies begin with a question in mind. A paper that describes a
particular study clearly states the question, methodology, findings, and
other relevant information. Read below for descriptions and examples of
research paper sections .
The main sections of a typical APA research paper include:
1. Cover Page
2. Abstract
3. Introduction
4. Background
5. Methodology
6. Results
7. Conclusion
8. Appendices
A more straightforward version of a research paper is the IMRAD format
(Introduction , Met hodology, Results, and Discussion). However, all of the
following sections are typically present in a formal research paper.
1. Title or Cover Page :
Just like any other paper you write; your research paper needs a cover
page with your study’s title. It a lso n eeds your and any co -writers’ names
and institutional affiliations (if any).
2. Abstract :
Abstract is a detailed summary of your study. It should include a broad
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87 Understanding the Process of Academic Writing study, methods of research, and findings. Don’t list cited works in the
abstract.
3. Introduction :
The introduction section tells the reader what problem your study is
attempting to solve. You can address the study’s significance and
originality here as well. Clearly state the research question in the form of a
thesis statement.
4. Background :
What inspired you to take on this study? What has previous research stated
or revealed about this topic? The background section is the place to add
historical data or define previous theor ies that provide context for your
study. It’s also a helpful place to consider your audience and what
information they will need to understand the rest of your paper.
5. Methodology :
Knowing whether you used qualitative or quantitative methods is an
import ant part of understanding your study. You can list all the ways you
collected data, including surveys, experiments, or field research. This
section is also known as “Materials and Methods” in scientific studies.
6. Results :
What does your study find? State your findings and supply the data in this
section. Use an objective perspective here; save the evaluation for your
conclusion section.
7. Conclusion :
Explain why your findings are significant in the conclusion section. This
section allows you to eval uate results and reflect on your process. Does
the study require additional research?
8. Appendices :
If you have information that is too dense for the paper itself, include it in
an appendix. Appendices are helpful when you want to include
supplementary ma terial that is relevant but not integral to the paper itself.
Other Parts of a Research Paper :
If you’d like to go into more depth than the sections above, consider
including additional parts of a research paper.
• Limitations of Study: Found after the Int roduc tion section, the
Limitations of Study section lists any factors by which you limited
your research. These can include age, location, sex, and education
level. This section can also list the ways that your study was impacted
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88 Academic communication and writing
88 • Literature Review: The Literature Review section takes scholarly
articles or books out of the Background section for a more focused
investigation. You can usually find this section between Background
and Methodology .
• Discussion: A more concentrated section for evaluating results is the
Discussion section. This section is a helpful place to consider the
process as a whole.
• Acknowledgments: This is a place to thank anyone who helped you
complete your research. It c an in clude colleagues, focus group
participants, fellow researchers, mentors, or family members.
5.3 WRITING A RESEARCH JOURNAL ARTICLE AND BOOK – CRITERIA & FORMAT The purpose of writing a review is to summarize and evaluate a text. The
review can be of a book , a chapter, or a journal article. Writing the critical
review usually requires you to read the selected text in detail and to also
read other related texts so that you can present a fair and reasonable
valuation of the selected text. Such a review is also called as Critical
Review.
What is meant by critical?
To be critical does not mean to criticize in a negative manner. Rather it
requires you to question the information and opinions in a text and present
your evaluation or judgement of the text. To do thi s well, you should
attempt to understand the topic from different perspectives (i.e. read
related texts)and in relation to the theories, approaches and frameworks in
your course.
What is meant by evaluation or judgement?
Here you decide the strengths and w eaknesses of a text. This is usually
based on specific criteria. Evaluating requires an understanding of not just
the content of the text, but also an understanding of a text’s purpose, the
intended audience and why it is structured the way it is.
Wha t is meant by analysis?
Analyzing requires separating the content and concepts of a text into their
main components and then understanding how these interrelate, connect
and possibly influence each other.
Format of a Critical Review
Critical reviews, both short (one page) and long (four pages), usually have
a similar structure which is given in the following section:

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89 Understanding the Process of Academic Writing Introduction :
The length of an introduction is usually one paragraph for a journal article
review and two or three paragraphs for a longer b ook r eview. Include a
few opening sentences that announce the author(s) and the title, and
briefly explain the topic of the text. Present the aim of the text and
summarize the main finding or key argument. Conclude the introduction
with a brief statement o f you r evaluation of the text. This can be a positive
or negative evaluation or, as is usually the case, a mixed response.
Summary :
Present a summary of the key points along with a limited number of
examples. You can also briefly explain the author’s purpo se/in tentions
throughout the text and you may briefly describe how the text is
organised. The summary should only make up about a third of the critical
review.
Critique :
The critique should be a balanced discussion and evaluation of the
strengths, weakness and notable features of the text. Remember to base
your discussion on specific criteria. Good reviews also include other
sources to support your evaluation (remember to reference).
You can choose how to sequence your critique. Here are some
examples to g et yo u started:
 Most important to least important conclusions you make about the
text.
 If your critique is more positive than negative, then present the
negative points first and the positive last.
 If your critique is more negative than positive, then pres ent t he
positive points first and the negative last.
 If there are both strengths and weakness for each criterion you use,
you need to decide overall what your judgement is. For example, you
may want to comment on a key idea in the text and have both positi ve
and negative comments. You could begin by stating what is good
about the idea and then concede and explain how it is limited in some
way. While this example shows a mixed evaluation, overall, you are
probably being more negative than positive.
 In long r eview s, you can address each criterion you choose in a
paragraph, including both negative and positive points. For very short
critical reviews (one page or less) where your comments willbe
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90  You can also include recommendations for how the text can be
improved in terms of ideas, research approach; theories or
frameworks used can also be included in the critique section.
Conclusion :
This is usually a very short paragraph.
 Restate your ov erall opinion of the text.
 Briefly present recommendations.
 If necessary, some further qualification or explanation of your
judgement can be included. This can help your critique sound fair and
reasonable.
References
If you have used other sources in you r eview you should also include a list
of references at the end of there view.
Some General Criteria for Evaluating Texts for the purpose of writing
a Review Paper :
The following list of criteria and focus questions may be useful for reading
the text and for preparing the critical review. Remember to check your
instructions for more specific criteria and focus questions that should form
the basis of your review. The length of the review will determine how
many criteria you will address in your review paper. Criteria Criteria Possible focus questions Significance and contribution to the field  What is the author's aim?  To what extent has this aim been achieved?  What does this text add to the body of knowledge? (This  could be in terms of theory, data and/or practical application)  What relationship does it bear to other works in the field?  What is missing/not stated?  Is this a problem? Methodology or approach (this usually applies to more formal, research-based texts)  What approach was used for the research? (eg; quantitative or qualitative, analysis/review of theory or current practice, comparative, case study, personal reflection etc...)  How objective/biased is the munotes.in

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91 Understanding the Process of Academic Writing approach?  Are the results valid and reliable?  What analytical framework is used to discuss the results? Argument and use of evidence  Is there a clear problem,
statement or hypothesis?
 What claims are made?
 Is the argument consistent?
 What kinds of evidence does
the text rely on?
 How valid and reliable is the
evidence?
 How effective is the evidence
in support ing the argument?
 What conclusions are drawn?
 Are these conclusions
justified? Writing style and text structure  Does the writing style suit the intended audience? (eg; expert/non-expert, academic/non-academic)  What is the organizing principle of the text? Could it be better organized?
5.4 LET US SUM UP Academic writing is a very important activity of any student’s or
researchers work. Serious academic writing is formal and follows a
specific format. Depending upon the reason, why an academic writi ng has
been undertaken, the format may vary. Hence the criteria of academic
writing should be thoroughly studied before embarking on the task.
5.5 UNIT END QUESTIONS 1. Enumerate the format of writing a research paper
2. Explain the criteria to be follow ed for wr iting a review paper
3. Describe a Theme paper and its format.
5.6 REFERENCES  https://www.aresearchguide.com/4format.html
 https://www.ilovephd.com/research -paper -format/ munotes.in

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92  https://penandthepad.com/write -essay -theme -book -2200.html
 https://writemypap er4me.org /blog/thematic -essay
 https://essaypro.com/blog/article -review
 https://www.aresearchguide.com/write -an-article -review.html
*****

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93 6
ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN
ACADEMIC WRITING
Unit Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Meaning of Plagiarism
6.2 Process of Plagiarism (Forms)
6.3 How to Avoid Plagiarism
6.4 Publication -Process
6.5 Challenges and Opportunities in Publication
6.6 Indexin g and Citation
6.7 Let Us Sum Up
6.8 Unit End Exercise
6.9 References
6.0 OBJECTIVES Writing and publishing a piece of academic work is desirable step in
the process of dissemination of knowledge and research. While
publishing one’s work, it becomes imp erative to maintain academic
integrity. Hence every academician has to be aware about the varied
pitfalls that s/he may encounter.
In this unit, learners will be able to understand Plagiarism and how to
avoid Plagiarism. The learners will be able to unders tand the process,
challenges and opportunities in Publication.
Finally, this unit will enable learners to make informed decisions
while publishing their academic work.
6.1 MEANING OF PLAGIARISM Plagiarism is derived from Latin word “plagiarius” which means
“kidnapper,” who abducts the child. The word plagiarism entered the
Oxford English dictionary in 1621. Plagiarism has been defined by
the Encyclopaedia Britannica as “the act of taking the writings of
another person and passing them off as one’s own.” It is an act of
forgery, piracy, and fraud and is stated to be a serious crime of
academia.3 It is also a violation of copyright laws. Honesty in
scientific practice and in publication is necessary. The World
Association of Medical Editors (WAME) defines plag iarism as “…
the use of others’ published and unpublished ideas or words (or other
intellectual property) without attribution or permission and presenting
them as new and original rather than derived from an existing
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94 In 1999, the Committee on Publ ication Ethics (COPE), defined
plagiarism as “Plagiarism ranges from the unreferenced use of others’
published and unpublished ideas including research grant applications
to submission under new authorship of a complex paper, sometimes
in a different langu age. It may occur at any stage of planning,
research, writing or publication; it applies to print and electronic
versions.”
Plagiarism is presenting someone else’s work or ideas as your own,
with or without their consent, by incorporating it into your work
without full acknowledgement. All published and unpublished
material, whether in manuscript, printed or electronic form, is
covered under this definition. Plagiarism may be intentional or
reckless, or unintentional. Under the regulations for examinations,
intentional or reckless plagiarism is a disciplinary offence.
6.2 PROCESS OF PLAGIARISM (FORMS) Plagiarism can happen in different ways. Whether done intentionally
or otherwise, all of the ways mentioned in this section become a
disciplinary offence.
Plagiarism can be in different forms :
Verbatim (word for word) quotation without clear acknowledgement -
Quotations must always be identified as such by the use of either
quotation marks or indentation, and with full referencing of the
sources cited. It must a lways be apparent to the reader which parts are
your own independent work and where you have drawn on someone
else’s ideas and language.
Cutting and pasting from the Internet without clear
acknowledgement :
Information derived from the Internet must be adeq uately referenced
and included in the bibliography. It is important to evaluate carefully
all material found on the Internet, as it is less likely to have been
through the same process of scholarly peer review as published
sources.
Mosaic plagiarism:
In this type of plagiarism each word is not copied but it involves
mixing one’s own words in someone else's ideas and opinions. This is
copying and pasting in patchy manner
Paraphrasing :
Paraphrasing the work of others by altering a few words and changing
their order, or by closely following the structure of their argument, is
plagiarism if you do not give due acknowledgement to the author
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95 Issues and Challenges in Academic Writing A passing reference to the original author in your own text may not
be enough; you must ensure th at you do not create the misleading
impression that the paraphrased wording or the sequence of ideas are
entirely your own. It is better to write a brief summary of the author’s
overall argument in your own words, indicating that you are doing so,
than to paraphrase particular sections of his or her writing. This will
ensure you have a genuine grasp of the argument and will avoid the
difficulty of paraphrasing without plagiarising. You must also
properly attribute all material you derive from lectures.
Collusion:
This can involve unauthorised collaboration between students, failure
to attribute assistance received, or failure to precisely follow
regulations on group work projects. It is your responsibility to ensure
that you are entirely clear about the exte nt of collaboration permitted,
and which parts of the work must be your own.
Inaccurate citation:
It is important to cite correctly, according to the conventions of your
discipline. As well as listing your sources (i.e., in a bibliography),
you must indica te, using a footnote or an in -text reference, where a
quoted passage comes from. Additionally, you should not include
anything in your references or bibliography that you have not actually
consulted. If you cannot gain access to a primary source, you must
make it clear in your citation that your knowledge of the work has
been derived from a secondary text (for example, Bradshaw, D. Title
of Book, discussed in Wilson, E., Title of Book (London, 2004), p.
189).
Failure to acknowledge assistance:
You must clea rly acknowledge all assistance which has contributed to
the production of your work, such as advice from fellow students,
laboratory technicians, and other external sources. This need not
apply to the assistance provided by your tutor or supervisor, or to
ordinary proofreading, but it is necessary to acknowledge other
guidance which leads to substantive changes of content or approach.
Auto -plagiarism or Self Plagiarism - You must not submit work for
assessment that you have already submitted (partially or in full),
either for your current course or for another qualification of this, or
any other, university, unless this is specifically provided for in the
special regulations for your course. Where earlier work by you is
citable, i .e. it has already been publi shed; you must reference it
clearly. Identical pieces of work submitted concurrently will also be
considered to be auto -plagiarism. This is also called as Self
Plagiarism.
“Publication of one's own data that have already been published is not
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96 Academic communication and writing
96 publications do not contribute to scientific work; they just increase
the number of papers published without justification in scientific
research.8 The authors get benefit in the form of increased number of
published papers
Self-plagiarism involves dishonesty but not intellectual theft. Roig
gave classification of self -plagiarism and divided it into four types: (i)
Duplicate (redundant) publication, (ii) augmented publication, (iii)
segmented publication, and (iv) text recycling.
Duplicate publication:
When an author submits identical or almost identical manuscript
(same data, results, and discussion) to two different journals, it is
considered as duplicate (redundant) publication.9 As per COPE
guidelines , this is an offense and editor can take an action as per the
COPE flowchart
Augmented publication:
If the author adds additional data to his/her previously published
work and changes title, modifies aim of the study, and recalculates
results, it amounts to augmented publication. Plagiarism detection
software usually do not pick it because it is not same by verbatim.
This self -plagiarism is as such technical plagiarism and is not
considered with same strictness as plagiarism. The editor may
consider it for publication in the following three situations: If author
refers to his/her previous work; if ’methods’ cannot be written in any
other form; and if author clearly states that new manuscript contains
data from previous publication10
Segmented publication:
Also called “Salami -Sliced” publication. In this case, two or more
papers are derived from the same experimental/research/original
work. Salami -sliced papers are difficult to detect and usually are
pointed out by reviewers or readers. The decision regardin g such
manuscript is again on editor's shoulder. The author must be asked to
refer to his/her previously published work and explain reasonably the
connection of the segmented paper to his/her previously published
work
Text recycling:
If the author uses la rge portions of his/her own already published text
in his/her new manuscript, it is called text recycling. It can be
detected by plagiarism software. It can be handled as per the COPE
guidelines.

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97 Issues and Challenges in Academic Writing Cyber plagiarism :
“Copying or downloading in part or in t heir entirety articles or
research papers and ideas from the internet and not giving proper
attribution is unethical and falls in the range of cyber plagiarism”
Image plagiarism: Using an image or video without receiving proper
permission or providing appr opriate citation is plagiarism. “Images
can be tampered on support findings, promote a specific technique
over another to strengthen the correctness of poorly visualized
findings, remove the defects of an image and to misrepresent an
image from what it rea lly is”?
Summing up, it must be understood that Plagiarism is a breach of
academic integrity. It is a principle of intellectual honesty that all
members of the academic community should acknowledge their debt
to the originators of the ideas, words, and dat a which form the basis
for their own work. Passing off another’s work as your own is not
only poor scholarship, but also means that you have failed to
complete the learning process. Plagiarism is unethical and can have
serious consequences for your future career; it also undermines the
standards of your institution and of the degrees it issues
6.3 HOW TO AVOID PLAGIARISM It is imperative that every researcher/author must practice academic
integrity and make conscious efforts to avoid Plagiarism. The
follow ing Do’s and Don’ts should be practiced:
 Attribute references
 Describe all sources of information
 Give Acknowledgement
 Provide footnotes
 Use quotation marks wherever required
 For extensive quotation, obtain permission from
publisher/copyright holder of or iginal work
 Widely known scientific and historical facts – generally counted
as common knowledge and does not require citation
 Avoid Self plagiarism by taking permission from copy right
holder/ publisher of previous article
In the following situation, perm ission is required to use published
work from publisher to avoid plagiarism.
 Directly quoting significant portion of a published work. How
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98 Academic communication and writing
98 permission is not specified. The best approach is whenever in
doubt, ask for permission
 Reproducing a table
 Reproducing a figure/image.
Summing up, it is essential to realise that the first and most
significant step towards avoiding Plagiarism is to KNOW what is
Plagiarism.
6.4 PUBLICATION – PROCESS As scholars, o ne strives to do high -quality research that will advance
the discipline. During this process one comes up with what one
believes are unique hypotheses, base our work on robust data and use
an appropriate research methodology. As researchers write up the
findings, the aim is to provide theoretical insight, and share
theoretical and practical implications about the work. Once the work
of documenting is done the researcher submits the manuscript for
publication.
Publishing one’s research is an important step i n one’s academic
career. While there isn’t a one -size-fits-all approach, the following
section is designed to take one through the typical steps in publishing
a research paper.
Step 1: Choosing an appropriate Journal :
Choosing an appropriate journal is on e of the most significant
decisions one has to make as a researcher. Where you decide to
submit your work can make a big difference to the reach and impact
your research has.
It’s important to take your time to consider your options carefully and
analyze e ach aspect of journal submission – from shortlisting titles to
your preferred method of publication, for example open access.
Don’t forget to think about publishing options beyond the traditional
journals format – for example, open research platform which offers
rapid, open publication for a wide range of outputs.
Choosing your target journal before you start writing means you can
tailor your work to build on research that’s already been published in
that journal. This can help editors to see how a paper a dds to the
‘conversation’ in their journal. In addition, many journals only accept
specific manuscript formats of article. So, by choosing a journal
before you start, you can write your article to their specifications and
audience, and ultimately improve y our chances of acceptance.

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99 Issues and Challenges in Academic Writing 2. Writing Your Paper :
Writing an effective paper vital to getting your research published.
But if you’re new to putting together academic papers, it can feel
daunting to start from scratch.
The good news is that if you’ve chos en the journal you want to
publish in, you’ll have lots of examples already published in that
journal to base your own paper on.
How you write your paper will depend on your chosen journal, your
subject area, and the type of paper you’re writing. Everythi ng from
the style and structure you choose to the audience you should have in
mind while writing will differ, so it’s important to think about these
things before you get stuck in.
3. Submitting Your Manuscript :
Once you’ve chosen the right journal and wri tten your manuscript,
the next step in publishing your research paper is to make your
submission.
Each journal will have specific submission requirements, so make
sure you carefully check through the instructions for authors for your
chosen journal.
To sub mit your manuscript, you’ll need to ensure that you’ve gone
through all the steps in our making your submission guide. This
includes thoroughly understanding your chosen journal’s instructions
for authors, writing an effective cover letter, navigating the journal’s
submission system, and ensuring your research data is prepared as
required. Before you submit your article to one journal, ensure that
you have checked with ready to submit checklist. The most important
that you have to keep in mind is submit an article to one journal at
time.
4. Navigating through Peer Review Process :
Peer review is the independent assessment of your research article by
independent experts in your field. Reviewers, also sometimes called
‘referees’, are asked to judge the validity , significance, and originality
of your work.
This process ensures that a peer -reviewed article has been through a
rigorous process to make sure the methodology is sound, the work
can be replicated, and it fits with the aims and scope of the journal
that i s considering it for publication. It acts as an important form of
quality control for research papers.
Peer review is also a very useful source of feedback, helping you to
improve your paper before it’s published. It is intended to be a
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100 Academic communication and writing
100 peers and receive constructive feedback and support to advance their
work.
Almost all research articles go through peer review, although in some
cases the journal may operate post -publication peer review, w hich
means that reviews and reader comments are invited after the paper is
published.
5. The Production Process :
If your paper is accepted for publication, it will then head into
production. At this stage of the process, the paper will be prepared for
publishing in your chosen journal.
A lot of the work to produce the final version of your paper will be
done by the journal production team, but your input will be required
at various stages of the process.
During production, you’ll have a variety of tasks to complete and
decisions to make. For example, you’ll need to check and correct
proofs of your article and consider whether or not you want to
produce a video abstract to accompany it.
Your research is published – now what?
You’ve successfully navigated pub lishing a research paper –
congratulations! But the process doesn’t stop there. Now your
research is published in a journal for the world to see, you’ll need to
know how to access your article and make sure it has an impact.
Taking the time to ensure your research has an impact can help drive
your career progression, build your networks, and secure funding for
new research.
Summing up, it may be realized that a detailed explanation of the
process of publication is readily available on the websites of journ als,
which if followed meticulously will surely benefit the
author/researcher.
6.5 CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES IN PUBLICATION For doctoral students and other young scholars, publishing a research
article can be a daunting process full of challenges as we ll as an
opportunity to enhance one’s career.
Hence it is essential to identify common pitfalls and be aware of
helpful solutions to prepare more impactful papers. While there are
several types of research articles, such as short communications,
review pap ers and so forth, these guidelines focus on preparing a full
article (including a literature review), whether based on qualitative or
quantitative methodology, from the perspective of the management,
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101 Issues and Challenges in Academic Writing Writing for academic journals is a highly competitive activity, and
it’s important to understand that there could be several reasons behind
a rejection. Furthermore, the journal peer -review process is an
essential element of publication because no writer could identify and
address all potential issues with a manuscript.
1. Do not rush submitti ng your article for publication:
The scholars should start writing during the early stages of your
research or doctoral study career. This secret does not ent ail
submitting your manuscript for publication the moment you have
crafted its conclusion. Authors sometimes rely on the fact that they
will always have an opportunity to address their work’s shortcomings
after the feedback received from the journal editor and reviewers has
identified them.
A proactive approach and attitude will reduce the chance of rejection
and disappointment. A logical flow of activities dominates every
research activity and should be followed for preparing a manuscript
as well. Such act ivities include carefully re -reading your manuscript
at different times and perhaps at different places. Re -reading is
essential in the research field and helps identify the most common
problems and shortcomings in the manuscript, which might otherwise
be overlooked. Second, it is very helpful to share your manuscripts
with colleagues and other researchers in your network and to request
their feedback.
2. Select an appropriate publication outlet:
Many researchers often do not take enough efforts to select the
appropriate publication outlet. Finding the right journal for your
article can dramatically improve the chances of acceptance and
ensure it reaches your target audience. Many publications house
provide assistance to authors/ researchers to select the c orrect
publication outlet. For instance, Elsevier provides an innovative
Journal Finder search facility on its website. Authors enter the article
title, a brief abstract and the field of research to get a list of the most
appropriate journals for their ar ticle.
Less experienced scholars sometimes choose to submit their research
work to two or more journals at the same time. Research ethics and
policies of all scholarly journals suggest that authors should submit a
manuscript to only one journal at a time. Doing otherwise can cause
embarrassment and lead to copyright problems for the author, the
university employer and the journals involved.
3. Read the aims and scope and author guidelines o f your target
journal carefully:
Once you have read and re -read your manuscript carefully several
times, received feedback from your colleagues, and identified a target
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102 Academic communication and writing
102 journals in your target research area. Doing so will improve the
chances of having yo ur manuscript accepted for publishing. Another
important step is to download and absorb the author guidelines and
ensure your manuscript conforms to them. Some publishers report
that one paper in five does not follow the style and format
requirements of th e target journal, which might specify requirements
for figures, tables and references.
Rejection can come at different times and in different formats. For
instance, if your research objective is not in line with the aims and
scope of the target journal, or if your manuscript is not structured and
formatted according to the target journal layout, or if your manuscript
does not have a reasonable chance of being able to satisfy the target
journal’s publishing expectations, the manuscript can receive a desk
rejection from the editor without being sent out for peer review. Desk
rejections can be disheartening for authors, making them feel they
have wasted valuable time and might even cause them to lose
enthusiasm for their research topic.
4. Make a good first im pression with your title and abstract:
The title and abstract are incredibly important components of a
manuscript as they are the first elements a journal editor sees. The
following pointers can be kept in mind:
• The title should summarize the main theme of the article and
reflect your contribution to the theory.
• The abstract should be crafted carefully and encompass the aim
and scope of the study; the key problem to be addressed and
theory; the method used; the data set; key findings; limitations;
and i mplications for theory and practice.
5. Have a professional editing firm copy -edit (not just proofread)
your manuscript, including the main text, list of references, tables
and figures :
The key characteristic of scientific writing is clarity. Before
submit ting a manuscript for publication, it is highly advisable to have
a professional editing firm copy -edit your manuscript. An article
submitted to a peer -reviewed journal will be scrutinized critically by
the editorial board before it is selected for peer re view. According to
a statistic shared by many publication outlets, between 30 percent and
50 percent of articles submitted to them are rejected before they even
reach the peer -review stage, and one of the top reasonsfor rejection is
poor language. A proper ly written, edited and presented text will be
error free and understandable and will project a professional image
that will help ensure your work is taken seriously in the world of
publishing. On occasion, the major revisions conducted at the request
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103 Issues and Challenges in Academic Writing Authors can facilitate the editing of their manuscripts by taking
precautions at their end. These include proofreading their own
manuscript for accuracy and wordiness (avoid unnecessary or
normative descr iptions like “it should be noted here” and “the authors
believe) and sending it for editing only when it is complete in all
respects and ready for publishing. Professional editing companies
charge hefty fees, and it is simply not financially viable to have them
conduct multiple rounds of editing on your article. Applications like
the spelling and grammar checker in Microsoft Word or Grammarly
are certainly worth applying to your article, but the benefits of proper
editing are undeniable.
6. Submit a c over l etter with the manuscript:
Never underestimate the importance of a cover letter addressed to the
editor or editor -in-chief of the target journal. Many publication
outlets revealed that many submissions do not include a covering
letter, which is very essent ial as it gives authors an important
opportunity to convince them that their research work is worth
reviewing.
Accordingly, the content of the cover letter is also worth spending
time on. Some inexperienced scholars paste the article’s abstract into
their letter thinking it will be sufficient to make the case for
publication; it is a practice best avoided. A good cover letter first
outlines the main theme of the paper; second, argues the novelty of
the paper; and third, justifies the relevance of the manusc ript to the
target journal. It is also suggested that limiting the cover letter to half
a page is more suitable.
7. Address r eviewer comments very carefully:
Editors and editors -in-chief usually couch the acceptance of a
manuscript as subject to a “revise and resubmit” based on the
recommendations provided by the reviewer or reviewers. These
revisions may necessitate either major or minor changes in the
manuscript. Inexperienced scholars should understand a few key
aspects of the revision process. First, i t important to address the
revisions diligently; second, is imperative to address all the comments
received from the reviewers and avoid oversights; third, the
resubmission of the revised manuscript must happen by the deadline
provided by the journal; four th, the revision process might comprise
multiple rounds.
The revision process requires two major documents. The first is the
revised manuscript highlighting all the modifications made following
the recommendations received from the reviewers. The second is a
letter listing the authors’ responses illustrating they have addressed all
the concerns of the reviewers and editors. These two documents
should be drafted carefully. The authors of the manuscript can agree
or disagree with the comments of the reviewers (typically agreement
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104 Academic communication and writing
104 recommendations, but they should in all cases provide a well -argued
justification for their course of action.
Summarizing, it may be realized that given the everincreasing
number of manuscripts submitted for publication, the process of
preparing a manuscript well enough to have it accepted by a journal
can be daunting. High -impact journals accept less than 10 percent of
the articles submitted to them, although the acceptance ratio for
special issues or special topics sections is normally over 40 percent.
Scholars might have to resign themselves to having their articles
rejected and then reworking them to submit them to a different
journal before the manuscript is accepted.
The pointers provided in the aforesaid section require proper
attention, planning and careful implementation; however, following
the pointers could help doctoral students and other scholars improve
the likelihood of getting their work published, and that is k ey to
having a productive, exciting and rewarding academic career.
6.6 INDEXING AND CITATION The prestige of any journal is considered by how many abstracting
and indexing services cover that journal. It has been observed in last
few years that authors hav e started searching for indexed journals to
publish their articles. Probably this is happening because it has
become a mandatory requirement for further promotions of teaching
faculty in colleges and institutions. However, the big question is after
all wha t is an “Index Journal”? Is a journal considered indexed if it is
documented in a local database, regional database, or in any
continental database? Based on available literature, we would like to
clear in few forthcoming paragraphs what is the history of indexing,
what is actual indexing, and what is nonindexing?
Citation index (indexing) is an ordered list of cited articles, each
accompanied by a list of citing articles. The citing article is identified
as source and the cited article as reference. An abs tracting and
indexing service is a product, a publisher sells, or makes available.
The journal contents are searchable using subject headings
(keywords, author's names, title, abstract, etc.,) in available database.
Being represented in the relevant online abstracting and indexing
services is an essential factor for the success of a journal. Today
search is done online, so it is imperative that a journal is represented
in the relevant online search system. A citation index is a kind of
bibliographic databas e, an index of citation between publications,
allowing the user to easily establish which later documents, cite
which earlier documents.
A form of citation index was first found in the 12th century in
Hebrew religious literature. Legal citation indexes wer e found in the
18th century and were made popular by citators such as Shepard's
citations (1873).In 1960, the Eugene Garfields Institute for Scientific munotes.in

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105 Issues and Challenges in Academic Writing Information (ISI) introduced the first citation index for papers
published in academic journals, first t he science citation index (SCI)
and later social science's citation index and the arts and humanities
citation index. The first automated citation indexing was done by
“CiteSeer” in 1997. Other sources for such data include Google
Scholar and Elsevier's Sc opus.
Currently major citation indexing services are:
SCI and SCI -expanded: Published by ISI a part of Thomson
Reuters. As mentioned, SCI was originally produced by ISI and
created by Eugene Garfield (1964).The SCI's database has two aims –
first, to ident ify what each scientist has published and second, where
and how often the papers by that scientist are cited. The SCI's
electronic version is called “Web of Science.”SCI -expanded indexes
8073 journals with citation references across 174 scientific discipli nes
in science edition.
Scopus: Scopus (Elsevier) is a bibliographic database containing
abstracts and citations for academic journal articles. It covers 21,000
titles from over 5000 publishers.7 It is available online only.
Indian citation index (ICI): An online citation data ICI8 is a new
web platform for measuring performance of Indian research
periodically. This online bibliographic database was launched in
2009. ICI covers 800 plus journals which are published from India on
science, technical, medical , and social sciences.
In addition, “CiteSeer” and Google Scholar’ are freely available
online.
6.7 LET US SUM UP According to the Merriam -Webster online dictionary, to "plagiarize"
means:
 to steal and pass off (the ideas or words of another) as one's own
 to use (another's production) without crediting the source
 to commit literary theft
 to present as new and original an idea or product derived from an
existing source
In other words, plagiarism is an act of fraud. It involves both stealing
someone else's wo rk and lying about it afterward.
All of the following are considered plagiarism:
 turning in someone else's work as your own
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106 Academic communication and writing
106  failing to put a quotation in quotation marks
 giving incorrect inform ation about the source of a quotation
 changing words but copying the sentence structure of a source
without giving credit
 copying so many words or ideas from a source that it makes up
the majority of your work, whether you give credit or not (see
our secti on on "fair use" rules)
Most cases of plagiarism can be avoided, however, by citing sources.
Simply acknowledging that certain material has been borrowed and
providing your audience with the information necessary to find that
source is usually enough to pr event plagiarism. See our section on
citation for more information on how to cite sources properly.
Using an image, video or piece of music in a work you have produced
without receiving proper permission or providing appropriate citation
is plagiarism. The following activities are very common in today’s
society. Despite their popularity, they still count as plagiarism.
 Copying media (especially images) from other websites to paste
them into your own papers or websites.
 Making a video using footage from othe rs’ videos or using
copyrighted music as part of the soundtrack.
 Performing another person’s copyrighted music (i.e., playing a
cover).
 Composing a piece of music that borrows heavily from another
composition.
 Certainly, these media pose situations in whic h it can be
challenging to determine whether or not the copyrights of a work
are being violated. For example:
 A photograph or scan of a copyrighted image (for example: using
a photograph of a book cover to represent that book on one’s
website)
 Recording au dio or video in which copyrighted music or video is
playing in the background.
 Re-creating a visual work in the same medium. (for example:
shooting a photograph that uses the same composition and
subject matter as someone else’s photograph)
 Re-creating a v isual work in a different medium (for example:
making a painting that closely resembles another person’s
photograph). munotes.in

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107 Issues and Challenges in Academic Writing  Re-mixing or altering copyrighted images, video or audio, even if
done so in an original way.
 The legality of these situations, and others , would be dependent
upon the intent and context within which they are produced. The
two safest approaches to take in regards to these situations is: 1)
Avoid them altogether or 2) Confirm the works’ usage
permissions and cite them properly.
The following image shows the process of publication of a
Research paper:

Citation indexing makes links between books and articles that were
written in the past and articles that make reference to ("cite") these
older publications. In other words, it is a technique th at allows us to
trace the use of an idea (an earlier document) forward to others who
have used ("cited") it.
6.8 UNIT END QUESTIONS 1. What is Plagiarism?
2. Enumerate the dos and don’ts of Plagiarism.
3. Enlist the different types of Plagiarism.
4. Explain the process of Publication.
5. Explain the citation indexing.

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108 6.9 REFERENCES  Masic I. Ethical aspects and Dilemmas of Preparing, Writing and
Publishing of the Scientific Papers in the Biomedical Journals.
Acta Inform Med. 2012;20(3):141 –148.
doi:105455/aim.2012.20.141 -148. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
[Google Scholar]
 Masic I. How to Search, Write, Prepare and Publish the Scientific
Papers in Bimedical Journals. Acta Inform Med. 2011;19(2):68 –
79. doi:10.4555/aim.2011.19.68 -79. [PMC free article] [P ubMed]
[Google Scholar]
 Committee On Publication Ethics. COPE. Code of Conduct and
Best Practice Guidelines for Journal Editors. Available:
http://publication.
 https://cgscholar.com/cg_support/en/docs/63 -learn -about -the-
article -publication -process
 https:// www.ou.edu/webhelp/librarydemos/isi/
 https://www.librarianshipstudies.com/2017/02/citation -
indexing.html
*****

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